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-The Project Gutenberg EBook of The World of Dreams, by Havelock Ellis
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: The World of Dreams
-
-Author: Havelock Ellis
-
-Release Date: April 6, 2019 [EBook #59214]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WORLD OF DREAMS ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Turgut Dincer, Jane Robins and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
-book was produced from images made available by the
-HathiTrust Digital Library.)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-    +---------------------------------------------+
-    |                 Note:                       |
-    |                                             |
-    | _ around word indicated italics _clinical_  |
-    +---------------------------------------------+
-
-
-
-
-
-THE WORLD OF DREAMS
-
-
-
-
-_BY THE SAME AUTHOR_
-
-
-    THE SOUL OF SPAIN.
-
-    AFFIRMATIONS. _Second Edition._
-
-    IMPRESSIONS AND COMMENTS.
-
-    IMPRESSIONS AND COMMENTS. _Second Series._
-
-    THE TASK OF SOCIAL HYGIENE.
-
-
-
-
-    THE
-
-    WORLD OF DREAMS
-
-    BY
-
-    HAVELOCK ELLIS
-
-    'Sleep has its own world'
-
-    [Illustration]
-
-    BOSTON AND NEW YORK
-
-    HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY
-
-    1922
-
-
-
-
-PREFACE
-
-
-There are at least four different ways of writing a book on dreams. There
-is, for instance, the _literary_ method. In this way one goes to books
-or to the memories of other people for one's material, and so collects
-a great number of more or less wonderful stories. I have rejected this
-method, for it is entirely untrustworthy. Dreams are elusive at the
-best; only a very careful observer can set down a dream faithfully, even
-directly after it has occurred, and no one can safely entrust a dream to
-memory.
-
-There is, again, what I may call the _clinical_ method of studying dreams
-by the personal observation and collection of facts, with summation
-and analysis of the results. On a large scale, with the aid of the
-_questionnaire_, this method has been especially carried on in the United
-States, notably at Clark University under the inspiration of Dr. Stanley
-Hall. A strict and scientific adherence to the clinical method of studying
-dreams has resulted in Professor Sante de Sanctis's book _I Sogni_ (first
-edition 1899), which is, on the whole, the best book on dreams published
-in recent years.
-
-Then there is the _experimental_ method, which, not content with mere
-objective study of the phenomena, endeavours to interfere with them and
-to find out the results of interference. This method may be combined
-with other methods of studying dreams. In its pure form it has in recent
-years been especially practised by the late Mourly Vold. Its results are
-not without interest, but they do not cover a large part of the field,
-and they are not altogether reliable. Dreaming activity is so fluid and
-suggestible--and this is notably so when experimenter and subject are the
-same person--that interference with the phenomena deforms them, and we
-cannot be sure that by experiment we have really learned much about the
-life of dreams.
-
-There is, finally, the _introspective_ method. This may be said to be
-the earliest of the more scientific methods of studying dreams. Maine de
-Biran was here a pioneer, and Maury, in his famous book, _Le Sommeil et
-les Rêves_ (1861), which inaugurated the modern study of dreams, adopted
-a mainly introspective method, though he was not always quite successful
-in avoiding the fallacies of that method. It is in France that this method
-has been most frequently and most successfully cultivated.
-
-Professor Sigmund Freud's _Die Traumdeutung_ (first edition, 1900), may be
-said to belong to the introspective class, though to a special division
-which Freud himself terms psycho-analytic. This is undoubtedly the most
-original, the most daring, the most challenging of recent books on dreams,
-and is now the text-book of a whole school of investigators. It is not
-a book to be neglected, for it is written by one of the profoundest of
-living investigators into the obscure depths of the human soul. Even if
-one rejects Freud's methods as unsatisfactory and his facts as unproved,
-the work of one so bold and so sincere cannot fail to be helpful and
-stimulating in the highest degree. If it is not the truth it will at least
-help us to reach the truth.
-
-The little book now presented to the reader belongs mainly to the
-introspective group of dream studies, though not to the psycho-analytic
-variety. It is based on data which have accumulated beneath my hands
-during more than twenty years, and some of the ideas developed in it
-were put forward in a paper 'On Dreaming of the Dead,' _Psychological
-Review_, Sept. 1895; in 'A Note on Hypnagogic Paramnesia,' _Mind_, No.
-22, 1896; and in 'The Stuff that Dreams are made of,' _Popular Science
-Monthly_, April 1899. The book is not the outcome of experiment or of
-any deliberate concentration of thought on dreaming. I have simply noted
-down dream experiences,--most often in myself, less often in immediate
-friends,--directly they have occurred, usually on awakening in the
-morning. The few unimportant exceptions to the rule are duly noted. By
-maintaining this rule I have been able to satisfy myself that everything
-I have set down is reasonably accurate. Such a method certainly tends
-towards the exclusion of peculiar and exceptional dreams. This I do
-not greatly regret. I am chiefly interested in the problems of normal
-dreaming; they are sufficiently puzzling and mysterious and they properly
-present themselves for explanation first. I do not wish it to be
-understood that I question the existence of telepathic and other abnormal
-dream experiences. That is not the case. But it so happens that under the
-conditions I have laid down I have not met with any dreams that clearly
-and decisively belong to this abnormal class. Such few possible examples
-as have come under my immediate observation (in no case as personal
-experiences) are slight, and, moreover, sometimes of too intimate a
-character for full exposition.
-
-Thus my contribution to the psychology of dreaming is simple and
-unpretentious; it deals only with the fundamental elements of the subject.
-I do not make this statement entirely in a spirit of humility. It seems to
-me that in the past the literature of dreaming has often been overweighted
-by bad observation and reckless theory. By learning to observe and to
-understand the ordinary nightly experience of dream life we shall best be
-laying the foundation of future superstructures. For, rightly understood,
-dreams may furnish us with clues to the whole of life.
-
-    HAVELOCK ELLIS.
-
-
-
-
-CONTENTS
-
-
-    CHAPTER I
-
-    INTRODUCTION
-
-          PAGE
-
-    The House of Dreams--Fallacies in the Study of Dreams--Is it
-    possible to Study Dreams?--How Fallacies may be Avoided--Do
-    we always Dream during Sleep?--The Two Main
-    Sources of Dreams with their Sub-divisions,                       1
-
-
-    CHAPTER II
-
-    THE ELEMENTS OF DREAM LIFE
-
-    The Spontaneous Procession of Dream Imagery--Its Kaleidoscopic
-    Character--Attention in Dreams--Relation of Drug
-    Visions and Hypnagogic Imagery to Dreaming--Colour in
-    Dreams--The Fusion of Dream Imagery--Compared to
-    Dissolving Views--Sources of the Imagery--Various types
-    of Fusion--The Sub-Conscious Element in Dreaming--Verbal
-    Transformations as Links in Dream Imagery--The
-    Reduplication of Visual Imagery in Motor and other Terms,        20
-
-
-    CHAPTER III
-
-    THE LOGIC OF DREAMS
-
-    All Dreaming is a Process of Reasoning--The Fundamental
-    Character of Reasoning--Reasoning as a Synthesis of
-    Images--Dream Reasoning Instinctive and Automatic--It
-    is also Consciously carried on--This a result of the
-    Fundamental Split in Intelligence--Dissociation--Dreaming
-    as a Disturbance of Apperception,      56
-
-
-    CHAPTER IV
-
-    THE SENSES IN DREAMS
-
-    All Dreams probably contain both Presentative and Representative
-    Elements--The Influence of Tactile Sensations on
-    Dreams--Dreams excited by Auditory Stimuli--Dreams
-    aroused by Odours and Tastes--The Influence of Visual
-    Stimuli--Difficulty of distinguishing between Actual and
-    Imagined Sensory Excitations--The Influence of Internal
-    Visceral Stimuli on Dreaming--Erotic Dreams--Vesical
-    Dreams--Cardiac Dreams and their Symbolism--Prodromic
-    Dreams--Prophetic Dreams,                                        71
-
-
-    CHAPTER V
-
-    EMOTION IN DREAMS
-
-    Emotion and Imagination--How Stimuli are transformed into
-    Emotion--Somnambulism--The Failure of Movement in
-    Dreams--Nightmare--Influence of the approach of Awakening
-    on imagined Dream movements--The Magnification of
-    Imagery--Peripheral and Cerebral Conditions combine to
-    produce this Imaginative Heightening--Emotion in Sleep
-    also Heightened--Dreams formed to explain Heightened
-    Emotions of unknown origin--The fundamental Place of
-    Emotion in Dreams--Visceral and especially Gastric disturbance
-    as a source of Emotion--Symbolism in Dreams--The
-    Dreamer's Moral Attitude--Why Murder so often takes
-    place in Dreams--Moral Feeling not Abolished in Dreams
-    though sometimes Impaired,                                       94
-
-
-    CHAPTER VI
-
-    AVIATION IN DREAMS
-
-    Dreams of Flying and Falling--Their Peculiar Vividness--Dreams
-    of Flying an Alleged Survival of Primeval Experiences--Best
-    explained as based on Respiratory Sensations
-    combined with Cutaneous Anaesthesia--The Explanation
-    of Dreams of Falling--The Sensation of Levitation sometimes
-    experienced by Ecstatic Saints--Also experienced at
-    the Moment of Death,                                            129
-
-
-    CHAPTER VII
-
-    SYMBOLISM IN DREAMS
-
-    The Dramatisation of Subjective Feelings Based on
-    Dissociation--Analogies in Waking Life--The Synaesthesias and
-    Number-forms--Symbolism in Language--In Music--The Organic Basis
-    of Dream Symbolism--The Omnipotence of Symbolism--Oneiromancy--The
-    Scientific Interpretation of Dreams--Why Symbolism prevails
-    in Dreaming--Freud's Theory of Dreaming--Dreams as Fulfilled
-    Wishes--Why this Theory cannot be applied to all Dreaming--The
-    Complete Form of Symbolism in Dreams--Splitting up of
-    Personality--Self-objectivation in Imaginary Personalities--The
-    Dramatic Element in Dreams--Hallucinations--Multiple
-    Personality--Insanity--Self-objectivation a Primitive Tendency--Its
-    Survival in Civilisation,                                       148
-
-
-    CHAPTER VIII
-
-    DREAMS OF THE DEAD
-
-    Mental Dissociation during sleep--Illustrated by the Dream of
-    Returning to School Life--The Typical Dream of a Dead
-    Friend--Examples--Early Records of this Type of Dream--Analysis
-    of such Dreams--Atypical Forms--The Consolation
-    sometimes afforded by Dreams of the Dead--Ancient
-    Legends of this Dream Type--The Influence of Dreams on
-    the Belief of Primitive Man in the Survival of the Dead,        194
-
-
-    CHAPTER IX
-
-    MEMORY IN DREAMS
-
-    The Apparent Rapidity of Thought in Dreams--This Phenomenon largely
-    due to the Dream being a Description of a Picture--The Experience
-    of Drowning Persons--The Sense of Time in Dreams--The Crumpling
-    of Consciousness in Dreams--The Recovery of Lost Memories through
-    the Relaxation of Attention--The Emergence in Dreams of Memories
-    not known to Waking Life--The Recollection of Forgotten Languages
-    in Sleep--The Perversions of Memory in Dreams--Paramnesic False
-    Recollections--Hypnagogic Paramnesia--Dreams mistaken for Actual
-    Events--The Phenomenon of Pseudo-Reminiscence--Its Relationship
-    to Epilepsy--Its Prevalence especially among Imaginative and
-    Nervously Exhausted Persons--The Theories put forward to Explain
-    it--A Fatigue Product--Conditioned by Defective Attention and
-    Apperception--Pseudo-Reminiscence a reversed Hallucination,     212
-
-
-    CHAPTER X
-
-    CONCLUSION
-
-    The Fundamental Nature of Dreaming--Insanity and Dreaming--The
-    Child's Psychic State and the Dream State--Primitive
-    Thought and Dreams--Dreaming and Myth-Making--Genius
-    and Dreams--Dreaming as a Road into the Infinite,               261
-
-
-    INDEX,      283
-
-
-
-
-THE WORLD OF DREAMS
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER I
-
-INTRODUCTION
-
-    The House of Dreams--Fallacies in the Study of Dreams--Is it
-    Possible to Study Dreams?--How Fallacies may be Avoided--Do we
-    always Dream during Sleep?--The Two Main Sources of Dreams with
-    their Sub-divisions.
-
-
-When we fall asleep we enter a dim and ancient house of shadow,
-unillumined by any direct ray from the outer world of waking life. We are
-borne about through its chambers, without conscious volition of our own;
-we fall down its mouldy and rotten staircases, we are haunted by strange
-sounds and odours from its mysterious recesses; we move among phantoms
-we cannot consciously control. As we emerge into the world of daily life
-again, for an instant the sunlight seems to flash into the obscure house
-before the door closes behind us; we catch one vivid glimpse of the
-chambers we have been wandering in, and a few more or less fragmentary
-memories come back to us of the life we have led there. But they soon
-fade away in the light of common day, and if a few hours later we seek to
-recall the strange experiences we have passed through, it usually happens
-that the visions of the night have already dissolved in memory into a few
-shreds of mist we can no longer reconstruct.
-
-For most of us our whole knowledge ends here. Our dreams are real enough
-while they last, but the interests of waking life absorb us so entirely
-that we rarely have leisure, and still less inclination, to subject our
-sleeping adventures, trivial and absurd as they must usually seem, to the
-careful tests which waking intelligence is accustomed to subject more
-obviously important matters to. The world of dreams and the mysterious
-light which prevails there[1] are abandoned entirely to our sleeping
-activities.
-
-This leading characteristic of dream life--the fact that it takes
-place in another and more shadowy world and in a different kind of
-consciousness[2]--has led to the criticism of the study of dreams from
-the scientific side. We cannot really study our dreams, these objectors
-say, because we--that is to say, our waking consciousness--cannot come
-sufficiently closely in contact with them. Dreams, it is argued, are
-inevitably transformed in our hands; what we are studying is not our
-dreams, but only our waking, and probably altogether false, impressions
-of our dreams. There is a certain element of truth in this objection. It
-is very difficult, indeed impossible, to recall exactly, and in their
-proper order, even the details of a real adventure which has only just
-happened to us. It is, obviously, incomparably more difficult to recall an
-experience which took place, under such shadowy conditions, in a world so
-remote from the world of waking life. There is, further, the very definite
-difficulty that we only catch our dreams for a moment by the light, as
-it were, of the open door as we are emerging from sleep. In other words,
-our waking consciousness is for a moment observing and interpreting a
-process in another kind of consciousness, or even if we assert that it is
-the same consciousness it is still a consciousness that has been working
-under quite different conditions from waking consciousness, and accepting
-data which in the waking state it would not accept. For the student
-of dreams it must ever be a serious question how far the facts become
-inevitably distorted in this process. Sleeping or waking, it is probable,
-our consciousness never embraces the whole of the possible psychic field
-within us. There are, when we are dreaming as well as when we are
-awake--as will become clearer in the sequel--subconscious, or imperfectly
-conscious, states just below our consciousness, and exerting an influence
-upon it.[3] Our latent psychic possessions, among which dreams move, would
-seem to be by no means always at the same depth; the specific gravity of
-consciousness, as it were, varies, and these latent elements rise or fall,
-becoming nearer to the conscious surface or falling further away from it.
-But the greatest change must take place when the waking surface is reached
-and the outer world breaks on sleeping consciousness. In that change
-there is doubtless a process of necessary and automatic transformation
-and interpretation. We may picture it, perhaps, as somewhat the same
-process as when a person skilled in both languages takes up a foreign book
-and reads it out in his own tongue. With practice the reader may become
-unconscious that he is transforming everything, that the words he utters
-are different from the words he sees, and that he even transposes their
-order, sometimes putting in the middle of a sentence the verb he sees at
-the end.
-
-Yet even if we admit that the passage from sleeping to waking
-consciousness involves a change as complete as this--and it is probable,
-as we shall see, that some such change sometimes takes place--for a
-faithful interpreter the sense still remains the same. It is impossible
-to believe that the witness of waking consciousness to the nature of the
-visions it has caught at the threshold between sleeping and waking life is
-false, and the most convincing evidence of this is the utter unlikeness of
-these visions to the data of ordinary waking life.
-
-But even this conclusion has been subjected to severe criticism which we
-have to face before we proceed further. Foucault, an acute investigator of
-dream psychology--carrying to its extreme point a position more partially
-and tentatively stated by Delbœuf and Tannery--has denied that our dreams,
-as they finally present themselves to waking consciousness, at all
-correspond to the psychic process in sleep upon which they are founded,
-and he especially insists that the logical connections are superadded.[4]
-He considers that dreaming is an 'observation of memory' made under such
-conditions that 'it would be very imprudent to regard the remembrance of
-the dream as reproducing faithfully the mental state of sleep.' During
-sleep, he believes, our dream ideas proceed, concurrently, it may be, but
-separately and independently; at the moment when awakening begins, the
-mind, as an act of immediate memory, grasps the plurality of separate
-pictures and applies itself spontaneously to the task of organising them
-according to the rules of logic and the laws of the real world, making
-a drama of them as like as possible to the dramas of waking life.[5] He
-agrees with Goblot that 'the dream we remember is a waking thought,'
-and with Tannery that 'we do not remember our dreams, but only the
-reconstructions of them we effected at the moment of waking.' It is after
-awakening, Foucault concludes, that the dream develops, and its final
-shape depends on the period at which it is noted down; 'the evolution
-of the dream after awakening is a logical evolution, dominated and
-directed by the instinctive need to give a reasonable appearance to the
-_ensemble_ of images and sensations present to the mind, and to assimilate
-the representation of the dream to the system of representations which
-constitutes our knowledge of the real world.'[6]
-
-In arguing his thesis, Foucault makes much of the modifications which can
-be proved to take place if any one is asked to repeat a dream at intervals
-of months. Under the influence of time and repetition a dream becomes more
-coherent and more conformed to reality. In illustration Foucault presents
-two versions of an insignificant dream in which a lady imagines that she
-is out with her husband for a drive, and in the course of it experiences a
-natural need which she seeks an opportunity to satisfy; the details of the
-first version were highly improbable; some months later they had become
-much more like what might have occurred in real life. Such a process,
-Foucault thinks, is taking place from the first in the making of dreams as
-we know them awake.
-
-There are, undoubtedly, facts which may seem to support Foucault's
-argument that the logic of the dream, as we know it, is not in the
-original dream, but is introduced afterwards. Thus I once dreamed in the
-morning that I asked my wife if she had been into a certain room, and
-that she replied, 'Can't get in.' I immediately awoke and realised that
-my wife had actually spoken these words, not to me, but to an approaching
-servant, in anticipation of a message about entering a neighbouring room
-of which the door was locked. It is thus evident that although it seemed
-to me in my dream that the question came first and the answer followed in
-the ordinary course, in reality the answer came first. The question was a
-theory, supplied automatically by sleeping intelligence and prefixed to
-the answer, in which order they both appeared to sleeping consciousness,
-that is to say, in the only way in which sleeping consciousness can ever
-be known, as translated into waking consciousness.[7]
-
-It must be borne in mind that such a dream as I have recorded--in which an
-actual sensory experience is introduced, untransformed, as a foreign body
-into sleeping consciousness--is not a typical dream. Dreams are, however,
-without doubt of various kinds, and we may well admit that there is a
-class of dreams formed in this way. That supposition will, indeed, be
-helpful in explaining several dreams I shall have to record. The process
-is much the same as when a nervous person receives a telegram, and at once
-assumes that some dreaded accident has occurred, and that the telegram is
-the announcement of it. The craving for reasons is instinctive, and the
-dreamer's sense of logic even dominates his sense of time.
-
-But Foucault's argument is that waking consciousness effects this logical
-construction of the dream. Here his position is weak and incapable of
-proof. It is, indeed, contrary to all the tests we are able to apply
-to it. If it is the object of the logic of our dreams to make them
-conformable to our waking experience, that end, we must admit, is in most
-cases very far from being attained. In their original form, as Foucault
-views the matter, our dreams are simple dissociated images. In that shape
-they would present nothing whatever to shock the consciousness of waking
-life. The logic, hypothetically introduced solely to make them conformable
-to real life, is frequently a preposterous logic such as the consciousness
-of waking life could not accept or even conceive. This fact alone serves
-to throw serious doubt upon the theory that it is waking consciousness
-which impresses its logic upon our dreams.
-
-Nor, again, is there any analogy, and still less identity, between the
-process whereby we grasp a dream when we awake, and the process whereby
-the memory of a dream is transformed during months of waking life.
-The latter is part of a general process affecting all our memories in
-greater or less degree. I visit, for instance, a foreign cathedral, and
-take careful note of the character and arrangement of buttresses and
-piers; a few months later, if I have failed to set the facts down, my
-memory of them will become uncertain, confused, and incorrect. But I need
-not, therefore, lose faith in the tolerable exactitude of my original
-impressions. In the same way, we cannot argue that the shifting memory
-of a dream during a long period of time throws the slightest doubt on
-the accuracy of our original impression of it. We never catch a dream in
-course of formation. As it presents itself to consciousness on awakening
-there may be doubtful points and there may be missing links, but the dream
-is, once for all, completed, and if there are doubtful points or missing
-links we recognise them as such. We make no attempt to supply a logic that
-is not there, and we never see any such process going on involuntarily. I
-should, indeed, myself be inclined to say that there is always a kind of
-gap between sleeping consciousness and waking consciousness; the change
-from the one to the other kind of consciousness seems to be effected
-by a slight shock, and the perception of the already completed dream
-is the first effort of waking consciousness. The existence of such a
-shock is indicated by the fact that, even at the first moment of waking
-consciousness, we never realise that a moment ago we were asleep. As soon
-as we realise that we are awake it seems to us that we have already been
-awake for an uncertain but distinct period of time; some people, indeed,
-especially old people, on awaking, feel this so strongly that they deny
-they have been asleep. It once happened to me to be in the neighbourhood
-of a dynamite factory at the moment when a very disastrous explosion
-occurred; at the time my back was to the factory, and I am quite unable
-to say how long an interval occurred between the shock of the explosion
-and my own action in turning round to observe the straight shaft of smoke
-and solid material high in the air; there was a gap in consciousness,
-an interval of unknown and seemingly considerable length, caused by the
-deafening shock of the explosion, although it is probable that my action
-in turning round was almost or quite instantaneous. It seems to me that
-the transition from sleeping consciousness to waking consciousness occurs
-in a similar manner on a smaller scale.
-
-Although the view of Foucault that the dream is logically organised
-after sleep has ended seems, when we examine the evidence in its favour,
-to be unacceptable, we may still admit that, in some cases at all
-events, the dream only assumes final shape at the moment when sleeping
-consciousness is breaking up, that the dream, as we know it, is a final
-synthetic attempt of sleeping consciousness as it dissolves on the
-approach of waking consciousness. Sleeping consciousness, we may even
-imagine as saying to itself in effect: 'Here comes our master, Waking
-Consciousness, who attaches such mighty importance to reason and logic
-and so forth. Quick! gather things up, put them in order--any order will
-do--before he enters to take possession.' That is to say, in other words,
-that as sleeping consciousness comes nearer to the threshold of waking
-consciousness it is possible that the need for the same kind of causation
-or sequence which is manifested in waking consciousness may begin to make
-itself felt even to sleeping consciousness. Even this assumption seems,
-however, as regards most dreams, to be extravagant. In any case, and at
-whatever stage the dream is finally constituted, we are not entitled, it
-seems to me, to believe that any stage of its constitution falls outside
-the frontiers of sleep. It is satisfactory to be able to feel justified in
-reaching this conclusion. For if dreams were chiefly or mainly the product
-of waking consciousness they would certainly lose a considerable part of
-their significance and interest.
-
-Even, however, when we have reached this conclusion the path of the
-student is still far from easy. The undoubted fact that in any case the
-difficulties of observing and recording dreams are very great cannot fail
-to make us extremely careful. Although the dreams of some persons, who
-may be regarded as themselves of vivid and dramatic temperament, seem to
-be habitually vivid and dramatic to an extent which, in my own case, is
-extremely rare, one is usually justified in feeling a certain amount of
-suspicion in regard to dream-narratives which are at every point clear,
-coherent, connected, and intelligible. Dreams, as I know them on awaking
-from sleep, occasionally present episodes to which these epithets may be
-applied, but on the whole they are full of obscurities, of uncertainties,
-of inexplicable lacunae. The memory of dream events is lost so rapidly
-that one is constantly obliged to leave the exact nature of a detail in
-doubt. One seems to be recalling a landscape seen by a lightning flash. It
-is for this reason that I have made it a rule only to admit dreams which
-are noted very shortly, and if possible immediately, after the moment
-of awakening. It is further of importance in recording one's dreams, to
-note the emotional attitude experienced during the dream as well as any
-physical sensations felt on awakening. The attitude of dream consciousness
-towards dream visions usually varies from that of waking consciousness,
-although the normal extent of the difference is a disputable point. When I
-read dream narratives of landscapes which, as described, appear at every
-point as beautiful and impressive to waking consciousness as they appeared
-to dreaming consciousness, I usually suspect that, granting the good faith
-and accuracy of the narrator, we are really concerned, not with dreams
-in the proper sense, but with visions experienced under more abnormal
-conditions, and especially with drug visions. In the present inquiry I
-am only concerned to ascertain the most elementary and fundamental laws
-of the dream world, as they occur in fairly ordinary and normal persons,
-and therefore it becomes necessary to be very strict as to the conditions
-under which they were recorded. It is the most ordinary dreams that are
-most likely to reveal the ordinary laws of dream life, but for this end
-it is necessary that they should be recorded with the greatest accuracy
-attainable.
-
-I am myself neither a constant nor, usually, a very vivid dreamer, and
-in these respects I am probably a fairly ordinary and normal person; the
-personal material which I have accumulated, though it spreads over twenty
-years, is not notably copious. Nor have I ever directed my attention in
-any systematic and concentrated manner to my dream life. To do so would
-be, I believe, to distort the phenomena. I have merely recorded any
-significant phenomena as they occurred.
-
-To remark that one is not a constant dreamer is not to assert that
-dreaming is rare, but merely that one's recollection of it is rare.
-Though we may only catch a glimpse of our latest vision of the night
-as we leave the house of sleep, it may well be that there were many
-earlier adventures of the night which are beyond the reach of waking
-consciousness. Sometimes, it is curious to note, we become vaguely
-conscious, during the day, for the first time, of a dream we have had
-during the night. Many psychologists, as well as metaphysicians--fearful
-to admit that the activity of the soul could ever cease--believe that we
-dream during the whole period of sleep; this has of recent years been
-the opinion of Vaschide, Foucault, Näcke, and Sir Arthur Mitchell, as it
-formerly was of Sir Benjamin Brodie, Sir Henry Holland, and Schaaffhausen.
-In earlier days Hippocrates, Descartes, Leibnitz, and Cabanis seem to
-have been of the same opinion. On the other hand, Locke, Macnish, and
-Carpenter held that deep sleep is dreamless; this is also the opinion
-of Wundt, Beaunis, Strümpell, Weygandt, Hammond, and Jastrow. Moreover,
-there are some people, like Lessing, who, so far as they know, never
-dream at all. My own personal experience scarcely inclines me to accept
-without qualification the belief that we are always dreaming during
-sleep. I find that my remembered dreams tend to be correlated with some
-slight mental or physical disturbance, and therefore it seems to me
-probable that, if dreams are continuous during sleep, they must, during
-completely undisturbed sleep, be of an extremely faint and shadowy
-character. To return to a metaphor I have before used, we may say that
-sleeping consciousness in its descent from the surface of the waking life
-may fall to a point at which its specific gravity being practically the
-same as that of its environment, a state approaching complete repose is
-attained.[8] It cannot of course be said that the failure to remember
-dreams is any argument against their occurrence. It is well known that
-when the psychic activity of sleep assumes a definitely motor shape,
-as in talking in sleep and in somnambulism, it is very rare for any
-recollection to remain on awakening, though we cannot doubt that psychic
-activity has been present. In the same way the dream that we remember
-when awakened from sound sleep by another person is by no means always
-due to that awakening. This is shown by the fact that if we were turning
-round or making other movements just before being thus awakened, the
-dream we remember--in one such case a dream of making one's way with
-difficulty between a sofa and a chair--may have no relation to the
-circumstance of the awakening, but clearly be suggested by the movements
-made during sleep, though these movements themselves remain unknown to
-waking consciousness. The movements of dogs during sound sleep--the
-rhythmical lifting of the paws, the wagging of the tail--point in the same
-direction.[9]
-
-The fact that failure of memory by no means proves the absence of dreaming
-may be illustrated, not only by the forgetfulness of what takes place
-during hypnotic sleep, but by what we sometimes witness during partial
-anaesthesia maintained by drugs. This was well shown in a case I was once
-concerned with, where it was necessary to administer chloroform (preceded
-by the alcohol-chloroform-ether mixture) for a prolonged period during
-a difficult first confinement. The drug was not given to the point of
-causing complete abolition of mental activity, and the patient talked,
-and occasionally sang, throughout, referring to various events in her
-life, from childhood onwards. The sensation and the expression of pain
-were not altogether abolished, for slight cries and remarks about the
-discomfort and constraint imposed upon her were sometimes mingled in the
-same sentence with quite irrelevant remarks concerning, for instance,
-trivial details of housekeeping. Confusions of incompatible ideas also
-took place, as during ordinary dreaming. 'Where is the three-cornered
-nurse,' she thus asked, 'who does not mind what she does?' There was
-also the abnormal suggestibility of dream consciousness. The questions
-of bystanders were answered but always with a tendency to agree with
-everything that was said, this tendency even displaying itself with a
-certain ingenuity as when in reply to the playful random query: 'Were
-you drunk or sleeping last night?' she answered, with some hesitation:
-'A little of both, I think.' To the casual observer, it might seem that
-there was a state of full consciousness on the basis of which a partial
-delirium had established itself. Yet on recovery from the drug there was
-no recollection of anything whatever that had taken place during its
-administration, and no sense of the lapse of time.
-
-Fantastic and marvellous as our dreams may sometimes be, they are in
-practically all cases made up of very simple elements. It is desirable
-that we should at the outset have a provisional notion as to the sources
-of these simple elements. Most writers on dreams hold that there are two
-great sources from which these elements are drawn: the vast reservoir of
-memories and the actual physical sensations experienced at the moment of
-dreaming, and interpreted by sleeping consciousness. Various names have
-been given to these two groups, the recognition of which is at least
-as old as Aristotle.[10] Thus Sully calls them central and peripheral,
-Tissié, psychic and sensorial, Foucault, imaginative and perceptive.
-Fairly convenient names are those adopted by Miss Calkins, who calls the
-first group representative, the second group presentative, meaning by
-representative 'connected through the fact of association with the waking
-life of the past,' and by presentative 'connected through sense excitation
-with the immediate present.'[11]
-
-The representative group falls into two subdivisions, according as the
-memories are of old or of recent date; these subdivisions are often quite
-distinct, recent dream memories belonging--probably with most people--to
-the previous day, while old dream memories are usually drawn from the
-experience of many years past, and frequently from early life. In the
-same way presentative impressions fall into two subdivisions, according
-as they refer to external stimuli present to the senses, or to internal
-disturbances within the organism. It is scarcely necessary to observe that
-any or all of these four sub-groups, into which the whole of our dream
-life may be analysed, may become woven together in the same dream.
-
-I have called the classification 'provisional' because, though it is
-convenient to adopt it for the sake of orderly arrangement, when we come
-to consider the matter it will be found that the material of dreams is
-in reality all of the same order, and purely psychic, though it may be
-differentiated in accordance with the character of the stimulus which
-evokes the psychic material of which it is made. Strictly speaking,
-the source of the dream as a dream can only be central, and a truly
-presentative dream is impossible. If our senses receive an impression,
-external or internal, and we recognise and accept that impression for
-what we should recognise and accept it when awake, then we cannot be
-said to be dreaming. The internal and external stimuli which act upon
-sleeping consciousness are not a part of that consciousness, nor in any
-real sense its source or its cause. The ray of sunlight that falls on the
-dreamer, the falling off of his bedclothes, the indigestible supper he
-ate last night--these things can no more 'account' for his dream than the
-postman's knock can account for the contents of the letter he delivers.
-Whatever the stimuli from the physical world that may knock at the door
-of dreaming consciousness, that consciousness is apart from them, and
-stimuli can only reach it by undergoing transformation. They must put off
-the character which they wear as phenomena of the waking world; they must
-put on the character of phenomena of another world, the world of dreams.
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[Footnote 1: The subdued quality of the light in normal dreaming--the
-usual absence of sunshine and generally even of colour--has long been
-noted. 'We never dream of being in the sunshine,' says Henry Dircks
-(_Lancet_, 11th June 1870, p. 863), though too absolutely; 'light and
-shade form no requisite elements.... The liveliest and most impressive
-dream is, in reality, a true night scene, very dubiously lighted up, and
-in which the nearest objects are those which we principally observe and
-which most interest us.']
-
-[Footnote 2: As some writers give a rather special meaning to the word
-'consciousness,' I may say that I simply mean by it (as defined by
-Baldwin and Stout in the _Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology_)
-'the distinctive character of whatever may be called mental life,' or,
-as Professor Stratton puts it, in defence of this broad definition
-(_Psychological Bulletin_, April 1906), 'consciousness designates the
-common and generic feature of our psychic acts.' Dreaming then becomes,
-as defined by Baldwin and Stout, 'conscious process during sleep.' It
-should be added that there is much uncertainty about any definition
-of consciousness. Bode ('Some Recent Definitions of Consciousness,'
-_Psychological Review_, July 1908) thinks it 'a matter for legitimate
-doubt' whether any definition of consciousness can be adequate, and
-Mercier (art. 'Consciousness' in Tuke's _Dictionary of Psychological
-Medicine_) boldly proclaims--quite justly, I think--that 'consciousness is
-not susceptible of definition,' for we can never go behind it or outside
-it. That we have to admit various kinds, or at all events various degrees,
-of consciousness will become clear in our discussion of dreaming.]
-
-[Footnote 3: By 'subconscious' is meant, as defined by Baldwin and
-Stout, 'not clearly recognised in a present state of consciousness, yet
-entering into the development of subsequent states of consciousness.' Some
-psychologists strongly dislike the word 'subconscious.' They are even
-disposed to argue that there is no subconscious mind, and that before and
-after the stage of 'awareness,' psychic facts only exist as 'dispositions
-of brain cells.' The psychologist, however, as such, has no concern with
-brain cells which belong to the histologist. When we occupy ourselves with
-dreams we realise at every step that it is possible for psychic states to
-exist and to affect our 'awareness,' while at the same time they are not
-immediately within the sphere of that 'awareness.' Psychic states of this
-kind seem most properly termed 'subconscious,' that is to say slightly,
-partially, or imperfectly conscious. Any objection to so precise and
-convenient a term for a real phenomenon seems, indeed, to belong to the
-sphere of personal idiosyncrasy into which we have perhaps no right to
-intrude.]
-
-[Footnote 4: Foucault, _Le Rêve_, 1906.]
-
-[Footnote 5: Foucault, _op. cit._, ch. iv.]
-
-[Footnote 6: Foucault, _op. cit._, p. 49.]
-
-[Footnote 7: This occasionally retrospective character of dreams has long
-been known, and was referred to by the writer of an article on 'Dreams and
-Dreaming' in the _Lancet_ for 24th November 1877.]
-
-[Footnote 8: The old French case (quoted by Macnish) of a woman, with a
-portion of her skull removed, whose brain bulged out during dreams but
-was motionless in dreamless sleep, as well as the more recent similar
-case known to Hammond (_Treatise on Insanity_, p. 233), supports the
-belief that the psychic activity which is not manifested in rememberable
-dreams is probably at the most of a very shadowy character. Even during
-waking life psychic activity often falls to a very low ebb; Beaunis, who
-has investigated this question ('Comment Fonctionne mon Cerveau,' _Revue
-Philosophique_, January 1909), describes a condition which he names
-'psychic twilight' and regards as frequently occurring.]
-
-[Footnote 9: Lucretius long ago referred to the significance of this fact
-(lib. iv. vv. 988-994), and he stated that the hallucination persisted
-for a time even after the dog had awakened. I have never myself been able
-to see any trace of such hypnagogic hallucination or delusion in dogs who
-awake from dreams, though I have frequently looked for it; it always seems
-to me that the dog who seemingly awakes from a dream of hunting grasps the
-fireside facts of life around him immediately and easily.]
-
-[Footnote 10: This classification of the sources of dreams has, however,
-been generally accepted for little more than a century. At an earlier
-period it was not usually believed to cover the whole ground. Thus Des
-Laurens (A. Laurentius) in the sixteenth century, in his treatise on the
-Disease of Melancholy (insanity), says that there are three kinds of
-dreams: (1) of Nature (_i.e._ due to external causes); (2) of the mind
-(_i.e._ based on memories); and, above both these classes, (3) dreams from
-God and the devil.]
-
-[Footnote 11: M. W. Calkins, 'Statistics of Dreams,' _American Journal of
-Psychology_, April 1893.]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER II
-
-THE ELEMENTS OF DREAM LIFE
-
-    The Spontaneous Procession of Dream Imagery--Its Kaleidoscopic
-    Character--Attention in Dreams--Relation of Drug Visions and
-    Hypnagogic Imagery to Dreaming--Colour in Dreams--The Fusion
-    of Dream Imagery--Compared to Dissolving Views--Sources of the
-    Imagery--Various types of Fusion--The Subconscious Element in
-    Dreaming--Verbal Transformations as Links in Dream Imagery--The
-    Reduplication of Visual Imagery in Motor and other Terms.
-
-
-Perhaps the most elementary fact about dream vision is the perpetual and
-unceasing change which it is undergoing at every moment. Sight is for
-most of us the chief sensory activity of sleeping as it is of waking
-life; the commonest kind of dream is mainly a picture, but it is always
-a living and moving picture, however inanimate the objects which appear
-in vision before us would be in real life. No man ever gazed at a dream
-picture which was at rest to his sleeping eye as are the pictures we gaze
-at with our waking eyes. So far as my own experience is concerned, I have
-rarely in sleep seen a sentence, a word, a letter written on a sheet of
-dream-paper which was not changing beneath the eye of sleep. I dream,
-for instance, that I wish to stamp a letter, and look in my pocket-book
-for a penny stamp; I am able to find stamps of other values, I am able
-to find penny stamps that are torn or defaced or of an antiquated type
-disused thirty years ago; all sorts of stamps, as well as little pictures
-resembling stamps, develop and multiply beneath my gaze; the stamp I
-seek remains unfound, probably because it had appeared at the beginning
-of the series and suggested all the rest. That is indicated by another
-dream (experienced, it may be noted, during the early stage of a cold in
-the head): I have to catch a train; I see my hat hanging on a peg among
-other hats, and I move towards it; but as I do so it has vanished; and I
-wander among rows of hats, of all shapes and sizes, but not one of them
-mine. Sleeping consciousness is a stream in which we never bathe twice,
-for it is renewed every second. It is this as much as any characteristic
-of the visual dream--for the mainly auditory or motor dream often presents
-less difficulty in this respect--which makes it so difficult to recall
-and reproduce. We are, as it were, gazing at a constantly revolving
-kaleidoscope in which every slightest turn produces a new pattern,
-somewhat resembling that which immediately preceded it--so that, if the
-kaleidoscope were conscious we should say that each picture had been
-suggested by the preceding pattern--but yet definitely novel.[12]
-
-Delbœuf has denied that this process ever involves any real metamorphosis
-of images; he regarded it as an illusion due to rapid succession of
-distinct images which are afterwards combined in memory. That view is
-not, however, tenable; apart from the fact that it makes the illegitimate
-assumption that our recollection of a dream is entirely unreliable,
-it must be remembered that (as Giessler has pointed out) the shock of
-emotional horror or surprise that frequently accompanies such dreams
-suffices to prove the reality of the metamorphosis. Thus I once, as a
-youth, had a vivid dream of an albatross that became transformed into a
-woman, the beautiful eyes of the albatross taking on a womanly expression,
-but the bird's beak only being imperfectly changed into a nose as the
-bird-woman murmured, 'Do you love me?' In this case the vivid surprise of
-the dream was precisely associated with the simultaneous existence of the
-two sets of characters.
-
-It is not, however, necessary that there should be any metamorphosis of
-dream images, nor even that the procession of dream imagery should be
-continuous. And whether or not there is metamorphosis of images, whether
-the imagery is continuous or discontinuous, it seems to me that we must
-admit the possibility of its spontaneous character. That is, indeed, a
-debated, and, it may be admitted, a debateable point. Thus Foucault[13]
-accounts for the multiplication of almost similar images sometimes
-witnessed in dreams as due to _desire;_ we see a number of things because
-we desire to possess a number of these things, and he explains a dream
-of Delbœuf's, of a procession of lizards, as due to the fact that Delbœuf
-was a collector of lizards, in the same way as he would explain the dreams
-of thirsty people who imagine they are drinking repeated glasses of water
-or wine. I am quite unable to accept this explanation. The shifting and
-multiplication of dream imagery, as in the procession of lizards, is a
-fundamental and elementary character of spontaneous mental imagery, and
-is constant in some drug visions, notably those occasioned by mescal.[14]
-The repetition of imaginary drinks in the dreams of a thirsty man belongs
-to another more special class in explanation of which desire may be more
-properly invoked; it is merely the expression of the fact that after the
-imaginary drink the dreamer remains thirsty, and the suggested image is
-therefore repeated.
-
-That in some cases there is what we may call a deliberate subconscious
-selection in the imagery presented to consciousness in dreams, there can
-be no doubt. But mental imagery is deeper and more elemental than any
-of the higher psychic functions even when exerted subconsciously. Just
-as the immense procession of continuous and totally unfamiliar imagery
-which is evoked by the action of mescal on the visual centres has no more
-connection with the subject's volition or desires than the procession
-of the starry skies, so likewise, we seem bound to admit, it may be in
-the case of a succession of separate images in dreams. It is nearly
-always possible to find a link of connection between any two images
-chosen at random, and the link is often a real subconscious link, but not
-necessarily so. Discontinuous images may arise, it seems probable, from
-a psychic basis deeper than choice, their appearance being determined by
-their own dynamic condition at the moment. We must, as Baron Mourre[15]
-not quite happily puts it, take into account 'the physiological state of
-ideas.' If we hold to the belief that dreaming is based on a fundamental
-and elementary tendency to the formation of continuous or discontinuous
-images, which may or may not be controlled by psychic emotions or
-impulses, we shall be delivered from many hazardous speculations.
-
-When we thus start with the recognition of a more or less spontaneous
-procession of images as the elemental stuff of dreams, one of the first
-problems we encounter is the relation of attention to that imagery. What
-is the degree and the nature of the attention we exert in dreams?
-
-'Sleep from the psychological point of view,' says Foucault, 'is a state
-of profound distraction or total inattention.' And Mourre shows by dreams
-of his own that any exercise of will in dreaming leads to awakening, and
-that the deeper the sleep the more absent is volition from dreams. Hence
-the involuntary wavering and perpetually mere meaningless change of dream
-imagery. Such concentration as is possible during sleep usually reveals
-a shifting, oscillating, uncertain movement of the vision before us. We
-are, as it were, reading a sign-post in the dusk, or making guesses at the
-names of the stations as our express train flashes by the painted letters.
-It is this factor in dreams which causes them so often to baffle our
-analysis. There is thus a failure of sleeping attention to fix definitely
-the final result--a failure which itself may evidently serve to carry
-on the dream process by suggesting new images and combinations. It can
-scarcely be said, however, that the question of attention in dreams is
-thus settled. It would be inconceivable that the terrible occurrences
-that may overtake us in dreams and the emotional turmoil aroused should
-be accompanied by 'total inattention and distraction.' Nor can it be
-said that that supposition agrees with the vivid memory which our dreams
-sometimes leave. We can probably account for the phenomena much more
-satisfactorily by adopting Ribot's useful distinction between voluntary
-attention and spontaneous attention.[16] Voluntary or artificial attention
-is a product of education and training. It is directed by extrinsic
-force, is the result of deliberation, and is accompanied by some feeling
-of effort. It always acts on the muscles and by the muscles; without
-muscular tension there can be no voluntary attention. Spontaneous or
-natural attention, on the other hand, is that more fundamental kind of
-attention which exists anteriorly to any education or training, and is
-the only kind of attention which animals and young children are capable
-of. It may be weak or strong, but always and everywhere it is based on
-emotional states; every creature moved by pleasure and pain is capable
-of spontaneous attention under the influence of those stimuli. These two
-kinds of attention are at the opposite poles from each other, and are
-incompatible with each other. There can be no doubt that, as Ribot himself
-pointed out, it is voluntary attention that is defective (though it may
-not always be entirely absent) in dreams;[17] the muscular weakness and
-inco-ordination of sleep involve this lack of attention which is indeed an
-essential condition of the restoration and repose of sleep. But all the
-characters of spontaneous attention are present. The attention we exercise
-in dreams is mainly of this fundamental, automatic, involuntary character,
-conditioned by the emotions we experience, and for the most part escaping
-all the efforts of our voluntary attention. Further, it has been ably
-argued by Leroy that a similar state of involuntary automatic attention,
-with concomitant diminution or disturbance of voluntary attention, is
-a necessary condition for the appearance of the visual and auditory
-hallucinations abnormally experienced in the waking state.[18]
-
-There is, then, at the basis of dreaming a seemingly spontaneous
-procession of dream imagery which is always undergoing transformation
-into something different, yet not wholly different, from that which went
-before. It seems a mechanical flow of images, regulated by associations
-of resemblance, which sleeping consciousness recognises without either
-controlling or introducing foreign elements. This is probably the
-most elementary form of dreaming, that which is nearest to waking
-consciousness, and that in which the peripheral and retinal element of
-dreaming plays the largest part.
-
-The fundamental character of this spontaneous self-evolving procession of
-imagery is indicated by the significant fact that it tends to take place
-whenever the more retinal and peripheral part of the visual apparatus is
-affected by the exhaustion of undue stimulation, or even when the organism
-generally is disturbed or run down, as in neurasthenic conditions.[19]
-The most obtrusive and familiar example of visual imagery is furnished by
-the procession of perpetually shifting and changing after-images which
-continue to evolve for a considerable time after we have looked at the
-sun or other brilliant object.[20] Less striking, but more intimately
-akin to the imagery of dreams, are the hypnagogic visions occurring as we
-fall asleep, especially after a day during which vision has been unusually
-stimulated and fatigued, though they do not seem necessarily dependent
-on such fatigue. Most vivid and instructive of all is the procession of
-visual imagery evoked by certain drugs. Of these the most remarkable and
-potent, as well as the best for study, is probably mescal, which happens
-also to be the only one with which I am myself well acquainted.[21] This
-substance provokes a constant succession of self-evolving visual imagery
-which constantly approaches and constantly eludes the semblance of real
-things; in the earlier stages these images closely resemble those produced
-by the kaleidoscope, and they change in a somewhat similar manner. Such
-spontaneous evolution of imagery is evidently a fundamental aptitude of
-the visual apparatus which many very slightly abnormal conditions may
-bring into prominence.
-
-The power of opium is somewhat similar, and, as DeQuincey long since
-pointed out, such power is simply a revival of a faculty usually possessed
-by children, although, judging from my own experiences with mescal, drugs
-exert it in a far more vivid and potent degree than that in which it
-usually occurs in the child. The psychologists of childhood have not
-often investigated this phenomenon,[22] but so far as my own inquiries
-go, all or nearly all persons have possessed, when children, the power
-of seeing visions in the dark on the curtain of the closed eyelids,
-perhaps the representation of fairy tales they had read, perhaps merely
-commonplace processions of individuals or events, a tendency sometimes
-appearing for the same figure to recur again and again. I think it is
-fairly certain that the so-called 'lies' of children, told in good faith,
-are in part due to the occasional eruption of this faculty into daylight
-life. People who deny that they ever possessed this power have, almost
-certainly, only forgotten. I should myself be inclined to deny that I had
-ever had any such visionary faculty if it were not that I can recall one
-occasion of its presence, at about the age of seven, when sleeping with a
-cousin of the same age; we amused ourselves by burying our heads in the
-pillows and watching a connected series of pictures which we were both
-alike able to see, each announcing any change in the picture as soon as it
-took place. This fact of community of vision served to impress on my mind
-the existence of a faculty of which otherwise I can recall no trace.[23]
-
-Of these various groups of allied phenomena, that which more especially
-concerns us in the investigation of dreams is the group of phenomena most
-strictly called hypnagogic, belonging, that is to say, to the ante-chamber
-of sleep, when the senses are in repose and waking consciousness is
-slipping away, or else when, as we leave the world of dreams, waking
-consciousness is flowing back again. This state has been known from
-very ancient times. Aristotle referred to it, and in the dawn of modern
-scientific thought Hobbes described allied phenomena.[24] The strictly
-psychological study of hypnagogic visions seems to have begun with
-Baillarger.[25] Then, some years later, Maury, who had a rich personal
-experience of such phenomena, devoted a chapter to the hypnagogic state,
-and gave it its recognised name.[26]
-
-Hypnagogic imagery, there can be little doubt, is not a purely ocular
-phenomenon, even when it is stimulated by ocular fatigue. It is a mixed
-phenomenon, partly retinal and partly central. That is to say that the eye
-supplies entoptic glimmerings, and the brain, acting on the suggestions
-thus received, superposes mental pictures to those glimmerings.[27] They
-are thus analogous to the pictures we may see in the fire or in the
-clouds. It must be added that the other senses also furnish corresponding
-rudiments which are filled in by the central activity; this is notably the
-case with faint buzzings and sounds in the ear, and in addition, muscular
-twitches and internal visceral sensations, all these becoming more
-prominent as the attentive activity of waking life subsides.[28]
-
-What is the relation of hypnagogic imagery to dreams? Johannes Müller,
-the great physiologist, long ago identified them, as previously had
-Gruithuisen and Burdach, while Maury--who himself possessed, however, a
-somewhat abnormal and irritable nervous system--regarded hypnotic imagery
-as furnishing the whole of the formative element of dreams, as being 'the
-embryogeny of dreams'; he frequently found that images which appeared
-to him in this way before going to sleep reappeared in dreams. This is
-supported by Mourly Vold, who made experiments on himself, and by fixing
-images as he fell asleep dreamed of the same images. Goblot, however,
-while regarding hypnagogic imagery as analogous with dream imagery, denies
-that it is identical. Since the hypnagogic state is the porch to sleep
-and dreams--the praedormitium, as Weir Mitchell terms it--we can scarcely
-fail to admit with Maury that hypnagogic imagery presents us with the
-germinal stuff of dreams. If it is not identical with the fully formed
-dream, it is still the early stage of dreaming. This is certainly the
-view suggested by my own experience, even though I have never definitely
-recognised a dream as related to a previous hypnagogic image. It has,
-however, occasionally happened to me that as I have begun to lose waking
-consciousness a procession of images has drifted before my vision, and
-suddenly one of the figures I see has spoken. This hallucinatory voice
-occurring before I was fully asleep has startled me into full waking
-consciousness, and I have realised that, while yet in the hypnagogic
-stage, I was assisting at the birth of a dream.
-
-There is one point, it may be noted in passing, at which dreams do not
-usually correspond with some of the phenomena with which we may most
-naturally compare them. I refer to their presentation of colour. In
-the dreams of most people colour is rare. We seem usually, from this
-point of view, to remember a dream as we would remember a photograph,
-or, if any colour at all is present, a tinted drawing. Judging from my
-own experience, I should say that it is difficult to decide whether the
-absence of colour is due to its actual absence from the dream imagery,
-or merely to its failure to make any impression on memory. Some careful
-observers have, however, stated that the colour of their dream imagery is
-definitely grey. Thus Beaunis states that his dream imagery is usually
-_en grisaille_, like an image recalled in the waking state, though
-occasionally the colour is vivid, and Dr. Savage says that in his dreams
-colour is rarely or never present. 'I see landscapes of black and white,
-and flowers assume their true form, but not their colours.'[29] This
-greyness of dream imagery corresponds to the disappearance of colour
-under chloroform anaesthesia. 'So long as the eyes could be held open
-voluntarily,' says Elmer Jones, 'vision seemed quite normal, save that
-the colours of the spectrum faded out into a grey band.' Even in the
-early stage of some insanities also, as Stoddart has found, some degree
-of colour-blindness is present.[30] Grace Andrews states, indeed, that
-in nearly half of her own visual dreams colour sensations were included.
-This seems to me exceptional. In my own experience, the emergence of a
-single colour, which usually strikes me as beautiful, is not rare. I see,
-for instance, a friend drinking wine copiously from a large goblet, and
-I judge by the colour of the wine that it is hock, or I am impressed by
-the shimmering grey tone of the poplin dresses worn by a group of ladies,
-which seems to indicate that the tone of the whole picture was not grey. I
-am inclined to think that when colour in a dream becomes more pronounced
-than this, the dream is not normal, but is associated with some degree of
-cerebral disturbance, and especially the presence of headache. This would
-agree with the fact that persons subject to migraine are liable to visual
-colour phenomena. As an example of a vivid colour dream associated with
-headache, I may bring forward the following: I dreamed that an artist of
-note, with whom I am acquainted, was painting my portrait. (The pose of
-the portrait was standing, but I was lying down; this, however, caused
-me no surprise.) I saw the colours of the picture with great vividness,
-and I noted the extreme rapidity with which the artist painted; thus the
-red and black pattern of the necktie he had given me was suddenly changed
-to a totally different blue pattern, and the whole picture then appeared
-as a harmony of blues, the rapidity with which the artist effected these
-changes impressing me as very remarkable. In another dream in which I saw
-a painter occupied on a picture, a landscape representing sunrise, memory
-recalled the effect of light as vivid, but no definite sense of colour
-remained. This seems to me the normal condition of things in the ordinary
-dreams of most persons, colour, when it occurs, or when it is remembered,
-being for the most part confined to a single object or a single tint, and
-often being associated with a feeling of aesthetic pleasure.
-
-In ordinary dreaming there is usually something more than a spontaneous
-procession of related imagery. There is a more definitely central and
-psychic element. There is association, not only by obvious resemblance,
-but by contiguity, usually the casual contiguity of images received
-during the previous day, which forces together images related to each
-other indeed, but by no means obviously. Dreaming consciousness embodies
-and actively co-ordinates definite, and not merely random, images. The
-passive and spontaneous flow of imagery is thus modified in its course.
-
-The image of the magic lantern well illustrates this character of
-dream experiences. The movement of the cinematograph, indeed, scarcely
-corresponds to that fusion of heterogeneous images which marks dream
-visions. Our dreams are like dissolving views in which the dissolving
-process is carried on swiftly or slowly, but always uninterruptedly, so
-that at any moment two (often, indeed, more) incongruous pictures are
-presented to consciousness, which strives to make one whole of them, and
-sometimes succeeds, and is sometimes baffled. Or we may say that the
-problem presented to dreaming consciousness resembles that experiment
-in which psychologists pronounce three wholly unconnected words and
-require the subject to combine them at once in a connected sentence. It
-is unnecessary to add that such analogies fail to indicate the subtle
-complexity of the apparatus which is at work in the manufacture of dreams.
-
-By this mechanism of dreaming, isolated impressions, or else impressions
-which have a resemblance or a connection which is not obvious to the
-waking intelligence, flow together in dreams to be welded into a whole.
-There is produced, in the strictest sense, a _confusion_. For instance, a
-lady, who in the course of the day has admired a fine baby and bought a
-big fish for dinner, dreams with horror and surprise of finding a fully
-developed live baby sewed up in a large cod-fish. Again, a lady who had
-been cooking in the course of the day and in the evening had read a
-scientific description of the way birds obtain and utilise their food,
-such as fruit and snails, dreams at night that she has discovered when out
-walking a kind of animal-fruit, a damson containing a snail within it,
-which she views with delight as admirably adapted for culinary purposes.
-Another lady, after carving a duck at dinner, dreams that she is trying
-to cut off a duck's leg, but seems to realise in her dream at the same
-time that it is really her husband's neck she is hacking at.[31] In a
-dream of my own, children's heads took the form and shape of flowers
-of various shapes and hues, though mainly of the composite order (like
-chrysanthemums), and their eyes looked out from between the petals.
-
-It must be added that in a very considerable proportion of cases the
-combinations produced in dreams are far more plausible than in any of
-the instances just narrated; the whole dream may thus easily follow as
-commonplace and matter-of-fact a course as in real life. Thus, after
-going to live in a new neighbourhood, I dreamed that I entered a shop
-belonging to a certain firm, and saw there an employé who, in real life,
-to my knowledge, had previously left another shop belonging to the same
-firm; an entirely probable combination was thus effected, and the dream
-conversation that followed was equally natural and probable. We do not
-go out of our way in dreams to invent absurdities; we simply accept the
-data presented to us, dealing with them as rationally as the intellectual
-instruments at our disposal may permit.
-
-The dream constituted by the falling together of trivial reminiscences
-is not always, however, as commonplace and plausible as in the dream
-just narrated. In other cases the falling together of equally trivial
-reminiscences may constitute a fantastic and imaginative picture
-altogether outside waking experience or waking thought. Thus I dream that
-it is my duty to watch beside a great king while he sleeps. He lies on a
-huge bed, fully clothed and booted, and with a great crimson mantle thrown
-over him. I am permitted to lie on the edge of the bed outside the mantle,
-but must on no account close my eyes, for I must be ready to respond at
-once to his call. The elements of such a picture are obviously so simple
-and commonplace that it is not surprising that I could not find that even
-one of them had been specially present to waking consciousness. Yet the
-picture that at that particular moment they fell together to compose--like
-the broken fragments of coloured glass in a kaleidoscope--is altogether
-alien alike to my experience and to my imagination.
-
-The source of the common confusion of dream imagery is to be found in
-very varying motives. In a large proportion of cases, what we witness is
-merely the flowing together of impressions which have no real resemblance,
-but which happen to have been received at nearly the same time, and to
-admit of being fused; thus, in one case, occupation during the day partly
-in the fowl-yard and partly in the garden, led a lady to the dream project
-of breeding chickens by planting fowls' heads. Very frequently, however,
-there is a real resemblance in the two objects combined, although it is
-not a resemblance which would ever present itself to waking consciousness.
-The fowl-yard will supply another instance of this confusion also. I went
-to sleep thinking of a friend who was that night to stay at a certain
-hotel I had never seen. I dreamed that I saw the hotel in question; its
-façade was not unlike that of a common type of hotel, but the roof was
-flat and at no very great height from the ground, so that I was able to
-overlook the building and see into all the windows, an arrangement that
-struck me as bad. My ability to overlook the building was not, however,
-accompanied by any perception of its diminutiveness. On awakening I
-remembered that my wife had received a chicken incubator the day before,
-and we had examined it in the evening. The image of the hotel had fused
-with the image of the incubator.
-
-In another dream of the same type I imagined that I was with a dentist
-who was about to extract a tooth from a patient. Before applying the
-forceps he remarked to me (at the same time setting fire to a perfumed
-cloth at the end of something like a broomstick, in order to dissipate
-the unpleasant odour) that it was the largest tooth he had ever seen.
-When extracted I found that it was indeed enormous, in the shape of a
-caldron, with walls an inch thick. Taking from my pocket a tape measure
-(such as I carried in waking life), I found the diameter to be not less
-than twenty-five inches; the interior was like roughly-hewn rock, and
-there were sea-weeds and lichen-like growths within. The size of the tooth
-seemed to me large, but not extraordinarily so. It is well known that pain
-in the teeth, or the dentist's manipulations, cause those organs to seem
-of extravagant extent; in dreams this tendency rules unchecked; thus a
-friend once dreamed that mice were playing about in a cavity in her tooth.
-But for the dream just quoted, there was no known dental origin; it arose
-solely or chiefly from a walk during the previous afternoon among the
-rocks of the Cornish coast at low tide, and the fantastic analogy, which
-had not occurred to waking consciousness, suggested itself during sleep.
-
-In another dream, illustrating the same kind of confusion of images having
-a real resemblance unnoticed in waking life, I seemed to see on a table a
-small hand-gong of a common type, struck by a hammer, but on striking it
-repeatedly, it produced flashes of light instead of the sounds normally
-produced by a gong. I concluded that the instrument must be out of order
-and called some one to attend to it, whereupon we proceeded to deal
-with it as though it were a diminutive battery of the kind used to work
-electric bells. The gong was one familiar to me at the time in daily
-life; on the previous day I had casually observed that it was misplaced.
-In my dream I discovered a resemblance which actually exists between a
-gong of the type in question and the lever-handle for turning on the
-electric light, soothing a certain doubt by saying to myself in my dream
-that the instrument served both for the production of sound and of light.
-This link of connection led to the association of an electric battery with
-the hand-gong, as well as to the attribution to the gong of light-giving
-properties.[32]
-
-Such a dream serves as a transition to another very common kind of
-confusion of imagery in which two altogether unlike images are amalgamated
-through each happening to have in the mind a link of connection with some
-third idea. I dreamed that my wife's dog--a dog who, in real life, was
-constantly getting into trouble--had killed a child in the neighbouring
-town. On going thither I entered a butcher's shop, and saw the child lying
-on a table, mutilated and bleeding. After a time, however, I learned
-that it was not a child, but a pig that had been killed, and what I had
-previously taken for a child was now visibly a dead pig. I felt ashamed
-of my mistake, and the sympathy I had experienced now seemed excessive,
-especially when the butcher remarked that it was all right as he had been
-fattening the pig and meant to kill it soon anyhow. Then the pig was cut
-open, though it made daring attempts to come to life again, during which
-I awoke. It is clear how, in this case, the idea of the butcher's shop
-served as a bridge from the image of the child to the image of the pig.
-Again, after a day in which I had received a letter from a lady, unknown
-to me, living in France, and later on had written out a summary of a
-criminal case in which a detective had to go over to France, I dreamed
-that some one told me that the lady I had heard from was a detective in
-the service of the French Government, and this explanation, though it
-seemed somewhat surprising, fully satisfied me. Here, it will be seen,
-the idea of France served as a bridge, and was utilised by sleeping
-consciousness to supply an answer to a question which had been asked by
-waking consciousness.
-
-The confusion of imagery may be more remote, embodying abstract ideas and
-without reference to recent impressions. Thus I dreamed that my wife was
-expounding to me a theory by which the substitution of slates for tiles
-in roofing had been accompanied by, and intimately associated with, the
-growing diminution of crime in England. I opposed this theory, pointing
-out the picturesqueness of tiles, their cheapness, and greater comfort
-both in winter and summer, but at the same time it occurred to me as a
-peculiar coincidence that tiles should have a sanguinary tinge suggestive
-of criminal bloodthirstiness. I need scarcely say that this bizarre theory
-had never suggested itself to my waking thoughts. There was, however, a
-real connecting link in the confusion--the redness, and it is a noteworthy
-point, of great significance in the interpretation of dreams, that that
-link, although clearly active from the first, remained subconscious until
-the end of the dream, when it presented itself as an entirely novel
-coincidence.
-
-I dreamed once that I was with a doctor in his surgery, and saw in his
-hand a note from a patient saying that doctors were fools and did him no
-good, but he had lately taken some _selvdrolla_, recommended by a friend,
-and it had done him more good than anything, so please send him some
-more. I saw the note clearly, not, indeed, being conscious of reading it
-word by word, but only of its meaning as I looked at it; the one word I
-actually seemed to see, letter by letter, was the name of the drug, and
-that changed and fluctuated beneath my vision as I gazed at it, the final
-impression being _selvdrolla_. The doctor took from a shelf a bottle
-containing a bright yellow oleaginous fluid, and poured a little out,
-remarking that it had lately come into favour, especially in uric acid
-disorders, but was extremely expensive. I expressed my surprise, having
-never before heard of it. Then, again to my surprise, he poured rather
-copiously from the bottle on to a plate of food, saying, in explanation,
-that it was pleasant to take and not dangerous. This was a vivid morning
-dream, and on awakening I had no difficulty in detecting the source of its
-various minor details, especially a note received on the previous evening
-and containing a dubious figure, the precise nature of which I had used
-my pocket lens to determine. But what was _selvdrolla_, the most vivid
-element of the dream? I sought vainly among my recent memories, and had
-almost renounced the search when I recalled a large bottle of salad oil
-seen on the supper table the previous evening; not, indeed, resembling
-the dream bottle, but containing a precisely similar fluid. _Selvdrolla_
-was evidently a corruption of 'salad oil.' This dream illustrates the
-uncertainty of dream consciousness, but it also illustrates at the same
-time the element of certainty in dream _subconsciousness_. Throughout my
-dream I remained, consciously, in entire ignorance as to the real nature
-of _selvdrolla_, yet a latent element in consciousness was all the time
-presenting it to me in ever clearer imagery. We see that the subconscious
-element of dream life treats the conscious part much as a good-natured
-teacher treats a child whose lesson is only half learned, giving repeated
-clues and hints which the stupid child understands only at the last
-moment, or not at all. It is, indeed, a universal method, the method of
-Nature with man, throughout the whole of human evolution.
-
-It will be seen that at this point we are brought into contact with
-another characteristic of dream life: there is often more in dreams than
-dreaming consciousness is able to realise. On the one hand, the elements
-of dream life are drawn from a wider field than is normally accessible to
-waking consciousness; on the other hand, the focus of dream consciousness
-is narrower than that of waking consciousness, and cannot apperceive all
-that is going on. There is at once more extension and more contraction
-than in the psychic life of the waking world. A very large part of the
-psychic life of sleep is outside our power, and some of it is even beyond
-our sight.
-
-It will be observed that the perpetual movement and the constant fusion
-of images which constitute the most fundamental character of dream life
-really combine two characteristics which, abstractly regarded, are
-distinct. The tendency of the dream image to be ever changing, ever
-putting forth some new feature which more or less radically alters its
-nature, is not a phenomenon of precisely the same nature as the tendency
-for two definite images, well known to waking consciousness, to become
-fused together, consciously or unconsciously, in dreams. Practically,
-however, there is no line of demarcation. What happens is that the image
-is ever spontaneously changing, and that each change is at once recognised
-by dreaming consciousness as a known object. Thus I dreamed that I was in
-a drawing-room and saw a beautiful and attractive woman with an unusually
-low evening dress entirely revealing the breasts; then, between the
-breasts, three additional nipples appeared, and I realised in my dream
-that here was a case of supernumerary breasts of sufficient scientific
-interest to be carefully examined later on; and then, as I gazed, I saw
-a number of little fleshy nipple-like protuberances on the body, and
-thereupon I realised that I was really looking at a case of the rare
-skin disease termed _molluscum fibrosum_. Thus the perpetually wavering
-and developing image is at the same time a succession of quite different
-images. On the other hand, when we seem to have a fusion of two definite
-images, what we really see in most cases is one image melting into the
-other and gradually losing its earlier character. In either case the
-process is the same interplay of automatic peripheral imagery and central
-ideas, whether the new image is brought into focus by, as it were, a
-current in consciousness, or is merely suggested by a spontaneous change
-in the previous image. How far the image suggests the idea or the idea the
-image, it is extremely difficult in most cases to say. The phenomenon we
-witness is a perpetually dissolving view; the vital process behind that
-phenomenon we must usually be content to be ignorant of.
-
-It sometimes happens that the dream image is slowly transformed without
-the dreamer realising the transformation. Thus an image of a doll may
-take on the character of a human being. In a dream of this kind--possibly
-suggested by Villiers de l'Isle Adam's _L'Eve Future_, though that
-book had not been recently in my mind--I imagined that a lady of my
-acquaintance (whose identity I could not recall on awakening) had taken
-a fancy to possess an artificial woman, constructed with vast ingenuity
-and at enormous expense. The skin and hair seemed real as I noted with
-a certain horror on observing the breasts and armpits, but in places--I
-noticed especially one arm--the creature was as defective as an ill-made
-doll. It was, however, able to walk with a little support, and, most
-remarkable of all, it gave intelligent answers to questions; this alone
-it was that caused me a certain surprise. What at the beginning of the
-dream had only been an artificial image was evidently becoming a real
-human being, and one can readily believe that such stories as that of
-Pygmalion's statue may have been suggested by dream experiences.
-
-The dream is mainly a dissolving view, because for most of us it is above
-all a visual phenomenon. Those people who, in their dreams, at all events,
-if not also in waking life, are largely of auditory type, experience
-dreams in which words play exactly the same shifting, developing, and
-dissolving part played by images in the persons of more markedly visual
-type. In their dreams they resemble those insane people who, in some
-feeble and confusional states, manifest echolalia and confabulation, their
-ideas drifting along the associational paths of least resistance suggested
-by every random word they hear. Maury records successions of dream
-imagery strung together in a similar manner by a procession of verbal
-transformations; thus in one oft-quoted dream the scenes were connected by
-the words, _kilomètre_, _kilos_, _Gilolo_, _Lobelia_, _Lopez_, _loto_.[33]
-In such a case the procession of verbal auditory imagery constitutes
-the basis of the dream. This is probably rare. In most people the basis
-of the dream is furnished by visual imagery, and auditory images only
-occasionally form an associative link, being more usually subordinated to
-the visual elements.
-
-The speech peculiarities of dreams have been very thoroughly investigated
-by Kraepelin,[34] who has brought together two hundred and eighty-one
-examples, partly observed in himself, though they are not common, and
-Kraepelin considers that the hearing centres fall more deeply asleep
-than the visual centres, the eyes being already sufficiently protected
-by the lids.[35] Kraepelin classifies the speech disturbances of dreams
-into two great groups: (1) _paraphasia_, or disturbance of word-finding,
-where the idea is associated with a wrong word, which is sometimes a new
-formation[36]; and (2) _disorders of oration_, in which the peculiarity
-lies, not in the words, but in their order. The speech disturbances of
-dreams, Kraepelin remarks, spring from deep disturbance of thought, such
-as occur in sensorial aphasia, and, as in such aphasia, the dreamer thinks
-his nonsense is quite clear and reasonable. Much the same may occur in
-alcoholic delirium and in _dementia præcox_.
-
-The invention of new words probably occurs frequently in dreams, without
-leaving a clear trace in memory, and still more frequently, perhaps, as
-in the 'selvdrolla' dream, already recorded, there are seeming new verbal
-formations which are really mere corruptions of imperfectly realised
-words. An example of a definite and precise new word seems to be furnished
-by the following dream, which was at all points vivid and precise. I saw
-quite close to me a huge tawny bird, with an orange bill. The creature
-got up and moved away, seeming as large as an ostrich. I asked a lady,
-standing by, who had some ornithological knowledge, what the bird was,
-and she replied that she thought it was a _jaleisa_. Then I asked the
-same question of a poor woman who was passing, curious to know what she
-would answer; she said, 'Oh, it's a kind of starling.' There was no doubt
-in my dream as to the spelling of 'jaleisa,' but I am quite unable to
-account for the word.[37] It so happened, however, that before I went to
-bed I had been reading one of Calderon's plays, and I imagine that this
-pseudo-Spanish word had formed itself in my brain among the echoes of
-Calderon's enchanting music. The question arises as to why that ignorant
-old woman should have called the jaleisa a starling. It seems just
-possible that the more familiar name was suggested by the last syllable
-of the strange bird's name, the association being verbal. It is equally
-possible, and perhaps more likely, that the association followed by the
-more usual visual channel, and that the jaleisa's orange beak suggested
-the large orange beaks of newly hatched starlings, which had once, many
-years previously, vividly attracted my attention.
-
-A probable illustration of the influence of verbal association in
-diverting the current of a dream is seen in the harrowing narrative that
-follows: A lady dreamed that she went to an entertainment which turned
-out to be a kind of revival meeting, presided over by a lady, and full of
-uproar. It was suddenly realised that Hell was underneath the hall, and a
-man, supposed to be a slave, was torn to pieces and cast into Hell. A lady
-present was so much affected by the scene that she threw herself into a
-pool of water, and was drowned, her body being afterwards pulled out by a
-working man with a pitchfork. The dreamer was so overcome by these tragic
-events that she felt that there was nothing left but to commit suicide.
-Resolving to drown herself, she went to a lighthouse (which, however,
-somewhat resembled a bathing machine) on a height, in order to throw
-herself down into the sea. It was of an exquisite green tint, extremely
-lovely and attractive, but she had not the courage to leap in. She thought
-it might give her courage if she had a good meal first, so she returned to
-the hall and joined the lady who had presided over the meeting. They sat
-down to a dish of roast mutton, but, as they were eating, suddenly looked
-at each other with mutual understanding; they realised that they were
-eating the woman who had been drowned, and, it will be remarked, had been
-pulled out of the water by a fork. It was possible to account for every
-element of which this dream was made up, but its tragic character was
-unsupported by anything in waking life, and entirely native to the dream.
-The possibility of any guiding link between 'Hell' and 'hall' had not
-presented itself to the dreamer, nor had it occurred to me when I set down
-the dream as here reproduced. It must be noted, however, that the revival
-meeting would itself tend to suggest the idea of Hell. It seems probable
-that verbal associations usually play only a subordinate part.
-
-Sometimes the verbal links of association in dreams, far from introducing
-tragedy, lead, by the conjunction of two words of the same sound, to puns.
-Thus a dreamer imagined that he and some friends were looking at a house
-with its bedroom or bedrooms open to the air, the front wall being gone,
-and they were laughing at the comical effect when a mysterious voice came
-saying, 'A three-walled bedroom is a side-burst stor(e)y.' As the dreamer
-awoke, he found himself laughing at this juxtaposition of the idea of the
-storey of a house-side split open, and the idea of a side-splitting story.
-The conditions of psychic activity during sleep--when ideas drift together
-from widely separated regions along channels of association which are
-usually held closed by the higher intellectual processes--seem, indeed,
-to be specially favourable to the production of puns and allied forms
-of witticism.[38] They may, therefore, be properly regarded as closely
-associated with subconscious activity.[39]
-
-A verbal link is seen in the following 'recipe' invented on another
-occasion by the same dreamer:--
-
-    'Call in the tipcat, cut off its tail;
-      Fold up some eggs in a saucepan;
-    Sit on the rest, like an elderly male,
-      And gulp down the whole as a horse can.'
-
-It is evident that the tipcat suggested a cat's tail, while the suggestion
-of a cooking recipe in 'cut off its tail' led on to eggs and saucepan; the
-eggs suggested 'sitting,' while 'gulp,' as the dreamer noted, appeared as
-'gallop,' and suggested the horse. The ease with which the whole fell into
-a completely rhymed doggerel stanza is due to the fact that the dreamer is
-a poet.[40]
-
-A more common phenomenon in my experience than association by verbal clues
-is a transference from visual terms into the terms of some other sense,
-and a repetition in that form. Thus a lady dreams that a large and very
-beautiful picture resembling tapestry forms itself before her, and in it
-she sees herself, only much more beautiful in shape, standing by a tree,
-and on the other side of the tree an old friend is standing, while there
-are a crowd of people around. Then she sees her friend touch her on the
-arm. At the same time the dreamer feels the touch. The visual image is
-reduplicated in a motor form. Such a phenomenon is doubtless a natural
-result of the special conditions of dream life. In waking life the senses
-are working co-ordinately, and if we see ourselves touched we shall
-probably feel ourselves touched. But in dreams the body is a vision, and
-not our real body, and when we see it touched, we realise we ought to feel
-it touched, and a tactile sensation is thus suggested and experienced.
-
-There are, however, other reduplications to which this explanation
-will not apply. Thus I imagined I was sitting at a window, at the top
-of a house, writing. As I looked up from my table I saw, with all the
-emotions naturally accompanying such a sight, a woman in her nightdress
-appear at a lofty window some distance off, and throw herself down. I
-went on writing, however, and found that in the course of my literary
-employment--I am not clear as to its precise nature--the very next thing I
-had to do was to describe exactly such a scene as I had just witnessed. I
-was extremely puzzled at such an extraordinary coincidence; it seemed to
-me wholly inexplicable. Again I dreamed that I was coming up the Thames
-(apparently in a steamboat), reading a novel, written by a friend, which
-was the history of some one who arrives in England coming up the Thames
-to London, by what I felt to be an extraordinary coincidence, in exactly
-the same way as I was at the moment. Then I found myself seemingly at the
-end of a London pier, with the river rippling at my feet, and in front
-the superb panorama of London; exactly the scene which, in less detail,
-was described in the book. Such dreams, reduplicating the imagery in
-a new sensory medium, are fairly common, with me at all events. The
-association is less that of analogy than of sensory media, as of the
-visual image becoming a verbal motor image. In other cases a scene is
-first seen as in reality, and then in a picture. Thus I dreamed that I
-was witnessing the performance of an orchestra, and observed that all
-the players had instruments of ancient pattern which, I understood,
-had been in constant use for several hundred years; I could recall the
-shapes of many on awaking, and none of them were quite modern; I could
-not, however, recall the character of the music, which seemed to make no
-impression on me, since I was absorbed in observing the shapes of the
-instruments. I specially observed an old framed engraving hanging on the
-wall, in my dream, representing precisely one of the instruments played
-on, and I understood that it was called a _bourdon_.[41] It is interesting
-to observe the profound astonishment with which sleeping consciousness
-apperceives such simple reduplication.
-
-In dreams planes of existence that in waking life are fundamentally
-distinct are brought together, so that events belonging to different
-planes move on the same plane, and even become combined. Acting and life,
-the picture and the reality, are no longer absolutely distinct. Art and
-life flow in the same channel. The reason, doubtless, is that for the
-dreamer the world of waking life, the world of things as they are to the
-waking senses, is closed and cannot even be completely recalled. So that
-all modes of representation are strictly on the same level, and it is,
-therefore, perfectly natural and logical that they should stand side by
-side and merge into one another.
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[Footnote 12: The simile of the kaleidoscope for the most elementary
-process of dreaming has often suggested itself. Thus in an article on
-dreaming in the _Lancet_ (24th November 1877) we read: 'The combinations
-are new, but the materials are old, some recent, many remote and
-forgotten.... The turn of the kaleidoscope is instantaneous and any new
-idea thrown into the field, perhaps in the act of turning, becomes an
-integral part of the picture.']
-
-[Footnote 13: Foucault, _Le Rêve_, p. 182.]
-
-[Footnote 14: This is in accordance with the view of Wundt, who attributes
-this multiplication of imagery to the retinal element.]
-
-[Footnote 15: Baron Charles Mourre, 'La Volonté dans le Rêve,' _Revue
-Philosophique_, May 1903.]
-
-[Footnote 16: Ribot, _Psychologie de l'Attention_, 1889, chs. i. and ii.]
-
-[Footnote 17: Maine de Biran, perhaps the earliest accurate introspective
-observer of dreaming, noted the absence of all voluntary active attention.
-Beaunis regards attention as possible in dreams, but fails to distinguish
-between different kinds of attention.]
-
-[Footnote 18: B. Leroy, 'Nature des Hallucinations,' _Revue
-Philosophique_, June 1907. As regards the importance of the absence of
-voluntary attention in the production of visual images, it may be remarked
-that even the after-image of a bright object in waking life is much more
-vivid when it occurs in a state of inattention and distraction. I noticed
-this phenomenon some years ago, especially when studying mescal, and in
-recent years it has been recorded by J. H. Hyslop (_Psychological Review_,
-May 1903).]
-
-[Footnote 19: We must be cautious in assuming that such imagery is purely
-retinal. Scripture ('Cerebral light,' _Studies from the Yale Psychological
-Laboratory_, vol. v., 1899) argues that even the so-called 'retinal light'
-or '_eigenlicht_' is cerebral, not retinal at all, since it is single and
-not double, and differs from after-images, which are displaced by pressure
-on eyeball. This view is perhaps too extreme in the opposite direction.]
-
-[Footnote 20: For a full and interesting study of these, see S. J. Franz,
-'After-images' (Monograph Supplements to _Psychological Review_, vol.
-iii., No. 2, June 1899). He agrees with those who regard after-images as
-entirely retinal in origin.]
-
-[Footnote 21: See Havelock Ellis, 'A New Artificial Paradise,'
-_Contemporary Review_, January 1898; _ib._ 'Mescal: A Study of a Divine
-Plant,' _Popular Science Monthly_, May 1902.]
-
-[Footnote 22: G. E. Partridge, however ('Reverie,' _Pedagogical Seminary_,
-April 1898), has investigated hypnagogic phenomena in 826 children. They
-were asked to describe what they saw at night with closed eyes before
-falling asleep. Among these children 58·5 per cent. of those aged from
-thirteen to sixteen saw things at night in this way; of those aged six
-the proportion was higher, 64·2 per cent. There seemed to be a maximum at
-about the age of ten, and probably another maximum at a much earlier age.
-Stars were most frequently mentioned, being spoken of by 151 children,
-colours by 145, people and faces 77, animals 31, scenes of the day 21,
-flowers and fruit 18, pictures 15, God and angels 13. Partridge calls
-these phenomena hypnagogic; while, however, the hypnagogic visions of
-adults may well be a relic of children's visions, the latter have much
-greater range and vitality, for they are not confined to the moment before
-sleep, and the child sometimes has a certain amount of control over them.
-E. Guyon has studied hypnagogic and allied visions in children in his
-Paris thesis, _Sur les Hallucinations Hypnagogiques_, 1903. He believes
-that children always find them terrifying. That, however, is far from
-being the case and is merely due to a pre-occupation with morbid cases,
-which naturally attract most attention. (This is also illustrated by the
-examples given by Stanley Hall, 'A Study of Fears,' _American Journal of
-Psychology_, 1897, pp. 186 _et seq._) The visions of the healthy child
-are not terrifying, and he accepts them in a completely matter-of-course
-way. He is no more puzzled or troubled by his waking dreams than by his
-sleeping dreams.]
-
-[Footnote 23: The earliest detailed, though not typical, description of
-this phenomenon I have met with is by Dr. Simon Forman, the astrologer,
-in his entertaining _Autobiography_, written in 1600. He says that, as a
-child of six, 'So soon as he was always laid down to sleep he should see
-in visions always many mighty mountains and hills come rolling against
-him, as though they would overrun him and fall on him and bruise him, yet
-he got up always to the top of them and with much ado went over them. Then
-should he see many great waters like to drown him, boiling and raging
-against him as though they would swallow him up, yet he thought he did
-overpass them. And these dreams and visions he had every night continually
-for three or four years' space.' He believed they were sent him by God to
-signify the troubles of his later years. De Quincey accurately described
-the phenomenon in 1821, in his _Confessions of an English Opium-Eater:_
-'I know not whether my reader is aware, that many children, perhaps
-most, have a power of painting, as it were, upon the darkness, all sorts
-of phantoms: in some, that power is simply a mechanic affection of the
-eye; others have a voluntary or a semi-voluntary power to dismiss or to
-summon them, or, as a child once said to me when I questioned him on this
-matter, "I can tell them to go and they go; but sometimes they come, when
-I don't tell them to come."' E. H. Clarke (_Visions_, 1878, pp. 212-216)
-discussed the ability of children to see visions, and pointed out the
-element of will in this ability. It seems unusual for auditory impressions
-to intrude, though J. A. Symonds (biography by Horatio Brown, vol. i. p.
-7), in describing his own night-terrors as a child, speaks of phantasmal
-voices which blended with the caterwauling of cats on the roof.]
-
-[Footnote 24: 'From being long and vehemently attent upon geometrical
-figures,' Hobbes says after referring to the after-images of the sun
-(_Leviathan_, part i., ch. 2), 'a man shall in the dark (though awake)
-have the images of lines and angles before his eyes: which kind of fancy
-hath no particular name; as being a thing that doth not commonly fall into
-men's discourse.']
-
-[Footnote 25: Baillarger, 'De l'Influence de l'Etat Intermédiaire à la
-veille et au sommeil sur la Production et la Marche des Hallucinations,'
-_Annales Médico-Psychologiques_, vol. v., 1845.]
-
-[Footnote 26: Maury, _Le Sommeil et les Rêves_, 1861, pp. 50-77. Good
-descriptions of hypnagogic imagery are given by Greenwood, _Imagination
-and Dreams_, pp. 16-18, and Ladd, 'The Psychology of Visual Dreams,'
-_Mind_, 1892. See also Sante di Sanctis, _I Sogni_, pp. 337 _et seq._]
-
-[Footnote 27: This is the explanation offered by, for example, Delage
-(_Comptes-rendus de l'Académie des Sciences_, vol. cxxxvi., No. 12, pp.
-731 _et seq._). It is accepted by Guyon and others. Delage insists on the
-retinal element since he finds that hypnagogic images follow the movements
-of the eye.]
-
-[Footnote 28: Similarly, under chloroform, Elmer Jones found that vision
-is at first stimulated.]
-
-[Footnote 29: G. H. Savage, 'Dreams: Normal and Morbid,' _St. Thomas's
-Hospital Gazette_, February 1908.]
-
-[Footnote 30: _British Medical Journal_, 11th May 1907. The actual
-hallucinations of the insane are usually coloured normally. Head, however,
-finds (_Brain_, 1901, p. 353) that the waking visual hallucinations
-sometimes associated with visceral disease are always white, black, or
-grey, and never coloured or even tinted.]
-
-[Footnote 31: The transformation of birds into human beings seems
-peculiarly common in dreams. I have referred to this point elsewhere
-(_Studies in the Psychology of Sex_, vol. i. 3rd ed., p. 193). It is an
-interesting and doubtless significant fact that the same transformation
-is accepted in the myths of primitive peoples. Thus, according to H. H.
-Bancroft (_Native Races of the Pacific_, vol. i. p. 93), a pantomime dance
-of the Aleuts represents the transformation of a captive bird into a
-lovely woman who falls exhausted into the arms of the hunter.]
-
-[Footnote 32: It is noteworthy that this marked tendency in dreams to
-discover analogies, although doubtless a tendency of primitive thought,
-is also a progressive tendency. 'The conquests of science,' says Sageret
-('L'Analogie Scientifique,' _Revue Philosophique_, January 1909), 'are the
-conquests of analogy.']
-
-[Footnote 33: Maury, _Le Sommeil et les Rêves_, p. 115.]
-
-[Footnote 34: Kraepelin, 'Ueber Sprachstörungen im Träume,'
-_Psychologische Arbeiten_, Bd. v., 1906, pp. 1-104; cf. Lombard,
-'Glossolalie,' _Archives de Psychologie_, July 1907.]
-
-[Footnote 35: This is confirmed by the fact that under chloroform
-anaesthesia hearing is the first sense to be lost and vision the
-last (Elmer Jones, 'The Waning of Consciousness under Chloroform,'
-_Psychological Review_, January 1909).]
-
-[Footnote 36: It may be recalled as not without significance that the
-formation of new words is fairly common among young children; see, _e.g._,
-an interesting correspondence in _Nature_, 26th March and 9th April 1891.]
-
-[Footnote 37: It can scarcely be derived from the unfamiliar word
-_chalizah_, the Hebrew name for the levirate.]
-
-[Footnote 38: Thus I have rarely ever attempted parody when awake, but
-once when at Montserrat, with thoughts far from humorous fields, I dreamed
-of making a parody (I am not quite clear of what) apparently suggested by
-the goose-pond in the cloisters of Barcelona Cathedral.]
-
-[Footnote 39: This point of view has been specially developed by Freud,
-_Der Witz und seine Beziehung zum Unbewussten_.]
-
-[Footnote 40: It may be noted that somewhat similar doggerel verse is
-sometimes made by the insane; see, _e.g._, _Journal of Mental Science_,
-April 1907, p. 284.]
-
-[Footnote 41: There was no known origin for this dream, and the word
-_bourdon_ had no conscious associations for my mind; I was not even
-definitely aware that it is used in a musical sense.]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER III
-
-THE LOGIC OF DREAMS
-
-    All Dreaming is a Process of Reasoning--The Fundamental
-    Character of Reasoning--Reasoning as a Synthesis of
-    Images--Dream Reasoning Instinctive and Automatic--It is also
-    Consciously carried on--This a result of the Fundamental Split
-    in Intelligence--Dissociation--Dreaming as a Disturbance of
-    Apperception.
-
-
-In dreams we are always reasoning. That is a general characteristic of
-dreams which is worth noting, because its significance is not usually
-recognised. It is sometimes imagined that reason is in abeyance during
-sleep.[42] So far from this being the case, we may almost be said to
-reason much more during sleep than when we are awake. That our reasoning
-is bad, often even preposterous, that it constantly ignores the most
-elementary facts of waking life, scarcely affects the question. All
-dreaming is a process of reasoning. That artful confusion of ideas and
-images which, at the outset, I referred to as the most constant feature
-of dream mechanism is nothing but a process of reasoning, a perpetual
-effort to argue out harmoniously the absurdly limited and incongruous
-data present to sleeping consciousness. Binet, grounding his conclusions
-on hypnotic experiments, finds that reasoning is the fundamental part of
-all thinking, the very texture of thought.[43] It is founded on perception
-itself, which already contains all the elements of the ancient syllogism.
-For in all perception, as Binet plausibly argues, there is a succession
-of three images, of which the first fuses with the second, which, in its
-turn, suggests the third. Now this establishment of new associations, this
-construction of images, which, as we may easily convince ourselves, is
-precisely what takes place in dreaming, is reasoning itself.
-
-Reasoning may thus be regarded as a synthesis of images suggested by
-resemblance and contiguity, indeed a sort of logical vision, more intense
-even than actual vision, since it is capable of producing hallucinations.
-To reasoning all forms of mental activity may finally be reduced; mind, as
-Wundt has said, is a thing that reasons. Or, as H. R. Marshall puts it,
-'reason is a mode of instinct.'[44] When we apply these general statements
-to dreaming, we may see that the whole phenomenon of dreaming is really
-the same process of image formation, based on resemblance and contiguity.
-Every dream is the outcome of this strenuous, wide-ranging instinct to
-reason. The supposed 'imaginative faculty,' regarded as so highly active
-during sleep, is the inevitable play of this automatic logic.
-
-The syllogistic arrangement of dream imagery is carried on in an
-absolutely automatic manner; it is spontaneous, involuntary, without
-effort. Sleeping consciousness, though all the time it is weaving the data
-that reach it into some pattern of reason with immense ingenuity, is quite
-unaware that it is itself responsible for the arguments thus presented. In
-the evening, before going to bed, I glance casually through a newspaper;
-I see the usual kind of news, revolutionists in Russia, Irish affairs,
-crimes, etc.; I see also a caricature of the Liberal Party as a headless
-horseman on a barren plain. During sleep these unconnected impressions
-revive, float into dream consciousness, and spontaneously fall into as
-reasonable a whole as could be expected. I dream that by some chemical or
-mechanical device a man has succeeded in conveying the impression that he
-is headless, and is preparing to gallop across some district in Russia,
-with the idea of making so mysterious an impression upon the credulous
-population that he will be accepted as a great religious prophet. I
-distinctly see him careering across sands like those of the seashore,
-but I avoid going near him. Then I see figures approaching him in the
-far distance, and his progress ceases. I learn subsequently that he has
-been arrested and found to be an Irish criminal. A coherent story is thus
-formed out of a few random impressions.
-
-All such typical dreams are syllogistic. There is, that is to say, as
-Binet expresses it, the establishment of an association between two states
-of consciousness by means of an intermediate state which resembles
-the first, is associated with the second, and by fusing with the first
-associates it with the second. In this dream, for instance, we have the
-three terms of (1) headless horseman, (2) revolutionary crime, and (3)
-Russia and Ireland. The intermediate term, by the fact that it resembles
-the first, and is contiguous in the mind with the third, seems to fuse the
-first and the third terms, so that the headless horseman becomes an Irish
-criminal in Russia. In dreaming life, as in waking life, our minds are
-always moving by the construction of similar syllogisms, marked by more or
-less freedom and audacity.
-
-It is unnecessary to multiply examples of the instinctive and persistent
-efforts on the part of the sleeping mind to construct a coherent whole
-out of the incongruous elements that come before it; nearly every
-dream furnishes some proof of this profoundly rooted impulse.[45] It
-is instructive, however, to consider the nature and the limitations of
-dreaming reason.
-
-This rationalisation and logical construction of imagery, it is necessary
-to realise, occurs at the very threshold of sleeping consciousness. The
-dreamer makes no effort to arrange isolated imagery; the arrangement
-has already occurred when the imagery comes to the focus of sleeping
-consciousness; so that this reasoning and arranging process is so
-fundamental and instinctive that it occurs in a region which may be said
-to be subconscious to dreaming consciousness. If it were not so our dreams
-would never be real to us, for even dreaming consciousness could not
-accept as real a hallucination which it had itself arranged. In this sense
-it is true that, to some extent, our dreams are often based on an ultimate
-personal and emotional foundation.[46]
-
-But this ingeniously guided and rationalised confusion of imagery by no
-means covers the whole of the reasoning process in dreams. This is a
-double process. It is first manifested subconsciously in the formation
-of dream imagery, and then it is manifested consciously in the dreamer's
-reaction to the imagery presented to him. Every dream is made up of action
-and reaction between a pseudo-universe and a freely responding individual.
-On the one side there is the irresistibly imposed imagery--really,
-though we know it not, conditioned and instinctively moulded by our own
-organism--which stands for what in our waking hours we may term God and
-Nature; on the other side is the Soul struggling with all its might,
-and very inefficient means, against the awful powers that oppose it.
-The problem of the waking world is presented over again in this battle
-between the dreaming protagonist and his dreamed fate. Both of these
-elements are instinctively reasoned out, consciously or subconsciously;
-both are imperfect fragments from the rich reservoir of human personality.
-
-The things that happen to us in dreams, the pseudo-external world that is
-presented to sleeping consciousness--the imagery, that is, that floats
-before the mental eye of sleep--are a perpetual source of astonishment
-and argument to the dreamer. A large part of dreaming activity is
-concerned with the attempt to explain and reason out the phenomena we thus
-encounter, to construct a theory of them, or to determine the attitude
-which we ought to take up with regard to them. Most dreams will furnish
-evidence of this reasoning process.
-
-Thus a lady dreamed that an acquaintance wished to send a small sum of
-money to a person in Ireland. She rashly offered to take it over to
-Ireland. On arriving home she began to repent of her promise, as the
-weather was extremely wild and cold. She proceeded, however, to make
-preparations for dressing warmly, and went to consult an Irish friend, who
-said she would have to be floated over to Ireland tightly jammed in a crab
-basket. On returning home she fully discussed the matter with her husband,
-who thought it would be folly to undertake such a journey, and she finally
-relinquished it, with great relief. In this dream--the elements of which
-could all be accounted for--the association between sending money and
-the post-office, which would at once occur to waking consciousness, was
-closed; consciousness was a prey to such suggestions as reached it,
-but on the basis of those suggestions it reasoned and concluded quite
-sagaciously.
-
-Again (after looking at photographs of paintings and statuary, and also
-reading about the theatre), I dreamed that I was at the theatre, and that
-the performers were acting and dancing in a more or less, in some cases
-completely, nude state, but with admirable propriety and grace, and very
-charming effect. At first I was extremely surprised at so remarkable an
-innovation; but then I reflected that the beginnings of such a movement
-must have long been in progress on the stage unknown to me; and I
-proceeded to rehearse the reasons which made such a movement desirable.
-On another occasion, I dreamed that I was in the large _plaza_ of a
-Spanish city (Pamplona possibly furnishing the elements of the picture),
-and that the governor emerged from his residence facing the square and
-began talking in English to the subordinate officials who were waiting
-to receive him. The real reason why he talked English was, of course,
-the simple one that he spoke the language native to the dreamer. But in
-my dream I was extremely puzzled why he should speak English. I looked
-carefully into his face to assure myself that he was not really English,
-and I finally concluded that he was speaking English in order not to be
-understood by the bystanders. Once more, I dreamed that I was looking at
-an architectural drawing of a steeple, of quite original design, somewhat
-in the shape of a cross, but very elongated. I attempted in my dream
-to account for this elongation, and concluded that it was intended to
-neutralise the foreshortening caused when the steeple would be looked at
-from below.
-
-There is, we here see afresh, a fundamental split in dreaming
-intelligence. On the one side there is the subconscious, yet often highly
-intelligent, combination of imagery along rational although often bizarre
-lines. On the other side is concentrated the conscious intelligence of
-the dreamer, struggling to comprehend and explain the problems offered by
-the pseudo-external imagery thus presented to it. One might almost say
-that in dreams subconscious intelligence is playing a game with conscious
-intelligence. In a dream previously narrated (p. 43) subconscious
-intelligence offered to my dreaming consciousness the mysterious substance
-_selvdrolla_, and bid me guess what it was; I could not guess. And
-subconscious intelligence presented the drawing of the elongated steeple,
-and I was able to offer an explanation which seems fairly satisfactory.
-So that, in the world of dreams, it may be said, we see over again the
-process which, James Hinton was accustomed to say, we see in the universe
-of our waking life; God or Nature playing with man, compelling him to
-join in a game of hide-and-seek, and setting him problems which he must
-solve as best he can. It may well be, one may add, that the dream process
-furnishes the key to the metaphysical and even, indeed, the physical
-problems of our waking thoughts, and that the puzzles of the universe are
-questions that we ourselves unconsciously invent for ourselves to solve.
-
-We can never go behind the fantastic universe of our dreams. The validity
-of that universe is for dreaming consciousness unassailable. We may try
-to understand it and explain it, but we can never deny it, any more than
-we can deny the universe of our waking life, however we may attempt to
-analyse it. Dreaming consciousness never realises that the universe
-that confronts it springs from the same source as itself springs. I
-dreamed that a man was looking at his own house from a distance, and
-on the balcony he saw his daughter and a man by her side. 'Who is that
-man flirting with my daughter?' he asked. He produced a field-glass,
-and, on looking through it, he exclaimed: 'Good Heavens, it's myself!'
-Dreaming consciousness accepted this situation with perfect equanimity and
-solemnity. In the dream world there is, indeed, nothing else to do. We may
-puzzle over the facts presented to us; we may try to explain them; but it
-would be futile to deny them, even when they involve the possibility of a
-man being in two places at the same time.[47]
-
-Only to a few people there comes occasionally in dreams a dim realisation
-of the unreality of the experience: 'After all, it does not matter,'
-they are able to say to themselves with more or less conviction, 'this is
-only a dream.' Thus one lady, dreaming that she is trying to kill three
-large snakes by stamping on them, wonders, while still dreaming, what it
-signifies to dream of snakes,[48] and another lady, when she dreams that
-she is in any unpleasant position--about to be shot, for instance--often
-says to herself: 'Never mind, I shall wake before it happens.'
-
-I have never detected in my own dreams any recognition that they are
-dreams. I may say, indeed, that I do not consider that such a thing is
-really possible, though it has been borne witness to by many philosophers
-and others from Aristotle and Synesius and Gassendi onwards. The
-phenomenon occurs; the person who says to himself that he is dreaming
-believes that he is still dreaming, but one may be permitted to doubt
-that he is. It seems far more probable that he has for a moment, without
-realising it, emerged at the waking surface of consciousness.[49] The
-only approach to a recognition of dreaming as dreaming that I have
-experienced, is connected with the reduplication that may sometimes
-occur, and the sense of a fatalistic predetermination. Thus I dreamed
-(with nothing that could suggest the dream) that I was one of a group of
-people who, as I realised, were carrying out a drama in which by force of
-circumstance I was destined to be the villain, having, by bad treatment,
-been driven to revenge. I knew at the outset how events would turn out,
-and yet, though it seemed real life, I felt vaguely that it was all a play
-that was merely being rehearsed. I had attained in the world of dreams to
-the Shakespearian feeling that it was all a stage, and I merely a player.
-So we may become the Prosperos of the life of dreams.[50]
-
-This quality of dreaming consciousness is a manifestation, and the chief
-one, of what is called _dissociation_.[51] In dissociation we have a
-phenomenon which runs through the whole of the dreaming life, and is
-scarcely less fundamental than the process of fusion by which the imagery
-is built up. The fact that the reasoning of dreams is usually bad, is due
-partly to the absence of memory elements that would be present to waking
-consciousness, and partly to the absence of sensory elements to check the
-false reasoning which, without them, appears to us conclusive. That is to
-say, that there is a process of dissociation by which ordinary channels
-of association are temporarily blocked, perhaps by exhaustion of their
-conductive elements, and the conditions are prepared for the formation
-of the hallucination. It is, as Parish has argued, in sleep and in those
-sleep-resembling states called hypnagogic that a condition of dissociation
-leading to hallucination is most apt to occur.[52]
-
-Thus it is that though the psychic frontier of the sleeping state is more
-extended than that of the normal waking state, the focus of sleeping
-consciousness is more contracted than that of waking consciousness. In
-other words, while facts are liable to drift from a very wide psychic
-distance under our dreaming attention, we cannot direct the searchlight of
-that attention at will over so wide a field as when we are awake. We deal
-with fewer psychic elements, though those elements are drawn from a wider
-field.
-
-The psychology of 'attention' is, indeed, a very disputed matter.[53]
-There is no agreement as to whether it is central or peripheral, motor or
-sensory. As we have seen in the previous chapter, it seems reasonable to
-conclude, according to a convenient distinction established by Ribot, that
-spontaneous attention is persistent during sleep, but voluntary attention
-is at a minimum. In some such way, it seems, whatever theory of attention
-we adopt, we have to recognise that in dreams the attention is limited.
-
-Such a position is fortified by the conclusion of those who look at the
-problem, not so much in terms of attention as in terms of apperception.
-Apperception, according to Wundt, differs from perception in that while
-the latter is the appearance of a content in consciousness, the former
-is its reception into the state of attention. Or, as Stout defines it,
-apperception is 'the process by which a mental system appropriates a new
-element, or otherwise receives a fresh determination.'[54] Apperception
-is, therefore, the final stage of attention, and ultimately, as Wundt
-remarks, it is one with will. Apperception and will, as most psychologists
-consider, like attention, are enfeebled and diminished, if not abolished,
-in sleep.
-
-In dreams, it thus comes about, we accept the facts presented to
-us--that is the fundamental assumption of dream life--and we argue about
-those 'facts' with the help of all the mental resources which are at
-our disposal, only those resources are frequently inadequate. Sometimes
-they are startlingly inadequate, to such an extent, indeed, that we
-are unaware of possibilities which would be the very first to suggest
-themselves to waking consciousness. Thus the lady who wished to send a
-small sum of money to Ireland is not aware of the existence of postal
-orders, and when she decides to convey the money herself, she is not aware
-of the existence of boat-trains, or even of boats; she might have been
-living in palaeolithic times. She discusses the question in a clear and
-logical manner with the resources at her disposal, and reaches a rational
-conclusion, but considerations which would be the first to occur to waking
-consciousness are at the moment absent from sleeping consciousness; whole
-mental tracts have been dissociated, switched off from communication with
-consciousness; they are 'asleep,' even to sleeping consciousness.[55]
-
-The result is that we are not only dominated by the suggestion of our
-visions, but we are unable adequately to appreciate and criticise the
-situations which are presented to us. We instinctively continue to
-reason, and to reason clearly and logically with the material at our
-disposal, but our reasoning is hopelessly absurd. We perceive in dreams,
-but we do not apperceive; we cannot, that is to say, test and sift the
-new experience, and co-ordinate it adequately with the whole body of
-our acquired mental possessions. The phenomena of dreaming furnish a
-delightful illustration of the fact that reasoning, in its rough form, is
-only the crudest and most elementary form of intellectual operation, and
-that the finer forms of thinking involve much more than logic. 'All the
-thinking in the world,' as Goethe puts it, 'will not lead us to thought.'
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[Footnote 42: Freud brings together (_Traumdeutung_, pp. 38 _et seq._)
-some of the different opinions regarding reasoning in dreams.]
-
-[Footnote 43: 'Reasoning,' says Binet (_La Psychologie du Raisonnement_,
-1886, p. 10), speaking without reference to dreaming, but in words that
-are exactly applicable to it, 'is an organisation of images determined by
-the properties of the images alone; it suffices for the images to be put
-in presence and they become organised; reason follows with the certainty
-of a reflex.']
-
-[Footnote 44: H. R. Marshall, _Instinct and Reason;_ _ib._ 'Reason a Mode
-of Instinct,' _Psychological Review_, March 1899.]
-
-[Footnote 45: Some of the most methodically absurd examples of dreaming
-logic cannot be effectively brought forward, as they are so personal that
-they require much explanation to make them intelligible.]
-
-[Footnote 46: Delacroix ('Sur la Structure Logique du Rêve,' _Revue de
-Metaphysique_, November 1904), in opposition to Leroy and Tobolowska,
-goes so far as to say that 'the sense of the dream, the interpretation of
-the image, is given in the image, before the image, if one may say so;
-we are not concerned with a mere procession of images without internal
-connection, but are introduced into a pre-established organisation; wholes
-are decomposed and not separate elements united.' We have to remember that
-in dream life as in waking life the action is twofold; in either world
-when our psychic activity is of low intensity we combine external images
-into a fairly objective picture; when psychic activity is intense external
-images are subdued and controlled by that activity.]
-
-[Footnote 47: A somewhat similar mistaken self-detachment may even occur
-momentarily in the waking condition. Thus Jastrow (_The Subconscious_,
-p. 137) refers to the 'lapse of consciousness' of a lady student who,
-while absorbed in her work, heard outside the door the shuffling of
-rubber heels such as she herself wore, and said 'There goes----,' naming
-herself. That delusion was no doubt due to the eruption of a dream-like
-state of distraction. As regards the visual phantasm of the self (which
-has sometimes been seen by men of very distinguished intellectual power)
-it may be noted that it is favoured by the conditions of dream life. Our
-dream imagery is all pictural, sometimes even to dream consciousness,
-and to see oneself in the picture is, therefore, not so very much more
-remarkable than it is in waking life to come upon oneself among a bundle
-of photographs.]
-
-[Footnote 48: As regards the significance of snakes in dreams, it may be
-remarked that the followers of Freud regard them as being, in the dreams
-of women, as they are in the speech and myths of primitive peoples, erotic
-symbols (_e.g._ Karl Abraham, _Traum und Mythus_, 1909, p. 19). It must be
-remembered, however, that this erotic symbolism is but a small part of the
-emotional interest aroused by snakes which are an extremely common source
-of fear, especially in the young. See _e.g._ Stanley Hall, 'A Study of
-Fears,' _American Journal of Psychology_, 1897, pp. 205 _et seq_.]
-
-[Footnote 49: It may even occur that a person partly wakes up, perceives
-what is going on around him, converses about it, falls asleep again, and
-imagines in the morning that the whole episode was a dream. Hammond,
-who also denies that we can dream we are dreaming, gives a case in
-illustration (_Treatise on Insanity_, p. 190).]
-
-[Footnote 50: The vision of the dream world we thus attain corresponds
-exactly to the philosophy of life set forth by Jules de Gaultier, perhaps
-the most subtle and original of living thinkers; according to Gaultier
-the psychic improvisation which has created the spectacle of the world
-has, as it were, sworn 'never to recognise itself beneath the masks
-it has assumed, in order to retain the joy of an unending play of the
-unforeseen.']
-
-[Footnote 51: Dissociation may be defined as a condition in which, in
-the words of Tannery (_Revue Philosophique_, October 1898), 'the various
-organisms of the brain which in the waking state accomplish distinct
-functions with satisfactory agreement are, on the contrary, in a state
-of semi-independence.' There is, in Greenwood's words (_Imagination in
-Dreams_, p. 41), a 'loosening of mental bonds,' corresponding to the
-relaxation of muscular tension which also occurs before going to sleep.]
-
-[Footnote 52: Edmund Parish, _Hallucinations and Illusions: A Study of
-the Fallacies of Perception_ (Contemporary Science Series), 1897. It
-is significant to observe that in hysteria, which may be regarded as
-presenting a condition somewhat analogous to sleep, dissociation also
-occurs. 'Hysteria,' says Janet (_The Major Symptoms of Hysteria_, 1907,
-p. 332), one of the greatest authorities, 'is a form of mental depression
-characterised by the retraction of the field of personal consciousness and
-a tendency to the dissociation and emancipation of the system of ideas and
-functions that constitute personality.']
-
-[Footnote 53: The theories of attention are lucidly and concisely set
-forth by Nayrac, 'Le Processus et le Mécanisme de l'Attention,' _Revue
-Scientifique_, 7th April 1906.]
-
-[Footnote 54: G. F. Stout, _Analytic Psychology_, vol. ii. p. 112. In
-the _Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology_, again, Stout and Baldwin
-define apperception as 'the process of attention in so far as it involves
-interaction between the presentation of the object attended to, on the one
-hand, and the total preceding conscious content, together with pre-formed
-mental dispositions, on the other hand.']
-
-[Footnote 55: A very similar state of things occurs in some forms of
-insanity, especially in the less profound states of mental confusion,
-when, as Bolton remarks ('Amentia and Dementia,' _Journal of Mental
-Science_, July 1906, p. 445), we find 'certain associated remnants of
-former experience combined into a sequence according to the normal laws of
-mental association.']
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER IV
-
-THE SENSES IN DREAMS
-
-    All Dreams probably contain both Presentative and Representative
-    Elements--The Influence of Tactile Sensations on Dreams--Dreams
-    excited by Auditory Stimuli--Dreams aroused by Odours
-    and Tastes--The Influence of Visual Stimuli--Difficulty
-    of distinguishing between Actual and Imagined Sensory
-    Excitations--The Influence of Internal Visceral Stimuli on
-    Dreaming--Erotic Dreams--Vesical Dreams--Cardiac Dreams and their
-    Symbolism--Prodromic Dreams--Prophetic Dreams.
-
-
-At the outset I adopted provisionally the usual classification of dreams
-into two classes: the peripheral or presentative group, excited by a
-stimulus from without, and the central or representative group, having its
-elements in memories. If, however, we look carefully at the matter, in the
-light of the experiences which we have encountered, it will be found that
-this classification, however superficially convenient it may be, fails
-to correspond to any radical duality of dream phenomena. When we closely
-question our dream experiences, it ceases to be clear that they really
-fall into two groups at all.
-
-On the one hand, it would appear that most, perhaps, indeed, all dreams
-that are sufficiently vivid to be clearly remembered on awakening, have
-received an initial stimulus from some external, or at all events,
-peripheral source.[56] There is something unusual or uncomfortable in
-the sleeper's position, or he has been subjected to some slight unusual
-strain which has modified his nervous condition, or there has been some
-deviation from his usual diet, or a physiological stress of some kind is
-making itself felt within him--careful self-questioning constantly reveals
-the actual or probable existence of some external or certainly peripheral
-stimulus of this kind. So that we seem entitled to say that in all dreams
-there is probably a presentative element.
-
-On the other hand, an even more cursory investigation of our dream life
-suffices to show that in every dream there is also a representative
-element. No dream can be said to be strictly and literally presentative.
-If, when I am seemingly asleep, a person speaks to me, and I become
-conscious that he is present and speaking, I am not entitled to say
-that I 'dream' it. A consciousness which perceives facts in the same
-way as they may be perceived by waking consciousness is not a dreaming
-consciousness. So that there are, in the literal sense, no presentative
-dreams. What happens is that the stimulus, instead of being presented
-directly to consciousness, and recognised for what it is to waking
-consciousness, serves to arouse old memories and ideas which dream
-consciousness accepts as a reasonable explanation of the external or
-peripheral stimulus. The stimulus may be said to be, in a sense, the
-cause of the dream, but the dream itself remains central, and as truly a
-combined picture of mental images as though there were no known peripheral
-stimulus at all.
-
-Thus, while it is true that the division of dreams into two classes
-corresponds to a recognisable distinction, it is yet a superficial and
-unimportant distinction. It is likely that all dreams have a peripheral
-or presentative element, and certain that they all have a central or
-representative element. This will become clearer if we now proceed to
-discuss those dreams which have, demonstrably, their exciting cause in
-some external or internal organic stimulus.
-
-The world which we enter through the portal of sleep presents such obvious
-and serious limitations that we are apt to under-estimate its real
-richness and variety. In some respects, indeed, we can accomplish in sleep
-what is beyond our reach awake. Thus it sometimes happens that we reason
-better in sleep than when awake, that we may find in dreams the solutions
-of difficulties which escape us awake, and that we may remember things
-which, when awake, we had forgotten. But even within the ordinary range
-of experience, it is interesting to note that our dreams contain the same
-elements as our waking life. The sensory activities which stir us during
-the day are equally active, though in strange transformations, in the
-world of dreams.
-
-It is probable that all the senses may furnish the medium through which
-stimuli may reach sleeping consciousness; though touch and hearing are
-doubtless the main channels to dream life. The eyes are closed, so that
-while the chief parts of our dream life are in terms of vision, direct
-visual stimuli can only be a very dim and uncertain influence. But no
-sense is absolutely excluded from activity in dreams.[57]
-
-Heat or cold sensations and pressure sensations, as well as their
-anaesthetic absence, undoubtedly play an important part in explaining
-various kinds of dreams. They do not necessarily result in rememberable
-dreams, even although it is possible that they still affect the current of
-sleeping consciousness. It is possible to press and massage the body of
-a sleeper all over, gently but firmly, without interrupting sleep. When
-the pressure reaches a considerable degree of vigour, the sleeper may
-move a muscle, perhaps the lips, even an arm, may go so far as to half
-wake and move the whole body. All these movements suggest that they have
-accompaniments on the psychic side, yet, on finally awakening, the sleeper
-may be unable to recall any memory of the occurrence, or any vestige of a
-dream.
-
-In a certain proportion of cases, however, a dream results. Thus a lady
-dreams that, with a number of other people, she is on board a ship which
-is rocking heavily, and on awakening she finds that her large dog is on
-the bed, vigorously scratching himself. The ship has clearly been the
-theory invented by sleeping consciousness to account for the unfamiliar
-sensations of movement.
-
-When living in the south of Spain, I awoke early one morning, and heard a
-mosquito buzzing. I fell asleep again and dreamed that a huge insect--as
-large as a lobster, but flat like a cockroach, and scarlet in colour--had
-alighted on my hand. The creature had two long horns, and from each of
-these proceeded numerous very long and delicate filaments which were
-inserted into my hand to a considerable depth. I had to cut the creature
-in half, and draw away the forepart, which was attached to my hand, with
-great care lest I should leave portions of the filaments in the flesh.
-This animal seemed all the more unpleasant because it was noiseless,
-and its attacks, I thought, imperceptible. I appeared to be attacked by
-a succession of them. On awakening, there was irritation of the left
-wrist, as though the mosquito had bitten me, although I had long ceased
-to be bitten by mosquitoes. This dream, it will be seen, corresponds in
-an unusually close way to the idea of a presentative dream; imagination
-followed reality in presenting an insect as the cause of the sensation
-experienced (possibly because I had actually heard the mosquito when
-awake), but still, as in all dreams, the process was mainly central,
-and imagination was freely exercised in creating a creature adequate to
-explain the doubtless vague and massive cutaneous sensations transmitted
-to sleeping consciousness.[58]
-
-Perhaps one of the commonest skin sensations to excite dream formation
-is that of cold due to disturbance of the bed coverings. The following
-example may serve as an illustration of this class. I dreamed that I was
-in an hotel, mounting many flights of stairs, until I entered a room where
-the chambermaid was making the bed; the white bedclothes were scattered
-over everything, and looked to me like snow; then I became conscious that
-I was very cold, and it appeared to me that I really was surrounded by
-snow, for the chambermaid remarked that I was very courageous to come up
-so high in the hotel, very few people venturing to do so on account of
-the great cold at this height. I awoke to find that it was a cold night,
-and that I was entangled in the sheets, and partly uncovered. Nothing
-else had occurred to suggest this dream which sleeping consciousness had
-elaborated out of the two associated ideas of altitude and snow in order
-to explain the actual sensations experienced. It is noteworthy that, as in
-the dream just before narrated, there was here also a link with reality,
-this time furnished by the disarranged bedclothes.[59]
-
-The auditory experiences of dreams, to a greater extent perhaps than those
-involving the sense of touch, may be based on spontaneous disturbances
-within the sensory mechanism. This is notably also the case with visual
-experiences, and in many respects the conditions in the ear are analogous.
-Apart from increased resonance of the ear, or hyperaesthesia of the
-auditory nerve, producing special sensitiveness to sounds, an increased
-flow of blood through the ear, as well as muscular contractions and mucous
-plugs in the external ear, furnish the faint rudimentary noises which, in
-sleep, may constitute the nucleus around which hallucinations crystallise.
-Disease of the ear may obviously act in the same way, but, even apart from
-actual disease, various nervous disturbances favour the production of
-auditory hallucinations during sleep, and, in marked cases, even awake.
-
-We may dream of listening to music in the absence of all external sounds
-having any musical character. In such cases, no doubt, the actual
-conditions within the auditory mechanism are suggesting music to the
-brain, but the resulting music seems usually to be less definite, less
-rememberable, than when it forms around the nucleus of an external series
-of sounds. In many of these cases it is probable that we do not hear
-music in our dream; we are simply under conditions in which we imagine
-that we hear music. Thus, on going to bed soon after supper, but not
-perceptibly suffering from indigestion, I dreamed that I was present at
-a public meeting combined with an orchestral concert. A speech was to be
-made by a man who looked like an old sailor or soldier, and meanwhile
-the orchestra was playing. The speaker--unaccustomed, I gathered, to the
-etiquette of such a meeting--suddenly interrupted the orchestra by a
-remark, and the surprised conductor stopped the performance for a moment
-and then continued, subsequent remarks by the speaker failing to affect
-the music, which continued to the end, becoming more lively and vigorous
-in character. But what the music was, I knew not at the time, nor could
-I recall any fragment of it on awakening. It is even possible that such
-a dream is mainly visual, and that no hallucinatory music is heard, its
-occurrence being merely deduced from the nature of the vision.
-
-If the dreams evoked by sounds within the ear are usually difficult to
-trace in normal persons under ordinary circumstances, this is not the
-case with dreams suggested by sounds which strike the ear from without.
-These constitute one of the most interesting groups of dreams as well as
-one of the easiest to explain, and they are very frequent.[60] Their
-mechanism may, indeed, be observed under some circumstances even in the
-waking state. In some persons, music, a voice, a bird's song, even a
-word, a comment, arouse phantoms of colour and form, light and shade,
-coloured clouds, streams, waves, etc. The phenomena are especially rich
-when produced by an orchestra. Such 'music-phantoms,' as they are termed,
-are a special and freer development of the narrow and rigid phenomena
-of 'colour-hearing.' They have been studied by Dr. Ruths.[61] We have
-to remember that music possesses a fundamental motor basis. As Dauriac
-remarks, music may be defined as 'movement clothed with sound.'[62]
-It tends to produce movement, or, failing movement, to produce motor
-imagery.[63]
-
-Dreams excited by definite external auditory stimuli may be of various
-character. A not uncommon source--especially for those who live on
-a wind-swept coast--is the occurrence of storms. A lady dreams, for
-instance, that her little dog has fallen off a high cliff and that she
-hears his shrieks; it was an extremely windy night, and her window was
-open. The dream has some resemblance to one which Burdach recorded that he
-shared with a companion in an hotel during a storm; they both dreamed they
-were wandering at night among high precipices.
-
-On one occasion I awoke in the middle of a windy night imagining I had
-been listening to an opera of Gluck's (which in reality I had never
-heard), and experiencing all the sense of delicious waves of melody
-which one actually experiences in listening to such operas as _Alceste_.
-A fragment of a melody I had heard in the dream still persisted in my
-memory on awaking, so that I could mentally repeat it, when it seemed as
-agreeable as in the dream, though unfamiliar.
-
-The following dream had also a similar origin. I imagined that I was
-assisting at a spectacle of somewhat dubious erotic character, in company
-with other persons who, out of modesty, covered their faces with their
-hands with the decorous gesture which recalled (as dream consciousness
-evidently realised) that of people during prayer in church. Thereupon a
-beautiful voice was heard in the background loudly chanting a versicle of
-the Te Deum. This awoke me, and I seemed to realise when half awake that
-the voice I had heard in the dream was a real voice. There had, however,
-been no real voice, only the loud howling of the wind and the beating of
-the rain on the window panes.
-
-Once, on a very windy night, and when, perhaps, suffering a trifling
-disturbance of health--for there was slight pleurodynic pain the next
-morning--I dreamed I was quietly at home with friends, when suddenly
-the sky became illuminated. We found that this was due to steady and
-continuous lightning, a state of things which remained throughout the
-dream, the sky presenting the appearance of a cracked and crushed sheet
-of melting ice.[64] By and by, fragments of buildings and similar debris
-were whirled past in the air, and I caught sight of a woman driven above
-me by her skirts. We now realised the imminent approach of a terrific
-cyclone which, at any moment, might carry the house and ourselves away. I
-remembered no more.
-
-Yet another dream may be mentioned as likewise directly due to a violent
-storm and the rattling of a window near my bed. The latter sound evidently
-recalled to sleeping consciousness the sound of the rattling window of
-a railway train, and I dreamed that I was travelling to Berlin with a
-medical friend. There were the accompaniments, not unfamiliar in dreams,
-of rushing along interminable platforms, and up and down endless stairs,
-finding myself in a carriage of the wrong class, with, in consequence,
-more wandering along corridors, and finally finding that my friend had
-been left behind. The character of the dream may have been influenced by
-slight indigestion. In this dream, unlike those already recorded as due to
-external stimuli, the elements of the dream were not the pure invention
-of dreaming imagination, but compacted entirely of ideas that had been
-recently familiar.
-
-The following dream was due to an auditory stimulus of different
-character. I dreamed that I was listening to a performance of Haydn's
-_Creation_, the orchestral part of the performance seeming to consist
-chiefly of the very realistic representation of the song of birds, though
-I could not identify the note of any particular bird. Then followed solos
-by male singers, whom I saw, especially one who attracted my attention
-by singing at the close in a scarcely audible voice. On awakening, the
-source of the dream was not immediately obvious, but I soon realised that
-it was the song of a canary in another room. I had never heard Haydn's
-_Creation_, except in fragments, nor thought of it at any recent period;
-its reputation as regards the realistic representation of natural sounds
-had evidently caused it to be put forward by sleeping consciousness as
-a plausible explanation of the sounds heard, and the visual centres had
-accepted the theory.
-
-However far-fetched and improbable our dreams may seem to the waking mind,
-they are, from the point of view of the sleeping mind, serious and careful
-attempts to construct an adequate theory of the phenomena. The imagery is
-sought from far afield only to fit the facts more accurately. Thus a lady
-dreamed that her dog was being crushed out flat in a large old-fashioned
-box-mangle. She awoke to find that water from a burst pipe was falling
-from the ceiling on to the floor on the landing outside her door, close to
-where the dog had his bed. She had never seen a mangle of this kind since
-she was a child, or had any occasion to think of it, but the rhythm and
-sound of it somewhat resembled that of the falling water.
-
-One more example of an auditory dream may be given. I dreamed that I was
-back in a schoolroom of my boyhood, with two or three of the present
-masters. The room had been entirely changed, and it contained much new
-school apparatus and, notably, on a table, several miniature engines,
-of different character, actually working. I said to the masters that I
-wished all these apparatus had been there twenty years ago (a considerable
-under-estimate of the actual interval since I left that schoolroom), so
-that I might have enjoyed the benefit of them. 'All life is made up of
-machinery,' I found myself uttering aloud as I awoke, 'and unless you
-understand machinery you can't understand life.' It was not till some
-moments later that I became conscious of a faint whirring sound which
-puzzled me till I realised that it was the sound of distant machinery
-entering through the open window. This had, undoubtedly, suggested the
-engines of the dream, though I had not been conscious in my dream of
-hearing any sounds, and the small size of the dream engines corresponded
-to the faintness of the actual sounds.
-
-Dreams aroused by odours do not usually seem to occur except on
-the experimental application of them to the sleeper's nostrils,
-and experiments in this direction are not usually successful.[65]
-Occasionally, however, smell dreams occur without any traceable sensory
-source, and Grace Andrews, for instance, records a dream of the sea,
-accompanied by the seashore odour, 'a pure and rich sensation of smell.'
-In my own case olfactory dreams have been rare and insignificant.
-
-Taste, as we usually understand it, really involves, as is well known, an
-element of smell, and taste dreams of this kind seem to occur from time to
-time under the influence of any slight disturbance of the mucous membrane
-of the mouth or slight indigestion. It is possible that the latter element
-was present in the following dream: I imagined that, following the example
-of a friend, I gave some cigarettes to a tramp we had casually met, and
-that, in return, we felt compelled to drink some raw gin he carried. I
-did so with some misgiving as to the possible results of drinking from
-a tramp's flask, but although in real life I had not tasted gin for
-many years, the hot burning taste of the spirit was very distinct. On
-awakening, my lips seemed hot and dry, and it was doubtless this labial
-sensation which led dream consciousness to seek a plausible explanation in
-cigarettes and spirits. Although the spirit seemed to have the specific
-flavour of gin, it is always difficult, if not impossible, in dream
-sensations, to distinguish between what one feels and what one merely
-concludes that one feels. In such a case, that is to say, it remains
-doubtful whether the labial sensation evokes the specific hallucination
-of gin, or whether it merely suggests to sleeping consciousness that the
-gin has been tasted, much as it is possible to suggest to the hypnotised
-person that the substance he is tasting is a quite different substance,
-that salt is sugar, or that water is wine.
-
-As with dreams of smell, it is not always possible to detect any external
-stimulation as the cause for a taste or pseudo-taste dream.[66] This may
-be illustrated by a dream which belongs strictly to the tactile class; I
-dreamed that I called upon a medical acquaintance whose assistant I found
-in a dark surgery. I absently took up a broken medicine bottle and put
-it to my mouth, when my friend came in. I spoke to him on some medical
-topic, but he entered his carriage, and was driven off before he had time
-to answer me. I then found that my mouth was full of fragments of broken
-colourless glass, which I carefully removed. This dream was constructed,
-in the manner which has been often illustrated in the previous pages,
-of small separate incidents which had occurred during the immediately
-preceding days. One of the incidents was the fact that I had myself
-smashed a little coloured (not colourless) glass and carefully picked up
-the fragments. But the vividest part of the dream was the sensation of
-broken glass in the mouth, and on awaking no sensation could be detected
-in the mouth. So that though the most plausible explanation of such a
-dream would be the theory that the recent experience with broken glass
-had suggested to sleeping consciousness the explanation of an unpleasant
-sensation actually experienced in the mouth, there was nothing whatever to
-support that theory.
-
-The falling of light on the closed eyes, or the half opening of the eyes,
-has been found to serve as a visual stimulus to dreams, but I have myself
-no decisive evidence on this point.[67] In the case of a lady who dreamed
-that a lover was in her room, and that suddenly the door opened, and she
-saw her mother standing before her with a bright light, which awoke her,
-she could find nothing in the room, no light, to account for the dream. It
-is, of course, unnecessary for a dream of a bright light to be actually
-produced by an external visual stimulus accompanying the dream, for the
-spontaneous retino-cerebral activity itself produces sensations of light.
-Thus, on the night after a pleasant walk in a country lane through which
-the setting sun shone, I dreamed that I was walking along a lane in which
-I saw a bright light and my own vast shadow in front of me. It would seem
-that, on the whole, the curtain of the eyelids effectually shuts out
-light from the eye during sleep, and that the sense which is more active
-during the day than any other is the most carefully guarded of all during
-the night. The peculiarly delicate and unstable nature of the chemical
-basis of vision makes up for this protection from external stimulation,
-and by its spontaneous activity ensures that even in dreams vision is the
-predominant sense.
-
-What we find as regards the part played in dreams by excitations arising
-from the external specific senses holds good also for excitations arising
-from internal organic sensations. The main difference is that the stimuli
-which reach sleeping consciousness from the organs within the body--the
-stomach, heart, lungs, sexual apparatus, bladder, etc.--are usually more
-vague and massive, more difficult to recognise and identify, than are the
-more specific sensory stimuli which reach us from without. These visceral
-excitations may be transformed within the brain into imagery so unlike
-themselves that we may refuse to recognise them, and must frequently
-experience some amount of hesitation. Evidence of this fact will come
-before us in due course later on. I only wish to refer here to the more
-obvious part played in dreams by sensations arising within the body.
-
-We should expect that the visceral processes to be translated most
-clearly and directly into dreaming consciousness would be, not those which
-are regular and continuous, but those which assert themselves, more or
-less imperiously, at intervals. This is actually the case. The heart,
-for instance, probably plays a part in dreams only when disturbed in
-its action, and even then nearly always a very transformed part. On the
-other hand, when the impulses of the generative system arise in sleep to
-manifest themselves in erotic dreams, the resulting imagery is usually
-very clear, and with very definite and recognisable sexual associations.
-Erotic dreams are, indeed, in both men and women, among the most vivid of
-all dreams, and the most emotionally potent.[68]
-
-The bladder, again, is an internal organ which makes its functional
-needs felt only at intervals, and thus, when those needs occur during
-sleep, they become conscious in imagery which easily recalls the source
-of the stimulus. It may, indeed, be said that vesical dreams are full of
-instruction in the light they throw on the psychology of dreaming. This
-has long been well known to writers on dreams. Thus Scherner, many years
-ago, insisted on the interest and importance of vesical dreams. In women,
-especially, he regarded them as very frequent and developed, most dream
-stories of women, he considered, containing symbolic representations of
-this organic irritation. Water, in some form or another, is naturally the
-commonest symbol. In Scherner's opinion, also, all dreams of fish playing
-in the water are vesical dreams.[69]
-
-In its simplest form the vesical dream is what Freud would term a
-wish-dream of infantile type, frequently in the magnified form common
-in dreams, and sometimes transferred from the dreamer himself to become
-objectified in another person, or even an inanimate object.[70] There
-is, however, a very important difference according to whether these
-dreams take place in an adult or in a young child. In the adult it almost
-invariably happens that the dream act remains merely a dream act, and no
-corresponding motor impulse is transmitted to the bladder. But when such
-dreams occur to very young children, in whose brains the motor inhibitory
-mechanism is not yet fully established, it not infrequently happens that
-the motor impulse is transmitted and the expulsive action of the bladder
-is set up in sympathy with the imagery of the dream; thus is established
-the condition known as nocturnal enuresis. As the young brain develops,
-and inhibition becomes more perfect, these vesical dreams cease to exert
-any actual effect on the bladder, even when, as sometimes happens, they
-continue to occur at intervals in adult life.[71] Occasionally, both in
-those who have and those who have not suffered from nocturnal enuresis in
-childhood (especially women), vesical dreams of this character may occur
-without even any real distension of the bladder. In some of these cases
-the dream can be shown to be due to a reminiscence or suggestion from the
-waking life of the previous day. Dreams stimulated by organic sensations
-from within are thus found to resemble those proceeding from sensory
-sensations from without in that they are both exactly simulated by dreams
-which are mainly of central origin.
-
-When we turn to those internal organs of the body which normally carry
-on their functions in a constant and equable manner, seldom or never
-obtruding themselves into the sphere of consciousness, any disturbance of
-function seems much less likely to be translated into dream consciousness
-in a simple and direct form. It is sufficient to take the example of the
-heart. When the heart is acting normally any consciousness of its action
-is as rare asleep as awake. Even when cardiac action is disturbed, either
-by disease or by temporary excitement, dream consciousness seldom realises
-the physical cause of the disturbance. Occasionally, indeed, the cardiac
-disturbance may reach sleeping consciousness without any very remote
-transformation; thus a lady dreams that she is fainting while really
-breathing in a slightly laboured and spasmodic way; but at another period
-the same lady, at a time when she was suffering from some degree of heart
-weakness, dreamed one night, when the trouble was specially marked, that
-she was driving sweating horses up a steep hill, urging them on with the
-whip in order to avoid an express train which she imagined was behind her.
-This dream of sweating and panting horses climbing a hill has been noted
-by various observers to occur in connection with heart trouble.[72] The
-real difficulty of the panting and struggling heart instinctively finds
-its apparent explanation in a familiar spectacle of daily life.
-
-In another case a dreamer awoke from a disturbed sleep associated with
-indigestion, having the impression that burglars were tramping upstairs,
-but immediately realised that the tramp of the burglars' feet was really
-the beating of her own heart. Somewhat similarly, when suffering from
-headache, I have dreamed of hammering nails into a floor, a theory
-obviously invented to account for the thump of throbbing arteries.
-
-An interesting group of phenomena connected with the sensory influences
-discussed in this chapter is furnished by the premonitions of physical
-disorders and diseases sometimes experienced in dreams. A physical
-disturbance may reach sleeping consciousness many hours, or even days,
-before it is perceived by waking consciousness, and become translated
-into a more or less fantastic dream. This has been recognised from of
-old, and Aristotle, for instance, observed that dreams magnify sensory
-excitations, and pointed out that they were thus useful to the physician
-in diagnosing symptoms not yet perceptible in the waking state. Thus
-Hammond knew a gentleman who, before an attack of hemiplegic paralysis,
-repeatedly dreamed that he had been cut in two down the middle line,
-and could only move on one side, while a young lady who dreamed she had
-swallowed molten lead, though quite well on awaking, was attacked by
-severe tonsilitis toward midday. Erythematous conditions of the skin, as
-has been pointed out to me by Dr. Kiernan, who has met with numerous cases
-in point, play an especial part in generating these dreams. Jewell, again,
-mentions a girl who dreamed, three days before being laid up with typhoid
-fever, that some one threw oil over her and set light to it. Macario, who
-was, perhaps, the first to record and study scientifically the dreams of
-this class, termed them prodromic.[73]
-
-'Prophetic' dreams, in which the dreamer foresees, not a physical
-condition which is already latent, but an external occurrence, belong to
-an entirely different class, and need not be discussed in detail here,
-since they are usually fallacious. A fairly common experience of this
-kind is the dream of an unknown person who is afterwards met in real
-life. These dreams fall into two groups: in the first the 'prophecy' is
-based on a failure of memory, the dreamer having really seen the person
-before; in the second, the subsequent 'recognition' of the person is
-due to the emotional preparation of the dream, and the concentrated
-expectation. Sante de Sanctis, who points this out, gives an experience
-of the kind which happened to the distinguished novelist, Capuana, who
-had a vivid dream of a dark lady, with expressive eyes, and three days
-after met the lady of his dream in the street.[74] Women, in a state of
-emotional expectation, have often mistaken dead (or even living) persons
-for missing husbands or children, and any one who has observed how, when
-a noted criminal flies from justice, he is soon 'recognised,' from his
-portrait, in the most various parts of the world, will have no difficulty
-in believing that it is easily possible to 'recognise' people from dream
-portraits, which are much vaguer than photographs. That there are other
-prophetic dreams, less easy to account for, I am ready to admit, though
-they have not come under my own immediate observation.
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[Footnote 56: Although I reached this conclusion independently, as a
-result of the analysis of dream experiences, I find that it was set forth
-at a much earlier period by Wundt. 'Men are accustomed to regard most of
-the phantasms of dreams as hallucinations,' he writes (_Grundzüge der
-Physiologischer Psychologie_, vol. iii.), 'but most dream representations
-are apparently illusions, initiated by the slight sensory impressions
-which are never extinguished in sleep.' Weygandt, in his brief but
-excellent book, _Entstehung der Traäme_, fully adopts this view, although
-I scarcely think he is always successful in his attempts to demonstrate
-it by his own dreams; such demonstration is necessarily often difficult
-or impossible because, apart from the dream itself, we seldom know what
-sensory impressions are persisting in our sleep. C. M. Giessler (_Die
-Physiologische Beziehungen der Traumvorgänge_, 1896, p. 2), who also
-proceeds from Wundt, likewise regards dreams as in general the more or
-less orderly and successive revival of psychic vestiges of waking life,
-conditioned by inner or outer excitations. Tissié (in _Les Rêves_, 1898),
-again, declares that 'dreams of purely psychic origin do not exist,'
-and Beaunis (_American Journal of Psychology_, July-October 1903) also
-believes that all dreams need an internal or external stimulus from the
-organism.]
-
-[Footnote 57: Thus W. S. Monroe ('Mental Elements of Dreams,' _Journal
-of Philosophy_, 23rd November 1905) found that in nearly three hundred
-dreams of fifty-five women students of the Westfield Normal College
-(Massachusetts), visual imagery appeared in sixty-seven per cent. dreams,
-auditory in twenty-six per cent., tactile in eight per cent., motor in
-five per cent., olfactory in a little over one per cent., and gustatory
-in rather under one per cent. In the results of observation recorded by
-Sarah Weed and Florence Hallam (_American Journal of Psychology_, April
-1896) the sensory imagery appears in the same order of frequency and
-approximately in the same proportions.]
-
-[Footnote 58: In another case, a sensation of irritation in the palm
-led to a dream of being scratched by a cat. Guthrie mentions (_Clinical
-Journal_, 7th June 1899) that as a child he used to dream of being
-tortured by savages by being slowly tickled under the arms when unable
-to move; he sweated much at night, and considers that the tickling thus
-caused was the source of the dreams.]
-
-[Footnote 59: The corresponding sensation of heat can also, of course, be
-experienced in sleep, alike whether the stimulus comes from the brain or
-the skin. Thus I dreamed that, not knowing whether some water was hot or
-cold, I put my finger into it and felt it to be distinctly hot.]
-
-[Footnote 60: The ease with which musical sounds can be applied during
-sleep and the beneficial results on emotional tone have suggested their
-therapeutic use. Leonard Corning ('The Use of Musical Vibrations before
-and during Sleep,' _Medical Record_, 21st January 1899) is regarded as the
-pioneer in this field.]
-
-[Footnote 61: Ch. Ruths, _Experimental-Untersuchungen über Musikphantome_,
-1898.]
-
-[Footnote 62: Dauriac, 'Des Images Suggérées par l'Audition Musicale,'
-_Revue Philosophique_, November 1902.]
-
-[Footnote 63: De Rochas has described and reproduced the gestures and
-dances of his hypnotised subject, Lina, under the influence of music.
-Ribot (_L'Imagination Créatrice_, pp. 177 _et seq._, 291 _et seq._) has
-discussed the imagery suggested by music and points out that it is most
-pronounced in non-musical subjects. Fatigue and over-excitement are
-predisposing conditions in the production of this imagery, as is shown by
-MacDougall (_Psychological Review_, September 1898) in his own experience.]
-
-[Footnote 64: One is tempted to think that this lightning may have been a
-symbolistic transformation of lancinating neuralgic pains, magnified, as
-sensations are apt to be, in sleep.]
-
-[Footnote 65: In some experiments by Prof. W. S. Monroe on twenty women
-students at Westfield Normal School a crushed clove was placed on the
-tongue for ten successive nights on going to bed. Of 254 dreams reported
-as following there were seventeen taste dreams and eight smell dreams, and
-three of these dreams actually involved cloves. The clove also influenced
-dreams of other classes; thus, as a result of the burning sensation
-in the mouth, one dreamer imagined that the house was on fire (W. S.
-Monroe, 'A Study of Taste Dreams,' _American Journal of Psychology_,
-January 1899). It has indeed been found, by Meunier, specially easy to
-apply olfactory stimuli during sleep and so improve the emotional tone
-(R. Meunier, 'A Propos d'onirothérapie,' _Archives de Neurologie_, March
-1910). Meunier found that in his own case tuberose always called out
-agreeable dreams full of detail, though in another subject the dreams were
-always unpleasant. In hysterical subjects essence of geranium provoked
-various agreeable dreams followed by a pleasant emotional tone during the
-following day.]
-
-[Footnote 66: Titchener ('Taste Dreams,' _American Journal of Psychology_,
-January 1895) records taste dreams by auto-suggestion, and Ribot
-(_Psychology of the Emotions_, p. 142) thinks there can be no doubt dreams
-of both taste and smell can occur without objective source.]
-
-[Footnote 67: Hammond (_Treatise on Insanity_, p. 229) knew a gentleman
-who dreamed he was in heaven and surrounded by dazzling brilliance,
-awaking to find that the smouldering fire had flared up. Weygandt
-dreamed that he was gazing at 'living pictures' illuminated by magnesium
-light, and awoke to find that the morning sun had just appeared from
-behind clouds and was flooding the room with light. See also Parish,
-_Hallucinations and Illusions_, p. 52.]
-
-[Footnote 68: I have discussed erotic dreams in the study of
-'Auto-erotism' in the first volume of my _Studies in the Psychology of
-Sex_ (third edition, revised and enlarged, 1910).]
-
-[Footnote 69: K. A. Scherner, _Das Leben des Traums_, 1861, pp. 187
-_et seq._ Volkelt some years later (_Die Traum-Phantasie_, 1875, p.
-74) pointed out the occurrence of somewhat similar vesical symbolisms
-(including in the case of women a filled knitting-bag) in dream life,
-though he regarded visions of water as the most usual indication in
-such dreams. Vesical dreams may, of course, contain other elements; see
-_e.g._ an example given by C. J. Jung, 'L'Analyse des Rêves,' _L'Année
-Psychologique_, 15th year, 1909, p. 165.]
-
-[Footnote 70: A typical dream of this kind, of sufficient importance to be
-embodied in history, occurred several thousand years ago to Astyages, King
-of the Medes, and has been recorded by Herodotus (Book 1. ch. 107).]
-
-[Footnote 71: In the study of Auto-erotism mentioned in a previous note I
-have brought forward dreams illustrating some of the points in the text,
-and have also discussed the analogies and contrasts between vesical and
-erotic dreams. The fact that nocturnal enuresis is associated with vesical
-dreams, though referred to by Buchan in his _Venus sine Concubitu_ more
-than a century ago, is still little known, but it is obviously a fact of
-clinical importance.]
-
-[Footnote 72: So, for instance, the asthmatic patient of Max Simon (_Le
-Monde des Rêves_, p. 40) who, during an attack, dreamed of sweating horses
-attempting to draw a heavy waggon uphill.]
-
-[Footnote 73: Forbes Winslow also recorded cases (_Obscure Diseases_,
-pp. 611 _et seq._), and many examples were brought together by Hammond
-(_Treatise on Insanity_, pp. 234 _et seq._). Vaschide and Piéron discuss
-the matter and bring forward thirteen cases (_La Psychologie du Rêve_, pp.
-34 _et seq._). Féré recorded two cases in which dreams were the precursory
-symptoms of attacks of migraine (_Revue de Médecine_, 10th February 1903).
-Various cases, chiefly from the literature of the subject, are brought
-together by Paul Meunier and Masselon (_Les Rêves et leur Interpretation_,
-1910).]
-
-[Footnote 74: Sante de Sanctis, _I Sogni_, p. 380.]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER V
-
-EMOTION IN DREAMS
-
-    Emotion and Imagination--How Stimuli are transformed
-    into Emotion--Somnambulism--The Failure of Movement in
-    Dreams--Nightmare--Influence of the approach of Awakening on
-    imagined Dream Movements--The Magnification of Imagery--Peripheral
-    and Cerebral Conditions combine to produce this Imaginative
-    Heightening--Emotion in Sleep also Heightened--Dreams formed to
-    explain Heightened Emotions of unknown origin--The fundamental Place
-    of Emotion in Dreams--Visceral and especially Gastric disturbance
-    as a source of Emotion--Symbolism in Dreams--The Dreamer's Moral
-    Attitude--Why Murder so often takes place in Dreams--Moral Feeling
-    not Abolished in Dreams though sometimes Impaired.
-
-
-Whether the influences which stimulate our dreams arise from without or
-from within the organism, they are always filtered and diffused through
-the obscured channels of perception. They reach the brain at last in a
-vague and massive shape which may or may not betray to waking analysis the
-source from which they arise, but will certainly have become so changed
-in these organic channels that their affective tone will be predominant.
-They are, that is to say, largely transformed into _emotion_. And, when so
-transformed, they become the origin of what we regard as the imaginative
-element in dreams.[75]
-
-Sleep is especially favourable to the production of emotion because while
-it allows a considerable amount of activity to sensory activities, and a
-very wide freedom to the imagery founded on sensory activities, it largely
-and in many directions inhibits motor activity. The actions suggested
-by sensory excitation cannot, therefore, be carried out. As soon as the
-impulse enters motor channels it is impeded, broken up, and scattered in
-a vain struggle. This process is transmitted to the brain as a wave of
-emotion.
-
-Sometimes, indeed, as we know, motor co-ordinations, usually inhibited in
-sleep, are not so inhibited. The dreamer is able to execute, perfectly
-or imperfectly, some action which, really or in imagination, he desires
-to execute. He is then said to be in a state of somnambulism. The
-somnambulist, in the wide sense of the word, is not necessarily a person
-who walks in his sleep, but any person in whom a group of co-ordinated
-muscles is sufficiently awake to respond more or less adequately to the
-motor impulse from the sleeping brain. To talk in sleep is a form of
-somnambulism. When the motor channels are thus unimpeded, there is usually
-no memory of a dream on awaking. The impulses that reach consciousness
-can be, as it were, quickly and easily drained off to the surface of the
-nervous system, and they tend to leave no deep impress on consciousness.
-
-'I worked late last night,' writes a lady, a novelist, 'went to bed, and
-dropped into a dead kind of sleep. When I woke this morning about seven
-a funny thing had happened. Two candles were burning in my room. When I
-went to bed I had only one burning, and I know I put that out. Now, there
-were two burning side by side as if I had been writing, and they had
-evidently been burning only an hour or so, I must have got up and lighted
-them in my sleep.'[76] The actions carried out in the somnambulistic
-condition are not usually co-ordinated with the action of higher emotions:
-thus, a young woman was impelled by a distended bladder, while still
-asleep, to get out of bed and proceeded to carry out the suggested action,
-but without further precautions, on to the floor; she was only awakened by
-an exclamation from her sister, who had been aroused by the sound. We seem
-to see that under a strong stimulus--unfinished work in one case, vesical
-tension in the other--the motor centres have awakened to activity in the
-early morning while the higher centres are still soundly asleep. If the
-second sleeper had not been awakened, in neither case would any memory
-of the incidents have remained.[77] There has been no struggle, and no
-resultant emotions have, therefore, been aroused to impress consciousness.
-It is evident that the lack of adaptation between sensory and motor
-activity is an important factor in dreams, and contributes to impart to
-them their emotional character.
-
-In somnambulism we have a state which is in some respects the reverse
-of that usual in dreams. The higher centres are, indeed, split off from
-the lower centres, but it is the former that are asleep and the latter
-are awake, whereas in ordinary dreaming the higher centres are acting
-in accordance with their means, while the lower centres are quiescent.
-Somnambulism is an approximation to a condition found in some diseases
-of the brain when, as a result of lesion of the higher nervous levels,
-we have a mental state--the ideatory apraxia of Liepmann--in which the
-muscular system carries out plans, but the plans are defective because not
-supervised by the higher centres. In ordinary dreams, on the other hand,
-we have a state comparable to that produced by brain lesions in what Pick
-terms motor apraxia, in which the higher centres are acting freely, but
-their plans are never carried into action owing to failure of the motor
-centres.
-
-This characteristic of dreaming has seemed puzzling to some writers. They
-ask why, in our dreams, we should sometimes be so conscious of failure
-of movement, and why, when we strive to move in dreams, we do not always
-actually move.[78]
-
-There scarcely seems to me to be any serious difficulty here; still, the
-question is one of considerable interest and importance. It is necessary
-to point out in the first place that, however complete the actual absence
-of movement, there is usually no failure of movement in the dream vision.
-We dream that we are talking, that we are moving from place to place, that
-we are performing various actions. We are conscious of no difficulty,
-even sometimes of a peculiar facility, in executing these movements. And
-in normal persons, under normal conditions, it would seem that the dream
-movements take place without even an incipient degree of corresponding
-actual movement perceptible to an observer. The efferent motor channels,
-and even to a large extent the afferent sensory channels, are asleep, and
-the whole representative circuit is completed within the brain, or, as we
-say, imaginatively.[79] Thus a middle-aged friend, whose habits are by no
-means athletic, dreams that, desiring to attract some one's attention,
-he rests one knee on his wife's small work-table, and holding the foot of
-the other leg in one hand, he whirls rapidly and easily round and round
-on the pivot of the knee which rests on the table, the dream afterwards
-continuing without any awakening. A lady, again, who, when awake, is
-unable to swim, and knows no reason why she should think of swimming,
-vividly dreams that she jumps from a houseboat into the river, and
-proceeds to swim on her side with great ease, this dream also continuing
-without awakening. These dreamers were able to execute triumphantly the
-muscular feats they planned, because they had not really attempted to
-execute them at all, and, moreover, no sufficient sensory messages reached
-the brain to give information that the limbs were not actually obeying the
-orders of the brain. The dreamers were probably in a somewhat deep state
-of sleep.[80]
-
-The dreams in which we seem to ourselves to be suffering from the
-difficulty or impossibility of movement thus constitute a special class.
-Jewell would apply to them the term 'nightmare,' which he regards as
-'characterised by inability to move or speak.' When, in dreams, we become
-conscious of difficult movement, it has frequently, and perhaps usually,
-happened that the motor channels are not entirely closed, the sensory
-channels unusually open, and very frequently, though not necessarily, this
-is associated with the approach of awakening. I dreamed that I was walking
-with a friend, that we quarrelled, and that thereupon I crossed the road,
-and walked on ahead of him. These actions seemed entirely effortless.
-Gradually, however, I became conscious of immense and ineffectual effort
-in keeping in front, and slowly began to experience, as I awakened, a
-feeling of lassitude in my actual and motionless limbs. In the process
-of awakening, I take it, the increased, but still defective, efflux of
-sensation from the legs, conveying the message of their real position,
-entered into conflict with the dream imagery, and produced a struggle in
-consciousness. It is by no means necessary to assume that there was a
-complete absence of sensory impressions from the legs during the earlier
-part of the dream; on the contrary, it is probable that the feeling of
-lassitude was itself the cause of the dream, the idea of walking being a
-theory to account for the lassitude; this seems more probable than that
-the actual lassitude was caused by the mental exertion in the dream.
-
-In a dream which a friend tells me he has often had, and always finds
-painful, he imagines he is climbing a mountain, and at last reaches a
-point at which, notwithstanding all his efforts, further progress is
-impossible. It seems probable that this dream is also an example of the
-conflict due to the process of awakening. In this case, however, the
-solution is complicated by the fact that in earlier life the dreamer had
-really once found himself in the situation he now only experiences in
-dreams.
-
-It is sometimes possible to prove, through the evidence of a witness,
-that in our dreams of movements executed with difficulty, we are really
-sufficiently awake on the motor side to be making actual movements,
-though these actual movements may only very roughly correspond to the
-movements we imagine we are trying to make. Very frequently, no doubt,
-dreams of difficult movement co-exist with, or are caused by, some degree
-of actual movement. In some such cases, indeed, the slight and imperfect
-actual movement may, in dream consciousness, be a complete and adequate
-movement. In these cases the imperfect sensory messages are not, it seems,
-sufficiently precise to reveal to sleeping consciousness the imperfection
-of the motor impulses.
-
-Exactly the same thing occurs under the allied conditions of anaesthesia
-produced by drugs. Thus, on one occasion, when coming to consciousness
-after the administration of nitrous oxide gas, I had the sensation of
-crying out aloud, but in reality, as I was informed by a friend at my
-side, I merely made a slight guttural sound. In the same way we see
-sleeping dogs making slight movements of all their paws in succession,
-a faint and abortive movement of running, which in the sleeping dog's
-consciousness may, doubtless, be accompanied by the notion that he is
-dashing across a field after a rabbit.
-
-In these dreams of failure of movement, it seems to me, the dream process,
-as the result of an approximation to the waking state, has become mixed
-with actual sensori-motor impulses, but the threshold of waking life is
-still too far off for actual movements to be completely and successfully
-accomplished, and in the case of the limbs the eye cannot be used to
-guide movements which the muscular and cutaneous sensations are still too
-dead to guide. It is important to remember that in waking life, under
-pathological conditions, we may have a precisely similar state of things.
-In some states of cerebro-spinal degeneration, resulting in defective
-sensibility of muscle and nerve, the subject sways unsteadily when he
-closes his eyes, and when there is loss of sensibility in the arm it is
-sometimes impossible to hold objects in the hand except with the guiding
-aid afforded by the eye.[81]
-
-In a dream, dating from fifteen years back, that I now regard as
-conditioned by the approach of the moment of awakening, I imagined that I
-was making huge efforts to copy in a copy-book a capital H, engraved in a
-rather peculiar fashion, but really offering no difficulties to any waking
-schoolchild. By no means could I get the proportions right, if, indeed, I
-could make any stroke at all, and at the end of my painful and ineffectual
-efforts I seemed to be trying to write on sand, which was merely displaced
-by my hand. This final impression seems clearly to be that of a dreamer
-who is already sufficiently awake to be conscious of the bedclothes
-yielding to the touch.
-
-The foregoing dream suggests that failure of movement in dreaming may tend
-to be associated with an accentuation of that shifting of imagery which is
-one of the most primary elements in dreaming, both failure of movement and
-accentuation of shifting imagery being, perhaps, alike due to the approach
-towards the waking state. Thus, if in a dream one is brushing one's coat,
-one finds, without any overwhelming surprise, that fresh patches of dust
-appear again and again, even when one's efforts in brushing them away are
-successful. Even when we feel able to effect movement in our dream, there
-may still be a failure of that movement to effect its object.
-
-The question of movement in dreams, of the presence or absence of effort
-and inhibition, is thus seen to be explicable by reference to the depth of
-sleep and the particular groups of centres involved. In full normal sleep
-movements are purely ideatory, and no difficulty arises in executing any
-movement, for the reason that there really is no movement at all, or even
-any attempt at movement, while, even if slight movement occurs, no message
-of its actual defectiveness can reach the brain. Movement or attempt at
-movement, with more or less inhibition, tends to occur when the motor and
-sensory centres are in a partially aroused state; it is a phenomenon which
-belongs to the period immediately before awakening.[82]
-
-It is doubtless mainly due to the diffusion of inhibited nervous impulses
-through many channels, and the vague and massive character which they
-hence assume in consciousness, that we must attribute the magnification
-of dream imagery, and the exaggeration of dream feelings. This is not a
-constant tendency of our dreams; sometimes, indeed, perhaps in special
-stages of sleep-consciousness, there is diminution, and people look no
-larger than dolls, and houses like doll's houses, while, on the emotional
-side, events which in real life would overwhelm us, may, in dreams, be
-accepted as matters of course. But the heightening of imagery and ideas
-and feelings is very common. There is a kind of normal megalomania in our
-dreams. We have already incidentally encountered many instances of this: a
-tooth appears large enough for a mouse to play in, or like a great jagged
-rock; the irritation of a mosquito evokes the image of a huge scarlet
-beetle; in vesical dreams endless streams are seen to flow; a canary's
-song is heard as Haydn's _Creation_, and the howling of the wind becomes a
-chanted Te Deum.
-
-A French author has written an impressive literary description of his own
-purely visual dreams, with their magnificent exaggerations and joyous
-expansiveness, seeking to show that their chief character is their
-excessiveness; 'the flowers are almost women.'[83] I cannot, however,
-recognise this as characteristic of normal dreaming. It bears more
-resemblance to De Quincey's opium dreams, or to the visions which came to
-Heine as he listened to Berlioz's music. In normal dreaming the imagery
-may, indeed, be stupendously vast, or fantastically absurd, or poignantly
-intense. But normal dreams are not built on a consistently colossal
-scale. The megalomania of dreaming is only accidental and occasional, not
-systematic.[84]
-
-The heightening of dream experiences may, however, be very complete in,
-as it were, every direction: thus a botanical friend joined a large party
-for a pleasant country excursion, in the course of which, while sitting
-in a waggonette, an acquaintance, a miller, standing in the road, handed
-up to him a dog-rose. In the course of a dream of agreeable emotional
-tone on the night following, this incident was reproduced, but the miller
-had become an angel, who handed down to him, instead of up from below, a
-flower which was a moss-rose.
-
-Thus, not only do the actual stimuli taking place during sleep suggest to
-dream-consciousness imagery of a magnitude out of all proportion to their
-real intensity, but even the repercussion of the day's incidents in dreams
-under the influence of a favourable emotional tone may partake of the same
-heightening influence.
-
-We may say, therefore, that while the excessiveness of dream imagery is
-mainly due to the conditions of the nervous sensory and motor channels,
-there is also probably a heightened affectability of the cerebral centres
-themselves--perhaps due to their state of dissociation or absence of
-apperception[85]--which leads us in our dreams to react extravagantly to
-the stimuli that reach the brain. A lady tells me that she often dreams of
-being very angry at things which, on awaking, she finds are mere trifles
-that would never make her angry when awake.[86] It is a common experience
-that the things which, in our dreams, impress us as beautiful, eloquent,
-witty, profound, or amusing, no longer seem so, or only seem so in a much
-slighter degree, when we are able to recall them awake.
-
-All these various considerations lead us up to a central fact in the
-psychology of dreaming: the controlling power of emotion on dream ideas.
-From our present point of view we are now able to say that the chief
-function of dreams is to supply adequate theories to account for the
-magnified emotional impulses which are borne in on sleeping consciousness.
-This is the key to imagination in dreams. From the first we have seen that
-in dream life the mind is always freely and actively reasoning; we now
-see what is usually the real motive and aim of that reasoning. Sleeping
-consciousness is assailed by waves of emotion from various parts of the
-organism, but is entirely unable to detect their origin, and, therefore,
-invents an explanation of them. So that in sleep we have to weave theories
-concerning the unknowable origin of our emotions, just as when we are
-awake we weave theories concerning the ultimate origin of the totality of
-our experiences. The fundamental source of our dream life may thus be said
-to be emotion.[87]
-
-There is certainly no profounder emotional excitement during sleep
-than that which arises from a disturbed or distended stomach, and is
-reflected by the pneumogastric to the accelerated heart and the excited
-respiration.[88] We are thereby thrown into a state of emotional
-agitation, a state of agony and terror, such as we rarely or never attain
-during waking life. Sleeping consciousness, blindfolded and blundering,
-a prey to these massive waves from below, and fumbling about desperately
-for some explanation, jumps at the idea that only the attempt to escape
-some terrible danger or the guilty consciousness of some awful crime can
-account for this immense emotional uproar. Thus the dream is suffused by
-a conviction which the continued emotion serves to support. We do not--it
-seems most simple and reasonable to conclude--experience terror because we
-think we have committed a crime, but we think we have committed a crime
-because we experience terror. And the fact that in such dreams we are far
-more concerned with escape from the results of crime than with any agony
-of remorse is not, as some have thought, due to our innate indifference
-to crime, but simply to the fact that our emotional state suggests to us
-active escape from danger rather than the more passive grief of remorse.
-Thus our dreams bear witness to the fact that our intelligence is often
-but a tool in the hands of our emotions.[89]
-
-In this tendency, it may be noted, we see the basis of the symbolism which
-plays so real a part in dreams. Such symbolism rests on the fact that we
-associate two things--even if the one happens to be physical and the other
-spiritual--which both happen to imply a similar state of feeling.[90]
-Symbolism of this kind is, indeed, characteristic of the human mind
-at all times, in all stages of its development. Thus the physical idea
-of _height_ seems to express also a moral idea, which we feel to be
-correspondent, while wormwood and gall furnish a taste which enabled men
-to speak of what seemed to them the corresponding _bitterness_ of death.
-In dreams this natural tendency of the mind is able to work unchecked and
-extravagantly. It acts with much facility on any impulse arising from the
-gastric region, because this region is the seat of various sensations and
-emotions, both physical and moral, which may thus act symbolically the one
-for the other.[91]
-
-Even when we realise the process of transformation and irradiation,
-through which organic sensations can alone reach the brain in sleep, and
-the inevitable 'errors of judgment' thus produced, it may still seem
-strange and puzzling to observe how a stimulus which has its origin in the
-stomach will, by affecting the neighbouring viscera, in its circuitous
-course along the nerves and through the brain, be transformed, as it
-may be, into a tragic scene which has never been experienced, nor even
-deliberately imagined, as for instance--to cite a dream of my own--in
-the fiery vision of following a leader, in real life a peaceful and
-inoffensive man, who, revolver in hand, dashes among foes, shooting and
-shot at, every moment in danger of life, and always miraculously escaping.
-
-I may illustrate this transformation by the following example: A lady
-dreamed that her husband called her aside and said, 'Now, do not scream
-or make a fuss; I am going to tell you something. I have to kill a man.
-It is necessary, to put him out of his agony.' He then took her into his
-study, and showed her a young man lying on the floor, with a wound in
-his breast, and covered with blood. 'But how will you do it?' she asked.
-'Never mind,' he replied; 'leave that to me.' He took something up and
-leaned over the man. She turned aside and heard a horrible gurgling sound.
-Then all was over. 'Now,' he said, 'we must get rid of the body. I want
-you to send for So-and-so's cart, and tell him I wish to drive it.' The
-cart came. 'You must help me to make the body into a parcel,' he said to
-his wife; 'give me plenty of brown paper.' They made it into a parcel, and
-with terrible difficulty and effort the wife assisted her husband to get
-the body downstairs, and lift it into the cart. At every stage, however,
-she presented to him the difficulties of the situation. But he carelessly
-answered all objections, said he would take the body up to the moor, among
-the stones, remove the brown paper, and people would think the murdered
-man had killed himself. He drove off, and soon returned with the empty
-cart. 'What's this blood in my cart?' asked the man to whom it belonged,
-looking inside. 'Oh, that's only paint,' replied the husband. But the
-dreamer had all along been full of apprehensions lest the deed should be
-discovered, and the last thing she could recall, before waking in terror,
-was looking out of the window at a large crowd which surrounded the house
-with shouts of 'Murder!' and threats.
-
-This tragedy, with its almost Elizabethan air, was built up out of a few
-commonplace impressions received during the previous day, none of which
-impressions contained any suggestion of murder. The tragic element appears
-to have been altogether due to the psychic influences of indigestion
-arising from a supper of pheasant.[92] To account for our oppression
-during sleep, sleeping consciousness assumes moral causes, which alone
-appear to it of sufficient gravity to be adequate to the immense emotions
-we are experiencing. Even in our waking and fully conscious states we
-are inclined to give the preference to moral over physical causes, quite
-irrespective of the justice of our preferences; in our sleeping states
-this tendency is exaggerated, and the reign of purely moral causes is not
-often disturbed by even a suggestion of physical causation.
-
-In an emotional dream of similar visceral origin, I dreamed that I was to
-die--why or how I could not tell on awakening. With the object of putting
-an end to my sufferings, I imagined that my wife administered to me some
-substance mixed in jam. I found the taste peculiar, not bitter, as I
-recalled on awaking, but warm and spicy, and I asked what she had put in
-it. She replied that it was strychnine. I remarked that that would be a
-very painful mode of death, and refused to take any more. I debated with
-myself whether I had probably taken a poisonous dose, and had not better
-resort to an antidote; the only antidote that suggested itself to me was
-opium pills. Meanwhile the horror of impending death grew more and more
-acute until, at length, I awoke. I thereupon found that I had a headache,
-a faint taste in my mouth, and some general malaise evidently associated
-with a slightly disordered stomach. The definite images brought forward in
-the dream had all been fairly familiar during the previous day, but the
-idea of impending death which pervaded the whole dream so indefinitely and
-incoherently, yet so acutely, was entirely a theory to account for the
-massive and widely irradiated messages of discomfort which reached the
-sleeping brain.
-
-Many people are unwilling to admit that psychic phenomena so tragical,
-poignant, or pathetic as these dreams may be, should receive their
-stimulus from a source which they regard as so humble as the stomach.
-Thus Frederick Greenwood, whose conception of the function of dreaming
-was very exalted, only admitted this association with reluctance, and
-was careful to point out that 'if an unwholesome supper produces such
-phenomena, it does so only in the sense that a bird singing in the
-air produced Shelley's "Ode to a Skylark."'[93] That analogy really
-underestimates the distance of the physical stimulus of such dreams from
-its psychic concomitants. When we talk of dreams we must place ourselves
-at the dreamer's standpoint. The poet was conscious that his inspiration
-was stimulated by the bird's song, but the dreamer has no consciousness
-that the tragic experiences he passes through imaginatively are stimulated
-by the activity of his visceral organs. He is altogether unconscious
-of visceral disturbance; if he were conscious of any of these physical
-facts which occupy waking consciousness, he would no longer be a dreamer.
-He lives in a psychic world which physical facts, from within or from
-without, can never reach until they have been transformed. His position
-resembles, therefore, not that of the poet who deliberately seeks to
-interpret the song of the bird, but rather that of the bird itself, the
-poet 'hidden in the light of thought,' sublimely unconscious of the
-mechanism revealed in its own structure.
-
-The explanations devised by sleeping consciousness to account for visceral
-discomfort of gastric origin are not necessarily tragic. Thus I dreamed,
-after a somewhat indigestible meal, that I was slowly and painfully eating
-bread mingled with cinders and mouse's excrement, trying in vain to avoid
-these impurities, and after the meal was over, finding my mouth full of
-cinders. On awaking there was no traceable taste or sensation of any
-kind in the mouth, and the dream was apparently a theory to account for
-some gastric disturbance. Such a theory seems less far-fetched than that
-of murder, and probably indicates much less marked and diffused visceral
-disturbance. Occasionally the explanatory theories of actual sensations
-accepted by sleeping consciousness are plausible and ingenious, indeed
-entirely adequate and probable. Thus a lady dreamed that she was drinking
-glass after glass of champagne, saying to herself the while that she
-would have to pay for this afterwards. On awaking she found that she was
-feeling the slight rheumatic pains and discomfort that she was really
-liable to experience after taking a glass or two of champagne. She had not
-tasted champagne, or thought of it, for some time previously; the dream
-champagne was a theory invented to account for the sensations which were
-actually experienced, though those sensations remained outside dreaming
-consciousness.
-
-Most of the examples I have presented of the influence of emotion of
-visceral origin in suggesting dream theories have had the stomach as their
-source. There can be no doubt that the stomach has enormous influence in
-this respect; its easily and constantly varying state of repletion, its
-central position and liability to press on other organs, its important
-nervous associations, together with the fact that sleep sometimes tends
-to impede its activity and initiate disturbance, combine to impart to it
-a manifold and extensive influence over the emotional state in sleep, and
-at the same time render the source of that emotional state peculiarly
-difficult for sleeping consciousness to detect.
-
-It is, however, easy to show that any pronounced or massive feeling
-continuing or arising during sleep may similarly lead to an emotional
-state calling for explanation at the hands of sleeping consciousness.
-Thus, falling asleep with toothache during a singularly close night, I
-once dreamed that I had committed murder, having apparently killed several
-persons, and that I was occupied, after arrest, in considering whether my
-act was likely to be regarded as an unpremeditated act of manslaughter.
-A headache, again, may be a source of dreams. Thus, falling asleep with
-headache, I dream that I am waiting for an express train to London; an
-express comes up to the platform, and I cannot ascertain if it is the
-train I want. The explanation seems obvious; railway travelling is a
-cause of headache, and it is therefore put forward in the dream, with
-accompanying imagery, to account for the sensations experienced. The
-actual sensation, as is always the case in dreams, that is, the headache,
-remains subconscious, and, indeed, totally unconscious; the imagery it
-suggests alone occupies the field of consciousness.[94] An entirely
-different type of dream may, however, be associated with headache. Thus
-I once dreamed that I was in a vast gloomy English cathedral, and on
-the wall I observed a notice to the effect that on such a day evensong
-would take place without illumination of the cathedral in order to avoid
-attracting moths. I awoke with slight headache. Here the cool, silent
-gloom of the cathedral is the symbol of what is desired to soothe the
-aching head, and the fantastic suggestion read on the notice is merely the
-theory of dreaming consciousness which knows nothing of the real reason of
-the wish.
-
-Dreams of murder or impending death or the like tragic situations seem
-usually to be aroused by visceral stimuli. In some cases, however (as
-in Maury's famous dream of the guillotine), they are due to an external
-cutaneous sensation. When the stimulus thus comes from the periphery,
-the emotional element, even when the dreamed situation is tragic, seems
-usually (though this is not quite certain) to be less pronounced than when
-the stimulus is visceral. Thus in a dream of my own, which seemed to be
-due to a cramped position of the head and neck, I dreamed that I had died
-(though, somehow, I was not myself, but had become more or less identified
-with an ugly old woman), and was being autopsied. Then very gradually I
-became faintly and peacefully conscious of what was going on, though I
-remained motionless, and all the time believed that I was dead, and that
-my faint consciousness was merely a part of death. Preparations for the
-funeral were meanwhile being made, and I was about to be nailed down in
-my coffin. At this point I became horribly aware that these proceedings
-would cause suffocation, and, with great effort, I succeeded in moving
-my arms and speaking incoherently. Thereupon the funeral arrangements
-were discontinued, and very slowly I seemed to regain speech and the
-power of movement. But I felt that I must be extremely careful in making
-any movements, on account of the post-mortem wounds; especially I felt
-pain in my neck, and realised that it was necessary not to move my head,
-or the result might be instant death. In such a dream, it may be noted,
-and in some others I have recorded, we see very instructively the nature
-of the changes produced in the dream and in the dreamer's attitude by
-the approach of waking consciousness. The dreamer's relationship to
-his imagined situation becomes more and more what it would be if the
-situation occurred in real life, and as soon as there is painful effort
-and imperfect muscular movement, the coming of waking consciousness is
-imminent.
-
-The visceral and emotional element in dreaming helps to explain the
-dreamer's moral attitude and the real significance of those criminal
-actions in dreams which have often been misinterpreted. Many writers
-on dreaming have referred, with profound concern, to the facility and
-prevalence of murder in dreams, sometimes as a proof of the innate
-wickedness of human nature made manifest in the unconstraint of sleep,
-sometimes as evidence of an atavistic return to the modes of feeling of
-our ancestors, the thin veneer of civilisation being removed during sleep.
-Maudsley and Mme. de Manacéïne, for example, find evidence in such dreams
-of a return to primitive modes of feeling. Clarke speaks of 'the entire
-absence of the moral sense' from dreams.[95] Professor Näcke, who has
-given much attention to the phenomena of dreaming, writes in a private
-letter: 'What I am amazed at, having perceived it in myself, is the little
-known fact that a person's character becomes _worse_ in dreaming. Not
-only the most secret thoughts, wishes, and aspirations become clear, but
-also qualities which have never been observed before, as, for instance,
-that one becomes a murderer, an adulterer, etc.' Freud, especially, has
-elaborated this aspect of dreams as representing the fulfilment of the
-dreamer's most secret desires.[96]
-
-It may well be that there is an element of truth in the belief that in
-dreams we are brought back to mental conditions somewhat more closely
-approaching those of primitive times. It is the manifold variety
-and complexity of our mental representations which prevent us from
-responding immediately to impulse under civilised conditions, and when,
-by dissociation, only a few groups are present to consciousness, the
-inhibition on violent action tends to be removed. If, therefore, we
-are more violent, more immoral, more criminal, in our dreams than
-in waking life, this is by no means necessarily to be regarded as a
-revelation of our real nature, but is merely an inevitable result of
-the mental dissociation which prevents many important groups of mental
-representations from finding their way into consciousness, and at the same
-time brings all our mental possessions on to the same plane, so that the
-things we have merely thought or heard of have the same visual reality as
-our own actual experiences. The sleep of the real criminal, as Sante de
-Sanctis has shown on the basis of a wide experience, even of criminals
-guilty of serious acts of violence, tends to be peaceful and dreamless,
-and such dreams as they have are usually of a simple and innocent sort. If
-normal people often dream of crime, it is because they are more sensitive
-and imaginative, and because sleeping consciousness is strained to the
-utmost to invent a phantasmal tragedy adequate to account for the waves of
-emotion that beset it.[97]
-
-There is another reason why, in dreams, we may find ourselves engaged in
-criminal operations. The purely automatic process by which the imagery of
-dreams is perpetually shifting in pursuit of associations of resemblance
-or contiguity, leads to confusions which are not rooted in any personal
-or primitive impulse, as in the example I have previously referred to,
-of a lady who had carved a duck at dinner, and a few hours later woke up
-exhausted by the imaginary effort of cutting off her husband's head.
-Such a dream is merely a mechanical turn of the visionary kaleidoscope,
-bringing together two unrelated images.
-
-The most potent cause of dream criminality, and especially of murders we
-have been guilty of before the dream commenced, seems clearly, however,
-to be that emotional factor of visceral origin which is well illustrated
-by one or two of the dreams already brought forward.[98] In these cases,
-again, we are not concerned with any primitive or personal impulse to
-crime, but we feel ourselves to be so possessed by all the physical
-symptoms of terror, that the only adequate explanation of our state
-seems to be the theory that we have committed murder. And if we are more
-concerned to flee from justice than to experience remorse, that is clearly
-because the really labouring and agitated heart suggests flight from
-pursuit far more than any passive emotion.[99] There is, moreover, no more
-fundamental and primitive emotion than fear.
-
-While these considerations combine to deprive criminal dreams, when they
-occur, of any great significance as an index of the dreamer's latent
-morality, I must add that I am by no means prepared to agree that moral
-emotions are so absent from sleep as many writers have stated. There is
-often a diminished sense of morality, an easier yielding to temptation
-than would take place in real life, a diminished remorse--these tendencies
-being mainly due to the conditions of dream-life--but there is frequently
-a strong sense of morality in dreams, as well as a vivid perception of
-social proprieties. Those persons who have an unusually strong moral
-sense, when awake, frequently show, I think, a similar tendency when
-asleep, but in the dreams of most people moral and decorous considerations
-seem, as a rule, to make themselves more or less clearly felt, much as in
-waking life. It may be worth while to bring forward a few dreams which
-incidentally illustrate the moral attitude of the dreamer.
-
-A lady narrated the following dream immediately on awakening: 'I had
-murdered a woman from some moral or political motive--I forget what--and
-had come in great agony to my husband with her shoes and watch-chain. He
-promised to help me, and while I was wondering what could be done for
-the benefit of the woman's family, some one came in and announced that a
-lecture was about to be given on the beauty of nakedness. I then went,
-with several prim and respectable ladies of my acquaintance [the names
-were given], into a crowded hall. The lecturer who--so far as appearance
-is concerned--was a well-known Member of Parliament, then entered and
-gave a most eloquent address on Whitman, nakedness, ugly figures, etc.
-He especially emphasised the fact that the reason people are shocked at
-nakedness is that they usually only see unbeautiful bodies which repel
-them because they are unlike their ideals. Then he put out his hand, and
-a naked woman entered the room. Her loveliness was extreme; her form was
-perfectly rounded, but without suggestion of voluptuousness, though she
-was not an animated statue, but had all the characters of humanity; she
-walked with undulating thighs, head slightly drooping, and hair falling
-down and framing a face that expressed wonderful spiritual beauty and
-innocence. The lecturer led her round, saying, "This is beauty; now, if
-you can look at this and be ashamed----" and he waved his arm. She went
-away, and a beautiful Apollo-like youth, slender but athletic, entered the
-room, also completely naked. He walked round the room alone, with an air
-of majestic virility. I applauded, clapping my hands, but a shiver went
-through the ladies present; their skin became like goose-flesh, and their
-lips quivered with horror as though they were about to be outraged. The
-youth went out, and the lecturer continued. At the climax of his oratory,
-the Apollo-like youth entered, dressed as a common soldier, with no
-appearance of beauty, and in a rough tone said: "'Ere! I want a shilling
-for this job." (And I sighed to myself: "It is always so.") No one had a
-shilling, and the lecturer proceeded to explain to the man that what he
-had done was for the sake of art and beauty, and for the moral good of
-the world. "What do I care for that?" he returned, "I want a drink." Then
-a lady among the audience produced a collar, wrote on it a testimonial
-expressing the gratitude of those present for the man's services on this
-occasion, and handed it to me to present to him. "Damn it," he said, "this
-is only worth twopence halfpenny; I want my shilling!" Then I awoke.'
-The idea of murder with which this dream began seems to suggest that it
-may have had its origin in some slight visceral disturbance of which
-the subject was unconscious, but nothing had occurred to suggest the
-details of the episode. The interesting feature about it is the presence
-throughout of moral notions and sentiments substantially true to the
-dreamer's waking ideas.
-
-In another dream of the same dreamer's the sense of responsibility is
-clearly present: 'Mrs. F. and Miss R. had called to see me, and I was
-sitting in my room talking to them, when a knock came at the door, and
-I found there a poor woman belonging to the neighbourhood, but who also
-combined in my dream the page-boy at a dear friend's house. From this
-friend, whom I had not heard from for some time, the woman bore a large
-letter. She tore it open in my presence, saying, "It says here that the
-bearer is to open this," and produced from it another letter, a large
-document of a legal character in my friend's handwriting. When the woman
-began to open the second letter I remonstrated; I was sure that there was
-some mistake, that that letter was private, and that no one else ought to
-see it. The woman, however, firmly insisted that she must carry out her
-instructions; so we had a long discussion. After a time I called Mrs. F.
-and appealed to her. She agreed with me that the instructions must only
-mean that the bearer was to open the outer envelope, not the inner letter.
-At last I took out five shillings and gave it to the woman, telling her
-that I would assume all the responsibility for opening the letter myself.
-With this she went away well satisfied, saying (as she would in real
-life), "All right, Mrs. ----, you're a lady, and you know. All right,
-my dear." Then at last I was able to tear open my letter and read these
-words: "_Always use Sunlight Soap_." My vexation was extreme.'
-
-On another occasion the same dreamer experienced remorse. She imagined she
-was in a restaurant, and the girl behind the counter pointed to a barrel
-of beer--a golden barrel, she said, with a magic key--which could only be
-opened by the owner. The dreamer declared, however, that she could open
-it, and, producing a key, proceeded to do so, handing round beer to the
-bystanders. Then she realised that she had been stealing, and was full of
-remorse. She asked a friend if she ought to tell the owner, but the friend
-replied, 'By no means.' This conclusion of the dream seems to indicate
-that the moral sense, though present in dreams, is apt to be impaired.
-
-In yet another dream this dreamer exhibited a curious combination of moral
-sensibility and criminal indifference. She imagined that, while walking
-with a man, a friend, she revealed to him a secret of a woman friend's.
-Then, realising her betrayal of confidence, she decided that the best
-thing she could do would be to kill the man. On reflection, however,
-she thought that it would, after all, be unkind to do so since he was a
-friend, and so told him that if he ever repeated the secret she would have
-him torn to pieces. It will be seen that the betrayal of a secret was
-felt as a far more serious offence than murder. The facility with which,
-in such dreams as this, the suggestion of murder presents itself, even to
-dreamers who, when awake, cherish no bloodthirsty or revengeful ideas, is
-certainly remarkable.
-
-It is often said that in dreams erotic suggestions present themselves with
-extreme facility, and are eagerly accepted by the dreamer. To some extent
-there is truth in this statement, but it is by no means always true. This
-may be illustrated by the following dream, the sources of which could
-be easily traced; two days before I had seen the gambols of East Enders
-at Hampstead Heath on a Bank Holiday, and the day before I had visited
-a picture gallery, the two sets of impressions becoming ingeniously
-combined, according to the usual rule of dream confusion. I thought that
-when walking along a country lane a sudden turn brought me to a broader
-part of the road covered with grass, into the midst of a crowd of women,
-large and well-proportioned persons, mostly in a state of complete
-nudity, and engaged in romping together, more especially in tugs-of-war;
-some of them were on horseback. My appearance slightly disturbed them, I
-heard one cry out my name, and to some extent they drew back, and partly
-desisted from their games, but only to a very slight degree, and with
-no overpowering embarrassment. I was myself rather embarrassed, and,
-glancing at them again, turned back. Afterwards my walk again brought
-me in view of them, and it occurred to me that women are somewhat
-changing their customs, a very wholesome change, it seemed to me. But I
-remonstrated with one or two of them that they ought to keep in constant
-movement to avoid catching cold. No erotic suggestions were present,
-although the dream might be said to lend itself to such suggestions.
-
-The idea of moral retribution and eternal punishment may also be present
-in dreams. This may be illustrated by the dream of a lady who had an ill
-and restless girl companion sleeping with her, and was disturbed as well
-by a yelping and howling terrier outside. She had also lately heard that
-a friend had brought over a python from Africa. 'I dreamed last night I
-had a basket of cold squirming snakes beside me; they just touched me all
-over, but did not hurt; I felt mad with loathing and hate of them, and
-the beasts would not kill me. That, I thought, was my eternal punishment
-for my sins.' In her waking moments the dreamer was not apprehensive of
-eternal punishment, and it may be in such a case that, as Freud suggests,
-an unfamiliar moral idea emerges in sleep in much the same way as an
-unfamiliar or 'forgotten' fact may emerge.
-
-On the whole, it may be said that while the moral attitude of the dreaming
-state is not usually identical with that of the waking state, there still
-nearly always is a moral attitude. It could not well be otherwise. Our
-emotional states are intimately bound up with moral relationships; we
-could not display such highly emotional states as we experience in dreams,
-with all their tragic accompaniments, in the absence of any sense of
-morality.
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[Footnote 75: The dependence of sleeping imagination on emotion of organic
-origin was long ago clearly seen and set forth by the acute introspective
-psychologist, Maine de Biran (_Œuvres Inédites_, 'Fondements de la
-Psychologie,' p. 102).]
-
-[Footnote 76: Jastrow (_The Subconscious_, p. 206) relates a similar case
-observed in a girl student.]
-
-[Footnote 77: Herbert Wright, who finds that in children night-terrors
-are apt to be associated with somnambulism, points out that when the
-somnambulism replaces the night-terrors it leaves no memory behind
-(_British Medical Journal_, 19th August 1899, p. 465). An interesting
-study of movement in normal and morbid sleep has been contributed by
-Segre ('Contributo alla Conoscenza dei Movimenti del Sonno,' _Archivio di
-Psichiatria_, 1907, fasc. 1.).]
-
-[Footnote 78: This question is, for instance, asked by F. H. Bradley ('On
-the Failure of Movement in Dreams,' _Mind_, 1894, p. 373). The explanation
-he prefers is that the dream vision is out of relation to the very dimly
-conscious actual position of the body, so that the information necessary
-to complete the idea of the movement is wanting. Only as regards the less
-complicated movements of lips, tongue, or finger, when the motor idea is
-in harmony with the actual position of the body movements, does movement
-take place. We have no means of distinguishing the real world from the
-world of our vision; 'our images thus move naturally to realise themselves
-in the world of our real limbs. But the world and its arrangement is for
-the moment out of connection with our ideas, and hence the attempt at
-motion for the most part must fail.' It is quite true that this conflict
-is an important factor in dreaming, but it fails to apply to the large
-number of movements which we dream of actually doing.]
-
-[Footnote 79: The action of some drugs produces a state in this respect
-resembling that which prevails in dreams. 'Under the influence of a large
-dose of haschisch,' Professor Stout remarks (_Analytic Psychology_, vol.
-i. p. 14), 'I found myself totally unable to distinguish between what
-I actually did and saw, and what I merely thought about.' Not only are
-the motor and sensory activities relatively dormant, but the central
-activity is perfectly able, and content, to dispense with their services.
-'Thought,' as Jastrow says (_Fact and Fable in Psychology_, p. 386), 'is
-but more or less successfully suppressed action.']
-
-[Footnote 80: This seems to me to be the answer to the question, asked
-by Freud, (_Die Traumdeutung_, p. 227), why we do not always dream of
-inhibited movement. Freud considers that the idea of inhibited movement,
-when it occurs in dreams, has no relation to the actual condition of the
-dreamer's nervous system, but is simply an ideatory symbol of an erotic
-wish that is no longer capable of fulfilment. But it is certain that
-sleep is not always at the same depth and that the various nervous groups
-are not always equally asleep. A dream arising on the basis of partial
-and imperfect sleep can scarcely fail to lead to the attempt at actual
-movement and the more or less complete inhibition of that movement,
-presenting a struggle which is often visible to the onlooker, and is not
-purely ideatory.]
-
-[Footnote 81: This explanation, based on the depth and kind of the sleep,
-is entirely distinct from the theory of Aliotta (_Il Pensiero e la
-Personalità nei Sogni_, 1905), who believes that dreamers differ according
-to their nervous type, the person of visual type assisting passively at
-the spectacle of his dreams, while the person of motor type takes actual
-part in them. I have no evidence of this, though I believe that dreams
-differ in accordance with the dreamer's personal type.]
-
-[Footnote 82: Dugald Stewart argued that there is loss of control over
-the muscular system during sleep, and the body, therefore, is not subject
-to our command; volition is present but it cannot influence the limbs.
-Hammond argued, on the contrary, that Stewart was quite wrong; the reason
-why voluntary movements are not performed during sleep is, he said, that
-volition is suspended. 'We do not will our actions when we are asleep. We
-imagine that we do, and that is all' (_Treatise on Insanity_, p. 205).
-Dugald Stewart and Hammond, though their phraseology may have been too
-metaphysical, were, from the standpoint I have adopted, both maintaining
-tenable positions. In one type of dream, we imagine we easily achieve all
-sorts of difficult and complicated actions, but in reality we make no
-movement; the ease and rapidity with which the mental machine moves is due
-to the fact that it is ungeared, and is effecting no work at all. In the
-other type of dream we make violent but inadequate efforts at movement
-and only partially succeed; the machine is partially geared, in a state
-intermediate between deep sleep and the waking condition.]
-
-[Footnote 83: Jacques le Lorrain, _Revue Philosophique_, July 1895.]
-
-[Footnote 84: The systematic megalomania of insanity can, however, have
-its rise in dreams; Régis and Lalanne (_International Medical Congress_,
-1900; _Proceedings, Section de Psychiatrie_, p. 227) met within a short
-period with four cases in which this had taken place.]
-
-[Footnote 85: This indeed seems to have been recognised by Wundt, who
-regards a 'functional rest of the sensory centres and of the apperception
-centre,' resulting in heightened latent energy which lends unusual
-strength to excitations, as a secondary condition of the dream state.
-Külpe (_Outline of Psychology_, p. 212) argues that the existence of
-vivid dreams shows that fatigue with its diminished associability fails
-to affect the central sensations themselves; this increased excitability
-resulting from dissociation may itself, however, be regarded as a symptom
-of fatigue; hyperaesthesia and anaesthesia are alike signs of exhaustion.]
-
-[Footnote 86: The exhaustion sometimes felt on awaking from a dream
-perhaps testifies to its emotional potency. Delboeuf states that a friend
-of his experienced a dream so terrible in its emotional strain that on
-awaking his black hair was found to have turned completely white.]
-
-[Footnote 87: The fundamental character of emotion in dreams has been
-more or less clearly recognised by various investigators. Thus C. L.
-Herrick, who studied his own dreams for many months, found that the
-essential element is the emotional, and not the ideational, and that,
-indeed, when recalled _at once_, with closed eyes and before moving,
-they were nearly devoid of intellectual content (_Journal of Comparative
-Neurology_, vol. iii. p. 17, 1893). R. MacDougall considers that dreaming
-is 'a succession of intense states of feeling supported by a minimum of
-ideational content,' or, as he says again, more accurately, 'the feeling
-is primary; the idea-content is the inferred thing' (_Psychological
-Review_, vol. v. p. 2). Grace Andrews, who kept a record of her dreams
-(_American Journal of Psychology_, October 1900), found that dream
-emotions are often stronger and more vivid than those of waking life; 'the
-dream emotion seems to me the most real element of the dream life.' P.
-Meunier, again ('Des Rêves Stéreotypés,' _Journal de Psychologie Normale
-et Pathologique_, September-October 1905), states that 'the substratum of
-a dream consists of a cœnæsthesia or an emotional state. The intellectual
-operation which translates to the sleeper's consciousness, while he is
-asleep, this cœnæsthesia or emotional state is what we call a dream.']
-
-[Footnote 88: The night-terrors of children have frequently been found
-to have their origin in gastric or intestinal disturbance. Graham Little
-brings together the opinions of various authorities on this point,
-though he is himself inclined to give chief importance to heart disease
-producing slight disturbances of breathing, since he has found that
-in nearly two-thirds of his cases (17 out of 30) night-terrors were
-associated with early heart disease (Graham Little, 'The Causation of
-Night-Terrors,' _British Medical Journal_, 19th August 1899). It should
-be added that night-terrors are more usually divided into two classes:
-(1) idiopathic (purely cerebral in origin), and (2) symptomatic (due to
-reflex disturbance caused by various local disorders); see _e.g._ Guthrie,
-'On Night-Terrors,' _Clinical Journal_, 7th January 1899. J. A. Symonds
-has well described his own night-terrors as a child (Horatio Brown, _J.
-A. Symonds_, vol. i.). Lafcadio Hearn (in a paper on 'Nightmare-Touch'
-in _Shadowings_) also gives a vivid account of his own childish
-night-terrors.]
-
-[Footnote 89: It has not, I believe, been pointed out that such dreams
-might be invoked in support of the James-Lange or physiological theory of
-emotion, according to which the element of bodily change in emotion is the
-cause and not the result of the emotion.]
-
-[Footnote 90: This physiological symbolism was clearly apprehended long
-ago by Hobbes: 'As anger causeth heat in some parts of the body when we
-are awake; so when we sleep the overheating of the same parts causeth
-anger, and raiseth up in the brain the imagination of an enemy. In the
-same manner as natural kindness, when we are awake, causeth desire and
-desire makes heat in certain other parts of the body; so also, too much
-heat in those parts, while we sleep, raiseth in the brain an imagination
-of some kindness shown. In sum, our dreams are the reverse of our waking
-imaginations; the motion, when we are awake, beginning at one end, and
-when we dream at another' (_Leviathan_, Part 1. ch. 2).]
-
-[Footnote 91: 'The pains of disappointment, of anxiety, of unsuccess, of
-all displeasing emotions,' remarks Mercier (art. 'Consciousness,' Tuke's
-_Dictionary of Psychological Medicine_), 'are attended by a definite
-feeling of misery which is referred in every case to the epigastrium.' He
-adds that the pleasures of success and good repute, aesthetic enjoyment,
-etc., are also attended by a definite feeling in the same region. This
-fact indicates the extreme vagueness of organic sensation. There is in
-fact much uncertainty and great difference of opinion as to the nature,
-and even the existence, of organic sensation; see _e.g._ a careful summary
-of the chief views by Dr. Elsie Murray, 'Organic Sensation,' _American
-Journal of Psychology_, July 1909.]
-
-[Footnote 92: More than ten years later, the same dreamer, who had
-entirely forgotten the circumstances of this dream, again had a vivid
-dream of murder after eating pheasant at night; this time it was she
-herself who was to be killed, and she awoke imagining that she was
-struggling with the would-be murderer.]
-
-[Footnote 93: F. Greenwood, _Imagination in Dreams_, p. 31.]
-
-[Footnote 94: Dreams of railway travelling, and especially of losing
-trains, are not always associated with headache or any other recognisable
-condition. They constitute a very common type of dream not quite easy to
-explain. Dr. Savage mentions, for instance, that in his own case scarcely
-a week passes without such a dream, though in real life he scarcely ever
-loses a train and never worries about it. Wundt considers that the dreams
-in which we seek something we cannot find or have left something behind
-are due to indefinite coenaesthesic disturbances involving feelings of
-the same emotional tone, such as an uncomfortable position or a slight
-irregularity of respiration. I have myself independently observed the same
-connection, though it is not invariably traceable.]
-
-[Footnote 95: E. H. Clarke, _Visions_, p. 294.]
-
-[Footnote 96: An amusing, though solemn, interpretation of an ordinary
-dream of murder, railway travelling, and impending death, as experienced
-by Anna Kingsford, is furnished by her friend and biographer, Edward
-Maitland, _Anna Kingsford_, vol. i. p. 117.]
-
-[Footnote 97: Various opinions in regard to morality in dreams are brought
-together by Freud, _Die Traumdeutung_, pp. 45 _et seq._]
-
-[Footnote 98: Head ('Mental Changes that Accompany Visceral Diseases,'
-_Brain_, 1902, p. 802) refers to the association between visceral pain and
-the anti-social impulses, and thinks that the viscera, being part of the
-oldest and most autonomic system of the body, appear in consciousness as
-'an intrusion from without, an inexplicable obsession.']
-
-[Footnote 99: 'In my dreams,' W. D. Howells remarks, 'I am always less
-sorry for my misdeeds than for their possible discovery' ('True I talk of
-Dreams,' _Harper's Magazine_, May 1895).]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER VI
-
-AVIATION IN DREAMS
-
-    Dreams of Flying and Falling--Their Peculiar Vividness--Dreams of
-    Flying an Alleged Survival of Primeval Experiences--Best explained
-    as based on Respiratory Sensations combined with Cutaneous
-    Anaesthesia--The Explanation of Dreams of Falling--The Sensation
-    of Levitation sometimes experienced by Ecstatic Saints--Also
-    experienced at the Moment of Death.
-
-
-Dreams of flying, with the dreams of falling they are sometimes associated
-with, may fairly be considered the best known and most frequent type of
-dream. They were among the earliest dreams to attract attention. Ruths
-argues that the Greek conception of the flying Hermes, the god who
-possessed special authority over dreams, was based on such experiences.
-Lucretius, in his interesting passage on the psychology of dreaming,
-speaks of falling from heights in dreams;[100] Cicero appears to refer
-to dreams of flying; St. Jerome mentions that he was subject to them;
-Synesius remarked that in dreams we fly with wings and view the world
-from afar; Cervantes accurately described the dream of falling.[101] From
-the inventors of the legend of Icarus onwards, men have firmly cherished
-the belief that under some circumstances they could fly, and we may well
-suppose that that belief partly owes its conviction, and the resolve to
-make it practical, to the experiences that have been gained in dreams.
-
-No dreams, indeed, are so vivid and so convincing as dreams of flying;
-none leave behind them so strong a sense of the reality of the experience.
-Raffaelli, the eminent French painter, who is subject to the dreaming
-experience of floating in the air, confesses that it is so convincing that
-he has jumped out of bed on awaking and attempted to repeat it. 'I need
-not tell you,' he adds, 'that I have never been able to succeed.'[102]
-Herbert Spencer mentions that in a company of a dozen persons, three
-testified that in early life they had had such vivid dreams of flying
-downstairs, and were so strongly impressed by the reality of the
-experience, that they actually made the attempt, one of them suffering in
-consequence from an injured ankle.[103] The case is recorded of an old
-French lady who always maintained that on one occasion she actually had
-succeeded for a few instants in supporting herself on the air.[104] No
-one who is familiar with these dreaming experiences will be inclined to
-laugh at that old lady. It was during one of these dreams of levitation,
-in which one finds oneself leaping into the air and able to stay there,
-that it occurred to me that I would write a paper on the subject, for
-I thought in my dream that this power I found myself possessed of was
-probably much more widespread than was commonly supposed, and that in any
-case it ought to be generally known.
-
-People who dabble in the occult have been so impressed by such dreams
-that they have sometimes believed that these flights represented a
-real excursion of the 'astral body.' This is the belief of Colonel de
-Rochas.[105] César de Vesme, the editor of the French edition of the
-_Annals of Psychical Research_, has thought it worth while to investigate
-the matter; and after summarising the results of a _questionnaire_
-concerning dreams of flying, he comes to the conclusion that 'the
-sensation of aerial flight in dreams is simply a hallucinatory phenomenon
-of an exclusively physiological [he means 'psychological'] kind,' and
-not evidence of the existence of the 'astral body.'[106] The fact,
-nevertheless, that so many people are found who believe such dreams to
-possess some kind of reality, clearly indicates the powerful impression
-they make.
-
-All my life, it seems to me, certainly from an early age, until recently,
-I have at intervals had dreams in which I imagined myself rhythmically
-bounding into the air, and supported on the air, remaining there for
-a perceptible interval; at other times I have felt myself gliding
-downstairs, but not supported by the stairs. In my case the experience
-is nearly always agreeable, involving a certain sense of power, and it
-usually evokes no marked surprise, occurring as a familiar and accustomed
-pleasure. On awaking I do not usually remember these dreams immediately,
-which seems to indicate that they are not due to causes specially
-operative at the end of sleep, or liable to bring sleep to a conclusion.
-But they leave behind them a vague yet profound sense of belief in their
-reality and reasonableness.
-
-Dream-flight, it is necessary to note, is not usually the sustained flight
-of a bird or an insect, and the dreamer rarely or never imagines that he
-is borne high into the air. Hutchinson states that of all those whom he
-has asked about the matter 'hardly one has ever known himself to make any
-high flights in his dreams. One almost always flies low, with a skimming
-manner, slightly, but only slightly, above the heads of pedestrians.'[107]
-
-Beaunis, from his own experience, describes what I should consider a
-typical kind of dream-flight as a series of light bounds, at one or two
-yards above the earth, each bound clearing from ten to twenty yards,
-the dream being accompanied by a delicious sensation of easy movement,
-as well as a lively satisfaction at being able to solve the problem of
-aerial locomotion by virtue of superior organisation alone.[108] Lafcadio
-Hearn, somewhat similarly, describes, in his _Shadowings_, a typical and
-frequent dream of his own as a series of bounds in long parabolic curves,
-rising to a height of some twenty-five feet, and always accompanied by the
-sense that a new power had been revealed which for the future would be a
-permanent possession.
-
-The attempt to explain dreams of flying has led to some bold hypotheses.
-Freud characteristically affirms that the dream of flying is the bridge to
-a concealed wish.[109] I have already mentioned the notion that dreams of
-flight are excursions of the 'astral body.' Professor Stanley Hall, who
-has himself, from childhood, had dreams of flying, argues, with scarcely
-less boldness, that we have here 'some faint reminiscent atavistic echo
-from the primeval sea'; and that such dreams are really survivals--psychic
-vestigial remains comparable to the rudimentary gill-slits not uncommonly
-found in man and other mammals--taking us back to the far past when man's
-ancestors needed no feet to swim or float.[110] Such a theory may accord
-with the profound conviction of reality that accompanies these dreams,
-though that may be more easily accounted for; but it has the very serious
-weakness that it offers an explanation which will not fit the facts. Our
-dreams are of flying, not of swimming; but the ancestors of the mammals
-probably lived in the water, not in the air. In preference to so hazardous
-a theory, it seems infinitely more reasonable to regard these dreams as an
-interpretation--a misinterpretation from the standpoint of waking life--of
-actual internal sensations. If we can find the adequate explanation of a
-psychic state in conditions actually existing within the organism itself
-at the time, it is needless to seek an explanation in conditions that
-ceased to exist untold millenniums ago.
-
-My own explanation was immediately suggested by the following dream. I
-dreamed that I was watching a girl acrobat, in appropriate costume, who
-was rhythmically rising to a great height in the air and then falling,
-without touching the floor, though each time she approached quite close
-to it. At last she ceased, exhausted and perspiring, and I had to lead
-her away. Her movements were not controlled by mechanism, and apparently
-I did not regard mechanism as necessary. It was a vivid dream, and I
-awoke with a distinct sensation of oppression in the chest. In trying
-to account for this dream, which was not founded on any memory, it
-occurred to me that probably I had here the key to a great group of
-dreams. The rhythmic rising and falling of the acrobat was simply the
-objectivation of the rhythmic rising and falling of my own respiratory
-muscles--in some dreams, perhaps, of the systole and diastole of the
-heart's muscles--under the influence of some slight and unknown physical
-oppression, and this oppression was further translated into a condition
-of perspiring exhaustion in the girl, just as men with heart disease may
-dream of sweating and panting horses climbing uphill, in accordance with
-that tendency to magnification which marks dreams generally.[111] We may
-recall also the curious sensation as of the body being transformed into
-a vast bellows or steam engine, which is often the last sensation felt
-before the unconsciousness produced by nitrous oxide gas.[112] When we
-are lying down there is a real rhythmic rising and falling of the chest
-and abdomen, centring in the diaphragm, a series of oscillations which at
-both extremes are only limited by the air. Moreover, in this position we
-have to recognise that the circulatory, nervous, and other systems of
-the whole internal organism, are differently balanced from what they are
-in the upright position, and that a disturbance of internal equilibrium
-always accompanies falling.
-
-It is also noteworthy (as, indeed, Wundt has briefly remarked) that the
-modifications produced by sleep in the respiratory process itself tend
-to facilitate its interpretation as a process of flying. Mosso showed
-that respiration in sleep is more thoracic than when awake, that it is
-lengthened, and that the respiratory pause is less marked.[113] That is to
-say that both the aerial element and the actual rhythmic movement of the
-ribs become accentuated during sleep.
-
-That the respiratory element is the chief factor in dreams of flying is
-clearly indicated by the fact that many persons subject to such dreams
-are conscious on awaking from them of a sense of respiratory or cardiac
-disturbance. I am acquainted with a psychologist who, though not a
-frequent dreamer, is subject to dreams of flying, which do not affect
-him disagreeably, but on awaking from them he always perceives a slight
-flutter of the heart. Any such sensation is by no means constant with me,
-but I have occasionally noted it down in exactly the same words after this
-kind of dream.[114] It is worth while to observe, in this connection, how
-large a number of people, and especially very young people, associate
-their dreams of flying with staircases. The most frequent cause of cardiac
-and respiratory stimulation, especially in children, who constantly run up
-and down them, is furnished by staircases, and though in health this fact
-may not be obvious, it is undoubtedly registered unconsciously, and may
-thus be utilised by dreaming intelligence.
-
-There is, however, another element entering into the problem of nocturnal
-aviation: the state of the skin sensations. Respiratory activity alone
-would scarcely suffice to produce the imagery of flight if sensations of
-tactile pressure remained to suggest contact with the earth. In dreams,
-however, the sense of movement suggested by respiratory activity is
-unaccompanied by the tactile pressure produced by boots or the contact
-of the ground with the soles of the feet. In addition, also, there is
-probably, as Bergson also has suggested, a numbness due to pressure on
-the parts supporting the weight of the body. Sleep is not a constant and
-uniform state of consciousness; a heightened consciousness of respiration
-may easily co-exist with a diminished consciousness of tactile pressure
-due to anaesthesia of the skin.[115] In normal sleep it may, indeed, be
-said that the conditions are probably often favourable to the production
-of this combination, and any slight thoracic disturbance even in healthy
-persons, arising from heart or stomach, and acting on the respiration,
-serves to bring these conditions to sleeping consciousness and to
-determine the dream of flying.
-
-Dreams of flying are sometimes associated with dreams of falling, the
-falling sensation occurring either at the beginning or at the end of
-the dream; such a dream may be said to be of the Icarus type.[116]
-Jewell considers that the two kinds of dream have the same causation,
-the difference being merely a difference of apperception. The frequent
-connection between the two dreams indicates that the causation is
-allied, but it scarcely seems to be identical. If it were identical,
-we should scarcely find that while the emotional tone of the dream of
-flying is usually agreeable, that of the dream of falling is usually
-disagreeable.[117]
-
-I have no personal experience of the sensation of falling in normal
-dreaming, although Jewell and Hutchinson have found that it is more
-common than flying, the latter regarding it, indeed, as the most common
-kind of dream, the dream of flying coming next in frequency. A friend
-who has no dreams of flying, but has experienced dreams of falling
-from his earliest years, tells me that they are always associated with
-feelings of terror. This suggests an organic cause, and the fact that the
-sensation of falling may occur in epileptic fits during sleep,[118] seems
-further to suggest the presence of circulatory and nervous disturbance.
-It would seem probable that while the same two factors--respiratory and
-tactile--are operative in both types of dream, they are not of equal
-force in each. In the dream of flying, respiratory activity is excited,
-and in response to excitation it works at a high level adequate to the
-needs of the organism. In the dream of falling it may be that respiratory
-activity is depressed, while concomitantly, perhaps, the anaesthetic state
-of the skin is increased. In the first state the abnormal activity of
-respiration triumphs in consciousness over the accompanying dulness of
-tactile sensation; in the second state the respiratory breathlessness is
-less influential than a numbness of the skin unconscious of any external
-pressure. This difference is rendered possible by the fact that in dreams
-of flying we are not usually far from the earth, and seem able to touch
-it lightly at intervals; that is to say that tactile sensitiveness is
-impaired, but is not entirely absent as it is in a dream of falling.[119]
-
-In my own experience the sensation of falling only occurs in illness or
-under the influence of drugs, sometimes when sleep seems incomplete, and
-it is an unpleasant, though not terrifying, sensation. I once experienced
-it in the most marked and persistent manner after taking a large dose
-of chlorodyne to subdue pain. Under such circumstances the sensation is
-probably due to the fact that the morphia in chlorodyne both weakens
-respiratory action and produces anaesthesia of the peripheral nerves, so
-that the skin becomes abnormally insensitive to the contact and pressure
-of the bed, and the sensation of descent is necessarily aroused.[120] It
-is possible that persons liable to the dream of falling are predisposed
-to a stage of sleep unconsciousness, in which cutaneous insensibility is
-marked. It is also possible that there is a contributory element of slight
-cardiac or respiratory disturbance.[121]
-
-In a dream belonging to this group, I imagined I was being rhythmically
-swung up and down in the air by a young woman, my feet never touching
-the ground; and then that I was swinging her similarly. At one time
-she seemed to be swinging me in too jerky and hurried a manner, and
-I explained to her that it must be done in a slower and more regular
-manner, though I was not conscious of the precise words I used. There had
-been some dyspepsia on the previous day, and on awaking I felt slight
-discomfort in the region of the heart. The symbolism into which slightly
-disturbed respiratory or cardiac action is here transformed seems very
-clear in this dream, because it shows the actual transition from the
-subjective sensation to the objective imagery of flying. By means of this
-symbolic imagery we find sleeping consciousness commanding the hurried
-heart to beat in a more healthy manner.
-
-Although, in youth, my dreams of flying were of what may be considered
-normal type, after the age of about thirty-five they tended, as
-illustrated by the example I have given, to take on a somewhat objective
-form. A further stage in this direction, the swinging movement being
-transformed to an inanimate object, is illustrated by a dream of
-comparatively recent date, in which I seemed to see an athlete of the
-music-hall, a graceful and muscular man, who was manipulating a large
-elastic ball, making it bound up from the floor. On awaking there was a
-distinct sensation of cardaic tremor and nervousness.[122]
-
-It may seem strange that dreams of flying, if so often due to organic
-disturbances, should usually be agreeable in character. It is not,
-however, necessary to assume that they are caused by serious interference
-with physiological functions; often, indeed, they may simply be due to
-the presence of a stage of consciousness in which respiration has become
-unduly prominent, as it is apt to be in the early stage of nitrous oxide
-anaesthesia, that is to say, to a relative wakefulness of the respiratory
-centres. It would seem that the disturbance is frequently almost, or
-quite, imperceptible on waking, and by no means to be compared with the
-more acute organic disturbances which result in dreams of murder, although
-it may be of nervous origin.[123] In some cases, however, it appears
-that dreams of flying are accompanied by circumstances of terror. Thus a
-medical correspondent, who describes his health as fairly good, writes
-in regard to dreams of flying: 'I have often had such dreams, and have
-wondered if others have them. Mine, however, are not so much dreams of
-flying, as dreams of being entirely devoid of weight, and of rising and
-falling at will. A singular feature of these levitation dreams is that
-they are always accompanied by an intense and agonising fear of an evil
-presence, a presence that I do not see but seem to feel, and my greatest
-terror is that I _shall_ see it. The presence is ill-defined, but very
-real, and it seems to suggest the potentiality of all possible moral,
-mental, and physical evil. In these dreams it always occurs to me that
-if this evil presence shall ever become embodied into a something that I
-could _see_, the sight of it would be so ineffably horrible as to drive me
-mad. So vivid has this fear been that on several occasions I have awakened
-in a cold sweat or a nameless fear that would persist for some minutes
-after I realised that I had only been dreaming.' This seems to be an
-abnormal type of the dream of flight.
-
-It is somewhat surprising that while dreams of floating in the air are so
-common and clearly indicate the respiratory source of the dream, dreams
-of floating on water seem to be rare, for as the actual experience of
-floating on water is fairly familiar, we might have expected that sleeping
-consciousness would have found here rather than in the never experienced
-idea of floating in air the explanation of its sensations. The dream of
-floating on water is, however, by no means unknown; thus Rachilde (Mme.
-Vallette), the French novelist and critic, whose dream life is vivid and
-remarkable, states that her most agreeable dream is that of floating on
-the surface of warm and transparent lakes or rivers.[124] One of the
-correspondents of _L'intermédiaire des Chercheurs et des Curieux_[125]
-also states that he has often dreamed of walking on the water.
-
-It is not only in sleep that the sensation of flying is experienced. In
-hysteria a sense of peculiar lightness of the body, and the idea of the
-soul's power to fly, may occur incidentally,[126] and may certainly be
-connected both with the vigilambulism, as Sollier terms the sleep-like
-tendencies of such cases, and the anaesthetic conditions found in the
-hysterical. It is noteworthy that Janet found that in an ecstatic person
-who experienced the sensation of rising in the air there was anaesthesia
-of the soles of the feet. In such hysterical ecstasy, which has always
-played so large a part in religious manifestations, it is well known
-that the sense of rising and floating in the air has often prominently
-appeared. St. Theresa occasionally felt herself lifted above the ground,
-and was fearful that this sign of divine favour would attract attention
-(though we are not told that that was the case), while St. Joseph of
-Cupertino, Christina the Wonderful, St. Ida of Louvain, with many another
-saint enshrined in the _Acta Sanctorum_, were permitted to experience this
-sensation; and since its reality is as convincing in the ecstatic state as
-it is in dreams, the saints have often been able to declare, in perfect
-good faith, that their levitation was real.[127] In all great religious
-movements among primitive peoples, similar phenomena occur, together
-with other nervous and hallucinatory manifestations. They occurred, for
-instance, in the great Russian religious movement which took place among
-the peasants in the province of Kief during the winter of 1891-2. The
-leader of the movement, a devout member of the Stundist sect, a man with
-alcoholic heredity, who had received the revelation that he was saviour
-of the world, used not only to perceive perfumes so exquisite that they
-could only, as he was convinced, emanate from the Holy Ghost, but during
-prayer, together with a feeling of joy, he also had a sensation of bodily
-lightness and of floating in the air. His followers in many cases had
-the same experiences, and they delighted in jumping up into the air and
-shouting. In these cases the reality of the sensory obtuseness of the skin
-as an element in the manifestations was demonstrated, for Ssikorski, who
-had an opportunity of investigating these people, found that many of them,
-when in the ecstatic condition, were completely insensible to pain.
-
-The sensation of flying is one of the earliest to appear in the dreams
-of childhood.[128] It is sometimes the last sensation at the moment of
-death. To rise, to fall, to glide away, has often been the last conscious
-sensation recalled by those who seemed to be dying, but have afterwards
-been brought back to life. Those rescued from drowning, for instance, have
-sometimes found that the last conscious sensation was a beatific feeling
-of being borne upwards. Piéron has also noted this sensation at the moment
-of death from disease in a number of cases, usually accompanied by a sense
-of well-being.[129] The cases he describes were mostly tuberculous, and
-included individuals of both sexes, and of atheistic as well as religious
-belief. In all, the last sensation to which expression was given was
-one of flying, of moving upwards. In some death was peaceful, in others
-painful. In one case a girl died clasping the iron bars of the bed, in
-horror of being borne upwards. Piéron, no doubt rightly, associates this
-sensation with the similar sensation of rising and floating common in
-dreams, and with the feeling of moving upwards and resting on the air
-experienced by persons in the ecstatic state. In all these cases alike
-life is being concentrated in the brain and central organs, while the
-outlying districts of the body are becoming numb and dead.
-
-In this way it comes about that out of dreams and of dream-like waking
-states, one of the most permanent of human spiritual conceptions has been
-evolved. To float, to rise into the air, to fly up to heaven, has always
-seemed to man to be the final climax of spiritual activity. The angel is
-the most ethereal creature the human imagination can conceive. Browning's
-cry to his 'lyric love, half angel and half bird,' pathetically crude as
-poetry, is sound as psychology. The prophets and divine heroes of the race
-have constantly seemed to their devout followers to disappear at last by
-floating up into the sky, like Elijah, who went up 'by a whirlwind into
-heaven.' St. Peter once thought he saw his Master walking on the waves,
-and the last vision of Jesus in the Gospels reveals him rising into
-the air. For it is in the world of dreams that the human soul has its
-indestructible home, and in the attempt to realise these dreams lies a
-large part of our business in life.
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[Footnote 100: Bk. IV. 1014-15:
-
-              'de montibus altis
-    Se quasi præcipitent ad terram corpore toto.'
-]
-
-[Footnote 101: 'It has many times happened to me,' says the innkeeper's
-daughter in _Don Quixote_ (Part I. ch. xvi.), 'to dream that I was falling
-down from a tower and never coming to the ground, and when I awoke from
-the dream to find myself as weak and shaken as if I had really fallen.']
-
-[Footnote 102: Chabaneix, _Le Subconscient_, p. 43.]
-
-[Footnote 103: Herbert Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, 3rd ed., vol.
-i. p. 773.]
-
-[Footnote 104: _L'Intermédiaire des Chercheurs et des Curieux_, May 31,
-1906.]
-
-[Footnote 105: De Rochas describes the phenomenon as 'a property of the
-human organism, more or less developed in different individuals, when the
-soul, disengaging itself from the bonds of the body, enters the domain,
-still so mysterious, of dreams' (_L'Intermédiaire des Chercheurs et des
-Curieux_, May 10, 1906). In subsequent numbers of the _Intermédiaire_
-various correspondents describe their own experiences of such dreams. In
-_Luce e Ombra_ for June 1906, and in the _Echo du Merveilleux_ for the
-same date, neither of which I have seen, are given other experiences.]
-
-[Footnote 106: _Annals of Psychical Research_, November 1896.]
-
-[Footnote 107: Horace Hutchinson, _Dreams and their Meanings_, p. 76.]
-
-[Footnote 108: _American Journal of Psychology_, July-October 1903, p. 14.]
-
-[Footnote 109: 'The wish to be able to fly,' he declares (_Eine
-Kindheitserinnerung des Leonardo da Vinci_, p. 59), 'signifies in dreaming
-nothing else but the desire to be capable of sexual activities. It is a
-wish of early childhood.']
-
-[Footnote 110: Stanley Hall, _American Journal of Psychology_, January
-1879, p. 158; also F. E. Bolton, 'Hydro-Psychoses,' _ib._, January 1899,
-p. 183; as regards rudimentary gill-slits, Bland Sutton, _Evolution and
-Disease_, pp. 48 _et seq._ Lafcadio Hearn travels still further along
-this road in search for an explanation of dreams of flight, and evokes a
-'memory of vanished planets with fainter powers of gravitation,' but he
-fails to state when the ancestors of man inhabited these problematical
-planets.]
-
-[Footnote 111: I retain this statement of my explanation in almost the
-same words as first written down in 1895. I was not then aware that
-several psychologists had offered very similar explanations. Scherner
-(_Das Leben des Traumes_, 1861) seems to have been the first to connect
-the lungs with dreams of flying, though he put forward the explanation
-in too fanciful a form and failed to realise that other factors, notably
-a change in skin pressure, are also involved. Strümpell at a later date
-recognised this explanation, as well as Wundt.]
-
-[Footnote 112: It is the same with chloroform. 'There are marked
-sensations in the vicinity of the heart,' says Elmer Jones ('The Waning
-of Consciousness under Chloroform,' _Psychological Review_, January
-1909). 'The musculature of that organ seems thoroughly stimulated, and
-the contractions become violent and accelerated. The palpitations are
-as strong as would be experienced at the close of some violent bodily
-exertion.' It is significant, also, as bearing on the interpretation of
-the dream of flying, that under chloroform 'all movements made appeared to
-be much longer than they actually were. A slight movement of the tongue
-appeared to be magnified at least ten times. Clinching the fingers and
-opening them again produced the feeling of their moving through a space of
-several feet.']
-
-[Footnote 113: See _e.g._ Marie de Manacéïne, _Sleep_, p. 7.]
-
-[Footnote 114: Horace Hutchinson, who in his _Dreams and their Meanings_
-(1901), has independently suggested that 'this flying dream is caused by
-some action of the breathing organs,' mentions the significant fact (p.
-128) that the idea of filling the lungs as a help in levitation occurs in
-the flying dreams of many persons.]
-
-[Footnote 115: We have an analogous state of tactile anaesthesia in the
-early stages of chloroform intoxication. Thus Elmer Jones found that this
-sense is, after hearing, the first to disappear. 'With the disappearance
-of the tactile sense and hearing,' he remarks, 'the body has completely
-lost its orientation. It appears to be nowhere, simply floating in space.
-It is a most ecstatic feeling.']
-
-[Footnote 116: Lafcadio Hearn describes the fall as coming at the
-beginning of the dream. Dr. Guthrie (_Clinical Journal_, June 7, 1899),
-in his own case, describes the flying sensations as coming first and the
-falling as coming afterwards, and apparently due to sudden failure of the
-power of flight; the first part of the dream is agreeable but after the
-fall the dreamer awakes shaken, shocked, and breathless.]
-
-[Footnote 117: The disagreeable nature of falling in dreams may probably
-be connected with the absence of rhythm usually present in dreams of
-flying. Most of the psychologists who have occupied themselves with rhythm
-have insisted on its pleasurable emotional tone, as leading to a state
-bordering on ecstasy (see _e.g._ J. B. Miner, 'Motor, Visual, and Applied
-Rhythms,' Monograph Supplement to _Psychological Review_, June 1903). The
-pleasure is especially marked, as MacDougall remarks, when there is 'a
-coincidence of subjective and objective change.' In dreams of flying we
-have this coincidence, the real subjective rhythm being transformed in
-consciousness to an objective rhythm.]
-
-[Footnote 118: Féré, 'Note sur les Rêves Epileptiques,' _Revue de
-Médecine_, September 10, 1905.]
-
-[Footnote 119: Sir W. R. Gowers has on several occasions (_e.g._ 'The
-Borderland of Epilepsy,' _British Medical Journal_, July 21, 1906) argued
-that dreams of falling have an aural origin, and are caused by contraction
-of the stapedius muscle, leading to a change in the ampullae which might
-suggest descent; he has himself suddenly awakened from such a dream and
-caught the sound of the muscular contraction. The opinion of so acute an
-investigator deserves consideration.]
-
-[Footnote 120: Such sensations are, indeed, a recognised result of
-morphia. Morphinomaniacs, Goron remarks (_Les Parias de l'Amour_, p. 125),
-are apt to feel that they are flying or floating over the world.]
-
-[Footnote 121: Jewell states that 'certain observers, peculiarly liable
-to dreams of falling or flying, ascribe these distinctly to faulty
-circulation, and say their physicians, to regulate the heart's action,
-have given them medicines which always relieve them and prevent such
-dreams' (_American Journal of Psychology_, January 1905, p. 8).]
-
-[Footnote 122: Interesting evidence in favour of the respiratory origin
-of such visions is furnished by Silberer's observations on his own
-symbolic hypnagogic visions which are certainly allied to dream visions.
-He found (_Jahrbuch für Psychoanalytische Forschungen_, Bd. 1., 1909, p.
-523) that on drawing a deep breath, and so raising the chest wall, the
-representation came to him of attempting with another person to raise a
-table in the air.]
-
-[Footnote 123: J. de Goncourt (_Journal des Goncourt_, vol. iii. p. 3)
-mentions that after drinking port wine, to which he was unaccustomed, he
-had a dream in which he observed on his counterpane grotesque images in
-relief which rose and fell.]
-
-[Footnote 124: Chabaneix, _Le Subconscient_, p. 43.]
-
-[Footnote 125: May 30, 1906.]
-
-[Footnote 126: L. Binswanger, 'Versuch einer Hysterieanalyse,' _Jahrbuch
-für Psychoanalytische Forschungen_, Bd. 1. 1909.]
-
-[Footnote 127: Their word has often been accepted. Levitation as
-experienced by the saints has been studied by Colonel A. de Rochas,
-_Les Frontières de la Science_, 1904; also in _Annales des Sciences
-Psychiques_, January-February 1901. 'Levitation is a perfectly real
-phenomena,' he concludes, 'and much more common than we might at first be
-tempted to believe.']
-
-[Footnote 128: It seems to become less frequent after middle age. Beaunis
-states that in his case it ceased at the age of fifty. I found it
-disappear, or become rare, at a somewhat earlier age.]
-
-[Footnote 129: H. Piéron, 'Contribution à la Psychologie des Mourants,'
-_Revue Philosophique_, December 1902.]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER VII
-
-SYMBOLISM IN DREAMS
-
-    The Dramatisation of Subjective Feelings Based on
-    Dissociation--Analogies in Waking Life--The Synaesthesias and
-    Number-forms--Symbolism in Language--In Music--The Organic Basis
-    of Dream Symbolism--The Omnipotence of Symbolism--Oneiromancy--The
-    Scientific Interpretation of Dreams--Why Symbolism prevails
-    in Dreaming--Freud's Theory of Dreaming--Dreams as Fulfilled
-    Wishes--Why this Theory cannot be applied to all Dreaming--The
-    Complete Form of Symbolism in Dreams--Splitting up of
-    Personality--Self-objectivation in Imaginary Personalities--The
-    Dramatic Element in Dreams--Hallucinations--Multiple
-    Personality--Insanity--Self-objectivation a Primitive Tendency--Its
-    Survival in Civilisation.
-
-
-In discussing dreams of flying I have referred to a dream in which a
-slight disturbance of the heart's action was transformed by sleeping
-consciousness into the image of an athlete manipulating an elastic ball.
-This objectivation of what are really the dreamer's subjective sensations,
-although he is not conscious of them as subjective, is, indeed, a
-phenomenon which we have encountered many times. It is, however, so
-important a feature of dream psychology, and probably of such significant
-weight in its influence on waking life, that it is worth while to deal
-with it separately.
-
-The dramatisation of subjective elements of the personality, which
-contributes so largely to render our dreams vivid and interesting, rests
-on that dissociation, or falling apart of the constituent groups of
-psychic centres, which is so fundamental a fact of dream life. That is to
-say, that the usually coherent elements of our mental life are split up,
-and some of them--often, it is curious to note, precisely those which are
-at that very moment the most prominent and poignant--are reconstituted
-into what seems to us an outside and objective world, of which we are the
-interested or the merely curious spectators, but in neither case realise
-that we are ourselves the origin of.
-
-An elementary source of this tendency to objectivation is to be found,
-it may be noted, in the automatic impulse towards symbolism by which all
-sorts of feelings experienced by the dreamer become transformed into
-concrete visible images. When objectivation is thus attained, dissociation
-may be said to be secondary. So far indeed as I am able to dissect the
-dream-process, the tendency to symbolism seems nearly always to precede
-the dissociation in consciousness, though it may well be that the
-dissociation of the mental elements is a necessary subconscious condition
-for the symbolism.
-
-Sensory symbolism rests on a very fundamental psychic tendency. On the
-abnormal side we find it in the synaesthesias which, since Galton first
-drew attention to them in 1883, in his _Inquiries into Human Faculty_,
-have become well known, and are found among between six to over twelve per
-cent. of people. Galton investigated chiefly those kinds of synaesthesias
-which he called 'number-forms' and 'colour associations.' The number-form
-is characteristic of those people who almost invariably think of
-numerals in some more or less constant form of visual imagery, the
-number instantaneously calling up the picture. In persons who experience
-colour-associations, or coloured-hearing, there is a similar instantaneous
-manifestation of particular colours in connection with particular sounds,
-the different vowel sounds, for instance, each constantly and persistently
-evolving a definite tint, as _a_ white, _e_ vermilion, _i_ yellow,
-etc., no two persons, however, having exactly the same colour scheme of
-sounds.[130] These phenomena are not so very rare, and, though they must
-be regarded as abnormal, they occur in persons who are perfectly healthy
-and sane.
-
-It will be seen that a synaesthesia--which may involve taste, smell,
-and other senses besides hearing and sight--causes an impression of one
-sensory order to be automatically and involuntarily linked on to an
-impression of another totally different order. In other words, we may say
-that the one impression becomes the _symbol_ of the other impression, for
-a symbol--which is literally a throwing together--means that two things
-of different orders have become so associated that one of them may be
-regarded as the sign and representative of the other.
-
-There is, however, another still more natural and fundamental form of
-symbolism which is entirely normal, and almost, indeed, physiological.
-This is the tendency by which qualities of one order become symbols of
-qualities of a totally different order, because they instinctively seem
-to have a similar effect on us. In this way, things in the physical
-order become symbols of things in the spiritual order. This symbolism
-penetrates indeed the whole of language; we cannot escape from it. The
-sea is _deep_, and so also may thoughts be; ice is _cold_, and we say
-the same of some hearts; sugar is _sweet_, as the lover finds also the
-presence of the beloved; quinine is _bitter_, and so is remorse. Not only
-our adjectives, but our substantives and our verbs are equally symbolical.
-To the etymological eye every sentence is full of metaphor, of symbol,
-of images that, strictly and originally, express sensory impressions of
-one order, but, as we use them to-day, express impressions of a totally
-different order. Language is largely the utilisation of symbols. This is a
-well-recognised fact which it is unnecessary to elaborate.[131]
-
-An interesting example of the natural tendency to symbolism, which may
-be compared to the allied tendency in dreaming, is furnished by another
-language, the language of music. Music is a representation of the
-world--the internal or the external world--which, except in so far as
-it may seek to reproduce the actual sounds of the world, can only be
-expressive by its symbolism. And the symbolism of music is so pronounced
-that it is even expressed in the elementary fact of musical pitch. Our
-minds are so constructed that the bass always seems _deep_ to us and the
-treble _high_. We feel it incongruous to speak of a _high_ bass voice or
-a _deep_ soprano. It is difficult to avoid the conclusion that this and
-the like associations are fundamentally based, that there are, as an acute
-French philosophic student of music, Dauriac (in an essay 'Des Images
-Suggérées par l'Audition musicale'[132]), has expressed it, 'sensorial
-correspondences,' as, indeed, Baudelaire had long since divined[133]; that
-the motor image is that which demands from the listener the minimum of
-effort; and that music almost constantly evokes motor imagery.[134]
-
-The association between high notes and physical ascent, between low
-notes and physical descent, is certainly in any case very fixed.[135]
-In Wagner's _Lohengrin_, the ascent and descent of the angelic chorus
-is thus indicated. Even if we go back to the early composers, the same
-correspondence is found. In Purcell it is very definite. In Bach--pure and
-abstract as his music is generally considered--not only this elementary
-association, but an immense amount of motor imagery is to be found; Bach
-shows, indeed, a curious pre-occupation in translating the definite sense
-of the words he is musically illustrating into corresponding musical
-terms; the skill and subtlety with which he accomplishes this, can often,
-as Pirro and Schweitzer have shown, be appreciated only by musicians.[136]
-It is sometimes said that this is 'realism' in music. That is a mistake.
-When the impressions derived from one sense are translated into those of
-another sense, there can be no question of realism. A composer may attempt
-a realistic representation of thunder, but his representation of lightning
-can only be symbolical; audible lightning can never be realistic.
-
-Not only is there an instinctive and direct association between sounds
-and motor imagery, but there is an indirect but equally instinctive
-association between sounds and visual imagery which, though not itself
-motor, has motor associations. Thus Bleuler considers it well established
-that among colour-hearers there is a tendency for photisms that are light
-in colour (and belonging, we may say, to the 'high' part of the spectrum)
-to be produced by sounds of high quality, and dark photisms by sounds
-of low quality; and, in the same way, sharply-defined pains or tactile
-sensations, as well as pointed forms, produce light photisms. Similarly,
-bright lights and pointed forms produce high photisms, whole low photisms
-are produced by opposite conditions. Urbantschitsch, again, by examining a
-large number of people who were not colour-hearers, found that a high note
-of a tuning-fork seems higher when looking at red, yellow, green, or blue,
-but lower if looking at violet. Thus two sensory qualities that are both
-symbolic of a third quality are symbolic to each other.
-
-This symbolism, we are justified in believing, is based on fundamental
-organic tendencies. Piderit, nearly half a century ago, forcibly argued
-that there is a real relationship of our most spiritual feelings and
-ideas to particular bodily movements and facial expressions. In a similar
-manner, he pointed out that bitter tastes and bitter thoughts tend to
-produce the same physical expression.[137] He also argued that the
-character of a man's looks--his _fixed_ or _dreamy_ eyes, his _lively_
-or _stiff_ movements--correspond to real psychic characters. If this
-is so we have a physiological, almost anatomical, basis for symbolism.
-Cleland,[138] again, in an essay, 'On the Element of Symbolic Correlation
-in Expression,' argued that the key to a great part of expression is
-the correlation of movements and positions with ideas, so that there
-are, for instance, a host of associations in the human mind by which
-'upward' represents the good, the great, and the living, while 'downward'
-represents the evil and the dead. Such associations are so fundamental
-that they are found even in animals, whose gestures are, as Féré[139]
-remarked, often metaphorical, so that a cat, for instance, will shake its
-paw, as if in contact with water, after any disagreeable experiences.
-
-The symbolism that to-day interpenetrates our language, and indeed our
-life generally, has mostly been inherited by us, with the traditions of
-civilisation, from an antiquity so primitive that we usually fail to
-interpret it. The rare additions we make to it in our ordinary normal
-life are for the most part deliberately conscious. But so soon as we
-fall below, or rise above, that ordinary normal level--to insanity and
-hallucination, to childhood, to savagery, to folk-lore and legend, to
-poetry and religion--we are at once plunged into a sea of symbolism.[140]
-There is even a normal sphere in which symbolism has free scope, and that
-is in the world of dreams.
-
-Oneiromancy, the symbolical interpretation of dreams, more especially as
-a method of divining the future, is a widespread art in early stages of
-culture. The discerning of dreams is represented in the Old Testament as
-a very serious and anxious matter (as in regard to Pharaoh's dream of the
-fat and lean cattle), and, nearer to our time, the dreams of great heroes,
-especially Charlemagne, are represented as highly important events in the
-mediæval European epics. Little manuals on the interpretation of dreams
-have always been much valued by the uncultured classes, and among our
-current popular sayings there are many dicta concerning the significance,
-or the good or ill luck, of particular kinds of dreams.
-
-Oneiromancy has thus slowly degenerated to folk-lore and superstition.
-But at the outset it possessed something of the combined dignities of
-religion and of science. Not only were the old dream interpreters careful
-of the significance and results of individual dreams, in order to build
-up a body of doctrine, but they held that not every dream contained
-in it a divine message; thus they would not condescend to interpret
-dreams following on the drinking of wine, for only to the temperate,
-they declared, do the gods reveal their secrets.[141] The serious and
-elaborate way in which the interpretation of dreams was dealt with is well
-seen in the treatise on this subject by Artemidorus of Daldi, a native
-of Ephesus, and contemporary of Marcus Aurelius.[142] He divided dreams
-into two classes: _theorematic_ dreams, which come literally true, and
-_allegorical_ dreams. The first group may be said to correspond to the
-modern groups of prophetic and proleptic or prodromic dreams, while the
-second group includes the symbolical dreams which have of recent years
-again attracted attention. Synesius, who lived in the fourth century,
-and eventually became a Christian bishop without altogether ceasing to
-be a Greek pagan, wrote a very notable treatise on dreaming, in which,
-with a genuinely Greek alertness of mind, he contrived to rationalise and
-almost to modernise the ancient doctrine of dream symbolism. He admits
-that it is in their obscurity that the truth of dreams resides, and that
-we must not expect to find any general rules in regard to dreams; no two
-people are alike, so that the same dream cannot have the same significance
-for every one, and we have to find out the rules of our own dreams. He
-had himself (like Galen) often been aided in his writings by his dreams,
-in this way getting his ideas into order, improving his style, and
-receiving criticisms of extravagant phrases. Once, too, in the days when
-he hunted, he invented a trap as a result of a dream. Synesius declares
-that attention to divination by dreams is good on moral grounds alone. For
-he who makes his bed a Delphian tripod will be careful to live a pure and
-noble life. In that way he will reach an end higher than that he aimed
-at.[143]
-
-It seems to-day by no means improbable that, amid the absurdities of
-this popular oneiromancy, there are some items of real significance.
-Until recent years, however, the absurdities have frightened away the
-scientific investigator. Almost the only investigator of the psychology
-of dreaming who ventured to admit a real symbolism in the dream world was
-Scherner,[144] and his arguments were not usually accepted nor even easy
-to accept. When we are faced by the question of definite and constant
-symbols it still remains true that scepticism is often called for. But
-there can be no manner of doubt that our dreams are full of symbolism.[145]
-
-The conditions of dream life, indeed, lend themselves with a peculiar
-facility to the formation of symbolism, that is to say, of images
-which, while evoked by a definite stimulus, are themselves of a totally
-different order from that stimulus. The very fact that we _sleep_, that
-is to say, that the avenues of sense which would normally supply the real
-image of corresponding order to the stimulus are more or less closed,
-renders symbolism inevitable.[146] The direct channels being thus largely
-choked, other allied and parallel associations come into play, and since
-the control of attention and apperception is diminished, such play is
-often unimpeded. Symbolism is the natural and inevitable result of these
-conditions.[147]
-
-It might still be asked why we do not in dreams more often recognise the
-actual source of the stimuli applied to us. If a dreamer's feet are in
-contact with something hot, it might seem more natural that he should
-think of the actual hot-water bottle, rather than of an imaginary Etna,
-and that, if he hears a singing in his ears, he should argue the presence
-of the real bird he has often heard rather than a performance of Haydn's
-_Creation_, which he has never heard. Here, however, we have to remember
-the tendency to magnification in dream imagery, a tendency which rests
-on the emotionality of dreams. Emotion is normally heightened in dreams.
-Every impression reaches sleeping consciousness through this emotional
-atmosphere, in an enlarged form, vaguer it may be, but more massive. The
-sleeping brain is thus not dealing with actual impressions--if we are
-justified in speaking of the impressions of waking life as 'actual'--even
-when actual impressions are being made upon it, but with transformed
-impressions. The problem before it is to find an adequate cause, not for
-the actual impression, but for the transformed and enlarged impression.
-Under these circumstances symbolism is quite inevitable. Even when the
-nature of an excitation is rightly perceived its quality cannot be
-rightly perceived. The dreamer may be able to perceive that he is being
-bitten, but the massive and profound impression of a bite which reaches
-his dreaming consciousness would not be adequately accounted for by
-the supposition of the real mosquito that is the cause of it; the only
-adequate explanation of the transformed impression received is to be found
-(as in a dream already narrated) in a creature as large as a lobster.
-This creature is the symbol of the real mosquito.[148] We have the same
-phenomenon under somewhat similar conditions in the intoxication of
-chloroform and nitrous oxide.
-
-The obscuration during sleep of the external sensory channels, with
-the checks on false conclusions they furnish, is not alone sufficient
-to explain the symbolism of dreams. The dissociation of thought during
-sleep, with the diminished attention and apperception involved, is also
-a factor. The magnification of special isolated sensory impressions in
-dreaming consciousness is associated with a general bluntness, even an
-absolute quiescence, of the external sensory mechanism. One part of the
-organism, and it seems usually a visceral part, is thus apt to magnify its
-place in consciousness at the expense of the rest. As Vaschide and Piéron
-say, during sleep 'the internal sensations develop at the expense of the
-peripheral sensations.' That indeed seems to be the secret of the immense
-emotional turmoil of our dreams. Yet it is very rare for these internal
-sensations to reach the sleeping brain as what they are. They become
-conscious, not as literal messages, but as symbolical transformations.
-The excited or labouring heart recalls to the brain no memory of itself,
-but some symbolical image of excitement or labour. There is association,
-indeed, but it is association not along the matter-of-fact lines of our
-ordinary waking civilised life, but along much more fundamental and
-primitive channels, which in waking life we have now abandoned or never
-knew.
-
-There is another consideration which may be put forward to account for
-one group of dream-symbolisms. It has been found that certain hysterical
-subjects of old standing when in the hypnotic state are able to receive
-mental pictures of their own viscera, even though they may be quite
-ignorant of any knowledge of the shape of these viscera. This _autoscopy_,
-as it has been called, has been specially studied by Féré, Comar, and
-Sollier.[149] Hysteria is a condition which is in many respects closely
-allied to sleep, and if it is to be accepted as a real fact that autoscopy
-occasionally occurs in the abnormal psychic state of hypnotic sleep in
-hysterical persons, it is possible to ask whether it may not sometimes
-occur normally in the allied state of sleep. In the hypnotic state it
-is known that parts of the organism normally involuntary may become
-subject to the will; it is not incredible that similarly parts normally
-insensitive may become sufficiently sensitive to reveal their own shape
-or condition. We may thus, indeed, the more easily understand those
-premonitory dreams in which the dreamer becomes conscious of morbid
-conditions which are not perceptible to waking consciousness until they
-have attained a greater degree of intensity.[150]
-
-The recognition of the transformation in dream life of internal
-sensations into symbolic motor imagery is ancient. Hippocrates said that
-to dream, for instance, of springs and wells denoted some disturbance of
-the bladder. In such a case a disturbed bladder sends to the brain, not
-the naked message of its own needs, but a symbolic message of those needs
-in motor imagery, as (in one case known to me) of a large cistern with
-a stream of water flowing from it.[151] Sometimes the symbolism aroused
-by visceral processes remains physiological; thus indigestion frequently
-leads to dreams of eating, as of chewing all sorts of inedible and
-repulsive substances, and occasionally--it would seem more abnormally--to
-agreeable dreams of food.
-
-It is due to the genius of Professor Sigmund Freud, of Vienna--to-day
-the most daring and original psychologist in the field of morbid psychic
-phenomena--that we owe the long-neglected recognition of the large place
-of symbolism in dreaming. Scherner had argued in favour of this aspect of
-dreams, but he was an undistinguished and unreliable psychologist, and
-his arguments failed to be influential. Freud avows himself a partisan of
-Scherner's theory of dreaming and opponent of all other theories,[152] but
-his treatment of the matter is incomparably more searching and profound.
-Freud, however, goes far beyond the fundamental--and, as I believe,
-undeniable--proposition that dream-imagery is largely symbolic. He holds
-that behind the symbolism of dreams there lies ultimately a _wish;_ he
-believes, moreover, that this wish tends to be really of more or less
-sexual character, and, further, that it is tinged by elements that go back
-to the dreamer's infantile days. As Freud views the mechanism of dreams,
-it is far from exhibiting mere disordered mental activity, but is (much
-as he has also argued hysteria to be[153]) the outcome of a desire, which
-is driven back by a kind of inhibition or censure (_i.e._, that kind
-of moral check which is still more alert in the waking state), and is
-seeking new forms of expression. There is first in the dream the process
-of what Freud calls condensation (_Verdichtung_), a process which is that
-fusion of separate elements which must be recognised at the outset of
-every discussion of dreaming, but Freud maintains that in this fusion all
-the elements have a point in common, and overlie one another like the
-pictures in a Galtonian composite photograph. Then there comes the process
-of displacement or transference (_Verschiebung_), a process by which the
-really central and emotional basis of the dream is concealed beneath
-trifles. Then there is the process of dramatisation or transformation
-into a concrete situation of which the elements have a symbolic value.
-Thus, as Maeder puts it, summarising Freud's views, 'behind the apparently
-insignificant events of the day utilised in the dream there is always an
-important idea or event hidden. We only dream of things that are worth
-while. What at first sight seems to be a trifle is a grey wall which
-hides a great palace. The significance of the dream is not so much held
-in the dream itself as in that substratum of it which has not passed the
-threshold and which analysis alone can bring to light.'
-
-'We only dream of things that are worth while.' That is the point at
-which many of us are no longer able to follow Freud. That dreams of the
-type studied by Freud do actually occur may be accepted; it may even be
-considered proved. But to assert that all dreams must be made to fit
-into this one formula is to make far too large a demand. As regards the
-presentative element in dreams--the element that is based on actual
-sensory stimulation--it is in most cases unreasonable to invoke Freud's
-formula at all. If, when I am asleep, the actual song of a bird causes me
-to dream that I am at a concert, that picture may be regarded as a natural
-symbol of the actual sensation, and it is unreasonable to expect that
-psycho-analysis could reveal any hidden personal reason why the symbol
-should take the form of a concert. And, if so, then Freud's formula fails
-to hold good for phenomena which cover one of the two main divisions of
-dreams, even on a superficial classification, and perhaps enter into all
-dreams.
-
-But even if we take dreams of the remaining or representative class--the
-dreams made up of images not directly dependent on actual sensation--we
-still have to maintain a cautious attitude. A very large proportion of the
-dreams in this class seem to be, so far as the personal life is concerned,
-in no sense 'worth while.' It would, indeed, be surprising if they were.
-It seems to be fairly clear that in sleep, as certainly in the hypnagogic
-state, attention is diminished, and apperceptive power weakened. That
-alone seems to involve a relaxation of the tension by which we will and
-desire our personal ends. At the same time, by no longer concentrating our
-psychic activities at the focus of desire it enables indifferent images to
-enter more easily the field of sleeping consciousness. It might even be
-argued that the activity of desire, when it manifests itself in sleep and
-follows the course indicated by Freud, corresponds to a special form of
-sleep in which attention and apperception, though in modified forms, are
-more active than in ordinary sleep.[154] Such dreams seem to occur with
-special frequency, or in more definitely marked forms, in the neurotic and
-especially the hysterical, and if it is true that the hysterical are to
-some extent asleep even when they are awake, it may also be said that they
-are to some extent awake even when they are asleep. Freud certainly holds,
-probably with truth, that there is no fundamental distinction between
-normal people and psychoneurotic people, and that there is, for instance,
-as Ferenczi says, emphasising this point, 'a streak of hysterical
-disposition in everybody.' Freud has, indeed, made interesting analytic
-studies of his own dreams, but the great body of material accumulated
-by him and his school is derived from the dreams of the neurotic. Thus
-Stekel states that he has analysed many thousand dreams, but his lengthy
-study on the interpretation of dreams deals exclusively with the dreams
-of the neurotic.[155] Stekel believes, moreover, that from the structure
-of the dream life conclusions may be drawn, not only as to the life and
-character of the dreamer, but also as to his neurosis, the hysterical
-person dreaming differently from the obsessed person, and so on. If that
-is the case we are certainly justified in doubting whether conclusions
-drawn from the study of the dreams of neurotic people can be safely held
-to represent the normal dream life, even though it may be true that there
-is no definite frontier between them. Whatever may be the case among the
-neurotic, in ordinary normal sleep the images that drift across the field
-of consciousness, though they have a logic of their own, seem in a large
-proportion of cases to be quite explicable without resort to the theory
-that they stand in vital but concealed relationship to our most intimate
-self.
-
-Even in waking life, and at normal moments which are not those of
-reverie, it seems possible to trace the appearance in the field of
-consciousness of images which are evoked neither by any known mental or
-physical circumstance of the moment, or any hidden desire, images that
-are as disconnected from the immediate claims of desire and even of
-association as those of dreams seem so largely to be. It sometimes occurs
-to me--as doubtless it occurs to other people--that at some moment when
-my thoughts are normally occupied with the work immediately before me,
-there suddenly appears on the surface of consciousness a totally unrelated
-picture. A scene arises, vague but usually recognisable, of some city
-or landscape--Australian, Russian, Spanish, it matters not what--seen
-casually long years ago, and possibly never thought of since, and
-possessing no kind of known association either with the matter in hand or
-with my personal life generally. It comes to the surface of consciousness
-as softly, as unexpectedly, as disconnectedly, as a minute bubble might
-arise and break on the surface of an actual stream from ancient organic
-material silently disintegrating in the depths beneath.[156] Every one who
-has travelled much cannot fail to possess, hidden in his psychic depths,
-a practically infinite number of such forgotten pictures, devoid of all
-personal emotion. It is possible to maintain, as a matter of theory, that
-when they come up to consciousness, they are evoked by some real, though
-untraceable, resemblance which they possess to the psychic or physical
-state existing when they reappear. But that theory cannot be demonstrated.
-Nor, it may be added, is it more plausible than the simple but equally
-unprovable theory that such scenes do really come to the surface of
-consciousness as the result of some slight spontaneous disintegration in
-a minute cerebral centre, and have no more immediately preceding psychic
-cause than my psychic realisation of the emergence of the sun from behind
-a cloud has any psychic preceding cause.
-
-Similarly, in insanity, Liepmann, in his study _Ueber Ideenflucht_, has
-forcibly argued that ordinary logorrhœa--the incontinence of ideas linked
-together by superficial associations of resemblance or contiguity--is a
-linking _without direction_, that is, corresponding to no interest, either
-practical or theoretical, of the individual. Or, as Claparède puts it,
-logorrhœa is a trouble in the reaction of _interest_ in life. It seems
-most reasonable to believe that in ordinary sleep the flow of imagery
-follows, for the most part, the same easy course. That course may to
-waking consciousness often seem peculiar, but to waking consciousness the
-conditions of dreaming life are peculiar. Under these conditions, however,
-we may well believe that the tendency to movement in the direction of
-least resistance still prevails. And as attention and will are weakened
-and loosened during sleep, the tense concentration on personal ends must
-also be relaxed. We become more disinterested. Personal desire tends
-for the most part rather to fall into the background than to become
-more prominent. If it were not a period in which desire were ordinarily
-relaxed, sleep would cease to be a period of rest and recuperation.
-
-Sleeping consciousness is a vast world, a world scarcely less vast than
-that of waking consciousness. It is futile to imagine that a single
-formula can cover all its manifold varieties and all its degrees of depth.
-Those who imagine that all dreaming is a symbolism which a single cypher
-will serve to interpret must not be surprised if, however unjustly, they
-are thought to resemble those persons who claim to find on every page of
-Shakespeare a cypher revealing the authorship of Bacon. In the case of
-Freud's theory of dream interpretation, I hold the cypher to be real, but
-I believe that it is impossible to regard so narrow and exclusive an
-interpretation as adequate to explain the whole world of dreams. It would,
-_a priori_, be incomprehensible that sleeping consciousness should exert
-so extraordinary a selective power among the variegated elements of waking
-life, and, experientially, there seems no adequate ground to suppose that
-it does exert such selective action. On the contrary, it is, for the
-most part, supremely impartial in bringing forward and combining all the
-manifestations, the most trivial as well as the most intimate, of our
-waking life. There is a symptom of mental disorder called _extrospection_,
-in which the patient fastens his attention so minutely on events that
-he comes to interpret the most trifling signs and incidents as full of
-hidden significance, and may so build up a systematised delusion.[157] The
-investigator of dreams must always bear in mind the risk of falling into
-morbid extrospection.
-
-Such considerations seem to indicate that it is not true that every
-dream, every mental image, is 'worth while,' though at the same time they
-by no means diminish the validity of special and purposive methods of
-investigating dream consciousness. Freud and those who are following him
-have shown, by the expenditure of much patience and skill, that his method
-of dream-interpretation may in many cases yield coherent results which it
-is not easy to account for by chance. It is quite possible, however, to
-recognise Freud's service in vindicating the large place of symbolism in
-dreams, and to welcome the application of his psycho-analytic method to
-dreams, while yet denying that this is the only method of interpreting
-dreams. Freud argues that all dreaming is purposive and significant,
-and that we must put aside the belief that dreams are the mere trivial
-outcome of the dissociated activity of brain centres. It remains true,
-however, that, while reason plays a larger part in dreams than most
-people realise, the activity of dissociated brain centres furnishes one
-of the best keys to the explanation of psychic phenomena during sleep.
-It would be difficult to believe in any case that in the relaxation of
-sleep our thoughts are still pursuing a deliberately purposeful direction
-under the control of our waking impulses. Many facts indicate--though
-Freud's school may certainly claim that such facts have not been
-thoroughly interpreted--that, as a matter of fact, this control is often
-conspicuously lacking. There is, for instance, the well-known fact that
-our most recent and acute emotional experiences--precisely those which
-might most ardently formulate themselves in a wish--are rarely mirrored
-in our dreams, though recent occurrences of more trivial nature, as well
-as older events of more serious import, easily find place there. That
-is easily accounted for by the supposition--not quite in a line with a
-generalised wish-theory--that the exhausted emotions of the day find rest
-at night.
-
-It must also be said that even when we admit that a strong emotion may
-symbolically construct an elaborate dream edifice which needs analysis to
-be interpreted, we narrow the process unduly if we assert that the emotion
-is necessarily a wish. Desire is certainly very fundamental in life and
-very primitive. But there is another equally fundamental and primitive
-emotion--fear.[158] We may very well expect to find this emotion, as well
-as desire, subjacent to dream phenomena.[159]
-
-The infantile form of the wish-dream, alike in adults and children, is
-thus, there can be little doubt, extremely common, and, even in its
-symbolic forms, it is a real and not rare phenomenon. But it is impossible
-to follow Freud when he declares that all dreams fall into the group of
-wish-dreams. The world of psychic life during sleep is, like the waking
-world, rich and varied; it cannot be covered by a single formula. Freud's
-subtle and searching analytic genius has greatly contributed to enlarge
-our knowledge of this world of sleep. We may recognise the value of his
-contribution to the psychology of dreams while refusing to accept a
-premature and narrow generalisation.
-
-The wish-dream of the kind elaborately investigated by Freud may be
-accepted as one type of dreaming, and a very interesting type, but it
-seems evident that it is only one type. There are even other types which
-seem closely related to it, and yet are quite distinct. This is, for
-instance, the case with the contrast-dream. The contrast-dream of Näcke's
-type represents the emergence of characteristics which are distinctly
-opposed to the dreamer's character and habits. Thus, in the course of four
-consecutive nights, I have dreamed in much detail that (1) I was the mayor
-of a large northern city about to take the chair at a local meeting of the
-Bible Society; (2) that I was a soldier in the heat of battle; and (3)
-that I was meditating the step of going on the stage as a comedian--the
-only rôle of the three which seemed to cause me any nervousness or
-misgiving. In contrast-dreams of this type we are not concerned with
-the eruption of concealed and repressed wishes. They are merely based
-on vestigial possibilities, entirely alien to our temperament as it has
-developed in life, and only a part of our complex personalities in the
-sense that, as Schopenhauer said, whatever path we take in life there
-are latent germs within us which could only have developed in an exactly
-opposite path. Even the very same dream may be due to quite different
-causes. To take a very simple dream, for we may best argue on the simplest
-facts: the dream of eating. We dream of eating when we are hungry, but
-sometimes we also dream of eating when the stomach is suffering from
-repletion. The dream is the same, but the psychological mechanism is
-entirely different, in the one case emotional, in the other intellectual.
-In the first case the picture of eating is built up in response to an
-organic visceral craving, and we have an elementary wish-dream of what
-Freud would call infantile type; in the second case the same dream is a
-theory, embodied in a concrete picture, to account for the existence of
-the repletion experienced.
-
-There cannot be the slightest doubt that the wish-dream, in its simple or
-what Freud calls its infantile form, represents an extremely common type
-of dream.[160] A large number of the dreams of children are concerned with
-wishes and their fulfilments. Those dreams of adults which are aroused by
-actual organic sensations also tend to fall, though not invariably, into
-the same form. Again, we chance to want a thing when we are awake; when
-we are asleep we dream we have found it. It may also be said, almost with
-certainty, that in some cases our dreams are the fulfilment of unexpressed
-and unconscious waking wishes. Even the best people, it is probable, may
-occasionally dream of events which represent the fulfilment of wishes they
-have never consciously formulated. Archbishop Laud was accustomed to note
-down his dreams in his Diary. On one occasion we find him setting down
-a disturbing dream, in which he saw the Lord Keeper dead, and 'rotten
-already.' A little later we find that Laud is 'much concerned at the
-envy and undeserved hatred borne to me by the Lord Keeper.'[161] It is
-not difficult to see in the Archbishop's relations to the Lord Keeper an
-explanation of his dream.
-
-If, however, wishes, conscious or unconscious, are often fulfilled
-in dreams, and if, as we have seen reason to conclude, symbolism is
-a fundamental tendency of dreaming activity, it is inevitable that
-wish-dreams should sometimes take on a symbolic form. It is thus, for
-instance, that I interpret my dream of being in an English cathedral and
-seeing on the wall a notice to the effect that at evensong on such a day
-the edifice will not be illuminated, in order to avoid attracting moths;
-I awake with a slight headache, and the unilluminated cathedral was
-the symbol of the coolness and absence of glare which one desires when
-suffering from headache.
-
-There cannot, also, be any doubt that erotic wishes frequently make
-themselves felt as dreams, both in the infantile and the symbolic form.
-It is sufficient to bring forward one illustration. It is furnished
-by a young lady of somewhat neurotic tendencies and heredity, aged
-twenty-three, musical and intelligent, who was in love with her
-music-master, the organist at her church. The dream was written down at
-the time. 'I was at the school of my childhood, and I was told that I
-was St. Agnes Virgin and Martyr, and in five minutes' time I was to be
-beheaded with a large knife. The sheen of the blade frightened me so much
-that I asked if instead I might be strangled by the man I was in love
-with. Permission was given if I could induce him to come in time. I ran
-to our church (saying to myself that I knew it was a dream, but that I
-_must_ see what he would say) over huge stones that cut my bare feet, and
-wondered what age I was living in, longing to meet some women in order to
-find out. When I did, they all wore crinolines. I rushed up the central
-aisle, which was full of people, thinking that, as I was going to be
-killed, nothing could matter. Mr. T. (the organist) was giving a choir
-practice in the vestry. I ran up to him and said: "Come at once, I am
-going to be killed." He became very angry, and said: "Do go away; you are
-always interrupting my choir practice." I said: "Don't you understand? I
-am going to be killed at once; there is a knife hanging over my head, but
-I would rather be strangled by you, and they said I could if I fetched you
-in time." As soon as he understood that he came at once. Then it seemed
-in the dream that we were married, and had a son, who was to be a musical
-composer. I said I must say goodbye to this son first, and told the nurse
-to bring him to me. When he came I said: "Good-bye, I am going to be
-killed." He said, "Mother, am I a boy or a girl? When I am with boys I
-don't seem like them, and they call me a girl, and yet I don't look like
-a girl." I replied: "You are both in one, because you are going to be a
-perfect musical genius."' In this dream, which represents the fulfilment
-in sleep of an affection unsatisfied in life, we see side by side the
-infantile and the symbolic fulfilments of the erotic wish, culminating in
-a gifted musical child. The wish to be strangled is an undoubted erotic
-symbol,[162] and it is significant that in the course of the dream the
-accepted death by strangulation became fused with marriage, although the
-idea of death still inconsistently survives, doubtless because dream
-consciousness failed to realise that the accepted form of death was a
-subconsciously furnished symbol of the consummation of marriage.
-
-The wish-dream of Freud's type has presented itself for consideration
-here, because it is a special and elaborate illustration of symbolism
-in dreaming. The important place of symbols in dreaming is by no means
-dependent on the validity of this particular type of dream, and we may now
-proceed to continue the discussion of the significance of the symbolic
-tendency during sleep in its most important form.
-
-The symbols we have so far been mainly concerned with have been the
-result of a tendency of dreaming consciousness to objectify feelings and
-affections within the organism in concrete objects or processes outside
-the organism. In its complete form this symbolic tendency becomes the
-objectivation of part of the dreamer's feelings or personality in a
-distinct imaginary personality. A process of dramatisation occurs, and
-the dreamer finds himself in action and reaction, friendly or hostile or
-indifferent, with seemingly external personalities which, by the light
-of the analysis possible on awakening, are demonstrably created out of
-split-off portions of his own personality.[163] A common and simple form
-of such objectivation, closely allied to some of the symbolisms already
-brought forward, occurs when the dreamer sees the image of a person
-suffering from some affection of a part of the body and finds on awakening
-that he is himself experiencing pain or discomfort in that part. Thus a
-medical man dreams he is examining a tumour in a patient's groin, and on
-awakening finds slight irritation in the same region of his own body. And
-similarly, just as our bodily needs, when experienced during sleep, may
-be symbolised by inanimate natural objects and processes, so they may
-also become objective in the image of another person who is occupied in
-gratifying the need which we are ourselves unconsciously experiencing.
-
-An interesting and significant group of cases is furnished by those
-dreams in which--as the result of some compression or effort--the tactile
-and muscular sensations of our own limbs are split off from sleeping
-consciousness and built up into an imaginary personality. Thus a medical
-friend, shortly after an attack of influenza, dreamed that in conversation
-with a lady patient his hand rested on her knee; she requested him to
-remove it, but his efforts to do so were fruitless, and he awoke in horror
-from this unprofessional situation to find that his hand was firmly
-clasped between his own knees. His body had thus been divided in dreaming
-consciousness between himself and an imaginary other person; the knee
-had become the other person's, while the hand remained his own, the hand
-being claimed in preference to the knee no doubt on account of its greater
-tactile sensibility and more complexly intimate association with the
-brain. In the hypnagogic (or hypnopompic) state such dream sensations may
-almost reach the intensity of hallucination. Thus, after an indigestible
-supper, I awake with the vivid feeling that some one is lying on me
-and attempting to drag off the bedclothes, and I find myself violently
-attempting, but apparently in vain, to articulate: 'Who is there?' In a
-dream of similar type, which occurred when lying on my back (and possibly
-with slight indigestion due to an unusually late dinner), I awoke making
-a kind of inarticulate exclamation which awakened my wife. I had dreamed
-that I was lying in bed, and that some unseen creature--more supernatural
-than human, it seemed--was violently dragging the bedclothes off me, while
-I shouted to it, very distinctly it seemed to me, 'Avaunt, avaunt!'
-
-It is evident that my own sense of oppression, my own unconscious and
-involuntary movements in disturbing the bedclothes, were reconstructed by
-sleeping consciousness as the actions of an external person, in the second
-case, a supernatural creature, which, it is interesting to note, I duly
-accepted as such and addressed in the conventionally appropriate manner
-of old romance. The illusion may persist for some moments after waking. A
-lady, after breathing rather loudly and convulsively for a few seconds,
-wakes up, saying 'There is a rat or a mouse on the bed, shaking it up
-and down.' 'You were asleep,' her husband replied, 'as I knew by your
-breathing.' 'Oh, I was breathing like that,' she said, 'to make it jump
-off.' Here we see that, somewhat as in the previous cases, the dreamer's
-own muscular activity is, during sleep, reconstructed into the image of an
-external force; but when she is in the semi-waking hypnagogic stage, she
-recognises that the activity was her own, though still unable to dismiss
-the delusion based on the theory formed during sleep.
-
-At this point we reach the threshold of hallucination, and the next
-case to be brought forward may be said to lie on the threshold, for an
-impression received in the hypnagogic (or hypnopompic) stage is accepted
-in its illusional form, even when the dreamer is fully awake. A farmer's
-daughter--a bright girl of twenty-one, with quick nervous reactions,
-but untrained mind--dreamed that she saw her brother (dead some years
-previously) with blood streaming from his fingers. She awoke in a fright,
-and was comforting herself with the thought that it was only a dream when
-she felt a hand grip her shoulder three times in succession. There was no
-one in the room, the door was locked, and no explanation seemed possible
-to her. She was very frightened, got up at once, dressed, and spent
-the rest of the night downstairs working. She was so convinced that a
-real hand had touched her that, although it seemed impossible, she asked
-her brothers if they had not been playing a trick on her. The nervous
-shock was considerable, and she was unable to sleep well for some weeks
-afterwards. She naturally knew nothing about abnormal psychic phenomena,
-and was utterly puzzled to explain the experience, except by supposing
-that it may have been a ghost. The explanation is really very simple. It
-is well recognised that involuntary muscular twitches may occur in the
-shoulder, especially after it has been subjected to pressure, and that in
-some cases such contractions may simulate a touch.[164] The dream of a
-bleeding hand indicates, when we bear in mind the tendency to objectify
-sensations symbolically, now familiar to us in dreaming, that the
-dreamer's arm was probably pressed beneath her in a cramped position.[165]
-This pressure would account, not only for the dream, but for the muscular
-twitches occurring on awakening. The nature of the dream, the terrified
-emotional state it produced, and the mental obscurity of the hypnagogic
-state, naturally combined, in a subject unaccustomed to self-analysis, to
-create an illusion which reflection is unable to dispel, though in the
-normal waking state she would probably have given no attention at all
-to such muscular twitches. Strictly speaking, such an experience is an
-illusion--that is to say, a misinterpretation of a real sensation--and
-not a hallucination--or perception without known objective causation--but
-there is no clear line of demarcation. In any case it may now be taken as
-proved that hallucinations tend to occur in the neighbourhood of sleep,
-and therefore to partake of the nature of dreams.[166]
-
-So far we have been concerned with the tendency in dreams to objectify
-portions of the body by constructing out of them new personalities.
-But precisely the same process goes on in sleep with regard to our
-thoughts and feelings. We split off portions of these also and construct
-other personalities out of them, and sometimes even endow the persons
-thus formed with thoughts and feelings more native to our own normal
-personality than those which we reserve for ourselves. Thus a lady who
-dreamed that when walking with a friend she discovered a species of
-animal fruit, a kind of damson containing a snail, expressed her delight
-at finding a combination so admirably adapted to culinary purposes; it
-was the friend who, retaining the attitude of her own waking moments,
-uttered an exclamation of disgust. Most of the dreams in which there is
-any dramatic element are due to this splitting up of personality; in
-our dreams we may experience shame or confusion from the rebukes or the
-arguments of other persons, but the persons who administer the rebuke or
-apply the argument are still ourselves.[167]
-
-Some writers on dreaming have marvelled greatly at this tendency of
-the sleeping mind to objectify portions of itself, and so to create
-imaginary personalities and evolve dramatic situations. It has seemed
-to them quite unaccountable except as the outcome of a special gift of
-imagination appertaining to sleep. Yet, remarkable as it is, this process
-is simply the inevitable outcome of the conditions under which psychic
-life exists during sleep. If we realise that a more or less pronounced
-degree of dissociation of the contents of the mind occurs during sleep,
-and if we also realise that, sleeping fully as much as waking, mind is
-a thing that instinctively reasons, and cannot refrain from building up
-hypotheses, then we may easily see how the personages and situations of
-dreams develop. Much the same process might, under some circumstances,
-occur in waking life. If, for instance, we heard an unknown voice speaking
-behind a curtain, we could not fail to build up an imaginary person in
-connection with that voice, the characteristics of the imaginary person
-being largely determined by the nature of the voice and of the things it
-uttered: it would, further, be quite easy to enter into conversation with
-the person we had thus constructed. That is what seems to occur in dreams.
-We hear a voice behind the curtain of darkness, and to fit that voice and
-the things it utters we instinctively form a picture which, in virtue of
-the hallucinatory aptitude of sleep, is thrown against the curtain; it is
-then quite easy to enter into conversation with the person we have thus
-constructed. It no more occurs to us during sleep to suppose that the
-voice we hear is only a voice and nothing more, than it would occur to us
-awake to suppose that the voice behind the curtain is only a voice and
-nothing more. The process is the same; the difference is that in dreams we
-are, without knowing it, living among what from the waking point of view
-are called hallucinations.
-
-This process by which dreams are formed in sleeping consciousness
-through the splitting of the dreamer's personality for the construction
-of other personalities has been recognised ever since dreams began to
-be seriously studied. Maury referred to the scission of personality in
-dreams.[168] Delboeuf dealt with what he termed the altruising by the
-dreamer of part of his representations.[169] Foucault terms the same
-process personalisation.[170] Giessler attempts elaborately to explain
-the enigma of self-diremption--the formation of a secondary self--in
-dreams; if, he argues, a touch or other sensation exceeds the dream-body's
-capacity of adaptation--_i.e._, if the state of stimulus is above the
-apperceptive threshold--only one part of the perception is referred to the
-dream-body and the other is transferred to a secondary self.[171] This
-explanation, while it very fairly covers the presentative class of dreams,
-directly connected with sensory stimuli, cannot so easily be applied to
-the dramatisation of our representative dreams, which are not obviously
-traceable to direct bodily stimulation.
-
-The splitting up of personality is indeed a very pronounced and widely
-extended tendency of the mind, and has, during recent years, been
-elaborately studied. We thus have the basis of that psychic phenomenon
-which is variously termed secondary personality, double personality,
-duplex personality, multiple personality, alternation of personality,
-etc.,[172] and in earlier ages was regarded as due to possession by
-demons. Such conditions seem to be usually associated with hysteria.
-The essential fact about hysteria is, according to Janet, its lack of
-synthetising power, which is at the same time a lack of attention and
-of apperception, and has as its result a disintegration of the field of
-consciousness into mutually exclusive parts; that is to say, there is a
-process of dissociation. Now that is a condition resembling, as we have
-seen, the condition found in dreaming. It is not, therefore, difficult to
-accept the view of Sollier and others, that hysteria is a condition allied
-to sleep, a condition of vigilambulism in which the patients are often
-unable to obtain normal sleep, simply because they are all the time in a
-state of abnormal sleep; as one said to Sollier: 'I cannot sleep because I
-am asleep all the time.' It may thus be the case that hysterical multiple
-personalities[173] furnish a pathological analogue of that tendency to the
-dramatic objectivation of portions of our personality which is normal and
-healthy in dreams.
-
-Similarly in insanity we have an even more constant and pronounced
-tendency for the subject to attribute his own sensations to imaginary
-individuals, and to create personalities out of portions of the real
-personality. All the illusions, delusions, and hallucinations of the
-insane are merely the manifold manifestations of this tendency. Without it
-the insanity would not exist. It is not because he is subjected to unusual
-sensations--visionary, auditory, tactile, olfactory, visceral, etc.--that
-a man is insane. It is because he creates imaginary personalities to
-account for these sensations; if his food tastes strange some one has
-given him poison if he hears a strange voice it is some one communicating
-with him by telephones or microphones or hypnotism; if he feels a strange
-internal sensation it is perhaps because he has another person inside
-him. The case has even been recorded of a man who attributed any feeling
-he experienced, even the most normal sensations of hunger and thirst, to
-the people around him. It is exactly the same process as goes on in our
-dreams. The sane man, the normal waking man, may experience all these
-strange sensations, but he recognises that they are the spontaneous
-outcome of his own organisation.
-
-We may, however, advance a step beyond this position. This
-self-objectivation, this dramatisation of our experiences, is not
-confined to sleep and to pathological conditions which resemble sleep.
-It is natural and primitive in a far wider sense. The infant will gaze
-inquisitively at its own feet, watch their movements, play with them,
-'punish' them; consciousness has not absorbed them as part of the
-self.[174] The infant really acts and feels towards the remote parts of
-his own body as the adult acts and feels in dreaming. We are reminded of
-the generalisation of Giessler that dream consciousness corresponds to
-the normal psychic state in childhood, while sleeping subconsciousness
-corresponds to the embryonic psychic state; so that the dream state
-represents the renascence of the ego disentangling itself from the
-impersonal sensations and indistinct images of the embryonic stage of
-life. That sleeping consciousness is the primitive embryonic consciousness
-is, indeed, indicated, it has often seemed to me, by the fact that in
-many animals the embryonic position is the position of rest and sleep.
-Ducklings and chicks in the shell have their heads beneath their wing. The
-dog lies with his feet together, head flexed, and hind-quarters drawn up.
-Man, alike in the womb and asleep, tends to be curled up, with the flexors
-predominating over the extensors.
-
-The savage has gone beyond the infant in ability to assimilate the
-impressions of his own limbs, but on the psychic side he still
-constantly tends to objectify his own feelings and ideas, re-creating
-them as external beings. Primitive man has done so from the first, and
-this impulse has struck its roots into all our most fundamental human
-traditions even as they survive in civilisation to-day. The man of
-the early world moves, like the dreamer, among a sea of emotions and
-ideas which he cannot recognise the origin of, and, like the dreamer,
-he instinctively dramatises them. But, unlike the dreamer, he gives
-stability to the images he has thus created and in good faith mistaken
-for independent beings. Thus we have the animistic stages of culture, and
-early man peoples his world with gods and spirits and demons and fairies
-and ghosts which enter into the traditions of his race, and are more or
-less accepted even by a later race which no longer creates them for itself.
-
-In our more advanced civilisations we are still struggling with later
-forms of that Protean tendency to objectify the self and to animate the
-things and even the people around us with our own spirit. The impatient
-and imperfectly bred child, or even man, kicks viciously the object he
-stumbles against, animate or inanimate, in order to revenge a wrong which
-exists only in himself. On a slightly higher plane, the men of mediæval
-times brought actions in the law courts against offending animals and
-solemnly pronounced sentence against them as 'criminals,'[175] while
-even to-day society still 'punishes' the human criminal because it has
-imaginatively re-created him in the image of an ordinary normal person,
-and lacks the intelligence to perceive that he has been moulded by the
-laws of his nature and environment into a creature which we do well to
-protect ourselves against, but have no right to 'punish.'[176] Everywhere
-we still see around us the surviving relics of this primitive tendency
-of men to project their own personalities into external objects. A fine
-civilisation lies largely in the due subordination of this tendency, in
-the realisation and control of our own emotional possibilities, and in the
-resultant growth of personal responsibility.
-
-It is thus impossible to over-estimate the immense importance of the
-primitive symbolic tendency to objectify the subjective. Men have taken
-out of their own hearts their best feelings and their worst feelings,
-and have personalised and dramatised them, bowed down to them or stamped
-on them, unable to hear the voice with which each of their images spoke:
-'I am thyself.' Our conceptions of religion, of morals, of many of the
-mightiest phenomena of life, especially the more exceptional phenomena,
-have grown up under this influence, which still serves to support many
-movements of to-day by some people imagined to be modern.
-
-Dreaming, as we have seen, is not the sole source of such conceptions.
-But they could scarcely have been found convincing, and possibly could
-not even have arisen, among races which were wholly devoid of dream
-experiences. A large part of all progress in psychological knowledge,
-and, indeed, a large part of civilisation itself, lies in realising that
-the apparently objective is really subjective, that the angels and demons
-and geniuses of all sorts that once seemed to be external forces taking
-possession of feeble and vacant individualities are themselves but modes
-of action of marvellously rich and varied personalities. In our dreams we
-are brought back into the magic circle of early culture, and we shrink and
-shudder in the presence of imaginative phantoms that are built up of our
-own thoughts and emotions, and are really our own flesh.
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[Footnote 130: See _e.g._ Galton, _Inquiries_ (Everyman's Library
-edition), pp. 79-112. Among more recent writings on this subject may
-be mentioned Bleuler, art. 'Secondary Sensations,' Tuke's _Dictionary
-of Psychological Medicine;_ Suarez de Mendoza, _L'Audition Colorée;_
-Jules Millet, _Audition Colorée;_ and especially a useful summary by
-Clavière, 'L'Audition Colorée,' _L'Année Psychologique_, fifth year,
-1899. A case of auditory gustation is recorded by A. M. Pierce, _American
-Journal of Psychology_, 1907. It may be noted that Boris Sidis has argued
-(_Psychological Review_, January 1904) that all hallucinations are of the
-nature of secondary sensations.]
-
-[Footnote 131: Ferrero, in his _Lois Psychologiques du Symbolisme_ (1895),
-deals broadly with symbolism in human thought and life.]
-
-[Footnote 132: _Revue Philosophique_, November 1902.]
-
-[Footnote 133: 'Richard Wagner et Tannhauser' in _L'Art Romantique_.]
-
-[Footnote 134: The motor imagery suggested by music is in some persons
-profuse and apparently capricious, and may be regarded as an anomaly
-comparable to a synaesthesia. Heine was an example of this, and he has
-described in _Florentine Nights_ the visions aroused by the playing of
-Paganini, and elsewhere the visions evoked in him by the music of Berlioz.
-Though I do not myself experience this phenomenon, I have found that there
-is sometimes a tendency for music to arouse ideas of motor imagery; thus
-some melodies of Handel suggest a giant painting frescoes on a vast wall
-space. The most elementary motor relationship of music is seen in the
-tendency of many people to sway portions of their body--to 'beat time'--in
-sympathy with the music. (This phenomenon has been experimentally studied
-by J. B. Miner, 'Motor, Visual, and Applied Rhythms,' Monograph Supplement
-to the _Psychological Review_, vol. v., No. 4, June 1903). Music is
-fundamentally an audible dance, and the most primitive music is dance
-music.]
-
-[Footnote 135: The instinctive nature of this tendency is shown by the
-fact that it persists even in sleep. Thus Weygandt relates that he once
-fell asleep in the theatre during one of the last scenes of _Cavalleria
-Rusticana_, when the tenor was singing in ever higher and higher tones,
-and dreamed that in order to reach the notes the performer was climbing up
-ladders and stairs on the stage.]
-
-[Footnote 136: See, especially the attractive book of André Pirro,
-_L'Esthétique de J. S. Bach_ (1907), and also Albert Schweitzer, _J. S.
-Bach_ (1908), especially chapters xix.-xxiii. 'Concrete things,' says
-Ernest Newman, summarising some of these results (_Nation_, December 25,
-1909), 'incessantly suggested abstract ideas or inward moods to Bach, and
-_vice versâ_. He would time after time use the same musical formula for
-the same word or idea. He first suggests the external concepts of "high"
-and "low," as other composers have done, by high or low notes, and motion
-up or down by ascending or descending themes. But Bach correlates with
-the outward, objective thing a whole series of things that are purely
-subjective. Thus moods of elation or of depression are to him the mental
-equivalents of the physical acts of going up or down. So he gives us a
-whole series of ascending themes to words that express "mounting" states
-of mind, as it were--such as pride, courage, strength, resolution--and
-descending themes to words that express "declining" states of mind--such
-as prostration, adoration, depression, discouragement, grief at sin,
-humility, poverty, fatigue, and illness. For the two sets of concepts,
-internal and external, he will use the same musical symbols. To represent
-the physical concept of "surrounding," again, he adopts the device of
-a circling or undulating theme. A crown or a garland suggests the same
-idea to him, so for this, too, he uses the same kind of theme. But
-the correspondence goes still further; for when he comes to the word
-"considering," he uses the same curving musical symbol once more--his
-notion of "considering" being that of looking round on all sides. Again, a
-word of purely external signification that suggests something twisted will
-have an appropriately twisted theme. Then come the subjective applications
-of the theme--the same disordered melodic outline is used to express a
-frame of mind like anxiety or confusion, or to depict the wiles of Satan.
-Careful study of the vocal works of Bach, and especially of the cantatas,
-has revealed a host of these curious symbols.' The whole subject, it may
-be added, has been briefly and suggestively discussed by Goblot, 'La
-Musique Descriptive,' _Revue Philosophique_, July 1901.]
-
-[Footnote 137: T. Piderit, _Mimik und Physiognomik_, 1867, p. 73.]
-
-[Footnote 138: J. Cleland, _Evolution, Expression and Sensation_, 1881.]
-
-[Footnote 139: Féré, 'La Physiologie dans les Métaphores,' _Revue
-Philosophique_, October 1895.]
-
-[Footnote 140: Maeder discusses symbolism in some of these fields in
-his 'Die Symbolik in den Legenden, Märchen, Gebräuchen und Träumen,'
-_Psychiatrisch-Neurologische Wochenschrift_, Nos. 6 and 7, May 1908.]
-
-[Footnote 141: So Philostratus, and Pliny (_Natural History_, Bk. X. ch.
-CCXI.) puts the same point on somewhat more natural grounds.]
-
-[Footnote 142: It has been translated by F. S. Krauss, _Symbolik der
-Träume_, 1881.]
-
-[Footnote 143: A translation of Synesius's 'Treatise on Dreams' is
-included in Druon's _Œuvres de Synésius_, pp. 347 _et seq._ Synesius is
-probably best known to modern English readers through Charles Kingsley's
-novel, _Hypatia_. His treatise on dreams has been unduly neglected, though
-it commended itself mightily to the pioneering mind of Lord Monboddo, who
-even says (_Ancient Metaphysics_, vol. ii., 1782, p. 217) in reference
-to this treatise: 'Indeed it appears to me that since the days of Plato
-and Aristotle there has not been a philosopher of greater depth than
-Synesius.']
-
-[Footnote 144: K. A. Scherner, _Das Leben des Traumes_, 1861. In France
-Hervey de Saint-Denis, in a remarkable anonymous work which I have
-not seen (_Les Rêves et les Moyens de les Diriger_, p. 356, quoted by
-Vaschide and Piéron, _Psychologie du Rêve_, p. 26), tentatively put
-forward a symbolic theory of dreams, as a possible rival to the theory
-that permanent associations are set up as the result of a first chance
-coincidence. 'Do there exist,' he asked, 'bizarre analogies of internal
-sensations in virtue of which certain vibrations of the nerves, certain
-instinctive movements of our viscera, correspond to sensations apparently
-quite different? According to this hypothesis experience would bring
-to light mysterious affinities, the knowledge of which might become a
-genuine science;... and a real key to dreams would not be an unrealisable
-achievement if we could bring together and compare a sufficient number of
-observations.']
-
-[Footnote 145: It is interesting to note that hallucinations may
-also be symbolic. Thus the Psychical Research Society's Committee on
-Hallucinations recognised a symbolic group, and recorded, for instance,
-the case of a man who, when his child lies dying, sees a blue flame in the
-air and hears a voice say, 'That's his soul' (_Proceedings Society for
-Psychical Research_, August 1894, p. 125).]
-
-[Footnote 146: Maeder states that the tendency to symbolism in dreams and
-similar modes of psychic activity is due to 'vague thinking in a condition
-of diminished attention.' This is, however, an inadequate statement and
-misses the central point.]
-
-[Footnote 147: In the other spheres in which symbolism most tends to
-appear, the same or allied conditions exist. In hallucinations, which (as
-Parish and others have shown) tend to occur in hypnagogic or sleep-like
-states, the conditions are clearly the same. The symbolism of an art, and
-notably music, is due to the very conditions of the art, which exclude
-any appeal to other senses. The primitive mind reaches symbolism through
-a similar condition of things, coming as the result of ignorance and
-undeveloped powers of apperception. In insanity these powers are morbidly
-disturbed or destroyed, with the same result.]
-
-[Footnote 148: The magnification we experience in dreams is manifested
-in their emotional aspects and in the emotional transformation of
-actual sensory stimuli, from without or from within the organism. The
-size of objects recalled by dreaming memory usually remains unchanged,
-and if changed it seems to be more usually diminished. 'Lilliputian
-hallucinations,' as they are termed by Leroy, who has studied them (_Revue
-de Psychiatrie_, 1909, No. 8), in which diminutive, and frequently
-coloured, people are observed, may also occasionally occur in alcoholic
-and chloral intoxication, in circular insanity, and in various other
-morbid mental conditions. They are usually agreeable in character.]
-
-[Footnote 149: Sollier, 'L'Autoscopie Interne,' _Revue Philosophique_,
-January 1903. Sollier deals with the objections made to the reality of the
-phenomenon.]
-
-[Footnote 150: 'Many people,' writes Dr. Marie de Manacéïne (_Sleep_,
-1897, p. 294), 'when threatened by a gastric or intestinal attack dream
-of seeing fish. The late Professor Sergius Botkine told me that he had
-found this coincidence in his own case, and I have myself several times
-found it in the case of a young girl who is well known to me. Some have
-supposed that the sleeping consciousness receives an impression of the
-elongated shape of the stomach or intestine; but such a supposition is
-easier to make than to prove.' Scherner associated dreams of fish with
-sensations arising from the bladder, and here also it may be said that we
-are concerned with a fish-like viscus. Greenwood (_Imagination in Dreams_,
-p. 195) stated that he had always been subject, at intervals of months
-or years, to a recurrent dream in which he would see a river swarming
-with fish that were finally piled in a horrible sweltering mass; this
-dream always left a feeling of 'squalid horror,' but he was never able to
-ascertain its cause and significance.]
-
-[Footnote 151: Freud states (_Die Traumdeutung_, p. 233) that he knows a
-case in which (as in the _Song of Songs_) columns and pillars appear in
-dreams as symbols of the legs, and doors as symbols of the openings of the
-body.]
-
-[Footnote 152: Freud, _Die Traumdeutung_, p. 66. This work, published
-in 1900, is the chief and most extensive statement of Freud's views. A
-shorter statement is embodied in a little volume of the 'Grenzfrägen'
-Series, _Ueber den Traum_, 1901. A brief exposition of Freud's position
-is given by Dr. A. Maeder of Zurich in 'Essai d'Interpretation de
-Quelques Rêves,' _Archives de Psychologie_, April 1907; as also by
-Ernest Jones ('Freud's Theory of Dreams,' _Review of Neurology and
-Psychiatry_, March 1910, and _American Journal of Psychology_, April
-1910). For Freud's general psychological doctrine, see Brill's translation
-of 'Freud's Selected Papers on Hysteria,' 1909. There have been many
-serious criticisms of Freud's methods. As an example of such criticism,
-accompanying an exposition of the methods, reference may be made to Max
-Isserlin's 'Die Psychoanalytische Methode Freuds,' _Zeitschrift für die
-Gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie_, Bd. 1. Heft i. 1910. A judicious
-and qualified criticism of Freud's psychotherapeutic methods is given by
-Löwenfeld ('Zum gegenwärtigen Stande der Psychotherapeutie,' _Münchener
-medizinische Wochenschrift_, Nos. 3 and 4, 1910).]
-
-[Footnote 153: I have set forth Freud's views of hysteria, now regarded as
-almost epoch-making in character, in _Studies of the Psychology of Sex_,
-vol. i. 3rd ed. pp. 219 _et seq._]
-
-[Footnote 154: This is supported by the fact that in waking reverie, or
-day-dreams, wishes are obviously the motor force in building up visionary
-structures. Freud attaches great importance to reverie, for he considers
-that it furnishes the key to the comprehension of dreams (_e.g._ _Sammlung
-Kleiner Schriften zur Neurosenlehre_, 2nd series, pp. 138 _et seq._,
-197 _et seq._). But it must be remembered that day-dreaming is not real
-dreaming, which takes place under altogether different physiological
-conditions, although it may quite fairly be claimed that day-dreaming
-represents a state intermediate between ordinary waking consciousness and
-consciousness during sleep.]
-
-[Footnote 155: The special characteristics of dreaming in the hysterical
-were studied, before Freud turned his attention to the question, by
-Sante de Sanctis (_I Sogni e il Sonno nell' Isterismo_, 1896). See also
-Havelock Ellis, _Studies in the Psychology of Sex_, vol. i. 3rd ed., 1910,
-'Auto-erotism.']
-
-[Footnote 156: Gissing, the novelist, an acute observer of psychic states,
-in the most of his books, _The Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft_, has
-described this phenomenon: 'Every one, I suppose, is subject to a trick of
-mind which often puzzles me. I am reading or thinking, and at a moment,
-without any association or suggestion that I can discover, there rises
-before me the vision of a place I know. Impossible to explain why that
-particular spot should show itself to my mind's eye; the cerebral impulse
-is so subtle that no search may trace its origin.' Gissing proceeds to say
-that a thought, a phrase, an odour, a touch, a posture of the body, may
-possibly have furnished the link of association, but he knows no evidence
-for this theory.]
-
-[Footnote 157: Extrospection has been specially studied by Vaschide and
-Vurpas in _La Logique Morbide_.]
-
-[Footnote 158: On the psychic importance of fears, see G. Stanley Hall,
-'A Study of Fears,' _American Journal of Psychology_, 1897, p. 183.
-Metchnikoff (_Essais Optimistes_, pp. 247 _et seq._) insists on the
-mingled fear and strength of the anthropoid apes.]
-
-[Footnote 159: Foucault has pointed this out, and Morton Prince, and
-Giessler (who admits that the wish-dream is common in children), and
-Flournoy (who remarks that not only a fear but any emotion can be equally
-effective), as well as Claparède. The last remarks that Freud might regard
-a fear as a suppressed desire, but it may equally be said that a desire
-involves, on its reverse side, a fear. Freud has indeed himself pointed
-out (_e.g._ _Jahrbuch für Psychoanalytische Forschungen_, Bd. 1., 1909, p.
-362) that fears may be instinctively combined with wishes; he regards the
-association with a wish of an opposing fear as one of the components of
-some morbid psychic states. But he holds that the wish is the positive and
-fundamental element: 'The unconscious can only wish' ('Das Unbewusste kann
-nichts als wünschen'), a statement that seems somewhat too metaphysical
-for the psychologist.]
-
-[Footnote 160: Thus A. Wiggam ('A Contribution to the Data of Dream
-Psychology,' _Pedagogical Seminary_, June 1909) records a great many
-wish-dreams, mostly in the young.]
-
-[Footnote 161: Laud, _Works_, vol. iii. p. 144.]
-
-[Footnote 162: Havelock Ellis, _Studies in the Psychology of Sex_, vol.
-iii., 'Love and Pain.']
-
-[Footnote 163: The dramatic element in dreaming was dealt with at length
-by Carl du Prel (_Philosophy of Mysticism_, vol. i. ch. iii.), but he
-threw little light on it.]
-
-[Footnote 164: Thus in the Psychical Research Society's 'Report on the
-_Census of Hallucinations_,' the case is given of an over-worked and
-worried man who, a few moments after leaving a tram car, had the vivid
-feeling that some one touched him on the shoulder, though on turning round
-he found no one near. He then remembered that on the car he had been
-leaning against an iron bolt, and that, therefore, what he had experienced
-was doubtless a spontaneous muscular contraction excited by the pressure
-(_Proceedings, Society for Psychical Research_, August 1894, p. 3).
-Touches felt on awakening, in correspondence with a dream, are not so
-very uncommon. Thus Wagner, when in love with Mathilde Wesendonk, wrote,
-in the private diary he kept for her, how, after a dream, 'as I awoke I
-distinctly felt a kiss on my brow.']
-
-[Footnote 165: Various pressures lead to dreams of blood. Thus a friend
-with a weak heart tells me that when he sleeps on his left side he dreams
-of blood. In some of these cases it is possible that there are retinal
-sensations of red.]
-
-[Footnote 166: In the _Census of Hallucinations_ (chapter ix.) it
-was pointed out by the Psychical Research Society's Committee that
-hallucinations are specially apt to occur on awakening, or in the state
-between sleeping and waking; and Parish in his very searching study,
-_Hallucinations and Illusions_ (Contemporary Science Series), has further
-developed this fact and insisted on its significance.]
-
-[Footnote 167: Dr. Johnson's remark on this point has often been quoted.
-He dreamed that he had been worsted in a verbal argument, and was thereby
-much mortified. 'Had not my judgment failed me,' he said, 'I should have
-seen that the wit of this supposed antagonist, by whose superiority I felt
-myself depressed, was as much furnished by me as that which I thought I
-had been uttering in my own character' (Boswell's _Johnson_, ed. by Hill,
-vol. iv. p. 5).]
-
-[Footnote 168: Maury, _Le Sommeil et les Rêves_, 1861, p. 118.]
-
-[Footnote 169: Delbœuf, _Le Sommeil et les Rêves_, pp. 24, _et seq_.]
-
-[Footnote 170: Foucault, _Le Rêve_, p. 137.]
-
-[Footnote 171: Giessler, 'Das Ich im Träume,' _Zeitschrift für Psychologie
-und Physiologie der Sinnesorgane_, 1905, Heft 4 and 5, pp. 300 _et seq._]
-
-[Footnote 172: See especially Pierre Janet's works, and also those of
-Morton Prince, Albert Wilson, etc. Flournoy's very elaborate study of
-Mlle. Helène Smith (_Des Indes à la Planète Mars_, 1900) is noteworthy. A
-summary of some important cases of multiple personality will be found in
-Marie de Manacéïne's _Sleep_, pp. 127 _et seq._, and some bibliographical
-references, _ib._ p. 151.]
-
-[Footnote 173: J. Milne Bramwell argues ('Secondary and Multiple
-Personalities,' _Brain_, 1900) that such cases are not invariably
-hysterical.]
-
-[Footnote 174: See G. Stanley Hall, 'The Early Sense of Self,' _American
-Journal of Psychology_, April 1898. Cooley ('The Early Use of Self-Words
-by a Child,' _Psychological Review_, 1909, p. 94) finds that the child
-distinguishes between itself as (1) body and as (2) self-assertion united
-with action; it refers to the former as 'Baby,' and to the latter as 'I.']
-
-[Footnote 175: See, _e.g._, Havelock Ellis, _The Criminal_, 4th ed., 1910,
-p. 367.]
-
-[Footnote 176: In the existing traditions of law and police, it is
-still possible to find many survivals of this tendency to objectify
-subjective impressions. Thus Mr. Theodore Schroeder has shown (_Free Press
-Anthology_, 1909, pp. 171 _et seq._) that the prosecutions which have in
-various so-called civilised countries pursued many estimable and even
-noble works of literature, science, and art are based on the primitive
-notion that 'indecency' resides in the object and not in the person who
-experiences the feeling, and who ought, therefore, alone to be suppressed,
-if suppression is called for. This psychological fallacy continues to
-subsist, though it was unmasked in the clearest manner even by St.
-Paul (_e.g._ Romans xiv. 14). It is somewhat analogous to the mediæval
-conception of the criminality of animals.]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER VIII
-
-DREAMS OF THE DEAD
-
-    Mental Dissociation during Sleep--Illustrated by the Dream
-    of Returning to School Life--The Typical Dream of a Dead
-    Friend--Examples--Early Records of this Type of Dream--Analysis of
-    such Dreams--Atypical Forms--The Consolation sometimes afforded
-    by Dreams of the Dead--Ancient Legends of this Dream Type--The
-    Influence of Dreams on the Belief of Primitive Man in the Survival
-    of the Dead.
-
-
-Our memories tend to fall into groups or systems. We all possess a great
-number of such systematised groups of impressions. Every period of life,
-every subject we have occupied ourselves with, every intimate friend
-we have had, each represents a more or less separate mass of ideas and
-feelings. Within each system one idea or feeling easily calls up another
-belonging to the same system. Moreover, in full and alert waking life,
-each system is in touch with the systems related to it. If there crowd
-into the field of consciousness the memories belonging to one period of
-life, or one country we have lived in, we can control and criticise those
-memories by reference to others belonging to another period or another
-country. If we are overwhelmed by the thoughts and emotions associated
-with the memory of one friend we can restore our mental balance by evoking
-the thoughts and emotions associated with another friend. The various
-systems are in this way co-ordinated in apperception.[177]
-
-In sleep, however, these groups are not usually so firmly held together
-by the cords along which we can move in our waking moments from one to
-the other. They are, as it were, loosened from their moorings, and on
-the sea of sleeping consciousness they drift apart or jostle together
-in new and what seem to be random associations. This is that process of
-dissociation which we find so marked in dreaming, and in all those psychic
-phenomena--hallucinations, hysteria, multiple personality, insanity--which
-are allied to dreaming.
-
-A simple illustration of the clash and confusion of two opposing systems
-of memories in dreams, when due apperceptive control is lacking, is
-supplied by a common and well-recognised type of dream, the dream of
-returning to the school of youth.[178] Many people are occasionally
-liable to this dream, which is often vivid and disturbing. We may have
-left the schoolroom thirty years or more ago, and never seen it since;
-it may have vanished from our waking thoughts. Yet from time to time we
-find ourselves there in our dreams, and called upon to take our old
-place, always with a sense of conflict, a vague discomfort, a feeling of
-something incongruous and humiliating, for we realise that we are now too
-old. Here is a dream in illustration: I find myself back at my old school,
-but my old schoolmaster is not there; he is away ill, as I am told by his
-substitute, whose face somehow seems familiar, though I cannot recall
-where I have seen it. I do not know any of the boys; I am returning after
-an absence of some months. I realise that I am to take my old place again,
-and yet I feel a profound repulsion to do so, a sense that it is somehow
-incongruous. This latter feeling seems to prevail, for I finally assume
-the part of a visitor, and remark, insincerely, to the master that it is
-pleasant to see the old place again.
-
-In such a case as this it seems that a picture from an ancient system
-of memories floats across the field of sleeping consciousness, and the
-dreamer is naturally drawn into that system and begins to adapt himself
-to its demands. But, as he does so, the influence of other later and
-incompatible systems of memories begins unconsciously to affect the
-dreamer.[179] The cords of connection, however, which when awake would
-enable him to adjust critically the opposing systems, are not acting;
-apperception is defective. Yet the opposing systems are there, outside
-the immediate field of consciousness, and jostling the ancient system
-which has come into the central focus. Finally this jostling of the
-ancient system by more recent systems causes a harmonising modification
-in consciousness. The dreamer ceases to be a boy in his old school, and
-assumes the part of a visitor.
-
-Dreams of our recently dead friends furnish a type of dream which is
-formed in exactly the same way as these dreams of a return to school
-life. The only difference is that they often present it in a more vivid,
-pronounced, and poignantly emotional shape. This is so, partly from
-the very subject of such dreams, and partly because the fact of death
-definitely divides our impressions of our dead friends into two groups,
-which are intimately allied to each other by their subject, and yet
-absolutely opposed by the fact that in the one group the friend is alive,
-and in the other dead.
-
-I proceed to present two series of dreams--one in a man, the other in a
-woman--illustrating this type of dream.[180]
-
-_Observation I._--Mr. C., age about twenty-eight, a man of scientific
-training and aptitudes. Shortly after his mother's death he repeatedly
-dreamed that she had come to life again. She had been buried, but it was
-somehow found out that she was not really dead. Mr. C. describes the
-painful intellectual struggles that went on in these dreams, the arguments
-in favour of death from the impossibility of prolonged life in the grave,
-and how these doubts were finally swallowed up in a sense of wonder and
-joy because his mother was actually there, alive, in his dream.
-
-These dreams became less frequent as time went on, but some years later
-occurred an isolated dream which clearly shows a further stage in the
-same process. Mr. C. dreamed that his father had just returned home, and
-that he (the dreamer) was puzzled to make out where his mother was. After
-puzzling a long time he asked his sister, but at the very moment he asked
-it flashed upon him--more, he thinks, with a feeling of relief at the
-solution of a painful difficulty than with grief--that his mother was dead.
-
-_Observation II._--Mrs. F., age about thirty, highly intelligent but of
-somewhat emotional temperament. A week after the death of a lifelong
-friend to whom she was greatly attached, Mrs. F. dreamed for the first
-time of her friend, finding that she was alive, and then in the course of
-the dream discovering that she had been buried alive.
-
-A second dream occurred on the following night. Mrs. F. imagined that she
-went to see her friend, whom she found in bed, and to whom she told the
-strange things that she had heard (_i.e._, that the friend was dead). Her
-friend then gave Mrs. F. a few things as souvenirs. But on leaving the
-room Mrs. F. was told that her friend was really dead, and had spoken to
-her after death.
-
-In a fourth dream, at a subsequent date, Mrs. F. imagined that her friend
-came to her, saying that she had returned to earth for a few minutes to
-give her messages and to assure her that she was happy in another world
-and in the enjoyment of the fullest life.
-
-Another dream occurred more than a year later. Some one brought to Mrs.
-F., in her dream, the news that her friend was still alive; she was taken
-to her and found her as in life. The friend said she had been away, but
-did not explain where or why she had been supposed dead. Mrs. F. asked no
-questions and felt no curiosity, being absorbed in the joy of finding her
-friend still alive, and they proceeded to talk over the things that had
-happened since they last met. It was a very vivid, natural, and detailed
-dream, and on awaking Mrs. F. felt somewhat exhausted. Although not
-superstitious, the dream gave her a feeling of consolation.
-
-The next series has been observed more recently. I include all the dreams
-and the intervals at which they occurred. The somewhat unexpected news
-reached me of the death of a near and lifelong friend when I was myself
-recovering from an attack of influenza. No dream which could be connected
-with this event occurred until about a fortnight later[181] (16th
-January). I then dreamed that I was with my friend and asking him (he had
-been a clergyman and Biblical scholar) whether, in his opinion, Jesus had
-been able to speak Greek. I awoke before I received his answer, but no
-sort of doubt, hesitation, or surprise was aroused by his appearance alive.
-
-Nineteen days later (4th February) occurred the next dream. This time I
-dreamed that my friend was just dead, and that I was gazing at a postcard
-of good wishes, written partly in Latin, which he had sent me a few days
-before (on the actual date of my birthday), and regretting that I had not
-answered it. There was no doubt in my mind as to the fact of his death.
-(I may remark that the last letter I had written to my friend was on his
-birthday, and he had been unable to reply, so that there was here one
-of those reversals which Freud and others have noted as not uncommon in
-dreams.)
-
-The next dream occurred thirty-four days later (10th March). I thought
-that I met my friend, and at once realised that it was not he but his wife
-who had died, and I clasped his hand sympathetically.
-
-Some months later (27th July) I again dreamed that I was walking with my
-friend and talking, as we might have talked, on topics of common interest.
-But at the same time I knew, and he knew that I knew, that he was to die
-on the morrow.
-
-Once more, a fortnight later (10th August), I dreamed that I had an
-appointment to meet my friend in a certain road, but he failed to appear.
-I began to wonder whether he had forgotten the appointment, or I had made
-a mistake, and I was seeking for the letter making the appointment when I
-awoke.
-
-It would appear that the dreams of this type are less pronounced in the
-ratio of the less pronounced affectional intensity of the relationship
-which unites the friends. The next dream concerned a man for whom I had
-the highest esteem and regard, but had not been intimately associated
-with. I dreamed that I saw this friend, who was the editor of a
-psychological journal, alive and well in his room, together with two
-foreign psychologists also known to me, who had apparently succeeded him
-in the editorship of the journal, for I saw their names on the title-page
-of a number of it which was put in my hands. It surprised me that, though
-alive and well, he should have ceased to edit the journal; the theory
-by which I satisfactorily accounted to myself for his appearance was
-that, though he had been so near death that his life was despaired of,
-he had not actually died; his death had been prematurely reported. It
-flashed across my dream consciousness, indeed, that I had read obituaries
-of my friend in the papers, but this reminiscence merely suggested the
-reflection that some one had been guilty of a grave indiscretion.[182]
-
-Although no attempt had been made to analyse this type of dream before
-1895, the dream itself had often been noted down, as from its poignant
-and affecting character it could not fail to be. An early example is
-furnished by the philosopher Gassendi, who states that he dreamed he met a
-friend, that he greeted him as one returned from the dead, and that then,
-saying to himself in his dream that this was impossible, he concluded
-that he must be dreaming.[183] Pepys, again, in his _Diary_, on the 29th
-June 1667, a few months after his mother's death, dreamed that 'my mother
-told me she lacked a pair of gloves, and I remembered a pair of my wife's
-in my chamber, and resolved she should have them, but then recollected
-[reflected] how my mother came to be here when I was in mourning for
-her, and so thinking it to be a mistake in our thinking her all this
-while dead, I did contrive that it should be said to any that inquired
-that it was my mother-in-law, my wife's mother, that was dead, and we in
-mourning for.' This dream, Pepys adds, 'did trouble me mightily.' Edmond
-de Goncourt, in his _Journal_ (27th July 1870), well describes how in
-the first dream of the dead brother to whom he was so tenderly attached,
-the two streams of memories appeared. He dreamed he was walking with
-his brother, but at the same time he knew he was in mourning for him,
-and friends were coming up to offer condolences; the emotions caused by
-the conflict of these two certainties--his brother's life affirmed by
-his presence and his death affirmed by all the other circumstances of
-the dream--was profoundly distressing. A few years earlier Renan, when
-his dearly loved sister Henrietta died by his side in the Lebanon, also
-had dreams of this type, which deeply affected even his cautious and
-sceptical nature. She had died of Syrian fever, from which he also was
-suffering, and shortly afterwards he wrote in a letter that 'in feverish
-dreams a terrible doubt has risen up before me; I have fancied I heard
-her voice calling to me from the vault where she was laid.' He comforted
-himself, however, with the thought that this horrible supposition was
-unjustified, since French doctors had been present at her death. Maury[184]
-also mentions that he had often had dreams of this type in which the dead
-appeared as living, though the sight of them always produced astonishment
-and doubt which the sleeping brain endeavoured to allay by some kind of
-explanation. Beaunis also describes how he has dreamed with surprise
-of meeting a friend whom even in his dream he knew to be dead.[185]
-
-It is not difficult, in the light of all that we have been able to learn
-regarding the psychology of the world of dreams, to account for the
-process here described, for its frequency, and for its poignant emotional
-effects. This dream type is only a special variety of the commonest
-species of dream, in which two or more groups of reminiscences flow
-together and form a single bizarre congruity, a _confusion_ in the strict
-sense of the word. The death of a friend sets up a barrier which cuts into
-two the stream of impressions concerning that friend. Thus, two streams
-of images flow into sleeping consciousness, one representing the friend
-as alive, the other as dead. The first stream comes from older and richer
-sources; the second is more poignant, but also more recent and more easily
-exhausted. The two streams break against each other in restless conflict,
-both, from the inevitable conditions of dream life, being accepted as
-true, and they eventually mix to form an absurd harmony, in which the
-older and stronger images (in accordance with that recognised tendency
-for old psychic impressions generally to be most stable) predominate over
-those that are more recent. Thus, in the first observation the dreamer
-seems to have begun his dream by imagining that his mother was alive as
-of old; then his more recent experiences interfered with the assertion
-of her death. This resulted in a struggle between the old-established
-images representing her as alive and the later ones representing her as
-dead. The idea that she had come to life again was evidently a theory
-that had arisen in his brain to harmonise these two opposing currents.
-The theory was not accepted easily; all sorts of scientific objections
-arose to oppose it, but there could be no doubt, for his mother was
-there. The dreamer is in the same position as a paranoiac who constantly
-seems to hear threatening voices; henceforth he is absorbed in inventing
-a theory (electricity, hypnotism, or whatever it may be) to account for
-his hallucinations, and his whole view of life is modified accordingly.
-The dreamer, in the cases I am here concerned with, sees an image of the
-dead person as alive, and is therefore compelled to invent a theory to
-account for this image; the theories that most easily suggest themselves
-are either that the dead person has never really died, or else that he
-has come back from the dead for a brief space. The mental and emotional
-conflict which such dreams involve renders them very vivid. They make a
-profound impression even after awakening, and for some sensitive persons
-are almost too sacred to speak of.
-
-When a series of these dreams occurs concerning the same dead friend
-the tendency seems to be, on the whole--though there are certainly many
-exceptions--for the living reality of the vision of the dead friend to be
-more and more positively affirmed. Whether awake or asleep, it is very
-difficult for us to resist the evidence of our senses. It is even more
-difficult asleep than awake, for, as we have seen reason to believe,
-apperception, with the critical control it involves, is weakened. Just
-as the savage or the child accepts as a reality the illusion of the sun
-traversing the sky, just as the paranoiac accepts the reality of the
-hallucinations he is subjected to, and gradually weaves them into a more
-or less plausible theory, so the dreamer seems to employ all the acutest
-powers of sleeping reason available to construct a theory in support of
-the reality of the visions of his dead friend.
-
-Sometimes atypical dreams of the dead occur in which even from the first
-there appears little clash or doubt. When the vision can thus easily be
-accepted, it is sometimes a source of consolation, joy, and even religious
-faith which may still persist in the waking state. Chabaneix has, for
-instance, recorded the dream experiences of a poet and philosopher who
-had been deeply attached to a woman with whom his relations were both
-passionate and intellectual. From the night after her death onwards, at
-intervals, he had dreams of the beloved woman, at first appearing as
-a floating vision, later as a vividly seen and tangible person; these
-dreams caused refreshment and mental invigoration, and seemed to bring the
-dreamer into renewed communication with his dead friend.[186]
-
-I am indebted to a clergyman for the record of a somewhat similar
-experience. 'A close friendship,' he writes, 'once existed between myself
-and a lady, somewhat older, and of a religious temperament. We often
-discussed the life beyond the grave, and agreed that if she died first,
-and this appeared more than probable, as she was the victim of a mortal
-disease, she would appear to me. I may add that she was of a highly-strung
-and nervous nature, and though purely English had many of the psychic
-characteristics of the Celt. After her death, I looked for some appearance
-or manifestation, and about three days after dreamed that she had come
-back to me, and was discussing with me a matter which I much wished to
-speak about before her death, but was unable to, owing to her weakness and
-the presence of strangers. In the dream it was perfectly clear to me that
-she was a dead woman back from another sphere of existence. For some weeks
-after this I had similar experiences. They were never dreams of the old
-life and friendship before death, but always reappearances from the other
-world. Of course it may be said of this experience of mine, that it was
-merely the result of expectation. But I have found that the things most on
-my mind are rarely the subject of my dreams. Moreover, these dreams formed
-a series, lasting for weeks, and all of the same character, though the
-conversations differed.'
-
-When a dreamer awakes in an emotional state which corresponds to a dream
-he has just experienced, it is usually a safe assumption that the dream
-was the result, and not the cause, of the emotional state. That is by
-no means always the case, however, and in the type of dream we are here
-concerned with it is rarely the case. Even though it may be quite true
-that an emotional state evoked the dream, it is equally true that in
-its turn the dream itself may arouse an emotional state. The dream of
-encountering a celestial visitant, especially if the visitant is a beloved
-friend, cannot fail to produce an especial effect of this kind. It is
-noteworthy that the emotional influence may be present even when the fact
-of dreaming has not been recalled. Thus a lady who, on waking in the
-morning could not remember having dreamed, realised during the day that
-she was feeling as she was accustomed to feel after dreaming of a beloved
-friend, and was ultimately able to recall fragments of the dream.[187] A
-man of so great an intellect as Goethe has borne witness to the consoling
-influence of dreams. 'I have had times in my life,' he said, in old age,
-to Eckermann, 'when I have fallen asleep in tears, but in my dreams the
-loveliest figures come to give me comfort and happiness, and I awake next
-morning once more fresh and cheerful.'[188]
-
-If we take a wide sweep we shall find in many parts of the world stories
-and legends concerning the relationship of the living with the dead which
-have a singular resemblance with the typical dream of the dead here
-investigated. Thus, in Japan, it appears that stories of the returning
-of the dead are very common. Lafcadio Hearn reproduces one, as told by a
-Japanese, which closely resembles some of the dreams we have met with.
-'A lover resolved to commit suicide on the grave of his sweetheart. He
-found her tomb and knelt before it, and prayed and wept, and whispered
-to her that which he was about to do. And suddenly he heard her voice
-cry to him "Anata!" and felt her hand upon his hand: and he turned and
-saw her kneeling beside him, smiling and beautiful as he remembered her,
-only a little pale. Then his heart leaped so that he could not speak for
-the wonder and the doubt and the joy of that moment. But she said, "Do
-not doubt; it is really I. I am not dead. It was all a mistake. I was
-buried because my parents thought me dead--buried too soon. Yet you see
-I am not dead, not a ghost. It is I; do not doubt it!"' It is perhaps
-worth mentioning that the incident told in the Fourth Gospel (xx. 11-18)
-as occurring to Mary Magdalene when at the tomb of Jesus, recalls the
-dream process of fusion of images. She turns and sees, as she thinks, the
-gardener, but in the course of conversation it flashes on her that he is
-Jesus, risen from the tomb. In quite another part of the world the Salish
-Indians of British Columbia have a story of a man who goes back to the
-spirit-world to reclaim his lost wife; this can only be done under special
-conditions, and for some time refraining to touch her; if he breaks these
-conditions she vanishes in his arms, and he is left alone.[189] That
-story, again, cannot fail to remind us of the almost identical Greek
-legend of the return of Orpheus to the under-world to reclaim his dead
-wife Eurydice. If these myths and legends were not directly based on the
-dream-process, it can only be on the ground, alleged with some force by
-Freud's school, that myths and legends themselves develop by means of the
-same mechanism as dreams.
-
-The probable influence of dreams in originating or confirming the
-primitive belief of men in a spirit world has often been set forth.
-Herbert Spencer attached great importance to this factor in the
-constitution of the belief in another world, in spirits and in gods.[190]
-Wundt even considers that such dreams furnish the whole origin of animism.
-Other writers, less closely associated with anthropological psychology,
-have argued in the same sense.[191]
-
-But while these thinkers have in some cases specifically referred to
-dreams of the dead, and not merely to the widespread belief of savages
-that in sleep the soul leaves the body to wander over the earth, they have
-never realised that there is a special mechanism in the typical dream of
-a dead friend, due to mental dissociation during sleep, which powerfully
-suggests to us that death sets up no fatal barrier to the return of the
-dead. In dreams the dead are thus rendered indestructible; they cannot be
-finally killed, but rather tend to reappear in ever more clearly affirmed
-vitality. Dreams of this sort must certainly have come to men ever since
-men began to be. If their emotional effects are great to-day, we can well
-believe that they were much greater in the early days when dream life and
-what we call real life were less easily distinguished. The repercussion
-of this kind of dream through unmeasured ages cannot fail to have told at
-last on the traditions of the race.
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[Footnote 177: I may refer to the very interesting discussion by Professor
-G. F. Stout (_Analytic Psychology_, vol. ii. p. 145) of the conflict of
-systems in apperception, and of the suspense and deadlock which occur when
-two or more systems come into conflict in such a way that the success of
-one is the defeat of the other. The discussion is full of interest from
-its undesigned bearing on the phenomena of dreaming.]
-
-[Footnote 178: Foucault, for instance (_Le Rêve_, p. 25), discusses
-and illustrates dreams of this type. I am not here concerned with the
-causation of this type of dream. Perhaps, as Wundt believes, it is due
-to some physical discomfort of the sleeper, such as a cramped position,
-expressing itself symbolically.]
-
-[Footnote 179: It may be added that dreams of returning to the school
-scenes of early life are not necessarily always of the type here
-described, as may be illustrated by the dream already brought forward on
-p. 83, which, it is worth while noticing, occurred after a day on which I
-had been thinking over the dreams of this class.]
-
-[Footnote 180: I reproduce these two series in the same form as first
-published (Havelock Ellis, 'On Dreaming of the Dead,' _Psychological
-Review_, September 1895) since they have formed the starting point of my
-own and others' investigation into this type of dream.]
-
-[Footnote 181: It is well known, and has often been pointed out (by
-Weygandt, Sante de Sanctis, Jewell, etc., and perhaps first by T. Beddoes
-in his _Hygeia_, 1803, vol. iii. p. 88), that while in childhood all the
-emotions of the past day are at once echoed in dreams, after adolescence,
-this is not so in the case of intense emotions, which do not emerge
-in dreams until after a more or less considerable interval. Marie de
-Manacéïne and Sante de Sanctis attribute this to exhaustion of the emotion
-which needs a period of repair and organic synthesis before it can repeat
-itself. Vaschide believed that we dream of recent events in shallow sleep
-and of remote events in deep sleep; this sounds plausible, but will
-scarcely account for all the phenomena.]
-
-[Footnote 182: Since the publication of my paper 'On Dreaming of the
-Dead,' several psychologists have returned to the subject. Thus Binet
-(_L'Année Psychologique_, 2nd year, issued in 1896, p. 848) gave a dream
-of his own, very similar to mine of the editor, in which a doctor, dead
-a month previously, is talking to him in his room. On Binet expressing
-surprise at seeing him, the doctor explains that he had only sent news of
-his death in order to see how many people would come to his funeral. Binet
-has also had two dreams, similar to that described on p. 200, in which he
-is walking in the country with a dead friend, who seems in good health,
-though the dreamer knows he will soon die. Foucault (_Le Rêve_, p. 128),
-who, in accordance with his own theory, regards my dream of the editor as
-belonging to the period of awakening, brings forward a dream of his own
-in which he saw his father, dead six months before, sitting in a chair;
-at first this seems to him a hallucination, but he finally accepts the
-vision as real. I have had a number of letters from people who have had
-dreams of this type. One correspondent, an anthropologist and folk-lorist
-of note, says that his dreams of dead friends are of the type of Mrs.
-F.'s. Professor Näcke writes that he has had such dreams (and see also
-his articles in the _Archiv für Kriminalanthropologie_, 1903, p. 307, and
-the _Neurologisches Centralblatt_, 1910, No. 13). One young lady states
-that, thirteen years after her mother's death, she still dreams of her as
-coming to life again or never having really died. I may add that this type
-of dream is admirably illustrated in a series of dreams concerning a dead
-friend, published in a letter from a lady to _Borderland_, January 1896,
-p. 51.]
-
-[Footnote 183: Gassendi, _Syntagma Philosophicum_, 1658, pars. 71, lib.
-viii. (_Opéra Omnia_, vol. i.).]
-
-[Footnote 184: Maury, _Le Sommeil et les Rêves_, p. 145.]
-
-[Footnote 185: _American Journal of Psychology_, July-October, 1903, p.
-18.]
-
-[Footnote 186: Chabaneix, _Le Subconscient chez les Artistes, les
-Savants et les Ecrivains_, 1897, pp. 45-8. Chabaneix was in touch with
-various persons of distinction, and one is inclined to identify the
-poet-philosopher with Sully-Prudhomme, at that time still living. Du
-Maurier's remarkable novel, _Peter Ibbetson_--which records similar serial
-dreams of union with a beloved woman after death, and seems to be based on
-real experience--may also be mentioned in this connection.]
-
-[Footnote 187: Unconscious dream suggestions of this kind resemble, as
-R. MacDougall has remarked (_Psychological Review_, March 1898, p. 167),
-post-hypnotic suggestions.]
-
-[Footnote 188: This type of dream--in which the emotion of the day
-is inverted in sleep, depressing emotions giving place to exalting
-emotions, and so on--is by some (Griesinger, Lombroso, Sante de Sanctis,
-etc.), termed the contrast-dream. The dream is in such a case, Sante
-de Sanctis remarks, complementary, having the same significance as a
-complementary after-image and indicating a phase of anabolic repair.
-Thus A. Wiggam (_Pedagogical Seminary_, June 1909), gives the case of
-a girl of twenty, who when tired and restless always has good dreams,
-while her dreams are bad when she is well and free from care. It should
-be added that, as understood by Näcke ('Ueber Kontrast-Träume' _Archiv
-für Kriminalanthropologie_, 1907), a contrast-dream is one that is in
-striking contrast to the dreamer's ordinary character. In this type of
-contrast-dream it is not quite clear that the mechanism is the same, and
-the contrast may sometimes be accidental. Thus a dream of being a soldier
-on a battlefield, with shells bursting around me, was merely suggested by
-a passage of Nietzsche, read in the evening, which contained the words
-'the thunders of the battle of Wörth,' and the question of contrast or
-resemblance to my character and habits was irrelevant.]
-
-[Footnote 189: _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, July-December
-1904, p. 339.]
-
-[Footnote 190: See Herbert Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, 3rd ed.,
-1885, vol. i. ch. x., especially pp. 140, 182, 201, 772. Spencer believed
-that Lubbock was the first to point out this factor in primitive beliefs,
-which has been chiefly developed by Tylor. It is, of course, by no means
-the only factor. See _post_, p. 266.]
-
-[Footnote 191: Thus Professor Beaunis (_loc. cit._) considers that dreams
-furnish the only rational explanation of the belief in survival after
-death. Jewell, again (_American Journal of Psychology_, January 1905),
-also considers that dreams are responsible for primitive man's inability
-to conceive of death as ending our association with our friends; he
-brings forward evidence, highly significant in this connection, to show
-that children, on dreaming of the dead as alive, are influenced in waking
-life to doubt the reality of their death. Ruths, also writing since
-the publication of my first paper (_Experimental-Untersuchungen über
-Musikphantome_, 1898, pp. 438 _et seq._), considers that the conception of
-an under-world is founded on dreams of the dead coming to life.]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER IX
-
-MEMORY IN DREAMS
-
-    The Apparent Rapidity of Thought in Dreams--This Phenomenon largely
-    due to the Dream being a Description of a Picture--The Experience
-    of Drowning Persons--The Sense of Time in Dreams--The Crumpling
-    of Consciousness in Dreams--The Recovery of Lost Memories through
-    the Relaxation of Attention--The Emergence in Dreams of Memories
-    not known to Waking Life--The Recollection of Forgotten Languages
-    in Sleep--The Perversions of Memory in Dreams--Paramnesic False
-    Recollections--Hypnagogic Paramnesia--Dreams mistaken for Actual
-    Events--The Phenomenon of Pseudo-Reminiscence--Its Relationship
-    to Epilepsy--Its Prevalence especially among Imaginative and
-    Nervously Exhausted Persons--The Theories put forward to Explain
-    it--A Fatigue Product--Conditioned by Defective Attention and
-    Apperception--Pseudo-Reminiscence a reversed Hallucination.
-
-
-The peculiarities of memory in dreams--its defects, its aberrations, its
-excesses--have attracted attention ever since dreams began to be studied
-at all. It is not enough to assure ourselves that on awakening from a
-dream our memory of that dream may fairly be regarded as trustworthy so
-far as it extends. The characteristics of memory revealed within the
-reproduced dream have sometimes seemed so extraordinary as to be only
-explicable by the theory of supernatural intervention.
-
-A problem which at one time greatly puzzled the scientific students of
-dreaming is furnished at the outset by the apparent abnormal rapidity
-of the dream process, the piling together in a brief space of time of
-a great number of combined memories. Stories were told of people who,
-when awakened by sounds or contacts which must have aroused them almost
-immediately, had yet experienced elaborate visions which could only have
-been excited by the stimulus which caused the awakening. The dream of
-Maury--who, when awakened by a portion of the bed cornice falling on his
-neck, imagined that he was living in the days of the Reign of Terror, and,
-after many adventures, was being guillotined--has become famous.[192]
-
-It is unquestionably true that dreams are sometimes evoked by sensory
-stimuli which almost immediately awake the dreamer. But the supposition
-that this fairly common fact involves an extraordinary acceleration of
-the rapidity with which mental images are formed is due to a failure to
-comprehend the conditions under which psychic activity in sleep takes
-place. If the sleeper were wide awake, and were suddenly startled by a
-mysterious voice at the window or the door, he would arrive at a theory of
-the sound, and even form a plan of action, with at least as much rapidity
-as when the stimulus occurs during sleep. The difference is that in sleep
-the ordinary mental associations are more or less in abeyance, and the way
-is therefore easily open to new associations. These new associations, when
-we look back at them from the standpoint of waking life, seem to us so
-bizarre, so far-fetched, that we think it must have required a long time
-to imagine them. We fail to realise that, under the conditions of dream
-thought, they have come about as automatically and as instantaneously as
-the ordinary psychic concomitants of external stimulation in waking life.
-It must also be remembered that in all the cases in which the rapidity
-of the dream process has seemed so extraordinary, it has merely been a
-question of visual imagery, and it is obviously quite easy to see in an
-instant an elaborate picture or series of pictures which would take a long
-time to describe.[193] At the most the dreamer has merely seen a kind of
-cinematographic drama which has been condensed and run together in very
-much the way practised by the cinematographic artist, so that although the
-whole story seems to be shown in constant movement, in reality the action
-of hours is condensed into moments. Further, it has always to be borne in
-mind that, asleep as well as awake, intense emotion involves a loss of
-the sense of time. We say in a terrible crisis that moments seemed years,
-and when sleeping consciousness magnifies a trivial stimulation into the
-occasion of a great crisis the same effect is necessarily produced.
-
-Exactly the same illusion is experienced by persons who are rescued from
-drowning, or other dangerous situations. It sometimes seems to them
-that their whole life has passed before them in vision during those
-brief moments. But careful investigation of some of these cases, notably
-by Piéron, has shown that what really happened was that a scene from
-childhood, perhaps of some rather similar accident, came before the
-drowning man's mind and was followed by five, six, perhaps even ten or
-twelve momentary scenes from later life. When the time during which these
-scenes flashed through the mind was taken into account it was found that
-there had by no means been any remarkable mental rapidity.
-
-Such considerations have now led most scientific investigators of
-dreaming to regard these problems of dream memory as settled. Woodworth's
-observations on the hypnagogic or half-waking state revealed no remarkable
-rapidity of mental processes. Clavière showed by experiments with an
-alarm clock which struck twice with an interval of twenty-two seconds
-that speech dreams at all events take place merely with normal rapidity,
-or are even slightly slower than under waking conditions. The imagery of
-sleep, Clavière concluded, is not more rapid than the imagery of waking
-life, though to the dreamer it may seem to last for hours or days. It is
-often slackened rather than accelerated, says Piéron, who refers to the
-corresponding illusion under the influence of drugs like hashish, though
-in some cases he finds that there is really a slight acceleration. The
-illusion is simply due, Foucault thinks, to the dreamer's belief that the
-events of his dream occupy the same time as real events. This illusion
-of time, concludes Dr. Justine Tobolowska, in her Paris thesis on this
-subject, is simply the necessary and constant result of the form assumed
-by psychic life during sleep.[194]
-
-If this peculiarity of memory in dreaming is not difficult to explain as
-a natural illusion, there are other and rarer characteristics of dream
-memory which are much more puzzling.
-
-In attempting to unravel these, it is probable that, as in explaining
-the illusion of rapidity, we must always bear in mind the tendency
-of memory-groups in dreams to fall apart from their waking links of
-association, so well as the complementary tendency to form associations
-which in waking life would only be attained by a strained effort.
-Apperception, with the power it involves of combining and bringing to a
-focus all the various groups of memories bearing on the point in hand,
-is defective. The focus of conscious attention is contracted, and there
-is the curious and significant phenomenon that sleeping consciousness is
-occasionally unconscious of psychic elements which yet are present just
-outside it and thrusting imagery into its focus. The imagery becomes
-conscious, but its relation to the existing focus of consciousness is
-not consciously perceived. Such a psychic mechanism, as Freud and his
-disciples have shown, quite commonly appears in hysteria and obsessional
-neuroses when healthy normal consciousness is degraded to a pathological
-level resembling that which is normal in dreams.[195] In such a case the
-surface of sleeping consciousness is, as it were, crumpled up, and the
-concealed portion appears only at the end of the dream or not at all. A
-simple example may make this clear. In a dream I ask a lady if she knows
-the work of the poet Bau; she replies that she does not; then I see before
-me a paper having on it the name Baudelaire, clearly the name which should
-have been contained in my query.[196] In such a dream the crumpling
-and breaking of consciousness, at its very focus, is shown in the most
-unmistakable manner.[197] But many of the most remarkable dreams of
-dramatic dreamers are due to the same phenomenon, which in an intellectual
-form is exactly the phenomenon which always makes a dramatic situation
-effective. Robert Louis Stevenson was an abnormally vivid dreamer, and
-found the germ of some of the plots of his stories in his dreams; he
-has described one of his dreams in which the dreamer imagines he has
-committed a murder; the crime becomes known to a woman who, however, never
-denounces it; the murderer lives in terror, and cannot conceive why the
-woman prolongs his torture by this delay in giving him up to justice; only
-at the end of the dream comes the clue to the mystery, and the explanation
-of the woman's attitude, as she falls on her knees and cries: 'Do you not
-understand? I love you.'[198]
-
-There is another and very interesting class of dreams in which we find
-not merely that some memory-groups disappear from consciousness or become
-merely latent, but also that other memory-groups, latent or even lost to
-waking consciousness, float into the focus of sleeping consciousness. In
-other words, we can remember in sleep what we have forgotten awake. We
-then have what is called the _hypermnesia_, the excessive or abnormal
-memory, of sleep.
-
-There can be little doubt that the two processes--the sinking of some
-memory-groups and the emergence on the surface of other memory-groups
-which, so far as waking life is concerned, had apparently fallen to the
-depths and been drowned--are complementarily related to one another. We
-remember what we have forgotten because we forget what we remembered.
-The order of our waking impressions involves a certain tension, that is
-to say a certain attention, which holds them in our consciousness, and
-excludes any other order which might serve to bring lost memory-groups to
-sight. Sometimes we are conscious of a lost memory which is just outside
-consciousness, but which, with the existing order of our memory-groups,
-we cannot bring into consciousness. We have the missing name, the missing
-memory, at the tip of our tongue, we say, but we cannot quite catch
-it.[199] In dreams apperception is defective, the strain of conscious
-attention is relaxed, and the conditions are furnished under which
-new clues and strains may come into action and the missing name glide
-spontaneously into consciousness. Even the mere approach of sleep, with
-its accompanying relaxation of attention, may effect this end. Thus I
-was trying one day to recall the name of the unpleasant Chinese scent,
-patchouli. The name, though not usually unfamiliar, escaped me. At night,
-however, just before falling asleep, it spontaneously occurred to me. In
-the morning, when fully awake, I was again unable to recall it.
-
-In such a case we see how waking consciousness is tense in a certain
-direction, which happens not to be that in which the desired thing is to
-be found. Attention under such circumstances impedes rather than aids
-recollection. In this particular case, I felt convinced that the name I
-wanted began with _h_, and thus my mind was intently directed towards a
-wrong quarter. But on the approach of sleep attention is automatically
-relaxed, and it is then possible for the forgotten word to slip in from
-its unexpected quarter. On these occasions it is by indirection that
-direction is found.[200]
-
-It is interesting to observe that this same process of discovery due to
-the wider outlook of relaxed attention can take place, not only in sleep
-and the hypnagogic state, but also, subconsciously, in the fully waking
-state when the mind is occupied with some other subject. Thus in reading
-a MS., I came upon an illegible word which I was unable to identify,
-notwithstanding several guesses and careful scrutiny through a magnifying
-glass. I passed on, dismissing the subject from my mind. A quarter of an
-hour afterwards, when walking, and thinking of quite a different subject,
-I became conscious that the word 'ceremonial' had floated into the field
-of mental vision, and I at once realised that this was the unidentified
-word. The instance may be trivial, but no example could better show how
-the mind may continue to work subconsciously in one direction while
-consciously working in an entirely different direction.
-
-In dreams, however, we can effect more than a mere recovery of memories
-which have temporarily escaped us, or the discovery of relationships
-which have eluded us. The dissociation of familiar memory-groups becomes
-so complete, the appearance of unfamiliar groups so eruptive, that we
-can remember things that have entirely and permanently sunk below the
-surface of waking consciousness, or even things which are so insignificant
-that they have never made any mark on waking consciousness at all. In
-this way, we may be said, in a certain sense, to remember things we
-never knew. The first dream which enabled me, some twenty years ago, to
-realise this hypermnesia of the mind in dreams[201] was the following
-unimportant but instructive case. I woke up recalling the chief items
-of a rather vivid dream: I had imagined myself in a large old house,
-where the furniture, though of good quality, was ancient, and the chairs
-threatened to give way as one sat on them. The place belonged to one Sir
-Peter Bryan, a hale old gentleman, who was accompanied by his son and
-grandson. There was a question of my buying the place from him, and I was
-very complimentary to the old gentleman's appearance of youthfulness,
-absurdly affecting not to know which was the grandfather and which the
-grandson. On awaking I said to myself that here was a purely imaginative
-dream, quite unsuggested by any definite experiences. But when I began
-to recall the trifling incidents of the previous day, and the things I
-had seen and read, I realised that that was far from being the case. So
-far from the dream having been a pure effort of imagination, I found that
-every minute item could be traced to some separate source, though none
-of them had the slightest resemblance to the dream as a whole. The name
-of Sir Peter Bryan alone completely baffled me; I could not even recall
-that I had at that time ever heard of any one called Bryan. I abandoned
-the search and made my notes of the dream and its sources. I had scarcely
-done so when I chanced to take up a volume of biographies of eccentric
-personages, which I had glanced through carelessly the day before. I found
-that it contained, among others, the lives of Lord _Peter_borough and
-George _Bryan_ Brummel. I had certainly seen those names the day before;
-yet before I took up the book once again it would have been impossible
-for me to recall the exact name of Beau Brummel. It so happened that the
-forgotten memory which in this case re-emerged to sleeping consciousness,
-was a fact of no consequence to myself or any one else. But it furnishes
-the key to many dreams which have been of more serious import to the
-dreamers.
-
-Since then I have been able to observe among my friends several instances
-of dreams containing veracious though often trivial circumstances unknown
-to the dreamer when awake, though on consideration it was found to be in
-the highest degree probable that they had come under his notice, and been
-forgotten, or not consciously observed. Thus a musical correspondent tells
-me he once dreamed of playing a piece of Rubinstein's in the presence of
-a friend who told him he had made a mistake in re-striking a tied note.
-In the morning he found the dream friend was correct. But up to then he
-had always repeated the note. Usually when the forgotten or unnoticed
-circumstance is trivial, it is of quite recent date. That it is not
-always very recent may be illustrated by a dream of my own. I dreamed
-that I was in Spain and about to rejoin some friends at a place which was
-called, I thought, Daraus, but on reaching the booking-office I could not
-remember whether the place I wanted to go to was called Daraus, Varaus,
-or Zaraus, all which places, it seemed to me, really existed. On awaking,
-I made a note of the dream, exactly as reproduced here, but was unable to
-recall any place, in Spain or elsewhere, corresponding to any of these
-names. The dream seemed merely to illustrate the familiar way in which a
-dream image perpetually shifts in a meaningless fashion at the focus of
-sleeping consciousness. The note was put away, and a few months later
-taken out again.[202] It was still equally impossible to me to recall
-any real name corresponding to the dream names. But on consulting the
-Spanish guide-books and railway time-tables, I found that, on the line
-between San Sebastian and Bilbao, there really is a little seaside resort,
-in a beautiful situation, called Zarauz, and I realised, moreover, that
-I had actually passed that station in the train two hundred and fifty
-days before the date of my dream.[203] I had no associations with this
-place, though I may have admired it at the time; in any case it vanished
-permanently from conscious memory, perhaps aided by the fatigue of a long
-night journey before entering Spain. Even sleeping memory, I may remark,
-only recovered it with an effort, for it is notable that the name was
-gradually approached by three successive attempts.[204]
-
-A special form of lost or unconscious memories recurring in sleep
-is constituted by the cases in which people when asleep, or in a
-somnambulistic state, can speak languages which they have forgotten, or
-never consciously known, when awake. A simple instance, known to me,
-is furnished by a servant who had been taken to Paris for a few weeks
-six months before, but had never learned to speak a word of French, and
-whose mistress overheard her talking in her sleep, and repeating various
-French phrases, like 'Je ne sais pas, Monsieur'; she had certainly heard
-these phrases, though she maintained, when awake, that she was ignorant
-of them. Speaking in a language not consciously known, or xenoglossia,
-as it is now termed, occurs under various abnormal conditions, as well
-as in sleep, and is sometimes classed with the tendency which is found,
-especially under great religious excitement, to 'speak with tongues,' or
-to utter gibberish.[205] But in various sleep-like states it occurs as a
-true revival of forgotten memories, sometimes of memories which belong to
-childhood and in normal consciousness have been long overlaid and lost.
-On one occasion, by the bedside of a lady who was kept for a considerable
-period in a light condition of chloroform anaesthesia, the patient began
-to talk in an unfamiliar language which one of us recognised as Welsh; as
-a child, she afterwards owned, she had known Welsh, but had long since
-forgotten it.[206] A similar reproduction of lost memories occurs in the
-hypnotic state.
-
-This psychic process, by which unconscious memories become conscious
-in dreams, is of considerable interest and importance because it lends
-itself to many delusions. Not only the ignorant and uncultured, but
-even well-trained and acute minds, are often so unskilled in mental
-analysis that they are quite unable to pierce beneath the phenomenon of
-conscious ignorance to the deeper fact of unconscious memory; they are
-completely baffled, or else they resort to the wildest hypotheses. This
-is illustrated by the following narrative received twelve years ago from
-a medical correspondent in Baltimore. 'Several years ago,' he writes, 'a
-friend made a social call at my house and in the course of conversation
-spoke very enthusiastically of Mascagni's _Cavalleria Rusticana_, the
-first performance of which in the United States he had attended a few
-nights previously. I had never even heard of the opera before, but that
-night I dreamed that I heard it performed. The dream was a very vivid one,
-so vivid that several times during the next day I found myself humming
-airs from the dream opera. Several evenings later I went to the theatre to
-see a comedy, and before the curtain rose the orchestra played a selection
-which I instantly recognised as part of my dream opera. I exclaimed to a
-lady who was with me: "That selection is from _Cavalleria Rusticana_."
-On inquiring of the leader of the orchestra such proved to be the case.'
-Now, at that period, shortly after the first appearance of _Cavalleria
-Rusticana_, portions of it had become extremely popular and were heard
-everywhere, by no means merely on the operatic stage. It was difficult not
-to have heard something of it. There cannot be the slightest doubt that my
-correspondent had heard not only the name but the music, though, writing
-at an interval of some years, he probably exaggerated the extent of his
-unconscious recollections. This seems the simple explanation of what to
-my correspondent was an inexplicable mystery. Other people, like the late
-Frederick Greenwood, not content to remain baffled, go further and regard
-such dreams as 'dreams of revelation,' as they also consider that class of
-dreams in which the dreamer works out the solution of a difficulty which
-he had vainly grappled with when awake.
-
-This is a kind of dream which has occurred in all ages, and has at times
-been put down to divine interposition. Sixteen centuries ago Bishop
-Synesius of Ptolemais wrote that in his hunting days a dream revealed
-to him an idea for a trap which he successfully employed in snaring
-animals, and at the present time inventions made in dreams have been
-successfully patented. The Rev. Nehemiah Curnock, who lately succeeded in
-deciphering Wesley's _Journal_, has stated that an important missing clue
-to the cypher came to him in a dream. A friend of my own, an expert in
-chemistry, was not long since in frequent communication with a practical
-manufacturer, assisting him in his inventions by scientific advice.
-One day the manufacturer wrote to my friend asking if the latter had
-been thinking of him during the night, for he had been much puzzled by
-a difficulty, and during the night had seen a vision of my friend who
-explained the solution of the difficulty; in the morning the proposed
-solution proved successful. There was, however, no telepathic element in
-the case; the dreamer's solution was his own.
-
-An interesting group of cases in this class is furnished by the dreams
-in which the dreamer, in opposition to his waking judgment, sees an
-acquaintance in whom he reposes trust acting in a manner unworthy of that
-trust, subsequent events proving that the estimate formed during sleep was
-sounder than that of waking life. Hawthorne (in his _American Notebooks_),
-Greenwood, Jewell, and others have recorded cases of this kind.
-
-Various as these phenomena are, they fall into the same scheme. They all
-help to illustrate the fact that though on one side mental life in sleep
-is feeble and defective, on the other side it shows a tendency to vigorous
-excess. Sleep, as we know, involves a relaxation of tension, both physical
-and psychic; attention is no longer focused at a deliberately selected
-spot.[207] The voluntary field becomes narrower, but the involuntary field
-becomes extended. Thus it happens that the contents of our minds fall into
-a new order, an order which is often fantastic but, on the other hand,
-is sometimes a more natural and even a more rational order than that we
-attain in waking life. Our eyes close, our muscles grow slack, the reins
-fall from our hands. But it sometimes happens that the horse knows the
-road home even better than we know it ourselves.
-
-Hypermnesia, or abnormally wide range of recollection, is not the only
-or the most common modification of memory during sleep. We find much
-more commonly, and indeed as one of the chief characteristics of sleep,
-an abnormally narrow range of recollection. We find, also, and perhaps
-as a result of that narrow range, paramnesia or perversion of memory.
-The best known form of paramnesia is that in which we have the illusion
-that the event which is at the moment happening to us has happened to us
-before.[208]
-
-This form of paramnesia is common in dreams, though it is often so
-slightly pronounced that we either fail to recall it on awakening or
-attach no significance to it.[209] I dream, for instance, that I am
-walking along a path, along which, it seems to me, I have often walked
-before, and that the path skirts the lawn of a house by which stands a
-policeman whom, also, it seems to me, I have often seen there before; the
-policeman approaches me and says, 'You have come to see Mr. So-and-so,
-sir?' and thereupon I suddenly recollect, with some confusion, that I
-have come to see Mr. So-and-so, and I walk up to the door. Again, an
-author dreams that he sees a list of his own books with, at the head of
-them, one entitled 'The Book of Glory.' He could not recall writing it
-(and to waking consciousness the name was entirely unknown), but the only
-reflection he made in his dream was 'How stupid to have forgotten!' In
-this case there was evidently some resistance to the suggestion, which
-yet was quickly accepted. In all such dreams it seems that we are in a
-state of mental weakness associated with defective apperceptual control
-and undue suggestibility, very similar to the state found in some forms of
-confusional insanity or of precocious dementia.[210] Consciousness feebly
-slides down the path of least resistance; it accepts every suggestion; the
-objects presented to it seem things that it knew before, the things that
-are suggested to it to do seem things that it already wanted to do before.
-Paramnesia, thus regarded, seems simply a natural outcome of a state of
-consciousness temporarily depressed below its normal standard of vigour.
-
-It must be remembered that the suggestibility of sleeping consciousness
-varies in degree, and in the face of serious improbabilities there is
-often a considerable amount of resistance, just as the hypnotised person
-seriously resists the suggestions that fundamentally outrage his nature.
-But some degree of suggestibility, some tendency to regard the things
-that come before us in dreams as familiar--in other words, as things that
-have happened to us before--is not merely a natural result of defective
-apperception, but one of the very conditions of dreaming. It enables us to
-carry on our dreams; without it their progress would be fatally inhibited
-by doubt, uncertainty, and struggle. So it is, perhaps, that in all
-dreaming, or at all events in certain stages of sleeping consciousness, we
-are liable to fall into a state of pseudo-reminiscence.
-
-It is an interesting and highly significant fact that this paramnesic
-delusion of our dreams--the feeling that the thing that is happening
-to us is the thing that has happened to us before or that might happen
-to us again--tends to persist in the hypnagogic (or hypnopompic) stage
-immediately following sleep. When we have half awakened from a dream and
-are just able to realise that it was a dream, that dream constantly tends
-to appear in a more plausible or probable light than is possible a few
-moments later when we are fully awake.[211]
-
-The first experience which enabled me clearly to realise this phenomenon,
-and its probable explanation, occurred many years ago. About the middle
-of the night I had a very vivid dream, in which I imagined that two
-friends--a gentleman and his daughter--with a certain Lord Chesterfield (I
-had lately been reading the _Letters_ of the famous Lord Chesterfield),
-were together at a hotel, that they were playing with weapons, that the
-lady accidentally killed or wounded Lord Chesterfield, and that she
-then changed clothes with him with the object of escaping, and avoiding
-discovery which would somehow be dangerous. I was informed of the matter,
-and was much concerned. I awoke, and my first thought was that I had just
-had a curious dream which I must not forget in the morning. But then I
-seemed to remember that it was a real and familiar event. This second
-thought lulled my mental activity, and I went to sleep again. In the
-morning I was able to recall the main points in my dream, and my thoughts
-on awaking from it.
-
-Since then I have given attention to the point, and I have found on
-recalling my half-waking consciousness after dreams that, while it is
-doubtless rare to catch the assertion 'That really occurred,' it is less
-rare to catch the vague assertion, 'That is the kind of thing that does
-occur.' I find that this latter impression appears, like the former,
-after vivid dreams which contain no physical impossibility, but which
-the full waking consciousness refuses to recognise as among the things
-that are probable. As an example quite unlike that just recorded, I may
-mention a dream in which I imagined that I was proving the frequency
-of local intermarriage by noting in directories the frequency of the
-presence of people of the same name in neighbouring towns and villages.
-On half-awaking I still believed that I had actually been engaged in such
-a task--that is, either that the dream was real or that it referred to a
-real event--and it was not until I was sufficiently awake to recognise
-the fallacy of such a method of investigation that I realised that it was
-purely a dream.
-
-This phenomenon has long been known, although its significance has not
-been perceived. Brierre de Boismont pointed out that certain vivid dreams
-are not recognised as dreams, but are mistaken for reality after waking,
-though he scarcely recognised the normal limitation of this mistake to the
-hypnagogic state. Moll compared such dreams, thus continued into waking
-life, to continuative post-hypnotic suggestions. Sully mentioned awaking
-from dreams which 'still wear the aspect of old acquaintances, so that
-for the moment I think they are waking realities.'[212] Colegrove, in his
-study of memory, recorded many cases in which young people mistook their
-dreams for actual events.[213]
-
-This persistence of the memory illusion of sleep into the subsequent
-hypnagogic state is obviously related to the allied persistence,
-more occasionally found, of the visual, auditory, and other sensory
-hallucinations of sleep into the hypnagogic state.[214] Visions thus seen
-persisting from dreams for a few moments into waking life are often very
-baffling and disturbing, as has already been pointed out, to ignorant
-and untrained people. Such visions may occur in the hypnagogic state,
-even when there has been no conscious precedent dream, and it is indeed
-probable, as Parish has argued, that it is precisely in the hypnagogic
-state, the narthex of the church of dreams, as I may term it, that
-hallucinations are most liable to occur. That illusions may momentarily
-occur in this state is obvious; thus falling asleep for a few minutes
-when seated before a black hollow smouldering fire, with red ashes at the
-bottom, I awake with the illusion that I see a curtain on fire, and have
-already leaned forward to snatch it away before I realise my mistake.
-
-Under normal conditions, the liability of a dream memory to be mistaken
-for an actual event seems to be greater when an interval has elapsed
-before the dream is remembered, such an interval making it difficult to
-distinguish one class of memories from the other, provided the dream has
-been of a plausible character. Thus Professor Näcke has recorded that his
-wife dreamed that an acquaintance, an old lady, had called at the house;
-this dream was apparently forgotten until forty or fifty hours afterwards
-when, on passing the old lady's house, it was recalled, and the dreamer
-was only with much difficulty convinced that the dream was not an actual
-occurrence. When we are concerned with memories of childhood, it not
-infrequently happens that we cannot distinguish with absolute certainty
-between real occurrences and what may possibly have been dreams.
-
-In normal physical and mental health, however, it seems rare for the
-hallucinatory influence of dreams to extend beyond the hypnagogic state,
-but any impairment of the bodily health generally, and of the brain in
-particular, may extend this confusion. Thus in a case of heart disease
-terminating fatally, the patient, though in health he was by no means
-visionary or impressionable, became liable during sleep in the day-time to
-dreams of an entirely reasonable character which he had great difficulty
-in distinguishing from the real facts of life, never feeling sure what had
-actually happened, and what had been only a dream. In disordered cerebral
-and nervous conditions the same illusion becomes still more marked. This
-is notably the case in hysteria. In some forms of insanity, as many
-alienists have shown, this mistake is sometimes permanent and the dream
-may become an integral and persistent part of waking life. At this point,
-however, we leave the normal world of dreams and enter the sphere of
-pathology.
-
-In the normal persistence of the dream illusion into the hypnagogic
-state with which we are here concerned, the dream usually presents a
-possible, though, it may be, highly improbable event. The half-waking or
-hypnagogic intelligence seems to be deceived by this element of life-like
-possibility. Consequently a fallacy of perception takes place strictly
-comparable to the fallacious perception which, in the case of an external
-sensation, we call an illusion. In the ordinary illusion an externally
-excited sensation of one kind is mistaken for an externally excited
-sensation of another kind. In this case a centrally excited sensation of
-one order (dream image) is mistaken for a centrally excited sensation of
-another order (memory). The phenomenon is, therefore, a mental illusion
-belonging to the group of false memories, and it may be termed hypnagogic
-paramnesia.
-
-The process seems to have a certain interest, and it may throw light on
-some rather obscure phenomena. When we are able to recall a vivid dream,
-usually a fairly probable dream, with no idea as to when it was dreamed,
-and thus find ourselves in possession of experiences of which we cannot
-certainly say that they happened in waking life or in dream life, it
-seems probable that this hypnagogic paramnesia has come into action; the
-half-waking consciousness dismisses the vivid and life-like dream as an
-old and familiar experience, shunting it off into temporary forgetfulness,
-unless some accident again brings it into consciousness with, as it were,
-a fragment of that wrong label still sticking to it. Such a paramnesic
-process may thus also help to account for the mighty part which, as so
-many thinkers from Lucretius onwards have seen, dreams have played in
-moulding human action and human belief. It is a means whereby waking life
-and dream life are brought to an apparently common level.
-
-By hypnagogic paramnesia I mean a false memory occurring in the
-ante-chamber of sleep, but not necessarily before sleep. Myers's invention
-of the word 'hypnopompic' seems scarcely necessary even for pedantic
-reasons. I take the condition of consciousness to be almost the same
-whether the sleep is coming on or passing away. In the Chesterfield dream
-it is indeed impossible to say whether the phenomenon is 'hypnagogic'
-or 'hypnopompic'; in such a case the twilight consciousness is as much
-conditioned by the sleep that is passing away as by the sleep that is
-coming on.
-
-If this memory illusion of the half-waking state may be regarded as a
-variety of paramnesia, a new horizon is opened out to us. May not the
-hypnagogic variety throw light on the general phenomenon of paramnesia
-which has led to so many strange and complicated theories? I think it may.
-
-Paramnesia, as we have seen, is the psychologist's name for a
-hallucination of memory which is sometimes called 'pseudo-reminiscence,'
-and by medical writers (who especially associate it with epilepsy)
-regarded as a symptom of 'dreamy state,'[215] while by French authors it
-is often termed 'false recognition' or 'sensation du déjà vu.' Dickens,
-who seems himself to have experienced it, thus describes it in _David
-Copperfield:_ 'We have all some experience of a feeling that comes over
-us occasionally, of what we are saying and doing having been said or done
-before, in a remote time, of having been surrounded, dim ages ago, by the
-same faces, objects, and circumstances, of our knowing perfectly what
-will be said next, as if we suddenly remembered it.' Sometimes it seems
-that this previous occurrence can only have taken place in a previous
-existence,[216] whence we probably have, as St. Augustine seems first
-to have suggested, the origin of the idea of metempsychosis, of the
-transmigration of souls; sometimes it seems to have happened before in a
-dream; sometimes the subject of the experience is totally baffled in the
-attempt to account for the feeling of familiarity which has overtaken
-him. In any case he is liable to an emotion of distress which would
-scarcely be caused by the coincidence of resemblance with a real previous
-experience.[217]
-
-Paramnesia of this kind is known, according to the observations of
-Lalande,[218] to thirty people in a hundred, and Heymans found it in a
-considerable proportion of students of both sexes. Such estimates are
-probably too high if we take into consideration the general population.
-This experience seems, as Dugas and others have noted,[219] to affect
-educated people, and notably people of more than average intellect,
-who use their brains much, especially in artistic and emotional work,
-to a very much greater degree than the ignorant and phlegmatic manual
-worker.[220] Dickens has already been mentioned; many other notable
-writers have referred to this or some allied feeling, stating that they
-had experienced it, and Sir James Crichton-Browne brings forward a number
-of passages from the poets in evidence of their familiarity with such
-phenomena.[221] Shelley (who appears on at least two occasions to have
-experienced hallucinations also) underwent what may be regarded as an
-experience of paramnesia (described in his _Speculations on Metaphysics_)
-which is of interest in the present connection because it brings this
-phenomenon into relation with dreams. He was walking with a friend in the
-neighbourhood of Oxford, when he suddenly turned the corner of a country
-lane and saw 'a common scene' of a windmill, etc., which, it immediately
-seemed to him, he recollected having seen before in a dream of long ago.
-Five years afterwards he was so agitated in writing this down that he
-could not finish the account. The real resemblance of 'a common scene'
-with a similar dream scene, even supposing it could be recollected when
-the two experiences were separated by a long interval, would scarcely be a
-coincidence likely to cause agitation. The emotion aroused seems to mark
-the experience as belonging to the class of paramnesic illusions which so
-often make a peculiarly vivid impression on those to whom they occur.
-
-A great many theories have been put forward by psychologists and others to
-account for this paramnesic phenomenon. The most ancient explanation, long
-anterior to the beginnings of scientific psychology, was the theory that
-the occurrence which, as it now happens, strikes us as so overwhelmingly
-familiar had actually occurred to us in a previous existence long ages
-before; thus Pythagoras, according to the ancient story, when he visited
-the temple of Juno at Argos recognised the shield he had worn ages before
-when he was Euphorbus and fought with Menelaus in the Trojan war. A much
-more recent theory runs to the opposite extreme and claims that all
-or nearly all these cases of recognition indicate a real but confused
-reminiscence of past events in our present life, dim recollections which
-the subject is unable definitely to locate. This is the explanation
-largely relied on by Ribot, Jessen, Sander, Sully, Burnham, and many
-others. It was perhaps largely due to ignorance of the phenomenon;
-Ribot, when he wrote his book on the diseases of memory, considered that
-only three or four cases had been recorded, for an abnormal phenomenon
-always seems rare until it is recognised and definitely searched for.
-Undoubtedly, this theory will explain a considerable proportion of cases,
-but not really typical cases in which the subject has an overwhelming
-conviction that even the minute details of the present experience have
-been experienced before. We may read a new poem with a vague sense of
-familiarity, but such an experience never puts on a really paramnesic
-character, for we quickly realise that it is explainable by the fact
-that the writer of the poem has fallen under the influence of some
-greater master. The only experience I can personally speak of as at all
-approaching true paramnesia occurred on visiting the ruins of Pevensey
-Castle many years ago. On going up the slope towards the ivy-covered
-ruins, bathed in bright sunlight, I experienced a strange and abiding
-sense of familiarity with the scene. Three theories might account for
-this experience (for I refrain from including the Pythagorean theory that
-I experienced a reminiscence of the experience of a possible ancestor
-coming from across the Thames to the assistance of Harold against William
-the Conqueror at this spot): (1) that it was a case of true paramnesia;
-(2) that I had been taken to the spot as a child; (3) that the view was
-included among a series of coloured stereoscopic pictures with which I
-was familiar as a child, and which certainly contained similar scenes. I
-incline to this last explanation. Here, as elsewhere, there are no keys
-which will unlock all doors.
-
-A modification of the theory that the pseudo-reminiscence is an
-unrecognised real reminiscence is furnished by Grasset, who considers that
-the phenomenon is due to a subconscious impression previously received,
-but only reaching consciousness under the influence of the new similar
-impression. This theory would include the revival of dream images, and
-is therefore related to the theory of Lapie and Méré, according to which
-the feeling of many of these subjects that what they now experience
-had happened before in a dream is the correct explanation of the
-phenomenon.[222]
-
-We enter on a different class of explanations with the early theory
-of Wigan that such cases are due to the duality of the brain, the two
-hemispheres not acting quite simultaneously. This is a somewhat crude
-conception, though it may seem approximately on the lines of more recent
-theories. The theory of the duplex brain, each hemisphere being supposed
-capable of acting independently, was at one time invoked to explain many
-phenomena, but it is no longer regarded as tenable.[223]
-
-We may dismiss these theories, which have been effectively criticised by
-others, and revert to our clue in the sleeping and hypnagogic state. The
-hypnagogic state is a transition between waking and sleeping. It is thus
-a condition of mental feebleness and suggestibility doubtless correlated
-with a condition of irregular brain anaemia. A plausible suggestion
-under such conditions is too readily accepted. Does ordinary paramnesia
-occur under similar conditions of mental feebleness and suggestibility?
-It is rare to find descriptions of paramnesic experiences by scientific
-observers who are alive to the importance of accurately recording all
-the conditions, but there is some reason to think that paramnesia does
-occur in states produced by excitement, exhaustion, and allied causes.
-The earliest case of paramnesia recorded in detail by a trained observer
-is that described by Wigan as occurring to himself at the funeral of
-the Princess Charlotte. He had passed several disturbed nights previous
-to the ceremony, with almost complete deprivation of rest on the night
-immediately preceding; he was suffering from grief as well as from
-exhaustion from want of food; he had been standing for four hours, and
-would have fainted on taking his place by the coffin if it had not been
-for the excitement of the occasion. When the music ceased the coffin
-slowly sank in absolute silence, broken by an outburst of grief from the
-bereaved husband. 'In an instant,' Wigan proceeds, 'I felt not merely an
-_impression_, but a _conviction_, that I had seen the whole scene before
-on some former occasion.' Such a condition may fairly be regarded as an
-artificial reproduction, by means of emotion, excitement, and exhaustion,
-of the condition which occurs simply and naturally in sleep or on its
-hypnagogic borderland.
-
-The frequency--if it may be taken to be a fact--of the occurrence of
-pseudo-reminiscence in epileptics, noted by various medical observers,
-whether at the onset of the fit or independently of any obvious muscular
-convulsion, may be significant in this connection. There is no good reason
-to suppose that pseudo-reminiscence has a true relation to epilepsy, and
-still less that it necessarily constitutes a minor epileptic paroxysm.
-But the special sleep-like condition of contracted cerebral circulation in
-epilepsy renders it favourable to paramnesia as well as to hallucinatory
-phenomena.[224]
-
-Independently of epilepsy, any condition of temporary and perhaps chronic
-nervous exhaustion may produce, or at all events predispose to, the
-paramnesic delusion of recognising present experiences as familiar. Thus
-Rosenbach has recorded the case of a sane and healthy man, who, after
-severe mental labour, followed by sleeplessness, seemed to know all the
-people he met in the street, though on close examination he found he was
-mistaken.[225] Such a condition may even be almost congenital. Thus of
-Anna Kingsford, who was of highly strung and neurotic disposition, we are
-told that, as a child, 'all that she read struck her as already familiar
-to her, so that she seemed to herself to be recovering old recollections
-rather than acquiring fresh knowledge.'[226]
-
-It is noteworthy that artificial anaesthesia by drugs which produce an
-abnormal sleep also favours paramnesia. Thus Sir William Ramsay[227] has
-stated that when, under an anaesthetic, he heard a slight noise in the
-street, 'I not merely knew that it had happened before, but I could have
-predicted that it would happen at that very moment.'
-
-In all these conditions we appear to be in the presence of an enfeebled,
-excited, and impaired state of consciousness approximating to the true
-confusion of dream consciousness. It seems as if externally aroused
-sensations in such cases are received by the exhausted cerebral centres in
-so blurred a form that an illusion takes place, and they are mistaken for
-internally excited sensations, for memories.
-
-That paramnesia is a fatigue product--even though often a product of
-nervous hyperaesthesia--is indicated by the statements of many who have
-described it. Anjel long ago emphasised this fatigue, and Bonatelli,
-also at an early period, found that illusions of memory were specially
-liable to occur in states of unusual nervous irritability. During recent
-years this characteristic of paramnesia has been more and more frequently
-recognised. Bernard Leroy, who devoted a lengthy and important Paris
-thesis to pseudo-reminiscence,[228] showed that a certain proportion of
-cases indicated the presence of fatigue or distraction. Heymans found that
-it was in the evening, when his subjects were in a passive condition,
-tired, exhausted, or engaged in uncongenial work, that they were most
-liable to the experience.[229] Féré brought forward a case in which, as
-he pointed out, pseudo-reminiscence in a healthy man, convalescent from
-influenza, was associated with fatigue and disappeared with it.[230]
-Dromard and Albès declare that pseudo-reminiscence is 'a phenomenon of
-exhaustion,' and one of them makes the significant statement: 'I become
-more easily the prey of this illusion when, by chance and without thinking
-of it, I simultaneously apply my attention to an external object and an
-internal thought.'[231] Dugas, again, considers that all the various forms
-of paramnesia have 'one common character, which is that they occur as the
-result of prolonged or intense fatigue';[232] he adds that most of the
-cases of paramnesia he has noted in young people during fifteen years
-coincided with periods of anaemia and nervous weakness.
-
-It is not, however, necessary to believe that fatigue, in the ordinary
-sense of the word, whether physical or mental, is the invariable
-accompaniment of paramnesia. If it is the presence of a condition
-resembling that of sleep or the hypnagogic state which predisposes to
-the experience, that condition may be produced by other circumstances.
-Distraction, excited hyperaesthesia simulating increased power, and
-various chronic psychic states due to a highly-strung or over-strained
-nervous system may all tend in the same direction, even though no sense of
-exhaustion is felt.[233] This is doubtless why it is that so many poets,
-novelists, and other men of strenuous intellectual aptitude are liable to
-this experience.
-
-It has been argued by some who admit that there is often an element of
-fatigue in paramnesia,[234] that the real cause of the false memory is an
-abnormal celerity of perception, perhaps due to hyperaesthesia. The scene
-would thus be perceived so quickly that the subject concludes that he
-must have had this experience before. That the subject often has a feeling
-of unusual rapidity of perception may very well be admitted. But there is
-no reason whatever to suppose that the perception actually is received
-with any such unusual rapidity. The probabilities are in the other
-direction. We know that many influences (such as drugs like alcohol) which
-produce a feeling of heightened and quickened perceptions really have a
-slowing and dulling effect, in the same way as the wise and beautiful
-things we utter in dreams are usually found on awaking to be commonplace,
-if not meaningless. There is no evidence to show that paramnesia is
-accompanied by a real heightening of perception, while, as we have seen,
-a broad survey of the facts makes it more reasonable to suppose that we
-have, on the contrary, a sudden fall towards the dream state, a state in
-which, as Tissié and others have pointed out, there are many stages.
-
-It must be remembered in this connection that in the hypnagogic and other
-states related to sleep we are not able to estimate time conditions
-consciously, though, as the frequent ability to wake at fixed moments
-indicates, we may do so subconsciously. Time is long, short, or
-non-existent in dream-like states. This is always true of the onset of
-the hypnagogic state. When I am suddenly awakened at night by a voice or
-a bell or other stimulus, I often find it very difficult to say whether
-I was or was not already awake, and have frequently replied, when so
-awakened, that I was already awake. That is an illusion, as is shown by
-the frequency with which elderly people who fall asleep in the day time,
-will declare, though they may have been snoring a moment before, that
-they have never been asleep. By a somewhat similar paramnesic illusion we
-can never fix the exact moment when we awake. When we become conscious
-that we are awake it always seems to us that we are already awake, awake
-for an indefinite time, and not that we have just awakened. If I had to
-register the exact moment I awake in the morning I should usually feel
-that I was considerably late in making the observation. It seems that the
-imperfect hypnagogic consciousness projects itself behind. At the first
-onset, consciousness is not sufficiently developed to be able to realise
-that it is beginning, and when it becomes sufficiently developed to make
-such a statement the moment when it can be correctly made is already past.
-Consciousness is only able to assert that it has been continuing for an
-indefinite time. And that assertion involves a paramnesic illusion of
-putting back a present experience into the past, analogous to the illusion
-of pseudo-reminiscence.[235]
-
-If we realise these characteristics of paramnesia we can scarcely fail
-to conclude that we are concerned here with illusions which, while
-they fall within the sphere of memory, are largely conditioned by the
-whole psychic condition. As in dreams, it is inattention, failure of
-apperception, defective association of the mental contents, which make
-the paramnesia possible. Paramnesia is, as Fouillée has said, a kind of
-diplopia or seeing double in the mental field. 'I have the impression,'
-says one of the writers on this subject who himself experiences the
-sensation, 'that the present reality has a _double_.' Actual double
-vision is due to the failure of that muscular co-ordination which, as
-Ribot and others have insisted, is of the very essence of attention.
-This wider psychic basis on which paramnesia rests has of late been
-recognised by several psychologists. Thus Léon-Kindberg states that in
-paramnesia there is an absence of mental attention, of the effort of
-synthesis necessary to grasp an actual occurrence, which is, therefore,
-perceived with the same facility as a memory not requiring synthesis,
-with the resulting illusion that it is a memory.[236] Ballet, again,
-regards paramnesia as a transitory or permanent psychasthenic state, due
-to dissociation.[237] Dugas, also, who has repeatedly returned to this
-subject during many years, in his latest contributions attaches primary
-importance to this broader factor of paramnesia. In analysing memory, he
-says, there is an element which, though often overlooked, is capital:
-the recognition of a state of consciousness not merely as passed, but as
-bound up with our own personal past; when that synthetic function ceases
-to be accomplished, or is only accomplished defectively, then memory is
-lacking or perverted. Nervous weakness, he proceeds, produces failure of
-attention, the inhibitory power of attention being no longer exerted, and
-the psychic elements fall back to anarchy. Now many psychic states, such
-as sensations, recollections, and images, differ from each other less
-by their substance than by the way in which the mind takes hold of and
-apprehends them. The mind seizes a sensation with a stronger grasp than
-a recollection, and a recollection with a stronger grasp than an image.
-When attention is relaxed the line of demarcation between these psychic
-states tends to be effaced; the sensation becomes vague and floating
-like the recollection and the image, while the recollection and the
-image, on the contrary, become objective and acquire something of the
-brilliance and relief of the sensation. The very same cause--enfeeblement
-of attention--thus produces opposite effects, on the one side raising
-the tone, on the other lowering it, so that states of mind which are
-ordinarily distinct tend to be approximated and confused, as we may
-observe in the hypnagogic condition.[238]
-
-Although Dugas makes no reference to Janet, it is not difficult to
-see that he has assimilated some of the views of that distinguished
-investigator of psychic mysteries. Janet, as we know, in various morbid
-psychic conditions, attaches great explanatory force to the individual's
-loss of hold, through psychic weakness, of his own personality, and
-to the diminished sense of reality and even depersonalisation thence
-ensuing. It so happens that Janet himself has set forth a theory of
-pseudo-reminiscence which is characteristic of his own attitude, and also
-harmonises with the wider outlook which now marks the attempts to explain
-these perversions of memory. Janet declares that pseudo-reminiscence is a
-negative phenomenon and belongs to a group in which various other feelings
-of diminished sense of reality belong. These people all say in effect:
-'It seems to me that these things are not real; it seems to me that these
-events are not actual or present.' The essence of this form of paramnesia
-is thus more a negation of the present than an affirmation of the past.
-'The function of adaptation to the present moment,' Janet remarks, 'is
-the most complicated and the most recent of all. The function of the real
-is the most elevated and the most difficult of all cerebral functions.'
-Under various influences there is a diminution of nervous and psychic
-tension, and such suppression of the high tension of the mind leaves only
-the lower functions subsisting. When that fall of tension is rapid, there
-may be a crisis of which pseudo-reminiscence is one of the symptoms.[239]
-Janet would thus place pseudo-reminiscence among the manifestations of
-psychasthenia, though he leaves untouched the difficult question of its
-precise mechanism.
-
-The most comprehensive attempt to explain the mystery of paramnesia in
-recent years is certainly that made in an elaborately eclectic study
-by one of the most distinguished of living French thinkers, Professor
-Bergson.[240] He first casts a glance over what he considers the two
-main groups of explanations of this puzzling phenomenon: (1) those,
-advocated by Ribot, Fouillée, Lalande, Arnaud, Piéron, Myers, etc.,
-which involve the more or less simultaneous existence in consciousness
-of two images, of which one is the reproduction of the other; (2) those
-advocated by Janet, Heymans, Léon-Kindberg, Dromard and Albès, etc.,
-which insist on the lower mental tone, the diminished attention, the
-lack of synthetising power, which mark the condition in which paramnesia
-occurs. Bergson is quite ready to accept the principles of both these
-groups of explanations, and to combine them. But, he argues, to understand
-the phenomenon adequately, we must go deeper; we must analyse the normal
-mechanism of memory. And he finds, if we do this, that not merely the
-moment of a paramnesic illusion, but every moment of our life, offers two
-aspects, actual and virtual, perception on one side, and memory on the
-other. The moment itself, indeed, consists of such a scission, for it
-is always moving, always a fleeting boundary between the immediate past
-and the immediate future, and would be a mere abstraction if it were not
-'precisely the mobile mirror which ceaselessly reflects perception in
-recollection.' When the matter is thus regarded a recollection is seen
-to be, in reality, not something which has been, but something which
-is, proceeding _pari passu_ with the perception it reproduces. It is a
-recollection of the moment taking place at that moment. Belonging to the
-past as regards its form, it belongs to the present as regards its matter.
-It is recollection of the present. Now this is exactly the state in which
-the paramnesic person consciously finds himself, and the only problem
-before us, therefore, is to ascertain why every one at every moment is not
-conscious of the same experience. Bergson replies that nothing is more
-useless for present action than the recollection of the present. It has
-nothing to tell us; we hold the real object, and to give up that for its
-recollection would be to sacrifice the substance to the shadow. Therefore
-we obstinately and persistently turn away from the recollection of the
-present. It emerges consciously only under the influence of some abnormal
-or pathological disturbance of attention. Paramnesia is an anomaly of this
-kind, and it is due to a temporary enfeeblement of the general attention
-to life, a momentary arrest of the forward movement of consciousness.
-'False recognition,' Bergson concludes, 'may thus be regarded as the most
-inoffensive form of inattention to life. It seems to result from the
-combined play of perception and memory given up to their own energy. It
-would take place at every moment if it were not that will, ceaselessly
-directed towards action, prevents the present from folding in on itself by
-pushing it indefinitely into the future.'
-
-So far as my own explanation is concerned, it will be seen that I still
-place weight on the general condition of temporary or chronic nervous
-fatigue as the soil on which paramnesia arises--a belief now accepted by
-most psychologists[241]--and that I think we must search for the clue to
-the mechanism of the illusion in those dreaming and hypnagogic states
-in which it most often occurs. As regards a definite explanation of the
-mechanism we must, in the face of so many ingenious and complicated
-theories, perhaps still await more general agreement.[242] What I have
-suggested, and am still inclined to maintain, is that the psychic
-enfeeblement, temporary or chronic, which is the general preliminary
-condition of paramnesia, whether or not there is any subjective sensation
-of increased power, may account for the paramnesia by bringing an
-externally aroused perception down to a lower and fainter stage on which
-it is on a level with an internally aroused perception--a memory. Just
-as in hypnagogic paramnesia the vivid and life-like dream, or internal
-impression, is raised to the class of memories, and becomes the shadow
-of a real experience, so in waking paramnesia the external impression
-is lowered to the same class. Perception is alike dulled in each case,
-and the immediate experience follows the line of least resistance--this
-time too carelessly or too prematurely--to join the great bulk of our
-experiences.
-
-We thus realise how it is that that doubling of experience occurs. The
-mind has for the moment become flaccid and enfeebled; its loosened texture
-has, as it were, abnormally enlarged the meshes in which sensations are
-caught and sifted, so that they run through too easily. In other words,
-they are not properly _apperceived_. To use a crude simile, it is as
-though we poured water into a sieve. The impressions of the world which
-are actual sensations as they strike the relaxed psychic meshwork are
-instantaneously passed through to become memories, and we see them in both
-forms at the same moment, and are unable to distinguish one from the other.
-
-In sleep, and in the hypnagogic state, as in hypnosis, we accept a
-suggestion, with or without a struggle. In the waking paramnesic state
-we seem to find, in a slighter stage of a like condition, _the same
-process in a reversed form_. Instead of accepting a representation as
-an actual present fact, we accept the actual present fact as merely
-a representation. The centres of perception are in such a state of
-exhaustion and disorder that they receive an actual external sensation
-in the feebler shape of a representation. The actual fact becomes merely
-a suggestion of far distant things. It reaches consciousness in the
-enfeebled shape of an old memory--
-
-    '... like to something I remember
-    A great while since, a long, long time ago.'
-
-Paramnesia is thus an internal hallucination, a reversed hallucination,
-it is true, but while so reversed, the stream of consciousness is still
-following the line of least resistance.
-
-It is along some such lines as these, it seems to me, that we may best
-attempt to explain the phenomena of paramnesia, phenomena which are of no
-little interest since, in earlier stages of culture, they may well have
-had a real influence on belief, suggesting to primitive man that he had
-somehow had wider experiences than he knew of, and that, as Wordsworth put
-it, he trailed clouds of glory behind him.
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[Footnote 192: It is as well to bear in mind that this dream occurred when
-Maury was a student, long before he began to study dreaming, and (as Egger
-has pointed out) was probably not written down until thirteen years later.
-On these grounds alone it is not entitled to serious consideration.]
-
-[Footnote 193: As Sir Samuel Wilks once remarked ('On the Nature of
-Dreams,' _Medical Magazine_, Feb. 1894), 'The dreamer merely forms a
-mental picture, and the _description_ of it he calls his dream.']
-
-[Footnote 194: Egger, 'La Durée apparente des Rêves,' _Revue
-Philosophique_, Jan. 1895, pp. 41-59; Clavière, 'La Rapidité de la Pensée
-dans le Rêve,' _ib._ May 1897, p. 509; Piéron, 'La Rapidité des Processes
-Psychiques,' _ib._ Jan. 1903, pp. 89-95; Foucault, _Le Rêve_, pp. 158 _et
-seq.;_ Tobolowska, _Etude sur les Illusions du Temps dans les Rêves du
-Sommeil Normal:_ Thèse de Paris, 1900.]
-
-[Footnote 195: Thus Freud tells (_Jahrbuch für Psychoanalytische
-Forschungen_, vol. i. part ii. p. 387) of a man who was obsessed by the
-idea that he should never pass money until he had carefully cleaned it,
-for fear he might be infecting other people, but was quite unaware that
-this obsession sprang from remorse due to his own sins of sexual impurity.
-In such a case there is, of course, not only a crumpling of consciousness,
-but a definite dislocation and transference of the parts.]
-
-[Footnote 196: We also see here an interesting dissociation of the motor
-(speech) centre from the visual centre; it is the latter which is in this
-instance most closely in touch with facts.]
-
-[Footnote 197: The 'selvdrolla' dream, recorded in a previous chapter (p.
-43), illustrates the same point with the difference that the crumpled up
-portion of consciousness never became visible in the dream.]
-
-[Footnote 198: R. L. Stevenson, 'A Chapter on Dreams,' in _Across the
-Plains_, 1892.]
-
-[Footnote 199: In most cases the missing memory, after making itself felt
-outside the conscious area, seems to reach that area, not so much by its
-own spontaneous unconscious movement as by a tentative search for clues.
-Thus I read one day the words 'the breaking of a goblet by a little black
-imp,' and immediately became conscious that I was reminded of something
-similar in recent experience, but could not tell what. I asked myself
-if it could have been in a dream. In a few moments, however, the memory
-recurred to me that two hours previously I had noticed a broken vase, and
-casually wondered how it had become broken. Under such circumstances we
-are for a time thinking of something, and yet have no conscious knowledge
-as to what we are thinking of.]
-
-[Footnote 200: Jastrow remarks, somewhat in the same way (_The
-Subconscious_, p. 93), that 'a letting down of the effort, a focusing of
-the mind upon a point a little or a good deal to one side of the fixation
-point, distinctly aids the mental vision.' The process seems, however,
-to be most effective when it is automatic, for attention cannot easily
-relax its own tension. A large number of the discoveries and solutions of
-difficulties effected in dreams are due to this dispersal of attention
-over a wider field, so enabling the missing relationship to be detected.
-See, for instance, some cases recorded by Newbold (_Psychological
-Review_, March 1896, p. 132), as of Dr. Hilprecht, the Assyriologist, who
-discovered in a dream that two fragments of tablets he had vainly been
-endeavouring to decipher, were really parts of the same tablet.]
-
-[Footnote 201: Hypermnesia, or excessive memory, is found in waking
-life in various abnormal conditions. It is not uncommon in men of
-genius; Macaulay is a well-known example. It scarcely seems, however,
-an especially favourable condition for keen intellectual power; the
-mental machine that is clogged with unnecessary and unimportant facts can
-scarcely fail to work under difficulties. 'Hypermnesia,' remarks Stoddart
-('Early Symptoms of Mental Disease,' _British Medical Journal_, 11th May
-1907), 'occurs most frequently in certain cases of idiocy, and in some
-cases of chronic mania. One such patient could enumerate all the occasions
-when any given medical officer had played tennis since he entered the
-institution.' Hypermnesia in dreams has been dealt with by Carl du Prel,
-_Philosophy of Mysticism_, vol. ii. ch. i.]
-
-[Footnote 202: This delay is worth mentioning, for it is conceivable that,
-in the case of a weak recollection, transference to the subconscious
-sphere of sleep might involve a temporary disappearance from the conscious
-waking sphere.]
-
-[Footnote 203: There is a possible interest in the exact length of the
-interval. Swoboda (_Die Perioden des Menschlichen Organismus in ihrer
-psychologischen und biologischen Bedeutung_, 1904) believes that the
-recurrence of memories tends to obey a law of periodicity, so that, for
-instance, a melody heard at a concert may recur at a regular interval. I
-cannot say that I have myself found evidence of such periodicity, though I
-have made several observations on the recurrence of such memories.]
-
-[Footnote 204: Similarly, Foucault (_Le Rêve_, p. 79) records the dream
-of a lady concerning a place called Brétigny, near Dijon, though when
-awake she was not aware there is such a place there. Elsewhere (p. 214)
-Foucault also gives examples of sensations, not consciously perceived
-in the waking state, but revived in dream. Beaunis, in his interesting
-'Contribution à la Psychologie du Rêve' (_American Journal of Psychology_,
-July-Oct. 1903) narrates a dream of his own in which a forgotten or
-unconscious memory revived. Many such dreams could easily be brought
-together. An often-quoted dream, apparently of this kind (see _e.g._,
-_British Medical Journal_, 7th April 1900, p. 850), is that of Archbishop
-Benson who, like his predecessor, Laud, took an interest in his dreams.
-He dreamed that he was suffering severely in his chest, and that his
-doctor, on being called in, told him that he had angĭna pectoris. The
-archbishop in his dream exclaimed with indignation: 'Angǐna, angǐna!' The
-dream made such an impression on him that he looked the matter up, but
-only found the ordinary pronunciation, angīna, recorded. A week later he
-was at Cambridge, dining in hall at Trinity, and seated next to Munro,
-the Professor of Latin, who happened to ask him about the death of Thomas
-Arnold. 'He died of angĭna pectoris,' said Benson. Munro smiled grimly
-and said softly: 'Of angǐna, as we now call it.' There can be no doubt
-that Benson, who was closely in touch with the academic world, had met
-with this correction, which is accepted by all modern Latinists, and
-'forgotten' it.]
-
-[Footnote 205: Xenoglossia, as well as the tendency to utter gibberish,
-are both classed under glossolalia. See _e.g._ E. Lombard, 'Phenomènes de
-Glossolalie,' _Archives de Psychologie_, July 1907.]
-
-[Footnote 206: In the eighteenth century Lord Monboddo (_Ancient
-Metaphysics_, vol. iii., 1782, p. 217) referred to a Countess of Laval
-who, during the delirium of illness, spoke the Breton tongue which she had
-known as a child, but long since forgotten.]
-
-[Footnote 207: In a somewhat similar manner the muscular contractions of
-the hysterical may disappear during sleep, as may their paralyses and
-their anaesthesias, as well as their losses of memory. (These phenomena
-have been especially observed and studied by Raymond and Janet, _Névroses
-et Idées Fixes_, vol. ii.) Such characteristics of the sleep of the
-hysterical may well be a manifestation of the same tendency which in the
-sleep of normal people leads to hypermnesia. In this connection reference
-may be made to the interesting opposition between attention and memory
-developed by Dr. Marie de Manacéïne ('De l'antagonisme qui existe entre
-chaque effort de l'attention et des innervations motrices,' _Atti dell'
-XI. Congresso Internazionale Medico_, 1894, Rome, vol. ii., 'Fisiologia,'
-p. 48). Concentrated attention, she argues, paralyses memory, and there is
-an absolute antagonism between motor innervation, or real movement, which
-favours memory, and the concentrated effort which favours attention. 'In
-psychological researches we must always separate the phenomena of memory
-from the phenomena of attention, for memory is only possible through
-muscular movement, and attention, on the contrary, is only active through
-the suppression of movement.' In sleep, it is true, there may be no
-actual movement, but there is relaxation of muscular tension and freedom
-of motor ideas. It should be added that not all investigators confirm
-Manacéïne's conclusion as to the antagonism between the conditions for
-memory and attention. Thus R. MacDougall ('The Physical Characteristics
-of Attention,' _Psychological Review_, March 1895), while finding that
-muscular relaxation accompanies the recall of memories, finds also, though
-not so markedly and constantly, a similar relaxation accompanying both
-voluntary and spontaneous attention.]
-
-[Footnote 208: The term 'paramnesia' was devised by Kraepelin, who
-wrote the first comprehensive study of the subject, though he offered
-no explanatory theory of it ('Ueber Erinnerungsfälschungen,' _Archiv
-für Psychiatrie_, Bd. xvii. and xviii.). A very clear and comprehensive
-account of the subject, up to the date of the article, was given by W. H.
-Burnham ('Paramnesia,' _American Journal of Psychology_, May 1889). In
-the following pages, together with much new matter, I have made use of my
-paper entitled 'A Note on Hypnagogic Paramnesia,' published in _Mind_,
-vol. vi. No. 22, in 1896.]
-
-[Footnote 209: It has long been recognised by psychologists that
-paramnesia occurs in dreams. Thus Burnham refers to it as frequent, and
-Kraepelin mentions that he once dreamed of smoking a cigar for the fourth
-or fifth time, though he had never smoked in his life.]
-
-[Footnote 210: In alcoholic insanity, for instance, especially when it
-leads to the occurrence of Korsakoff's syndrome, there is a notable degree
-of mental weakness with a tendency to form false memories, both in the
-form of confabulation (or the filling by imagination of lacunae in memory)
-and pseudo-reminiscence. (See _e.g._ John Turner, 'Alcoholic Insanity,'
-_Journal of Mental Science_, Jan. 1910, p. 41.)]
-
-[Footnote 211: Dr. Marie de Manacéïne, who has studied the phenomena of
-the hypnagogic state experimentally in much detail (_Sleep_, pp. 195-220),
-finds that in its deepest stage it is marked by echolalia, or the tendency
-to repeat automatically what is said, and in a less deep stage by abnormal
-suggestibility or the tendency to accept ideas and especially emotions.
-She considers that the hypnagogic state becomes abnormal when it lasts for
-more than fifteen seconds. It may last for more than six minutes, and is
-then of serious import. She shows reason to believe that the hypnagogic
-state is substantially identical with the hypnotic state, and she regards
-it as probably due to cerebral anaemia. She finds it especially marked in
-children under fifteen, the more so if they belong to the working-class,
-and rather common among adolescent girls and young women, especially
-if anaemic, but among adults rarer in women than in men, becoming more
-frequent in both sexes with old age; the phlegmatic are more liable to it
-than the sanguine or the nervous.]
-
-[Footnote 212: Sully, _The Human Mind_, vol. ii. p. 317. Foucault (_Le
-Rêve_, p. 300), briefly notes that he has often had the illusion of
-seeming to remember a fact which does not exist, and of recollecting a
-person he has never seen.]
-
-[Footnote 213: F. W. Colegrove, 'Individual Memories,' _American Journal
-of Psychology_, Jan. 1899.]
-
-[Footnote 214: See _e.g._ for such cases in sane persons, Hack Tuke,
-'Hallucinations,' _Brain_, vol. xi., 1889. A man with chronic systematised
-delusions writes: 'I am obsessed at nights; that is, I am made the
-recipient of projected thoughts which become translated into dreams, and
-on several occasions I have found, just after waking, and while still in a
-very passive state, that some one was speaking to me in the ear.']
-
-[Footnote 215: Hughlings Jackson (_Practitioner_, May 1874, also
-_Brain_, July 1888, and _Brain_, 1899, p. 534) applied this term to the
-intellectual aura preceding an epileptic attack and considered that
-'pseudo-reminiscence' itself might indicate a slight epileptic paroxysm
-in persons who show other symptoms of epilepsy. Gowers also (_Epilepsy_,
-2nd ed., p. 133) considers 'dreamy state' to be closely associated with
-minor attacks of epilepsy; and Crichton-Browne (_Dreamy Mental States_)
-holds the same view. It should be added that 'dreamy state' by no means
-necessarily involves pseudo-reminiscence; see _e.g._ S. Taylor, 'A Case
-of Dreamy State,' _Lancet_, 9th Aug. 1890, p. 276, and W. A. Turner, 'The
-Problem of Epilepsy,' _British Medical Journal_, 2nd April 1910, p. 805.
-Leroy found that pseudo-reminiscence is usually rare in association with
-epilepsy.]
-
-[Footnote 216: 'The feeling of pre-existence,' writes Dr. J. G. Kiernan
-in a private letter, 'frequently occurs as a consequence of delusions
-of memory in epilepsy. The case on which George Sand built her story of
-_Consuelo_ was one reported of an epileptic who during the epileptic
-states had delusions of living in a distant historic past of which he
-retained the memory as facts during the normal state. I know of two
-epileptic theosophists who base their belief in transmigration on the
-memories of their epileptic period. In my judgment a large part of
-Swedenborg's visions were instances of delusions of memory.']
-
-[Footnote 217: Professor Grasset ('La Sensation du "Déjà Vu,"' _Journal
-de Psychologie Normale et Pathologique_, Nov.-Feb. 1904) considers
-that a feeling of anguish is the characteristic accompaniment of a
-true paramnesic manifestation. This statement is too pronounced. There
-is usually some emotional disturbance, but its degree depends on the
-temperament of the person experiencing the phenomenon. Sometimes the
-sensation of pseudo-reminiscence may be accompanied, as a medical man
-subject to epilepsy (mentioned by Hughlings Jackson) found in his own
-case, by 'a slight sense of satisfaction,' as in the finding of something
-that had been sought for.]
-
-[Footnote 218: _Revue Philosophique_, November 1893.]
-
-[Footnote 219: _Revue Philosophique_, January 1894.]
-
-[Footnote 220: Heymans found that students liable to paramnesia tended to
-possess an aptitude for languages and an inaptitude for mathematics.]
-
-[Footnote 221: Paul Bourget, the novelist, in an interesting letter
-published by Grasset (_loc. cit._) states that this experience has been
-habitual with him from as long back as he can remember, occurring in
-regard to things heard or felt more than to things seen, and accompanied
-by an emotional trouble similar to that experienced in dreams of dead
-friends who appear as living, though even in his dreams the dreamer knows
-that they are dead. Bourget adds that he is of emotional temperament, and
-that the phenomenon was more pronounced in childhood than it is now.]
-
-[Footnote 222: Paul Lapie, _Revue Philosophique_, March 1894; Charles
-_Méré, Mercure de France_, July 1903; Sully, Tannery, and Buccola also
-considered that this is a factor in the explanation of the phenomenon.
-Freud (_Zur Psychopathologie des Alltagsleben_, 1907, p. 122) brings
-forward a modification of this theory, and believes that false recognition
-is a reminiscence of unconscious day-dreams.]
-
-[Footnote 223: For a minute and searching criticism of the theory of the
-duplex brain, see especially four articles by Bonne in the _Archives de
-Neurologie_, March-June 1907.]
-
-[Footnote 224: 'Epilepsy' wrote Binns long ago (_Anatomy of Sleep_, 1845,
-p. 431), 'is a disease which in some of its symptoms strongly resembles
-abnormal sleep.' The conditions under which a paramnesic manifestation
-may really replace an epileptic fit are well described by a literary man
-with hereditary epilepsy whose case has been recorded by Haskovec of
-Prague (_XIIIe. Congrès International de Médecine: Comptes Rendus_, vol.
-viii., 'Psychiatrie' p. 125): 'One day at the theatre, under the influence
-of the heat and perhaps the music, I experienced extreme excitement and
-fatigue. I thought I was about to have an attack, and resisted with all
-my strength, and it failed to take place. But I found myself in a strange
-psychic state. On leaving the theatre I seemed to be dreaming. I saw and
-heard everything and talked as usual. But everything seemed strange.
-Nothing seemed to reach directly _me_ or to be a real impression, but
-merely the automatic reproduction of something learnt, only I felt that I
-had lived it all before and felt it; at that moment I simply seemed to be
-observing it.']
-
-[Footnote 225: _Centralblatt für Nervenheilkunde_, April 1886. In some
-forms of insanity the false recognition of a person may become a fixed
-delusion. This question has been studied by Albès in his Paris thesis, _De
-I'Illusion de Fausse Reconnaissance_, 1906.]
-
-[Footnote 226: E. Maitland, _Anna Kingsford_, vol. i. p. 3. Lalande
-(_Revue Philosophique_, November 1893, p. 487) gives a precisely similar
-case in a child.]
-
-[Footnote 227: As quoted by Jastrow, _The Subconscious_, p. 248.]
-
-[Footnote 228: Leroy, _Etude sur l'Illusion de Fausse Reconnaissance_,
-1898, with forty-nine new observations. Leroy states, however (in declared
-opposition to my view), that only a minority of his cases actually mention
-fatigue.]
-
-[Footnote 229: Heymans, 'Eine Enquête über Depersonnalisation und Fausse
-Reconnaissance,' _Zeitschrift für Psychologie und Physiologie der
-Sinnesorgane_, November, 1903; also a further paper in the same journal
-confirming his conclusions, January 1906.]
-
-[Footnote 230: Féré, 'Deuxième Note sur la Fausse Reconnaissance,'
-_Journal de Neurologie_, 1905.]
-
-[Footnote 231: Dromard et Albès, 'L'Illusion dit de Fausse
-Reconnaissance,' _Journal de Psychologie Normale et Pathologique_,
-May-June 1905.]
-
-[Footnote 232: Dugas, 'Observations sur des Erreurs "Formelles" de la
-Mémoire,' _Revue Philosophique_, July 1908.]
-
-[Footnote 233: A friend, liable to this form of paramnesia, wrote to me
-after the publication of my first paper on the subject: 'I find, as you
-foretold, that it is difficult to recall an experience of this kind in all
-its details. I feel sure, however, that it is not necessarily allied with
-an enfeebled or overwrought nervous system. It was commonest with me in my
-youth, at a time when my life was a pleasant one, and my brain not fagged
-as now. I still [aged 43] have it occasionally, but not so frequently as
-twenty years ago.' It may be added that my friend, of Highland family,
-was a man of keen and emotional nervous temperament, a strenuous mental
-worker--whence at one time a serious breakdown in health--and had
-published two volumes of poems in early life. The greater liability to
-paramnesia in early life, which is generally recognised, is comparable to
-the special liability of children to hypnagogic visions, both phenomena
-being probably due to the greater excitability and easier exhaustibility
-of the youthful brain.]
-
-[Footnote 234: For instance, by Allin, 'Recognition,' _American Journal of
-Psychology_, January 1896.]
-
-[Footnote 235: The explanation of paramnesia here set forth received on
-its first publication the approval of Léon Marillier, who considered
-it 'ingenious and seductive,' and as adequately accounting for the
-phenomena, provided we bear in mind that the loss of a clear feeling of
-time is characteristic of hypnagogic and allied states, the perception
-of each moment being immediately transferred into an ancient memory, and
-consequently recognised (_L'Année Biologique_, third year, 1897, p. 772).
-This necessity for taking into account the co-existence of perception
-and illusory remembrance has largely moulded several of the theories of
-paramnesia. Thus Jean de Pury (_Archives de Psychologie_, December 1902),
-while affirming that pseudo-reminiscence is due to an _anteriorisation_
-of actual perceptions, regards it as of the nature of a double refraction
-such as that simultaneously produced on two faces of a prism by the same
-image; under the influence of conditions he is unable to define, an image
-appears for the moment on the plane both of the past and of the present,
-and psychically we see double just as physically we see double when the
-parallelism of our visual rays is disturbed. Piéron, again, taking up a
-theory at one time favoured by Dugas, and previously suggested in one form
-or another by Ribot and Fouillée, assumes the formation of two images: one
-which, owing to distraction or fatigue, reaches consciousness after having
-traversed subconsciousness, and so takes on a dream-like and effaced
-character, and almost simultaneously with this a direct perception which
-has not thus changed its character; the shock of the conflict between
-these two produces the pseudo-reminiscence ('Sur l'Interpretation des
-Faits de Paramnésie,' _Revue Philosophique_, August 1902). Albès, in his
-Paris thesis, criticises this explanation, pointing out that a sequence of
-this kind very frequently occurs, but produces no pseudo-reminiscence.]
-
-[Footnote 236: Michel Léon-Kindberg, 'Le Sentiment du Déjà Vu,' _Revue de
-Psychiatrie_, April 1903, No. 4.]
-
-[Footnote 237: G. Ballet, 'Un Cas de Fausse Reconnaissance,' _Revue
-Neurologique_, 1904, p. 1221.]
-
-[Footnote 238: Dugas, 'Observations sur des Erreurs "Formelles" de la
-Mémoire', _Revue Philosophique_, July 1908; _ib._ June 1910. Dugas makes
-no reference to Janet, nor to my paper on Hypnagogic Paramnesia, but his
-statement of the matter to some extent combines and harmonises those of
-the two earlier writers.]
-
-[Footnote 239: P. Janet, 'A Propos du Déjà Vu,' _Journal de Psychologie
-Normale et Pathologique_, July-August 1905.]
-
-[Footnote 240: H. Bergson, 'Le Souvenir du Présent et la Fausse
-Reconnaissance,' _Revue Philosophique_, December 1908. It should be
-remarked that, except in the attempt to explain why paramnesia is not
-normally habitual, Bergson's paper is based on the ideas or suggestions of
-previous writers.]
-
-[Footnote 241: Before the appearance of my paper, as already mentioned,
-Anjel had emphasised the significance of fatigue in the production of
-paramnesia (_Archiv für Psychiatrie_, Bd. viii. pp. 57 _et seq._). His
-theory, indeed (only known to me through brief summaries)--according to
-which the pseudo-reminiscence is due to the tardy apprehension by the
-fatigued mind of a sensation which is thus degraded to the level of a
-reproduced impression--seems practically identical with that which I
-independently reached in the light of hypnagogic phenomena.]
-
-[Footnote 242: I disregard those theories which invoke histological
-explanations, as by some peculiar disposition of the neurons. Such
-explanations are as much outside the psychologist's sphere as the
-old-fashioned explanations by reference to God and the Devil. A known
-physiological or pathological process may, indeed, quite properly be
-recognised by the psychologist; such, for instance, as the disturbance
-of the heart associated with some dreams. Even minute changes in the
-brain, when they have been properly determined by the histologist, may be
-effectively invoked by the psychologist if they seem to supply an exact
-physical correlative to his own findings. But for the psychologist to go
-outside his own field, and invent a purely fanciful and arbitrary neuronic
-scheme to suit a psychic process, explains nothing. It is merely child's
-play. The stuff that the psychologist works with must be psychical, just
-as the stuff of the physicist's work must be physical.]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER X
-
-CONCLUSION
-
-    The Fundamental Nature of Dreaming--Insanity and Dreaming--The
-    Child's Psychic State and the Dream State--Primitive Thought and
-    Dreams--Dreaming and Myth-Making--Genius and Dreams--Dreaming as a
-    Road into the Infinite.
-
-
-In the preceding chapters we have traced some of the elementary tendencies
-which prevail in the formation of dreams. These tendencies are in some
-respects so unlike those that rule in waking life--slight and subtle as
-their unlikeness often seems--that we are justified in regarding the
-psychic phenomena of sleeping life as constituting a world of their own.
-
-Yet when we look at the phenomena a little more deeply we realise that,
-however differentiated they have become, dream life is yet strictly
-co-ordinated with other forms of psychic life. If we pierce below the
-surface we seem to reach a primitive fundamental psychic stage in
-which the dreamer, the madman, the child, and the savage alike have
-their starting point, and possess a degree of community from which the
-waking, civilised, sane adult of to-day is shut out, so that he can
-only comprehend it by an intellectual effort.[243] It thus happens that
-the ways of thinking and feeling of the child and the savage and the
-lunatic each furnish a road by which we may reach a psychic world which is
-essentially that of the dreamer.
-
-The resemblance of insanity to dream life has, above all, impressed
-observers from the time when the nature of insanity was first definitely
-recognised. It would be outside the limits of the present book to discuss
-the points at which dreams resemble or differ from insanity, but it is
-worth while to touch on the question of their affinity. The recognition of
-this affinity, or at all events analogy, though it was stated by Cabanis
-to be due to Cullen, is as old as Aristotle, and has constantly been put
-forward afresh. Thus in the sixteenth century Du Laurens (A. Laurentius),
-in his treatise on the disease of melancholy, as insanity was then termed,
-compared it to dreaming.[244] The same point is still constantly brought
-forward by the more philosophic physician. 'Find out all about dreams,'
-Hughlings Jackson has said, 'and you will have found out all about
-insanity.' From the wider standpoint of the psychologist, Jastrow points
-out that not only insanity, but all the forms of delirium, including the
-drug-intoxications, are 'variants of dream consciousness.'
-
-The reality of the affinity of dreaming and insanity is well illustrated
-by a case, coming under the observation of Marro, in which a dream,
-formed according to the ordinary rules of dreaming, produced a temporary
-fit of insanity in an otherwise perfectly sane subject.[245] In this
-case a highly intelligent but somewhat neurotic young man was returning
-to Italy after pursuing his studies abroad, and reached Turin, on the
-homeward journey, in a somewhat tired state. In the train he believed
-that he had detected some cardsharpers, and that they suspected him of
-finding them out, and bore him ill-will in consequence. This produced a
-state of general nervous apprehension. At the hotel his room was over
-the kitchen; it was in consequence very hot, and to a late hour he could
-still hear voices and catch snatches of conversation, which seemed to him
-to be directed against himself. His suspicions deepened, he heard noises,
-in reality due to the kitchen utensils, which seemed preparations for
-his murder, and he ultimately became convinced that there was a plot to
-set fire to his room in order to force him to leave it, when he would be
-seized and murdered. He resolved to escape, got out of the window with
-his revolver in his hand, found his way to another part of the house,
-encountered a man who had been awakened by his movements, and shot at him,
-believing him to be a party to the imaginary conspiracy. He was seized and
-taken to the asylum, where he speedily regained calm, and realised the
-delusion into which he had fallen. When questioned by Marro, on reaching
-the asylum, he was unaware that he had ever fallen asleep during the
-night; he could not, however, account for all the time that had elapsed
-before he left the room, and it was probable, Marro concludes, that he
-was in a state between waking and sleeping, and that his delusion was
-constituted in a dream. Fatigue, nervous apprehension, an unduly hot
-bedroom, the close proximity of servants' voices, and the sound of kitchen
-utensils, had thus combined, in a state of partial sleep, to produce in an
-otherwise sane person, a morbid condition in every respect identical with
-that found in insane persons who are suffering from systematised delusions
-of persecution.[246]
-
-The resemblance of the child's psychic state to the dream state is an
-observation of less ancient date than that of the analogy between dreaming
-and insanity, but it has frequently been made by modern psychologists. 'In
-dreams,' says Freud, 'the child with his impulses lives again,'[247] and
-Giessler has devoted a chapter to the points of resemblance between dream
-life and the mental activity of children.[248]
-
-I should be more especially inclined to find the dream-like character of
-the child's mind at three points: (1) the abnormally logical tendency
-of the child's mind and the daring mental fusions which he effects in
-forming theories; (2) the greater preponderance of hypnagogic phenomena
-and hallucinations in childhood, as well as the large element of reverie
-or day-dreaming in the child's life, and the facility with which he
-confuses this waking imagination with reality; and (3) the child's
-tendency to mistake, also, the dreams of the night for real events.[249]
-This last tendency is of serious practical import when it leads a child,
-in all innocence, to make criminal charges against other persons.[250]
-This tendency clearly indicates the close resemblance which there is for
-children between dream life and waking life; it also shows the great
-vividness which children's dreams possess. In imaginative children, it
-may be added, a rich and vivid dream life is not infrequently the direct
-source of literary activities which lead to distinction in later life.[251]
-
-The child, we are often told, is the representative of the modern savage
-and the primitive man. That is not, in any strict sense, true, nor can we
-assume without question that early man and modern savages are identical.
-But we can have very little doubt that in our dreams we are brought near
-to ways of thought and feeling that are sometimes closer to those of early
-man, as well as of latter-day savages, than are our psychic modes in
-civilisation.[252] So remote are we to-day from the world of our dreams
-that we very rarely draw from them the inspiration of our waking lives.
-For the primitive man the laws of the waking world are not yet widely
-differentiated from the laws of the sleeping world, and he finds it not
-unreasonable to seek illumination for the problems of one world in the
-phenomena of the other. The doctrine of animism, as first formulated by
-Tylor (more especially in his _Primitive Culture_) finds in dreams the
-chief source of primitive religion and philosophy. Of recent years there
-has been a tendency to reject the theory of animism.[253] Certainly it is
-possible to rely too exclusively on dreams as the inspiration of early
-man; if the evidence of dreams had not been in a line with the evidence
-that he derived from other sources, there is no reason why the man of
-primitive times should have attached any peculiar value to dreams. But
-if the animistic conception presents too extreme a view of the primitive
-importance of dreaming, we must beware lest the reaction against it should
-lead us to fall into the opposite extreme. Durkheim argues that it is
-unlikely that early man attaches much significance to dreams, for the
-modern peasant, who is the representative of primitive man, appears to
-dream very little, and not to attach much importance to his dreams. But
-it is by no means true that the peasant of civilisation, with his fixed
-agricultural life, corresponds to early man who was mainly a hunter and
-often a nomad. Under the conditions of civilisation the peasant is fed
-regularly and leads a peaceful, stolid, laborious, and equable life,
-which is altogether unfavourable to psychic activity of any kind, awake
-or asleep. The savage man, now and ever, as a hunter and fighter, leads
-a life of comparative idleness, broken by spurts of violent activity;
-sometimes he can gorge himself with food, sometimes he is on the verge
-of starvation. He lives under conditions that are more favourable to the
-psychic side of life, awake or asleep, than is the case with the peasant
-of civilisation.
-
-Moreover, it must be remembered that all the peoples whom we may fairly
-regard as in some degree resembling early man possess a specialised caste
-of exceptional men who artificially cultivate their psychic activities,
-and thereby exert great influence on their fellows. These are termed,
-after their very typical representatives in some Siberian tribes,
-_shamans_, and combine the functions of priests and sorcerers and medicine
-men. It is nearly everywhere found that the shaman--who is often, it would
-appear, at the outset a somewhat abnormal person--cultivates solitude,
-fasting, and all manner of ascetic practices, thereby acquiring an unusual
-aptitude to dream, to see visions, to experience hallucinations, and, it
-may well be, to acquire abnormally clairvoyant powers. The shamans of the
-Andamanese are called by a word signifying dreamer, and in various parts
-of the world the shaman finds the first sign of his vocation in a dream.
-The evocation of dreams is often the chief end of the shaman's abnormal
-method of life. Thus, among the Salish Indians of British Columbia, dreams
-are the proper mode of communication with guardian spirits, and 'prolonged
-fasts, bathings, forced vomitings, and other exhausting bodily exercises
-are the means adopted for inducing the mystic dreams and visions.'[254]
-
-When we witness the phenomena of Shamanism in all parts of the world it
-is difficult to dispute the statement of Lucretius that the gods first
-appeared to men in dreams. This may be said to be literally true; even
-to-day it often happens that the savage's totem, who is practically
-his tutelary deity, first appears to him in a dream.[255] An influence
-which seems likely to have been so persistent may well have had a large
-plastic power in moulding the myths and legends which everywhere embody
-the religious impulses of men. This idea was long ago suggested by Hobbes.
-'From this ignorance of how to distinguish dreams and other strong
-Fancies,' he wrote, 'from Vision and Sense, did arise the greatest part of
-the Religion of the Gentiles in time past, that worshipped Satyrs, Fauns,
-Nymphs, and the like.'[256]
-
-Ludwig Laistner, however, appears to have been the first to argue in
-detail that dreams, and especially nightmares, have played an important
-part in the evolution of mythological ideas. 'If we bear in mind,' he said
-in the Preface to his great work, 'how intimately poetry and religion
-are connected with myth, we encounter the surprising fact that the first
-germ of these highly important vital manifestations is not to be found
-in any action of the waking mind, but in sleep, and that the chief and
-oldest teacher of productive imagination is not to be found in the
-experiences of life, but in the phantasies of dream.'[257] The pictures
-men formed of the over-world and the under-world have the character of
-dreams and hypnagogic visions, and this is true even within the sphere of
-Christianity.[258] The invention of Hell, Maudsley has declared, would
-find an adequate explanation, if such is needed, in the sufferings of some
-delirious patients, while the apocalyptic vision of Heaven with which
-our Christian Bible concludes, is, Beaunis remarks, nothing but a long
-dream.[259] And if it is true, as Baudelaire has said, that 'every well
-conformed brain carries within it two infinites: Heaven and Hell,' we may
-well believe that both Heaven and Hell find their most vivid symbolism in
-the spontaneous action of dreams.
-
-In migraine and the epileptic aura visions of diminutive creatures
-sometimes occur, and occasionally micropsic vision in which real objects
-appear diminished. It has been suggested by Sir Lauder Brunton that we may
-here have the origin of fairies, at all events for some races of fairies;
-for fairies, though diminutive in some countries, as in England, are not
-diminutive in others, as in Ireland. A more normal and frequent channel
-of intercourse with such creatures is, however, to be found in dreams.
-This is illustrated by the following dream experienced by a lady: 'I saw
-a man wheeling along a cripple. Eventually the cripple became reduced to
-about the size of a walnut, and the man told me that he had the power of
-becoming any size and of going anywhere. To my horror he then threw him
-into the water. In answer to my remonstrances that he would surely be
-drowned, the man said that it was all right, the little fellow would be
-home in a few hours. He then shouted out, "What time do you expect to get
-back?" The tiny creature, who was paddling along in the water, then took
-out a miniature watch, and replied: "About seven!"'[260] In a dream of my
-own I saw little creatures, a few inches high, moving about and acting on
-a diminutive stage. Though I regarded them as really living creatures, and
-not marionettes, the spectacle caused me no surprise.
-
-The dream-like character of myths, legends, and fairy tales is probably,
-however, not entirely due to direct borrowing from the actual dreams of
-sleep, or even from the hallucinations connected with insanity, music, or
-drugs, though all these may have played their part. The greater nearness
-of the primitive mind to the dream-state involves more than a tendency
-to embody in waking life conceptions obtained from dreams. It means that
-the waking psychic life itself is capable of acting in a way resembling
-that of the sleeping psychic life, and of evolving conceptions similar to
-dreams.
-
-This point of view has in recent years been especially set forth by Freud
-and his school, who argue that the laws of the formation of myths and
-fairy tales are identical with the laws in accordance with which dreams
-are formed.[261] It certainly seems to be true that the resemblances
-between dreams and legends are not adequately explained by supposing that
-the latter are moulded out of the former. We have to believe that on the
-myth-making plane of thought we are really on a plane that is more nearly
-parallel with that of dreaming than is our ordinary civilised thought.
-We are in a world of things that are supernormally enormous or delicate,
-and the emotional vibrations vastly enlarged, a world in which miracles
-happen on every hand and cause us no surprise. Slaughter and destruction
-take place on the heroic scale with a minimum expenditure of effort; men
-are transformed into beasts and beasts into men, so that men and beasts
-converse with each other.[262]
-
-Finally, it may be observed that the atmosphere into which genius
-leads us, and indeed all art, is the atmosphere of the world of dreams.
-The man of genius, it is often said, has the child within him; he is,
-according to the ancient dictum, which is still accepted, not without an
-admixture of insanity, and he is unquestionably related to the primitive
-myth-maker. All these characteristics, as we see, bring him near to the
-sphere of dreaming, and we may say that the man of genius is in closer
-touch with the laws of the dream world than is the ordinary civilised
-man. 'It would be no great paradox,' remarks Maudsley, 'to say that the
-creative work of genius was excellent dreaming, and dramatic dreaming
-distracted genius.'[263] This has often been recognised by some of the
-most typical men of genius. Charles Lamb, in speaking of Spenser, referred
-to the analogy between dreaming and imagination. Coleridge, one of the
-most essential of imaginative men, argued that the laws of drama and of
-dreaming are the same.[264] Nietzsche, more recently, has developed the
-affinity of dreaming to art, and in his _Birth of Tragedy_ argued that
-the Appollonian or dream-like element is one of the two constituents of
-tragedy. Mallarmé further believed that symbolism, which we have seen to
-be fundamental in dreaming, is of the essence of art. 'To name an object,'
-he said, 'is to suppress three-quarters of the enjoyment in a poem which
-is made up of the happiness of gradually divining; to suggest--that is
-our dream. The perfect usage of this mystery constitutes symbolism: to
-evoke an object, little by little, in order to exhibit a state of the
-soul, or, inversely, to choose an object, and to disengage from it a state
-of the soul by a series of decipherments.'[265] It may be added that
-imaginative and artistic men have always been prone to day-dreaming and
-reverie, allowing their fancies to wander uncontrolled, and in so doing
-they have found profit to their work.[266] From Socrates onwards, too,
-men of genius have sometimes been liable to fall into states of trance,
-or waking dream, in which their mission or their vision has become more
-clearly manifested;[267] the hallucinatory voices which have determined
-the vocation of many great teachers belong to psychic states allied to
-these trances.
-
-It is scarcely necessary to refer to the occasional creative activity
-of men of genius during actual sleep or to the debts which they have
-acknowledged to suggestions received in dreams.[268] This has perhaps,
-indeed, been more often exaggerated than overlooked. There can be no doubt
-that a great many writers and thinkers, including some of the highest
-eminence, have sometimes been indebted to their dreams. We might expect as
-much, for most people occasionally have more or less vivid or suggestive
-new ideas in dreams,[269] and it is natural that this should occur more
-often, and to a higher degree, in persons of unusual intellectual force
-and activity. But it is more doubtful whether the creative activity of
-normal dreams ever reaches a sufficient perfection to take, as it stands,
-a very high place in a master's work. Coleridge's 'Kubla Khan' has the
-most notable claim to be an exception to this rule. This poem was written
-by Coleridge in 1788, soon after 'Christabel,' and at a time when the poet
-was suffering much from depression, and taking a great deal of laudanum.
-We are entitled to assume, therefore, that the poem was composed under
-the influence of opium, and not in normal sleep. It may be added that
-it is difficult to believe that Coleridge could have recalled the whole
-poem from either a normal or abnormal dream; as a rule, when we compose
-verses in sleep we can usually recall only the last two, or at most four,
-lines.[270] Moreover, there is reason to believe that the first draft of
-'Kubla Khan' was not the poem as we now know it.[271]
-
-After Coleridge's 'Kubla Khan' the most important artistic composition
-usually assigned to a dream is the _Trillo del Diavolo_ sonata of Tartini,
-the eighteenth-century composer and violinist, who has been called the
-prototype of Paganini. Tartini, who was a man of nervous and emotional
-temperament, seems to have possessed real genius, and this sonata is his
-principal work. But there is not the slightest ground for stating that it
-was composed in a dream, and Tartini himself made no such claim.[272]
-
-The imaginative reality of dreams is perhaps appreciated by none so
-much as by those who are deprived of some of their external senses. Thus
-a deaf and dumb writer of ability who has precise and highly emotional
-dreams--which sometimes remind him of the atmosphere of Poe's tales, and
-are occasionally in organised sequence from night to night--writes: 'The
-enormous reality and vividness of these dreams is their remarkable point.
-They leave a mark behind. When I come to consider I believe that much that
-I have written, and many things that I have said and thought and believed,
-are directly due to these dream-experiences and my ponderings over how
-they came. Beneath the superficiality of our conscious mind--prim, smug,
-self-satisfied, owlishly wise--there lies the vast gulf of a subconscious
-personality that is dark and obscure, seldom seen or even suspected. It is
-this, I think, that wells up into my dreams. It is always there--always
-affecting us and modifying us, and bringing about strange and unforeseen
-new things in us--but in these dreams I peer over the edge of the
-conscious world into the giant-house and Utgard of the subconscious, lit
-by one ray of sunset that shows the weltering deeps of it. And the vivid
-sense of this is responsible for many things in my life.'[273]
-
-Dreaming is thus one of our roads into the infinite. And it is interesting
-to observe how we attain it--by limitation. The circle of our conscious
-life is narrowed during sleep; it is even by a process of psychic
-dissociation broken up into fragments. From that narrowed and broken-up
-consciousness the outlook becomes vaster and more mysterious, full
-of strange and unsuspected fascination, and the possibilities of new
-experiences, just as a philosophic mite inhabiting a universe consisting
-of a Stilton cheese would probably be compelled to regard everything
-outside the cheese as belonging to the realm of the Infinite. In reality,
-if we think of it, all our visions of the infinite are similarly
-conditioned. It is only by emphasising our finiteness that we ever become
-conscious of the infinite. The infinite can only be that which stretches
-far beyond the boundaries of our own personality. It is the charm of
-dreams that they introduce us into a new infinity. Time and space are
-annihilated, gravity is suspended, and we are joyfully borne up in the
-air, as it were in the arms of angels; we are brought into a deeper
-communion with Nature, and in dreams a man listens to the arguments of his
-dog with as little surprise as Balaam heard the reproaches of his ass.
-The unexpected limitations of our dream world, the exclusion of so many
-elements which are present even unconsciously in waking life, impart a
-splendid freedom and ease to the intellectual operations of the sleeping
-mind, and an extravagant romance, a poignant tragedy, to our emotions. 'He
-has never known happiness,' said Lamb, speaking out of his own experience,
-'who has never been mad.' And there are many who taste in dreams a
-happiness they never know when awake.[274] In the waking moments of our
-complex civilised life we are ever in a state of suspense which makes
-all great conclusions impossible; the multiplicity of the facts of life,
-always present to consciousness, restrains the free play of logic (except
-for that happy dreamer, the mathematician), and surrounds most of our
-pains and nearly all our pleasures with infinite qualifications; we are
-tied down to a sober tameness. In our dreams the fetters of civilisation
-are loosened, and we know the fearful joy of freedom.
-
-In this way the Paradise of dreams has been a reservoir from which men
-have always drawn consolation and sweet memory and hope, even belief, the
-imagination and gratification of desires that the world restrained, the
-promise and proof of the dearest and deepest aspirations.
-
-Yet, while there is thus a real sense in which dreams produce their effect
-by the retraction of the field of consciousness and the limitation of the
-psychic activities which mark ordinary life, it remains true that if we
-take into account the complete psychic life of dreaming, subconscious as
-well as conscious, it is waking, not sleeping, life which may be said to
-be limited.[275] Thus it is, as we have seen, that the most fundamental
-and the most primitive forms of psychic life, as well as the rarest and
-the most abnormal, all seem to have their prototype in the vast world of
-dreams. Sleep, Vaschide has said, is not, as Homer thought, the brother of
-Death, but of Life, and, it may be added, the elder brother.
-
-'We dream, see visions, converse with chimæras,' said Joseph Glanvill, the
-seventeenth-century philosopher; 'the one half of our life is a romance,
-a fiction.' And what of the other half? Pepys tells us how another
-distinguished man of the same century, Sir William Petty, 'proposed it as
-a thing that is truly questionable whether there really be any difference
-between waking and dreaming.'[276] Our dreams are said to be delusions,
-constituted in much the same way as the delusion of the insane. But, says
-Godfernaux, 'all life is a series of systematised delusions, more or less
-durable.' Men weary of too much living have sometimes found consolation
-in this likeness of the world of dreams to the world of life. 'When thou
-hast roused thyself from sleep thou hast perceived that they were only
-dreams which troubled thee,' wrote the Imperial Stoic to himself in his
-_Meditations;_ 'now in thy waking hours look at these things about thee as
-thou didst look at those dreams.' Dreams are true while they last. Can we,
-at the best, say more of life?
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-We set out to study as carefully as possible the small field of dream
-consciousness belonging to a few persons, not, it may be, abnormal, of
-whom it was possible to speak with some assurance. The great naturalist,
-Linnæus, once said that he could spend a lifetime in studying as much of
-the earth as he could cover with his hand. However small the patch we
-investigate, it will lead us back to the sun at last. There is nothing
-too minute or too trivial. I have often remembered with a pang, how, long
-years ago, I once gave pain by saying, with the arrogance of boyhood, that
-it was foolish to tell one's dreams. I have done penance for that remark
-since. 'Il faut cultiver notre jardin,' said the wise philosopher of the
-eighteenth century. I have cultivated, so far as I care to, my garden of
-dreams, and it scarcely seems to me that it is a large garden. Yet every
-path of it, I sometimes think, might lead at last to the heart of the
-universe.
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[Footnote 243: Certain phases of waking psychic life are, however, closely
-related to dreaming. This is obviously the case as regards day-dreaming or
-reverie. (See _e.g._ Janet, _Névroses et Idées Fixes_, vol. i. pp. 390-6.)
-It would also appear that wit is the result of a process analogous to that
-fusion of incompatible elements which we have found to prevail in dreams.
-Our dreams are sometimes full of usually ineffective wit; I could easily
-quote dreams in illustration. (Freud has, from his point of view, studied
-the analogy between wit and dreaming in _Der Witz und seine Beziehung zum
-Unbewussten_.)]
-
-[Footnote 244: In more recent times Moreau of Tours, especially,
-argued (_Du Haschich et de l'Aliénation Mentale_, 1845) that
-_haschisch_-intoxication is insanity, and that insanity is a waking dream.]
-
-[Footnote 245: In insane subjects a dream not uncommonly forms the
-starting point of a delusion, and many illustrative examples could be
-brought forward.]
-
-[Footnote 246: Marro, _La Pubertà_, pp. 286-92.]
-
-[Footnote 247: Freud, _Die Traumdeutung_, p. 13. Elsewhere (p. 135) Freud
-remarks: 'The deeper we go in the analysis of dreams the more frequently
-we come across traces of childish experience which form a latent source
-of dreams.' The same point had been previously emphasised by Sully, 'The
-Dream as a Revelation,' _Fortnightly Review_, March 1893.]
-
-[Footnote 248: C. M. Giessler, _Die Physiologischen Beziehungen der
-Traumvorgänge_, ch. iv.]
-
-[Footnote 249: Jewell, who gives illustrations in evidence, concludes
-(_American Journal of Psychology_, January 1905, pp. 25-8) that 'the
-confusion of dreams with real life is almost universal with children, and
-quite common among adolescents and adults.']
-
-[Footnote 250: Hans Gross, the distinguished criminologist, refers
-(_Kriminalpsychologie_, p. 672) to two cases of children who brought
-criminal charges which were apparently based on dreams. Gross mentions
-that this may often be suspected when the child says nothing at the time,
-and shows no excitement or depression until a day or two after the date of
-the alleged event. For confusion of dream with reality, see also Gross,
-_Gesammelte Kriminalistische Aufsätze_, vol. ii. p. 174.]
-
-[Footnote 251: Thus Rachilde (Mme. Vallette) writes that as a young
-girl her dreams were so vivid that 'I would often ask myself if I had
-not an existence in two forms: my waking personality and my dreaming
-personality. Sometimes I was deceived and imagined that my real life was
-dreams.' She instinctively began to write at the age of twelve, and it
-was by completing her dreams that she became a novelist (Chabaneix, _Le
-Subconscient_, p. 49). George Sand's early day-dreams, of which she gives
-so interesting an account (_Histoire de ma Vie_, part III. ch. viii),
-developed around the central figure of Corambé, first seen in a real
-dream. Corambé was, at the same time, a divine being, to whom she erected
-an altar. So that of the child it may be said, as Lucretius said of
-primitive man, that the gods first appear in dreams.]
-
-[Footnote 252: 'In sleep,' says Sully (_Fortnightly Review_, March 1893),
-'we have a reversion to a more primitive type of experience.' 'Dreaming,'
-says Jastrow (_The Subconscious_, p. 219), 'may be viewed as a reversion
-to a more primitive type of thought.']
-
-[Footnote 253: This tendency is notably represented by Durkheim ('Origines
-de la Pensée Religieuse,' _Revue Philosophique_, January 1909) and Crawley
-(_The Idea of the Soul_, 1909).]
-
-[Footnote 254: Hill Tout, _Journal_, Anthropological Institute,
-January-June 1905, p. 143; Sidney Hartland, in his presidential address
-to the Anthropological Section of the British Association, in 1906,
-emphasised the significance of dreams in Shamanism, and Sir Everard im
-Thurn, in his _Among the Indians of Guiana_, shows how practically real
-are dreams to the savage mind.]
-
-[Footnote 255: See, _e. g_., as regards the American Indians, Thornton
-Parker in the _Open Court_, May 1901.]
-
-[Footnote 256: _Leviathan_, part I. ch. ii.]
-
-[Footnote 257: Laistner, _Das Rätsel der Sphinx_, 1889, vol. 1. p.
-xiii. While Laistner was chiefly concerned with the exploration of the
-religious myths, he pointed out that epics and fairy-tales (Amor and
-Psyche, the stories of the Nibelung and Baldur, etc.) may be similarly
-explained. It seems probable that his investigations received a stimulus
-in the earlier experiments of J. Boerner (_Das Alpdrücken_, 1855) on the
-production of nightmare. Laistner has had many followers, notable C. Ruths
-(_Experimental-Untersuchungen über Musikphantome_, 1898), who argues (pp.
-415-46) that the old Greek myths had their chief root in dream phenomena,
-in delirium, and in the visions aroused in some persons by hearing music,
-while he considers that many fabulous monsters and dragons have arisen
-from the combinations seen in dreams. We know that the Greeks, who were
-such great myth-makers, much occupied themselves in lying in wait for
-dreams, and in oneiromancy and necromancy (_e.g._, Bouché-Leclercq,
-_Histoire de la Divination dans l'Antiquité_, vol. 1. Bk. ii. ch. i. pp.
-277-329). In this way alone it is doubtless true that, as Jewell says,
-'dreams have had a great effect upon the history of the world.']
-
-[Footnote 258: For evidence regarding the high esteem in which many of the
-greatest Greek and Latin Fathers held dreams as divine revelations, see
-_e.g._, Sully, Art. 'Dreams,' _Encyclopædia Britannica_.]
-
-[Footnote 259: There is still a natural tendency in the uninstructed mind
-to identify spontaneous visual phenomena with Heaven. 'When I gets to
-bed,' said an aged and superannuated dustman to Vanderkiste (_The Dens of
-London_, p. 14), 'I says my prayers, and I puts my hands afore my eyes--so
-[covering his face with his hands]; well, I sees such beautiful things,
-sparkles like, all afloating about, and I wished to ax yer, sir, if that
-ain't a something of Heaven, sir.']
-
-[Footnote 260: This was the only traceable element in the dream. The
-dreamer was accustomed to look at her watch on awaking in the morning,
-and, if it was seven or later, not to go to sleep again.]
-
-[Footnote 261: Freud, 'Der Dichter und das Phantasieren' (1908), in second
-series of his _Sammlung Kleiner Schriften zur Neurosenlehre;_ K. Abraham,
-_Traum und Mythus_ (1909); and O. Rank, _Der Mythus von der Geburt
-des Helden_ (1909), both published in the _Schriften zur angewandten
-Seelenkunde_, edited by Freud.]
-
-[Footnote 262: Synesius refers to conversations with sheep in dreams,
-and he was probably the first to suggest that such dream phenomena may
-be the origin of fables in which animals speak. The dog and the cat,
-as we should expect, seem most frequently to speak in the dreams of
-civilised people. Thus I dreamed that I had a conversation with a cat who
-spoke with fair clearness and sense, though the whole of her sentences
-were not intelligible. I was not surprised at this relative lack of
-intelligibility, but neither was I surprised at her speaking at all. I
-have also encountered a talking parrot whose speech was more relevant than
-that of most talking parrots; this somewhat surprised me. In legends a
-wider range of animals are able to speak, no doubt because the primitive
-legend-makers were familiar with a wider range of animal life. How natural
-it is to the uninstructed mind to treat animals like human beings is well
-shown by the experiences of Helen Keller, the blind deaf-mute, who writes
-(_The World I Live in_, p. 147): 'After my education began, the world
-which came within my reach was all alive.... It was two years before I
-could be made to believe that my dogs did not understand what I said, and
-I always apologised to them when I ran into or stepped on them.']
-
-[Footnote 263: _Journal of Mental Science_, January 1909, p. 16.]
-
-[Footnote 264: 'Images and thoughts,' he said, 'possess a power in and
-of themselves independent of that act of the judgment or understanding
-by which we affirm or deny the existence of a reality correspondent to
-them. Such is the ordinary state of the mind in dreams.... Add to this
-a voluntary lending of the will to this suspension of one of its own
-operations, and you have the true theory of stage illusion.']
-
-[Footnote 265: Quoted by Paul Delior, _Remy de Gourmont et son Œuvre_, p.
-14.]
-
-[Footnote 266: Thus even Leonardo da Vinci (Solmi, _Frammenti_, p. 285)
-acknowledged the benefit which he had gained by gazing at clouds or at
-mud-bespattered walls; and recommended the practice to other artists,
-for thereby, he says, they will receive suggestions for landscapes,
-battlepieces, 'and infinite things,' which they may bring to perfection.
-He compared this to the possibility of hearing words in the sounds of
-bells. Some other distinguished artists have adopted somewhat similar
-practices which are fundamentally the child's habit of seeing pictures in
-the fire.]
-
-[Footnote 267: Thus Tennyson (_Memoir_, by his son, vol. i. p. 320) was
-subject from boyhood to a kind of waking trance. 'This has generally
-come upon me,' he wrote, 'through repeating my own name two or three
-times to myself silently.' (It thus seems to have been a sort of
-auto-hypnotisation.) In this state, individuality seemed to dissolve, he
-said, and he found in it a proof that the extinction of personality by
-death would not involve loss of life, but rather a fuller life. We are so
-easily convinced in these matters!]
-
-[Footnote 268: See _e.g._, De Manacéïne, _Sleep_, p. 314; Arturo Morselli,
-'Dei Sogni nei Genii,' _La Cultura_, 1899.]
-
-[Footnote 269: Thus I once planned in a dream a paper on the Progress of
-Psychology, which seemed to me on awakening to present a quite workable
-though not notably brilliant scheme.]
-
-[Footnote 270: Sante de Sanctis, however (_I Sogni_, p. 369), reproduces a
-dream poem of twelve lines.]
-
-[Footnote 271: See note in J. D. Campbell's edition of Coleridge's
-_Poetical Works_, p. 592.]
-
-[Footnote 272: Tartini composed the sonata--a noble and beautiful work
-which still survives--at the age of twenty-one. In old age he told Lalande
-the astronomer (as the latter relates in his _Voyage d'un Français en
-Italie_, 1765, vol. ix. p. 55) that he had had a dream in which he sold
-his soul to the Devil, and it occurred to him in his dream to hand his
-fiddle to the Devil to see what he could do with it. 'But how great was
-my astonishment when I heard him play with consummate skill a sonata of
-such exquisite beauty as surpassed the boldest flights of my imagination.
-I felt enraptured, transported, enchanted; my breath was taken away, and
-I awoke. Seizing my violin I tried to retain the sounds I had heard. But
-it was in vain. The piece I then composed, the "Devil's Sonata," was the
-best I ever wrote, but how far below the one I had heard in my dream!'
-The dream, it will be seen, was of a fairly common type, and to Tartini's
-excitable temperament it served as a stimulus to his finest energies.
-But the real 'Devil's Sonata' was hopelessly lost. (See the articles on
-Tartini in Fetis, _Biographic Universelle des Musiciens_, and Grove's
-_Dictionary of Music and Musicians_.)]
-
-[Footnote 273: Helen Keller, the blind deaf-mute, has written some
-interesting chapters on her dreams in _The World I Live in_. For the
-most part it would seem that the dream life of the blind (which has been
-studied by, among others, Jastrow, _Fact and Fable in Psychology_, pp. 337
-_et seq._) is not usually rich or vivid.]
-
-[Footnote 274: See _e.g._, Marie de Manacéïne, _Sleep_, p. 313.]
-
-[Footnote 275: This aspect of dreaming has been set forth by Bergson
-(_Revue Philosophique_, December 1908, p. 574). 'The dream state,' he
-remarks, 'is the substratum of our normal state. Nothing is added in
-waking life; on the contrary, waking life is obtained by the limitation,
-concentration, and tension of that diffuse psychological life which is the
-life of dreaming. The perception and the memory which we find in dreaming
-are, in a sense, more natural than those of waking life: consciousness is
-then amused in perceiving for the sake of perceiving, and in remembering
-for the sake of remembering, without care for life, that is to say for
-the accomplishment of actions. To be awake is to eliminate, to choose, to
-concentrate the totality of the diffused life of dreaming to a point, to a
-practical problem. To be awake is to will; cease to will, detach yourself
-from life, become disinterested: in so doing you pass from the waking ego
-to the dreaming ego, which is less _tense_, but more _extended_ than the
-other.']
-
-[Footnote 276: Pepys, _Diary_, 2nd April 1664.]
-
-
-
-
-INDEX
-
-
-    Abraham, K., 65, 272.
-
-    After-images, 26.
-
-    Albès, 246, 248, 252, 256.
-
-    Alcohol, 250.
-
-    Aliotta, 102.
-
-    Allin, 249.
-
-    Analogy in dreams, 41.
-
-    Andamanese shamans, 268.
-
-    Anaesthesia from drugs, 101.
-
-    Andrews, Grace, 84, 108.
-
-    Animism and dreaming, 210, 266.
-
-    Anjel, 247, 257.
-
-    Antoninus, 281.
-
-    Apperception in dreams, 68, 259.
-
-    Apraxia, 97.
-
-    Aristotle, 17, 31, 65, 92.
-
-    Arnaud, 255.
-
-    Artemidorus of Daldi, 157.
-
-    Atavistic dreams, alleged, 133.
-
-    Attention in dreams, 24 _et seq.;_ 67, 219, 229, 252.
-
-    Auditory element in dreams, 77 _et seq._
-
-    Augustine, St., 239.
-
-    Aural origin of some dreams, alleged, 139.
-
-    Autoscopy, 163.
-
-
-    Bach, 153.
-
-    Baldwin, 2, 4, 68.
-
-    Ballet, G., 253.
-
-    Bancroft, H. H., 37.
-
-    Baudelaire, 152.
-
-    Beaunis, 14, 33, 72, 132, 145, 203, 211, 224, 270.
-
-    Beddoes, T., 199.
-
-    Benson, Archbishop, 224.
-
-    Bergson, 137, 255 _et seq._, 280.
-
-    Binet, 56, 57, 58, 201.
-
-    Binns, 246.
-
-    Binswanger, L., 144.
-
-    Birds in dreams, 37.
-
-    Bladder as a stimulant to dreams, 88, 96, 163, 164.
-
-    Bleuler, 150, 154.
-
-    Blind, dreams of the, 278.
-
-    Blood, dreams of, 183.
-
-    Bode, 2.
-
-    Boerner, J., 269.
-
-    Bolton, F. E., 133.
-
-    Bolton, J., 69.
-
-    Bonatelli, 247.
-
-    Bonne, 244.
-
-    Bouché-Leclercq, 270.
-
-    Bourget, 241.
-
-    Bradley, F. H., 97.
-
-    Bramwell, J. M., 188.
-
-    Brill, 165.
-
-    Brodie, Sir B., 13.
-
-    Brown, Horatio, 30, 108.
-
-    Browning, 146.
-
-    Brunton, Sir Lauder, 270.
-
-    Buccola, 244.
-
-    Buchan, 90.
-
-    Burnham, 230, 242.
-
-
-    Cabanis, 13.
-
-    Calkins, 17.
-
-    Capuana, 92.
-
-    Cardiac stimuli of dreams, 88, 90, 136, 140.
-
-    Carpenter, W., 14.
-
-    Cerebral light, 27.
-
-    Cervantes, 129.
-
-    Chabaneix, 130, 143, 206, 265.
-
-    Child, psychic state of, 189, 264.
-
-    Childhood, hypnogogic hallucinations of, 28 _et seq._, 232.
-
-    Chloroform anaesthesia compared to dreaming, 16, 32, 34, 135, 137.
-
-    Christina the Wonderful, 144.
-
-    Cicero, 129.
-
-    Claparède, 171, 174.
-
-    Clarke, E. H., 30, 119.
-
-    Classification of dreams, 17, 71.
-
-    Clavière, 150, 215, 216.
-
-    Cleland, 155.
-
-    Colegrove, 234.
-
-    Coleridge, 273, 275.
-
-    Colour in dreams, 33.
-
-    Colour associations, 149.
-
-    Coloured hearing, 150.
-
-    Comar, 163.
-
-    Confusion in dreams, 36 _et seq._
-
-    Consciousness, definition of, 2.
-
-    Contrast dreams, 175, 208.
-
-    Cooley, 189.
-
-    Corning, L., 79.
-
-    Crawley, 266.
-
-    Crichton-Browne, 108.
-
-    Criminals, dreams of, 120.
-
-    Curnock, N., 228.
-
-
-    Dauriac, 79, 152.
-
-    Day-dreams, 167, 244, 261, 274.
-
-    Dead, dreams of the, 194 _et seq._
-
-    Delacroix, 60.
-
-    Delage, 31.
-
-    Delbœuf, 5, 23.
-
-    Delior, 274.
-
-    Descartes, 13.
-
-    Dickens, 239.
-
-    Dircks, H., 2.
-
-    Dissociation in dreams, 66, 148, 185, 195, 221.
-
-    Dissolving view, dreams compared to, 36, 47.
-
-    Dogs, sleep of, 15, 101.
-
-    Dramatic element in dreams, 180 _et seq._
-
-    Dreaming, alleged dreams of, 65.
-
-    Dreamless sleep, 14.
-
-    Dreamy state, 239.
-
-    Dromard, 248, 255.
-
-    Drowning, hallucinations of the, 145, 214.
-
-    Dugas, 240, 248, 252, 253.
-
-    Duplex brain, theory of, 244.
-
-    Durkheim, 266.
-
-    Dying, hallucinations of the, 145, 161.
-
-
-    Ecstasy, Hysterical, 144.
-
-    Egger, 213, 216.
-
-    Ellis, Havelock, 28, 37, 165, 168, 179, 191, 197.
-
-    Emotion in dreams, 94 _et seq._
-
-    Epilepsy and pseudo-reminiscence, 239, 245.
-
-    Epileptic dreams, 139.
-
-    Erotic dreams, 88, 126, 177.
-
-    Erotic symbolism, 65, 179.
-
-    Extrospection, 172.
-
-
-    Fairies and dreams, 270.
-
-    Falling, dreams of, 129 _et seq._
-
-    False recognition in dreams, 230 _et seq._
-
-    Fear in dreams, 121, 174.
-
-    Féré, 92, 139, 156, 163, 248.
-
-    Ferenczi, 168.
-
-    Ferrero, 151.
-
-    Fish, dreams of, 163.
-
-    Floating, dreams of, 143.
-
-    Flournoy, 174, 187.
-
-    Flying, dreams of, 129 _et seq._
-
-    Forman, Simon, 30.
-
-    Foucault, 5, 6, 7, 8, 13, 17, 22, 24, 174, 187, 195, 202, 215, 216,
-              224, 234.
-
-    Fouillée, 252, 255.
-
-    Freud, 52, 56, 65, 89, 99, 119, 120, 127, 133, 164 _et seq._, 210,
-              216, 217, 244, 262, 264, 272.
-
-    Fusion of dream imagery, 36 _et seq._
-
-
-    Galton, Sir F., 149.
-
-    Gassendi, 65, 202.
-
-    Genius and dreaming, 273.
-
-    Giessler, 22, 72, 174, 187, 189, 264.
-
-    Gissing, 170.
-
-    Glanvill, J., 280.
-
-    Glossolalia, 225.
-
-    Goblot, 6, 32, 154.
-
-    Godfernaux, 280.
-
-    Gods first appeared in dreams, 268.
-
-    Goethe, 70, 208.
-
-    Goncourt, E. de, 203.
-
-    Goncourt, J. de, 142.
-
-    Goron, 140.
-
-    Gowers, Sir W. R., 139, 239.
-
-    Grasset, 240, 243.
-
-    Greenwood, F., 66, 113, 163, 228.
-
-    Griesinger, 208.
-
-    Gross, Hans, 265.
-
-    Gruithuisen, 32.
-
-    Gustatory dreams, 85.
-
-    Guthrie, 76, 108, 138.
-
-    Guyon, E., 29, 31.
-
-
-    Hall, Stanley, 29, 65, 133, 174, 189.
-
-    Hallam, Florence, 74.
-
-    Hallucinations, 26, 159, 182, 188, 235, 271.
-
-    Hammond, 14, 65, 92, 104.
-
-    Hartland, E. S., 268.
-
-    Haschisch, 98, 215, 262.
-
-    Haskovec, 246.
-
-    Hawthorne, 228.
-
-    Head, H., 34, 121.
-
-    Headache and dreams, 34, 91, 116, 177.
-
-    Hearn, Lafcadio, 108, 133, 138, 209.
-
-    Heaven and dreams, 270.
-
-    Heine, 152.
-
-    Hell and dreams, 270.
-
-    Hermes, 129.
-
-    Herodotus, 89.
-
-    Herrick, C. L., 107.
-
-    Hervey de Saint-Denis, 159.
-
-    Heymans, 240, 248, 255.
-
-    Hilprecht, 220.
-
-    Hinton, James, 63.
-
-    Hippocrates, 13.
-
-    Hobbes, 31, 109, 269.
-
-    Holland, Sir H., 13.
-
-    Howells, W. D., 121.
-
-    Hutchinson, H., 132, 138.
-
-    Hypermnesia, 218 _et seq._
-
-    Hypnagogic hallucinations, 15, 28 _et seq._, 67, 141, 160, 181, 215,
-              232, 265.
-
-    Hypnagogic paramnesia, 232 _et seq._
-
-    Hypnopompic state, 238.
-
-    Hypnotism, 79, 231, 232, 234.
-
-    Hyslop, J. H., 27.
-
-    Hysteria, 67, 143, 162, 168, 187, 217, 219.
-
-
-    Icarus, 130, 138.
-
-    Ida of Louvain, St., 144.
-
-    Imagery in dreams, 21 _et seq._, 64, 104, 120.
-
-    Insane, hallucinations of, 34, 271.
-
-    Insanity compared to dreaming, 48, 69, 105, 170, 188, 231, 262
-              _et seq._
-
-    Isserlin, 165.
-
-
-    Jackson, Hughlings, 239, 240, 262.
-
-    James-Lange theory of emotion, 109.
-
-    Janet, 67, 144, 187, 229, 254, 255, 261.
-
-    Jastrow, J., 14, 64, 96, 220, 247, 262, 266, 278.
-
-    Jerome, St., 129.
-
-    Jessin, 242.
-
-    Jesus, 147, 210.
-
-    Jewell, 92, 99, 138, 140, 199, 211, 228, 265, 270.
-
-    Johnson, Dr., 185.
-
-    Joseph of Cupertino, St., 144.
-
-    Jones, Elmer, 32, 34, 135, 137.
-
-    Jones, Ernest, 165.
-
-    Jung, C. J., 89.
-
-
-    Kaleidoscope, dream process compared to, 21, 28.
-
-    Keller, Helen, 273, 278.
-
-    Kiernan, 92, 239.
-
-    Kingsford, Anna, 119, 247.
-
-    Kraepelin, 48, 230.
-
-    Krauss, F. S., 157.
-
-
-    Laistner, 269.
-
-    Lalande, 240, 247, 255.
-
-    Lalanne, 105.
-
-    Lamb, C., 273.
-
-    Languages remembered In sleep, 225.
-
-    Lapie, 243.
-
-    Laud, 176.
-
-    Laurentius, 17, 262.
-
-    Legends, symbolism in, 156, 209.
-
-    Leibnitz, 13.
-
-    Léon-Kindberg, 252, 255.
-
-    Leroy, 26, 60, 161, 239, 247.
-
-    Lessing, 14.
-
-    Levitation, 144.
-
-    Liepmann, 97, 170.
-
-    Lilliputian hallucinations, 161, 270.
-
-    Little, Graham, 108.
-
-    Linnæus, 281.
-
-    Locke, 14.
-
-    Logic of dreams, 5 _et seq._, 56 _et seq._
-
-    Logorrhœa, 170.
-
-    Lombard, E., 225.
-
-    Lombroso, 208.
-
-    Lorrain, Jacques le, 105.
-
-    Löwenfeld, 165.
-
-    Lubbock, 210.
-
-    Lucretius, 15, 129, 238, 268.
-
-
-    Macario, 92.
-
-    Macaulay, Lord, 221.
-
-    MacDougall, R., 79, 107, 138, 208, 229.
-
-    Macnish, 14.
-
-    Maeder, 156, 160, 164, 166.
-
-    Magnification of dream imagery, 104 _et seq._, 135, 160.
-
-    Maine de Biran, 26, 94.
-
-    Maitland, E., 119, 247.
-
-    Mallarmé, 274.
-
-    Manacéïne, Marie de, 119, 163, 187, 199, 229, 232, 275, 279.
-
-    Marillier, 251.
-
-    Marro, 263.
-
-    Marshall, H. R., 57.
-
-    Masselon, 92.
-
-    Maudsley, 119, 270, 273.
-
-    Maurier, G. du, 206.
-
-    Maury, 31, 32, 47, 186, 203, 213.
-
-    Memory and dreams, 8 _et seq._, 212 _et seq._
-
-    Mercier, C., 2, 110.
-
-    Méré, 243.
-
-    Mescal, 27, 28.
-
-    Metamorphosis of dream imagery, 22.
-
-    Metaphysics and dreams, 63.
-
-    Metchnikoff, 174.
-
-    Meunier, R., 84, 92, 108.
-
-    Migraine, 34, 270.
-
-    Millet, J., 150.
-
-    Miner, J. B., 138, 152.
-
-    Mitchell, Sir A., 13.
-
-    Mitchell, Weir, 32.
-
-    Moll, 234.
-
-    Monboddo, Lord, 158, 226.
-
-    Monroe, W. S., 74, 83.
-
-    Moral attitude in dreaming, 118 _et seq._
-
-    Moreau of Tours, 262.
-
-    Morphia dreams, 140.
-
-    Morselli, A., 275.
-
-    Mosso, 136.
-
-    Mourre, Baron, 24.
-
-    Movement in dreams, 20, 45, 96, 97 _et seq._
-
-    Movement in sleep, 15.
-
-    Müller, J., 32.
-
-    Murder, dreams of, 111 _et seq._, 142.
-
-    Murray, Elsie, 110.
-
-    Music, symbolism of, 151.
-
-    Music in dreams, 77 _et seq._
-
-    Myers, 255.
-
-    Myth-making and dreaming, 210, 269 _et seq._
-
-
-    Näcke, 13, 119, 175, 202, 208, 236.
-
-    Nayrac, 68.
-
-    Neologisms in dreams, 48.
-
-    Neurasthenia, 27.
-
-    Newbold, 220.
-
-    Newman, E., 153.
-
-    Nietzsche, 274.
-
-    Nightmare, 99, 181.
-
-    Night-terrors, 30, 96, 108.
-
-    Nitrous oxide anaesthesia, 101, 135.
-
-    Nocturnal enuresis, 90.
-
-    Number-forms, 149.
-
-
-    Olfactory dreams, 83.
-
-    Oneiromancy, 156, 270.
-
-    Opium visions, 28, 140.
-
-    Orpheus, 210.
-
-
-    Paramnesia, 230 _et seq._
-
-    Paraphasia, 48.
-
-    Parish, E., 67, 184, 235.
-
-    Parker, Thornton, 269.
-
-    Partridge, G. E., 29.
-
-    Paul, St., 191.
-
-    Pepys, 202, 280.
-
-    Periodicity in memory, 224.
-
-    Personality in dreams, division of, 187.
-
-    Peter, St., 146.
-
-    Petty, Sir W., 280.
-
-    Philostratus, 157.
-
-    Pick, 97.
-
-    Piderit, 155.
-
-    Piéron, 92, 145, 159, 162, 215, 216, 252, 255.
-
-    Pirro, 153.
-
-    Pliny the Elder, 157.
-
-    Prel, Carl du, 221.
-
-    Premonitory dreams, 91, 163.
-
-    Presentative dreams, 17, 71, 166.
-
-    Primitive psychic slate, 266.
-
-    Prince, Morton, 174, 187.
-
-    Prodromic dreams, 91, 157, 163.
-
-    Prophetic dreams, 93, 157.
-
-    Pseudo-reminiscence in dreams, 230 _et seq._
-
-    Psychasthenia, 255.
-
-    Punning in dreams, 51.
-
-    Purcell, 153.
-
-    Pury, Jean de, 251.
-
-    Pythagoras, 242.
-
-
-    Quincey, De, 28, 30.
-
-
-    Rachilde, 143, 265.
-
-    Raffaelli, 130.
-
-    Railway travelling, dreams of, 81, 119.
-
-    Rank, O., 272.
-
-    Rapidity of dreams, alleged, 213 _et seq._
-
-    Raymond, 229.
-
-    Reasoning in dreams, 56 _et seq._
-
-    Renan, 203.
-
-    Representative dreams, 17, 71, 167.
-
-    Respiratory stimuli to dreams, 134 _et seq._
-
-    Retinal element in dreams, 23, 26, 31, 183.
-
-    Rhythm, 138.
-
-    Ribot, 25, 26, 79, 85, 242, 252, 255.
-
-    Rochas, Colonel de, 79, 131, 144.
-
-    Rosenbach, 246.
-
-    Ruths, C., 79, 129, 211, 269.
-
-
-    Sageret, 41.
-
-    Saints, alleged levitation of, 144.
-
-    Salish Indians, 210, 268.
-
-    Sand, George, 239, 265.
-
-    Sante de Sanctis, 92, 120, 168, 199, 208, 276.
-
-    Savage, psychic state of, 190, 266.
-
-    Savage, G. H., 33.
-
-    Schaaffhausen, 13.
-
-    Scherner, 88, 135, 159, 163, 164.
-
-    School, dreams of return to, 83, 195.
-
-    Schopenhauer, 175.
-
-    Schroeder, T., 191.
-
-    Schweitzer, 153.
-
-    Scripture, E. W., 27.
-
-    Secondary self in dreams, 187.
-
-    Segre, 96.
-
-    Sensory impressions in sleep, 71 _et seq._
-
-    Shamans, 268.
-
-    Shelley, 241.
-
-    Silberer, 141.
-
-    Simon, Max, 91.
-
-    Skin sensations in dreams, 74 _et seq._, 117, 135, 137.
-
-    Sleep, dreamless, 14.
-
-    Smith, Hélène, 187.
-
-    Snakes, dreams of, 65.
-
-    Sollier, 144, 163, 188.
-
-    Solmi, 274.
-
-    Somnambulism, 95.
-
-    Spencer, Herbert, 130, 210.
-
-    Spontaneous character of dream imagery, 24.
-
-    Ssikorski, 145.
-
-    Stekel, 168.
-
-    Stewart, Dugald, 104.
-
-    Stoddart, 34, 221.
-
-    Stomach on dreams, influence of, 108 _et seq._
-
-    Storms as cause of dreams, 81.
-
-    Stout, 2, 4, 68, 98, 195.
-
-    Stevenson, R. L., 217.
-
-    Stretton, 2.
-
-    Strümpell, 14, 135.
-
-    Suarez de Mendoza, 150.
-
-    Subconscious, definition of, 4.
-
-    Subconsciousness in dreams, 23, 63.
-
-    Suggestibility in dreams, 230.
-
-    Sully, 17, 234, 242, 244, 264, 266, 270.
-
-    Sunshine in dreams, 2.
-
-    Sutton, Bland, 133.
-
-    Swedenborg, 239.
-
-    Swoboda, 224.
-
-    Syllogistic arrangement of dreams, 58.
-
-    Symbolism in dreams, 81, 91, 109, 141, 148 _et seq._
-
-    Symonds, J. A., 30, 108.
-
-    Synaesthesias, 149.
-
-    Synesius, 65, 129, 157, 227, 272.
-
-
-    Tactile sensations in dreams, 74 _et seq._, 85, 137.
-
-    Tannery, 5, 6, 66, 244.
-
-    Tartini, 276.
-
-    Taste dreams, 85.
-
-    Taylor, S., 239.
-
-    Therapeutic use of music during sleep, 79, 84.
-
-    Theresa, St., 144.
-
-    Thurn, Sir E. im, 268.
-
-    Tennyson, 275.
-
-    Time in dreams, estimate of, 250.
-
-    Tissié, 17, 72, 250.
-
-    Titchener, 85.
-
-    Tobolowska, 60, 216.
-
-    Toothache as a cause of dreams, 116.
-
-    Tout, Hill, 268.
-
-    Tuke, Hack, 235.
-
-    Turner, J., 231.
-
-    Turner, W. A., 239.
-
-    Tylor, 210, 266.
-
-
-    Urbantschitsch, 155.
-
-
-    Vanderkiste, 270.
-
-    Vaschide, 13, 92, 159, 162, 172, 199, 280.
-
-    Verbal transformations in dreams, 47.
-
-    Vesical dreams, 88, 96, 163, 164.
-
-    Vesme, C. de, 131.
-
-    Vigilambulism, 144.
-
-    Vinci, L. da, 274.
-
-    Visceral stimuli of dreams, 87 _et seq._, 121, 164.
-
-    Vision in dreams, 20.
-
-    Visual stimuli of dreams, 86, 108 _et seq._
-
-    Vold, Mourly, 32.
-
-    Volkelt, 89.
-
-    Vurpas, 172.
-
-
-    Wagner, 153, 183.
-
-    Weed, Sarah, 74.
-
-    Weygandt, 14, 72, 199.
-
-    Wigan, 244, 245.
-
-    Wiggam, 176, 208.
-
-    Wilks, Sir S., 214.
-
-    Wilson, A., 187.
-
-    Winslow, Forbes, 92.
-
-    Wish-dreams, 89, 165 _et seq._
-
-    Wordsworth, 215.
-
-    Wright, H., 96.
-
-    Wundt, 14, 23, 57, 72, 135, 136, 195, 210.
-
-
-    Zenoglossia, 225.
-
-    Printed in Great Britain by T. and A. CONSTABLE LTD.
-    at the Edinburgh University Press
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-    +--------------------------------------------------------------+
-    |                 Transcriber notes:                           |
-    |                                                              |
-    | P. 189. 'given him posion', changed 'posion' to 'poison'.    |
-    | P. 203. Added footnote [184] link.                           |
-    | P. 214. 'concommitants' changed to 'concomitants'.           |
-    | P. 215. 'alarum clock', changed 'alarum' to 'alarm'.         |
-    | P. 215. 'hashisch' changed to 'hashish'.                     |
-    | P. 231. Footnote 210, 'alcholic' changed to 'alcoholic'.     |
-    | P. 249. 'hue to' changed to 'due to'.                        |
-    | Fixed various punctuation                                    |
-    +--------------------------------------------------------------+
-
-
-
-
-
-
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The World of Dreams, by Havelock Ellis
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
+other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
+the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
+to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
+
+Title: The World of Dreams
+
+Author: Havelock Ellis
+
+Release Date: April 6, 2019 [EBook #59214]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WORLD OF DREAMS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Turgut Dincer, Jane Robins and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+book was produced from images made available by the
+HathiTrust Digital Library.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+    +---------------------------------------------+
+    |                 Note:                       |
+    |                                             |
+    | _ around word indicated italics _clinical_  |
+    +---------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE WORLD OF DREAMS
+
+
+
+
+_BY THE SAME AUTHOR_
+
+
+    THE SOUL OF SPAIN.
+
+    AFFIRMATIONS. _Second Edition._
+
+    IMPRESSIONS AND COMMENTS.
+
+    IMPRESSIONS AND COMMENTS. _Second Series._
+
+    THE TASK OF SOCIAL HYGIENE.
+
+
+
+
+    THE
+
+    WORLD OF DREAMS
+
+    BY
+
+    HAVELOCK ELLIS
+
+    'Sleep has its own world'
+
+    [Illustration]
+
+    BOSTON AND NEW YORK
+
+    HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY
+
+    1922
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+There are at least four different ways of writing a book on dreams. There
+is, for instance, the _literary_ method. In this way one goes to books
+or to the memories of other people for one's material, and so collects
+a great number of more or less wonderful stories. I have rejected this
+method, for it is entirely untrustworthy. Dreams are elusive at the
+best; only a very careful observer can set down a dream faithfully, even
+directly after it has occurred, and no one can safely entrust a dream to
+memory.
+
+There is, again, what I may call the _clinical_ method of studying dreams
+by the personal observation and collection of facts, with summation
+and analysis of the results. On a large scale, with the aid of the
+_questionnaire_, this method has been especially carried on in the United
+States, notably at Clark University under the inspiration of Dr. Stanley
+Hall. A strict and scientific adherence to the clinical method of studying
+dreams has resulted in Professor Sante de Sanctis's book _I Sogni_ (first
+edition 1899), which is, on the whole, the best book on dreams published
+in recent years.
+
+Then there is the _experimental_ method, which, not content with mere
+objective study of the phenomena, endeavours to interfere with them and
+to find out the results of interference. This method may be combined
+with other methods of studying dreams. In its pure form it has in recent
+years been especially practised by the late Mourly Vold. Its results are
+not without interest, but they do not cover a large part of the field,
+and they are not altogether reliable. Dreaming activity is so fluid and
+suggestible--and this is notably so when experimenter and subject are the
+same person--that interference with the phenomena deforms them, and we
+cannot be sure that by experiment we have really learned much about the
+life of dreams.
+
+There is, finally, the _introspective_ method. This may be said to be
+the earliest of the more scientific methods of studying dreams. Maine de
+Biran was here a pioneer, and Maury, in his famous book, _Le Sommeil et
+les Rêves_ (1861), which inaugurated the modern study of dreams, adopted
+a mainly introspective method, though he was not always quite successful
+in avoiding the fallacies of that method. It is in France that this method
+has been most frequently and most successfully cultivated.
+
+Professor Sigmund Freud's _Die Traumdeutung_ (first edition, 1900), may be
+said to belong to the introspective class, though to a special division
+which Freud himself terms psycho-analytic. This is undoubtedly the most
+original, the most daring, the most challenging of recent books on dreams,
+and is now the text-book of a whole school of investigators. It is not
+a book to be neglected, for it is written by one of the profoundest of
+living investigators into the obscure depths of the human soul. Even if
+one rejects Freud's methods as unsatisfactory and his facts as unproved,
+the work of one so bold and so sincere cannot fail to be helpful and
+stimulating in the highest degree. If it is not the truth it will at least
+help us to reach the truth.
+
+The little book now presented to the reader belongs mainly to the
+introspective group of dream studies, though not to the psycho-analytic
+variety. It is based on data which have accumulated beneath my hands
+during more than twenty years, and some of the ideas developed in it
+were put forward in a paper 'On Dreaming of the Dead,' _Psychological
+Review_, Sept. 1895; in 'A Note on Hypnagogic Paramnesia,' _Mind_, No.
+22, 1896; and in 'The Stuff that Dreams are made of,' _Popular Science
+Monthly_, April 1899. The book is not the outcome of experiment or of
+any deliberate concentration of thought on dreaming. I have simply noted
+down dream experiences,--most often in myself, less often in immediate
+friends,--directly they have occurred, usually on awakening in the
+morning. The few unimportant exceptions to the rule are duly noted. By
+maintaining this rule I have been able to satisfy myself that everything
+I have set down is reasonably accurate. Such a method certainly tends
+towards the exclusion of peculiar and exceptional dreams. This I do
+not greatly regret. I am chiefly interested in the problems of normal
+dreaming; they are sufficiently puzzling and mysterious and they properly
+present themselves for explanation first. I do not wish it to be
+understood that I question the existence of telepathic and other abnormal
+dream experiences. That is not the case. But it so happens that under the
+conditions I have laid down I have not met with any dreams that clearly
+and decisively belong to this abnormal class. Such few possible examples
+as have come under my immediate observation (in no case as personal
+experiences) are slight, and, moreover, sometimes of too intimate a
+character for full exposition.
+
+Thus my contribution to the psychology of dreaming is simple and
+unpretentious; it deals only with the fundamental elements of the subject.
+I do not make this statement entirely in a spirit of humility. It seems to
+me that in the past the literature of dreaming has often been overweighted
+by bad observation and reckless theory. By learning to observe and to
+understand the ordinary nightly experience of dream life we shall best be
+laying the foundation of future superstructures. For, rightly understood,
+dreams may furnish us with clues to the whole of life.
+
+    HAVELOCK ELLIS.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+    CHAPTER I
+
+    INTRODUCTION
+
+          PAGE
+
+    The House of Dreams--Fallacies in the Study of Dreams--Is it
+    possible to Study Dreams?--How Fallacies may be Avoided--Do
+    we always Dream during Sleep?--The Two Main
+    Sources of Dreams with their Sub-divisions,                       1
+
+
+    CHAPTER II
+
+    THE ELEMENTS OF DREAM LIFE
+
+    The Spontaneous Procession of Dream Imagery--Its Kaleidoscopic
+    Character--Attention in Dreams--Relation of Drug
+    Visions and Hypnagogic Imagery to Dreaming--Colour in
+    Dreams--The Fusion of Dream Imagery--Compared to
+    Dissolving Views--Sources of the Imagery--Various types
+    of Fusion--The Sub-Conscious Element in Dreaming--Verbal
+    Transformations as Links in Dream Imagery--The
+    Reduplication of Visual Imagery in Motor and other Terms,        20
+
+
+    CHAPTER III
+
+    THE LOGIC OF DREAMS
+
+    All Dreaming is a Process of Reasoning--The Fundamental
+    Character of Reasoning--Reasoning as a Synthesis of
+    Images--Dream Reasoning Instinctive and Automatic--It
+    is also Consciously carried on--This a result of the
+    Fundamental Split in Intelligence--Dissociation--Dreaming
+    as a Disturbance of Apperception,      56
+
+
+    CHAPTER IV
+
+    THE SENSES IN DREAMS
+
+    All Dreams probably contain both Presentative and Representative
+    Elements--The Influence of Tactile Sensations on
+    Dreams--Dreams excited by Auditory Stimuli--Dreams
+    aroused by Odours and Tastes--The Influence of Visual
+    Stimuli--Difficulty of distinguishing between Actual and
+    Imagined Sensory Excitations--The Influence of Internal
+    Visceral Stimuli on Dreaming--Erotic Dreams--Vesical
+    Dreams--Cardiac Dreams and their Symbolism--Prodromic
+    Dreams--Prophetic Dreams,                                        71
+
+
+    CHAPTER V
+
+    EMOTION IN DREAMS
+
+    Emotion and Imagination--How Stimuli are transformed into
+    Emotion--Somnambulism--The Failure of Movement in
+    Dreams--Nightmare--Influence of the approach of Awakening
+    on imagined Dream movements--The Magnification of
+    Imagery--Peripheral and Cerebral Conditions combine to
+    produce this Imaginative Heightening--Emotion in Sleep
+    also Heightened--Dreams formed to explain Heightened
+    Emotions of unknown origin--The fundamental Place of
+    Emotion in Dreams--Visceral and especially Gastric disturbance
+    as a source of Emotion--Symbolism in Dreams--The
+    Dreamer's Moral Attitude--Why Murder so often takes
+    place in Dreams--Moral Feeling not Abolished in Dreams
+    though sometimes Impaired,                                       94
+
+
+    CHAPTER VI
+
+    AVIATION IN DREAMS
+
+    Dreams of Flying and Falling--Their Peculiar Vividness--Dreams
+    of Flying an Alleged Survival of Primeval Experiences--Best
+    explained as based on Respiratory Sensations
+    combined with Cutaneous Anaesthesia--The Explanation
+    of Dreams of Falling--The Sensation of Levitation sometimes
+    experienced by Ecstatic Saints--Also experienced at
+    the Moment of Death,                                            129
+
+
+    CHAPTER VII
+
+    SYMBOLISM IN DREAMS
+
+    The Dramatisation of Subjective Feelings Based on
+    Dissociation--Analogies in Waking Life--The Synaesthesias and
+    Number-forms--Symbolism in Language--In Music--The Organic Basis
+    of Dream Symbolism--The Omnipotence of Symbolism--Oneiromancy--The
+    Scientific Interpretation of Dreams--Why Symbolism prevails
+    in Dreaming--Freud's Theory of Dreaming--Dreams as Fulfilled
+    Wishes--Why this Theory cannot be applied to all Dreaming--The
+    Complete Form of Symbolism in Dreams--Splitting up of
+    Personality--Self-objectivation in Imaginary Personalities--The
+    Dramatic Element in Dreams--Hallucinations--Multiple
+    Personality--Insanity--Self-objectivation a Primitive Tendency--Its
+    Survival in Civilisation,                                       148
+
+
+    CHAPTER VIII
+
+    DREAMS OF THE DEAD
+
+    Mental Dissociation during sleep--Illustrated by the Dream of
+    Returning to School Life--The Typical Dream of a Dead
+    Friend--Examples--Early Records of this Type of Dream--Analysis
+    of such Dreams--Atypical Forms--The Consolation
+    sometimes afforded by Dreams of the Dead--Ancient
+    Legends of this Dream Type--The Influence of Dreams on
+    the Belief of Primitive Man in the Survival of the Dead,        194
+
+
+    CHAPTER IX
+
+    MEMORY IN DREAMS
+
+    The Apparent Rapidity of Thought in Dreams--This Phenomenon largely
+    due to the Dream being a Description of a Picture--The Experience
+    of Drowning Persons--The Sense of Time in Dreams--The Crumpling
+    of Consciousness in Dreams--The Recovery of Lost Memories through
+    the Relaxation of Attention--The Emergence in Dreams of Memories
+    not known to Waking Life--The Recollection of Forgotten Languages
+    in Sleep--The Perversions of Memory in Dreams--Paramnesic False
+    Recollections--Hypnagogic Paramnesia--Dreams mistaken for Actual
+    Events--The Phenomenon of Pseudo-Reminiscence--Its Relationship
+    to Epilepsy--Its Prevalence especially among Imaginative and
+    Nervously Exhausted Persons--The Theories put forward to Explain
+    it--A Fatigue Product--Conditioned by Defective Attention and
+    Apperception--Pseudo-Reminiscence a reversed Hallucination,     212
+
+
+    CHAPTER X
+
+    CONCLUSION
+
+    The Fundamental Nature of Dreaming--Insanity and Dreaming--The
+    Child's Psychic State and the Dream State--Primitive
+    Thought and Dreams--Dreaming and Myth-Making--Genius
+    and Dreams--Dreaming as a Road into the Infinite,               261
+
+
+    INDEX,      283
+
+
+
+
+THE WORLD OF DREAMS
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+    The House of Dreams--Fallacies in the Study of Dreams--Is it
+    Possible to Study Dreams?--How Fallacies may be Avoided--Do we
+    always Dream during Sleep?--The Two Main Sources of Dreams with
+    their Sub-divisions.
+
+
+When we fall asleep we enter a dim and ancient house of shadow,
+unillumined by any direct ray from the outer world of waking life. We are
+borne about through its chambers, without conscious volition of our own;
+we fall down its mouldy and rotten staircases, we are haunted by strange
+sounds and odours from its mysterious recesses; we move among phantoms
+we cannot consciously control. As we emerge into the world of daily life
+again, for an instant the sunlight seems to flash into the obscure house
+before the door closes behind us; we catch one vivid glimpse of the
+chambers we have been wandering in, and a few more or less fragmentary
+memories come back to us of the life we have led there. But they soon
+fade away in the light of common day, and if a few hours later we seek to
+recall the strange experiences we have passed through, it usually happens
+that the visions of the night have already dissolved in memory into a few
+shreds of mist we can no longer reconstruct.
+
+For most of us our whole knowledge ends here. Our dreams are real enough
+while they last, but the interests of waking life absorb us so entirely
+that we rarely have leisure, and still less inclination, to subject our
+sleeping adventures, trivial and absurd as they must usually seem, to the
+careful tests which waking intelligence is accustomed to subject more
+obviously important matters to. The world of dreams and the mysterious
+light which prevails there[1] are abandoned entirely to our sleeping
+activities.
+
+This leading characteristic of dream life--the fact that it takes
+place in another and more shadowy world and in a different kind of
+consciousness[2]--has led to the criticism of the study of dreams from
+the scientific side. We cannot really study our dreams, these objectors
+say, because we--that is to say, our waking consciousness--cannot come
+sufficiently closely in contact with them. Dreams, it is argued, are
+inevitably transformed in our hands; what we are studying is not our
+dreams, but only our waking, and probably altogether false, impressions
+of our dreams. There is a certain element of truth in this objection. It
+is very difficult, indeed impossible, to recall exactly, and in their
+proper order, even the details of a real adventure which has only just
+happened to us. It is, obviously, incomparably more difficult to recall an
+experience which took place, under such shadowy conditions, in a world so
+remote from the world of waking life. There is, further, the very definite
+difficulty that we only catch our dreams for a moment by the light, as
+it were, of the open door as we are emerging from sleep. In other words,
+our waking consciousness is for a moment observing and interpreting a
+process in another kind of consciousness, or even if we assert that it is
+the same consciousness it is still a consciousness that has been working
+under quite different conditions from waking consciousness, and accepting
+data which in the waking state it would not accept. For the student
+of dreams it must ever be a serious question how far the facts become
+inevitably distorted in this process. Sleeping or waking, it is probable,
+our consciousness never embraces the whole of the possible psychic field
+within us. There are, when we are dreaming as well as when we are
+awake--as will become clearer in the sequel--subconscious, or imperfectly
+conscious, states just below our consciousness, and exerting an influence
+upon it.[3] Our latent psychic possessions, among which dreams move, would
+seem to be by no means always at the same depth; the specific gravity of
+consciousness, as it were, varies, and these latent elements rise or fall,
+becoming nearer to the conscious surface or falling further away from it.
+But the greatest change must take place when the waking surface is reached
+and the outer world breaks on sleeping consciousness. In that change
+there is doubtless a process of necessary and automatic transformation
+and interpretation. We may picture it, perhaps, as somewhat the same
+process as when a person skilled in both languages takes up a foreign book
+and reads it out in his own tongue. With practice the reader may become
+unconscious that he is transforming everything, that the words he utters
+are different from the words he sees, and that he even transposes their
+order, sometimes putting in the middle of a sentence the verb he sees at
+the end.
+
+Yet even if we admit that the passage from sleeping to waking
+consciousness involves a change as complete as this--and it is probable,
+as we shall see, that some such change sometimes takes place--for a
+faithful interpreter the sense still remains the same. It is impossible
+to believe that the witness of waking consciousness to the nature of the
+visions it has caught at the threshold between sleeping and waking life is
+false, and the most convincing evidence of this is the utter unlikeness of
+these visions to the data of ordinary waking life.
+
+But even this conclusion has been subjected to severe criticism which we
+have to face before we proceed further. Foucault, an acute investigator of
+dream psychology--carrying to its extreme point a position more partially
+and tentatively stated by Delbœuf and Tannery--has denied that our dreams,
+as they finally present themselves to waking consciousness, at all
+correspond to the psychic process in sleep upon which they are founded,
+and he especially insists that the logical connections are superadded.[4]
+He considers that dreaming is an 'observation of memory' made under such
+conditions that 'it would be very imprudent to regard the remembrance of
+the dream as reproducing faithfully the mental state of sleep.' During
+sleep, he believes, our dream ideas proceed, concurrently, it may be, but
+separately and independently; at the moment when awakening begins, the
+mind, as an act of immediate memory, grasps the plurality of separate
+pictures and applies itself spontaneously to the task of organising them
+according to the rules of logic and the laws of the real world, making
+a drama of them as like as possible to the dramas of waking life.[5] He
+agrees with Goblot that 'the dream we remember is a waking thought,'
+and with Tannery that 'we do not remember our dreams, but only the
+reconstructions of them we effected at the moment of waking.' It is after
+awakening, Foucault concludes, that the dream develops, and its final
+shape depends on the period at which it is noted down; 'the evolution
+of the dream after awakening is a logical evolution, dominated and
+directed by the instinctive need to give a reasonable appearance to the
+_ensemble_ of images and sensations present to the mind, and to assimilate
+the representation of the dream to the system of representations which
+constitutes our knowledge of the real world.'[6]
+
+In arguing his thesis, Foucault makes much of the modifications which can
+be proved to take place if any one is asked to repeat a dream at intervals
+of months. Under the influence of time and repetition a dream becomes more
+coherent and more conformed to reality. In illustration Foucault presents
+two versions of an insignificant dream in which a lady imagines that she
+is out with her husband for a drive, and in the course of it experiences a
+natural need which she seeks an opportunity to satisfy; the details of the
+first version were highly improbable; some months later they had become
+much more like what might have occurred in real life. Such a process,
+Foucault thinks, is taking place from the first in the making of dreams as
+we know them awake.
+
+There are, undoubtedly, facts which may seem to support Foucault's
+argument that the logic of the dream, as we know it, is not in the
+original dream, but is introduced afterwards. Thus I once dreamed in the
+morning that I asked my wife if she had been into a certain room, and
+that she replied, 'Can't get in.' I immediately awoke and realised that
+my wife had actually spoken these words, not to me, but to an approaching
+servant, in anticipation of a message about entering a neighbouring room
+of which the door was locked. It is thus evident that although it seemed
+to me in my dream that the question came first and the answer followed in
+the ordinary course, in reality the answer came first. The question was a
+theory, supplied automatically by sleeping intelligence and prefixed to
+the answer, in which order they both appeared to sleeping consciousness,
+that is to say, in the only way in which sleeping consciousness can ever
+be known, as translated into waking consciousness.[7]
+
+It must be borne in mind that such a dream as I have recorded--in which an
+actual sensory experience is introduced, untransformed, as a foreign body
+into sleeping consciousness--is not a typical dream. Dreams are, however,
+without doubt of various kinds, and we may well admit that there is a
+class of dreams formed in this way. That supposition will, indeed, be
+helpful in explaining several dreams I shall have to record. The process
+is much the same as when a nervous person receives a telegram, and at once
+assumes that some dreaded accident has occurred, and that the telegram is
+the announcement of it. The craving for reasons is instinctive, and the
+dreamer's sense of logic even dominates his sense of time.
+
+But Foucault's argument is that waking consciousness effects this logical
+construction of the dream. Here his position is weak and incapable of
+proof. It is, indeed, contrary to all the tests we are able to apply
+to it. If it is the object of the logic of our dreams to make them
+conformable to our waking experience, that end, we must admit, is in most
+cases very far from being attained. In their original form, as Foucault
+views the matter, our dreams are simple dissociated images. In that shape
+they would present nothing whatever to shock the consciousness of waking
+life. The logic, hypothetically introduced solely to make them conformable
+to real life, is frequently a preposterous logic such as the consciousness
+of waking life could not accept or even conceive. This fact alone serves
+to throw serious doubt upon the theory that it is waking consciousness
+which impresses its logic upon our dreams.
+
+Nor, again, is there any analogy, and still less identity, between the
+process whereby we grasp a dream when we awake, and the process whereby
+the memory of a dream is transformed during months of waking life.
+The latter is part of a general process affecting all our memories in
+greater or less degree. I visit, for instance, a foreign cathedral, and
+take careful note of the character and arrangement of buttresses and
+piers; a few months later, if I have failed to set the facts down, my
+memory of them will become uncertain, confused, and incorrect. But I need
+not, therefore, lose faith in the tolerable exactitude of my original
+impressions. In the same way, we cannot argue that the shifting memory
+of a dream during a long period of time throws the slightest doubt on
+the accuracy of our original impression of it. We never catch a dream in
+course of formation. As it presents itself to consciousness on awakening
+there may be doubtful points and there may be missing links, but the dream
+is, once for all, completed, and if there are doubtful points or missing
+links we recognise them as such. We make no attempt to supply a logic that
+is not there, and we never see any such process going on involuntarily. I
+should, indeed, myself be inclined to say that there is always a kind of
+gap between sleeping consciousness and waking consciousness; the change
+from the one to the other kind of consciousness seems to be effected
+by a slight shock, and the perception of the already completed dream
+is the first effort of waking consciousness. The existence of such a
+shock is indicated by the fact that, even at the first moment of waking
+consciousness, we never realise that a moment ago we were asleep. As soon
+as we realise that we are awake it seems to us that we have already been
+awake for an uncertain but distinct period of time; some people, indeed,
+especially old people, on awaking, feel this so strongly that they deny
+they have been asleep. It once happened to me to be in the neighbourhood
+of a dynamite factory at the moment when a very disastrous explosion
+occurred; at the time my back was to the factory, and I am quite unable
+to say how long an interval occurred between the shock of the explosion
+and my own action in turning round to observe the straight shaft of smoke
+and solid material high in the air; there was a gap in consciousness,
+an interval of unknown and seemingly considerable length, caused by the
+deafening shock of the explosion, although it is probable that my action
+in turning round was almost or quite instantaneous. It seems to me that
+the transition from sleeping consciousness to waking consciousness occurs
+in a similar manner on a smaller scale.
+
+Although the view of Foucault that the dream is logically organised
+after sleep has ended seems, when we examine the evidence in its favour,
+to be unacceptable, we may still admit that, in some cases at all
+events, the dream only assumes final shape at the moment when sleeping
+consciousness is breaking up, that the dream, as we know it, is a final
+synthetic attempt of sleeping consciousness as it dissolves on the
+approach of waking consciousness. Sleeping consciousness, we may even
+imagine as saying to itself in effect: 'Here comes our master, Waking
+Consciousness, who attaches such mighty importance to reason and logic
+and so forth. Quick! gather things up, put them in order--any order will
+do--before he enters to take possession.' That is to say, in other words,
+that as sleeping consciousness comes nearer to the threshold of waking
+consciousness it is possible that the need for the same kind of causation
+or sequence which is manifested in waking consciousness may begin to make
+itself felt even to sleeping consciousness. Even this assumption seems,
+however, as regards most dreams, to be extravagant. In any case, and at
+whatever stage the dream is finally constituted, we are not entitled, it
+seems to me, to believe that any stage of its constitution falls outside
+the frontiers of sleep. It is satisfactory to be able to feel justified in
+reaching this conclusion. For if dreams were chiefly or mainly the product
+of waking consciousness they would certainly lose a considerable part of
+their significance and interest.
+
+Even, however, when we have reached this conclusion the path of the
+student is still far from easy. The undoubted fact that in any case the
+difficulties of observing and recording dreams are very great cannot fail
+to make us extremely careful. Although the dreams of some persons, who
+may be regarded as themselves of vivid and dramatic temperament, seem to
+be habitually vivid and dramatic to an extent which, in my own case, is
+extremely rare, one is usually justified in feeling a certain amount of
+suspicion in regard to dream-narratives which are at every point clear,
+coherent, connected, and intelligible. Dreams, as I know them on awaking
+from sleep, occasionally present episodes to which these epithets may be
+applied, but on the whole they are full of obscurities, of uncertainties,
+of inexplicable lacunae. The memory of dream events is lost so rapidly
+that one is constantly obliged to leave the exact nature of a detail in
+doubt. One seems to be recalling a landscape seen by a lightning flash. It
+is for this reason that I have made it a rule only to admit dreams which
+are noted very shortly, and if possible immediately, after the moment
+of awakening. It is further of importance in recording one's dreams, to
+note the emotional attitude experienced during the dream as well as any
+physical sensations felt on awakening. The attitude of dream consciousness
+towards dream visions usually varies from that of waking consciousness,
+although the normal extent of the difference is a disputable point. When I
+read dream narratives of landscapes which, as described, appear at every
+point as beautiful and impressive to waking consciousness as they appeared
+to dreaming consciousness, I usually suspect that, granting the good faith
+and accuracy of the narrator, we are really concerned, not with dreams
+in the proper sense, but with visions experienced under more abnormal
+conditions, and especially with drug visions. In the present inquiry I
+am only concerned to ascertain the most elementary and fundamental laws
+of the dream world, as they occur in fairly ordinary and normal persons,
+and therefore it becomes necessary to be very strict as to the conditions
+under which they were recorded. It is the most ordinary dreams that are
+most likely to reveal the ordinary laws of dream life, but for this end
+it is necessary that they should be recorded with the greatest accuracy
+attainable.
+
+I am myself neither a constant nor, usually, a very vivid dreamer, and
+in these respects I am probably a fairly ordinary and normal person; the
+personal material which I have accumulated, though it spreads over twenty
+years, is not notably copious. Nor have I ever directed my attention in
+any systematic and concentrated manner to my dream life. To do so would
+be, I believe, to distort the phenomena. I have merely recorded any
+significant phenomena as they occurred.
+
+To remark that one is not a constant dreamer is not to assert that
+dreaming is rare, but merely that one's recollection of it is rare.
+Though we may only catch a glimpse of our latest vision of the night
+as we leave the house of sleep, it may well be that there were many
+earlier adventures of the night which are beyond the reach of waking
+consciousness. Sometimes, it is curious to note, we become vaguely
+conscious, during the day, for the first time, of a dream we have had
+during the night. Many psychologists, as well as metaphysicians--fearful
+to admit that the activity of the soul could ever cease--believe that we
+dream during the whole period of sleep; this has of recent years been
+the opinion of Vaschide, Foucault, Näcke, and Sir Arthur Mitchell, as it
+formerly was of Sir Benjamin Brodie, Sir Henry Holland, and Schaaffhausen.
+In earlier days Hippocrates, Descartes, Leibnitz, and Cabanis seem to
+have been of the same opinion. On the other hand, Locke, Macnish, and
+Carpenter held that deep sleep is dreamless; this is also the opinion
+of Wundt, Beaunis, Strümpell, Weygandt, Hammond, and Jastrow. Moreover,
+there are some people, like Lessing, who, so far as they know, never
+dream at all. My own personal experience scarcely inclines me to accept
+without qualification the belief that we are always dreaming during
+sleep. I find that my remembered dreams tend to be correlated with some
+slight mental or physical disturbance, and therefore it seems to me
+probable that, if dreams are continuous during sleep, they must, during
+completely undisturbed sleep, be of an extremely faint and shadowy
+character. To return to a metaphor I have before used, we may say that
+sleeping consciousness in its descent from the surface of the waking life
+may fall to a point at which its specific gravity being practically the
+same as that of its environment, a state approaching complete repose is
+attained.[8] It cannot of course be said that the failure to remember
+dreams is any argument against their occurrence. It is well known that
+when the psychic activity of sleep assumes a definitely motor shape,
+as in talking in sleep and in somnambulism, it is very rare for any
+recollection to remain on awakening, though we cannot doubt that psychic
+activity has been present. In the same way the dream that we remember
+when awakened from sound sleep by another person is by no means always
+due to that awakening. This is shown by the fact that if we were turning
+round or making other movements just before being thus awakened, the
+dream we remember--in one such case a dream of making one's way with
+difficulty between a sofa and a chair--may have no relation to the
+circumstance of the awakening, but clearly be suggested by the movements
+made during sleep, though these movements themselves remain unknown to
+waking consciousness. The movements of dogs during sound sleep--the
+rhythmical lifting of the paws, the wagging of the tail--point in the same
+direction.[9]
+
+The fact that failure of memory by no means proves the absence of dreaming
+may be illustrated, not only by the forgetfulness of what takes place
+during hypnotic sleep, but by what we sometimes witness during partial
+anaesthesia maintained by drugs. This was well shown in a case I was once
+concerned with, where it was necessary to administer chloroform (preceded
+by the alcohol-chloroform-ether mixture) for a prolonged period during
+a difficult first confinement. The drug was not given to the point of
+causing complete abolition of mental activity, and the patient talked,
+and occasionally sang, throughout, referring to various events in her
+life, from childhood onwards. The sensation and the expression of pain
+were not altogether abolished, for slight cries and remarks about the
+discomfort and constraint imposed upon her were sometimes mingled in the
+same sentence with quite irrelevant remarks concerning, for instance,
+trivial details of housekeeping. Confusions of incompatible ideas also
+took place, as during ordinary dreaming. 'Where is the three-cornered
+nurse,' she thus asked, 'who does not mind what she does?' There was
+also the abnormal suggestibility of dream consciousness. The questions
+of bystanders were answered but always with a tendency to agree with
+everything that was said, this tendency even displaying itself with a
+certain ingenuity as when in reply to the playful random query: 'Were
+you drunk or sleeping last night?' she answered, with some hesitation:
+'A little of both, I think.' To the casual observer, it might seem that
+there was a state of full consciousness on the basis of which a partial
+delirium had established itself. Yet on recovery from the drug there was
+no recollection of anything whatever that had taken place during its
+administration, and no sense of the lapse of time.
+
+Fantastic and marvellous as our dreams may sometimes be, they are in
+practically all cases made up of very simple elements. It is desirable
+that we should at the outset have a provisional notion as to the sources
+of these simple elements. Most writers on dreams hold that there are two
+great sources from which these elements are drawn: the vast reservoir of
+memories and the actual physical sensations experienced at the moment of
+dreaming, and interpreted by sleeping consciousness. Various names have
+been given to these two groups, the recognition of which is at least
+as old as Aristotle.[10] Thus Sully calls them central and peripheral,
+Tissié, psychic and sensorial, Foucault, imaginative and perceptive.
+Fairly convenient names are those adopted by Miss Calkins, who calls the
+first group representative, the second group presentative, meaning by
+representative 'connected through the fact of association with the waking
+life of the past,' and by presentative 'connected through sense excitation
+with the immediate present.'[11]
+
+The representative group falls into two subdivisions, according as the
+memories are of old or of recent date; these subdivisions are often quite
+distinct, recent dream memories belonging--probably with most people--to
+the previous day, while old dream memories are usually drawn from the
+experience of many years past, and frequently from early life. In the
+same way presentative impressions fall into two subdivisions, according
+as they refer to external stimuli present to the senses, or to internal
+disturbances within the organism. It is scarcely necessary to observe that
+any or all of these four sub-groups, into which the whole of our dream
+life may be analysed, may become woven together in the same dream.
+
+I have called the classification 'provisional' because, though it is
+convenient to adopt it for the sake of orderly arrangement, when we come
+to consider the matter it will be found that the material of dreams is
+in reality all of the same order, and purely psychic, though it may be
+differentiated in accordance with the character of the stimulus which
+evokes the psychic material of which it is made. Strictly speaking,
+the source of the dream as a dream can only be central, and a truly
+presentative dream is impossible. If our senses receive an impression,
+external or internal, and we recognise and accept that impression for
+what we should recognise and accept it when awake, then we cannot be
+said to be dreaming. The internal and external stimuli which act upon
+sleeping consciousness are not a part of that consciousness, nor in any
+real sense its source or its cause. The ray of sunlight that falls on the
+dreamer, the falling off of his bedclothes, the indigestible supper he
+ate last night--these things can no more 'account' for his dream than the
+postman's knock can account for the contents of the letter he delivers.
+Whatever the stimuli from the physical world that may knock at the door
+of dreaming consciousness, that consciousness is apart from them, and
+stimuli can only reach it by undergoing transformation. They must put off
+the character which they wear as phenomena of the waking world; they must
+put on the character of phenomena of another world, the world of dreams.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 1: The subdued quality of the light in normal dreaming--the
+usual absence of sunshine and generally even of colour--has long been
+noted. 'We never dream of being in the sunshine,' says Henry Dircks
+(_Lancet_, 11th June 1870, p. 863), though too absolutely; 'light and
+shade form no requisite elements.... The liveliest and most impressive
+dream is, in reality, a true night scene, very dubiously lighted up, and
+in which the nearest objects are those which we principally observe and
+which most interest us.']
+
+[Footnote 2: As some writers give a rather special meaning to the word
+'consciousness,' I may say that I simply mean by it (as defined by
+Baldwin and Stout in the _Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology_)
+'the distinctive character of whatever may be called mental life,' or,
+as Professor Stratton puts it, in defence of this broad definition
+(_Psychological Bulletin_, April 1906), 'consciousness designates the
+common and generic feature of our psychic acts.' Dreaming then becomes,
+as defined by Baldwin and Stout, 'conscious process during sleep.' It
+should be added that there is much uncertainty about any definition
+of consciousness. Bode ('Some Recent Definitions of Consciousness,'
+_Psychological Review_, July 1908) thinks it 'a matter for legitimate
+doubt' whether any definition of consciousness can be adequate, and
+Mercier (art. 'Consciousness' in Tuke's _Dictionary of Psychological
+Medicine_) boldly proclaims--quite justly, I think--that 'consciousness is
+not susceptible of definition,' for we can never go behind it or outside
+it. That we have to admit various kinds, or at all events various degrees,
+of consciousness will become clear in our discussion of dreaming.]
+
+[Footnote 3: By 'subconscious' is meant, as defined by Baldwin and
+Stout, 'not clearly recognised in a present state of consciousness, yet
+entering into the development of subsequent states of consciousness.' Some
+psychologists strongly dislike the word 'subconscious.' They are even
+disposed to argue that there is no subconscious mind, and that before and
+after the stage of 'awareness,' psychic facts only exist as 'dispositions
+of brain cells.' The psychologist, however, as such, has no concern with
+brain cells which belong to the histologist. When we occupy ourselves with
+dreams we realise at every step that it is possible for psychic states to
+exist and to affect our 'awareness,' while at the same time they are not
+immediately within the sphere of that 'awareness.' Psychic states of this
+kind seem most properly termed 'subconscious,' that is to say slightly,
+partially, or imperfectly conscious. Any objection to so precise and
+convenient a term for a real phenomenon seems, indeed, to belong to the
+sphere of personal idiosyncrasy into which we have perhaps no right to
+intrude.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Foucault, _Le Rêve_, 1906.]
+
+[Footnote 5: Foucault, _op. cit._, ch. iv.]
+
+[Footnote 6: Foucault, _op. cit._, p. 49.]
+
+[Footnote 7: This occasionally retrospective character of dreams has long
+been known, and was referred to by the writer of an article on 'Dreams and
+Dreaming' in the _Lancet_ for 24th November 1877.]
+
+[Footnote 8: The old French case (quoted by Macnish) of a woman, with a
+portion of her skull removed, whose brain bulged out during dreams but
+was motionless in dreamless sleep, as well as the more recent similar
+case known to Hammond (_Treatise on Insanity_, p. 233), supports the
+belief that the psychic activity which is not manifested in rememberable
+dreams is probably at the most of a very shadowy character. Even during
+waking life psychic activity often falls to a very low ebb; Beaunis, who
+has investigated this question ('Comment Fonctionne mon Cerveau,' _Revue
+Philosophique_, January 1909), describes a condition which he names
+'psychic twilight' and regards as frequently occurring.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Lucretius long ago referred to the significance of this fact
+(lib. iv. vv. 988-994), and he stated that the hallucination persisted
+for a time even after the dog had awakened. I have never myself been able
+to see any trace of such hypnagogic hallucination or delusion in dogs who
+awake from dreams, though I have frequently looked for it; it always seems
+to me that the dog who seemingly awakes from a dream of hunting grasps the
+fireside facts of life around him immediately and easily.]
+
+[Footnote 10: This classification of the sources of dreams has, however,
+been generally accepted for little more than a century. At an earlier
+period it was not usually believed to cover the whole ground. Thus Des
+Laurens (A. Laurentius) in the sixteenth century, in his treatise on the
+Disease of Melancholy (insanity), says that there are three kinds of
+dreams: (1) of Nature (_i.e._ due to external causes); (2) of the mind
+(_i.e._ based on memories); and, above both these classes, (3) dreams from
+God and the devil.]
+
+[Footnote 11: M. W. Calkins, 'Statistics of Dreams,' _American Journal of
+Psychology_, April 1893.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE ELEMENTS OF DREAM LIFE
+
+    The Spontaneous Procession of Dream Imagery--Its Kaleidoscopic
+    Character--Attention in Dreams--Relation of Drug Visions and
+    Hypnagogic Imagery to Dreaming--Colour in Dreams--The Fusion
+    of Dream Imagery--Compared to Dissolving Views--Sources of the
+    Imagery--Various types of Fusion--The Subconscious Element in
+    Dreaming--Verbal Transformations as Links in Dream Imagery--The
+    Reduplication of Visual Imagery in Motor and other Terms.
+
+
+Perhaps the most elementary fact about dream vision is the perpetual and
+unceasing change which it is undergoing at every moment. Sight is for
+most of us the chief sensory activity of sleeping as it is of waking
+life; the commonest kind of dream is mainly a picture, but it is always
+a living and moving picture, however inanimate the objects which appear
+in vision before us would be in real life. No man ever gazed at a dream
+picture which was at rest to his sleeping eye as are the pictures we gaze
+at with our waking eyes. So far as my own experience is concerned, I have
+rarely in sleep seen a sentence, a word, a letter written on a sheet of
+dream-paper which was not changing beneath the eye of sleep. I dream,
+for instance, that I wish to stamp a letter, and look in my pocket-book
+for a penny stamp; I am able to find stamps of other values, I am able
+to find penny stamps that are torn or defaced or of an antiquated type
+disused thirty years ago; all sorts of stamps, as well as little pictures
+resembling stamps, develop and multiply beneath my gaze; the stamp I
+seek remains unfound, probably because it had appeared at the beginning
+of the series and suggested all the rest. That is indicated by another
+dream (experienced, it may be noted, during the early stage of a cold in
+the head): I have to catch a train; I see my hat hanging on a peg among
+other hats, and I move towards it; but as I do so it has vanished; and I
+wander among rows of hats, of all shapes and sizes, but not one of them
+mine. Sleeping consciousness is a stream in which we never bathe twice,
+for it is renewed every second. It is this as much as any characteristic
+of the visual dream--for the mainly auditory or motor dream often presents
+less difficulty in this respect--which makes it so difficult to recall
+and reproduce. We are, as it were, gazing at a constantly revolving
+kaleidoscope in which every slightest turn produces a new pattern,
+somewhat resembling that which immediately preceded it--so that, if the
+kaleidoscope were conscious we should say that each picture had been
+suggested by the preceding pattern--but yet definitely novel.[12]
+
+Delbœuf has denied that this process ever involves any real metamorphosis
+of images; he regarded it as an illusion due to rapid succession of
+distinct images which are afterwards combined in memory. That view is
+not, however, tenable; apart from the fact that it makes the illegitimate
+assumption that our recollection of a dream is entirely unreliable,
+it must be remembered that (as Giessler has pointed out) the shock of
+emotional horror or surprise that frequently accompanies such dreams
+suffices to prove the reality of the metamorphosis. Thus I once, as a
+youth, had a vivid dream of an albatross that became transformed into a
+woman, the beautiful eyes of the albatross taking on a womanly expression,
+but the bird's beak only being imperfectly changed into a nose as the
+bird-woman murmured, 'Do you love me?' In this case the vivid surprise of
+the dream was precisely associated with the simultaneous existence of the
+two sets of characters.
+
+It is not, however, necessary that there should be any metamorphosis of
+dream images, nor even that the procession of dream imagery should be
+continuous. And whether or not there is metamorphosis of images, whether
+the imagery is continuous or discontinuous, it seems to me that we must
+admit the possibility of its spontaneous character. That is, indeed, a
+debated, and, it may be admitted, a debateable point. Thus Foucault[13]
+accounts for the multiplication of almost similar images sometimes
+witnessed in dreams as due to _desire;_ we see a number of things because
+we desire to possess a number of these things, and he explains a dream
+of Delbœuf's, of a procession of lizards, as due to the fact that Delbœuf
+was a collector of lizards, in the same way as he would explain the dreams
+of thirsty people who imagine they are drinking repeated glasses of water
+or wine. I am quite unable to accept this explanation. The shifting and
+multiplication of dream imagery, as in the procession of lizards, is a
+fundamental and elementary character of spontaneous mental imagery, and
+is constant in some drug visions, notably those occasioned by mescal.[14]
+The repetition of imaginary drinks in the dreams of a thirsty man belongs
+to another more special class in explanation of which desire may be more
+properly invoked; it is merely the expression of the fact that after the
+imaginary drink the dreamer remains thirsty, and the suggested image is
+therefore repeated.
+
+That in some cases there is what we may call a deliberate subconscious
+selection in the imagery presented to consciousness in dreams, there can
+be no doubt. But mental imagery is deeper and more elemental than any
+of the higher psychic functions even when exerted subconsciously. Just
+as the immense procession of continuous and totally unfamiliar imagery
+which is evoked by the action of mescal on the visual centres has no more
+connection with the subject's volition or desires than the procession
+of the starry skies, so likewise, we seem bound to admit, it may be in
+the case of a succession of separate images in dreams. It is nearly
+always possible to find a link of connection between any two images
+chosen at random, and the link is often a real subconscious link, but not
+necessarily so. Discontinuous images may arise, it seems probable, from
+a psychic basis deeper than choice, their appearance being determined by
+their own dynamic condition at the moment. We must, as Baron Mourre[15]
+not quite happily puts it, take into account 'the physiological state of
+ideas.' If we hold to the belief that dreaming is based on a fundamental
+and elementary tendency to the formation of continuous or discontinuous
+images, which may or may not be controlled by psychic emotions or
+impulses, we shall be delivered from many hazardous speculations.
+
+When we thus start with the recognition of a more or less spontaneous
+procession of images as the elemental stuff of dreams, one of the first
+problems we encounter is the relation of attention to that imagery. What
+is the degree and the nature of the attention we exert in dreams?
+
+'Sleep from the psychological point of view,' says Foucault, 'is a state
+of profound distraction or total inattention.' And Mourre shows by dreams
+of his own that any exercise of will in dreaming leads to awakening, and
+that the deeper the sleep the more absent is volition from dreams. Hence
+the involuntary wavering and perpetually mere meaningless change of dream
+imagery. Such concentration as is possible during sleep usually reveals
+a shifting, oscillating, uncertain movement of the vision before us. We
+are, as it were, reading a sign-post in the dusk, or making guesses at the
+names of the stations as our express train flashes by the painted letters.
+It is this factor in dreams which causes them so often to baffle our
+analysis. There is thus a failure of sleeping attention to fix definitely
+the final result--a failure which itself may evidently serve to carry
+on the dream process by suggesting new images and combinations. It can
+scarcely be said, however, that the question of attention in dreams is
+thus settled. It would be inconceivable that the terrible occurrences
+that may overtake us in dreams and the emotional turmoil aroused should
+be accompanied by 'total inattention and distraction.' Nor can it be
+said that that supposition agrees with the vivid memory which our dreams
+sometimes leave. We can probably account for the phenomena much more
+satisfactorily by adopting Ribot's useful distinction between voluntary
+attention and spontaneous attention.[16] Voluntary or artificial attention
+is a product of education and training. It is directed by extrinsic
+force, is the result of deliberation, and is accompanied by some feeling
+of effort. It always acts on the muscles and by the muscles; without
+muscular tension there can be no voluntary attention. Spontaneous or
+natural attention, on the other hand, is that more fundamental kind of
+attention which exists anteriorly to any education or training, and is
+the only kind of attention which animals and young children are capable
+of. It may be weak or strong, but always and everywhere it is based on
+emotional states; every creature moved by pleasure and pain is capable
+of spontaneous attention under the influence of those stimuli. These two
+kinds of attention are at the opposite poles from each other, and are
+incompatible with each other. There can be no doubt that, as Ribot himself
+pointed out, it is voluntary attention that is defective (though it may
+not always be entirely absent) in dreams;[17] the muscular weakness and
+inco-ordination of sleep involve this lack of attention which is indeed an
+essential condition of the restoration and repose of sleep. But all the
+characters of spontaneous attention are present. The attention we exercise
+in dreams is mainly of this fundamental, automatic, involuntary character,
+conditioned by the emotions we experience, and for the most part escaping
+all the efforts of our voluntary attention. Further, it has been ably
+argued by Leroy that a similar state of involuntary automatic attention,
+with concomitant diminution or disturbance of voluntary attention, is
+a necessary condition for the appearance of the visual and auditory
+hallucinations abnormally experienced in the waking state.[18]
+
+There is, then, at the basis of dreaming a seemingly spontaneous
+procession of dream imagery which is always undergoing transformation
+into something different, yet not wholly different, from that which went
+before. It seems a mechanical flow of images, regulated by associations
+of resemblance, which sleeping consciousness recognises without either
+controlling or introducing foreign elements. This is probably the
+most elementary form of dreaming, that which is nearest to waking
+consciousness, and that in which the peripheral and retinal element of
+dreaming plays the largest part.
+
+The fundamental character of this spontaneous self-evolving procession of
+imagery is indicated by the significant fact that it tends to take place
+whenever the more retinal and peripheral part of the visual apparatus is
+affected by the exhaustion of undue stimulation, or even when the organism
+generally is disturbed or run down, as in neurasthenic conditions.[19]
+The most obtrusive and familiar example of visual imagery is furnished by
+the procession of perpetually shifting and changing after-images which
+continue to evolve for a considerable time after we have looked at the
+sun or other brilliant object.[20] Less striking, but more intimately
+akin to the imagery of dreams, are the hypnagogic visions occurring as we
+fall asleep, especially after a day during which vision has been unusually
+stimulated and fatigued, though they do not seem necessarily dependent
+on such fatigue. Most vivid and instructive of all is the procession of
+visual imagery evoked by certain drugs. Of these the most remarkable and
+potent, as well as the best for study, is probably mescal, which happens
+also to be the only one with which I am myself well acquainted.[21] This
+substance provokes a constant succession of self-evolving visual imagery
+which constantly approaches and constantly eludes the semblance of real
+things; in the earlier stages these images closely resemble those produced
+by the kaleidoscope, and they change in a somewhat similar manner. Such
+spontaneous evolution of imagery is evidently a fundamental aptitude of
+the visual apparatus which many very slightly abnormal conditions may
+bring into prominence.
+
+The power of opium is somewhat similar, and, as DeQuincey long since
+pointed out, such power is simply a revival of a faculty usually possessed
+by children, although, judging from my own experiences with mescal, drugs
+exert it in a far more vivid and potent degree than that in which it
+usually occurs in the child. The psychologists of childhood have not
+often investigated this phenomenon,[22] but so far as my own inquiries
+go, all or nearly all persons have possessed, when children, the power
+of seeing visions in the dark on the curtain of the closed eyelids,
+perhaps the representation of fairy tales they had read, perhaps merely
+commonplace processions of individuals or events, a tendency sometimes
+appearing for the same figure to recur again and again. I think it is
+fairly certain that the so-called 'lies' of children, told in good faith,
+are in part due to the occasional eruption of this faculty into daylight
+life. People who deny that they ever possessed this power have, almost
+certainly, only forgotten. I should myself be inclined to deny that I had
+ever had any such visionary faculty if it were not that I can recall one
+occasion of its presence, at about the age of seven, when sleeping with a
+cousin of the same age; we amused ourselves by burying our heads in the
+pillows and watching a connected series of pictures which we were both
+alike able to see, each announcing any change in the picture as soon as it
+took place. This fact of community of vision served to impress on my mind
+the existence of a faculty of which otherwise I can recall no trace.[23]
+
+Of these various groups of allied phenomena, that which more especially
+concerns us in the investigation of dreams is the group of phenomena most
+strictly called hypnagogic, belonging, that is to say, to the ante-chamber
+of sleep, when the senses are in repose and waking consciousness is
+slipping away, or else when, as we leave the world of dreams, waking
+consciousness is flowing back again. This state has been known from
+very ancient times. Aristotle referred to it, and in the dawn of modern
+scientific thought Hobbes described allied phenomena.[24] The strictly
+psychological study of hypnagogic visions seems to have begun with
+Baillarger.[25] Then, some years later, Maury, who had a rich personal
+experience of such phenomena, devoted a chapter to the hypnagogic state,
+and gave it its recognised name.[26]
+
+Hypnagogic imagery, there can be little doubt, is not a purely ocular
+phenomenon, even when it is stimulated by ocular fatigue. It is a mixed
+phenomenon, partly retinal and partly central. That is to say that the eye
+supplies entoptic glimmerings, and the brain, acting on the suggestions
+thus received, superposes mental pictures to those glimmerings.[27] They
+are thus analogous to the pictures we may see in the fire or in the
+clouds. It must be added that the other senses also furnish corresponding
+rudiments which are filled in by the central activity; this is notably the
+case with faint buzzings and sounds in the ear, and in addition, muscular
+twitches and internal visceral sensations, all these becoming more
+prominent as the attentive activity of waking life subsides.[28]
+
+What is the relation of hypnagogic imagery to dreams? Johannes Müller,
+the great physiologist, long ago identified them, as previously had
+Gruithuisen and Burdach, while Maury--who himself possessed, however, a
+somewhat abnormal and irritable nervous system--regarded hypnotic imagery
+as furnishing the whole of the formative element of dreams, as being 'the
+embryogeny of dreams'; he frequently found that images which appeared
+to him in this way before going to sleep reappeared in dreams. This is
+supported by Mourly Vold, who made experiments on himself, and by fixing
+images as he fell asleep dreamed of the same images. Goblot, however,
+while regarding hypnagogic imagery as analogous with dream imagery, denies
+that it is identical. Since the hypnagogic state is the porch to sleep
+and dreams--the praedormitium, as Weir Mitchell terms it--we can scarcely
+fail to admit with Maury that hypnagogic imagery presents us with the
+germinal stuff of dreams. If it is not identical with the fully formed
+dream, it is still the early stage of dreaming. This is certainly the
+view suggested by my own experience, even though I have never definitely
+recognised a dream as related to a previous hypnagogic image. It has,
+however, occasionally happened to me that as I have begun to lose waking
+consciousness a procession of images has drifted before my vision, and
+suddenly one of the figures I see has spoken. This hallucinatory voice
+occurring before I was fully asleep has startled me into full waking
+consciousness, and I have realised that, while yet in the hypnagogic
+stage, I was assisting at the birth of a dream.
+
+There is one point, it may be noted in passing, at which dreams do not
+usually correspond with some of the phenomena with which we may most
+naturally compare them. I refer to their presentation of colour. In
+the dreams of most people colour is rare. We seem usually, from this
+point of view, to remember a dream as we would remember a photograph,
+or, if any colour at all is present, a tinted drawing. Judging from my
+own experience, I should say that it is difficult to decide whether the
+absence of colour is due to its actual absence from the dream imagery,
+or merely to its failure to make any impression on memory. Some careful
+observers have, however, stated that the colour of their dream imagery is
+definitely grey. Thus Beaunis states that his dream imagery is usually
+_en grisaille_, like an image recalled in the waking state, though
+occasionally the colour is vivid, and Dr. Savage says that in his dreams
+colour is rarely or never present. 'I see landscapes of black and white,
+and flowers assume their true form, but not their colours.'[29] This
+greyness of dream imagery corresponds to the disappearance of colour
+under chloroform anaesthesia. 'So long as the eyes could be held open
+voluntarily,' says Elmer Jones, 'vision seemed quite normal, save that
+the colours of the spectrum faded out into a grey band.' Even in the
+early stage of some insanities also, as Stoddart has found, some degree
+of colour-blindness is present.[30] Grace Andrews states, indeed, that
+in nearly half of her own visual dreams colour sensations were included.
+This seems to me exceptional. In my own experience, the emergence of a
+single colour, which usually strikes me as beautiful, is not rare. I see,
+for instance, a friend drinking wine copiously from a large goblet, and
+I judge by the colour of the wine that it is hock, or I am impressed by
+the shimmering grey tone of the poplin dresses worn by a group of ladies,
+which seems to indicate that the tone of the whole picture was not grey. I
+am inclined to think that when colour in a dream becomes more pronounced
+than this, the dream is not normal, but is associated with some degree of
+cerebral disturbance, and especially the presence of headache. This would
+agree with the fact that persons subject to migraine are liable to visual
+colour phenomena. As an example of a vivid colour dream associated with
+headache, I may bring forward the following: I dreamed that an artist of
+note, with whom I am acquainted, was painting my portrait. (The pose of
+the portrait was standing, but I was lying down; this, however, caused
+me no surprise.) I saw the colours of the picture with great vividness,
+and I noted the extreme rapidity with which the artist painted; thus the
+red and black pattern of the necktie he had given me was suddenly changed
+to a totally different blue pattern, and the whole picture then appeared
+as a harmony of blues, the rapidity with which the artist effected these
+changes impressing me as very remarkable. In another dream in which I saw
+a painter occupied on a picture, a landscape representing sunrise, memory
+recalled the effect of light as vivid, but no definite sense of colour
+remained. This seems to me the normal condition of things in the ordinary
+dreams of most persons, colour, when it occurs, or when it is remembered,
+being for the most part confined to a single object or a single tint, and
+often being associated with a feeling of aesthetic pleasure.
+
+In ordinary dreaming there is usually something more than a spontaneous
+procession of related imagery. There is a more definitely central and
+psychic element. There is association, not only by obvious resemblance,
+but by contiguity, usually the casual contiguity of images received
+during the previous day, which forces together images related to each
+other indeed, but by no means obviously. Dreaming consciousness embodies
+and actively co-ordinates definite, and not merely random, images. The
+passive and spontaneous flow of imagery is thus modified in its course.
+
+The image of the magic lantern well illustrates this character of
+dream experiences. The movement of the cinematograph, indeed, scarcely
+corresponds to that fusion of heterogeneous images which marks dream
+visions. Our dreams are like dissolving views in which the dissolving
+process is carried on swiftly or slowly, but always uninterruptedly, so
+that at any moment two (often, indeed, more) incongruous pictures are
+presented to consciousness, which strives to make one whole of them, and
+sometimes succeeds, and is sometimes baffled. Or we may say that the
+problem presented to dreaming consciousness resembles that experiment
+in which psychologists pronounce three wholly unconnected words and
+require the subject to combine them at once in a connected sentence. It
+is unnecessary to add that such analogies fail to indicate the subtle
+complexity of the apparatus which is at work in the manufacture of dreams.
+
+By this mechanism of dreaming, isolated impressions, or else impressions
+which have a resemblance or a connection which is not obvious to the
+waking intelligence, flow together in dreams to be welded into a whole.
+There is produced, in the strictest sense, a _confusion_. For instance, a
+lady, who in the course of the day has admired a fine baby and bought a
+big fish for dinner, dreams with horror and surprise of finding a fully
+developed live baby sewed up in a large cod-fish. Again, a lady who had
+been cooking in the course of the day and in the evening had read a
+scientific description of the way birds obtain and utilise their food,
+such as fruit and snails, dreams at night that she has discovered when out
+walking a kind of animal-fruit, a damson containing a snail within it,
+which she views with delight as admirably adapted for culinary purposes.
+Another lady, after carving a duck at dinner, dreams that she is trying
+to cut off a duck's leg, but seems to realise in her dream at the same
+time that it is really her husband's neck she is hacking at.[31] In a
+dream of my own, children's heads took the form and shape of flowers
+of various shapes and hues, though mainly of the composite order (like
+chrysanthemums), and their eyes looked out from between the petals.
+
+It must be added that in a very considerable proportion of cases the
+combinations produced in dreams are far more plausible than in any of
+the instances just narrated; the whole dream may thus easily follow as
+commonplace and matter-of-fact a course as in real life. Thus, after
+going to live in a new neighbourhood, I dreamed that I entered a shop
+belonging to a certain firm, and saw there an employé who, in real life,
+to my knowledge, had previously left another shop belonging to the same
+firm; an entirely probable combination was thus effected, and the dream
+conversation that followed was equally natural and probable. We do not
+go out of our way in dreams to invent absurdities; we simply accept the
+data presented to us, dealing with them as rationally as the intellectual
+instruments at our disposal may permit.
+
+The dream constituted by the falling together of trivial reminiscences
+is not always, however, as commonplace and plausible as in the dream
+just narrated. In other cases the falling together of equally trivial
+reminiscences may constitute a fantastic and imaginative picture
+altogether outside waking experience or waking thought. Thus I dream that
+it is my duty to watch beside a great king while he sleeps. He lies on a
+huge bed, fully clothed and booted, and with a great crimson mantle thrown
+over him. I am permitted to lie on the edge of the bed outside the mantle,
+but must on no account close my eyes, for I must be ready to respond at
+once to his call. The elements of such a picture are obviously so simple
+and commonplace that it is not surprising that I could not find that even
+one of them had been specially present to waking consciousness. Yet the
+picture that at that particular moment they fell together to compose--like
+the broken fragments of coloured glass in a kaleidoscope--is altogether
+alien alike to my experience and to my imagination.
+
+The source of the common confusion of dream imagery is to be found in
+very varying motives. In a large proportion of cases, what we witness is
+merely the flowing together of impressions which have no real resemblance,
+but which happen to have been received at nearly the same time, and to
+admit of being fused; thus, in one case, occupation during the day partly
+in the fowl-yard and partly in the garden, led a lady to the dream project
+of breeding chickens by planting fowls' heads. Very frequently, however,
+there is a real resemblance in the two objects combined, although it is
+not a resemblance which would ever present itself to waking consciousness.
+The fowl-yard will supply another instance of this confusion also. I went
+to sleep thinking of a friend who was that night to stay at a certain
+hotel I had never seen. I dreamed that I saw the hotel in question; its
+façade was not unlike that of a common type of hotel, but the roof was
+flat and at no very great height from the ground, so that I was able to
+overlook the building and see into all the windows, an arrangement that
+struck me as bad. My ability to overlook the building was not, however,
+accompanied by any perception of its diminutiveness. On awakening I
+remembered that my wife had received a chicken incubator the day before,
+and we had examined it in the evening. The image of the hotel had fused
+with the image of the incubator.
+
+In another dream of the same type I imagined that I was with a dentist
+who was about to extract a tooth from a patient. Before applying the
+forceps he remarked to me (at the same time setting fire to a perfumed
+cloth at the end of something like a broomstick, in order to dissipate
+the unpleasant odour) that it was the largest tooth he had ever seen.
+When extracted I found that it was indeed enormous, in the shape of a
+caldron, with walls an inch thick. Taking from my pocket a tape measure
+(such as I carried in waking life), I found the diameter to be not less
+than twenty-five inches; the interior was like roughly-hewn rock, and
+there were sea-weeds and lichen-like growths within. The size of the tooth
+seemed to me large, but not extraordinarily so. It is well known that pain
+in the teeth, or the dentist's manipulations, cause those organs to seem
+of extravagant extent; in dreams this tendency rules unchecked; thus a
+friend once dreamed that mice were playing about in a cavity in her tooth.
+But for the dream just quoted, there was no known dental origin; it arose
+solely or chiefly from a walk during the previous afternoon among the
+rocks of the Cornish coast at low tide, and the fantastic analogy, which
+had not occurred to waking consciousness, suggested itself during sleep.
+
+In another dream, illustrating the same kind of confusion of images having
+a real resemblance unnoticed in waking life, I seemed to see on a table a
+small hand-gong of a common type, struck by a hammer, but on striking it
+repeatedly, it produced flashes of light instead of the sounds normally
+produced by a gong. I concluded that the instrument must be out of order
+and called some one to attend to it, whereupon we proceeded to deal
+with it as though it were a diminutive battery of the kind used to work
+electric bells. The gong was one familiar to me at the time in daily
+life; on the previous day I had casually observed that it was misplaced.
+In my dream I discovered a resemblance which actually exists between a
+gong of the type in question and the lever-handle for turning on the
+electric light, soothing a certain doubt by saying to myself in my dream
+that the instrument served both for the production of sound and of light.
+This link of connection led to the association of an electric battery with
+the hand-gong, as well as to the attribution to the gong of light-giving
+properties.[32]
+
+Such a dream serves as a transition to another very common kind of
+confusion of imagery in which two altogether unlike images are amalgamated
+through each happening to have in the mind a link of connection with some
+third idea. I dreamed that my wife's dog--a dog who, in real life, was
+constantly getting into trouble--had killed a child in the neighbouring
+town. On going thither I entered a butcher's shop, and saw the child lying
+on a table, mutilated and bleeding. After a time, however, I learned
+that it was not a child, but a pig that had been killed, and what I had
+previously taken for a child was now visibly a dead pig. I felt ashamed
+of my mistake, and the sympathy I had experienced now seemed excessive,
+especially when the butcher remarked that it was all right as he had been
+fattening the pig and meant to kill it soon anyhow. Then the pig was cut
+open, though it made daring attempts to come to life again, during which
+I awoke. It is clear how, in this case, the idea of the butcher's shop
+served as a bridge from the image of the child to the image of the pig.
+Again, after a day in which I had received a letter from a lady, unknown
+to me, living in France, and later on had written out a summary of a
+criminal case in which a detective had to go over to France, I dreamed
+that some one told me that the lady I had heard from was a detective in
+the service of the French Government, and this explanation, though it
+seemed somewhat surprising, fully satisfied me. Here, it will be seen,
+the idea of France served as a bridge, and was utilised by sleeping
+consciousness to supply an answer to a question which had been asked by
+waking consciousness.
+
+The confusion of imagery may be more remote, embodying abstract ideas and
+without reference to recent impressions. Thus I dreamed that my wife was
+expounding to me a theory by which the substitution of slates for tiles
+in roofing had been accompanied by, and intimately associated with, the
+growing diminution of crime in England. I opposed this theory, pointing
+out the picturesqueness of tiles, their cheapness, and greater comfort
+both in winter and summer, but at the same time it occurred to me as a
+peculiar coincidence that tiles should have a sanguinary tinge suggestive
+of criminal bloodthirstiness. I need scarcely say that this bizarre theory
+had never suggested itself to my waking thoughts. There was, however, a
+real connecting link in the confusion--the redness, and it is a noteworthy
+point, of great significance in the interpretation of dreams, that that
+link, although clearly active from the first, remained subconscious until
+the end of the dream, when it presented itself as an entirely novel
+coincidence.
+
+I dreamed once that I was with a doctor in his surgery, and saw in his
+hand a note from a patient saying that doctors were fools and did him no
+good, but he had lately taken some _selvdrolla_, recommended by a friend,
+and it had done him more good than anything, so please send him some
+more. I saw the note clearly, not, indeed, being conscious of reading it
+word by word, but only of its meaning as I looked at it; the one word I
+actually seemed to see, letter by letter, was the name of the drug, and
+that changed and fluctuated beneath my vision as I gazed at it, the final
+impression being _selvdrolla_. The doctor took from a shelf a bottle
+containing a bright yellow oleaginous fluid, and poured a little out,
+remarking that it had lately come into favour, especially in uric acid
+disorders, but was extremely expensive. I expressed my surprise, having
+never before heard of it. Then, again to my surprise, he poured rather
+copiously from the bottle on to a plate of food, saying, in explanation,
+that it was pleasant to take and not dangerous. This was a vivid morning
+dream, and on awakening I had no difficulty in detecting the source of its
+various minor details, especially a note received on the previous evening
+and containing a dubious figure, the precise nature of which I had used
+my pocket lens to determine. But what was _selvdrolla_, the most vivid
+element of the dream? I sought vainly among my recent memories, and had
+almost renounced the search when I recalled a large bottle of salad oil
+seen on the supper table the previous evening; not, indeed, resembling
+the dream bottle, but containing a precisely similar fluid. _Selvdrolla_
+was evidently a corruption of 'salad oil.' This dream illustrates the
+uncertainty of dream consciousness, but it also illustrates at the same
+time the element of certainty in dream _subconsciousness_. Throughout my
+dream I remained, consciously, in entire ignorance as to the real nature
+of _selvdrolla_, yet a latent element in consciousness was all the time
+presenting it to me in ever clearer imagery. We see that the subconscious
+element of dream life treats the conscious part much as a good-natured
+teacher treats a child whose lesson is only half learned, giving repeated
+clues and hints which the stupid child understands only at the last
+moment, or not at all. It is, indeed, a universal method, the method of
+Nature with man, throughout the whole of human evolution.
+
+It will be seen that at this point we are brought into contact with
+another characteristic of dream life: there is often more in dreams than
+dreaming consciousness is able to realise. On the one hand, the elements
+of dream life are drawn from a wider field than is normally accessible to
+waking consciousness; on the other hand, the focus of dream consciousness
+is narrower than that of waking consciousness, and cannot apperceive all
+that is going on. There is at once more extension and more contraction
+than in the psychic life of the waking world. A very large part of the
+psychic life of sleep is outside our power, and some of it is even beyond
+our sight.
+
+It will be observed that the perpetual movement and the constant fusion
+of images which constitute the most fundamental character of dream life
+really combine two characteristics which, abstractly regarded, are
+distinct. The tendency of the dream image to be ever changing, ever
+putting forth some new feature which more or less radically alters its
+nature, is not a phenomenon of precisely the same nature as the tendency
+for two definite images, well known to waking consciousness, to become
+fused together, consciously or unconsciously, in dreams. Practically,
+however, there is no line of demarcation. What happens is that the image
+is ever spontaneously changing, and that each change is at once recognised
+by dreaming consciousness as a known object. Thus I dreamed that I was in
+a drawing-room and saw a beautiful and attractive woman with an unusually
+low evening dress entirely revealing the breasts; then, between the
+breasts, three additional nipples appeared, and I realised in my dream
+that here was a case of supernumerary breasts of sufficient scientific
+interest to be carefully examined later on; and then, as I gazed, I saw
+a number of little fleshy nipple-like protuberances on the body, and
+thereupon I realised that I was really looking at a case of the rare
+skin disease termed _molluscum fibrosum_. Thus the perpetually wavering
+and developing image is at the same time a succession of quite different
+images. On the other hand, when we seem to have a fusion of two definite
+images, what we really see in most cases is one image melting into the
+other and gradually losing its earlier character. In either case the
+process is the same interplay of automatic peripheral imagery and central
+ideas, whether the new image is brought into focus by, as it were, a
+current in consciousness, or is merely suggested by a spontaneous change
+in the previous image. How far the image suggests the idea or the idea the
+image, it is extremely difficult in most cases to say. The phenomenon we
+witness is a perpetually dissolving view; the vital process behind that
+phenomenon we must usually be content to be ignorant of.
+
+It sometimes happens that the dream image is slowly transformed without
+the dreamer realising the transformation. Thus an image of a doll may
+take on the character of a human being. In a dream of this kind--possibly
+suggested by Villiers de l'Isle Adam's _L'Eve Future_, though that
+book had not been recently in my mind--I imagined that a lady of my
+acquaintance (whose identity I could not recall on awakening) had taken
+a fancy to possess an artificial woman, constructed with vast ingenuity
+and at enormous expense. The skin and hair seemed real as I noted with
+a certain horror on observing the breasts and armpits, but in places--I
+noticed especially one arm--the creature was as defective as an ill-made
+doll. It was, however, able to walk with a little support, and, most
+remarkable of all, it gave intelligent answers to questions; this alone
+it was that caused me a certain surprise. What at the beginning of the
+dream had only been an artificial image was evidently becoming a real
+human being, and one can readily believe that such stories as that of
+Pygmalion's statue may have been suggested by dream experiences.
+
+The dream is mainly a dissolving view, because for most of us it is above
+all a visual phenomenon. Those people who, in their dreams, at all events,
+if not also in waking life, are largely of auditory type, experience
+dreams in which words play exactly the same shifting, developing, and
+dissolving part played by images in the persons of more markedly visual
+type. In their dreams they resemble those insane people who, in some
+feeble and confusional states, manifest echolalia and confabulation, their
+ideas drifting along the associational paths of least resistance suggested
+by every random word they hear. Maury records successions of dream
+imagery strung together in a similar manner by a procession of verbal
+transformations; thus in one oft-quoted dream the scenes were connected by
+the words, _kilomètre_, _kilos_, _Gilolo_, _Lobelia_, _Lopez_, _loto_.[33]
+In such a case the procession of verbal auditory imagery constitutes
+the basis of the dream. This is probably rare. In most people the basis
+of the dream is furnished by visual imagery, and auditory images only
+occasionally form an associative link, being more usually subordinated to
+the visual elements.
+
+The speech peculiarities of dreams have been very thoroughly investigated
+by Kraepelin,[34] who has brought together two hundred and eighty-one
+examples, partly observed in himself, though they are not common, and
+Kraepelin considers that the hearing centres fall more deeply asleep
+than the visual centres, the eyes being already sufficiently protected
+by the lids.[35] Kraepelin classifies the speech disturbances of dreams
+into two great groups: (1) _paraphasia_, or disturbance of word-finding,
+where the idea is associated with a wrong word, which is sometimes a new
+formation[36]; and (2) _disorders of oration_, in which the peculiarity
+lies, not in the words, but in their order. The speech disturbances of
+dreams, Kraepelin remarks, spring from deep disturbance of thought, such
+as occur in sensorial aphasia, and, as in such aphasia, the dreamer thinks
+his nonsense is quite clear and reasonable. Much the same may occur in
+alcoholic delirium and in _dementia præcox_.
+
+The invention of new words probably occurs frequently in dreams, without
+leaving a clear trace in memory, and still more frequently, perhaps, as
+in the 'selvdrolla' dream, already recorded, there are seeming new verbal
+formations which are really mere corruptions of imperfectly realised
+words. An example of a definite and precise new word seems to be furnished
+by the following dream, which was at all points vivid and precise. I saw
+quite close to me a huge tawny bird, with an orange bill. The creature
+got up and moved away, seeming as large as an ostrich. I asked a lady,
+standing by, who had some ornithological knowledge, what the bird was,
+and she replied that she thought it was a _jaleisa_. Then I asked the
+same question of a poor woman who was passing, curious to know what she
+would answer; she said, 'Oh, it's a kind of starling.' There was no doubt
+in my dream as to the spelling of 'jaleisa,' but I am quite unable to
+account for the word.[37] It so happened, however, that before I went to
+bed I had been reading one of Calderon's plays, and I imagine that this
+pseudo-Spanish word had formed itself in my brain among the echoes of
+Calderon's enchanting music. The question arises as to why that ignorant
+old woman should have called the jaleisa a starling. It seems just
+possible that the more familiar name was suggested by the last syllable
+of the strange bird's name, the association being verbal. It is equally
+possible, and perhaps more likely, that the association followed by the
+more usual visual channel, and that the jaleisa's orange beak suggested
+the large orange beaks of newly hatched starlings, which had once, many
+years previously, vividly attracted my attention.
+
+A probable illustration of the influence of verbal association in
+diverting the current of a dream is seen in the harrowing narrative that
+follows: A lady dreamed that she went to an entertainment which turned
+out to be a kind of revival meeting, presided over by a lady, and full of
+uproar. It was suddenly realised that Hell was underneath the hall, and a
+man, supposed to be a slave, was torn to pieces and cast into Hell. A lady
+present was so much affected by the scene that she threw herself into a
+pool of water, and was drowned, her body being afterwards pulled out by a
+working man with a pitchfork. The dreamer was so overcome by these tragic
+events that she felt that there was nothing left but to commit suicide.
+Resolving to drown herself, she went to a lighthouse (which, however,
+somewhat resembled a bathing machine) on a height, in order to throw
+herself down into the sea. It was of an exquisite green tint, extremely
+lovely and attractive, but she had not the courage to leap in. She thought
+it might give her courage if she had a good meal first, so she returned to
+the hall and joined the lady who had presided over the meeting. They sat
+down to a dish of roast mutton, but, as they were eating, suddenly looked
+at each other with mutual understanding; they realised that they were
+eating the woman who had been drowned, and, it will be remarked, had been
+pulled out of the water by a fork. It was possible to account for every
+element of which this dream was made up, but its tragic character was
+unsupported by anything in waking life, and entirely native to the dream.
+The possibility of any guiding link between 'Hell' and 'hall' had not
+presented itself to the dreamer, nor had it occurred to me when I set down
+the dream as here reproduced. It must be noted, however, that the revival
+meeting would itself tend to suggest the idea of Hell. It seems probable
+that verbal associations usually play only a subordinate part.
+
+Sometimes the verbal links of association in dreams, far from introducing
+tragedy, lead, by the conjunction of two words of the same sound, to puns.
+Thus a dreamer imagined that he and some friends were looking at a house
+with its bedroom or bedrooms open to the air, the front wall being gone,
+and they were laughing at the comical effect when a mysterious voice came
+saying, 'A three-walled bedroom is a side-burst stor(e)y.' As the dreamer
+awoke, he found himself laughing at this juxtaposition of the idea of the
+storey of a house-side split open, and the idea of a side-splitting story.
+The conditions of psychic activity during sleep--when ideas drift together
+from widely separated regions along channels of association which are
+usually held closed by the higher intellectual processes--seem, indeed,
+to be specially favourable to the production of puns and allied forms
+of witticism.[38] They may, therefore, be properly regarded as closely
+associated with subconscious activity.[39]
+
+A verbal link is seen in the following 'recipe' invented on another
+occasion by the same dreamer:--
+
+    'Call in the tipcat, cut off its tail;
+      Fold up some eggs in a saucepan;
+    Sit on the rest, like an elderly male,
+      And gulp down the whole as a horse can.'
+
+It is evident that the tipcat suggested a cat's tail, while the suggestion
+of a cooking recipe in 'cut off its tail' led on to eggs and saucepan; the
+eggs suggested 'sitting,' while 'gulp,' as the dreamer noted, appeared as
+'gallop,' and suggested the horse. The ease with which the whole fell into
+a completely rhymed doggerel stanza is due to the fact that the dreamer is
+a poet.[40]
+
+A more common phenomenon in my experience than association by verbal clues
+is a transference from visual terms into the terms of some other sense,
+and a repetition in that form. Thus a lady dreams that a large and very
+beautiful picture resembling tapestry forms itself before her, and in it
+she sees herself, only much more beautiful in shape, standing by a tree,
+and on the other side of the tree an old friend is standing, while there
+are a crowd of people around. Then she sees her friend touch her on the
+arm. At the same time the dreamer feels the touch. The visual image is
+reduplicated in a motor form. Such a phenomenon is doubtless a natural
+result of the special conditions of dream life. In waking life the senses
+are working co-ordinately, and if we see ourselves touched we shall
+probably feel ourselves touched. But in dreams the body is a vision, and
+not our real body, and when we see it touched, we realise we ought to feel
+it touched, and a tactile sensation is thus suggested and experienced.
+
+There are, however, other reduplications to which this explanation
+will not apply. Thus I imagined I was sitting at a window, at the top
+of a house, writing. As I looked up from my table I saw, with all the
+emotions naturally accompanying such a sight, a woman in her nightdress
+appear at a lofty window some distance off, and throw herself down. I
+went on writing, however, and found that in the course of my literary
+employment--I am not clear as to its precise nature--the very next thing I
+had to do was to describe exactly such a scene as I had just witnessed. I
+was extremely puzzled at such an extraordinary coincidence; it seemed to
+me wholly inexplicable. Again I dreamed that I was coming up the Thames
+(apparently in a steamboat), reading a novel, written by a friend, which
+was the history of some one who arrives in England coming up the Thames
+to London, by what I felt to be an extraordinary coincidence, in exactly
+the same way as I was at the moment. Then I found myself seemingly at the
+end of a London pier, with the river rippling at my feet, and in front
+the superb panorama of London; exactly the scene which, in less detail,
+was described in the book. Such dreams, reduplicating the imagery in
+a new sensory medium, are fairly common, with me at all events. The
+association is less that of analogy than of sensory media, as of the
+visual image becoming a verbal motor image. In other cases a scene is
+first seen as in reality, and then in a picture. Thus I dreamed that I
+was witnessing the performance of an orchestra, and observed that all
+the players had instruments of ancient pattern which, I understood,
+had been in constant use for several hundred years; I could recall the
+shapes of many on awaking, and none of them were quite modern; I could
+not, however, recall the character of the music, which seemed to make no
+impression on me, since I was absorbed in observing the shapes of the
+instruments. I specially observed an old framed engraving hanging on the
+wall, in my dream, representing precisely one of the instruments played
+on, and I understood that it was called a _bourdon_.[41] It is interesting
+to observe the profound astonishment with which sleeping consciousness
+apperceives such simple reduplication.
+
+In dreams planes of existence that in waking life are fundamentally
+distinct are brought together, so that events belonging to different
+planes move on the same plane, and even become combined. Acting and life,
+the picture and the reality, are no longer absolutely distinct. Art and
+life flow in the same channel. The reason, doubtless, is that for the
+dreamer the world of waking life, the world of things as they are to the
+waking senses, is closed and cannot even be completely recalled. So that
+all modes of representation are strictly on the same level, and it is,
+therefore, perfectly natural and logical that they should stand side by
+side and merge into one another.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 12: The simile of the kaleidoscope for the most elementary
+process of dreaming has often suggested itself. Thus in an article on
+dreaming in the _Lancet_ (24th November 1877) we read: 'The combinations
+are new, but the materials are old, some recent, many remote and
+forgotten.... The turn of the kaleidoscope is instantaneous and any new
+idea thrown into the field, perhaps in the act of turning, becomes an
+integral part of the picture.']
+
+[Footnote 13: Foucault, _Le Rêve_, p. 182.]
+
+[Footnote 14: This is in accordance with the view of Wundt, who attributes
+this multiplication of imagery to the retinal element.]
+
+[Footnote 15: Baron Charles Mourre, 'La Volonté dans le Rêve,' _Revue
+Philosophique_, May 1903.]
+
+[Footnote 16: Ribot, _Psychologie de l'Attention_, 1889, chs. i. and ii.]
+
+[Footnote 17: Maine de Biran, perhaps the earliest accurate introspective
+observer of dreaming, noted the absence of all voluntary active attention.
+Beaunis regards attention as possible in dreams, but fails to distinguish
+between different kinds of attention.]
+
+[Footnote 18: B. Leroy, 'Nature des Hallucinations,' _Revue
+Philosophique_, June 1907. As regards the importance of the absence of
+voluntary attention in the production of visual images, it may be remarked
+that even the after-image of a bright object in waking life is much more
+vivid when it occurs in a state of inattention and distraction. I noticed
+this phenomenon some years ago, especially when studying mescal, and in
+recent years it has been recorded by J. H. Hyslop (_Psychological Review_,
+May 1903).]
+
+[Footnote 19: We must be cautious in assuming that such imagery is purely
+retinal. Scripture ('Cerebral light,' _Studies from the Yale Psychological
+Laboratory_, vol. v., 1899) argues that even the so-called 'retinal light'
+or '_eigenlicht_' is cerebral, not retinal at all, since it is single and
+not double, and differs from after-images, which are displaced by pressure
+on eyeball. This view is perhaps too extreme in the opposite direction.]
+
+[Footnote 20: For a full and interesting study of these, see S. J. Franz,
+'After-images' (Monograph Supplements to _Psychological Review_, vol.
+iii., No. 2, June 1899). He agrees with those who regard after-images as
+entirely retinal in origin.]
+
+[Footnote 21: See Havelock Ellis, 'A New Artificial Paradise,'
+_Contemporary Review_, January 1898; _ib._ 'Mescal: A Study of a Divine
+Plant,' _Popular Science Monthly_, May 1902.]
+
+[Footnote 22: G. E. Partridge, however ('Reverie,' _Pedagogical Seminary_,
+April 1898), has investigated hypnagogic phenomena in 826 children. They
+were asked to describe what they saw at night with closed eyes before
+falling asleep. Among these children 58·5 per cent. of those aged from
+thirteen to sixteen saw things at night in this way; of those aged six
+the proportion was higher, 64·2 per cent. There seemed to be a maximum at
+about the age of ten, and probably another maximum at a much earlier age.
+Stars were most frequently mentioned, being spoken of by 151 children,
+colours by 145, people and faces 77, animals 31, scenes of the day 21,
+flowers and fruit 18, pictures 15, God and angels 13. Partridge calls
+these phenomena hypnagogic; while, however, the hypnagogic visions of
+adults may well be a relic of children's visions, the latter have much
+greater range and vitality, for they are not confined to the moment before
+sleep, and the child sometimes has a certain amount of control over them.
+E. Guyon has studied hypnagogic and allied visions in children in his
+Paris thesis, _Sur les Hallucinations Hypnagogiques_, 1903. He believes
+that children always find them terrifying. That, however, is far from
+being the case and is merely due to a pre-occupation with morbid cases,
+which naturally attract most attention. (This is also illustrated by the
+examples given by Stanley Hall, 'A Study of Fears,' _American Journal of
+Psychology_, 1897, pp. 186 _et seq._) The visions of the healthy child
+are not terrifying, and he accepts them in a completely matter-of-course
+way. He is no more puzzled or troubled by his waking dreams than by his
+sleeping dreams.]
+
+[Footnote 23: The earliest detailed, though not typical, description of
+this phenomenon I have met with is by Dr. Simon Forman, the astrologer,
+in his entertaining _Autobiography_, written in 1600. He says that, as a
+child of six, 'So soon as he was always laid down to sleep he should see
+in visions always many mighty mountains and hills come rolling against
+him, as though they would overrun him and fall on him and bruise him, yet
+he got up always to the top of them and with much ado went over them. Then
+should he see many great waters like to drown him, boiling and raging
+against him as though they would swallow him up, yet he thought he did
+overpass them. And these dreams and visions he had every night continually
+for three or four years' space.' He believed they were sent him by God to
+signify the troubles of his later years. De Quincey accurately described
+the phenomenon in 1821, in his _Confessions of an English Opium-Eater:_
+'I know not whether my reader is aware, that many children, perhaps
+most, have a power of painting, as it were, upon the darkness, all sorts
+of phantoms: in some, that power is simply a mechanic affection of the
+eye; others have a voluntary or a semi-voluntary power to dismiss or to
+summon them, or, as a child once said to me when I questioned him on this
+matter, "I can tell them to go and they go; but sometimes they come, when
+I don't tell them to come."' E. H. Clarke (_Visions_, 1878, pp. 212-216)
+discussed the ability of children to see visions, and pointed out the
+element of will in this ability. It seems unusual for auditory impressions
+to intrude, though J. A. Symonds (biography by Horatio Brown, vol. i. p.
+7), in describing his own night-terrors as a child, speaks of phantasmal
+voices which blended with the caterwauling of cats on the roof.]
+
+[Footnote 24: 'From being long and vehemently attent upon geometrical
+figures,' Hobbes says after referring to the after-images of the sun
+(_Leviathan_, part i., ch. 2), 'a man shall in the dark (though awake)
+have the images of lines and angles before his eyes: which kind of fancy
+hath no particular name; as being a thing that doth not commonly fall into
+men's discourse.']
+
+[Footnote 25: Baillarger, 'De l'Influence de l'Etat Intermédiaire à la
+veille et au sommeil sur la Production et la Marche des Hallucinations,'
+_Annales Médico-Psychologiques_, vol. v., 1845.]
+
+[Footnote 26: Maury, _Le Sommeil et les Rêves_, 1861, pp. 50-77. Good
+descriptions of hypnagogic imagery are given by Greenwood, _Imagination
+and Dreams_, pp. 16-18, and Ladd, 'The Psychology of Visual Dreams,'
+_Mind_, 1892. See also Sante di Sanctis, _I Sogni_, pp. 337 _et seq._]
+
+[Footnote 27: This is the explanation offered by, for example, Delage
+(_Comptes-rendus de l'Académie des Sciences_, vol. cxxxvi., No. 12, pp.
+731 _et seq._). It is accepted by Guyon and others. Delage insists on the
+retinal element since he finds that hypnagogic images follow the movements
+of the eye.]
+
+[Footnote 28: Similarly, under chloroform, Elmer Jones found that vision
+is at first stimulated.]
+
+[Footnote 29: G. H. Savage, 'Dreams: Normal and Morbid,' _St. Thomas's
+Hospital Gazette_, February 1908.]
+
+[Footnote 30: _British Medical Journal_, 11th May 1907. The actual
+hallucinations of the insane are usually coloured normally. Head, however,
+finds (_Brain_, 1901, p. 353) that the waking visual hallucinations
+sometimes associated with visceral disease are always white, black, or
+grey, and never coloured or even tinted.]
+
+[Footnote 31: The transformation of birds into human beings seems
+peculiarly common in dreams. I have referred to this point elsewhere
+(_Studies in the Psychology of Sex_, vol. i. 3rd ed., p. 193). It is an
+interesting and doubtless significant fact that the same transformation
+is accepted in the myths of primitive peoples. Thus, according to H. H.
+Bancroft (_Native Races of the Pacific_, vol. i. p. 93), a pantomime dance
+of the Aleuts represents the transformation of a captive bird into a
+lovely woman who falls exhausted into the arms of the hunter.]
+
+[Footnote 32: It is noteworthy that this marked tendency in dreams to
+discover analogies, although doubtless a tendency of primitive thought,
+is also a progressive tendency. 'The conquests of science,' says Sageret
+('L'Analogie Scientifique,' _Revue Philosophique_, January 1909), 'are the
+conquests of analogy.']
+
+[Footnote 33: Maury, _Le Sommeil et les Rêves_, p. 115.]
+
+[Footnote 34: Kraepelin, 'Ueber Sprachstörungen im Träume,'
+_Psychologische Arbeiten_, Bd. v., 1906, pp. 1-104; cf. Lombard,
+'Glossolalie,' _Archives de Psychologie_, July 1907.]
+
+[Footnote 35: This is confirmed by the fact that under chloroform
+anaesthesia hearing is the first sense to be lost and vision the
+last (Elmer Jones, 'The Waning of Consciousness under Chloroform,'
+_Psychological Review_, January 1909).]
+
+[Footnote 36: It may be recalled as not without significance that the
+formation of new words is fairly common among young children; see, _e.g._,
+an interesting correspondence in _Nature_, 26th March and 9th April 1891.]
+
+[Footnote 37: It can scarcely be derived from the unfamiliar word
+_chalizah_, the Hebrew name for the levirate.]
+
+[Footnote 38: Thus I have rarely ever attempted parody when awake, but
+once when at Montserrat, with thoughts far from humorous fields, I dreamed
+of making a parody (I am not quite clear of what) apparently suggested by
+the goose-pond in the cloisters of Barcelona Cathedral.]
+
+[Footnote 39: This point of view has been specially developed by Freud,
+_Der Witz und seine Beziehung zum Unbewussten_.]
+
+[Footnote 40: It may be noted that somewhat similar doggerel verse is
+sometimes made by the insane; see, _e.g._, _Journal of Mental Science_,
+April 1907, p. 284.]
+
+[Footnote 41: There was no known origin for this dream, and the word
+_bourdon_ had no conscious associations for my mind; I was not even
+definitely aware that it is used in a musical sense.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE LOGIC OF DREAMS
+
+    All Dreaming is a Process of Reasoning--The Fundamental
+    Character of Reasoning--Reasoning as a Synthesis of
+    Images--Dream Reasoning Instinctive and Automatic--It is also
+    Consciously carried on--This a result of the Fundamental Split
+    in Intelligence--Dissociation--Dreaming as a Disturbance of
+    Apperception.
+
+
+In dreams we are always reasoning. That is a general characteristic of
+dreams which is worth noting, because its significance is not usually
+recognised. It is sometimes imagined that reason is in abeyance during
+sleep.[42] So far from this being the case, we may almost be said to
+reason much more during sleep than when we are awake. That our reasoning
+is bad, often even preposterous, that it constantly ignores the most
+elementary facts of waking life, scarcely affects the question. All
+dreaming is a process of reasoning. That artful confusion of ideas and
+images which, at the outset, I referred to as the most constant feature
+of dream mechanism is nothing but a process of reasoning, a perpetual
+effort to argue out harmoniously the absurdly limited and incongruous
+data present to sleeping consciousness. Binet, grounding his conclusions
+on hypnotic experiments, finds that reasoning is the fundamental part of
+all thinking, the very texture of thought.[43] It is founded on perception
+itself, which already contains all the elements of the ancient syllogism.
+For in all perception, as Binet plausibly argues, there is a succession
+of three images, of which the first fuses with the second, which, in its
+turn, suggests the third. Now this establishment of new associations, this
+construction of images, which, as we may easily convince ourselves, is
+precisely what takes place in dreaming, is reasoning itself.
+
+Reasoning may thus be regarded as a synthesis of images suggested by
+resemblance and contiguity, indeed a sort of logical vision, more intense
+even than actual vision, since it is capable of producing hallucinations.
+To reasoning all forms of mental activity may finally be reduced; mind, as
+Wundt has said, is a thing that reasons. Or, as H. R. Marshall puts it,
+'reason is a mode of instinct.'[44] When we apply these general statements
+to dreaming, we may see that the whole phenomenon of dreaming is really
+the same process of image formation, based on resemblance and contiguity.
+Every dream is the outcome of this strenuous, wide-ranging instinct to
+reason. The supposed 'imaginative faculty,' regarded as so highly active
+during sleep, is the inevitable play of this automatic logic.
+
+The syllogistic arrangement of dream imagery is carried on in an
+absolutely automatic manner; it is spontaneous, involuntary, without
+effort. Sleeping consciousness, though all the time it is weaving the data
+that reach it into some pattern of reason with immense ingenuity, is quite
+unaware that it is itself responsible for the arguments thus presented. In
+the evening, before going to bed, I glance casually through a newspaper;
+I see the usual kind of news, revolutionists in Russia, Irish affairs,
+crimes, etc.; I see also a caricature of the Liberal Party as a headless
+horseman on a barren plain. During sleep these unconnected impressions
+revive, float into dream consciousness, and spontaneously fall into as
+reasonable a whole as could be expected. I dream that by some chemical or
+mechanical device a man has succeeded in conveying the impression that he
+is headless, and is preparing to gallop across some district in Russia,
+with the idea of making so mysterious an impression upon the credulous
+population that he will be accepted as a great religious prophet. I
+distinctly see him careering across sands like those of the seashore,
+but I avoid going near him. Then I see figures approaching him in the
+far distance, and his progress ceases. I learn subsequently that he has
+been arrested and found to be an Irish criminal. A coherent story is thus
+formed out of a few random impressions.
+
+All such typical dreams are syllogistic. There is, that is to say, as
+Binet expresses it, the establishment of an association between two states
+of consciousness by means of an intermediate state which resembles
+the first, is associated with the second, and by fusing with the first
+associates it with the second. In this dream, for instance, we have the
+three terms of (1) headless horseman, (2) revolutionary crime, and (3)
+Russia and Ireland. The intermediate term, by the fact that it resembles
+the first, and is contiguous in the mind with the third, seems to fuse the
+first and the third terms, so that the headless horseman becomes an Irish
+criminal in Russia. In dreaming life, as in waking life, our minds are
+always moving by the construction of similar syllogisms, marked by more or
+less freedom and audacity.
+
+It is unnecessary to multiply examples of the instinctive and persistent
+efforts on the part of the sleeping mind to construct a coherent whole
+out of the incongruous elements that come before it; nearly every
+dream furnishes some proof of this profoundly rooted impulse.[45] It
+is instructive, however, to consider the nature and the limitations of
+dreaming reason.
+
+This rationalisation and logical construction of imagery, it is necessary
+to realise, occurs at the very threshold of sleeping consciousness. The
+dreamer makes no effort to arrange isolated imagery; the arrangement
+has already occurred when the imagery comes to the focus of sleeping
+consciousness; so that this reasoning and arranging process is so
+fundamental and instinctive that it occurs in a region which may be said
+to be subconscious to dreaming consciousness. If it were not so our dreams
+would never be real to us, for even dreaming consciousness could not
+accept as real a hallucination which it had itself arranged. In this sense
+it is true that, to some extent, our dreams are often based on an ultimate
+personal and emotional foundation.[46]
+
+But this ingeniously guided and rationalised confusion of imagery by no
+means covers the whole of the reasoning process in dreams. This is a
+double process. It is first manifested subconsciously in the formation
+of dream imagery, and then it is manifested consciously in the dreamer's
+reaction to the imagery presented to him. Every dream is made up of action
+and reaction between a pseudo-universe and a freely responding individual.
+On the one side there is the irresistibly imposed imagery--really,
+though we know it not, conditioned and instinctively moulded by our own
+organism--which stands for what in our waking hours we may term God and
+Nature; on the other side is the Soul struggling with all its might,
+and very inefficient means, against the awful powers that oppose it.
+The problem of the waking world is presented over again in this battle
+between the dreaming protagonist and his dreamed fate. Both of these
+elements are instinctively reasoned out, consciously or subconsciously;
+both are imperfect fragments from the rich reservoir of human personality.
+
+The things that happen to us in dreams, the pseudo-external world that is
+presented to sleeping consciousness--the imagery, that is, that floats
+before the mental eye of sleep--are a perpetual source of astonishment
+and argument to the dreamer. A large part of dreaming activity is
+concerned with the attempt to explain and reason out the phenomena we thus
+encounter, to construct a theory of them, or to determine the attitude
+which we ought to take up with regard to them. Most dreams will furnish
+evidence of this reasoning process.
+
+Thus a lady dreamed that an acquaintance wished to send a small sum of
+money to a person in Ireland. She rashly offered to take it over to
+Ireland. On arriving home she began to repent of her promise, as the
+weather was extremely wild and cold. She proceeded, however, to make
+preparations for dressing warmly, and went to consult an Irish friend, who
+said she would have to be floated over to Ireland tightly jammed in a crab
+basket. On returning home she fully discussed the matter with her husband,
+who thought it would be folly to undertake such a journey, and she finally
+relinquished it, with great relief. In this dream--the elements of which
+could all be accounted for--the association between sending money and
+the post-office, which would at once occur to waking consciousness, was
+closed; consciousness was a prey to such suggestions as reached it,
+but on the basis of those suggestions it reasoned and concluded quite
+sagaciously.
+
+Again (after looking at photographs of paintings and statuary, and also
+reading about the theatre), I dreamed that I was at the theatre, and that
+the performers were acting and dancing in a more or less, in some cases
+completely, nude state, but with admirable propriety and grace, and very
+charming effect. At first I was extremely surprised at so remarkable an
+innovation; but then I reflected that the beginnings of such a movement
+must have long been in progress on the stage unknown to me; and I
+proceeded to rehearse the reasons which made such a movement desirable.
+On another occasion, I dreamed that I was in the large _plaza_ of a
+Spanish city (Pamplona possibly furnishing the elements of the picture),
+and that the governor emerged from his residence facing the square and
+began talking in English to the subordinate officials who were waiting
+to receive him. The real reason why he talked English was, of course,
+the simple one that he spoke the language native to the dreamer. But in
+my dream I was extremely puzzled why he should speak English. I looked
+carefully into his face to assure myself that he was not really English,
+and I finally concluded that he was speaking English in order not to be
+understood by the bystanders. Once more, I dreamed that I was looking at
+an architectural drawing of a steeple, of quite original design, somewhat
+in the shape of a cross, but very elongated. I attempted in my dream
+to account for this elongation, and concluded that it was intended to
+neutralise the foreshortening caused when the steeple would be looked at
+from below.
+
+There is, we here see afresh, a fundamental split in dreaming
+intelligence. On the one side there is the subconscious, yet often highly
+intelligent, combination of imagery along rational although often bizarre
+lines. On the other side is concentrated the conscious intelligence of
+the dreamer, struggling to comprehend and explain the problems offered by
+the pseudo-external imagery thus presented to it. One might almost say
+that in dreams subconscious intelligence is playing a game with conscious
+intelligence. In a dream previously narrated (p. 43) subconscious
+intelligence offered to my dreaming consciousness the mysterious substance
+_selvdrolla_, and bid me guess what it was; I could not guess. And
+subconscious intelligence presented the drawing of the elongated steeple,
+and I was able to offer an explanation which seems fairly satisfactory.
+So that, in the world of dreams, it may be said, we see over again the
+process which, James Hinton was accustomed to say, we see in the universe
+of our waking life; God or Nature playing with man, compelling him to
+join in a game of hide-and-seek, and setting him problems which he must
+solve as best he can. It may well be, one may add, that the dream process
+furnishes the key to the metaphysical and even, indeed, the physical
+problems of our waking thoughts, and that the puzzles of the universe are
+questions that we ourselves unconsciously invent for ourselves to solve.
+
+We can never go behind the fantastic universe of our dreams. The validity
+of that universe is for dreaming consciousness unassailable. We may try
+to understand it and explain it, but we can never deny it, any more than
+we can deny the universe of our waking life, however we may attempt to
+analyse it. Dreaming consciousness never realises that the universe
+that confronts it springs from the same source as itself springs. I
+dreamed that a man was looking at his own house from a distance, and
+on the balcony he saw his daughter and a man by her side. 'Who is that
+man flirting with my daughter?' he asked. He produced a field-glass,
+and, on looking through it, he exclaimed: 'Good Heavens, it's myself!'
+Dreaming consciousness accepted this situation with perfect equanimity and
+solemnity. In the dream world there is, indeed, nothing else to do. We may
+puzzle over the facts presented to us; we may try to explain them; but it
+would be futile to deny them, even when they involve the possibility of a
+man being in two places at the same time.[47]
+
+Only to a few people there comes occasionally in dreams a dim realisation
+of the unreality of the experience: 'After all, it does not matter,'
+they are able to say to themselves with more or less conviction, 'this is
+only a dream.' Thus one lady, dreaming that she is trying to kill three
+large snakes by stamping on them, wonders, while still dreaming, what it
+signifies to dream of snakes,[48] and another lady, when she dreams that
+she is in any unpleasant position--about to be shot, for instance--often
+says to herself: 'Never mind, I shall wake before it happens.'
+
+I have never detected in my own dreams any recognition that they are
+dreams. I may say, indeed, that I do not consider that such a thing is
+really possible, though it has been borne witness to by many philosophers
+and others from Aristotle and Synesius and Gassendi onwards. The
+phenomenon occurs; the person who says to himself that he is dreaming
+believes that he is still dreaming, but one may be permitted to doubt
+that he is. It seems far more probable that he has for a moment, without
+realising it, emerged at the waking surface of consciousness.[49] The
+only approach to a recognition of dreaming as dreaming that I have
+experienced, is connected with the reduplication that may sometimes
+occur, and the sense of a fatalistic predetermination. Thus I dreamed
+(with nothing that could suggest the dream) that I was one of a group of
+people who, as I realised, were carrying out a drama in which by force of
+circumstance I was destined to be the villain, having, by bad treatment,
+been driven to revenge. I knew at the outset how events would turn out,
+and yet, though it seemed real life, I felt vaguely that it was all a play
+that was merely being rehearsed. I had attained in the world of dreams to
+the Shakespearian feeling that it was all a stage, and I merely a player.
+So we may become the Prosperos of the life of dreams.[50]
+
+This quality of dreaming consciousness is a manifestation, and the chief
+one, of what is called _dissociation_.[51] In dissociation we have a
+phenomenon which runs through the whole of the dreaming life, and is
+scarcely less fundamental than the process of fusion by which the imagery
+is built up. The fact that the reasoning of dreams is usually bad, is due
+partly to the absence of memory elements that would be present to waking
+consciousness, and partly to the absence of sensory elements to check the
+false reasoning which, without them, appears to us conclusive. That is to
+say, that there is a process of dissociation by which ordinary channels
+of association are temporarily blocked, perhaps by exhaustion of their
+conductive elements, and the conditions are prepared for the formation
+of the hallucination. It is, as Parish has argued, in sleep and in those
+sleep-resembling states called hypnagogic that a condition of dissociation
+leading to hallucination is most apt to occur.[52]
+
+Thus it is that though the psychic frontier of the sleeping state is more
+extended than that of the normal waking state, the focus of sleeping
+consciousness is more contracted than that of waking consciousness. In
+other words, while facts are liable to drift from a very wide psychic
+distance under our dreaming attention, we cannot direct the searchlight of
+that attention at will over so wide a field as when we are awake. We deal
+with fewer psychic elements, though those elements are drawn from a wider
+field.
+
+The psychology of 'attention' is, indeed, a very disputed matter.[53]
+There is no agreement as to whether it is central or peripheral, motor or
+sensory. As we have seen in the previous chapter, it seems reasonable to
+conclude, according to a convenient distinction established by Ribot, that
+spontaneous attention is persistent during sleep, but voluntary attention
+is at a minimum. In some such way, it seems, whatever theory of attention
+we adopt, we have to recognise that in dreams the attention is limited.
+
+Such a position is fortified by the conclusion of those who look at the
+problem, not so much in terms of attention as in terms of apperception.
+Apperception, according to Wundt, differs from perception in that while
+the latter is the appearance of a content in consciousness, the former
+is its reception into the state of attention. Or, as Stout defines it,
+apperception is 'the process by which a mental system appropriates a new
+element, or otherwise receives a fresh determination.'[54] Apperception
+is, therefore, the final stage of attention, and ultimately, as Wundt
+remarks, it is one with will. Apperception and will, as most psychologists
+consider, like attention, are enfeebled and diminished, if not abolished,
+in sleep.
+
+In dreams, it thus comes about, we accept the facts presented to
+us--that is the fundamental assumption of dream life--and we argue about
+those 'facts' with the help of all the mental resources which are at
+our disposal, only those resources are frequently inadequate. Sometimes
+they are startlingly inadequate, to such an extent, indeed, that we
+are unaware of possibilities which would be the very first to suggest
+themselves to waking consciousness. Thus the lady who wished to send a
+small sum of money to Ireland is not aware of the existence of postal
+orders, and when she decides to convey the money herself, she is not aware
+of the existence of boat-trains, or even of boats; she might have been
+living in palaeolithic times. She discusses the question in a clear and
+logical manner with the resources at her disposal, and reaches a rational
+conclusion, but considerations which would be the first to occur to waking
+consciousness are at the moment absent from sleeping consciousness; whole
+mental tracts have been dissociated, switched off from communication with
+consciousness; they are 'asleep,' even to sleeping consciousness.[55]
+
+The result is that we are not only dominated by the suggestion of our
+visions, but we are unable adequately to appreciate and criticise the
+situations which are presented to us. We instinctively continue to
+reason, and to reason clearly and logically with the material at our
+disposal, but our reasoning is hopelessly absurd. We perceive in dreams,
+but we do not apperceive; we cannot, that is to say, test and sift the
+new experience, and co-ordinate it adequately with the whole body of
+our acquired mental possessions. The phenomena of dreaming furnish a
+delightful illustration of the fact that reasoning, in its rough form, is
+only the crudest and most elementary form of intellectual operation, and
+that the finer forms of thinking involve much more than logic. 'All the
+thinking in the world,' as Goethe puts it, 'will not lead us to thought.'
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 42: Freud brings together (_Traumdeutung_, pp. 38 _et seq._)
+some of the different opinions regarding reasoning in dreams.]
+
+[Footnote 43: 'Reasoning,' says Binet (_La Psychologie du Raisonnement_,
+1886, p. 10), speaking without reference to dreaming, but in words that
+are exactly applicable to it, 'is an organisation of images determined by
+the properties of the images alone; it suffices for the images to be put
+in presence and they become organised; reason follows with the certainty
+of a reflex.']
+
+[Footnote 44: H. R. Marshall, _Instinct and Reason;_ _ib._ 'Reason a Mode
+of Instinct,' _Psychological Review_, March 1899.]
+
+[Footnote 45: Some of the most methodically absurd examples of dreaming
+logic cannot be effectively brought forward, as they are so personal that
+they require much explanation to make them intelligible.]
+
+[Footnote 46: Delacroix ('Sur la Structure Logique du Rêve,' _Revue de
+Metaphysique_, November 1904), in opposition to Leroy and Tobolowska,
+goes so far as to say that 'the sense of the dream, the interpretation of
+the image, is given in the image, before the image, if one may say so;
+we are not concerned with a mere procession of images without internal
+connection, but are introduced into a pre-established organisation; wholes
+are decomposed and not separate elements united.' We have to remember that
+in dream life as in waking life the action is twofold; in either world
+when our psychic activity is of low intensity we combine external images
+into a fairly objective picture; when psychic activity is intense external
+images are subdued and controlled by that activity.]
+
+[Footnote 47: A somewhat similar mistaken self-detachment may even occur
+momentarily in the waking condition. Thus Jastrow (_The Subconscious_,
+p. 137) refers to the 'lapse of consciousness' of a lady student who,
+while absorbed in her work, heard outside the door the shuffling of
+rubber heels such as she herself wore, and said 'There goes----,' naming
+herself. That delusion was no doubt due to the eruption of a dream-like
+state of distraction. As regards the visual phantasm of the self (which
+has sometimes been seen by men of very distinguished intellectual power)
+it may be noted that it is favoured by the conditions of dream life. Our
+dream imagery is all pictural, sometimes even to dream consciousness,
+and to see oneself in the picture is, therefore, not so very much more
+remarkable than it is in waking life to come upon oneself among a bundle
+of photographs.]
+
+[Footnote 48: As regards the significance of snakes in dreams, it may be
+remarked that the followers of Freud regard them as being, in the dreams
+of women, as they are in the speech and myths of primitive peoples, erotic
+symbols (_e.g._ Karl Abraham, _Traum und Mythus_, 1909, p. 19). It must be
+remembered, however, that this erotic symbolism is but a small part of the
+emotional interest aroused by snakes which are an extremely common source
+of fear, especially in the young. See _e.g._ Stanley Hall, 'A Study of
+Fears,' _American Journal of Psychology_, 1897, pp. 205 _et seq_.]
+
+[Footnote 49: It may even occur that a person partly wakes up, perceives
+what is going on around him, converses about it, falls asleep again, and
+imagines in the morning that the whole episode was a dream. Hammond,
+who also denies that we can dream we are dreaming, gives a case in
+illustration (_Treatise on Insanity_, p. 190).]
+
+[Footnote 50: The vision of the dream world we thus attain corresponds
+exactly to the philosophy of life set forth by Jules de Gaultier, perhaps
+the most subtle and original of living thinkers; according to Gaultier
+the psychic improvisation which has created the spectacle of the world
+has, as it were, sworn 'never to recognise itself beneath the masks
+it has assumed, in order to retain the joy of an unending play of the
+unforeseen.']
+
+[Footnote 51: Dissociation may be defined as a condition in which, in
+the words of Tannery (_Revue Philosophique_, October 1898), 'the various
+organisms of the brain which in the waking state accomplish distinct
+functions with satisfactory agreement are, on the contrary, in a state
+of semi-independence.' There is, in Greenwood's words (_Imagination in
+Dreams_, p. 41), a 'loosening of mental bonds,' corresponding to the
+relaxation of muscular tension which also occurs before going to sleep.]
+
+[Footnote 52: Edmund Parish, _Hallucinations and Illusions: A Study of
+the Fallacies of Perception_ (Contemporary Science Series), 1897. It
+is significant to observe that in hysteria, which may be regarded as
+presenting a condition somewhat analogous to sleep, dissociation also
+occurs. 'Hysteria,' says Janet (_The Major Symptoms of Hysteria_, 1907,
+p. 332), one of the greatest authorities, 'is a form of mental depression
+characterised by the retraction of the field of personal consciousness and
+a tendency to the dissociation and emancipation of the system of ideas and
+functions that constitute personality.']
+
+[Footnote 53: The theories of attention are lucidly and concisely set
+forth by Nayrac, 'Le Processus et le Mécanisme de l'Attention,' _Revue
+Scientifique_, 7th April 1906.]
+
+[Footnote 54: G. F. Stout, _Analytic Psychology_, vol. ii. p. 112. In
+the _Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology_, again, Stout and Baldwin
+define apperception as 'the process of attention in so far as it involves
+interaction between the presentation of the object attended to, on the one
+hand, and the total preceding conscious content, together with pre-formed
+mental dispositions, on the other hand.']
+
+[Footnote 55: A very similar state of things occurs in some forms of
+insanity, especially in the less profound states of mental confusion,
+when, as Bolton remarks ('Amentia and Dementia,' _Journal of Mental
+Science_, July 1906, p. 445), we find 'certain associated remnants of
+former experience combined into a sequence according to the normal laws of
+mental association.']
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE SENSES IN DREAMS
+
+    All Dreams probably contain both Presentative and Representative
+    Elements--The Influence of Tactile Sensations on Dreams--Dreams
+    excited by Auditory Stimuli--Dreams aroused by Odours
+    and Tastes--The Influence of Visual Stimuli--Difficulty
+    of distinguishing between Actual and Imagined Sensory
+    Excitations--The Influence of Internal Visceral Stimuli on
+    Dreaming--Erotic Dreams--Vesical Dreams--Cardiac Dreams and their
+    Symbolism--Prodromic Dreams--Prophetic Dreams.
+
+
+At the outset I adopted provisionally the usual classification of dreams
+into two classes: the peripheral or presentative group, excited by a
+stimulus from without, and the central or representative group, having its
+elements in memories. If, however, we look carefully at the matter, in the
+light of the experiences which we have encountered, it will be found that
+this classification, however superficially convenient it may be, fails
+to correspond to any radical duality of dream phenomena. When we closely
+question our dream experiences, it ceases to be clear that they really
+fall into two groups at all.
+
+On the one hand, it would appear that most, perhaps, indeed, all dreams
+that are sufficiently vivid to be clearly remembered on awakening, have
+received an initial stimulus from some external, or at all events,
+peripheral source.[56] There is something unusual or uncomfortable in
+the sleeper's position, or he has been subjected to some slight unusual
+strain which has modified his nervous condition, or there has been some
+deviation from his usual diet, or a physiological stress of some kind is
+making itself felt within him--careful self-questioning constantly reveals
+the actual or probable existence of some external or certainly peripheral
+stimulus of this kind. So that we seem entitled to say that in all dreams
+there is probably a presentative element.
+
+On the other hand, an even more cursory investigation of our dream life
+suffices to show that in every dream there is also a representative
+element. No dream can be said to be strictly and literally presentative.
+If, when I am seemingly asleep, a person speaks to me, and I become
+conscious that he is present and speaking, I am not entitled to say
+that I 'dream' it. A consciousness which perceives facts in the same
+way as they may be perceived by waking consciousness is not a dreaming
+consciousness. So that there are, in the literal sense, no presentative
+dreams. What happens is that the stimulus, instead of being presented
+directly to consciousness, and recognised for what it is to waking
+consciousness, serves to arouse old memories and ideas which dream
+consciousness accepts as a reasonable explanation of the external or
+peripheral stimulus. The stimulus may be said to be, in a sense, the
+cause of the dream, but the dream itself remains central, and as truly a
+combined picture of mental images as though there were no known peripheral
+stimulus at all.
+
+Thus, while it is true that the division of dreams into two classes
+corresponds to a recognisable distinction, it is yet a superficial and
+unimportant distinction. It is likely that all dreams have a peripheral
+or presentative element, and certain that they all have a central or
+representative element. This will become clearer if we now proceed to
+discuss those dreams which have, demonstrably, their exciting cause in
+some external or internal organic stimulus.
+
+The world which we enter through the portal of sleep presents such obvious
+and serious limitations that we are apt to under-estimate its real
+richness and variety. In some respects, indeed, we can accomplish in sleep
+what is beyond our reach awake. Thus it sometimes happens that we reason
+better in sleep than when awake, that we may find in dreams the solutions
+of difficulties which escape us awake, and that we may remember things
+which, when awake, we had forgotten. But even within the ordinary range
+of experience, it is interesting to note that our dreams contain the same
+elements as our waking life. The sensory activities which stir us during
+the day are equally active, though in strange transformations, in the
+world of dreams.
+
+It is probable that all the senses may furnish the medium through which
+stimuli may reach sleeping consciousness; though touch and hearing are
+doubtless the main channels to dream life. The eyes are closed, so that
+while the chief parts of our dream life are in terms of vision, direct
+visual stimuli can only be a very dim and uncertain influence. But no
+sense is absolutely excluded from activity in dreams.[57]
+
+Heat or cold sensations and pressure sensations, as well as their
+anaesthetic absence, undoubtedly play an important part in explaining
+various kinds of dreams. They do not necessarily result in rememberable
+dreams, even although it is possible that they still affect the current of
+sleeping consciousness. It is possible to press and massage the body of
+a sleeper all over, gently but firmly, without interrupting sleep. When
+the pressure reaches a considerable degree of vigour, the sleeper may
+move a muscle, perhaps the lips, even an arm, may go so far as to half
+wake and move the whole body. All these movements suggest that they have
+accompaniments on the psychic side, yet, on finally awakening, the sleeper
+may be unable to recall any memory of the occurrence, or any vestige of a
+dream.
+
+In a certain proportion of cases, however, a dream results. Thus a lady
+dreams that, with a number of other people, she is on board a ship which
+is rocking heavily, and on awakening she finds that her large dog is on
+the bed, vigorously scratching himself. The ship has clearly been the
+theory invented by sleeping consciousness to account for the unfamiliar
+sensations of movement.
+
+When living in the south of Spain, I awoke early one morning, and heard a
+mosquito buzzing. I fell asleep again and dreamed that a huge insect--as
+large as a lobster, but flat like a cockroach, and scarlet in colour--had
+alighted on my hand. The creature had two long horns, and from each of
+these proceeded numerous very long and delicate filaments which were
+inserted into my hand to a considerable depth. I had to cut the creature
+in half, and draw away the forepart, which was attached to my hand, with
+great care lest I should leave portions of the filaments in the flesh.
+This animal seemed all the more unpleasant because it was noiseless,
+and its attacks, I thought, imperceptible. I appeared to be attacked by
+a succession of them. On awakening, there was irritation of the left
+wrist, as though the mosquito had bitten me, although I had long ceased
+to be bitten by mosquitoes. This dream, it will be seen, corresponds in
+an unusually close way to the idea of a presentative dream; imagination
+followed reality in presenting an insect as the cause of the sensation
+experienced (possibly because I had actually heard the mosquito when
+awake), but still, as in all dreams, the process was mainly central,
+and imagination was freely exercised in creating a creature adequate to
+explain the doubtless vague and massive cutaneous sensations transmitted
+to sleeping consciousness.[58]
+
+Perhaps one of the commonest skin sensations to excite dream formation
+is that of cold due to disturbance of the bed coverings. The following
+example may serve as an illustration of this class. I dreamed that I was
+in an hotel, mounting many flights of stairs, until I entered a room where
+the chambermaid was making the bed; the white bedclothes were scattered
+over everything, and looked to me like snow; then I became conscious that
+I was very cold, and it appeared to me that I really was surrounded by
+snow, for the chambermaid remarked that I was very courageous to come up
+so high in the hotel, very few people venturing to do so on account of
+the great cold at this height. I awoke to find that it was a cold night,
+and that I was entangled in the sheets, and partly uncovered. Nothing
+else had occurred to suggest this dream which sleeping consciousness had
+elaborated out of the two associated ideas of altitude and snow in order
+to explain the actual sensations experienced. It is noteworthy that, as in
+the dream just before narrated, there was here also a link with reality,
+this time furnished by the disarranged bedclothes.[59]
+
+The auditory experiences of dreams, to a greater extent perhaps than those
+involving the sense of touch, may be based on spontaneous disturbances
+within the sensory mechanism. This is notably also the case with visual
+experiences, and in many respects the conditions in the ear are analogous.
+Apart from increased resonance of the ear, or hyperaesthesia of the
+auditory nerve, producing special sensitiveness to sounds, an increased
+flow of blood through the ear, as well as muscular contractions and mucous
+plugs in the external ear, furnish the faint rudimentary noises which, in
+sleep, may constitute the nucleus around which hallucinations crystallise.
+Disease of the ear may obviously act in the same way, but, even apart from
+actual disease, various nervous disturbances favour the production of
+auditory hallucinations during sleep, and, in marked cases, even awake.
+
+We may dream of listening to music in the absence of all external sounds
+having any musical character. In such cases, no doubt, the actual
+conditions within the auditory mechanism are suggesting music to the
+brain, but the resulting music seems usually to be less definite, less
+rememberable, than when it forms around the nucleus of an external series
+of sounds. In many of these cases it is probable that we do not hear
+music in our dream; we are simply under conditions in which we imagine
+that we hear music. Thus, on going to bed soon after supper, but not
+perceptibly suffering from indigestion, I dreamed that I was present at
+a public meeting combined with an orchestral concert. A speech was to be
+made by a man who looked like an old sailor or soldier, and meanwhile
+the orchestra was playing. The speaker--unaccustomed, I gathered, to the
+etiquette of such a meeting--suddenly interrupted the orchestra by a
+remark, and the surprised conductor stopped the performance for a moment
+and then continued, subsequent remarks by the speaker failing to affect
+the music, which continued to the end, becoming more lively and vigorous
+in character. But what the music was, I knew not at the time, nor could
+I recall any fragment of it on awakening. It is even possible that such
+a dream is mainly visual, and that no hallucinatory music is heard, its
+occurrence being merely deduced from the nature of the vision.
+
+If the dreams evoked by sounds within the ear are usually difficult to
+trace in normal persons under ordinary circumstances, this is not the
+case with dreams suggested by sounds which strike the ear from without.
+These constitute one of the most interesting groups of dreams as well as
+one of the easiest to explain, and they are very frequent.[60] Their
+mechanism may, indeed, be observed under some circumstances even in the
+waking state. In some persons, music, a voice, a bird's song, even a
+word, a comment, arouse phantoms of colour and form, light and shade,
+coloured clouds, streams, waves, etc. The phenomena are especially rich
+when produced by an orchestra. Such 'music-phantoms,' as they are termed,
+are a special and freer development of the narrow and rigid phenomena
+of 'colour-hearing.' They have been studied by Dr. Ruths.[61] We have
+to remember that music possesses a fundamental motor basis. As Dauriac
+remarks, music may be defined as 'movement clothed with sound.'[62]
+It tends to produce movement, or, failing movement, to produce motor
+imagery.[63]
+
+Dreams excited by definite external auditory stimuli may be of various
+character. A not uncommon source--especially for those who live on
+a wind-swept coast--is the occurrence of storms. A lady dreams, for
+instance, that her little dog has fallen off a high cliff and that she
+hears his shrieks; it was an extremely windy night, and her window was
+open. The dream has some resemblance to one which Burdach recorded that he
+shared with a companion in an hotel during a storm; they both dreamed they
+were wandering at night among high precipices.
+
+On one occasion I awoke in the middle of a windy night imagining I had
+been listening to an opera of Gluck's (which in reality I had never
+heard), and experiencing all the sense of delicious waves of melody
+which one actually experiences in listening to such operas as _Alceste_.
+A fragment of a melody I had heard in the dream still persisted in my
+memory on awaking, so that I could mentally repeat it, when it seemed as
+agreeable as in the dream, though unfamiliar.
+
+The following dream had also a similar origin. I imagined that I was
+assisting at a spectacle of somewhat dubious erotic character, in company
+with other persons who, out of modesty, covered their faces with their
+hands with the decorous gesture which recalled (as dream consciousness
+evidently realised) that of people during prayer in church. Thereupon a
+beautiful voice was heard in the background loudly chanting a versicle of
+the Te Deum. This awoke me, and I seemed to realise when half awake that
+the voice I had heard in the dream was a real voice. There had, however,
+been no real voice, only the loud howling of the wind and the beating of
+the rain on the window panes.
+
+Once, on a very windy night, and when, perhaps, suffering a trifling
+disturbance of health--for there was slight pleurodynic pain the next
+morning--I dreamed I was quietly at home with friends, when suddenly
+the sky became illuminated. We found that this was due to steady and
+continuous lightning, a state of things which remained throughout the
+dream, the sky presenting the appearance of a cracked and crushed sheet
+of melting ice.[64] By and by, fragments of buildings and similar debris
+were whirled past in the air, and I caught sight of a woman driven above
+me by her skirts. We now realised the imminent approach of a terrific
+cyclone which, at any moment, might carry the house and ourselves away. I
+remembered no more.
+
+Yet another dream may be mentioned as likewise directly due to a violent
+storm and the rattling of a window near my bed. The latter sound evidently
+recalled to sleeping consciousness the sound of the rattling window of
+a railway train, and I dreamed that I was travelling to Berlin with a
+medical friend. There were the accompaniments, not unfamiliar in dreams,
+of rushing along interminable platforms, and up and down endless stairs,
+finding myself in a carriage of the wrong class, with, in consequence,
+more wandering along corridors, and finally finding that my friend had
+been left behind. The character of the dream may have been influenced by
+slight indigestion. In this dream, unlike those already recorded as due to
+external stimuli, the elements of the dream were not the pure invention
+of dreaming imagination, but compacted entirely of ideas that had been
+recently familiar.
+
+The following dream was due to an auditory stimulus of different
+character. I dreamed that I was listening to a performance of Haydn's
+_Creation_, the orchestral part of the performance seeming to consist
+chiefly of the very realistic representation of the song of birds, though
+I could not identify the note of any particular bird. Then followed solos
+by male singers, whom I saw, especially one who attracted my attention
+by singing at the close in a scarcely audible voice. On awakening, the
+source of the dream was not immediately obvious, but I soon realised that
+it was the song of a canary in another room. I had never heard Haydn's
+_Creation_, except in fragments, nor thought of it at any recent period;
+its reputation as regards the realistic representation of natural sounds
+had evidently caused it to be put forward by sleeping consciousness as
+a plausible explanation of the sounds heard, and the visual centres had
+accepted the theory.
+
+However far-fetched and improbable our dreams may seem to the waking mind,
+they are, from the point of view of the sleeping mind, serious and careful
+attempts to construct an adequate theory of the phenomena. The imagery is
+sought from far afield only to fit the facts more accurately. Thus a lady
+dreamed that her dog was being crushed out flat in a large old-fashioned
+box-mangle. She awoke to find that water from a burst pipe was falling
+from the ceiling on to the floor on the landing outside her door, close to
+where the dog had his bed. She had never seen a mangle of this kind since
+she was a child, or had any occasion to think of it, but the rhythm and
+sound of it somewhat resembled that of the falling water.
+
+One more example of an auditory dream may be given. I dreamed that I was
+back in a schoolroom of my boyhood, with two or three of the present
+masters. The room had been entirely changed, and it contained much new
+school apparatus and, notably, on a table, several miniature engines,
+of different character, actually working. I said to the masters that I
+wished all these apparatus had been there twenty years ago (a considerable
+under-estimate of the actual interval since I left that schoolroom), so
+that I might have enjoyed the benefit of them. 'All life is made up of
+machinery,' I found myself uttering aloud as I awoke, 'and unless you
+understand machinery you can't understand life.' It was not till some
+moments later that I became conscious of a faint whirring sound which
+puzzled me till I realised that it was the sound of distant machinery
+entering through the open window. This had, undoubtedly, suggested the
+engines of the dream, though I had not been conscious in my dream of
+hearing any sounds, and the small size of the dream engines corresponded
+to the faintness of the actual sounds.
+
+Dreams aroused by odours do not usually seem to occur except on
+the experimental application of them to the sleeper's nostrils,
+and experiments in this direction are not usually successful.[65]
+Occasionally, however, smell dreams occur without any traceable sensory
+source, and Grace Andrews, for instance, records a dream of the sea,
+accompanied by the seashore odour, 'a pure and rich sensation of smell.'
+In my own case olfactory dreams have been rare and insignificant.
+
+Taste, as we usually understand it, really involves, as is well known, an
+element of smell, and taste dreams of this kind seem to occur from time to
+time under the influence of any slight disturbance of the mucous membrane
+of the mouth or slight indigestion. It is possible that the latter element
+was present in the following dream: I imagined that, following the example
+of a friend, I gave some cigarettes to a tramp we had casually met, and
+that, in return, we felt compelled to drink some raw gin he carried. I
+did so with some misgiving as to the possible results of drinking from
+a tramp's flask, but although in real life I had not tasted gin for
+many years, the hot burning taste of the spirit was very distinct. On
+awakening, my lips seemed hot and dry, and it was doubtless this labial
+sensation which led dream consciousness to seek a plausible explanation in
+cigarettes and spirits. Although the spirit seemed to have the specific
+flavour of gin, it is always difficult, if not impossible, in dream
+sensations, to distinguish between what one feels and what one merely
+concludes that one feels. In such a case, that is to say, it remains
+doubtful whether the labial sensation evokes the specific hallucination
+of gin, or whether it merely suggests to sleeping consciousness that the
+gin has been tasted, much as it is possible to suggest to the hypnotised
+person that the substance he is tasting is a quite different substance,
+that salt is sugar, or that water is wine.
+
+As with dreams of smell, it is not always possible to detect any external
+stimulation as the cause for a taste or pseudo-taste dream.[66] This may
+be illustrated by a dream which belongs strictly to the tactile class; I
+dreamed that I called upon a medical acquaintance whose assistant I found
+in a dark surgery. I absently took up a broken medicine bottle and put
+it to my mouth, when my friend came in. I spoke to him on some medical
+topic, but he entered his carriage, and was driven off before he had time
+to answer me. I then found that my mouth was full of fragments of broken
+colourless glass, which I carefully removed. This dream was constructed,
+in the manner which has been often illustrated in the previous pages,
+of small separate incidents which had occurred during the immediately
+preceding days. One of the incidents was the fact that I had myself
+smashed a little coloured (not colourless) glass and carefully picked up
+the fragments. But the vividest part of the dream was the sensation of
+broken glass in the mouth, and on awaking no sensation could be detected
+in the mouth. So that though the most plausible explanation of such a
+dream would be the theory that the recent experience with broken glass
+had suggested to sleeping consciousness the explanation of an unpleasant
+sensation actually experienced in the mouth, there was nothing whatever to
+support that theory.
+
+The falling of light on the closed eyes, or the half opening of the eyes,
+has been found to serve as a visual stimulus to dreams, but I have myself
+no decisive evidence on this point.[67] In the case of a lady who dreamed
+that a lover was in her room, and that suddenly the door opened, and she
+saw her mother standing before her with a bright light, which awoke her,
+she could find nothing in the room, no light, to account for the dream. It
+is, of course, unnecessary for a dream of a bright light to be actually
+produced by an external visual stimulus accompanying the dream, for the
+spontaneous retino-cerebral activity itself produces sensations of light.
+Thus, on the night after a pleasant walk in a country lane through which
+the setting sun shone, I dreamed that I was walking along a lane in which
+I saw a bright light and my own vast shadow in front of me. It would seem
+that, on the whole, the curtain of the eyelids effectually shuts out
+light from the eye during sleep, and that the sense which is more active
+during the day than any other is the most carefully guarded of all during
+the night. The peculiarly delicate and unstable nature of the chemical
+basis of vision makes up for this protection from external stimulation,
+and by its spontaneous activity ensures that even in dreams vision is the
+predominant sense.
+
+What we find as regards the part played in dreams by excitations arising
+from the external specific senses holds good also for excitations arising
+from internal organic sensations. The main difference is that the stimuli
+which reach sleeping consciousness from the organs within the body--the
+stomach, heart, lungs, sexual apparatus, bladder, etc.--are usually more
+vague and massive, more difficult to recognise and identify, than are the
+more specific sensory stimuli which reach us from without. These visceral
+excitations may be transformed within the brain into imagery so unlike
+themselves that we may refuse to recognise them, and must frequently
+experience some amount of hesitation. Evidence of this fact will come
+before us in due course later on. I only wish to refer here to the more
+obvious part played in dreams by sensations arising within the body.
+
+We should expect that the visceral processes to be translated most
+clearly and directly into dreaming consciousness would be, not those which
+are regular and continuous, but those which assert themselves, more or
+less imperiously, at intervals. This is actually the case. The heart,
+for instance, probably plays a part in dreams only when disturbed in
+its action, and even then nearly always a very transformed part. On the
+other hand, when the impulses of the generative system arise in sleep to
+manifest themselves in erotic dreams, the resulting imagery is usually
+very clear, and with very definite and recognisable sexual associations.
+Erotic dreams are, indeed, in both men and women, among the most vivid of
+all dreams, and the most emotionally potent.[68]
+
+The bladder, again, is an internal organ which makes its functional
+needs felt only at intervals, and thus, when those needs occur during
+sleep, they become conscious in imagery which easily recalls the source
+of the stimulus. It may, indeed, be said that vesical dreams are full of
+instruction in the light they throw on the psychology of dreaming. This
+has long been well known to writers on dreams. Thus Scherner, many years
+ago, insisted on the interest and importance of vesical dreams. In women,
+especially, he regarded them as very frequent and developed, most dream
+stories of women, he considered, containing symbolic representations of
+this organic irritation. Water, in some form or another, is naturally the
+commonest symbol. In Scherner's opinion, also, all dreams of fish playing
+in the water are vesical dreams.[69]
+
+In its simplest form the vesical dream is what Freud would term a
+wish-dream of infantile type, frequently in the magnified form common
+in dreams, and sometimes transferred from the dreamer himself to become
+objectified in another person, or even an inanimate object.[70] There
+is, however, a very important difference according to whether these
+dreams take place in an adult or in a young child. In the adult it almost
+invariably happens that the dream act remains merely a dream act, and no
+corresponding motor impulse is transmitted to the bladder. But when such
+dreams occur to very young children, in whose brains the motor inhibitory
+mechanism is not yet fully established, it not infrequently happens that
+the motor impulse is transmitted and the expulsive action of the bladder
+is set up in sympathy with the imagery of the dream; thus is established
+the condition known as nocturnal enuresis. As the young brain develops,
+and inhibition becomes more perfect, these vesical dreams cease to exert
+any actual effect on the bladder, even when, as sometimes happens, they
+continue to occur at intervals in adult life.[71] Occasionally, both in
+those who have and those who have not suffered from nocturnal enuresis in
+childhood (especially women), vesical dreams of this character may occur
+without even any real distension of the bladder. In some of these cases
+the dream can be shown to be due to a reminiscence or suggestion from the
+waking life of the previous day. Dreams stimulated by organic sensations
+from within are thus found to resemble those proceeding from sensory
+sensations from without in that they are both exactly simulated by dreams
+which are mainly of central origin.
+
+When we turn to those internal organs of the body which normally carry
+on their functions in a constant and equable manner, seldom or never
+obtruding themselves into the sphere of consciousness, any disturbance of
+function seems much less likely to be translated into dream consciousness
+in a simple and direct form. It is sufficient to take the example of the
+heart. When the heart is acting normally any consciousness of its action
+is as rare asleep as awake. Even when cardiac action is disturbed, either
+by disease or by temporary excitement, dream consciousness seldom realises
+the physical cause of the disturbance. Occasionally, indeed, the cardiac
+disturbance may reach sleeping consciousness without any very remote
+transformation; thus a lady dreams that she is fainting while really
+breathing in a slightly laboured and spasmodic way; but at another period
+the same lady, at a time when she was suffering from some degree of heart
+weakness, dreamed one night, when the trouble was specially marked, that
+she was driving sweating horses up a steep hill, urging them on with the
+whip in order to avoid an express train which she imagined was behind her.
+This dream of sweating and panting horses climbing a hill has been noted
+by various observers to occur in connection with heart trouble.[72] The
+real difficulty of the panting and struggling heart instinctively finds
+its apparent explanation in a familiar spectacle of daily life.
+
+In another case a dreamer awoke from a disturbed sleep associated with
+indigestion, having the impression that burglars were tramping upstairs,
+but immediately realised that the tramp of the burglars' feet was really
+the beating of her own heart. Somewhat similarly, when suffering from
+headache, I have dreamed of hammering nails into a floor, a theory
+obviously invented to account for the thump of throbbing arteries.
+
+An interesting group of phenomena connected with the sensory influences
+discussed in this chapter is furnished by the premonitions of physical
+disorders and diseases sometimes experienced in dreams. A physical
+disturbance may reach sleeping consciousness many hours, or even days,
+before it is perceived by waking consciousness, and become translated
+into a more or less fantastic dream. This has been recognised from of
+old, and Aristotle, for instance, observed that dreams magnify sensory
+excitations, and pointed out that they were thus useful to the physician
+in diagnosing symptoms not yet perceptible in the waking state. Thus
+Hammond knew a gentleman who, before an attack of hemiplegic paralysis,
+repeatedly dreamed that he had been cut in two down the middle line,
+and could only move on one side, while a young lady who dreamed she had
+swallowed molten lead, though quite well on awaking, was attacked by
+severe tonsilitis toward midday. Erythematous conditions of the skin, as
+has been pointed out to me by Dr. Kiernan, who has met with numerous cases
+in point, play an especial part in generating these dreams. Jewell, again,
+mentions a girl who dreamed, three days before being laid up with typhoid
+fever, that some one threw oil over her and set light to it. Macario, who
+was, perhaps, the first to record and study scientifically the dreams of
+this class, termed them prodromic.[73]
+
+'Prophetic' dreams, in which the dreamer foresees, not a physical
+condition which is already latent, but an external occurrence, belong to
+an entirely different class, and need not be discussed in detail here,
+since they are usually fallacious. A fairly common experience of this
+kind is the dream of an unknown person who is afterwards met in real
+life. These dreams fall into two groups: in the first the 'prophecy' is
+based on a failure of memory, the dreamer having really seen the person
+before; in the second, the subsequent 'recognition' of the person is
+due to the emotional preparation of the dream, and the concentrated
+expectation. Sante de Sanctis, who points this out, gives an experience
+of the kind which happened to the distinguished novelist, Capuana, who
+had a vivid dream of a dark lady, with expressive eyes, and three days
+after met the lady of his dream in the street.[74] Women, in a state of
+emotional expectation, have often mistaken dead (or even living) persons
+for missing husbands or children, and any one who has observed how, when
+a noted criminal flies from justice, he is soon 'recognised,' from his
+portrait, in the most various parts of the world, will have no difficulty
+in believing that it is easily possible to 'recognise' people from dream
+portraits, which are much vaguer than photographs. That there are other
+prophetic dreams, less easy to account for, I am ready to admit, though
+they have not come under my own immediate observation.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 56: Although I reached this conclusion independently, as a
+result of the analysis of dream experiences, I find that it was set forth
+at a much earlier period by Wundt. 'Men are accustomed to regard most of
+the phantasms of dreams as hallucinations,' he writes (_Grundzüge der
+Physiologischer Psychologie_, vol. iii.), 'but most dream representations
+are apparently illusions, initiated by the slight sensory impressions
+which are never extinguished in sleep.' Weygandt, in his brief but
+excellent book, _Entstehung der Traäme_, fully adopts this view, although
+I scarcely think he is always successful in his attempts to demonstrate
+it by his own dreams; such demonstration is necessarily often difficult
+or impossible because, apart from the dream itself, we seldom know what
+sensory impressions are persisting in our sleep. C. M. Giessler (_Die
+Physiologische Beziehungen der Traumvorgänge_, 1896, p. 2), who also
+proceeds from Wundt, likewise regards dreams as in general the more or
+less orderly and successive revival of psychic vestiges of waking life,
+conditioned by inner or outer excitations. Tissié (in _Les Rêves_, 1898),
+again, declares that 'dreams of purely psychic origin do not exist,'
+and Beaunis (_American Journal of Psychology_, July-October 1903) also
+believes that all dreams need an internal or external stimulus from the
+organism.]
+
+[Footnote 57: Thus W. S. Monroe ('Mental Elements of Dreams,' _Journal
+of Philosophy_, 23rd November 1905) found that in nearly three hundred
+dreams of fifty-five women students of the Westfield Normal College
+(Massachusetts), visual imagery appeared in sixty-seven per cent. dreams,
+auditory in twenty-six per cent., tactile in eight per cent., motor in
+five per cent., olfactory in a little over one per cent., and gustatory
+in rather under one per cent. In the results of observation recorded by
+Sarah Weed and Florence Hallam (_American Journal of Psychology_, April
+1896) the sensory imagery appears in the same order of frequency and
+approximately in the same proportions.]
+
+[Footnote 58: In another case, a sensation of irritation in the palm
+led to a dream of being scratched by a cat. Guthrie mentions (_Clinical
+Journal_, 7th June 1899) that as a child he used to dream of being
+tortured by savages by being slowly tickled under the arms when unable
+to move; he sweated much at night, and considers that the tickling thus
+caused was the source of the dreams.]
+
+[Footnote 59: The corresponding sensation of heat can also, of course, be
+experienced in sleep, alike whether the stimulus comes from the brain or
+the skin. Thus I dreamed that, not knowing whether some water was hot or
+cold, I put my finger into it and felt it to be distinctly hot.]
+
+[Footnote 60: The ease with which musical sounds can be applied during
+sleep and the beneficial results on emotional tone have suggested their
+therapeutic use. Leonard Corning ('The Use of Musical Vibrations before
+and during Sleep,' _Medical Record_, 21st January 1899) is regarded as the
+pioneer in this field.]
+
+[Footnote 61: Ch. Ruths, _Experimental-Untersuchungen über Musikphantome_,
+1898.]
+
+[Footnote 62: Dauriac, 'Des Images Suggérées par l'Audition Musicale,'
+_Revue Philosophique_, November 1902.]
+
+[Footnote 63: De Rochas has described and reproduced the gestures and
+dances of his hypnotised subject, Lina, under the influence of music.
+Ribot (_L'Imagination Créatrice_, pp. 177 _et seq._, 291 _et seq._) has
+discussed the imagery suggested by music and points out that it is most
+pronounced in non-musical subjects. Fatigue and over-excitement are
+predisposing conditions in the production of this imagery, as is shown by
+MacDougall (_Psychological Review_, September 1898) in his own experience.]
+
+[Footnote 64: One is tempted to think that this lightning may have been a
+symbolistic transformation of lancinating neuralgic pains, magnified, as
+sensations are apt to be, in sleep.]
+
+[Footnote 65: In some experiments by Prof. W. S. Monroe on twenty women
+students at Westfield Normal School a crushed clove was placed on the
+tongue for ten successive nights on going to bed. Of 254 dreams reported
+as following there were seventeen taste dreams and eight smell dreams, and
+three of these dreams actually involved cloves. The clove also influenced
+dreams of other classes; thus, as a result of the burning sensation
+in the mouth, one dreamer imagined that the house was on fire (W. S.
+Monroe, 'A Study of Taste Dreams,' _American Journal of Psychology_,
+January 1899). It has indeed been found, by Meunier, specially easy to
+apply olfactory stimuli during sleep and so improve the emotional tone
+(R. Meunier, 'A Propos d'onirothérapie,' _Archives de Neurologie_, March
+1910). Meunier found that in his own case tuberose always called out
+agreeable dreams full of detail, though in another subject the dreams were
+always unpleasant. In hysterical subjects essence of geranium provoked
+various agreeable dreams followed by a pleasant emotional tone during the
+following day.]
+
+[Footnote 66: Titchener ('Taste Dreams,' _American Journal of Psychology_,
+January 1895) records taste dreams by auto-suggestion, and Ribot
+(_Psychology of the Emotions_, p. 142) thinks there can be no doubt dreams
+of both taste and smell can occur without objective source.]
+
+[Footnote 67: Hammond (_Treatise on Insanity_, p. 229) knew a gentleman
+who dreamed he was in heaven and surrounded by dazzling brilliance,
+awaking to find that the smouldering fire had flared up. Weygandt
+dreamed that he was gazing at 'living pictures' illuminated by magnesium
+light, and awoke to find that the morning sun had just appeared from
+behind clouds and was flooding the room with light. See also Parish,
+_Hallucinations and Illusions_, p. 52.]
+
+[Footnote 68: I have discussed erotic dreams in the study of
+'Auto-erotism' in the first volume of my _Studies in the Psychology of
+Sex_ (third edition, revised and enlarged, 1910).]
+
+[Footnote 69: K. A. Scherner, _Das Leben des Traums_, 1861, pp. 187
+_et seq._ Volkelt some years later (_Die Traum-Phantasie_, 1875, p.
+74) pointed out the occurrence of somewhat similar vesical symbolisms
+(including in the case of women a filled knitting-bag) in dream life,
+though he regarded visions of water as the most usual indication in
+such dreams. Vesical dreams may, of course, contain other elements; see
+_e.g._ an example given by C. J. Jung, 'L'Analyse des Rêves,' _L'Année
+Psychologique_, 15th year, 1909, p. 165.]
+
+[Footnote 70: A typical dream of this kind, of sufficient importance to be
+embodied in history, occurred several thousand years ago to Astyages, King
+of the Medes, and has been recorded by Herodotus (Book 1. ch. 107).]
+
+[Footnote 71: In the study of Auto-erotism mentioned in a previous note I
+have brought forward dreams illustrating some of the points in the text,
+and have also discussed the analogies and contrasts between vesical and
+erotic dreams. The fact that nocturnal enuresis is associated with vesical
+dreams, though referred to by Buchan in his _Venus sine Concubitu_ more
+than a century ago, is still little known, but it is obviously a fact of
+clinical importance.]
+
+[Footnote 72: So, for instance, the asthmatic patient of Max Simon (_Le
+Monde des Rêves_, p. 40) who, during an attack, dreamed of sweating horses
+attempting to draw a heavy waggon uphill.]
+
+[Footnote 73: Forbes Winslow also recorded cases (_Obscure Diseases_,
+pp. 611 _et seq._), and many examples were brought together by Hammond
+(_Treatise on Insanity_, pp. 234 _et seq._). Vaschide and Piéron discuss
+the matter and bring forward thirteen cases (_La Psychologie du Rêve_, pp.
+34 _et seq._). Féré recorded two cases in which dreams were the precursory
+symptoms of attacks of migraine (_Revue de Médecine_, 10th February 1903).
+Various cases, chiefly from the literature of the subject, are brought
+together by Paul Meunier and Masselon (_Les Rêves et leur Interpretation_,
+1910).]
+
+[Footnote 74: Sante de Sanctis, _I Sogni_, p. 380.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+EMOTION IN DREAMS
+
+    Emotion and Imagination--How Stimuli are transformed
+    into Emotion--Somnambulism--The Failure of Movement in
+    Dreams--Nightmare--Influence of the approach of Awakening on
+    imagined Dream Movements--The Magnification of Imagery--Peripheral
+    and Cerebral Conditions combine to produce this Imaginative
+    Heightening--Emotion in Sleep also Heightened--Dreams formed to
+    explain Heightened Emotions of unknown origin--The fundamental Place
+    of Emotion in Dreams--Visceral and especially Gastric disturbance
+    as a source of Emotion--Symbolism in Dreams--The Dreamer's Moral
+    Attitude--Why Murder so often takes place in Dreams--Moral Feeling
+    not Abolished in Dreams though sometimes Impaired.
+
+
+Whether the influences which stimulate our dreams arise from without or
+from within the organism, they are always filtered and diffused through
+the obscured channels of perception. They reach the brain at last in a
+vague and massive shape which may or may not betray to waking analysis the
+source from which they arise, but will certainly have become so changed
+in these organic channels that their affective tone will be predominant.
+They are, that is to say, largely transformed into _emotion_. And, when so
+transformed, they become the origin of what we regard as the imaginative
+element in dreams.[75]
+
+Sleep is especially favourable to the production of emotion because while
+it allows a considerable amount of activity to sensory activities, and a
+very wide freedom to the imagery founded on sensory activities, it largely
+and in many directions inhibits motor activity. The actions suggested
+by sensory excitation cannot, therefore, be carried out. As soon as the
+impulse enters motor channels it is impeded, broken up, and scattered in
+a vain struggle. This process is transmitted to the brain as a wave of
+emotion.
+
+Sometimes, indeed, as we know, motor co-ordinations, usually inhibited in
+sleep, are not so inhibited. The dreamer is able to execute, perfectly
+or imperfectly, some action which, really or in imagination, he desires
+to execute. He is then said to be in a state of somnambulism. The
+somnambulist, in the wide sense of the word, is not necessarily a person
+who walks in his sleep, but any person in whom a group of co-ordinated
+muscles is sufficiently awake to respond more or less adequately to the
+motor impulse from the sleeping brain. To talk in sleep is a form of
+somnambulism. When the motor channels are thus unimpeded, there is usually
+no memory of a dream on awaking. The impulses that reach consciousness
+can be, as it were, quickly and easily drained off to the surface of the
+nervous system, and they tend to leave no deep impress on consciousness.
+
+'I worked late last night,' writes a lady, a novelist, 'went to bed, and
+dropped into a dead kind of sleep. When I woke this morning about seven
+a funny thing had happened. Two candles were burning in my room. When I
+went to bed I had only one burning, and I know I put that out. Now, there
+were two burning side by side as if I had been writing, and they had
+evidently been burning only an hour or so, I must have got up and lighted
+them in my sleep.'[76] The actions carried out in the somnambulistic
+condition are not usually co-ordinated with the action of higher emotions:
+thus, a young woman was impelled by a distended bladder, while still
+asleep, to get out of bed and proceeded to carry out the suggested action,
+but without further precautions, on to the floor; she was only awakened by
+an exclamation from her sister, who had been aroused by the sound. We seem
+to see that under a strong stimulus--unfinished work in one case, vesical
+tension in the other--the motor centres have awakened to activity in the
+early morning while the higher centres are still soundly asleep. If the
+second sleeper had not been awakened, in neither case would any memory
+of the incidents have remained.[77] There has been no struggle, and no
+resultant emotions have, therefore, been aroused to impress consciousness.
+It is evident that the lack of adaptation between sensory and motor
+activity is an important factor in dreams, and contributes to impart to
+them their emotional character.
+
+In somnambulism we have a state which is in some respects the reverse
+of that usual in dreams. The higher centres are, indeed, split off from
+the lower centres, but it is the former that are asleep and the latter
+are awake, whereas in ordinary dreaming the higher centres are acting
+in accordance with their means, while the lower centres are quiescent.
+Somnambulism is an approximation to a condition found in some diseases
+of the brain when, as a result of lesion of the higher nervous levels,
+we have a mental state--the ideatory apraxia of Liepmann--in which the
+muscular system carries out plans, but the plans are defective because not
+supervised by the higher centres. In ordinary dreams, on the other hand,
+we have a state comparable to that produced by brain lesions in what Pick
+terms motor apraxia, in which the higher centres are acting freely, but
+their plans are never carried into action owing to failure of the motor
+centres.
+
+This characteristic of dreaming has seemed puzzling to some writers. They
+ask why, in our dreams, we should sometimes be so conscious of failure
+of movement, and why, when we strive to move in dreams, we do not always
+actually move.[78]
+
+There scarcely seems to me to be any serious difficulty here; still, the
+question is one of considerable interest and importance. It is necessary
+to point out in the first place that, however complete the actual absence
+of movement, there is usually no failure of movement in the dream vision.
+We dream that we are talking, that we are moving from place to place, that
+we are performing various actions. We are conscious of no difficulty,
+even sometimes of a peculiar facility, in executing these movements. And
+in normal persons, under normal conditions, it would seem that the dream
+movements take place without even an incipient degree of corresponding
+actual movement perceptible to an observer. The efferent motor channels,
+and even to a large extent the afferent sensory channels, are asleep, and
+the whole representative circuit is completed within the brain, or, as we
+say, imaginatively.[79] Thus a middle-aged friend, whose habits are by no
+means athletic, dreams that, desiring to attract some one's attention,
+he rests one knee on his wife's small work-table, and holding the foot of
+the other leg in one hand, he whirls rapidly and easily round and round
+on the pivot of the knee which rests on the table, the dream afterwards
+continuing without any awakening. A lady, again, who, when awake, is
+unable to swim, and knows no reason why she should think of swimming,
+vividly dreams that she jumps from a houseboat into the river, and
+proceeds to swim on her side with great ease, this dream also continuing
+without awakening. These dreamers were able to execute triumphantly the
+muscular feats they planned, because they had not really attempted to
+execute them at all, and, moreover, no sufficient sensory messages reached
+the brain to give information that the limbs were not actually obeying the
+orders of the brain. The dreamers were probably in a somewhat deep state
+of sleep.[80]
+
+The dreams in which we seem to ourselves to be suffering from the
+difficulty or impossibility of movement thus constitute a special class.
+Jewell would apply to them the term 'nightmare,' which he regards as
+'characterised by inability to move or speak.' When, in dreams, we become
+conscious of difficult movement, it has frequently, and perhaps usually,
+happened that the motor channels are not entirely closed, the sensory
+channels unusually open, and very frequently, though not necessarily, this
+is associated with the approach of awakening. I dreamed that I was walking
+with a friend, that we quarrelled, and that thereupon I crossed the road,
+and walked on ahead of him. These actions seemed entirely effortless.
+Gradually, however, I became conscious of immense and ineffectual effort
+in keeping in front, and slowly began to experience, as I awakened, a
+feeling of lassitude in my actual and motionless limbs. In the process
+of awakening, I take it, the increased, but still defective, efflux of
+sensation from the legs, conveying the message of their real position,
+entered into conflict with the dream imagery, and produced a struggle in
+consciousness. It is by no means necessary to assume that there was a
+complete absence of sensory impressions from the legs during the earlier
+part of the dream; on the contrary, it is probable that the feeling of
+lassitude was itself the cause of the dream, the idea of walking being a
+theory to account for the lassitude; this seems more probable than that
+the actual lassitude was caused by the mental exertion in the dream.
+
+In a dream which a friend tells me he has often had, and always finds
+painful, he imagines he is climbing a mountain, and at last reaches a
+point at which, notwithstanding all his efforts, further progress is
+impossible. It seems probable that this dream is also an example of the
+conflict due to the process of awakening. In this case, however, the
+solution is complicated by the fact that in earlier life the dreamer had
+really once found himself in the situation he now only experiences in
+dreams.
+
+It is sometimes possible to prove, through the evidence of a witness,
+that in our dreams of movements executed with difficulty, we are really
+sufficiently awake on the motor side to be making actual movements,
+though these actual movements may only very roughly correspond to the
+movements we imagine we are trying to make. Very frequently, no doubt,
+dreams of difficult movement co-exist with, or are caused by, some degree
+of actual movement. In some such cases, indeed, the slight and imperfect
+actual movement may, in dream consciousness, be a complete and adequate
+movement. In these cases the imperfect sensory messages are not, it seems,
+sufficiently precise to reveal to sleeping consciousness the imperfection
+of the motor impulses.
+
+Exactly the same thing occurs under the allied conditions of anaesthesia
+produced by drugs. Thus, on one occasion, when coming to consciousness
+after the administration of nitrous oxide gas, I had the sensation of
+crying out aloud, but in reality, as I was informed by a friend at my
+side, I merely made a slight guttural sound. In the same way we see
+sleeping dogs making slight movements of all their paws in succession,
+a faint and abortive movement of running, which in the sleeping dog's
+consciousness may, doubtless, be accompanied by the notion that he is
+dashing across a field after a rabbit.
+
+In these dreams of failure of movement, it seems to me, the dream process,
+as the result of an approximation to the waking state, has become mixed
+with actual sensori-motor impulses, but the threshold of waking life is
+still too far off for actual movements to be completely and successfully
+accomplished, and in the case of the limbs the eye cannot be used to
+guide movements which the muscular and cutaneous sensations are still too
+dead to guide. It is important to remember that in waking life, under
+pathological conditions, we may have a precisely similar state of things.
+In some states of cerebro-spinal degeneration, resulting in defective
+sensibility of muscle and nerve, the subject sways unsteadily when he
+closes his eyes, and when there is loss of sensibility in the arm it is
+sometimes impossible to hold objects in the hand except with the guiding
+aid afforded by the eye.[81]
+
+In a dream, dating from fifteen years back, that I now regard as
+conditioned by the approach of the moment of awakening, I imagined that I
+was making huge efforts to copy in a copy-book a capital H, engraved in a
+rather peculiar fashion, but really offering no difficulties to any waking
+schoolchild. By no means could I get the proportions right, if, indeed, I
+could make any stroke at all, and at the end of my painful and ineffectual
+efforts I seemed to be trying to write on sand, which was merely displaced
+by my hand. This final impression seems clearly to be that of a dreamer
+who is already sufficiently awake to be conscious of the bedclothes
+yielding to the touch.
+
+The foregoing dream suggests that failure of movement in dreaming may tend
+to be associated with an accentuation of that shifting of imagery which is
+one of the most primary elements in dreaming, both failure of movement and
+accentuation of shifting imagery being, perhaps, alike due to the approach
+towards the waking state. Thus, if in a dream one is brushing one's coat,
+one finds, without any overwhelming surprise, that fresh patches of dust
+appear again and again, even when one's efforts in brushing them away are
+successful. Even when we feel able to effect movement in our dream, there
+may still be a failure of that movement to effect its object.
+
+The question of movement in dreams, of the presence or absence of effort
+and inhibition, is thus seen to be explicable by reference to the depth of
+sleep and the particular groups of centres involved. In full normal sleep
+movements are purely ideatory, and no difficulty arises in executing any
+movement, for the reason that there really is no movement at all, or even
+any attempt at movement, while, even if slight movement occurs, no message
+of its actual defectiveness can reach the brain. Movement or attempt at
+movement, with more or less inhibition, tends to occur when the motor and
+sensory centres are in a partially aroused state; it is a phenomenon which
+belongs to the period immediately before awakening.[82]
+
+It is doubtless mainly due to the diffusion of inhibited nervous impulses
+through many channels, and the vague and massive character which they
+hence assume in consciousness, that we must attribute the magnification
+of dream imagery, and the exaggeration of dream feelings. This is not a
+constant tendency of our dreams; sometimes, indeed, perhaps in special
+stages of sleep-consciousness, there is diminution, and people look no
+larger than dolls, and houses like doll's houses, while, on the emotional
+side, events which in real life would overwhelm us, may, in dreams, be
+accepted as matters of course. But the heightening of imagery and ideas
+and feelings is very common. There is a kind of normal megalomania in our
+dreams. We have already incidentally encountered many instances of this: a
+tooth appears large enough for a mouse to play in, or like a great jagged
+rock; the irritation of a mosquito evokes the image of a huge scarlet
+beetle; in vesical dreams endless streams are seen to flow; a canary's
+song is heard as Haydn's _Creation_, and the howling of the wind becomes a
+chanted Te Deum.
+
+A French author has written an impressive literary description of his own
+purely visual dreams, with their magnificent exaggerations and joyous
+expansiveness, seeking to show that their chief character is their
+excessiveness; 'the flowers are almost women.'[83] I cannot, however,
+recognise this as characteristic of normal dreaming. It bears more
+resemblance to De Quincey's opium dreams, or to the visions which came to
+Heine as he listened to Berlioz's music. In normal dreaming the imagery
+may, indeed, be stupendously vast, or fantastically absurd, or poignantly
+intense. But normal dreams are not built on a consistently colossal
+scale. The megalomania of dreaming is only accidental and occasional, not
+systematic.[84]
+
+The heightening of dream experiences may, however, be very complete in,
+as it were, every direction: thus a botanical friend joined a large party
+for a pleasant country excursion, in the course of which, while sitting
+in a waggonette, an acquaintance, a miller, standing in the road, handed
+up to him a dog-rose. In the course of a dream of agreeable emotional
+tone on the night following, this incident was reproduced, but the miller
+had become an angel, who handed down to him, instead of up from below, a
+flower which was a moss-rose.
+
+Thus, not only do the actual stimuli taking place during sleep suggest to
+dream-consciousness imagery of a magnitude out of all proportion to their
+real intensity, but even the repercussion of the day's incidents in dreams
+under the influence of a favourable emotional tone may partake of the same
+heightening influence.
+
+We may say, therefore, that while the excessiveness of dream imagery is
+mainly due to the conditions of the nervous sensory and motor channels,
+there is also probably a heightened affectability of the cerebral centres
+themselves--perhaps due to their state of dissociation or absence of
+apperception[85]--which leads us in our dreams to react extravagantly to
+the stimuli that reach the brain. A lady tells me that she often dreams of
+being very angry at things which, on awaking, she finds are mere trifles
+that would never make her angry when awake.[86] It is a common experience
+that the things which, in our dreams, impress us as beautiful, eloquent,
+witty, profound, or amusing, no longer seem so, or only seem so in a much
+slighter degree, when we are able to recall them awake.
+
+All these various considerations lead us up to a central fact in the
+psychology of dreaming: the controlling power of emotion on dream ideas.
+From our present point of view we are now able to say that the chief
+function of dreams is to supply adequate theories to account for the
+magnified emotional impulses which are borne in on sleeping consciousness.
+This is the key to imagination in dreams. From the first we have seen that
+in dream life the mind is always freely and actively reasoning; we now
+see what is usually the real motive and aim of that reasoning. Sleeping
+consciousness is assailed by waves of emotion from various parts of the
+organism, but is entirely unable to detect their origin, and, therefore,
+invents an explanation of them. So that in sleep we have to weave theories
+concerning the unknowable origin of our emotions, just as when we are
+awake we weave theories concerning the ultimate origin of the totality of
+our experiences. The fundamental source of our dream life may thus be said
+to be emotion.[87]
+
+There is certainly no profounder emotional excitement during sleep
+than that which arises from a disturbed or distended stomach, and is
+reflected by the pneumogastric to the accelerated heart and the excited
+respiration.[88] We are thereby thrown into a state of emotional
+agitation, a state of agony and terror, such as we rarely or never attain
+during waking life. Sleeping consciousness, blindfolded and blundering,
+a prey to these massive waves from below, and fumbling about desperately
+for some explanation, jumps at the idea that only the attempt to escape
+some terrible danger or the guilty consciousness of some awful crime can
+account for this immense emotional uproar. Thus the dream is suffused by
+a conviction which the continued emotion serves to support. We do not--it
+seems most simple and reasonable to conclude--experience terror because we
+think we have committed a crime, but we think we have committed a crime
+because we experience terror. And the fact that in such dreams we are far
+more concerned with escape from the results of crime than with any agony
+of remorse is not, as some have thought, due to our innate indifference
+to crime, but simply to the fact that our emotional state suggests to us
+active escape from danger rather than the more passive grief of remorse.
+Thus our dreams bear witness to the fact that our intelligence is often
+but a tool in the hands of our emotions.[89]
+
+In this tendency, it may be noted, we see the basis of the symbolism which
+plays so real a part in dreams. Such symbolism rests on the fact that we
+associate two things--even if the one happens to be physical and the other
+spiritual--which both happen to imply a similar state of feeling.[90]
+Symbolism of this kind is, indeed, characteristic of the human mind
+at all times, in all stages of its development. Thus the physical idea
+of _height_ seems to express also a moral idea, which we feel to be
+correspondent, while wormwood and gall furnish a taste which enabled men
+to speak of what seemed to them the corresponding _bitterness_ of death.
+In dreams this natural tendency of the mind is able to work unchecked and
+extravagantly. It acts with much facility on any impulse arising from the
+gastric region, because this region is the seat of various sensations and
+emotions, both physical and moral, which may thus act symbolically the one
+for the other.[91]
+
+Even when we realise the process of transformation and irradiation,
+through which organic sensations can alone reach the brain in sleep, and
+the inevitable 'errors of judgment' thus produced, it may still seem
+strange and puzzling to observe how a stimulus which has its origin in the
+stomach will, by affecting the neighbouring viscera, in its circuitous
+course along the nerves and through the brain, be transformed, as it
+may be, into a tragic scene which has never been experienced, nor even
+deliberately imagined, as for instance--to cite a dream of my own--in
+the fiery vision of following a leader, in real life a peaceful and
+inoffensive man, who, revolver in hand, dashes among foes, shooting and
+shot at, every moment in danger of life, and always miraculously escaping.
+
+I may illustrate this transformation by the following example: A lady
+dreamed that her husband called her aside and said, 'Now, do not scream
+or make a fuss; I am going to tell you something. I have to kill a man.
+It is necessary, to put him out of his agony.' He then took her into his
+study, and showed her a young man lying on the floor, with a wound in
+his breast, and covered with blood. 'But how will you do it?' she asked.
+'Never mind,' he replied; 'leave that to me.' He took something up and
+leaned over the man. She turned aside and heard a horrible gurgling sound.
+Then all was over. 'Now,' he said, 'we must get rid of the body. I want
+you to send for So-and-so's cart, and tell him I wish to drive it.' The
+cart came. 'You must help me to make the body into a parcel,' he said to
+his wife; 'give me plenty of brown paper.' They made it into a parcel, and
+with terrible difficulty and effort the wife assisted her husband to get
+the body downstairs, and lift it into the cart. At every stage, however,
+she presented to him the difficulties of the situation. But he carelessly
+answered all objections, said he would take the body up to the moor, among
+the stones, remove the brown paper, and people would think the murdered
+man had killed himself. He drove off, and soon returned with the empty
+cart. 'What's this blood in my cart?' asked the man to whom it belonged,
+looking inside. 'Oh, that's only paint,' replied the husband. But the
+dreamer had all along been full of apprehensions lest the deed should be
+discovered, and the last thing she could recall, before waking in terror,
+was looking out of the window at a large crowd which surrounded the house
+with shouts of 'Murder!' and threats.
+
+This tragedy, with its almost Elizabethan air, was built up out of a few
+commonplace impressions received during the previous day, none of which
+impressions contained any suggestion of murder. The tragic element appears
+to have been altogether due to the psychic influences of indigestion
+arising from a supper of pheasant.[92] To account for our oppression
+during sleep, sleeping consciousness assumes moral causes, which alone
+appear to it of sufficient gravity to be adequate to the immense emotions
+we are experiencing. Even in our waking and fully conscious states we
+are inclined to give the preference to moral over physical causes, quite
+irrespective of the justice of our preferences; in our sleeping states
+this tendency is exaggerated, and the reign of purely moral causes is not
+often disturbed by even a suggestion of physical causation.
+
+In an emotional dream of similar visceral origin, I dreamed that I was to
+die--why or how I could not tell on awakening. With the object of putting
+an end to my sufferings, I imagined that my wife administered to me some
+substance mixed in jam. I found the taste peculiar, not bitter, as I
+recalled on awaking, but warm and spicy, and I asked what she had put in
+it. She replied that it was strychnine. I remarked that that would be a
+very painful mode of death, and refused to take any more. I debated with
+myself whether I had probably taken a poisonous dose, and had not better
+resort to an antidote; the only antidote that suggested itself to me was
+opium pills. Meanwhile the horror of impending death grew more and more
+acute until, at length, I awoke. I thereupon found that I had a headache,
+a faint taste in my mouth, and some general malaise evidently associated
+with a slightly disordered stomach. The definite images brought forward in
+the dream had all been fairly familiar during the previous day, but the
+idea of impending death which pervaded the whole dream so indefinitely and
+incoherently, yet so acutely, was entirely a theory to account for the
+massive and widely irradiated messages of discomfort which reached the
+sleeping brain.
+
+Many people are unwilling to admit that psychic phenomena so tragical,
+poignant, or pathetic as these dreams may be, should receive their
+stimulus from a source which they regard as so humble as the stomach.
+Thus Frederick Greenwood, whose conception of the function of dreaming
+was very exalted, only admitted this association with reluctance, and
+was careful to point out that 'if an unwholesome supper produces such
+phenomena, it does so only in the sense that a bird singing in the
+air produced Shelley's "Ode to a Skylark."'[93] That analogy really
+underestimates the distance of the physical stimulus of such dreams from
+its psychic concomitants. When we talk of dreams we must place ourselves
+at the dreamer's standpoint. The poet was conscious that his inspiration
+was stimulated by the bird's song, but the dreamer has no consciousness
+that the tragic experiences he passes through imaginatively are stimulated
+by the activity of his visceral organs. He is altogether unconscious
+of visceral disturbance; if he were conscious of any of these physical
+facts which occupy waking consciousness, he would no longer be a dreamer.
+He lives in a psychic world which physical facts, from within or from
+without, can never reach until they have been transformed. His position
+resembles, therefore, not that of the poet who deliberately seeks to
+interpret the song of the bird, but rather that of the bird itself, the
+poet 'hidden in the light of thought,' sublimely unconscious of the
+mechanism revealed in its own structure.
+
+The explanations devised by sleeping consciousness to account for visceral
+discomfort of gastric origin are not necessarily tragic. Thus I dreamed,
+after a somewhat indigestible meal, that I was slowly and painfully eating
+bread mingled with cinders and mouse's excrement, trying in vain to avoid
+these impurities, and after the meal was over, finding my mouth full of
+cinders. On awaking there was no traceable taste or sensation of any
+kind in the mouth, and the dream was apparently a theory to account for
+some gastric disturbance. Such a theory seems less far-fetched than that
+of murder, and probably indicates much less marked and diffused visceral
+disturbance. Occasionally the explanatory theories of actual sensations
+accepted by sleeping consciousness are plausible and ingenious, indeed
+entirely adequate and probable. Thus a lady dreamed that she was drinking
+glass after glass of champagne, saying to herself the while that she
+would have to pay for this afterwards. On awaking she found that she was
+feeling the slight rheumatic pains and discomfort that she was really
+liable to experience after taking a glass or two of champagne. She had not
+tasted champagne, or thought of it, for some time previously; the dream
+champagne was a theory invented to account for the sensations which were
+actually experienced, though those sensations remained outside dreaming
+consciousness.
+
+Most of the examples I have presented of the influence of emotion of
+visceral origin in suggesting dream theories have had the stomach as their
+source. There can be no doubt that the stomach has enormous influence in
+this respect; its easily and constantly varying state of repletion, its
+central position and liability to press on other organs, its important
+nervous associations, together with the fact that sleep sometimes tends
+to impede its activity and initiate disturbance, combine to impart to it
+a manifold and extensive influence over the emotional state in sleep, and
+at the same time render the source of that emotional state peculiarly
+difficult for sleeping consciousness to detect.
+
+It is, however, easy to show that any pronounced or massive feeling
+continuing or arising during sleep may similarly lead to an emotional
+state calling for explanation at the hands of sleeping consciousness.
+Thus, falling asleep with toothache during a singularly close night, I
+once dreamed that I had committed murder, having apparently killed several
+persons, and that I was occupied, after arrest, in considering whether my
+act was likely to be regarded as an unpremeditated act of manslaughter.
+A headache, again, may be a source of dreams. Thus, falling asleep with
+headache, I dream that I am waiting for an express train to London; an
+express comes up to the platform, and I cannot ascertain if it is the
+train I want. The explanation seems obvious; railway travelling is a
+cause of headache, and it is therefore put forward in the dream, with
+accompanying imagery, to account for the sensations experienced. The
+actual sensation, as is always the case in dreams, that is, the headache,
+remains subconscious, and, indeed, totally unconscious; the imagery it
+suggests alone occupies the field of consciousness.[94] An entirely
+different type of dream may, however, be associated with headache. Thus
+I once dreamed that I was in a vast gloomy English cathedral, and on
+the wall I observed a notice to the effect that on such a day evensong
+would take place without illumination of the cathedral in order to avoid
+attracting moths. I awoke with slight headache. Here the cool, silent
+gloom of the cathedral is the symbol of what is desired to soothe the
+aching head, and the fantastic suggestion read on the notice is merely the
+theory of dreaming consciousness which knows nothing of the real reason of
+the wish.
+
+Dreams of murder or impending death or the like tragic situations seem
+usually to be aroused by visceral stimuli. In some cases, however (as
+in Maury's famous dream of the guillotine), they are due to an external
+cutaneous sensation. When the stimulus thus comes from the periphery,
+the emotional element, even when the dreamed situation is tragic, seems
+usually (though this is not quite certain) to be less pronounced than when
+the stimulus is visceral. Thus in a dream of my own, which seemed to be
+due to a cramped position of the head and neck, I dreamed that I had died
+(though, somehow, I was not myself, but had become more or less identified
+with an ugly old woman), and was being autopsied. Then very gradually I
+became faintly and peacefully conscious of what was going on, though I
+remained motionless, and all the time believed that I was dead, and that
+my faint consciousness was merely a part of death. Preparations for the
+funeral were meanwhile being made, and I was about to be nailed down in
+my coffin. At this point I became horribly aware that these proceedings
+would cause suffocation, and, with great effort, I succeeded in moving
+my arms and speaking incoherently. Thereupon the funeral arrangements
+were discontinued, and very slowly I seemed to regain speech and the
+power of movement. But I felt that I must be extremely careful in making
+any movements, on account of the post-mortem wounds; especially I felt
+pain in my neck, and realised that it was necessary not to move my head,
+or the result might be instant death. In such a dream, it may be noted,
+and in some others I have recorded, we see very instructively the nature
+of the changes produced in the dream and in the dreamer's attitude by
+the approach of waking consciousness. The dreamer's relationship to
+his imagined situation becomes more and more what it would be if the
+situation occurred in real life, and as soon as there is painful effort
+and imperfect muscular movement, the coming of waking consciousness is
+imminent.
+
+The visceral and emotional element in dreaming helps to explain the
+dreamer's moral attitude and the real significance of those criminal
+actions in dreams which have often been misinterpreted. Many writers
+on dreaming have referred, with profound concern, to the facility and
+prevalence of murder in dreams, sometimes as a proof of the innate
+wickedness of human nature made manifest in the unconstraint of sleep,
+sometimes as evidence of an atavistic return to the modes of feeling of
+our ancestors, the thin veneer of civilisation being removed during sleep.
+Maudsley and Mme. de Manacéïne, for example, find evidence in such dreams
+of a return to primitive modes of feeling. Clarke speaks of 'the entire
+absence of the moral sense' from dreams.[95] Professor Näcke, who has
+given much attention to the phenomena of dreaming, writes in a private
+letter: 'What I am amazed at, having perceived it in myself, is the little
+known fact that a person's character becomes _worse_ in dreaming. Not
+only the most secret thoughts, wishes, and aspirations become clear, but
+also qualities which have never been observed before, as, for instance,
+that one becomes a murderer, an adulterer, etc.' Freud, especially, has
+elaborated this aspect of dreams as representing the fulfilment of the
+dreamer's most secret desires.[96]
+
+It may well be that there is an element of truth in the belief that in
+dreams we are brought back to mental conditions somewhat more closely
+approaching those of primitive times. It is the manifold variety
+and complexity of our mental representations which prevent us from
+responding immediately to impulse under civilised conditions, and when,
+by dissociation, only a few groups are present to consciousness, the
+inhibition on violent action tends to be removed. If, therefore, we
+are more violent, more immoral, more criminal, in our dreams than
+in waking life, this is by no means necessarily to be regarded as a
+revelation of our real nature, but is merely an inevitable result of
+the mental dissociation which prevents many important groups of mental
+representations from finding their way into consciousness, and at the same
+time brings all our mental possessions on to the same plane, so that the
+things we have merely thought or heard of have the same visual reality as
+our own actual experiences. The sleep of the real criminal, as Sante de
+Sanctis has shown on the basis of a wide experience, even of criminals
+guilty of serious acts of violence, tends to be peaceful and dreamless,
+and such dreams as they have are usually of a simple and innocent sort. If
+normal people often dream of crime, it is because they are more sensitive
+and imaginative, and because sleeping consciousness is strained to the
+utmost to invent a phantasmal tragedy adequate to account for the waves of
+emotion that beset it.[97]
+
+There is another reason why, in dreams, we may find ourselves engaged in
+criminal operations. The purely automatic process by which the imagery of
+dreams is perpetually shifting in pursuit of associations of resemblance
+or contiguity, leads to confusions which are not rooted in any personal
+or primitive impulse, as in the example I have previously referred to,
+of a lady who had carved a duck at dinner, and a few hours later woke up
+exhausted by the imaginary effort of cutting off her husband's head.
+Such a dream is merely a mechanical turn of the visionary kaleidoscope,
+bringing together two unrelated images.
+
+The most potent cause of dream criminality, and especially of murders we
+have been guilty of before the dream commenced, seems clearly, however,
+to be that emotional factor of visceral origin which is well illustrated
+by one or two of the dreams already brought forward.[98] In these cases,
+again, we are not concerned with any primitive or personal impulse to
+crime, but we feel ourselves to be so possessed by all the physical
+symptoms of terror, that the only adequate explanation of our state
+seems to be the theory that we have committed murder. And if we are more
+concerned to flee from justice than to experience remorse, that is clearly
+because the really labouring and agitated heart suggests flight from
+pursuit far more than any passive emotion.[99] There is, moreover, no more
+fundamental and primitive emotion than fear.
+
+While these considerations combine to deprive criminal dreams, when they
+occur, of any great significance as an index of the dreamer's latent
+morality, I must add that I am by no means prepared to agree that moral
+emotions are so absent from sleep as many writers have stated. There is
+often a diminished sense of morality, an easier yielding to temptation
+than would take place in real life, a diminished remorse--these tendencies
+being mainly due to the conditions of dream-life--but there is frequently
+a strong sense of morality in dreams, as well as a vivid perception of
+social proprieties. Those persons who have an unusually strong moral
+sense, when awake, frequently show, I think, a similar tendency when
+asleep, but in the dreams of most people moral and decorous considerations
+seem, as a rule, to make themselves more or less clearly felt, much as in
+waking life. It may be worth while to bring forward a few dreams which
+incidentally illustrate the moral attitude of the dreamer.
+
+A lady narrated the following dream immediately on awakening: 'I had
+murdered a woman from some moral or political motive--I forget what--and
+had come in great agony to my husband with her shoes and watch-chain. He
+promised to help me, and while I was wondering what could be done for
+the benefit of the woman's family, some one came in and announced that a
+lecture was about to be given on the beauty of nakedness. I then went,
+with several prim and respectable ladies of my acquaintance [the names
+were given], into a crowded hall. The lecturer who--so far as appearance
+is concerned--was a well-known Member of Parliament, then entered and
+gave a most eloquent address on Whitman, nakedness, ugly figures, etc.
+He especially emphasised the fact that the reason people are shocked at
+nakedness is that they usually only see unbeautiful bodies which repel
+them because they are unlike their ideals. Then he put out his hand, and
+a naked woman entered the room. Her loveliness was extreme; her form was
+perfectly rounded, but without suggestion of voluptuousness, though she
+was not an animated statue, but had all the characters of humanity; she
+walked with undulating thighs, head slightly drooping, and hair falling
+down and framing a face that expressed wonderful spiritual beauty and
+innocence. The lecturer led her round, saying, "This is beauty; now, if
+you can look at this and be ashamed----" and he waved his arm. She went
+away, and a beautiful Apollo-like youth, slender but athletic, entered the
+room, also completely naked. He walked round the room alone, with an air
+of majestic virility. I applauded, clapping my hands, but a shiver went
+through the ladies present; their skin became like goose-flesh, and their
+lips quivered with horror as though they were about to be outraged. The
+youth went out, and the lecturer continued. At the climax of his oratory,
+the Apollo-like youth entered, dressed as a common soldier, with no
+appearance of beauty, and in a rough tone said: "'Ere! I want a shilling
+for this job." (And I sighed to myself: "It is always so.") No one had a
+shilling, and the lecturer proceeded to explain to the man that what he
+had done was for the sake of art and beauty, and for the moral good of
+the world. "What do I care for that?" he returned, "I want a drink." Then
+a lady among the audience produced a collar, wrote on it a testimonial
+expressing the gratitude of those present for the man's services on this
+occasion, and handed it to me to present to him. "Damn it," he said, "this
+is only worth twopence halfpenny; I want my shilling!" Then I awoke.'
+The idea of murder with which this dream began seems to suggest that it
+may have had its origin in some slight visceral disturbance of which
+the subject was unconscious, but nothing had occurred to suggest the
+details of the episode. The interesting feature about it is the presence
+throughout of moral notions and sentiments substantially true to the
+dreamer's waking ideas.
+
+In another dream of the same dreamer's the sense of responsibility is
+clearly present: 'Mrs. F. and Miss R. had called to see me, and I was
+sitting in my room talking to them, when a knock came at the door, and
+I found there a poor woman belonging to the neighbourhood, but who also
+combined in my dream the page-boy at a dear friend's house. From this
+friend, whom I had not heard from for some time, the woman bore a large
+letter. She tore it open in my presence, saying, "It says here that the
+bearer is to open this," and produced from it another letter, a large
+document of a legal character in my friend's handwriting. When the woman
+began to open the second letter I remonstrated; I was sure that there was
+some mistake, that that letter was private, and that no one else ought to
+see it. The woman, however, firmly insisted that she must carry out her
+instructions; so we had a long discussion. After a time I called Mrs. F.
+and appealed to her. She agreed with me that the instructions must only
+mean that the bearer was to open the outer envelope, not the inner letter.
+At last I took out five shillings and gave it to the woman, telling her
+that I would assume all the responsibility for opening the letter myself.
+With this she went away well satisfied, saying (as she would in real
+life), "All right, Mrs. ----, you're a lady, and you know. All right,
+my dear." Then at last I was able to tear open my letter and read these
+words: "_Always use Sunlight Soap_." My vexation was extreme.'
+
+On another occasion the same dreamer experienced remorse. She imagined she
+was in a restaurant, and the girl behind the counter pointed to a barrel
+of beer--a golden barrel, she said, with a magic key--which could only be
+opened by the owner. The dreamer declared, however, that she could open
+it, and, producing a key, proceeded to do so, handing round beer to the
+bystanders. Then she realised that she had been stealing, and was full of
+remorse. She asked a friend if she ought to tell the owner, but the friend
+replied, 'By no means.' This conclusion of the dream seems to indicate
+that the moral sense, though present in dreams, is apt to be impaired.
+
+In yet another dream this dreamer exhibited a curious combination of moral
+sensibility and criminal indifference. She imagined that, while walking
+with a man, a friend, she revealed to him a secret of a woman friend's.
+Then, realising her betrayal of confidence, she decided that the best
+thing she could do would be to kill the man. On reflection, however,
+she thought that it would, after all, be unkind to do so since he was a
+friend, and so told him that if he ever repeated the secret she would have
+him torn to pieces. It will be seen that the betrayal of a secret was
+felt as a far more serious offence than murder. The facility with which,
+in such dreams as this, the suggestion of murder presents itself, even to
+dreamers who, when awake, cherish no bloodthirsty or revengeful ideas, is
+certainly remarkable.
+
+It is often said that in dreams erotic suggestions present themselves with
+extreme facility, and are eagerly accepted by the dreamer. To some extent
+there is truth in this statement, but it is by no means always true. This
+may be illustrated by the following dream, the sources of which could
+be easily traced; two days before I had seen the gambols of East Enders
+at Hampstead Heath on a Bank Holiday, and the day before I had visited
+a picture gallery, the two sets of impressions becoming ingeniously
+combined, according to the usual rule of dream confusion. I thought that
+when walking along a country lane a sudden turn brought me to a broader
+part of the road covered with grass, into the midst of a crowd of women,
+large and well-proportioned persons, mostly in a state of complete
+nudity, and engaged in romping together, more especially in tugs-of-war;
+some of them were on horseback. My appearance slightly disturbed them, I
+heard one cry out my name, and to some extent they drew back, and partly
+desisted from their games, but only to a very slight degree, and with
+no overpowering embarrassment. I was myself rather embarrassed, and,
+glancing at them again, turned back. Afterwards my walk again brought
+me in view of them, and it occurred to me that women are somewhat
+changing their customs, a very wholesome change, it seemed to me. But I
+remonstrated with one or two of them that they ought to keep in constant
+movement to avoid catching cold. No erotic suggestions were present,
+although the dream might be said to lend itself to such suggestions.
+
+The idea of moral retribution and eternal punishment may also be present
+in dreams. This may be illustrated by the dream of a lady who had an ill
+and restless girl companion sleeping with her, and was disturbed as well
+by a yelping and howling terrier outside. She had also lately heard that
+a friend had brought over a python from Africa. 'I dreamed last night I
+had a basket of cold squirming snakes beside me; they just touched me all
+over, but did not hurt; I felt mad with loathing and hate of them, and
+the beasts would not kill me. That, I thought, was my eternal punishment
+for my sins.' In her waking moments the dreamer was not apprehensive of
+eternal punishment, and it may be in such a case that, as Freud suggests,
+an unfamiliar moral idea emerges in sleep in much the same way as an
+unfamiliar or 'forgotten' fact may emerge.
+
+On the whole, it may be said that while the moral attitude of the dreaming
+state is not usually identical with that of the waking state, there still
+nearly always is a moral attitude. It could not well be otherwise. Our
+emotional states are intimately bound up with moral relationships; we
+could not display such highly emotional states as we experience in dreams,
+with all their tragic accompaniments, in the absence of any sense of
+morality.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 75: The dependence of sleeping imagination on emotion of organic
+origin was long ago clearly seen and set forth by the acute introspective
+psychologist, Maine de Biran (_Œuvres Inédites_, 'Fondements de la
+Psychologie,' p. 102).]
+
+[Footnote 76: Jastrow (_The Subconscious_, p. 206) relates a similar case
+observed in a girl student.]
+
+[Footnote 77: Herbert Wright, who finds that in children night-terrors
+are apt to be associated with somnambulism, points out that when the
+somnambulism replaces the night-terrors it leaves no memory behind
+(_British Medical Journal_, 19th August 1899, p. 465). An interesting
+study of movement in normal and morbid sleep has been contributed by
+Segre ('Contributo alla Conoscenza dei Movimenti del Sonno,' _Archivio di
+Psichiatria_, 1907, fasc. 1.).]
+
+[Footnote 78: This question is, for instance, asked by F. H. Bradley ('On
+the Failure of Movement in Dreams,' _Mind_, 1894, p. 373). The explanation
+he prefers is that the dream vision is out of relation to the very dimly
+conscious actual position of the body, so that the information necessary
+to complete the idea of the movement is wanting. Only as regards the less
+complicated movements of lips, tongue, or finger, when the motor idea is
+in harmony with the actual position of the body movements, does movement
+take place. We have no means of distinguishing the real world from the
+world of our vision; 'our images thus move naturally to realise themselves
+in the world of our real limbs. But the world and its arrangement is for
+the moment out of connection with our ideas, and hence the attempt at
+motion for the most part must fail.' It is quite true that this conflict
+is an important factor in dreaming, but it fails to apply to the large
+number of movements which we dream of actually doing.]
+
+[Footnote 79: The action of some drugs produces a state in this respect
+resembling that which prevails in dreams. 'Under the influence of a large
+dose of haschisch,' Professor Stout remarks (_Analytic Psychology_, vol.
+i. p. 14), 'I found myself totally unable to distinguish between what
+I actually did and saw, and what I merely thought about.' Not only are
+the motor and sensory activities relatively dormant, but the central
+activity is perfectly able, and content, to dispense with their services.
+'Thought,' as Jastrow says (_Fact and Fable in Psychology_, p. 386), 'is
+but more or less successfully suppressed action.']
+
+[Footnote 80: This seems to me to be the answer to the question, asked
+by Freud, (_Die Traumdeutung_, p. 227), why we do not always dream of
+inhibited movement. Freud considers that the idea of inhibited movement,
+when it occurs in dreams, has no relation to the actual condition of the
+dreamer's nervous system, but is simply an ideatory symbol of an erotic
+wish that is no longer capable of fulfilment. But it is certain that
+sleep is not always at the same depth and that the various nervous groups
+are not always equally asleep. A dream arising on the basis of partial
+and imperfect sleep can scarcely fail to lead to the attempt at actual
+movement and the more or less complete inhibition of that movement,
+presenting a struggle which is often visible to the onlooker, and is not
+purely ideatory.]
+
+[Footnote 81: This explanation, based on the depth and kind of the sleep,
+is entirely distinct from the theory of Aliotta (_Il Pensiero e la
+Personalità nei Sogni_, 1905), who believes that dreamers differ according
+to their nervous type, the person of visual type assisting passively at
+the spectacle of his dreams, while the person of motor type takes actual
+part in them. I have no evidence of this, though I believe that dreams
+differ in accordance with the dreamer's personal type.]
+
+[Footnote 82: Dugald Stewart argued that there is loss of control over
+the muscular system during sleep, and the body, therefore, is not subject
+to our command; volition is present but it cannot influence the limbs.
+Hammond argued, on the contrary, that Stewart was quite wrong; the reason
+why voluntary movements are not performed during sleep is, he said, that
+volition is suspended. 'We do not will our actions when we are asleep. We
+imagine that we do, and that is all' (_Treatise on Insanity_, p. 205).
+Dugald Stewart and Hammond, though their phraseology may have been too
+metaphysical, were, from the standpoint I have adopted, both maintaining
+tenable positions. In one type of dream, we imagine we easily achieve all
+sorts of difficult and complicated actions, but in reality we make no
+movement; the ease and rapidity with which the mental machine moves is due
+to the fact that it is ungeared, and is effecting no work at all. In the
+other type of dream we make violent but inadequate efforts at movement
+and only partially succeed; the machine is partially geared, in a state
+intermediate between deep sleep and the waking condition.]
+
+[Footnote 83: Jacques le Lorrain, _Revue Philosophique_, July 1895.]
+
+[Footnote 84: The systematic megalomania of insanity can, however, have
+its rise in dreams; Régis and Lalanne (_International Medical Congress_,
+1900; _Proceedings, Section de Psychiatrie_, p. 227) met within a short
+period with four cases in which this had taken place.]
+
+[Footnote 85: This indeed seems to have been recognised by Wundt, who
+regards a 'functional rest of the sensory centres and of the apperception
+centre,' resulting in heightened latent energy which lends unusual
+strength to excitations, as a secondary condition of the dream state.
+Külpe (_Outline of Psychology_, p. 212) argues that the existence of
+vivid dreams shows that fatigue with its diminished associability fails
+to affect the central sensations themselves; this increased excitability
+resulting from dissociation may itself, however, be regarded as a symptom
+of fatigue; hyperaesthesia and anaesthesia are alike signs of exhaustion.]
+
+[Footnote 86: The exhaustion sometimes felt on awaking from a dream
+perhaps testifies to its emotional potency. Delboeuf states that a friend
+of his experienced a dream so terrible in its emotional strain that on
+awaking his black hair was found to have turned completely white.]
+
+[Footnote 87: The fundamental character of emotion in dreams has been
+more or less clearly recognised by various investigators. Thus C. L.
+Herrick, who studied his own dreams for many months, found that the
+essential element is the emotional, and not the ideational, and that,
+indeed, when recalled _at once_, with closed eyes and before moving,
+they were nearly devoid of intellectual content (_Journal of Comparative
+Neurology_, vol. iii. p. 17, 1893). R. MacDougall considers that dreaming
+is 'a succession of intense states of feeling supported by a minimum of
+ideational content,' or, as he says again, more accurately, 'the feeling
+is primary; the idea-content is the inferred thing' (_Psychological
+Review_, vol. v. p. 2). Grace Andrews, who kept a record of her dreams
+(_American Journal of Psychology_, October 1900), found that dream
+emotions are often stronger and more vivid than those of waking life; 'the
+dream emotion seems to me the most real element of the dream life.' P.
+Meunier, again ('Des Rêves Stéreotypés,' _Journal de Psychologie Normale
+et Pathologique_, September-October 1905), states that 'the substratum of
+a dream consists of a cœnæsthesia or an emotional state. The intellectual
+operation which translates to the sleeper's consciousness, while he is
+asleep, this cœnæsthesia or emotional state is what we call a dream.']
+
+[Footnote 88: The night-terrors of children have frequently been found
+to have their origin in gastric or intestinal disturbance. Graham Little
+brings together the opinions of various authorities on this point,
+though he is himself inclined to give chief importance to heart disease
+producing slight disturbances of breathing, since he has found that
+in nearly two-thirds of his cases (17 out of 30) night-terrors were
+associated with early heart disease (Graham Little, 'The Causation of
+Night-Terrors,' _British Medical Journal_, 19th August 1899). It should
+be added that night-terrors are more usually divided into two classes:
+(1) idiopathic (purely cerebral in origin), and (2) symptomatic (due to
+reflex disturbance caused by various local disorders); see _e.g._ Guthrie,
+'On Night-Terrors,' _Clinical Journal_, 7th January 1899. J. A. Symonds
+has well described his own night-terrors as a child (Horatio Brown, _J.
+A. Symonds_, vol. i.). Lafcadio Hearn (in a paper on 'Nightmare-Touch'
+in _Shadowings_) also gives a vivid account of his own childish
+night-terrors.]
+
+[Footnote 89: It has not, I believe, been pointed out that such dreams
+might be invoked in support of the James-Lange or physiological theory of
+emotion, according to which the element of bodily change in emotion is the
+cause and not the result of the emotion.]
+
+[Footnote 90: This physiological symbolism was clearly apprehended long
+ago by Hobbes: 'As anger causeth heat in some parts of the body when we
+are awake; so when we sleep the overheating of the same parts causeth
+anger, and raiseth up in the brain the imagination of an enemy. In the
+same manner as natural kindness, when we are awake, causeth desire and
+desire makes heat in certain other parts of the body; so also, too much
+heat in those parts, while we sleep, raiseth in the brain an imagination
+of some kindness shown. In sum, our dreams are the reverse of our waking
+imaginations; the motion, when we are awake, beginning at one end, and
+when we dream at another' (_Leviathan_, Part 1. ch. 2).]
+
+[Footnote 91: 'The pains of disappointment, of anxiety, of unsuccess, of
+all displeasing emotions,' remarks Mercier (art. 'Consciousness,' Tuke's
+_Dictionary of Psychological Medicine_), 'are attended by a definite
+feeling of misery which is referred in every case to the epigastrium.' He
+adds that the pleasures of success and good repute, aesthetic enjoyment,
+etc., are also attended by a definite feeling in the same region. This
+fact indicates the extreme vagueness of organic sensation. There is in
+fact much uncertainty and great difference of opinion as to the nature,
+and even the existence, of organic sensation; see _e.g._ a careful summary
+of the chief views by Dr. Elsie Murray, 'Organic Sensation,' _American
+Journal of Psychology_, July 1909.]
+
+[Footnote 92: More than ten years later, the same dreamer, who had
+entirely forgotten the circumstances of this dream, again had a vivid
+dream of murder after eating pheasant at night; this time it was she
+herself who was to be killed, and she awoke imagining that she was
+struggling with the would-be murderer.]
+
+[Footnote 93: F. Greenwood, _Imagination in Dreams_, p. 31.]
+
+[Footnote 94: Dreams of railway travelling, and especially of losing
+trains, are not always associated with headache or any other recognisable
+condition. They constitute a very common type of dream not quite easy to
+explain. Dr. Savage mentions, for instance, that in his own case scarcely
+a week passes without such a dream, though in real life he scarcely ever
+loses a train and never worries about it. Wundt considers that the dreams
+in which we seek something we cannot find or have left something behind
+are due to indefinite coenaesthesic disturbances involving feelings of
+the same emotional tone, such as an uncomfortable position or a slight
+irregularity of respiration. I have myself independently observed the same
+connection, though it is not invariably traceable.]
+
+[Footnote 95: E. H. Clarke, _Visions_, p. 294.]
+
+[Footnote 96: An amusing, though solemn, interpretation of an ordinary
+dream of murder, railway travelling, and impending death, as experienced
+by Anna Kingsford, is furnished by her friend and biographer, Edward
+Maitland, _Anna Kingsford_, vol. i. p. 117.]
+
+[Footnote 97: Various opinions in regard to morality in dreams are brought
+together by Freud, _Die Traumdeutung_, pp. 45 _et seq._]
+
+[Footnote 98: Head ('Mental Changes that Accompany Visceral Diseases,'
+_Brain_, 1902, p. 802) refers to the association between visceral pain and
+the anti-social impulses, and thinks that the viscera, being part of the
+oldest and most autonomic system of the body, appear in consciousness as
+'an intrusion from without, an inexplicable obsession.']
+
+[Footnote 99: 'In my dreams,' W. D. Howells remarks, 'I am always less
+sorry for my misdeeds than for their possible discovery' ('True I talk of
+Dreams,' _Harper's Magazine_, May 1895).]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+AVIATION IN DREAMS
+
+    Dreams of Flying and Falling--Their Peculiar Vividness--Dreams of
+    Flying an Alleged Survival of Primeval Experiences--Best explained
+    as based on Respiratory Sensations combined with Cutaneous
+    Anaesthesia--The Explanation of Dreams of Falling--The Sensation
+    of Levitation sometimes experienced by Ecstatic Saints--Also
+    experienced at the Moment of Death.
+
+
+Dreams of flying, with the dreams of falling they are sometimes associated
+with, may fairly be considered the best known and most frequent type of
+dream. They were among the earliest dreams to attract attention. Ruths
+argues that the Greek conception of the flying Hermes, the god who
+possessed special authority over dreams, was based on such experiences.
+Lucretius, in his interesting passage on the psychology of dreaming,
+speaks of falling from heights in dreams;[100] Cicero appears to refer
+to dreams of flying; St. Jerome mentions that he was subject to them;
+Synesius remarked that in dreams we fly with wings and view the world
+from afar; Cervantes accurately described the dream of falling.[101] From
+the inventors of the legend of Icarus onwards, men have firmly cherished
+the belief that under some circumstances they could fly, and we may well
+suppose that that belief partly owes its conviction, and the resolve to
+make it practical, to the experiences that have been gained in dreams.
+
+No dreams, indeed, are so vivid and so convincing as dreams of flying;
+none leave behind them so strong a sense of the reality of the experience.
+Raffaelli, the eminent French painter, who is subject to the dreaming
+experience of floating in the air, confesses that it is so convincing that
+he has jumped out of bed on awaking and attempted to repeat it. 'I need
+not tell you,' he adds, 'that I have never been able to succeed.'[102]
+Herbert Spencer mentions that in a company of a dozen persons, three
+testified that in early life they had had such vivid dreams of flying
+downstairs, and were so strongly impressed by the reality of the
+experience, that they actually made the attempt, one of them suffering in
+consequence from an injured ankle.[103] The case is recorded of an old
+French lady who always maintained that on one occasion she actually had
+succeeded for a few instants in supporting herself on the air.[104] No
+one who is familiar with these dreaming experiences will be inclined to
+laugh at that old lady. It was during one of these dreams of levitation,
+in which one finds oneself leaping into the air and able to stay there,
+that it occurred to me that I would write a paper on the subject, for
+I thought in my dream that this power I found myself possessed of was
+probably much more widespread than was commonly supposed, and that in any
+case it ought to be generally known.
+
+People who dabble in the occult have been so impressed by such dreams
+that they have sometimes believed that these flights represented a
+real excursion of the 'astral body.' This is the belief of Colonel de
+Rochas.[105] César de Vesme, the editor of the French edition of the
+_Annals of Psychical Research_, has thought it worth while to investigate
+the matter; and after summarising the results of a _questionnaire_
+concerning dreams of flying, he comes to the conclusion that 'the
+sensation of aerial flight in dreams is simply a hallucinatory phenomenon
+of an exclusively physiological [he means 'psychological'] kind,' and
+not evidence of the existence of the 'astral body.'[106] The fact,
+nevertheless, that so many people are found who believe such dreams to
+possess some kind of reality, clearly indicates the powerful impression
+they make.
+
+All my life, it seems to me, certainly from an early age, until recently,
+I have at intervals had dreams in which I imagined myself rhythmically
+bounding into the air, and supported on the air, remaining there for
+a perceptible interval; at other times I have felt myself gliding
+downstairs, but not supported by the stairs. In my case the experience
+is nearly always agreeable, involving a certain sense of power, and it
+usually evokes no marked surprise, occurring as a familiar and accustomed
+pleasure. On awaking I do not usually remember these dreams immediately,
+which seems to indicate that they are not due to causes specially
+operative at the end of sleep, or liable to bring sleep to a conclusion.
+But they leave behind them a vague yet profound sense of belief in their
+reality and reasonableness.
+
+Dream-flight, it is necessary to note, is not usually the sustained flight
+of a bird or an insect, and the dreamer rarely or never imagines that he
+is borne high into the air. Hutchinson states that of all those whom he
+has asked about the matter 'hardly one has ever known himself to make any
+high flights in his dreams. One almost always flies low, with a skimming
+manner, slightly, but only slightly, above the heads of pedestrians.'[107]
+
+Beaunis, from his own experience, describes what I should consider a
+typical kind of dream-flight as a series of light bounds, at one or two
+yards above the earth, each bound clearing from ten to twenty yards,
+the dream being accompanied by a delicious sensation of easy movement,
+as well as a lively satisfaction at being able to solve the problem of
+aerial locomotion by virtue of superior organisation alone.[108] Lafcadio
+Hearn, somewhat similarly, describes, in his _Shadowings_, a typical and
+frequent dream of his own as a series of bounds in long parabolic curves,
+rising to a height of some twenty-five feet, and always accompanied by the
+sense that a new power had been revealed which for the future would be a
+permanent possession.
+
+The attempt to explain dreams of flying has led to some bold hypotheses.
+Freud characteristically affirms that the dream of flying is the bridge to
+a concealed wish.[109] I have already mentioned the notion that dreams of
+flight are excursions of the 'astral body.' Professor Stanley Hall, who
+has himself, from childhood, had dreams of flying, argues, with scarcely
+less boldness, that we have here 'some faint reminiscent atavistic echo
+from the primeval sea'; and that such dreams are really survivals--psychic
+vestigial remains comparable to the rudimentary gill-slits not uncommonly
+found in man and other mammals--taking us back to the far past when man's
+ancestors needed no feet to swim or float.[110] Such a theory may accord
+with the profound conviction of reality that accompanies these dreams,
+though that may be more easily accounted for; but it has the very serious
+weakness that it offers an explanation which will not fit the facts. Our
+dreams are of flying, not of swimming; but the ancestors of the mammals
+probably lived in the water, not in the air. In preference to so hazardous
+a theory, it seems infinitely more reasonable to regard these dreams as an
+interpretation--a misinterpretation from the standpoint of waking life--of
+actual internal sensations. If we can find the adequate explanation of a
+psychic state in conditions actually existing within the organism itself
+at the time, it is needless to seek an explanation in conditions that
+ceased to exist untold millenniums ago.
+
+My own explanation was immediately suggested by the following dream. I
+dreamed that I was watching a girl acrobat, in appropriate costume, who
+was rhythmically rising to a great height in the air and then falling,
+without touching the floor, though each time she approached quite close
+to it. At last she ceased, exhausted and perspiring, and I had to lead
+her away. Her movements were not controlled by mechanism, and apparently
+I did not regard mechanism as necessary. It was a vivid dream, and I
+awoke with a distinct sensation of oppression in the chest. In trying
+to account for this dream, which was not founded on any memory, it
+occurred to me that probably I had here the key to a great group of
+dreams. The rhythmic rising and falling of the acrobat was simply the
+objectivation of the rhythmic rising and falling of my own respiratory
+muscles--in some dreams, perhaps, of the systole and diastole of the
+heart's muscles--under the influence of some slight and unknown physical
+oppression, and this oppression was further translated into a condition
+of perspiring exhaustion in the girl, just as men with heart disease may
+dream of sweating and panting horses climbing uphill, in accordance with
+that tendency to magnification which marks dreams generally.[111] We may
+recall also the curious sensation as of the body being transformed into
+a vast bellows or steam engine, which is often the last sensation felt
+before the unconsciousness produced by nitrous oxide gas.[112] When we
+are lying down there is a real rhythmic rising and falling of the chest
+and abdomen, centring in the diaphragm, a series of oscillations which at
+both extremes are only limited by the air. Moreover, in this position we
+have to recognise that the circulatory, nervous, and other systems of
+the whole internal organism, are differently balanced from what they are
+in the upright position, and that a disturbance of internal equilibrium
+always accompanies falling.
+
+It is also noteworthy (as, indeed, Wundt has briefly remarked) that the
+modifications produced by sleep in the respiratory process itself tend
+to facilitate its interpretation as a process of flying. Mosso showed
+that respiration in sleep is more thoracic than when awake, that it is
+lengthened, and that the respiratory pause is less marked.[113] That is to
+say that both the aerial element and the actual rhythmic movement of the
+ribs become accentuated during sleep.
+
+That the respiratory element is the chief factor in dreams of flying is
+clearly indicated by the fact that many persons subject to such dreams
+are conscious on awaking from them of a sense of respiratory or cardiac
+disturbance. I am acquainted with a psychologist who, though not a
+frequent dreamer, is subject to dreams of flying, which do not affect
+him disagreeably, but on awaking from them he always perceives a slight
+flutter of the heart. Any such sensation is by no means constant with me,
+but I have occasionally noted it down in exactly the same words after this
+kind of dream.[114] It is worth while to observe, in this connection, how
+large a number of people, and especially very young people, associate
+their dreams of flying with staircases. The most frequent cause of cardiac
+and respiratory stimulation, especially in children, who constantly run up
+and down them, is furnished by staircases, and though in health this fact
+may not be obvious, it is undoubtedly registered unconsciously, and may
+thus be utilised by dreaming intelligence.
+
+There is, however, another element entering into the problem of nocturnal
+aviation: the state of the skin sensations. Respiratory activity alone
+would scarcely suffice to produce the imagery of flight if sensations of
+tactile pressure remained to suggest contact with the earth. In dreams,
+however, the sense of movement suggested by respiratory activity is
+unaccompanied by the tactile pressure produced by boots or the contact
+of the ground with the soles of the feet. In addition, also, there is
+probably, as Bergson also has suggested, a numbness due to pressure on
+the parts supporting the weight of the body. Sleep is not a constant and
+uniform state of consciousness; a heightened consciousness of respiration
+may easily co-exist with a diminished consciousness of tactile pressure
+due to anaesthesia of the skin.[115] In normal sleep it may, indeed, be
+said that the conditions are probably often favourable to the production
+of this combination, and any slight thoracic disturbance even in healthy
+persons, arising from heart or stomach, and acting on the respiration,
+serves to bring these conditions to sleeping consciousness and to
+determine the dream of flying.
+
+Dreams of flying are sometimes associated with dreams of falling, the
+falling sensation occurring either at the beginning or at the end of
+the dream; such a dream may be said to be of the Icarus type.[116]
+Jewell considers that the two kinds of dream have the same causation,
+the difference being merely a difference of apperception. The frequent
+connection between the two dreams indicates that the causation is
+allied, but it scarcely seems to be identical. If it were identical,
+we should scarcely find that while the emotional tone of the dream of
+flying is usually agreeable, that of the dream of falling is usually
+disagreeable.[117]
+
+I have no personal experience of the sensation of falling in normal
+dreaming, although Jewell and Hutchinson have found that it is more
+common than flying, the latter regarding it, indeed, as the most common
+kind of dream, the dream of flying coming next in frequency. A friend
+who has no dreams of flying, but has experienced dreams of falling
+from his earliest years, tells me that they are always associated with
+feelings of terror. This suggests an organic cause, and the fact that the
+sensation of falling may occur in epileptic fits during sleep,[118] seems
+further to suggest the presence of circulatory and nervous disturbance.
+It would seem probable that while the same two factors--respiratory and
+tactile--are operative in both types of dream, they are not of equal
+force in each. In the dream of flying, respiratory activity is excited,
+and in response to excitation it works at a high level adequate to the
+needs of the organism. In the dream of falling it may be that respiratory
+activity is depressed, while concomitantly, perhaps, the anaesthetic state
+of the skin is increased. In the first state the abnormal activity of
+respiration triumphs in consciousness over the accompanying dulness of
+tactile sensation; in the second state the respiratory breathlessness is
+less influential than a numbness of the skin unconscious of any external
+pressure. This difference is rendered possible by the fact that in dreams
+of flying we are not usually far from the earth, and seem able to touch
+it lightly at intervals; that is to say that tactile sensitiveness is
+impaired, but is not entirely absent as it is in a dream of falling.[119]
+
+In my own experience the sensation of falling only occurs in illness or
+under the influence of drugs, sometimes when sleep seems incomplete, and
+it is an unpleasant, though not terrifying, sensation. I once experienced
+it in the most marked and persistent manner after taking a large dose
+of chlorodyne to subdue pain. Under such circumstances the sensation is
+probably due to the fact that the morphia in chlorodyne both weakens
+respiratory action and produces anaesthesia of the peripheral nerves, so
+that the skin becomes abnormally insensitive to the contact and pressure
+of the bed, and the sensation of descent is necessarily aroused.[120] It
+is possible that persons liable to the dream of falling are predisposed
+to a stage of sleep unconsciousness, in which cutaneous insensibility is
+marked. It is also possible that there is a contributory element of slight
+cardiac or respiratory disturbance.[121]
+
+In a dream belonging to this group, I imagined I was being rhythmically
+swung up and down in the air by a young woman, my feet never touching
+the ground; and then that I was swinging her similarly. At one time
+she seemed to be swinging me in too jerky and hurried a manner, and
+I explained to her that it must be done in a slower and more regular
+manner, though I was not conscious of the precise words I used. There had
+been some dyspepsia on the previous day, and on awaking I felt slight
+discomfort in the region of the heart. The symbolism into which slightly
+disturbed respiratory or cardiac action is here transformed seems very
+clear in this dream, because it shows the actual transition from the
+subjective sensation to the objective imagery of flying. By means of this
+symbolic imagery we find sleeping consciousness commanding the hurried
+heart to beat in a more healthy manner.
+
+Although, in youth, my dreams of flying were of what may be considered
+normal type, after the age of about thirty-five they tended, as
+illustrated by the example I have given, to take on a somewhat objective
+form. A further stage in this direction, the swinging movement being
+transformed to an inanimate object, is illustrated by a dream of
+comparatively recent date, in which I seemed to see an athlete of the
+music-hall, a graceful and muscular man, who was manipulating a large
+elastic ball, making it bound up from the floor. On awaking there was a
+distinct sensation of cardaic tremor and nervousness.[122]
+
+It may seem strange that dreams of flying, if so often due to organic
+disturbances, should usually be agreeable in character. It is not,
+however, necessary to assume that they are caused by serious interference
+with physiological functions; often, indeed, they may simply be due to
+the presence of a stage of consciousness in which respiration has become
+unduly prominent, as it is apt to be in the early stage of nitrous oxide
+anaesthesia, that is to say, to a relative wakefulness of the respiratory
+centres. It would seem that the disturbance is frequently almost, or
+quite, imperceptible on waking, and by no means to be compared with the
+more acute organic disturbances which result in dreams of murder, although
+it may be of nervous origin.[123] In some cases, however, it appears
+that dreams of flying are accompanied by circumstances of terror. Thus a
+medical correspondent, who describes his health as fairly good, writes
+in regard to dreams of flying: 'I have often had such dreams, and have
+wondered if others have them. Mine, however, are not so much dreams of
+flying, as dreams of being entirely devoid of weight, and of rising and
+falling at will. A singular feature of these levitation dreams is that
+they are always accompanied by an intense and agonising fear of an evil
+presence, a presence that I do not see but seem to feel, and my greatest
+terror is that I _shall_ see it. The presence is ill-defined, but very
+real, and it seems to suggest the potentiality of all possible moral,
+mental, and physical evil. In these dreams it always occurs to me that
+if this evil presence shall ever become embodied into a something that I
+could _see_, the sight of it would be so ineffably horrible as to drive me
+mad. So vivid has this fear been that on several occasions I have awakened
+in a cold sweat or a nameless fear that would persist for some minutes
+after I realised that I had only been dreaming.' This seems to be an
+abnormal type of the dream of flight.
+
+It is somewhat surprising that while dreams of floating in the air are so
+common and clearly indicate the respiratory source of the dream, dreams
+of floating on water seem to be rare, for as the actual experience of
+floating on water is fairly familiar, we might have expected that sleeping
+consciousness would have found here rather than in the never experienced
+idea of floating in air the explanation of its sensations. The dream of
+floating on water is, however, by no means unknown; thus Rachilde (Mme.
+Vallette), the French novelist and critic, whose dream life is vivid and
+remarkable, states that her most agreeable dream is that of floating on
+the surface of warm and transparent lakes or rivers.[124] One of the
+correspondents of _L'intermédiaire des Chercheurs et des Curieux_[125]
+also states that he has often dreamed of walking on the water.
+
+It is not only in sleep that the sensation of flying is experienced. In
+hysteria a sense of peculiar lightness of the body, and the idea of the
+soul's power to fly, may occur incidentally,[126] and may certainly be
+connected both with the vigilambulism, as Sollier terms the sleep-like
+tendencies of such cases, and the anaesthetic conditions found in the
+hysterical. It is noteworthy that Janet found that in an ecstatic person
+who experienced the sensation of rising in the air there was anaesthesia
+of the soles of the feet. In such hysterical ecstasy, which has always
+played so large a part in religious manifestations, it is well known
+that the sense of rising and floating in the air has often prominently
+appeared. St. Theresa occasionally felt herself lifted above the ground,
+and was fearful that this sign of divine favour would attract attention
+(though we are not told that that was the case), while St. Joseph of
+Cupertino, Christina the Wonderful, St. Ida of Louvain, with many another
+saint enshrined in the _Acta Sanctorum_, were permitted to experience this
+sensation; and since its reality is as convincing in the ecstatic state as
+it is in dreams, the saints have often been able to declare, in perfect
+good faith, that their levitation was real.[127] In all great religious
+movements among primitive peoples, similar phenomena occur, together
+with other nervous and hallucinatory manifestations. They occurred, for
+instance, in the great Russian religious movement which took place among
+the peasants in the province of Kief during the winter of 1891-2. The
+leader of the movement, a devout member of the Stundist sect, a man with
+alcoholic heredity, who had received the revelation that he was saviour
+of the world, used not only to perceive perfumes so exquisite that they
+could only, as he was convinced, emanate from the Holy Ghost, but during
+prayer, together with a feeling of joy, he also had a sensation of bodily
+lightness and of floating in the air. His followers in many cases had
+the same experiences, and they delighted in jumping up into the air and
+shouting. In these cases the reality of the sensory obtuseness of the skin
+as an element in the manifestations was demonstrated, for Ssikorski, who
+had an opportunity of investigating these people, found that many of them,
+when in the ecstatic condition, were completely insensible to pain.
+
+The sensation of flying is one of the earliest to appear in the dreams
+of childhood.[128] It is sometimes the last sensation at the moment of
+death. To rise, to fall, to glide away, has often been the last conscious
+sensation recalled by those who seemed to be dying, but have afterwards
+been brought back to life. Those rescued from drowning, for instance, have
+sometimes found that the last conscious sensation was a beatific feeling
+of being borne upwards. Piéron has also noted this sensation at the moment
+of death from disease in a number of cases, usually accompanied by a sense
+of well-being.[129] The cases he describes were mostly tuberculous, and
+included individuals of both sexes, and of atheistic as well as religious
+belief. In all, the last sensation to which expression was given was
+one of flying, of moving upwards. In some death was peaceful, in others
+painful. In one case a girl died clasping the iron bars of the bed, in
+horror of being borne upwards. Piéron, no doubt rightly, associates this
+sensation with the similar sensation of rising and floating common in
+dreams, and with the feeling of moving upwards and resting on the air
+experienced by persons in the ecstatic state. In all these cases alike
+life is being concentrated in the brain and central organs, while the
+outlying districts of the body are becoming numb and dead.
+
+In this way it comes about that out of dreams and of dream-like waking
+states, one of the most permanent of human spiritual conceptions has been
+evolved. To float, to rise into the air, to fly up to heaven, has always
+seemed to man to be the final climax of spiritual activity. The angel is
+the most ethereal creature the human imagination can conceive. Browning's
+cry to his 'lyric love, half angel and half bird,' pathetically crude as
+poetry, is sound as psychology. The prophets and divine heroes of the race
+have constantly seemed to their devout followers to disappear at last by
+floating up into the sky, like Elijah, who went up 'by a whirlwind into
+heaven.' St. Peter once thought he saw his Master walking on the waves,
+and the last vision of Jesus in the Gospels reveals him rising into
+the air. For it is in the world of dreams that the human soul has its
+indestructible home, and in the attempt to realise these dreams lies a
+large part of our business in life.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 100: Bk. IV. 1014-15:
+
+              'de montibus altis
+    Se quasi præcipitent ad terram corpore toto.'
+]
+
+[Footnote 101: 'It has many times happened to me,' says the innkeeper's
+daughter in _Don Quixote_ (Part I. ch. xvi.), 'to dream that I was falling
+down from a tower and never coming to the ground, and when I awoke from
+the dream to find myself as weak and shaken as if I had really fallen.']
+
+[Footnote 102: Chabaneix, _Le Subconscient_, p. 43.]
+
+[Footnote 103: Herbert Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, 3rd ed., vol.
+i. p. 773.]
+
+[Footnote 104: _L'Intermédiaire des Chercheurs et des Curieux_, May 31,
+1906.]
+
+[Footnote 105: De Rochas describes the phenomenon as 'a property of the
+human organism, more or less developed in different individuals, when the
+soul, disengaging itself from the bonds of the body, enters the domain,
+still so mysterious, of dreams' (_L'Intermédiaire des Chercheurs et des
+Curieux_, May 10, 1906). In subsequent numbers of the _Intermédiaire_
+various correspondents describe their own experiences of such dreams. In
+_Luce e Ombra_ for June 1906, and in the _Echo du Merveilleux_ for the
+same date, neither of which I have seen, are given other experiences.]
+
+[Footnote 106: _Annals of Psychical Research_, November 1896.]
+
+[Footnote 107: Horace Hutchinson, _Dreams and their Meanings_, p. 76.]
+
+[Footnote 108: _American Journal of Psychology_, July-October 1903, p. 14.]
+
+[Footnote 109: 'The wish to be able to fly,' he declares (_Eine
+Kindheitserinnerung des Leonardo da Vinci_, p. 59), 'signifies in dreaming
+nothing else but the desire to be capable of sexual activities. It is a
+wish of early childhood.']
+
+[Footnote 110: Stanley Hall, _American Journal of Psychology_, January
+1879, p. 158; also F. E. Bolton, 'Hydro-Psychoses,' _ib._, January 1899,
+p. 183; as regards rudimentary gill-slits, Bland Sutton, _Evolution and
+Disease_, pp. 48 _et seq._ Lafcadio Hearn travels still further along
+this road in search for an explanation of dreams of flight, and evokes a
+'memory of vanished planets with fainter powers of gravitation,' but he
+fails to state when the ancestors of man inhabited these problematical
+planets.]
+
+[Footnote 111: I retain this statement of my explanation in almost the
+same words as first written down in 1895. I was not then aware that
+several psychologists had offered very similar explanations. Scherner
+(_Das Leben des Traumes_, 1861) seems to have been the first to connect
+the lungs with dreams of flying, though he put forward the explanation
+in too fanciful a form and failed to realise that other factors, notably
+a change in skin pressure, are also involved. Strümpell at a later date
+recognised this explanation, as well as Wundt.]
+
+[Footnote 112: It is the same with chloroform. 'There are marked
+sensations in the vicinity of the heart,' says Elmer Jones ('The Waning
+of Consciousness under Chloroform,' _Psychological Review_, January
+1909). 'The musculature of that organ seems thoroughly stimulated, and
+the contractions become violent and accelerated. The palpitations are
+as strong as would be experienced at the close of some violent bodily
+exertion.' It is significant, also, as bearing on the interpretation of
+the dream of flying, that under chloroform 'all movements made appeared to
+be much longer than they actually were. A slight movement of the tongue
+appeared to be magnified at least ten times. Clinching the fingers and
+opening them again produced the feeling of their moving through a space of
+several feet.']
+
+[Footnote 113: See _e.g._ Marie de Manacéïne, _Sleep_, p. 7.]
+
+[Footnote 114: Horace Hutchinson, who in his _Dreams and their Meanings_
+(1901), has independently suggested that 'this flying dream is caused by
+some action of the breathing organs,' mentions the significant fact (p.
+128) that the idea of filling the lungs as a help in levitation occurs in
+the flying dreams of many persons.]
+
+[Footnote 115: We have an analogous state of tactile anaesthesia in the
+early stages of chloroform intoxication. Thus Elmer Jones found that this
+sense is, after hearing, the first to disappear. 'With the disappearance
+of the tactile sense and hearing,' he remarks, 'the body has completely
+lost its orientation. It appears to be nowhere, simply floating in space.
+It is a most ecstatic feeling.']
+
+[Footnote 116: Lafcadio Hearn describes the fall as coming at the
+beginning of the dream. Dr. Guthrie (_Clinical Journal_, June 7, 1899),
+in his own case, describes the flying sensations as coming first and the
+falling as coming afterwards, and apparently due to sudden failure of the
+power of flight; the first part of the dream is agreeable but after the
+fall the dreamer awakes shaken, shocked, and breathless.]
+
+[Footnote 117: The disagreeable nature of falling in dreams may probably
+be connected with the absence of rhythm usually present in dreams of
+flying. Most of the psychologists who have occupied themselves with rhythm
+have insisted on its pleasurable emotional tone, as leading to a state
+bordering on ecstasy (see _e.g._ J. B. Miner, 'Motor, Visual, and Applied
+Rhythms,' Monograph Supplement to _Psychological Review_, June 1903). The
+pleasure is especially marked, as MacDougall remarks, when there is 'a
+coincidence of subjective and objective change.' In dreams of flying we
+have this coincidence, the real subjective rhythm being transformed in
+consciousness to an objective rhythm.]
+
+[Footnote 118: Féré, 'Note sur les Rêves Epileptiques,' _Revue de
+Médecine_, September 10, 1905.]
+
+[Footnote 119: Sir W. R. Gowers has on several occasions (_e.g._ 'The
+Borderland of Epilepsy,' _British Medical Journal_, July 21, 1906) argued
+that dreams of falling have an aural origin, and are caused by contraction
+of the stapedius muscle, leading to a change in the ampullae which might
+suggest descent; he has himself suddenly awakened from such a dream and
+caught the sound of the muscular contraction. The opinion of so acute an
+investigator deserves consideration.]
+
+[Footnote 120: Such sensations are, indeed, a recognised result of
+morphia. Morphinomaniacs, Goron remarks (_Les Parias de l'Amour_, p. 125),
+are apt to feel that they are flying or floating over the world.]
+
+[Footnote 121: Jewell states that 'certain observers, peculiarly liable
+to dreams of falling or flying, ascribe these distinctly to faulty
+circulation, and say their physicians, to regulate the heart's action,
+have given them medicines which always relieve them and prevent such
+dreams' (_American Journal of Psychology_, January 1905, p. 8).]
+
+[Footnote 122: Interesting evidence in favour of the respiratory origin
+of such visions is furnished by Silberer's observations on his own
+symbolic hypnagogic visions which are certainly allied to dream visions.
+He found (_Jahrbuch für Psychoanalytische Forschungen_, Bd. 1., 1909, p.
+523) that on drawing a deep breath, and so raising the chest wall, the
+representation came to him of attempting with another person to raise a
+table in the air.]
+
+[Footnote 123: J. de Goncourt (_Journal des Goncourt_, vol. iii. p. 3)
+mentions that after drinking port wine, to which he was unaccustomed, he
+had a dream in which he observed on his counterpane grotesque images in
+relief which rose and fell.]
+
+[Footnote 124: Chabaneix, _Le Subconscient_, p. 43.]
+
+[Footnote 125: May 30, 1906.]
+
+[Footnote 126: L. Binswanger, 'Versuch einer Hysterieanalyse,' _Jahrbuch
+für Psychoanalytische Forschungen_, Bd. 1. 1909.]
+
+[Footnote 127: Their word has often been accepted. Levitation as
+experienced by the saints has been studied by Colonel A. de Rochas,
+_Les Frontières de la Science_, 1904; also in _Annales des Sciences
+Psychiques_, January-February 1901. 'Levitation is a perfectly real
+phenomena,' he concludes, 'and much more common than we might at first be
+tempted to believe.']
+
+[Footnote 128: It seems to become less frequent after middle age. Beaunis
+states that in his case it ceased at the age of fifty. I found it
+disappear, or become rare, at a somewhat earlier age.]
+
+[Footnote 129: H. Piéron, 'Contribution à la Psychologie des Mourants,'
+_Revue Philosophique_, December 1902.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+SYMBOLISM IN DREAMS
+
+    The Dramatisation of Subjective Feelings Based on
+    Dissociation--Analogies in Waking Life--The Synaesthesias and
+    Number-forms--Symbolism in Language--In Music--The Organic Basis
+    of Dream Symbolism--The Omnipotence of Symbolism--Oneiromancy--The
+    Scientific Interpretation of Dreams--Why Symbolism prevails
+    in Dreaming--Freud's Theory of Dreaming--Dreams as Fulfilled
+    Wishes--Why this Theory cannot be applied to all Dreaming--The
+    Complete Form of Symbolism in Dreams--Splitting up of
+    Personality--Self-objectivation in Imaginary Personalities--The
+    Dramatic Element in Dreams--Hallucinations--Multiple
+    Personality--Insanity--Self-objectivation a Primitive Tendency--Its
+    Survival in Civilisation.
+
+
+In discussing dreams of flying I have referred to a dream in which a
+slight disturbance of the heart's action was transformed by sleeping
+consciousness into the image of an athlete manipulating an elastic ball.
+This objectivation of what are really the dreamer's subjective sensations,
+although he is not conscious of them as subjective, is, indeed, a
+phenomenon which we have encountered many times. It is, however, so
+important a feature of dream psychology, and probably of such significant
+weight in its influence on waking life, that it is worth while to deal
+with it separately.
+
+The dramatisation of subjective elements of the personality, which
+contributes so largely to render our dreams vivid and interesting, rests
+on that dissociation, or falling apart of the constituent groups of
+psychic centres, which is so fundamental a fact of dream life. That is to
+say, that the usually coherent elements of our mental life are split up,
+and some of them--often, it is curious to note, precisely those which are
+at that very moment the most prominent and poignant--are reconstituted
+into what seems to us an outside and objective world, of which we are the
+interested or the merely curious spectators, but in neither case realise
+that we are ourselves the origin of.
+
+An elementary source of this tendency to objectivation is to be found,
+it may be noted, in the automatic impulse towards symbolism by which all
+sorts of feelings experienced by the dreamer become transformed into
+concrete visible images. When objectivation is thus attained, dissociation
+may be said to be secondary. So far indeed as I am able to dissect the
+dream-process, the tendency to symbolism seems nearly always to precede
+the dissociation in consciousness, though it may well be that the
+dissociation of the mental elements is a necessary subconscious condition
+for the symbolism.
+
+Sensory symbolism rests on a very fundamental psychic tendency. On the
+abnormal side we find it in the synaesthesias which, since Galton first
+drew attention to them in 1883, in his _Inquiries into Human Faculty_,
+have become well known, and are found among between six to over twelve per
+cent. of people. Galton investigated chiefly those kinds of synaesthesias
+which he called 'number-forms' and 'colour associations.' The number-form
+is characteristic of those people who almost invariably think of
+numerals in some more or less constant form of visual imagery, the
+number instantaneously calling up the picture. In persons who experience
+colour-associations, or coloured-hearing, there is a similar instantaneous
+manifestation of particular colours in connection with particular sounds,
+the different vowel sounds, for instance, each constantly and persistently
+evolving a definite tint, as _a_ white, _e_ vermilion, _i_ yellow,
+etc., no two persons, however, having exactly the same colour scheme of
+sounds.[130] These phenomena are not so very rare, and, though they must
+be regarded as abnormal, they occur in persons who are perfectly healthy
+and sane.
+
+It will be seen that a synaesthesia--which may involve taste, smell,
+and other senses besides hearing and sight--causes an impression of one
+sensory order to be automatically and involuntarily linked on to an
+impression of another totally different order. In other words, we may say
+that the one impression becomes the _symbol_ of the other impression, for
+a symbol--which is literally a throwing together--means that two things
+of different orders have become so associated that one of them may be
+regarded as the sign and representative of the other.
+
+There is, however, another still more natural and fundamental form of
+symbolism which is entirely normal, and almost, indeed, physiological.
+This is the tendency by which qualities of one order become symbols of
+qualities of a totally different order, because they instinctively seem
+to have a similar effect on us. In this way, things in the physical
+order become symbols of things in the spiritual order. This symbolism
+penetrates indeed the whole of language; we cannot escape from it. The
+sea is _deep_, and so also may thoughts be; ice is _cold_, and we say
+the same of some hearts; sugar is _sweet_, as the lover finds also the
+presence of the beloved; quinine is _bitter_, and so is remorse. Not only
+our adjectives, but our substantives and our verbs are equally symbolical.
+To the etymological eye every sentence is full of metaphor, of symbol,
+of images that, strictly and originally, express sensory impressions of
+one order, but, as we use them to-day, express impressions of a totally
+different order. Language is largely the utilisation of symbols. This is a
+well-recognised fact which it is unnecessary to elaborate.[131]
+
+An interesting example of the natural tendency to symbolism, which may
+be compared to the allied tendency in dreaming, is furnished by another
+language, the language of music. Music is a representation of the
+world--the internal or the external world--which, except in so far as
+it may seek to reproduce the actual sounds of the world, can only be
+expressive by its symbolism. And the symbolism of music is so pronounced
+that it is even expressed in the elementary fact of musical pitch. Our
+minds are so constructed that the bass always seems _deep_ to us and the
+treble _high_. We feel it incongruous to speak of a _high_ bass voice or
+a _deep_ soprano. It is difficult to avoid the conclusion that this and
+the like associations are fundamentally based, that there are, as an acute
+French philosophic student of music, Dauriac (in an essay 'Des Images
+Suggérées par l'Audition musicale'[132]), has expressed it, 'sensorial
+correspondences,' as, indeed, Baudelaire had long since divined[133]; that
+the motor image is that which demands from the listener the minimum of
+effort; and that music almost constantly evokes motor imagery.[134]
+
+The association between high notes and physical ascent, between low
+notes and physical descent, is certainly in any case very fixed.[135]
+In Wagner's _Lohengrin_, the ascent and descent of the angelic chorus
+is thus indicated. Even if we go back to the early composers, the same
+correspondence is found. In Purcell it is very definite. In Bach--pure and
+abstract as his music is generally considered--not only this elementary
+association, but an immense amount of motor imagery is to be found; Bach
+shows, indeed, a curious pre-occupation in translating the definite sense
+of the words he is musically illustrating into corresponding musical
+terms; the skill and subtlety with which he accomplishes this, can often,
+as Pirro and Schweitzer have shown, be appreciated only by musicians.[136]
+It is sometimes said that this is 'realism' in music. That is a mistake.
+When the impressions derived from one sense are translated into those of
+another sense, there can be no question of realism. A composer may attempt
+a realistic representation of thunder, but his representation of lightning
+can only be symbolical; audible lightning can never be realistic.
+
+Not only is there an instinctive and direct association between sounds
+and motor imagery, but there is an indirect but equally instinctive
+association between sounds and visual imagery which, though not itself
+motor, has motor associations. Thus Bleuler considers it well established
+that among colour-hearers there is a tendency for photisms that are light
+in colour (and belonging, we may say, to the 'high' part of the spectrum)
+to be produced by sounds of high quality, and dark photisms by sounds
+of low quality; and, in the same way, sharply-defined pains or tactile
+sensations, as well as pointed forms, produce light photisms. Similarly,
+bright lights and pointed forms produce high photisms, whole low photisms
+are produced by opposite conditions. Urbantschitsch, again, by examining a
+large number of people who were not colour-hearers, found that a high note
+of a tuning-fork seems higher when looking at red, yellow, green, or blue,
+but lower if looking at violet. Thus two sensory qualities that are both
+symbolic of a third quality are symbolic to each other.
+
+This symbolism, we are justified in believing, is based on fundamental
+organic tendencies. Piderit, nearly half a century ago, forcibly argued
+that there is a real relationship of our most spiritual feelings and
+ideas to particular bodily movements and facial expressions. In a similar
+manner, he pointed out that bitter tastes and bitter thoughts tend to
+produce the same physical expression.[137] He also argued that the
+character of a man's looks--his _fixed_ or _dreamy_ eyes, his _lively_
+or _stiff_ movements--correspond to real psychic characters. If this
+is so we have a physiological, almost anatomical, basis for symbolism.
+Cleland,[138] again, in an essay, 'On the Element of Symbolic Correlation
+in Expression,' argued that the key to a great part of expression is
+the correlation of movements and positions with ideas, so that there
+are, for instance, a host of associations in the human mind by which
+'upward' represents the good, the great, and the living, while 'downward'
+represents the evil and the dead. Such associations are so fundamental
+that they are found even in animals, whose gestures are, as Féré[139]
+remarked, often metaphorical, so that a cat, for instance, will shake its
+paw, as if in contact with water, after any disagreeable experiences.
+
+The symbolism that to-day interpenetrates our language, and indeed our
+life generally, has mostly been inherited by us, with the traditions of
+civilisation, from an antiquity so primitive that we usually fail to
+interpret it. The rare additions we make to it in our ordinary normal
+life are for the most part deliberately conscious. But so soon as we
+fall below, or rise above, that ordinary normal level--to insanity and
+hallucination, to childhood, to savagery, to folk-lore and legend, to
+poetry and religion--we are at once plunged into a sea of symbolism.[140]
+There is even a normal sphere in which symbolism has free scope, and that
+is in the world of dreams.
+
+Oneiromancy, the symbolical interpretation of dreams, more especially as
+a method of divining the future, is a widespread art in early stages of
+culture. The discerning of dreams is represented in the Old Testament as
+a very serious and anxious matter (as in regard to Pharaoh's dream of the
+fat and lean cattle), and, nearer to our time, the dreams of great heroes,
+especially Charlemagne, are represented as highly important events in the
+mediæval European epics. Little manuals on the interpretation of dreams
+have always been much valued by the uncultured classes, and among our
+current popular sayings there are many dicta concerning the significance,
+or the good or ill luck, of particular kinds of dreams.
+
+Oneiromancy has thus slowly degenerated to folk-lore and superstition.
+But at the outset it possessed something of the combined dignities of
+religion and of science. Not only were the old dream interpreters careful
+of the significance and results of individual dreams, in order to build
+up a body of doctrine, but they held that not every dream contained
+in it a divine message; thus they would not condescend to interpret
+dreams following on the drinking of wine, for only to the temperate,
+they declared, do the gods reveal their secrets.[141] The serious and
+elaborate way in which the interpretation of dreams was dealt with is well
+seen in the treatise on this subject by Artemidorus of Daldi, a native
+of Ephesus, and contemporary of Marcus Aurelius.[142] He divided dreams
+into two classes: _theorematic_ dreams, which come literally true, and
+_allegorical_ dreams. The first group may be said to correspond to the
+modern groups of prophetic and proleptic or prodromic dreams, while the
+second group includes the symbolical dreams which have of recent years
+again attracted attention. Synesius, who lived in the fourth century,
+and eventually became a Christian bishop without altogether ceasing to
+be a Greek pagan, wrote a very notable treatise on dreaming, in which,
+with a genuinely Greek alertness of mind, he contrived to rationalise and
+almost to modernise the ancient doctrine of dream symbolism. He admits
+that it is in their obscurity that the truth of dreams resides, and that
+we must not expect to find any general rules in regard to dreams; no two
+people are alike, so that the same dream cannot have the same significance
+for every one, and we have to find out the rules of our own dreams. He
+had himself (like Galen) often been aided in his writings by his dreams,
+in this way getting his ideas into order, improving his style, and
+receiving criticisms of extravagant phrases. Once, too, in the days when
+he hunted, he invented a trap as a result of a dream. Synesius declares
+that attention to divination by dreams is good on moral grounds alone. For
+he who makes his bed a Delphian tripod will be careful to live a pure and
+noble life. In that way he will reach an end higher than that he aimed
+at.[143]
+
+It seems to-day by no means improbable that, amid the absurdities of
+this popular oneiromancy, there are some items of real significance.
+Until recent years, however, the absurdities have frightened away the
+scientific investigator. Almost the only investigator of the psychology
+of dreaming who ventured to admit a real symbolism in the dream world was
+Scherner,[144] and his arguments were not usually accepted nor even easy
+to accept. When we are faced by the question of definite and constant
+symbols it still remains true that scepticism is often called for. But
+there can be no manner of doubt that our dreams are full of symbolism.[145]
+
+The conditions of dream life, indeed, lend themselves with a peculiar
+facility to the formation of symbolism, that is to say, of images
+which, while evoked by a definite stimulus, are themselves of a totally
+different order from that stimulus. The very fact that we _sleep_, that
+is to say, that the avenues of sense which would normally supply the real
+image of corresponding order to the stimulus are more or less closed,
+renders symbolism inevitable.[146] The direct channels being thus largely
+choked, other allied and parallel associations come into play, and since
+the control of attention and apperception is diminished, such play is
+often unimpeded. Symbolism is the natural and inevitable result of these
+conditions.[147]
+
+It might still be asked why we do not in dreams more often recognise the
+actual source of the stimuli applied to us. If a dreamer's feet are in
+contact with something hot, it might seem more natural that he should
+think of the actual hot-water bottle, rather than of an imaginary Etna,
+and that, if he hears a singing in his ears, he should argue the presence
+of the real bird he has often heard rather than a performance of Haydn's
+_Creation_, which he has never heard. Here, however, we have to remember
+the tendency to magnification in dream imagery, a tendency which rests
+on the emotionality of dreams. Emotion is normally heightened in dreams.
+Every impression reaches sleeping consciousness through this emotional
+atmosphere, in an enlarged form, vaguer it may be, but more massive. The
+sleeping brain is thus not dealing with actual impressions--if we are
+justified in speaking of the impressions of waking life as 'actual'--even
+when actual impressions are being made upon it, but with transformed
+impressions. The problem before it is to find an adequate cause, not for
+the actual impression, but for the transformed and enlarged impression.
+Under these circumstances symbolism is quite inevitable. Even when the
+nature of an excitation is rightly perceived its quality cannot be
+rightly perceived. The dreamer may be able to perceive that he is being
+bitten, but the massive and profound impression of a bite which reaches
+his dreaming consciousness would not be adequately accounted for by
+the supposition of the real mosquito that is the cause of it; the only
+adequate explanation of the transformed impression received is to be found
+(as in a dream already narrated) in a creature as large as a lobster.
+This creature is the symbol of the real mosquito.[148] We have the same
+phenomenon under somewhat similar conditions in the intoxication of
+chloroform and nitrous oxide.
+
+The obscuration during sleep of the external sensory channels, with
+the checks on false conclusions they furnish, is not alone sufficient
+to explain the symbolism of dreams. The dissociation of thought during
+sleep, with the diminished attention and apperception involved, is also
+a factor. The magnification of special isolated sensory impressions in
+dreaming consciousness is associated with a general bluntness, even an
+absolute quiescence, of the external sensory mechanism. One part of the
+organism, and it seems usually a visceral part, is thus apt to magnify its
+place in consciousness at the expense of the rest. As Vaschide and Piéron
+say, during sleep 'the internal sensations develop at the expense of the
+peripheral sensations.' That indeed seems to be the secret of the immense
+emotional turmoil of our dreams. Yet it is very rare for these internal
+sensations to reach the sleeping brain as what they are. They become
+conscious, not as literal messages, but as symbolical transformations.
+The excited or labouring heart recalls to the brain no memory of itself,
+but some symbolical image of excitement or labour. There is association,
+indeed, but it is association not along the matter-of-fact lines of our
+ordinary waking civilised life, but along much more fundamental and
+primitive channels, which in waking life we have now abandoned or never
+knew.
+
+There is another consideration which may be put forward to account for
+one group of dream-symbolisms. It has been found that certain hysterical
+subjects of old standing when in the hypnotic state are able to receive
+mental pictures of their own viscera, even though they may be quite
+ignorant of any knowledge of the shape of these viscera. This _autoscopy_,
+as it has been called, has been specially studied by Féré, Comar, and
+Sollier.[149] Hysteria is a condition which is in many respects closely
+allied to sleep, and if it is to be accepted as a real fact that autoscopy
+occasionally occurs in the abnormal psychic state of hypnotic sleep in
+hysterical persons, it is possible to ask whether it may not sometimes
+occur normally in the allied state of sleep. In the hypnotic state it
+is known that parts of the organism normally involuntary may become
+subject to the will; it is not incredible that similarly parts normally
+insensitive may become sufficiently sensitive to reveal their own shape
+or condition. We may thus, indeed, the more easily understand those
+premonitory dreams in which the dreamer becomes conscious of morbid
+conditions which are not perceptible to waking consciousness until they
+have attained a greater degree of intensity.[150]
+
+The recognition of the transformation in dream life of internal
+sensations into symbolic motor imagery is ancient. Hippocrates said that
+to dream, for instance, of springs and wells denoted some disturbance of
+the bladder. In such a case a disturbed bladder sends to the brain, not
+the naked message of its own needs, but a symbolic message of those needs
+in motor imagery, as (in one case known to me) of a large cistern with
+a stream of water flowing from it.[151] Sometimes the symbolism aroused
+by visceral processes remains physiological; thus indigestion frequently
+leads to dreams of eating, as of chewing all sorts of inedible and
+repulsive substances, and occasionally--it would seem more abnormally--to
+agreeable dreams of food.
+
+It is due to the genius of Professor Sigmund Freud, of Vienna--to-day
+the most daring and original psychologist in the field of morbid psychic
+phenomena--that we owe the long-neglected recognition of the large place
+of symbolism in dreaming. Scherner had argued in favour of this aspect of
+dreams, but he was an undistinguished and unreliable psychologist, and
+his arguments failed to be influential. Freud avows himself a partisan of
+Scherner's theory of dreaming and opponent of all other theories,[152] but
+his treatment of the matter is incomparably more searching and profound.
+Freud, however, goes far beyond the fundamental--and, as I believe,
+undeniable--proposition that dream-imagery is largely symbolic. He holds
+that behind the symbolism of dreams there lies ultimately a _wish;_ he
+believes, moreover, that this wish tends to be really of more or less
+sexual character, and, further, that it is tinged by elements that go back
+to the dreamer's infantile days. As Freud views the mechanism of dreams,
+it is far from exhibiting mere disordered mental activity, but is (much
+as he has also argued hysteria to be[153]) the outcome of a desire, which
+is driven back by a kind of inhibition or censure (_i.e._, that kind
+of moral check which is still more alert in the waking state), and is
+seeking new forms of expression. There is first in the dream the process
+of what Freud calls condensation (_Verdichtung_), a process which is that
+fusion of separate elements which must be recognised at the outset of
+every discussion of dreaming, but Freud maintains that in this fusion all
+the elements have a point in common, and overlie one another like the
+pictures in a Galtonian composite photograph. Then there comes the process
+of displacement or transference (_Verschiebung_), a process by which the
+really central and emotional basis of the dream is concealed beneath
+trifles. Then there is the process of dramatisation or transformation
+into a concrete situation of which the elements have a symbolic value.
+Thus, as Maeder puts it, summarising Freud's views, 'behind the apparently
+insignificant events of the day utilised in the dream there is always an
+important idea or event hidden. We only dream of things that are worth
+while. What at first sight seems to be a trifle is a grey wall which
+hides a great palace. The significance of the dream is not so much held
+in the dream itself as in that substratum of it which has not passed the
+threshold and which analysis alone can bring to light.'
+
+'We only dream of things that are worth while.' That is the point at
+which many of us are no longer able to follow Freud. That dreams of the
+type studied by Freud do actually occur may be accepted; it may even be
+considered proved. But to assert that all dreams must be made to fit
+into this one formula is to make far too large a demand. As regards the
+presentative element in dreams--the element that is based on actual
+sensory stimulation--it is in most cases unreasonable to invoke Freud's
+formula at all. If, when I am asleep, the actual song of a bird causes me
+to dream that I am at a concert, that picture may be regarded as a natural
+symbol of the actual sensation, and it is unreasonable to expect that
+psycho-analysis could reveal any hidden personal reason why the symbol
+should take the form of a concert. And, if so, then Freud's formula fails
+to hold good for phenomena which cover one of the two main divisions of
+dreams, even on a superficial classification, and perhaps enter into all
+dreams.
+
+But even if we take dreams of the remaining or representative class--the
+dreams made up of images not directly dependent on actual sensation--we
+still have to maintain a cautious attitude. A very large proportion of the
+dreams in this class seem to be, so far as the personal life is concerned,
+in no sense 'worth while.' It would, indeed, be surprising if they were.
+It seems to be fairly clear that in sleep, as certainly in the hypnagogic
+state, attention is diminished, and apperceptive power weakened. That
+alone seems to involve a relaxation of the tension by which we will and
+desire our personal ends. At the same time, by no longer concentrating our
+psychic activities at the focus of desire it enables indifferent images to
+enter more easily the field of sleeping consciousness. It might even be
+argued that the activity of desire, when it manifests itself in sleep and
+follows the course indicated by Freud, corresponds to a special form of
+sleep in which attention and apperception, though in modified forms, are
+more active than in ordinary sleep.[154] Such dreams seem to occur with
+special frequency, or in more definitely marked forms, in the neurotic and
+especially the hysterical, and if it is true that the hysterical are to
+some extent asleep even when they are awake, it may also be said that they
+are to some extent awake even when they are asleep. Freud certainly holds,
+probably with truth, that there is no fundamental distinction between
+normal people and psychoneurotic people, and that there is, for instance,
+as Ferenczi says, emphasising this point, 'a streak of hysterical
+disposition in everybody.' Freud has, indeed, made interesting analytic
+studies of his own dreams, but the great body of material accumulated
+by him and his school is derived from the dreams of the neurotic. Thus
+Stekel states that he has analysed many thousand dreams, but his lengthy
+study on the interpretation of dreams deals exclusively with the dreams
+of the neurotic.[155] Stekel believes, moreover, that from the structure
+of the dream life conclusions may be drawn, not only as to the life and
+character of the dreamer, but also as to his neurosis, the hysterical
+person dreaming differently from the obsessed person, and so on. If that
+is the case we are certainly justified in doubting whether conclusions
+drawn from the study of the dreams of neurotic people can be safely held
+to represent the normal dream life, even though it may be true that there
+is no definite frontier between them. Whatever may be the case among the
+neurotic, in ordinary normal sleep the images that drift across the field
+of consciousness, though they have a logic of their own, seem in a large
+proportion of cases to be quite explicable without resort to the theory
+that they stand in vital but concealed relationship to our most intimate
+self.
+
+Even in waking life, and at normal moments which are not those of
+reverie, it seems possible to trace the appearance in the field of
+consciousness of images which are evoked neither by any known mental or
+physical circumstance of the moment, or any hidden desire, images that
+are as disconnected from the immediate claims of desire and even of
+association as those of dreams seem so largely to be. It sometimes occurs
+to me--as doubtless it occurs to other people--that at some moment when
+my thoughts are normally occupied with the work immediately before me,
+there suddenly appears on the surface of consciousness a totally unrelated
+picture. A scene arises, vague but usually recognisable, of some city
+or landscape--Australian, Russian, Spanish, it matters not what--seen
+casually long years ago, and possibly never thought of since, and
+possessing no kind of known association either with the matter in hand or
+with my personal life generally. It comes to the surface of consciousness
+as softly, as unexpectedly, as disconnectedly, as a minute bubble might
+arise and break on the surface of an actual stream from ancient organic
+material silently disintegrating in the depths beneath.[156] Every one who
+has travelled much cannot fail to possess, hidden in his psychic depths,
+a practically infinite number of such forgotten pictures, devoid of all
+personal emotion. It is possible to maintain, as a matter of theory, that
+when they come up to consciousness, they are evoked by some real, though
+untraceable, resemblance which they possess to the psychic or physical
+state existing when they reappear. But that theory cannot be demonstrated.
+Nor, it may be added, is it more plausible than the simple but equally
+unprovable theory that such scenes do really come to the surface of
+consciousness as the result of some slight spontaneous disintegration in
+a minute cerebral centre, and have no more immediately preceding psychic
+cause than my psychic realisation of the emergence of the sun from behind
+a cloud has any psychic preceding cause.
+
+Similarly, in insanity, Liepmann, in his study _Ueber Ideenflucht_, has
+forcibly argued that ordinary logorrhœa--the incontinence of ideas linked
+together by superficial associations of resemblance or contiguity--is a
+linking _without direction_, that is, corresponding to no interest, either
+practical or theoretical, of the individual. Or, as Claparède puts it,
+logorrhœa is a trouble in the reaction of _interest_ in life. It seems
+most reasonable to believe that in ordinary sleep the flow of imagery
+follows, for the most part, the same easy course. That course may to
+waking consciousness often seem peculiar, but to waking consciousness the
+conditions of dreaming life are peculiar. Under these conditions, however,
+we may well believe that the tendency to movement in the direction of
+least resistance still prevails. And as attention and will are weakened
+and loosened during sleep, the tense concentration on personal ends must
+also be relaxed. We become more disinterested. Personal desire tends
+for the most part rather to fall into the background than to become
+more prominent. If it were not a period in which desire were ordinarily
+relaxed, sleep would cease to be a period of rest and recuperation.
+
+Sleeping consciousness is a vast world, a world scarcely less vast than
+that of waking consciousness. It is futile to imagine that a single
+formula can cover all its manifold varieties and all its degrees of depth.
+Those who imagine that all dreaming is a symbolism which a single cypher
+will serve to interpret must not be surprised if, however unjustly, they
+are thought to resemble those persons who claim to find on every page of
+Shakespeare a cypher revealing the authorship of Bacon. In the case of
+Freud's theory of dream interpretation, I hold the cypher to be real, but
+I believe that it is impossible to regard so narrow and exclusive an
+interpretation as adequate to explain the whole world of dreams. It would,
+_a priori_, be incomprehensible that sleeping consciousness should exert
+so extraordinary a selective power among the variegated elements of waking
+life, and, experientially, there seems no adequate ground to suppose that
+it does exert such selective action. On the contrary, it is, for the
+most part, supremely impartial in bringing forward and combining all the
+manifestations, the most trivial as well as the most intimate, of our
+waking life. There is a symptom of mental disorder called _extrospection_,
+in which the patient fastens his attention so minutely on events that
+he comes to interpret the most trifling signs and incidents as full of
+hidden significance, and may so build up a systematised delusion.[157] The
+investigator of dreams must always bear in mind the risk of falling into
+morbid extrospection.
+
+Such considerations seem to indicate that it is not true that every
+dream, every mental image, is 'worth while,' though at the same time they
+by no means diminish the validity of special and purposive methods of
+investigating dream consciousness. Freud and those who are following him
+have shown, by the expenditure of much patience and skill, that his method
+of dream-interpretation may in many cases yield coherent results which it
+is not easy to account for by chance. It is quite possible, however, to
+recognise Freud's service in vindicating the large place of symbolism in
+dreams, and to welcome the application of his psycho-analytic method to
+dreams, while yet denying that this is the only method of interpreting
+dreams. Freud argues that all dreaming is purposive and significant,
+and that we must put aside the belief that dreams are the mere trivial
+outcome of the dissociated activity of brain centres. It remains true,
+however, that, while reason plays a larger part in dreams than most
+people realise, the activity of dissociated brain centres furnishes one
+of the best keys to the explanation of psychic phenomena during sleep.
+It would be difficult to believe in any case that in the relaxation of
+sleep our thoughts are still pursuing a deliberately purposeful direction
+under the control of our waking impulses. Many facts indicate--though
+Freud's school may certainly claim that such facts have not been
+thoroughly interpreted--that, as a matter of fact, this control is often
+conspicuously lacking. There is, for instance, the well-known fact that
+our most recent and acute emotional experiences--precisely those which
+might most ardently formulate themselves in a wish--are rarely mirrored
+in our dreams, though recent occurrences of more trivial nature, as well
+as older events of more serious import, easily find place there. That
+is easily accounted for by the supposition--not quite in a line with a
+generalised wish-theory--that the exhausted emotions of the day find rest
+at night.
+
+It must also be said that even when we admit that a strong emotion may
+symbolically construct an elaborate dream edifice which needs analysis to
+be interpreted, we narrow the process unduly if we assert that the emotion
+is necessarily a wish. Desire is certainly very fundamental in life and
+very primitive. But there is another equally fundamental and primitive
+emotion--fear.[158] We may very well expect to find this emotion, as well
+as desire, subjacent to dream phenomena.[159]
+
+The infantile form of the wish-dream, alike in adults and children, is
+thus, there can be little doubt, extremely common, and, even in its
+symbolic forms, it is a real and not rare phenomenon. But it is impossible
+to follow Freud when he declares that all dreams fall into the group of
+wish-dreams. The world of psychic life during sleep is, like the waking
+world, rich and varied; it cannot be covered by a single formula. Freud's
+subtle and searching analytic genius has greatly contributed to enlarge
+our knowledge of this world of sleep. We may recognise the value of his
+contribution to the psychology of dreams while refusing to accept a
+premature and narrow generalisation.
+
+The wish-dream of the kind elaborately investigated by Freud may be
+accepted as one type of dreaming, and a very interesting type, but it
+seems evident that it is only one type. There are even other types which
+seem closely related to it, and yet are quite distinct. This is, for
+instance, the case with the contrast-dream. The contrast-dream of Näcke's
+type represents the emergence of characteristics which are distinctly
+opposed to the dreamer's character and habits. Thus, in the course of four
+consecutive nights, I have dreamed in much detail that (1) I was the mayor
+of a large northern city about to take the chair at a local meeting of the
+Bible Society; (2) that I was a soldier in the heat of battle; and (3)
+that I was meditating the step of going on the stage as a comedian--the
+only rôle of the three which seemed to cause me any nervousness or
+misgiving. In contrast-dreams of this type we are not concerned with
+the eruption of concealed and repressed wishes. They are merely based
+on vestigial possibilities, entirely alien to our temperament as it has
+developed in life, and only a part of our complex personalities in the
+sense that, as Schopenhauer said, whatever path we take in life there
+are latent germs within us which could only have developed in an exactly
+opposite path. Even the very same dream may be due to quite different
+causes. To take a very simple dream, for we may best argue on the simplest
+facts: the dream of eating. We dream of eating when we are hungry, but
+sometimes we also dream of eating when the stomach is suffering from
+repletion. The dream is the same, but the psychological mechanism is
+entirely different, in the one case emotional, in the other intellectual.
+In the first case the picture of eating is built up in response to an
+organic visceral craving, and we have an elementary wish-dream of what
+Freud would call infantile type; in the second case the same dream is a
+theory, embodied in a concrete picture, to account for the existence of
+the repletion experienced.
+
+There cannot be the slightest doubt that the wish-dream, in its simple or
+what Freud calls its infantile form, represents an extremely common type
+of dream.[160] A large number of the dreams of children are concerned with
+wishes and their fulfilments. Those dreams of adults which are aroused by
+actual organic sensations also tend to fall, though not invariably, into
+the same form. Again, we chance to want a thing when we are awake; when
+we are asleep we dream we have found it. It may also be said, almost with
+certainty, that in some cases our dreams are the fulfilment of unexpressed
+and unconscious waking wishes. Even the best people, it is probable, may
+occasionally dream of events which represent the fulfilment of wishes they
+have never consciously formulated. Archbishop Laud was accustomed to note
+down his dreams in his Diary. On one occasion we find him setting down
+a disturbing dream, in which he saw the Lord Keeper dead, and 'rotten
+already.' A little later we find that Laud is 'much concerned at the
+envy and undeserved hatred borne to me by the Lord Keeper.'[161] It is
+not difficult to see in the Archbishop's relations to the Lord Keeper an
+explanation of his dream.
+
+If, however, wishes, conscious or unconscious, are often fulfilled
+in dreams, and if, as we have seen reason to conclude, symbolism is
+a fundamental tendency of dreaming activity, it is inevitable that
+wish-dreams should sometimes take on a symbolic form. It is thus, for
+instance, that I interpret my dream of being in an English cathedral and
+seeing on the wall a notice to the effect that at evensong on such a day
+the edifice will not be illuminated, in order to avoid attracting moths;
+I awake with a slight headache, and the unilluminated cathedral was
+the symbol of the coolness and absence of glare which one desires when
+suffering from headache.
+
+There cannot, also, be any doubt that erotic wishes frequently make
+themselves felt as dreams, both in the infantile and the symbolic form.
+It is sufficient to bring forward one illustration. It is furnished
+by a young lady of somewhat neurotic tendencies and heredity, aged
+twenty-three, musical and intelligent, who was in love with her
+music-master, the organist at her church. The dream was written down at
+the time. 'I was at the school of my childhood, and I was told that I
+was St. Agnes Virgin and Martyr, and in five minutes' time I was to be
+beheaded with a large knife. The sheen of the blade frightened me so much
+that I asked if instead I might be strangled by the man I was in love
+with. Permission was given if I could induce him to come in time. I ran
+to our church (saying to myself that I knew it was a dream, but that I
+_must_ see what he would say) over huge stones that cut my bare feet, and
+wondered what age I was living in, longing to meet some women in order to
+find out. When I did, they all wore crinolines. I rushed up the central
+aisle, which was full of people, thinking that, as I was going to be
+killed, nothing could matter. Mr. T. (the organist) was giving a choir
+practice in the vestry. I ran up to him and said: "Come at once, I am
+going to be killed." He became very angry, and said: "Do go away; you are
+always interrupting my choir practice." I said: "Don't you understand? I
+am going to be killed at once; there is a knife hanging over my head, but
+I would rather be strangled by you, and they said I could if I fetched you
+in time." As soon as he understood that he came at once. Then it seemed
+in the dream that we were married, and had a son, who was to be a musical
+composer. I said I must say goodbye to this son first, and told the nurse
+to bring him to me. When he came I said: "Good-bye, I am going to be
+killed." He said, "Mother, am I a boy or a girl? When I am with boys I
+don't seem like them, and they call me a girl, and yet I don't look like
+a girl." I replied: "You are both in one, because you are going to be a
+perfect musical genius."' In this dream, which represents the fulfilment
+in sleep of an affection unsatisfied in life, we see side by side the
+infantile and the symbolic fulfilments of the erotic wish, culminating in
+a gifted musical child. The wish to be strangled is an undoubted erotic
+symbol,[162] and it is significant that in the course of the dream the
+accepted death by strangulation became fused with marriage, although the
+idea of death still inconsistently survives, doubtless because dream
+consciousness failed to realise that the accepted form of death was a
+subconsciously furnished symbol of the consummation of marriage.
+
+The wish-dream of Freud's type has presented itself for consideration
+here, because it is a special and elaborate illustration of symbolism
+in dreaming. The important place of symbols in dreaming is by no means
+dependent on the validity of this particular type of dream, and we may now
+proceed to continue the discussion of the significance of the symbolic
+tendency during sleep in its most important form.
+
+The symbols we have so far been mainly concerned with have been the
+result of a tendency of dreaming consciousness to objectify feelings and
+affections within the organism in concrete objects or processes outside
+the organism. In its complete form this symbolic tendency becomes the
+objectivation of part of the dreamer's feelings or personality in a
+distinct imaginary personality. A process of dramatisation occurs, and
+the dreamer finds himself in action and reaction, friendly or hostile or
+indifferent, with seemingly external personalities which, by the light
+of the analysis possible on awakening, are demonstrably created out of
+split-off portions of his own personality.[163] A common and simple form
+of such objectivation, closely allied to some of the symbolisms already
+brought forward, occurs when the dreamer sees the image of a person
+suffering from some affection of a part of the body and finds on awakening
+that he is himself experiencing pain or discomfort in that part. Thus a
+medical man dreams he is examining a tumour in a patient's groin, and on
+awakening finds slight irritation in the same region of his own body. And
+similarly, just as our bodily needs, when experienced during sleep, may
+be symbolised by inanimate natural objects and processes, so they may
+also become objective in the image of another person who is occupied in
+gratifying the need which we are ourselves unconsciously experiencing.
+
+An interesting and significant group of cases is furnished by those
+dreams in which--as the result of some compression or effort--the tactile
+and muscular sensations of our own limbs are split off from sleeping
+consciousness and built up into an imaginary personality. Thus a medical
+friend, shortly after an attack of influenza, dreamed that in conversation
+with a lady patient his hand rested on her knee; she requested him to
+remove it, but his efforts to do so were fruitless, and he awoke in horror
+from this unprofessional situation to find that his hand was firmly
+clasped between his own knees. His body had thus been divided in dreaming
+consciousness between himself and an imaginary other person; the knee
+had become the other person's, while the hand remained his own, the hand
+being claimed in preference to the knee no doubt on account of its greater
+tactile sensibility and more complexly intimate association with the
+brain. In the hypnagogic (or hypnopompic) state such dream sensations may
+almost reach the intensity of hallucination. Thus, after an indigestible
+supper, I awake with the vivid feeling that some one is lying on me
+and attempting to drag off the bedclothes, and I find myself violently
+attempting, but apparently in vain, to articulate: 'Who is there?' In a
+dream of similar type, which occurred when lying on my back (and possibly
+with slight indigestion due to an unusually late dinner), I awoke making
+a kind of inarticulate exclamation which awakened my wife. I had dreamed
+that I was lying in bed, and that some unseen creature--more supernatural
+than human, it seemed--was violently dragging the bedclothes off me, while
+I shouted to it, very distinctly it seemed to me, 'Avaunt, avaunt!'
+
+It is evident that my own sense of oppression, my own unconscious and
+involuntary movements in disturbing the bedclothes, were reconstructed by
+sleeping consciousness as the actions of an external person, in the second
+case, a supernatural creature, which, it is interesting to note, I duly
+accepted as such and addressed in the conventionally appropriate manner
+of old romance. The illusion may persist for some moments after waking. A
+lady, after breathing rather loudly and convulsively for a few seconds,
+wakes up, saying 'There is a rat or a mouse on the bed, shaking it up
+and down.' 'You were asleep,' her husband replied, 'as I knew by your
+breathing.' 'Oh, I was breathing like that,' she said, 'to make it jump
+off.' Here we see that, somewhat as in the previous cases, the dreamer's
+own muscular activity is, during sleep, reconstructed into the image of an
+external force; but when she is in the semi-waking hypnagogic stage, she
+recognises that the activity was her own, though still unable to dismiss
+the delusion based on the theory formed during sleep.
+
+At this point we reach the threshold of hallucination, and the next
+case to be brought forward may be said to lie on the threshold, for an
+impression received in the hypnagogic (or hypnopompic) stage is accepted
+in its illusional form, even when the dreamer is fully awake. A farmer's
+daughter--a bright girl of twenty-one, with quick nervous reactions,
+but untrained mind--dreamed that she saw her brother (dead some years
+previously) with blood streaming from his fingers. She awoke in a fright,
+and was comforting herself with the thought that it was only a dream when
+she felt a hand grip her shoulder three times in succession. There was no
+one in the room, the door was locked, and no explanation seemed possible
+to her. She was very frightened, got up at once, dressed, and spent
+the rest of the night downstairs working. She was so convinced that a
+real hand had touched her that, although it seemed impossible, she asked
+her brothers if they had not been playing a trick on her. The nervous
+shock was considerable, and she was unable to sleep well for some weeks
+afterwards. She naturally knew nothing about abnormal psychic phenomena,
+and was utterly puzzled to explain the experience, except by supposing
+that it may have been a ghost. The explanation is really very simple. It
+is well recognised that involuntary muscular twitches may occur in the
+shoulder, especially after it has been subjected to pressure, and that in
+some cases such contractions may simulate a touch.[164] The dream of a
+bleeding hand indicates, when we bear in mind the tendency to objectify
+sensations symbolically, now familiar to us in dreaming, that the
+dreamer's arm was probably pressed beneath her in a cramped position.[165]
+This pressure would account, not only for the dream, but for the muscular
+twitches occurring on awakening. The nature of the dream, the terrified
+emotional state it produced, and the mental obscurity of the hypnagogic
+state, naturally combined, in a subject unaccustomed to self-analysis, to
+create an illusion which reflection is unable to dispel, though in the
+normal waking state she would probably have given no attention at all
+to such muscular twitches. Strictly speaking, such an experience is an
+illusion--that is to say, a misinterpretation of a real sensation--and
+not a hallucination--or perception without known objective causation--but
+there is no clear line of demarcation. In any case it may now be taken as
+proved that hallucinations tend to occur in the neighbourhood of sleep,
+and therefore to partake of the nature of dreams.[166]
+
+So far we have been concerned with the tendency in dreams to objectify
+portions of the body by constructing out of them new personalities.
+But precisely the same process goes on in sleep with regard to our
+thoughts and feelings. We split off portions of these also and construct
+other personalities out of them, and sometimes even endow the persons
+thus formed with thoughts and feelings more native to our own normal
+personality than those which we reserve for ourselves. Thus a lady who
+dreamed that when walking with a friend she discovered a species of
+animal fruit, a kind of damson containing a snail, expressed her delight
+at finding a combination so admirably adapted to culinary purposes; it
+was the friend who, retaining the attitude of her own waking moments,
+uttered an exclamation of disgust. Most of the dreams in which there is
+any dramatic element are due to this splitting up of personality; in
+our dreams we may experience shame or confusion from the rebukes or the
+arguments of other persons, but the persons who administer the rebuke or
+apply the argument are still ourselves.[167]
+
+Some writers on dreaming have marvelled greatly at this tendency of
+the sleeping mind to objectify portions of itself, and so to create
+imaginary personalities and evolve dramatic situations. It has seemed
+to them quite unaccountable except as the outcome of a special gift of
+imagination appertaining to sleep. Yet, remarkable as it is, this process
+is simply the inevitable outcome of the conditions under which psychic
+life exists during sleep. If we realise that a more or less pronounced
+degree of dissociation of the contents of the mind occurs during sleep,
+and if we also realise that, sleeping fully as much as waking, mind is
+a thing that instinctively reasons, and cannot refrain from building up
+hypotheses, then we may easily see how the personages and situations of
+dreams develop. Much the same process might, under some circumstances,
+occur in waking life. If, for instance, we heard an unknown voice speaking
+behind a curtain, we could not fail to build up an imaginary person in
+connection with that voice, the characteristics of the imaginary person
+being largely determined by the nature of the voice and of the things it
+uttered: it would, further, be quite easy to enter into conversation with
+the person we had thus constructed. That is what seems to occur in dreams.
+We hear a voice behind the curtain of darkness, and to fit that voice and
+the things it utters we instinctively form a picture which, in virtue of
+the hallucinatory aptitude of sleep, is thrown against the curtain; it is
+then quite easy to enter into conversation with the person we have thus
+constructed. It no more occurs to us during sleep to suppose that the
+voice we hear is only a voice and nothing more, than it would occur to us
+awake to suppose that the voice behind the curtain is only a voice and
+nothing more. The process is the same; the difference is that in dreams we
+are, without knowing it, living among what from the waking point of view
+are called hallucinations.
+
+This process by which dreams are formed in sleeping consciousness
+through the splitting of the dreamer's personality for the construction
+of other personalities has been recognised ever since dreams began to
+be seriously studied. Maury referred to the scission of personality in
+dreams.[168] Delboeuf dealt with what he termed the altruising by the
+dreamer of part of his representations.[169] Foucault terms the same
+process personalisation.[170] Giessler attempts elaborately to explain
+the enigma of self-diremption--the formation of a secondary self--in
+dreams; if, he argues, a touch or other sensation exceeds the dream-body's
+capacity of adaptation--_i.e._, if the state of stimulus is above the
+apperceptive threshold--only one part of the perception is referred to the
+dream-body and the other is transferred to a secondary self.[171] This
+explanation, while it very fairly covers the presentative class of dreams,
+directly connected with sensory stimuli, cannot so easily be applied to
+the dramatisation of our representative dreams, which are not obviously
+traceable to direct bodily stimulation.
+
+The splitting up of personality is indeed a very pronounced and widely
+extended tendency of the mind, and has, during recent years, been
+elaborately studied. We thus have the basis of that psychic phenomenon
+which is variously termed secondary personality, double personality,
+duplex personality, multiple personality, alternation of personality,
+etc.,[172] and in earlier ages was regarded as due to possession by
+demons. Such conditions seem to be usually associated with hysteria.
+The essential fact about hysteria is, according to Janet, its lack of
+synthetising power, which is at the same time a lack of attention and
+of apperception, and has as its result a disintegration of the field of
+consciousness into mutually exclusive parts; that is to say, there is a
+process of dissociation. Now that is a condition resembling, as we have
+seen, the condition found in dreaming. It is not, therefore, difficult to
+accept the view of Sollier and others, that hysteria is a condition allied
+to sleep, a condition of vigilambulism in which the patients are often
+unable to obtain normal sleep, simply because they are all the time in a
+state of abnormal sleep; as one said to Sollier: 'I cannot sleep because I
+am asleep all the time.' It may thus be the case that hysterical multiple
+personalities[173] furnish a pathological analogue of that tendency to the
+dramatic objectivation of portions of our personality which is normal and
+healthy in dreams.
+
+Similarly in insanity we have an even more constant and pronounced
+tendency for the subject to attribute his own sensations to imaginary
+individuals, and to create personalities out of portions of the real
+personality. All the illusions, delusions, and hallucinations of the
+insane are merely the manifold manifestations of this tendency. Without it
+the insanity would not exist. It is not because he is subjected to unusual
+sensations--visionary, auditory, tactile, olfactory, visceral, etc.--that
+a man is insane. It is because he creates imaginary personalities to
+account for these sensations; if his food tastes strange some one has
+given him poison if he hears a strange voice it is some one communicating
+with him by telephones or microphones or hypnotism; if he feels a strange
+internal sensation it is perhaps because he has another person inside
+him. The case has even been recorded of a man who attributed any feeling
+he experienced, even the most normal sensations of hunger and thirst, to
+the people around him. It is exactly the same process as goes on in our
+dreams. The sane man, the normal waking man, may experience all these
+strange sensations, but he recognises that they are the spontaneous
+outcome of his own organisation.
+
+We may, however, advance a step beyond this position. This
+self-objectivation, this dramatisation of our experiences, is not
+confined to sleep and to pathological conditions which resemble sleep.
+It is natural and primitive in a far wider sense. The infant will gaze
+inquisitively at its own feet, watch their movements, play with them,
+'punish' them; consciousness has not absorbed them as part of the
+self.[174] The infant really acts and feels towards the remote parts of
+his own body as the adult acts and feels in dreaming. We are reminded of
+the generalisation of Giessler that dream consciousness corresponds to
+the normal psychic state in childhood, while sleeping subconsciousness
+corresponds to the embryonic psychic state; so that the dream state
+represents the renascence of the ego disentangling itself from the
+impersonal sensations and indistinct images of the embryonic stage of
+life. That sleeping consciousness is the primitive embryonic consciousness
+is, indeed, indicated, it has often seemed to me, by the fact that in
+many animals the embryonic position is the position of rest and sleep.
+Ducklings and chicks in the shell have their heads beneath their wing. The
+dog lies with his feet together, head flexed, and hind-quarters drawn up.
+Man, alike in the womb and asleep, tends to be curled up, with the flexors
+predominating over the extensors.
+
+The savage has gone beyond the infant in ability to assimilate the
+impressions of his own limbs, but on the psychic side he still
+constantly tends to objectify his own feelings and ideas, re-creating
+them as external beings. Primitive man has done so from the first, and
+this impulse has struck its roots into all our most fundamental human
+traditions even as they survive in civilisation to-day. The man of
+the early world moves, like the dreamer, among a sea of emotions and
+ideas which he cannot recognise the origin of, and, like the dreamer,
+he instinctively dramatises them. But, unlike the dreamer, he gives
+stability to the images he has thus created and in good faith mistaken
+for independent beings. Thus we have the animistic stages of culture, and
+early man peoples his world with gods and spirits and demons and fairies
+and ghosts which enter into the traditions of his race, and are more or
+less accepted even by a later race which no longer creates them for itself.
+
+In our more advanced civilisations we are still struggling with later
+forms of that Protean tendency to objectify the self and to animate the
+things and even the people around us with our own spirit. The impatient
+and imperfectly bred child, or even man, kicks viciously the object he
+stumbles against, animate or inanimate, in order to revenge a wrong which
+exists only in himself. On a slightly higher plane, the men of mediæval
+times brought actions in the law courts against offending animals and
+solemnly pronounced sentence against them as 'criminals,'[175] while
+even to-day society still 'punishes' the human criminal because it has
+imaginatively re-created him in the image of an ordinary normal person,
+and lacks the intelligence to perceive that he has been moulded by the
+laws of his nature and environment into a creature which we do well to
+protect ourselves against, but have no right to 'punish.'[176] Everywhere
+we still see around us the surviving relics of this primitive tendency
+of men to project their own personalities into external objects. A fine
+civilisation lies largely in the due subordination of this tendency, in
+the realisation and control of our own emotional possibilities, and in the
+resultant growth of personal responsibility.
+
+It is thus impossible to over-estimate the immense importance of the
+primitive symbolic tendency to objectify the subjective. Men have taken
+out of their own hearts their best feelings and their worst feelings,
+and have personalised and dramatised them, bowed down to them or stamped
+on them, unable to hear the voice with which each of their images spoke:
+'I am thyself.' Our conceptions of religion, of morals, of many of the
+mightiest phenomena of life, especially the more exceptional phenomena,
+have grown up under this influence, which still serves to support many
+movements of to-day by some people imagined to be modern.
+
+Dreaming, as we have seen, is not the sole source of such conceptions.
+But they could scarcely have been found convincing, and possibly could
+not even have arisen, among races which were wholly devoid of dream
+experiences. A large part of all progress in psychological knowledge,
+and, indeed, a large part of civilisation itself, lies in realising that
+the apparently objective is really subjective, that the angels and demons
+and geniuses of all sorts that once seemed to be external forces taking
+possession of feeble and vacant individualities are themselves but modes
+of action of marvellously rich and varied personalities. In our dreams we
+are brought back into the magic circle of early culture, and we shrink and
+shudder in the presence of imaginative phantoms that are built up of our
+own thoughts and emotions, and are really our own flesh.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 130: See _e.g._ Galton, _Inquiries_ (Everyman's Library
+edition), pp. 79-112. Among more recent writings on this subject may
+be mentioned Bleuler, art. 'Secondary Sensations,' Tuke's _Dictionary
+of Psychological Medicine;_ Suarez de Mendoza, _L'Audition Colorée;_
+Jules Millet, _Audition Colorée;_ and especially a useful summary by
+Clavière, 'L'Audition Colorée,' _L'Année Psychologique_, fifth year,
+1899. A case of auditory gustation is recorded by A. M. Pierce, _American
+Journal of Psychology_, 1907. It may be noted that Boris Sidis has argued
+(_Psychological Review_, January 1904) that all hallucinations are of the
+nature of secondary sensations.]
+
+[Footnote 131: Ferrero, in his _Lois Psychologiques du Symbolisme_ (1895),
+deals broadly with symbolism in human thought and life.]
+
+[Footnote 132: _Revue Philosophique_, November 1902.]
+
+[Footnote 133: 'Richard Wagner et Tannhauser' in _L'Art Romantique_.]
+
+[Footnote 134: The motor imagery suggested by music is in some persons
+profuse and apparently capricious, and may be regarded as an anomaly
+comparable to a synaesthesia. Heine was an example of this, and he has
+described in _Florentine Nights_ the visions aroused by the playing of
+Paganini, and elsewhere the visions evoked in him by the music of Berlioz.
+Though I do not myself experience this phenomenon, I have found that there
+is sometimes a tendency for music to arouse ideas of motor imagery; thus
+some melodies of Handel suggest a giant painting frescoes on a vast wall
+space. The most elementary motor relationship of music is seen in the
+tendency of many people to sway portions of their body--to 'beat time'--in
+sympathy with the music. (This phenomenon has been experimentally studied
+by J. B. Miner, 'Motor, Visual, and Applied Rhythms,' Monograph Supplement
+to the _Psychological Review_, vol. v., No. 4, June 1903). Music is
+fundamentally an audible dance, and the most primitive music is dance
+music.]
+
+[Footnote 135: The instinctive nature of this tendency is shown by the
+fact that it persists even in sleep. Thus Weygandt relates that he once
+fell asleep in the theatre during one of the last scenes of _Cavalleria
+Rusticana_, when the tenor was singing in ever higher and higher tones,
+and dreamed that in order to reach the notes the performer was climbing up
+ladders and stairs on the stage.]
+
+[Footnote 136: See, especially the attractive book of André Pirro,
+_L'Esthétique de J. S. Bach_ (1907), and also Albert Schweitzer, _J. S.
+Bach_ (1908), especially chapters xix.-xxiii. 'Concrete things,' says
+Ernest Newman, summarising some of these results (_Nation_, December 25,
+1909), 'incessantly suggested abstract ideas or inward moods to Bach, and
+_vice versâ_. He would time after time use the same musical formula for
+the same word or idea. He first suggests the external concepts of "high"
+and "low," as other composers have done, by high or low notes, and motion
+up or down by ascending or descending themes. But Bach correlates with
+the outward, objective thing a whole series of things that are purely
+subjective. Thus moods of elation or of depression are to him the mental
+equivalents of the physical acts of going up or down. So he gives us a
+whole series of ascending themes to words that express "mounting" states
+of mind, as it were--such as pride, courage, strength, resolution--and
+descending themes to words that express "declining" states of mind--such
+as prostration, adoration, depression, discouragement, grief at sin,
+humility, poverty, fatigue, and illness. For the two sets of concepts,
+internal and external, he will use the same musical symbols. To represent
+the physical concept of "surrounding," again, he adopts the device of
+a circling or undulating theme. A crown or a garland suggests the same
+idea to him, so for this, too, he uses the same kind of theme. But
+the correspondence goes still further; for when he comes to the word
+"considering," he uses the same curving musical symbol once more--his
+notion of "considering" being that of looking round on all sides. Again, a
+word of purely external signification that suggests something twisted will
+have an appropriately twisted theme. Then come the subjective applications
+of the theme--the same disordered melodic outline is used to express a
+frame of mind like anxiety or confusion, or to depict the wiles of Satan.
+Careful study of the vocal works of Bach, and especially of the cantatas,
+has revealed a host of these curious symbols.' The whole subject, it may
+be added, has been briefly and suggestively discussed by Goblot, 'La
+Musique Descriptive,' _Revue Philosophique_, July 1901.]
+
+[Footnote 137: T. Piderit, _Mimik und Physiognomik_, 1867, p. 73.]
+
+[Footnote 138: J. Cleland, _Evolution, Expression and Sensation_, 1881.]
+
+[Footnote 139: Féré, 'La Physiologie dans les Métaphores,' _Revue
+Philosophique_, October 1895.]
+
+[Footnote 140: Maeder discusses symbolism in some of these fields in
+his 'Die Symbolik in den Legenden, Märchen, Gebräuchen und Träumen,'
+_Psychiatrisch-Neurologische Wochenschrift_, Nos. 6 and 7, May 1908.]
+
+[Footnote 141: So Philostratus, and Pliny (_Natural History_, Bk. X. ch.
+CCXI.) puts the same point on somewhat more natural grounds.]
+
+[Footnote 142: It has been translated by F. S. Krauss, _Symbolik der
+Träume_, 1881.]
+
+[Footnote 143: A translation of Synesius's 'Treatise on Dreams' is
+included in Druon's _Œuvres de Synésius_, pp. 347 _et seq._ Synesius is
+probably best known to modern English readers through Charles Kingsley's
+novel, _Hypatia_. His treatise on dreams has been unduly neglected, though
+it commended itself mightily to the pioneering mind of Lord Monboddo, who
+even says (_Ancient Metaphysics_, vol. ii., 1782, p. 217) in reference
+to this treatise: 'Indeed it appears to me that since the days of Plato
+and Aristotle there has not been a philosopher of greater depth than
+Synesius.']
+
+[Footnote 144: K. A. Scherner, _Das Leben des Traumes_, 1861. In France
+Hervey de Saint-Denis, in a remarkable anonymous work which I have
+not seen (_Les Rêves et les Moyens de les Diriger_, p. 356, quoted by
+Vaschide and Piéron, _Psychologie du Rêve_, p. 26), tentatively put
+forward a symbolic theory of dreams, as a possible rival to the theory
+that permanent associations are set up as the result of a first chance
+coincidence. 'Do there exist,' he asked, 'bizarre analogies of internal
+sensations in virtue of which certain vibrations of the nerves, certain
+instinctive movements of our viscera, correspond to sensations apparently
+quite different? According to this hypothesis experience would bring
+to light mysterious affinities, the knowledge of which might become a
+genuine science;... and a real key to dreams would not be an unrealisable
+achievement if we could bring together and compare a sufficient number of
+observations.']
+
+[Footnote 145: It is interesting to note that hallucinations may
+also be symbolic. Thus the Psychical Research Society's Committee on
+Hallucinations recognised a symbolic group, and recorded, for instance,
+the case of a man who, when his child lies dying, sees a blue flame in the
+air and hears a voice say, 'That's his soul' (_Proceedings Society for
+Psychical Research_, August 1894, p. 125).]
+
+[Footnote 146: Maeder states that the tendency to symbolism in dreams and
+similar modes of psychic activity is due to 'vague thinking in a condition
+of diminished attention.' This is, however, an inadequate statement and
+misses the central point.]
+
+[Footnote 147: In the other spheres in which symbolism most tends to
+appear, the same or allied conditions exist. In hallucinations, which (as
+Parish and others have shown) tend to occur in hypnagogic or sleep-like
+states, the conditions are clearly the same. The symbolism of an art, and
+notably music, is due to the very conditions of the art, which exclude
+any appeal to other senses. The primitive mind reaches symbolism through
+a similar condition of things, coming as the result of ignorance and
+undeveloped powers of apperception. In insanity these powers are morbidly
+disturbed or destroyed, with the same result.]
+
+[Footnote 148: The magnification we experience in dreams is manifested
+in their emotional aspects and in the emotional transformation of
+actual sensory stimuli, from without or from within the organism. The
+size of objects recalled by dreaming memory usually remains unchanged,
+and if changed it seems to be more usually diminished. 'Lilliputian
+hallucinations,' as they are termed by Leroy, who has studied them (_Revue
+de Psychiatrie_, 1909, No. 8), in which diminutive, and frequently
+coloured, people are observed, may also occasionally occur in alcoholic
+and chloral intoxication, in circular insanity, and in various other
+morbid mental conditions. They are usually agreeable in character.]
+
+[Footnote 149: Sollier, 'L'Autoscopie Interne,' _Revue Philosophique_,
+January 1903. Sollier deals with the objections made to the reality of the
+phenomenon.]
+
+[Footnote 150: 'Many people,' writes Dr. Marie de Manacéïne (_Sleep_,
+1897, p. 294), 'when threatened by a gastric or intestinal attack dream
+of seeing fish. The late Professor Sergius Botkine told me that he had
+found this coincidence in his own case, and I have myself several times
+found it in the case of a young girl who is well known to me. Some have
+supposed that the sleeping consciousness receives an impression of the
+elongated shape of the stomach or intestine; but such a supposition is
+easier to make than to prove.' Scherner associated dreams of fish with
+sensations arising from the bladder, and here also it may be said that we
+are concerned with a fish-like viscus. Greenwood (_Imagination in Dreams_,
+p. 195) stated that he had always been subject, at intervals of months
+or years, to a recurrent dream in which he would see a river swarming
+with fish that were finally piled in a horrible sweltering mass; this
+dream always left a feeling of 'squalid horror,' but he was never able to
+ascertain its cause and significance.]
+
+[Footnote 151: Freud states (_Die Traumdeutung_, p. 233) that he knows a
+case in which (as in the _Song of Songs_) columns and pillars appear in
+dreams as symbols of the legs, and doors as symbols of the openings of the
+body.]
+
+[Footnote 152: Freud, _Die Traumdeutung_, p. 66. This work, published
+in 1900, is the chief and most extensive statement of Freud's views. A
+shorter statement is embodied in a little volume of the 'Grenzfrägen'
+Series, _Ueber den Traum_, 1901. A brief exposition of Freud's position
+is given by Dr. A. Maeder of Zurich in 'Essai d'Interpretation de
+Quelques Rêves,' _Archives de Psychologie_, April 1907; as also by
+Ernest Jones ('Freud's Theory of Dreams,' _Review of Neurology and
+Psychiatry_, March 1910, and _American Journal of Psychology_, April
+1910). For Freud's general psychological doctrine, see Brill's translation
+of 'Freud's Selected Papers on Hysteria,' 1909. There have been many
+serious criticisms of Freud's methods. As an example of such criticism,
+accompanying an exposition of the methods, reference may be made to Max
+Isserlin's 'Die Psychoanalytische Methode Freuds,' _Zeitschrift für die
+Gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie_, Bd. 1. Heft i. 1910. A judicious
+and qualified criticism of Freud's psychotherapeutic methods is given by
+Löwenfeld ('Zum gegenwärtigen Stande der Psychotherapeutie,' _Münchener
+medizinische Wochenschrift_, Nos. 3 and 4, 1910).]
+
+[Footnote 153: I have set forth Freud's views of hysteria, now regarded as
+almost epoch-making in character, in _Studies of the Psychology of Sex_,
+vol. i. 3rd ed. pp. 219 _et seq._]
+
+[Footnote 154: This is supported by the fact that in waking reverie, or
+day-dreams, wishes are obviously the motor force in building up visionary
+structures. Freud attaches great importance to reverie, for he considers
+that it furnishes the key to the comprehension of dreams (_e.g._ _Sammlung
+Kleiner Schriften zur Neurosenlehre_, 2nd series, pp. 138 _et seq._,
+197 _et seq._). But it must be remembered that day-dreaming is not real
+dreaming, which takes place under altogether different physiological
+conditions, although it may quite fairly be claimed that day-dreaming
+represents a state intermediate between ordinary waking consciousness and
+consciousness during sleep.]
+
+[Footnote 155: The special characteristics of dreaming in the hysterical
+were studied, before Freud turned his attention to the question, by
+Sante de Sanctis (_I Sogni e il Sonno nell' Isterismo_, 1896). See also
+Havelock Ellis, _Studies in the Psychology of Sex_, vol. i. 3rd ed., 1910,
+'Auto-erotism.']
+
+[Footnote 156: Gissing, the novelist, an acute observer of psychic states,
+in the most of his books, _The Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft_, has
+described this phenomenon: 'Every one, I suppose, is subject to a trick of
+mind which often puzzles me. I am reading or thinking, and at a moment,
+without any association or suggestion that I can discover, there rises
+before me the vision of a place I know. Impossible to explain why that
+particular spot should show itself to my mind's eye; the cerebral impulse
+is so subtle that no search may trace its origin.' Gissing proceeds to say
+that a thought, a phrase, an odour, a touch, a posture of the body, may
+possibly have furnished the link of association, but he knows no evidence
+for this theory.]
+
+[Footnote 157: Extrospection has been specially studied by Vaschide and
+Vurpas in _La Logique Morbide_.]
+
+[Footnote 158: On the psychic importance of fears, see G. Stanley Hall,
+'A Study of Fears,' _American Journal of Psychology_, 1897, p. 183.
+Metchnikoff (_Essais Optimistes_, pp. 247 _et seq._) insists on the
+mingled fear and strength of the anthropoid apes.]
+
+[Footnote 159: Foucault has pointed this out, and Morton Prince, and
+Giessler (who admits that the wish-dream is common in children), and
+Flournoy (who remarks that not only a fear but any emotion can be equally
+effective), as well as Claparède. The last remarks that Freud might regard
+a fear as a suppressed desire, but it may equally be said that a desire
+involves, on its reverse side, a fear. Freud has indeed himself pointed
+out (_e.g._ _Jahrbuch für Psychoanalytische Forschungen_, Bd. 1., 1909, p.
+362) that fears may be instinctively combined with wishes; he regards the
+association with a wish of an opposing fear as one of the components of
+some morbid psychic states. But he holds that the wish is the positive and
+fundamental element: 'The unconscious can only wish' ('Das Unbewusste kann
+nichts als wünschen'), a statement that seems somewhat too metaphysical
+for the psychologist.]
+
+[Footnote 160: Thus A. Wiggam ('A Contribution to the Data of Dream
+Psychology,' _Pedagogical Seminary_, June 1909) records a great many
+wish-dreams, mostly in the young.]
+
+[Footnote 161: Laud, _Works_, vol. iii. p. 144.]
+
+[Footnote 162: Havelock Ellis, _Studies in the Psychology of Sex_, vol.
+iii., 'Love and Pain.']
+
+[Footnote 163: The dramatic element in dreaming was dealt with at length
+by Carl du Prel (_Philosophy of Mysticism_, vol. i. ch. iii.), but he
+threw little light on it.]
+
+[Footnote 164: Thus in the Psychical Research Society's 'Report on the
+_Census of Hallucinations_,' the case is given of an over-worked and
+worried man who, a few moments after leaving a tram car, had the vivid
+feeling that some one touched him on the shoulder, though on turning round
+he found no one near. He then remembered that on the car he had been
+leaning against an iron bolt, and that, therefore, what he had experienced
+was doubtless a spontaneous muscular contraction excited by the pressure
+(_Proceedings, Society for Psychical Research_, August 1894, p. 3).
+Touches felt on awakening, in correspondence with a dream, are not so
+very uncommon. Thus Wagner, when in love with Mathilde Wesendonk, wrote,
+in the private diary he kept for her, how, after a dream, 'as I awoke I
+distinctly felt a kiss on my brow.']
+
+[Footnote 165: Various pressures lead to dreams of blood. Thus a friend
+with a weak heart tells me that when he sleeps on his left side he dreams
+of blood. In some of these cases it is possible that there are retinal
+sensations of red.]
+
+[Footnote 166: In the _Census of Hallucinations_ (chapter ix.) it
+was pointed out by the Psychical Research Society's Committee that
+hallucinations are specially apt to occur on awakening, or in the state
+between sleeping and waking; and Parish in his very searching study,
+_Hallucinations and Illusions_ (Contemporary Science Series), has further
+developed this fact and insisted on its significance.]
+
+[Footnote 167: Dr. Johnson's remark on this point has often been quoted.
+He dreamed that he had been worsted in a verbal argument, and was thereby
+much mortified. 'Had not my judgment failed me,' he said, 'I should have
+seen that the wit of this supposed antagonist, by whose superiority I felt
+myself depressed, was as much furnished by me as that which I thought I
+had been uttering in my own character' (Boswell's _Johnson_, ed. by Hill,
+vol. iv. p. 5).]
+
+[Footnote 168: Maury, _Le Sommeil et les Rêves_, 1861, p. 118.]
+
+[Footnote 169: Delbœuf, _Le Sommeil et les Rêves_, pp. 24, _et seq_.]
+
+[Footnote 170: Foucault, _Le Rêve_, p. 137.]
+
+[Footnote 171: Giessler, 'Das Ich im Träume,' _Zeitschrift für Psychologie
+und Physiologie der Sinnesorgane_, 1905, Heft 4 and 5, pp. 300 _et seq._]
+
+[Footnote 172: See especially Pierre Janet's works, and also those of
+Morton Prince, Albert Wilson, etc. Flournoy's very elaborate study of
+Mlle. Helène Smith (_Des Indes à la Planète Mars_, 1900) is noteworthy. A
+summary of some important cases of multiple personality will be found in
+Marie de Manacéïne's _Sleep_, pp. 127 _et seq._, and some bibliographical
+references, _ib._ p. 151.]
+
+[Footnote 173: J. Milne Bramwell argues ('Secondary and Multiple
+Personalities,' _Brain_, 1900) that such cases are not invariably
+hysterical.]
+
+[Footnote 174: See G. Stanley Hall, 'The Early Sense of Self,' _American
+Journal of Psychology_, April 1898. Cooley ('The Early Use of Self-Words
+by a Child,' _Psychological Review_, 1909, p. 94) finds that the child
+distinguishes between itself as (1) body and as (2) self-assertion united
+with action; it refers to the former as 'Baby,' and to the latter as 'I.']
+
+[Footnote 175: See, _e.g._, Havelock Ellis, _The Criminal_, 4th ed., 1910,
+p. 367.]
+
+[Footnote 176: In the existing traditions of law and police, it is
+still possible to find many survivals of this tendency to objectify
+subjective impressions. Thus Mr. Theodore Schroeder has shown (_Free Press
+Anthology_, 1909, pp. 171 _et seq._) that the prosecutions which have in
+various so-called civilised countries pursued many estimable and even
+noble works of literature, science, and art are based on the primitive
+notion that 'indecency' resides in the object and not in the person who
+experiences the feeling, and who ought, therefore, alone to be suppressed,
+if suppression is called for. This psychological fallacy continues to
+subsist, though it was unmasked in the clearest manner even by St.
+Paul (_e.g._ Romans xiv. 14). It is somewhat analogous to the mediæval
+conception of the criminality of animals.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+DREAMS OF THE DEAD
+
+    Mental Dissociation during Sleep--Illustrated by the Dream
+    of Returning to School Life--The Typical Dream of a Dead
+    Friend--Examples--Early Records of this Type of Dream--Analysis of
+    such Dreams--Atypical Forms--The Consolation sometimes afforded
+    by Dreams of the Dead--Ancient Legends of this Dream Type--The
+    Influence of Dreams on the Belief of Primitive Man in the Survival
+    of the Dead.
+
+
+Our memories tend to fall into groups or systems. We all possess a great
+number of such systematised groups of impressions. Every period of life,
+every subject we have occupied ourselves with, every intimate friend
+we have had, each represents a more or less separate mass of ideas and
+feelings. Within each system one idea or feeling easily calls up another
+belonging to the same system. Moreover, in full and alert waking life,
+each system is in touch with the systems related to it. If there crowd
+into the field of consciousness the memories belonging to one period of
+life, or one country we have lived in, we can control and criticise those
+memories by reference to others belonging to another period or another
+country. If we are overwhelmed by the thoughts and emotions associated
+with the memory of one friend we can restore our mental balance by evoking
+the thoughts and emotions associated with another friend. The various
+systems are in this way co-ordinated in apperception.[177]
+
+In sleep, however, these groups are not usually so firmly held together
+by the cords along which we can move in our waking moments from one to
+the other. They are, as it were, loosened from their moorings, and on
+the sea of sleeping consciousness they drift apart or jostle together
+in new and what seem to be random associations. This is that process of
+dissociation which we find so marked in dreaming, and in all those psychic
+phenomena--hallucinations, hysteria, multiple personality, insanity--which
+are allied to dreaming.
+
+A simple illustration of the clash and confusion of two opposing systems
+of memories in dreams, when due apperceptive control is lacking, is
+supplied by a common and well-recognised type of dream, the dream of
+returning to the school of youth.[178] Many people are occasionally
+liable to this dream, which is often vivid and disturbing. We may have
+left the schoolroom thirty years or more ago, and never seen it since;
+it may have vanished from our waking thoughts. Yet from time to time we
+find ourselves there in our dreams, and called upon to take our old
+place, always with a sense of conflict, a vague discomfort, a feeling of
+something incongruous and humiliating, for we realise that we are now too
+old. Here is a dream in illustration: I find myself back at my old school,
+but my old schoolmaster is not there; he is away ill, as I am told by his
+substitute, whose face somehow seems familiar, though I cannot recall
+where I have seen it. I do not know any of the boys; I am returning after
+an absence of some months. I realise that I am to take my old place again,
+and yet I feel a profound repulsion to do so, a sense that it is somehow
+incongruous. This latter feeling seems to prevail, for I finally assume
+the part of a visitor, and remark, insincerely, to the master that it is
+pleasant to see the old place again.
+
+In such a case as this it seems that a picture from an ancient system
+of memories floats across the field of sleeping consciousness, and the
+dreamer is naturally drawn into that system and begins to adapt himself
+to its demands. But, as he does so, the influence of other later and
+incompatible systems of memories begins unconsciously to affect the
+dreamer.[179] The cords of connection, however, which when awake would
+enable him to adjust critically the opposing systems, are not acting;
+apperception is defective. Yet the opposing systems are there, outside
+the immediate field of consciousness, and jostling the ancient system
+which has come into the central focus. Finally this jostling of the
+ancient system by more recent systems causes a harmonising modification
+in consciousness. The dreamer ceases to be a boy in his old school, and
+assumes the part of a visitor.
+
+Dreams of our recently dead friends furnish a type of dream which is
+formed in exactly the same way as these dreams of a return to school
+life. The only difference is that they often present it in a more vivid,
+pronounced, and poignantly emotional shape. This is so, partly from
+the very subject of such dreams, and partly because the fact of death
+definitely divides our impressions of our dead friends into two groups,
+which are intimately allied to each other by their subject, and yet
+absolutely opposed by the fact that in the one group the friend is alive,
+and in the other dead.
+
+I proceed to present two series of dreams--one in a man, the other in a
+woman--illustrating this type of dream.[180]
+
+_Observation I._--Mr. C., age about twenty-eight, a man of scientific
+training and aptitudes. Shortly after his mother's death he repeatedly
+dreamed that she had come to life again. She had been buried, but it was
+somehow found out that she was not really dead. Mr. C. describes the
+painful intellectual struggles that went on in these dreams, the arguments
+in favour of death from the impossibility of prolonged life in the grave,
+and how these doubts were finally swallowed up in a sense of wonder and
+joy because his mother was actually there, alive, in his dream.
+
+These dreams became less frequent as time went on, but some years later
+occurred an isolated dream which clearly shows a further stage in the
+same process. Mr. C. dreamed that his father had just returned home, and
+that he (the dreamer) was puzzled to make out where his mother was. After
+puzzling a long time he asked his sister, but at the very moment he asked
+it flashed upon him--more, he thinks, with a feeling of relief at the
+solution of a painful difficulty than with grief--that his mother was dead.
+
+_Observation II._--Mrs. F., age about thirty, highly intelligent but of
+somewhat emotional temperament. A week after the death of a lifelong
+friend to whom she was greatly attached, Mrs. F. dreamed for the first
+time of her friend, finding that she was alive, and then in the course of
+the dream discovering that she had been buried alive.
+
+A second dream occurred on the following night. Mrs. F. imagined that she
+went to see her friend, whom she found in bed, and to whom she told the
+strange things that she had heard (_i.e._, that the friend was dead). Her
+friend then gave Mrs. F. a few things as souvenirs. But on leaving the
+room Mrs. F. was told that her friend was really dead, and had spoken to
+her after death.
+
+In a fourth dream, at a subsequent date, Mrs. F. imagined that her friend
+came to her, saying that she had returned to earth for a few minutes to
+give her messages and to assure her that she was happy in another world
+and in the enjoyment of the fullest life.
+
+Another dream occurred more than a year later. Some one brought to Mrs.
+F., in her dream, the news that her friend was still alive; she was taken
+to her and found her as in life. The friend said she had been away, but
+did not explain where or why she had been supposed dead. Mrs. F. asked no
+questions and felt no curiosity, being absorbed in the joy of finding her
+friend still alive, and they proceeded to talk over the things that had
+happened since they last met. It was a very vivid, natural, and detailed
+dream, and on awaking Mrs. F. felt somewhat exhausted. Although not
+superstitious, the dream gave her a feeling of consolation.
+
+The next series has been observed more recently. I include all the dreams
+and the intervals at which they occurred. The somewhat unexpected news
+reached me of the death of a near and lifelong friend when I was myself
+recovering from an attack of influenza. No dream which could be connected
+with this event occurred until about a fortnight later[181] (16th
+January). I then dreamed that I was with my friend and asking him (he had
+been a clergyman and Biblical scholar) whether, in his opinion, Jesus had
+been able to speak Greek. I awoke before I received his answer, but no
+sort of doubt, hesitation, or surprise was aroused by his appearance alive.
+
+Nineteen days later (4th February) occurred the next dream. This time I
+dreamed that my friend was just dead, and that I was gazing at a postcard
+of good wishes, written partly in Latin, which he had sent me a few days
+before (on the actual date of my birthday), and regretting that I had not
+answered it. There was no doubt in my mind as to the fact of his death.
+(I may remark that the last letter I had written to my friend was on his
+birthday, and he had been unable to reply, so that there was here one
+of those reversals which Freud and others have noted as not uncommon in
+dreams.)
+
+The next dream occurred thirty-four days later (10th March). I thought
+that I met my friend, and at once realised that it was not he but his wife
+who had died, and I clasped his hand sympathetically.
+
+Some months later (27th July) I again dreamed that I was walking with my
+friend and talking, as we might have talked, on topics of common interest.
+But at the same time I knew, and he knew that I knew, that he was to die
+on the morrow.
+
+Once more, a fortnight later (10th August), I dreamed that I had an
+appointment to meet my friend in a certain road, but he failed to appear.
+I began to wonder whether he had forgotten the appointment, or I had made
+a mistake, and I was seeking for the letter making the appointment when I
+awoke.
+
+It would appear that the dreams of this type are less pronounced in the
+ratio of the less pronounced affectional intensity of the relationship
+which unites the friends. The next dream concerned a man for whom I had
+the highest esteem and regard, but had not been intimately associated
+with. I dreamed that I saw this friend, who was the editor of a
+psychological journal, alive and well in his room, together with two
+foreign psychologists also known to me, who had apparently succeeded him
+in the editorship of the journal, for I saw their names on the title-page
+of a number of it which was put in my hands. It surprised me that, though
+alive and well, he should have ceased to edit the journal; the theory
+by which I satisfactorily accounted to myself for his appearance was
+that, though he had been so near death that his life was despaired of,
+he had not actually died; his death had been prematurely reported. It
+flashed across my dream consciousness, indeed, that I had read obituaries
+of my friend in the papers, but this reminiscence merely suggested the
+reflection that some one had been guilty of a grave indiscretion.[182]
+
+Although no attempt had been made to analyse this type of dream before
+1895, the dream itself had often been noted down, as from its poignant
+and affecting character it could not fail to be. An early example is
+furnished by the philosopher Gassendi, who states that he dreamed he met a
+friend, that he greeted him as one returned from the dead, and that then,
+saying to himself in his dream that this was impossible, he concluded
+that he must be dreaming.[183] Pepys, again, in his _Diary_, on the 29th
+June 1667, a few months after his mother's death, dreamed that 'my mother
+told me she lacked a pair of gloves, and I remembered a pair of my wife's
+in my chamber, and resolved she should have them, but then recollected
+[reflected] how my mother came to be here when I was in mourning for
+her, and so thinking it to be a mistake in our thinking her all this
+while dead, I did contrive that it should be said to any that inquired
+that it was my mother-in-law, my wife's mother, that was dead, and we in
+mourning for.' This dream, Pepys adds, 'did trouble me mightily.' Edmond
+de Goncourt, in his _Journal_ (27th July 1870), well describes how in
+the first dream of the dead brother to whom he was so tenderly attached,
+the two streams of memories appeared. He dreamed he was walking with
+his brother, but at the same time he knew he was in mourning for him,
+and friends were coming up to offer condolences; the emotions caused by
+the conflict of these two certainties--his brother's life affirmed by
+his presence and his death affirmed by all the other circumstances of
+the dream--was profoundly distressing. A few years earlier Renan, when
+his dearly loved sister Henrietta died by his side in the Lebanon, also
+had dreams of this type, which deeply affected even his cautious and
+sceptical nature. She had died of Syrian fever, from which he also was
+suffering, and shortly afterwards he wrote in a letter that 'in feverish
+dreams a terrible doubt has risen up before me; I have fancied I heard
+her voice calling to me from the vault where she was laid.' He comforted
+himself, however, with the thought that this horrible supposition was
+unjustified, since French doctors had been present at her death. Maury[184]
+also mentions that he had often had dreams of this type in which the dead
+appeared as living, though the sight of them always produced astonishment
+and doubt which the sleeping brain endeavoured to allay by some kind of
+explanation. Beaunis also describes how he has dreamed with surprise
+of meeting a friend whom even in his dream he knew to be dead.[185]
+
+It is not difficult, in the light of all that we have been able to learn
+regarding the psychology of the world of dreams, to account for the
+process here described, for its frequency, and for its poignant emotional
+effects. This dream type is only a special variety of the commonest
+species of dream, in which two or more groups of reminiscences flow
+together and form a single bizarre congruity, a _confusion_ in the strict
+sense of the word. The death of a friend sets up a barrier which cuts into
+two the stream of impressions concerning that friend. Thus, two streams
+of images flow into sleeping consciousness, one representing the friend
+as alive, the other as dead. The first stream comes from older and richer
+sources; the second is more poignant, but also more recent and more easily
+exhausted. The two streams break against each other in restless conflict,
+both, from the inevitable conditions of dream life, being accepted as
+true, and they eventually mix to form an absurd harmony, in which the
+older and stronger images (in accordance with that recognised tendency
+for old psychic impressions generally to be most stable) predominate over
+those that are more recent. Thus, in the first observation the dreamer
+seems to have begun his dream by imagining that his mother was alive as
+of old; then his more recent experiences interfered with the assertion
+of her death. This resulted in a struggle between the old-established
+images representing her as alive and the later ones representing her as
+dead. The idea that she had come to life again was evidently a theory
+that had arisen in his brain to harmonise these two opposing currents.
+The theory was not accepted easily; all sorts of scientific objections
+arose to oppose it, but there could be no doubt, for his mother was
+there. The dreamer is in the same position as a paranoiac who constantly
+seems to hear threatening voices; henceforth he is absorbed in inventing
+a theory (electricity, hypnotism, or whatever it may be) to account for
+his hallucinations, and his whole view of life is modified accordingly.
+The dreamer, in the cases I am here concerned with, sees an image of the
+dead person as alive, and is therefore compelled to invent a theory to
+account for this image; the theories that most easily suggest themselves
+are either that the dead person has never really died, or else that he
+has come back from the dead for a brief space. The mental and emotional
+conflict which such dreams involve renders them very vivid. They make a
+profound impression even after awakening, and for some sensitive persons
+are almost too sacred to speak of.
+
+When a series of these dreams occurs concerning the same dead friend
+the tendency seems to be, on the whole--though there are certainly many
+exceptions--for the living reality of the vision of the dead friend to be
+more and more positively affirmed. Whether awake or asleep, it is very
+difficult for us to resist the evidence of our senses. It is even more
+difficult asleep than awake, for, as we have seen reason to believe,
+apperception, with the critical control it involves, is weakened. Just
+as the savage or the child accepts as a reality the illusion of the sun
+traversing the sky, just as the paranoiac accepts the reality of the
+hallucinations he is subjected to, and gradually weaves them into a more
+or less plausible theory, so the dreamer seems to employ all the acutest
+powers of sleeping reason available to construct a theory in support of
+the reality of the visions of his dead friend.
+
+Sometimes atypical dreams of the dead occur in which even from the first
+there appears little clash or doubt. When the vision can thus easily be
+accepted, it is sometimes a source of consolation, joy, and even religious
+faith which may still persist in the waking state. Chabaneix has, for
+instance, recorded the dream experiences of a poet and philosopher who
+had been deeply attached to a woman with whom his relations were both
+passionate and intellectual. From the night after her death onwards, at
+intervals, he had dreams of the beloved woman, at first appearing as
+a floating vision, later as a vividly seen and tangible person; these
+dreams caused refreshment and mental invigoration, and seemed to bring the
+dreamer into renewed communication with his dead friend.[186]
+
+I am indebted to a clergyman for the record of a somewhat similar
+experience. 'A close friendship,' he writes, 'once existed between myself
+and a lady, somewhat older, and of a religious temperament. We often
+discussed the life beyond the grave, and agreed that if she died first,
+and this appeared more than probable, as she was the victim of a mortal
+disease, she would appear to me. I may add that she was of a highly-strung
+and nervous nature, and though purely English had many of the psychic
+characteristics of the Celt. After her death, I looked for some appearance
+or manifestation, and about three days after dreamed that she had come
+back to me, and was discussing with me a matter which I much wished to
+speak about before her death, but was unable to, owing to her weakness and
+the presence of strangers. In the dream it was perfectly clear to me that
+she was a dead woman back from another sphere of existence. For some weeks
+after this I had similar experiences. They were never dreams of the old
+life and friendship before death, but always reappearances from the other
+world. Of course it may be said of this experience of mine, that it was
+merely the result of expectation. But I have found that the things most on
+my mind are rarely the subject of my dreams. Moreover, these dreams formed
+a series, lasting for weeks, and all of the same character, though the
+conversations differed.'
+
+When a dreamer awakes in an emotional state which corresponds to a dream
+he has just experienced, it is usually a safe assumption that the dream
+was the result, and not the cause, of the emotional state. That is by
+no means always the case, however, and in the type of dream we are here
+concerned with it is rarely the case. Even though it may be quite true
+that an emotional state evoked the dream, it is equally true that in
+its turn the dream itself may arouse an emotional state. The dream of
+encountering a celestial visitant, especially if the visitant is a beloved
+friend, cannot fail to produce an especial effect of this kind. It is
+noteworthy that the emotional influence may be present even when the fact
+of dreaming has not been recalled. Thus a lady who, on waking in the
+morning could not remember having dreamed, realised during the day that
+she was feeling as she was accustomed to feel after dreaming of a beloved
+friend, and was ultimately able to recall fragments of the dream.[187] A
+man of so great an intellect as Goethe has borne witness to the consoling
+influence of dreams. 'I have had times in my life,' he said, in old age,
+to Eckermann, 'when I have fallen asleep in tears, but in my dreams the
+loveliest figures come to give me comfort and happiness, and I awake next
+morning once more fresh and cheerful.'[188]
+
+If we take a wide sweep we shall find in many parts of the world stories
+and legends concerning the relationship of the living with the dead which
+have a singular resemblance with the typical dream of the dead here
+investigated. Thus, in Japan, it appears that stories of the returning
+of the dead are very common. Lafcadio Hearn reproduces one, as told by a
+Japanese, which closely resembles some of the dreams we have met with.
+'A lover resolved to commit suicide on the grave of his sweetheart. He
+found her tomb and knelt before it, and prayed and wept, and whispered
+to her that which he was about to do. And suddenly he heard her voice
+cry to him "Anata!" and felt her hand upon his hand: and he turned and
+saw her kneeling beside him, smiling and beautiful as he remembered her,
+only a little pale. Then his heart leaped so that he could not speak for
+the wonder and the doubt and the joy of that moment. But she said, "Do
+not doubt; it is really I. I am not dead. It was all a mistake. I was
+buried because my parents thought me dead--buried too soon. Yet you see
+I am not dead, not a ghost. It is I; do not doubt it!"' It is perhaps
+worth mentioning that the incident told in the Fourth Gospel (xx. 11-18)
+as occurring to Mary Magdalene when at the tomb of Jesus, recalls the
+dream process of fusion of images. She turns and sees, as she thinks, the
+gardener, but in the course of conversation it flashes on her that he is
+Jesus, risen from the tomb. In quite another part of the world the Salish
+Indians of British Columbia have a story of a man who goes back to the
+spirit-world to reclaim his lost wife; this can only be done under special
+conditions, and for some time refraining to touch her; if he breaks these
+conditions she vanishes in his arms, and he is left alone.[189] That
+story, again, cannot fail to remind us of the almost identical Greek
+legend of the return of Orpheus to the under-world to reclaim his dead
+wife Eurydice. If these myths and legends were not directly based on the
+dream-process, it can only be on the ground, alleged with some force by
+Freud's school, that myths and legends themselves develop by means of the
+same mechanism as dreams.
+
+The probable influence of dreams in originating or confirming the
+primitive belief of men in a spirit world has often been set forth.
+Herbert Spencer attached great importance to this factor in the
+constitution of the belief in another world, in spirits and in gods.[190]
+Wundt even considers that such dreams furnish the whole origin of animism.
+Other writers, less closely associated with anthropological psychology,
+have argued in the same sense.[191]
+
+But while these thinkers have in some cases specifically referred to
+dreams of the dead, and not merely to the widespread belief of savages
+that in sleep the soul leaves the body to wander over the earth, they have
+never realised that there is a special mechanism in the typical dream of
+a dead friend, due to mental dissociation during sleep, which powerfully
+suggests to us that death sets up no fatal barrier to the return of the
+dead. In dreams the dead are thus rendered indestructible; they cannot be
+finally killed, but rather tend to reappear in ever more clearly affirmed
+vitality. Dreams of this sort must certainly have come to men ever since
+men began to be. If their emotional effects are great to-day, we can well
+believe that they were much greater in the early days when dream life and
+what we call real life were less easily distinguished. The repercussion
+of this kind of dream through unmeasured ages cannot fail to have told at
+last on the traditions of the race.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 177: I may refer to the very interesting discussion by Professor
+G. F. Stout (_Analytic Psychology_, vol. ii. p. 145) of the conflict of
+systems in apperception, and of the suspense and deadlock which occur when
+two or more systems come into conflict in such a way that the success of
+one is the defeat of the other. The discussion is full of interest from
+its undesigned bearing on the phenomena of dreaming.]
+
+[Footnote 178: Foucault, for instance (_Le Rêve_, p. 25), discusses
+and illustrates dreams of this type. I am not here concerned with the
+causation of this type of dream. Perhaps, as Wundt believes, it is due
+to some physical discomfort of the sleeper, such as a cramped position,
+expressing itself symbolically.]
+
+[Footnote 179: It may be added that dreams of returning to the school
+scenes of early life are not necessarily always of the type here
+described, as may be illustrated by the dream already brought forward on
+p. 83, which, it is worth while noticing, occurred after a day on which I
+had been thinking over the dreams of this class.]
+
+[Footnote 180: I reproduce these two series in the same form as first
+published (Havelock Ellis, 'On Dreaming of the Dead,' _Psychological
+Review_, September 1895) since they have formed the starting point of my
+own and others' investigation into this type of dream.]
+
+[Footnote 181: It is well known, and has often been pointed out (by
+Weygandt, Sante de Sanctis, Jewell, etc., and perhaps first by T. Beddoes
+in his _Hygeia_, 1803, vol. iii. p. 88), that while in childhood all the
+emotions of the past day are at once echoed in dreams, after adolescence,
+this is not so in the case of intense emotions, which do not emerge
+in dreams until after a more or less considerable interval. Marie de
+Manacéïne and Sante de Sanctis attribute this to exhaustion of the emotion
+which needs a period of repair and organic synthesis before it can repeat
+itself. Vaschide believed that we dream of recent events in shallow sleep
+and of remote events in deep sleep; this sounds plausible, but will
+scarcely account for all the phenomena.]
+
+[Footnote 182: Since the publication of my paper 'On Dreaming of the
+Dead,' several psychologists have returned to the subject. Thus Binet
+(_L'Année Psychologique_, 2nd year, issued in 1896, p. 848) gave a dream
+of his own, very similar to mine of the editor, in which a doctor, dead
+a month previously, is talking to him in his room. On Binet expressing
+surprise at seeing him, the doctor explains that he had only sent news of
+his death in order to see how many people would come to his funeral. Binet
+has also had two dreams, similar to that described on p. 200, in which he
+is walking in the country with a dead friend, who seems in good health,
+though the dreamer knows he will soon die. Foucault (_Le Rêve_, p. 128),
+who, in accordance with his own theory, regards my dream of the editor as
+belonging to the period of awakening, brings forward a dream of his own
+in which he saw his father, dead six months before, sitting in a chair;
+at first this seems to him a hallucination, but he finally accepts the
+vision as real. I have had a number of letters from people who have had
+dreams of this type. One correspondent, an anthropologist and folk-lorist
+of note, says that his dreams of dead friends are of the type of Mrs.
+F.'s. Professor Näcke writes that he has had such dreams (and see also
+his articles in the _Archiv für Kriminalanthropologie_, 1903, p. 307, and
+the _Neurologisches Centralblatt_, 1910, No. 13). One young lady states
+that, thirteen years after her mother's death, she still dreams of her as
+coming to life again or never having really died. I may add that this type
+of dream is admirably illustrated in a series of dreams concerning a dead
+friend, published in a letter from a lady to _Borderland_, January 1896,
+p. 51.]
+
+[Footnote 183: Gassendi, _Syntagma Philosophicum_, 1658, pars. 71, lib.
+viii. (_Opéra Omnia_, vol. i.).]
+
+[Footnote 184: Maury, _Le Sommeil et les Rêves_, p. 145.]
+
+[Footnote 185: _American Journal of Psychology_, July-October, 1903, p.
+18.]
+
+[Footnote 186: Chabaneix, _Le Subconscient chez les Artistes, les
+Savants et les Ecrivains_, 1897, pp. 45-8. Chabaneix was in touch with
+various persons of distinction, and one is inclined to identify the
+poet-philosopher with Sully-Prudhomme, at that time still living. Du
+Maurier's remarkable novel, _Peter Ibbetson_--which records similar serial
+dreams of union with a beloved woman after death, and seems to be based on
+real experience--may also be mentioned in this connection.]
+
+[Footnote 187: Unconscious dream suggestions of this kind resemble, as
+R. MacDougall has remarked (_Psychological Review_, March 1898, p. 167),
+post-hypnotic suggestions.]
+
+[Footnote 188: This type of dream--in which the emotion of the day
+is inverted in sleep, depressing emotions giving place to exalting
+emotions, and so on--is by some (Griesinger, Lombroso, Sante de Sanctis,
+etc.), termed the contrast-dream. The dream is in such a case, Sante
+de Sanctis remarks, complementary, having the same significance as a
+complementary after-image and indicating a phase of anabolic repair.
+Thus A. Wiggam (_Pedagogical Seminary_, June 1909), gives the case of
+a girl of twenty, who when tired and restless always has good dreams,
+while her dreams are bad when she is well and free from care. It should
+be added that, as understood by Näcke ('Ueber Kontrast-Träume' _Archiv
+für Kriminalanthropologie_, 1907), a contrast-dream is one that is in
+striking contrast to the dreamer's ordinary character. In this type of
+contrast-dream it is not quite clear that the mechanism is the same, and
+the contrast may sometimes be accidental. Thus a dream of being a soldier
+on a battlefield, with shells bursting around me, was merely suggested by
+a passage of Nietzsche, read in the evening, which contained the words
+'the thunders of the battle of Wörth,' and the question of contrast or
+resemblance to my character and habits was irrelevant.]
+
+[Footnote 189: _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, July-December
+1904, p. 339.]
+
+[Footnote 190: See Herbert Spencer, _Principles of Sociology_, 3rd ed.,
+1885, vol. i. ch. x., especially pp. 140, 182, 201, 772. Spencer believed
+that Lubbock was the first to point out this factor in primitive beliefs,
+which has been chiefly developed by Tylor. It is, of course, by no means
+the only factor. See _post_, p. 266.]
+
+[Footnote 191: Thus Professor Beaunis (_loc. cit._) considers that dreams
+furnish the only rational explanation of the belief in survival after
+death. Jewell, again (_American Journal of Psychology_, January 1905),
+also considers that dreams are responsible for primitive man's inability
+to conceive of death as ending our association with our friends; he
+brings forward evidence, highly significant in this connection, to show
+that children, on dreaming of the dead as alive, are influenced in waking
+life to doubt the reality of their death. Ruths, also writing since
+the publication of my first paper (_Experimental-Untersuchungen über
+Musikphantome_, 1898, pp. 438 _et seq._), considers that the conception of
+an under-world is founded on dreams of the dead coming to life.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+MEMORY IN DREAMS
+
+    The Apparent Rapidity of Thought in Dreams--This Phenomenon largely
+    due to the Dream being a Description of a Picture--The Experience
+    of Drowning Persons--The Sense of Time in Dreams--The Crumpling
+    of Consciousness in Dreams--The Recovery of Lost Memories through
+    the Relaxation of Attention--The Emergence in Dreams of Memories
+    not known to Waking Life--The Recollection of Forgotten Languages
+    in Sleep--The Perversions of Memory in Dreams--Paramnesic False
+    Recollections--Hypnagogic Paramnesia--Dreams mistaken for Actual
+    Events--The Phenomenon of Pseudo-Reminiscence--Its Relationship
+    to Epilepsy--Its Prevalence especially among Imaginative and
+    Nervously Exhausted Persons--The Theories put forward to Explain
+    it--A Fatigue Product--Conditioned by Defective Attention and
+    Apperception--Pseudo-Reminiscence a reversed Hallucination.
+
+
+The peculiarities of memory in dreams--its defects, its aberrations, its
+excesses--have attracted attention ever since dreams began to be studied
+at all. It is not enough to assure ourselves that on awakening from a
+dream our memory of that dream may fairly be regarded as trustworthy so
+far as it extends. The characteristics of memory revealed within the
+reproduced dream have sometimes seemed so extraordinary as to be only
+explicable by the theory of supernatural intervention.
+
+A problem which at one time greatly puzzled the scientific students of
+dreaming is furnished at the outset by the apparent abnormal rapidity
+of the dream process, the piling together in a brief space of time of
+a great number of combined memories. Stories were told of people who,
+when awakened by sounds or contacts which must have aroused them almost
+immediately, had yet experienced elaborate visions which could only have
+been excited by the stimulus which caused the awakening. The dream of
+Maury--who, when awakened by a portion of the bed cornice falling on his
+neck, imagined that he was living in the days of the Reign of Terror, and,
+after many adventures, was being guillotined--has become famous.[192]
+
+It is unquestionably true that dreams are sometimes evoked by sensory
+stimuli which almost immediately awake the dreamer. But the supposition
+that this fairly common fact involves an extraordinary acceleration of
+the rapidity with which mental images are formed is due to a failure to
+comprehend the conditions under which psychic activity in sleep takes
+place. If the sleeper were wide awake, and were suddenly startled by a
+mysterious voice at the window or the door, he would arrive at a theory of
+the sound, and even form a plan of action, with at least as much rapidity
+as when the stimulus occurs during sleep. The difference is that in sleep
+the ordinary mental associations are more or less in abeyance, and the way
+is therefore easily open to new associations. These new associations, when
+we look back at them from the standpoint of waking life, seem to us so
+bizarre, so far-fetched, that we think it must have required a long time
+to imagine them. We fail to realise that, under the conditions of dream
+thought, they have come about as automatically and as instantaneously as
+the ordinary psychic concomitants of external stimulation in waking life.
+It must also be remembered that in all the cases in which the rapidity
+of the dream process has seemed so extraordinary, it has merely been a
+question of visual imagery, and it is obviously quite easy to see in an
+instant an elaborate picture or series of pictures which would take a long
+time to describe.[193] At the most the dreamer has merely seen a kind of
+cinematographic drama which has been condensed and run together in very
+much the way practised by the cinematographic artist, so that although the
+whole story seems to be shown in constant movement, in reality the action
+of hours is condensed into moments. Further, it has always to be borne in
+mind that, asleep as well as awake, intense emotion involves a loss of
+the sense of time. We say in a terrible crisis that moments seemed years,
+and when sleeping consciousness magnifies a trivial stimulation into the
+occasion of a great crisis the same effect is necessarily produced.
+
+Exactly the same illusion is experienced by persons who are rescued from
+drowning, or other dangerous situations. It sometimes seems to them
+that their whole life has passed before them in vision during those
+brief moments. But careful investigation of some of these cases, notably
+by Piéron, has shown that what really happened was that a scene from
+childhood, perhaps of some rather similar accident, came before the
+drowning man's mind and was followed by five, six, perhaps even ten or
+twelve momentary scenes from later life. When the time during which these
+scenes flashed through the mind was taken into account it was found that
+there had by no means been any remarkable mental rapidity.
+
+Such considerations have now led most scientific investigators of
+dreaming to regard these problems of dream memory as settled. Woodworth's
+observations on the hypnagogic or half-waking state revealed no remarkable
+rapidity of mental processes. Clavière showed by experiments with an
+alarm clock which struck twice with an interval of twenty-two seconds
+that speech dreams at all events take place merely with normal rapidity,
+or are even slightly slower than under waking conditions. The imagery of
+sleep, Clavière concluded, is not more rapid than the imagery of waking
+life, though to the dreamer it may seem to last for hours or days. It is
+often slackened rather than accelerated, says Piéron, who refers to the
+corresponding illusion under the influence of drugs like hashish, though
+in some cases he finds that there is really a slight acceleration. The
+illusion is simply due, Foucault thinks, to the dreamer's belief that the
+events of his dream occupy the same time as real events. This illusion
+of time, concludes Dr. Justine Tobolowska, in her Paris thesis on this
+subject, is simply the necessary and constant result of the form assumed
+by psychic life during sleep.[194]
+
+If this peculiarity of memory in dreaming is not difficult to explain as
+a natural illusion, there are other and rarer characteristics of dream
+memory which are much more puzzling.
+
+In attempting to unravel these, it is probable that, as in explaining
+the illusion of rapidity, we must always bear in mind the tendency
+of memory-groups in dreams to fall apart from their waking links of
+association, so well as the complementary tendency to form associations
+which in waking life would only be attained by a strained effort.
+Apperception, with the power it involves of combining and bringing to a
+focus all the various groups of memories bearing on the point in hand,
+is defective. The focus of conscious attention is contracted, and there
+is the curious and significant phenomenon that sleeping consciousness is
+occasionally unconscious of psychic elements which yet are present just
+outside it and thrusting imagery into its focus. The imagery becomes
+conscious, but its relation to the existing focus of consciousness is
+not consciously perceived. Such a psychic mechanism, as Freud and his
+disciples have shown, quite commonly appears in hysteria and obsessional
+neuroses when healthy normal consciousness is degraded to a pathological
+level resembling that which is normal in dreams.[195] In such a case the
+surface of sleeping consciousness is, as it were, crumpled up, and the
+concealed portion appears only at the end of the dream or not at all. A
+simple example may make this clear. In a dream I ask a lady if she knows
+the work of the poet Bau; she replies that she does not; then I see before
+me a paper having on it the name Baudelaire, clearly the name which should
+have been contained in my query.[196] In such a dream the crumpling
+and breaking of consciousness, at its very focus, is shown in the most
+unmistakable manner.[197] But many of the most remarkable dreams of
+dramatic dreamers are due to the same phenomenon, which in an intellectual
+form is exactly the phenomenon which always makes a dramatic situation
+effective. Robert Louis Stevenson was an abnormally vivid dreamer, and
+found the germ of some of the plots of his stories in his dreams; he
+has described one of his dreams in which the dreamer imagines he has
+committed a murder; the crime becomes known to a woman who, however, never
+denounces it; the murderer lives in terror, and cannot conceive why the
+woman prolongs his torture by this delay in giving him up to justice; only
+at the end of the dream comes the clue to the mystery, and the explanation
+of the woman's attitude, as she falls on her knees and cries: 'Do you not
+understand? I love you.'[198]
+
+There is another and very interesting class of dreams in which we find
+not merely that some memory-groups disappear from consciousness or become
+merely latent, but also that other memory-groups, latent or even lost to
+waking consciousness, float into the focus of sleeping consciousness. In
+other words, we can remember in sleep what we have forgotten awake. We
+then have what is called the _hypermnesia_, the excessive or abnormal
+memory, of sleep.
+
+There can be little doubt that the two processes--the sinking of some
+memory-groups and the emergence on the surface of other memory-groups
+which, so far as waking life is concerned, had apparently fallen to the
+depths and been drowned--are complementarily related to one another. We
+remember what we have forgotten because we forget what we remembered.
+The order of our waking impressions involves a certain tension, that is
+to say a certain attention, which holds them in our consciousness, and
+excludes any other order which might serve to bring lost memory-groups to
+sight. Sometimes we are conscious of a lost memory which is just outside
+consciousness, but which, with the existing order of our memory-groups,
+we cannot bring into consciousness. We have the missing name, the missing
+memory, at the tip of our tongue, we say, but we cannot quite catch
+it.[199] In dreams apperception is defective, the strain of conscious
+attention is relaxed, and the conditions are furnished under which
+new clues and strains may come into action and the missing name glide
+spontaneously into consciousness. Even the mere approach of sleep, with
+its accompanying relaxation of attention, may effect this end. Thus I
+was trying one day to recall the name of the unpleasant Chinese scent,
+patchouli. The name, though not usually unfamiliar, escaped me. At night,
+however, just before falling asleep, it spontaneously occurred to me. In
+the morning, when fully awake, I was again unable to recall it.
+
+In such a case we see how waking consciousness is tense in a certain
+direction, which happens not to be that in which the desired thing is to
+be found. Attention under such circumstances impedes rather than aids
+recollection. In this particular case, I felt convinced that the name I
+wanted began with _h_, and thus my mind was intently directed towards a
+wrong quarter. But on the approach of sleep attention is automatically
+relaxed, and it is then possible for the forgotten word to slip in from
+its unexpected quarter. On these occasions it is by indirection that
+direction is found.[200]
+
+It is interesting to observe that this same process of discovery due to
+the wider outlook of relaxed attention can take place, not only in sleep
+and the hypnagogic state, but also, subconsciously, in the fully waking
+state when the mind is occupied with some other subject. Thus in reading
+a MS., I came upon an illegible word which I was unable to identify,
+notwithstanding several guesses and careful scrutiny through a magnifying
+glass. I passed on, dismissing the subject from my mind. A quarter of an
+hour afterwards, when walking, and thinking of quite a different subject,
+I became conscious that the word 'ceremonial' had floated into the field
+of mental vision, and I at once realised that this was the unidentified
+word. The instance may be trivial, but no example could better show how
+the mind may continue to work subconsciously in one direction while
+consciously working in an entirely different direction.
+
+In dreams, however, we can effect more than a mere recovery of memories
+which have temporarily escaped us, or the discovery of relationships
+which have eluded us. The dissociation of familiar memory-groups becomes
+so complete, the appearance of unfamiliar groups so eruptive, that we
+can remember things that have entirely and permanently sunk below the
+surface of waking consciousness, or even things which are so insignificant
+that they have never made any mark on waking consciousness at all. In
+this way, we may be said, in a certain sense, to remember things we
+never knew. The first dream which enabled me, some twenty years ago, to
+realise this hypermnesia of the mind in dreams[201] was the following
+unimportant but instructive case. I woke up recalling the chief items
+of a rather vivid dream: I had imagined myself in a large old house,
+where the furniture, though of good quality, was ancient, and the chairs
+threatened to give way as one sat on them. The place belonged to one Sir
+Peter Bryan, a hale old gentleman, who was accompanied by his son and
+grandson. There was a question of my buying the place from him, and I was
+very complimentary to the old gentleman's appearance of youthfulness,
+absurdly affecting not to know which was the grandfather and which the
+grandson. On awaking I said to myself that here was a purely imaginative
+dream, quite unsuggested by any definite experiences. But when I began
+to recall the trifling incidents of the previous day, and the things I
+had seen and read, I realised that that was far from being the case. So
+far from the dream having been a pure effort of imagination, I found that
+every minute item could be traced to some separate source, though none
+of them had the slightest resemblance to the dream as a whole. The name
+of Sir Peter Bryan alone completely baffled me; I could not even recall
+that I had at that time ever heard of any one called Bryan. I abandoned
+the search and made my notes of the dream and its sources. I had scarcely
+done so when I chanced to take up a volume of biographies of eccentric
+personages, which I had glanced through carelessly the day before. I found
+that it contained, among others, the lives of Lord _Peter_borough and
+George _Bryan_ Brummel. I had certainly seen those names the day before;
+yet before I took up the book once again it would have been impossible
+for me to recall the exact name of Beau Brummel. It so happened that the
+forgotten memory which in this case re-emerged to sleeping consciousness,
+was a fact of no consequence to myself or any one else. But it furnishes
+the key to many dreams which have been of more serious import to the
+dreamers.
+
+Since then I have been able to observe among my friends several instances
+of dreams containing veracious though often trivial circumstances unknown
+to the dreamer when awake, though on consideration it was found to be in
+the highest degree probable that they had come under his notice, and been
+forgotten, or not consciously observed. Thus a musical correspondent tells
+me he once dreamed of playing a piece of Rubinstein's in the presence of
+a friend who told him he had made a mistake in re-striking a tied note.
+In the morning he found the dream friend was correct. But up to then he
+had always repeated the note. Usually when the forgotten or unnoticed
+circumstance is trivial, it is of quite recent date. That it is not
+always very recent may be illustrated by a dream of my own. I dreamed
+that I was in Spain and about to rejoin some friends at a place which was
+called, I thought, Daraus, but on reaching the booking-office I could not
+remember whether the place I wanted to go to was called Daraus, Varaus,
+or Zaraus, all which places, it seemed to me, really existed. On awaking,
+I made a note of the dream, exactly as reproduced here, but was unable to
+recall any place, in Spain or elsewhere, corresponding to any of these
+names. The dream seemed merely to illustrate the familiar way in which a
+dream image perpetually shifts in a meaningless fashion at the focus of
+sleeping consciousness. The note was put away, and a few months later
+taken out again.[202] It was still equally impossible to me to recall
+any real name corresponding to the dream names. But on consulting the
+Spanish guide-books and railway time-tables, I found that, on the line
+between San Sebastian and Bilbao, there really is a little seaside resort,
+in a beautiful situation, called Zarauz, and I realised, moreover, that
+I had actually passed that station in the train two hundred and fifty
+days before the date of my dream.[203] I had no associations with this
+place, though I may have admired it at the time; in any case it vanished
+permanently from conscious memory, perhaps aided by the fatigue of a long
+night journey before entering Spain. Even sleeping memory, I may remark,
+only recovered it with an effort, for it is notable that the name was
+gradually approached by three successive attempts.[204]
+
+A special form of lost or unconscious memories recurring in sleep
+is constituted by the cases in which people when asleep, or in a
+somnambulistic state, can speak languages which they have forgotten, or
+never consciously known, when awake. A simple instance, known to me,
+is furnished by a servant who had been taken to Paris for a few weeks
+six months before, but had never learned to speak a word of French, and
+whose mistress overheard her talking in her sleep, and repeating various
+French phrases, like 'Je ne sais pas, Monsieur'; she had certainly heard
+these phrases, though she maintained, when awake, that she was ignorant
+of them. Speaking in a language not consciously known, or xenoglossia,
+as it is now termed, occurs under various abnormal conditions, as well
+as in sleep, and is sometimes classed with the tendency which is found,
+especially under great religious excitement, to 'speak with tongues,' or
+to utter gibberish.[205] But in various sleep-like states it occurs as a
+true revival of forgotten memories, sometimes of memories which belong to
+childhood and in normal consciousness have been long overlaid and lost.
+On one occasion, by the bedside of a lady who was kept for a considerable
+period in a light condition of chloroform anaesthesia, the patient began
+to talk in an unfamiliar language which one of us recognised as Welsh; as
+a child, she afterwards owned, she had known Welsh, but had long since
+forgotten it.[206] A similar reproduction of lost memories occurs in the
+hypnotic state.
+
+This psychic process, by which unconscious memories become conscious
+in dreams, is of considerable interest and importance because it lends
+itself to many delusions. Not only the ignorant and uncultured, but
+even well-trained and acute minds, are often so unskilled in mental
+analysis that they are quite unable to pierce beneath the phenomenon of
+conscious ignorance to the deeper fact of unconscious memory; they are
+completely baffled, or else they resort to the wildest hypotheses. This
+is illustrated by the following narrative received twelve years ago from
+a medical correspondent in Baltimore. 'Several years ago,' he writes, 'a
+friend made a social call at my house and in the course of conversation
+spoke very enthusiastically of Mascagni's _Cavalleria Rusticana_, the
+first performance of which in the United States he had attended a few
+nights previously. I had never even heard of the opera before, but that
+night I dreamed that I heard it performed. The dream was a very vivid one,
+so vivid that several times during the next day I found myself humming
+airs from the dream opera. Several evenings later I went to the theatre to
+see a comedy, and before the curtain rose the orchestra played a selection
+which I instantly recognised as part of my dream opera. I exclaimed to a
+lady who was with me: "That selection is from _Cavalleria Rusticana_."
+On inquiring of the leader of the orchestra such proved to be the case.'
+Now, at that period, shortly after the first appearance of _Cavalleria
+Rusticana_, portions of it had become extremely popular and were heard
+everywhere, by no means merely on the operatic stage. It was difficult not
+to have heard something of it. There cannot be the slightest doubt that my
+correspondent had heard not only the name but the music, though, writing
+at an interval of some years, he probably exaggerated the extent of his
+unconscious recollections. This seems the simple explanation of what to
+my correspondent was an inexplicable mystery. Other people, like the late
+Frederick Greenwood, not content to remain baffled, go further and regard
+such dreams as 'dreams of revelation,' as they also consider that class of
+dreams in which the dreamer works out the solution of a difficulty which
+he had vainly grappled with when awake.
+
+This is a kind of dream which has occurred in all ages, and has at times
+been put down to divine interposition. Sixteen centuries ago Bishop
+Synesius of Ptolemais wrote that in his hunting days a dream revealed
+to him an idea for a trap which he successfully employed in snaring
+animals, and at the present time inventions made in dreams have been
+successfully patented. The Rev. Nehemiah Curnock, who lately succeeded in
+deciphering Wesley's _Journal_, has stated that an important missing clue
+to the cypher came to him in a dream. A friend of my own, an expert in
+chemistry, was not long since in frequent communication with a practical
+manufacturer, assisting him in his inventions by scientific advice.
+One day the manufacturer wrote to my friend asking if the latter had
+been thinking of him during the night, for he had been much puzzled by
+a difficulty, and during the night had seen a vision of my friend who
+explained the solution of the difficulty; in the morning the proposed
+solution proved successful. There was, however, no telepathic element in
+the case; the dreamer's solution was his own.
+
+An interesting group of cases in this class is furnished by the dreams
+in which the dreamer, in opposition to his waking judgment, sees an
+acquaintance in whom he reposes trust acting in a manner unworthy of that
+trust, subsequent events proving that the estimate formed during sleep was
+sounder than that of waking life. Hawthorne (in his _American Notebooks_),
+Greenwood, Jewell, and others have recorded cases of this kind.
+
+Various as these phenomena are, they fall into the same scheme. They all
+help to illustrate the fact that though on one side mental life in sleep
+is feeble and defective, on the other side it shows a tendency to vigorous
+excess. Sleep, as we know, involves a relaxation of tension, both physical
+and psychic; attention is no longer focused at a deliberately selected
+spot.[207] The voluntary field becomes narrower, but the involuntary field
+becomes extended. Thus it happens that the contents of our minds fall into
+a new order, an order which is often fantastic but, on the other hand,
+is sometimes a more natural and even a more rational order than that we
+attain in waking life. Our eyes close, our muscles grow slack, the reins
+fall from our hands. But it sometimes happens that the horse knows the
+road home even better than we know it ourselves.
+
+Hypermnesia, or abnormally wide range of recollection, is not the only
+or the most common modification of memory during sleep. We find much
+more commonly, and indeed as one of the chief characteristics of sleep,
+an abnormally narrow range of recollection. We find, also, and perhaps
+as a result of that narrow range, paramnesia or perversion of memory.
+The best known form of paramnesia is that in which we have the illusion
+that the event which is at the moment happening to us has happened to us
+before.[208]
+
+This form of paramnesia is common in dreams, though it is often so
+slightly pronounced that we either fail to recall it on awakening or
+attach no significance to it.[209] I dream, for instance, that I am
+walking along a path, along which, it seems to me, I have often walked
+before, and that the path skirts the lawn of a house by which stands a
+policeman whom, also, it seems to me, I have often seen there before; the
+policeman approaches me and says, 'You have come to see Mr. So-and-so,
+sir?' and thereupon I suddenly recollect, with some confusion, that I
+have come to see Mr. So-and-so, and I walk up to the door. Again, an
+author dreams that he sees a list of his own books with, at the head of
+them, one entitled 'The Book of Glory.' He could not recall writing it
+(and to waking consciousness the name was entirely unknown), but the only
+reflection he made in his dream was 'How stupid to have forgotten!' In
+this case there was evidently some resistance to the suggestion, which
+yet was quickly accepted. In all such dreams it seems that we are in a
+state of mental weakness associated with defective apperceptual control
+and undue suggestibility, very similar to the state found in some forms of
+confusional insanity or of precocious dementia.[210] Consciousness feebly
+slides down the path of least resistance; it accepts every suggestion; the
+objects presented to it seem things that it knew before, the things that
+are suggested to it to do seem things that it already wanted to do before.
+Paramnesia, thus regarded, seems simply a natural outcome of a state of
+consciousness temporarily depressed below its normal standard of vigour.
+
+It must be remembered that the suggestibility of sleeping consciousness
+varies in degree, and in the face of serious improbabilities there is
+often a considerable amount of resistance, just as the hypnotised person
+seriously resists the suggestions that fundamentally outrage his nature.
+But some degree of suggestibility, some tendency to regard the things
+that come before us in dreams as familiar--in other words, as things that
+have happened to us before--is not merely a natural result of defective
+apperception, but one of the very conditions of dreaming. It enables us to
+carry on our dreams; without it their progress would be fatally inhibited
+by doubt, uncertainty, and struggle. So it is, perhaps, that in all
+dreaming, or at all events in certain stages of sleeping consciousness, we
+are liable to fall into a state of pseudo-reminiscence.
+
+It is an interesting and highly significant fact that this paramnesic
+delusion of our dreams--the feeling that the thing that is happening
+to us is the thing that has happened to us before or that might happen
+to us again--tends to persist in the hypnagogic (or hypnopompic) stage
+immediately following sleep. When we have half awakened from a dream and
+are just able to realise that it was a dream, that dream constantly tends
+to appear in a more plausible or probable light than is possible a few
+moments later when we are fully awake.[211]
+
+The first experience which enabled me clearly to realise this phenomenon,
+and its probable explanation, occurred many years ago. About the middle
+of the night I had a very vivid dream, in which I imagined that two
+friends--a gentleman and his daughter--with a certain Lord Chesterfield (I
+had lately been reading the _Letters_ of the famous Lord Chesterfield),
+were together at a hotel, that they were playing with weapons, that the
+lady accidentally killed or wounded Lord Chesterfield, and that she
+then changed clothes with him with the object of escaping, and avoiding
+discovery which would somehow be dangerous. I was informed of the matter,
+and was much concerned. I awoke, and my first thought was that I had just
+had a curious dream which I must not forget in the morning. But then I
+seemed to remember that it was a real and familiar event. This second
+thought lulled my mental activity, and I went to sleep again. In the
+morning I was able to recall the main points in my dream, and my thoughts
+on awaking from it.
+
+Since then I have given attention to the point, and I have found on
+recalling my half-waking consciousness after dreams that, while it is
+doubtless rare to catch the assertion 'That really occurred,' it is less
+rare to catch the vague assertion, 'That is the kind of thing that does
+occur.' I find that this latter impression appears, like the former,
+after vivid dreams which contain no physical impossibility, but which
+the full waking consciousness refuses to recognise as among the things
+that are probable. As an example quite unlike that just recorded, I may
+mention a dream in which I imagined that I was proving the frequency
+of local intermarriage by noting in directories the frequency of the
+presence of people of the same name in neighbouring towns and villages.
+On half-awaking I still believed that I had actually been engaged in such
+a task--that is, either that the dream was real or that it referred to a
+real event--and it was not until I was sufficiently awake to recognise
+the fallacy of such a method of investigation that I realised that it was
+purely a dream.
+
+This phenomenon has long been known, although its significance has not
+been perceived. Brierre de Boismont pointed out that certain vivid dreams
+are not recognised as dreams, but are mistaken for reality after waking,
+though he scarcely recognised the normal limitation of this mistake to the
+hypnagogic state. Moll compared such dreams, thus continued into waking
+life, to continuative post-hypnotic suggestions. Sully mentioned awaking
+from dreams which 'still wear the aspect of old acquaintances, so that
+for the moment I think they are waking realities.'[212] Colegrove, in his
+study of memory, recorded many cases in which young people mistook their
+dreams for actual events.[213]
+
+This persistence of the memory illusion of sleep into the subsequent
+hypnagogic state is obviously related to the allied persistence,
+more occasionally found, of the visual, auditory, and other sensory
+hallucinations of sleep into the hypnagogic state.[214] Visions thus seen
+persisting from dreams for a few moments into waking life are often very
+baffling and disturbing, as has already been pointed out, to ignorant
+and untrained people. Such visions may occur in the hypnagogic state,
+even when there has been no conscious precedent dream, and it is indeed
+probable, as Parish has argued, that it is precisely in the hypnagogic
+state, the narthex of the church of dreams, as I may term it, that
+hallucinations are most liable to occur. That illusions may momentarily
+occur in this state is obvious; thus falling asleep for a few minutes
+when seated before a black hollow smouldering fire, with red ashes at the
+bottom, I awake with the illusion that I see a curtain on fire, and have
+already leaned forward to snatch it away before I realise my mistake.
+
+Under normal conditions, the liability of a dream memory to be mistaken
+for an actual event seems to be greater when an interval has elapsed
+before the dream is remembered, such an interval making it difficult to
+distinguish one class of memories from the other, provided the dream has
+been of a plausible character. Thus Professor Näcke has recorded that his
+wife dreamed that an acquaintance, an old lady, had called at the house;
+this dream was apparently forgotten until forty or fifty hours afterwards
+when, on passing the old lady's house, it was recalled, and the dreamer
+was only with much difficulty convinced that the dream was not an actual
+occurrence. When we are concerned with memories of childhood, it not
+infrequently happens that we cannot distinguish with absolute certainty
+between real occurrences and what may possibly have been dreams.
+
+In normal physical and mental health, however, it seems rare for the
+hallucinatory influence of dreams to extend beyond the hypnagogic state,
+but any impairment of the bodily health generally, and of the brain in
+particular, may extend this confusion. Thus in a case of heart disease
+terminating fatally, the patient, though in health he was by no means
+visionary or impressionable, became liable during sleep in the day-time to
+dreams of an entirely reasonable character which he had great difficulty
+in distinguishing from the real facts of life, never feeling sure what had
+actually happened, and what had been only a dream. In disordered cerebral
+and nervous conditions the same illusion becomes still more marked. This
+is notably the case in hysteria. In some forms of insanity, as many
+alienists have shown, this mistake is sometimes permanent and the dream
+may become an integral and persistent part of waking life. At this point,
+however, we leave the normal world of dreams and enter the sphere of
+pathology.
+
+In the normal persistence of the dream illusion into the hypnagogic
+state with which we are here concerned, the dream usually presents a
+possible, though, it may be, highly improbable event. The half-waking or
+hypnagogic intelligence seems to be deceived by this element of life-like
+possibility. Consequently a fallacy of perception takes place strictly
+comparable to the fallacious perception which, in the case of an external
+sensation, we call an illusion. In the ordinary illusion an externally
+excited sensation of one kind is mistaken for an externally excited
+sensation of another kind. In this case a centrally excited sensation of
+one order (dream image) is mistaken for a centrally excited sensation of
+another order (memory). The phenomenon is, therefore, a mental illusion
+belonging to the group of false memories, and it may be termed hypnagogic
+paramnesia.
+
+The process seems to have a certain interest, and it may throw light on
+some rather obscure phenomena. When we are able to recall a vivid dream,
+usually a fairly probable dream, with no idea as to when it was dreamed,
+and thus find ourselves in possession of experiences of which we cannot
+certainly say that they happened in waking life or in dream life, it
+seems probable that this hypnagogic paramnesia has come into action; the
+half-waking consciousness dismisses the vivid and life-like dream as an
+old and familiar experience, shunting it off into temporary forgetfulness,
+unless some accident again brings it into consciousness with, as it were,
+a fragment of that wrong label still sticking to it. Such a paramnesic
+process may thus also help to account for the mighty part which, as so
+many thinkers from Lucretius onwards have seen, dreams have played in
+moulding human action and human belief. It is a means whereby waking life
+and dream life are brought to an apparently common level.
+
+By hypnagogic paramnesia I mean a false memory occurring in the
+ante-chamber of sleep, but not necessarily before sleep. Myers's invention
+of the word 'hypnopompic' seems scarcely necessary even for pedantic
+reasons. I take the condition of consciousness to be almost the same
+whether the sleep is coming on or passing away. In the Chesterfield dream
+it is indeed impossible to say whether the phenomenon is 'hypnagogic'
+or 'hypnopompic'; in such a case the twilight consciousness is as much
+conditioned by the sleep that is passing away as by the sleep that is
+coming on.
+
+If this memory illusion of the half-waking state may be regarded as a
+variety of paramnesia, a new horizon is opened out to us. May not the
+hypnagogic variety throw light on the general phenomenon of paramnesia
+which has led to so many strange and complicated theories? I think it may.
+
+Paramnesia, as we have seen, is the psychologist's name for a
+hallucination of memory which is sometimes called 'pseudo-reminiscence,'
+and by medical writers (who especially associate it with epilepsy)
+regarded as a symptom of 'dreamy state,'[215] while by French authors it
+is often termed 'false recognition' or 'sensation du déjà vu.' Dickens,
+who seems himself to have experienced it, thus describes it in _David
+Copperfield:_ 'We have all some experience of a feeling that comes over
+us occasionally, of what we are saying and doing having been said or done
+before, in a remote time, of having been surrounded, dim ages ago, by the
+same faces, objects, and circumstances, of our knowing perfectly what
+will be said next, as if we suddenly remembered it.' Sometimes it seems
+that this previous occurrence can only have taken place in a previous
+existence,[216] whence we probably have, as St. Augustine seems first
+to have suggested, the origin of the idea of metempsychosis, of the
+transmigration of souls; sometimes it seems to have happened before in a
+dream; sometimes the subject of the experience is totally baffled in the
+attempt to account for the feeling of familiarity which has overtaken
+him. In any case he is liable to an emotion of distress which would
+scarcely be caused by the coincidence of resemblance with a real previous
+experience.[217]
+
+Paramnesia of this kind is known, according to the observations of
+Lalande,[218] to thirty people in a hundred, and Heymans found it in a
+considerable proportion of students of both sexes. Such estimates are
+probably too high if we take into consideration the general population.
+This experience seems, as Dugas and others have noted,[219] to affect
+educated people, and notably people of more than average intellect,
+who use their brains much, especially in artistic and emotional work,
+to a very much greater degree than the ignorant and phlegmatic manual
+worker.[220] Dickens has already been mentioned; many other notable
+writers have referred to this or some allied feeling, stating that they
+had experienced it, and Sir James Crichton-Browne brings forward a number
+of passages from the poets in evidence of their familiarity with such
+phenomena.[221] Shelley (who appears on at least two occasions to have
+experienced hallucinations also) underwent what may be regarded as an
+experience of paramnesia (described in his _Speculations on Metaphysics_)
+which is of interest in the present connection because it brings this
+phenomenon into relation with dreams. He was walking with a friend in the
+neighbourhood of Oxford, when he suddenly turned the corner of a country
+lane and saw 'a common scene' of a windmill, etc., which, it immediately
+seemed to him, he recollected having seen before in a dream of long ago.
+Five years afterwards he was so agitated in writing this down that he
+could not finish the account. The real resemblance of 'a common scene'
+with a similar dream scene, even supposing it could be recollected when
+the two experiences were separated by a long interval, would scarcely be a
+coincidence likely to cause agitation. The emotion aroused seems to mark
+the experience as belonging to the class of paramnesic illusions which so
+often make a peculiarly vivid impression on those to whom they occur.
+
+A great many theories have been put forward by psychologists and others to
+account for this paramnesic phenomenon. The most ancient explanation, long
+anterior to the beginnings of scientific psychology, was the theory that
+the occurrence which, as it now happens, strikes us as so overwhelmingly
+familiar had actually occurred to us in a previous existence long ages
+before; thus Pythagoras, according to the ancient story, when he visited
+the temple of Juno at Argos recognised the shield he had worn ages before
+when he was Euphorbus and fought with Menelaus in the Trojan war. A much
+more recent theory runs to the opposite extreme and claims that all
+or nearly all these cases of recognition indicate a real but confused
+reminiscence of past events in our present life, dim recollections which
+the subject is unable definitely to locate. This is the explanation
+largely relied on by Ribot, Jessen, Sander, Sully, Burnham, and many
+others. It was perhaps largely due to ignorance of the phenomenon;
+Ribot, when he wrote his book on the diseases of memory, considered that
+only three or four cases had been recorded, for an abnormal phenomenon
+always seems rare until it is recognised and definitely searched for.
+Undoubtedly, this theory will explain a considerable proportion of cases,
+but not really typical cases in which the subject has an overwhelming
+conviction that even the minute details of the present experience have
+been experienced before. We may read a new poem with a vague sense of
+familiarity, but such an experience never puts on a really paramnesic
+character, for we quickly realise that it is explainable by the fact
+that the writer of the poem has fallen under the influence of some
+greater master. The only experience I can personally speak of as at all
+approaching true paramnesia occurred on visiting the ruins of Pevensey
+Castle many years ago. On going up the slope towards the ivy-covered
+ruins, bathed in bright sunlight, I experienced a strange and abiding
+sense of familiarity with the scene. Three theories might account for
+this experience (for I refrain from including the Pythagorean theory that
+I experienced a reminiscence of the experience of a possible ancestor
+coming from across the Thames to the assistance of Harold against William
+the Conqueror at this spot): (1) that it was a case of true paramnesia;
+(2) that I had been taken to the spot as a child; (3) that the view was
+included among a series of coloured stereoscopic pictures with which I
+was familiar as a child, and which certainly contained similar scenes. I
+incline to this last explanation. Here, as elsewhere, there are no keys
+which will unlock all doors.
+
+A modification of the theory that the pseudo-reminiscence is an
+unrecognised real reminiscence is furnished by Grasset, who considers that
+the phenomenon is due to a subconscious impression previously received,
+but only reaching consciousness under the influence of the new similar
+impression. This theory would include the revival of dream images, and
+is therefore related to the theory of Lapie and Méré, according to which
+the feeling of many of these subjects that what they now experience
+had happened before in a dream is the correct explanation of the
+phenomenon.[222]
+
+We enter on a different class of explanations with the early theory
+of Wigan that such cases are due to the duality of the brain, the two
+hemispheres not acting quite simultaneously. This is a somewhat crude
+conception, though it may seem approximately on the lines of more recent
+theories. The theory of the duplex brain, each hemisphere being supposed
+capable of acting independently, was at one time invoked to explain many
+phenomena, but it is no longer regarded as tenable.[223]
+
+We may dismiss these theories, which have been effectively criticised by
+others, and revert to our clue in the sleeping and hypnagogic state. The
+hypnagogic state is a transition between waking and sleeping. It is thus
+a condition of mental feebleness and suggestibility doubtless correlated
+with a condition of irregular brain anaemia. A plausible suggestion
+under such conditions is too readily accepted. Does ordinary paramnesia
+occur under similar conditions of mental feebleness and suggestibility?
+It is rare to find descriptions of paramnesic experiences by scientific
+observers who are alive to the importance of accurately recording all
+the conditions, but there is some reason to think that paramnesia does
+occur in states produced by excitement, exhaustion, and allied causes.
+The earliest case of paramnesia recorded in detail by a trained observer
+is that described by Wigan as occurring to himself at the funeral of
+the Princess Charlotte. He had passed several disturbed nights previous
+to the ceremony, with almost complete deprivation of rest on the night
+immediately preceding; he was suffering from grief as well as from
+exhaustion from want of food; he had been standing for four hours, and
+would have fainted on taking his place by the coffin if it had not been
+for the excitement of the occasion. When the music ceased the coffin
+slowly sank in absolute silence, broken by an outburst of grief from the
+bereaved husband. 'In an instant,' Wigan proceeds, 'I felt not merely an
+_impression_, but a _conviction_, that I had seen the whole scene before
+on some former occasion.' Such a condition may fairly be regarded as an
+artificial reproduction, by means of emotion, excitement, and exhaustion,
+of the condition which occurs simply and naturally in sleep or on its
+hypnagogic borderland.
+
+The frequency--if it may be taken to be a fact--of the occurrence of
+pseudo-reminiscence in epileptics, noted by various medical observers,
+whether at the onset of the fit or independently of any obvious muscular
+convulsion, may be significant in this connection. There is no good reason
+to suppose that pseudo-reminiscence has a true relation to epilepsy, and
+still less that it necessarily constitutes a minor epileptic paroxysm.
+But the special sleep-like condition of contracted cerebral circulation in
+epilepsy renders it favourable to paramnesia as well as to hallucinatory
+phenomena.[224]
+
+Independently of epilepsy, any condition of temporary and perhaps chronic
+nervous exhaustion may produce, or at all events predispose to, the
+paramnesic delusion of recognising present experiences as familiar. Thus
+Rosenbach has recorded the case of a sane and healthy man, who, after
+severe mental labour, followed by sleeplessness, seemed to know all the
+people he met in the street, though on close examination he found he was
+mistaken.[225] Such a condition may even be almost congenital. Thus of
+Anna Kingsford, who was of highly strung and neurotic disposition, we are
+told that, as a child, 'all that she read struck her as already familiar
+to her, so that she seemed to herself to be recovering old recollections
+rather than acquiring fresh knowledge.'[226]
+
+It is noteworthy that artificial anaesthesia by drugs which produce an
+abnormal sleep also favours paramnesia. Thus Sir William Ramsay[227] has
+stated that when, under an anaesthetic, he heard a slight noise in the
+street, 'I not merely knew that it had happened before, but I could have
+predicted that it would happen at that very moment.'
+
+In all these conditions we appear to be in the presence of an enfeebled,
+excited, and impaired state of consciousness approximating to the true
+confusion of dream consciousness. It seems as if externally aroused
+sensations in such cases are received by the exhausted cerebral centres in
+so blurred a form that an illusion takes place, and they are mistaken for
+internally excited sensations, for memories.
+
+That paramnesia is a fatigue product--even though often a product of
+nervous hyperaesthesia--is indicated by the statements of many who have
+described it. Anjel long ago emphasised this fatigue, and Bonatelli,
+also at an early period, found that illusions of memory were specially
+liable to occur in states of unusual nervous irritability. During recent
+years this characteristic of paramnesia has been more and more frequently
+recognised. Bernard Leroy, who devoted a lengthy and important Paris
+thesis to pseudo-reminiscence,[228] showed that a certain proportion of
+cases indicated the presence of fatigue or distraction. Heymans found that
+it was in the evening, when his subjects were in a passive condition,
+tired, exhausted, or engaged in uncongenial work, that they were most
+liable to the experience.[229] Féré brought forward a case in which, as
+he pointed out, pseudo-reminiscence in a healthy man, convalescent from
+influenza, was associated with fatigue and disappeared with it.[230]
+Dromard and Albès declare that pseudo-reminiscence is 'a phenomenon of
+exhaustion,' and one of them makes the significant statement: 'I become
+more easily the prey of this illusion when, by chance and without thinking
+of it, I simultaneously apply my attention to an external object and an
+internal thought.'[231] Dugas, again, considers that all the various forms
+of paramnesia have 'one common character, which is that they occur as the
+result of prolonged or intense fatigue';[232] he adds that most of the
+cases of paramnesia he has noted in young people during fifteen years
+coincided with periods of anaemia and nervous weakness.
+
+It is not, however, necessary to believe that fatigue, in the ordinary
+sense of the word, whether physical or mental, is the invariable
+accompaniment of paramnesia. If it is the presence of a condition
+resembling that of sleep or the hypnagogic state which predisposes to
+the experience, that condition may be produced by other circumstances.
+Distraction, excited hyperaesthesia simulating increased power, and
+various chronic psychic states due to a highly-strung or over-strained
+nervous system may all tend in the same direction, even though no sense of
+exhaustion is felt.[233] This is doubtless why it is that so many poets,
+novelists, and other men of strenuous intellectual aptitude are liable to
+this experience.
+
+It has been argued by some who admit that there is often an element of
+fatigue in paramnesia,[234] that the real cause of the false memory is an
+abnormal celerity of perception, perhaps due to hyperaesthesia. The scene
+would thus be perceived so quickly that the subject concludes that he
+must have had this experience before. That the subject often has a feeling
+of unusual rapidity of perception may very well be admitted. But there is
+no reason whatever to suppose that the perception actually is received
+with any such unusual rapidity. The probabilities are in the other
+direction. We know that many influences (such as drugs like alcohol) which
+produce a feeling of heightened and quickened perceptions really have a
+slowing and dulling effect, in the same way as the wise and beautiful
+things we utter in dreams are usually found on awaking to be commonplace,
+if not meaningless. There is no evidence to show that paramnesia is
+accompanied by a real heightening of perception, while, as we have seen,
+a broad survey of the facts makes it more reasonable to suppose that we
+have, on the contrary, a sudden fall towards the dream state, a state in
+which, as Tissié and others have pointed out, there are many stages.
+
+It must be remembered in this connection that in the hypnagogic and other
+states related to sleep we are not able to estimate time conditions
+consciously, though, as the frequent ability to wake at fixed moments
+indicates, we may do so subconsciously. Time is long, short, or
+non-existent in dream-like states. This is always true of the onset of
+the hypnagogic state. When I am suddenly awakened at night by a voice or
+a bell or other stimulus, I often find it very difficult to say whether
+I was or was not already awake, and have frequently replied, when so
+awakened, that I was already awake. That is an illusion, as is shown by
+the frequency with which elderly people who fall asleep in the day time,
+will declare, though they may have been snoring a moment before, that
+they have never been asleep. By a somewhat similar paramnesic illusion we
+can never fix the exact moment when we awake. When we become conscious
+that we are awake it always seems to us that we are already awake, awake
+for an indefinite time, and not that we have just awakened. If I had to
+register the exact moment I awake in the morning I should usually feel
+that I was considerably late in making the observation. It seems that the
+imperfect hypnagogic consciousness projects itself behind. At the first
+onset, consciousness is not sufficiently developed to be able to realise
+that it is beginning, and when it becomes sufficiently developed to make
+such a statement the moment when it can be correctly made is already past.
+Consciousness is only able to assert that it has been continuing for an
+indefinite time. And that assertion involves a paramnesic illusion of
+putting back a present experience into the past, analogous to the illusion
+of pseudo-reminiscence.[235]
+
+If we realise these characteristics of paramnesia we can scarcely fail
+to conclude that we are concerned here with illusions which, while
+they fall within the sphere of memory, are largely conditioned by the
+whole psychic condition. As in dreams, it is inattention, failure of
+apperception, defective association of the mental contents, which make
+the paramnesia possible. Paramnesia is, as Fouillée has said, a kind of
+diplopia or seeing double in the mental field. 'I have the impression,'
+says one of the writers on this subject who himself experiences the
+sensation, 'that the present reality has a _double_.' Actual double
+vision is due to the failure of that muscular co-ordination which, as
+Ribot and others have insisted, is of the very essence of attention.
+This wider psychic basis on which paramnesia rests has of late been
+recognised by several psychologists. Thus Léon-Kindberg states that in
+paramnesia there is an absence of mental attention, of the effort of
+synthesis necessary to grasp an actual occurrence, which is, therefore,
+perceived with the same facility as a memory not requiring synthesis,
+with the resulting illusion that it is a memory.[236] Ballet, again,
+regards paramnesia as a transitory or permanent psychasthenic state, due
+to dissociation.[237] Dugas, also, who has repeatedly returned to this
+subject during many years, in his latest contributions attaches primary
+importance to this broader factor of paramnesia. In analysing memory, he
+says, there is an element which, though often overlooked, is capital:
+the recognition of a state of consciousness not merely as passed, but as
+bound up with our own personal past; when that synthetic function ceases
+to be accomplished, or is only accomplished defectively, then memory is
+lacking or perverted. Nervous weakness, he proceeds, produces failure of
+attention, the inhibitory power of attention being no longer exerted, and
+the psychic elements fall back to anarchy. Now many psychic states, such
+as sensations, recollections, and images, differ from each other less
+by their substance than by the way in which the mind takes hold of and
+apprehends them. The mind seizes a sensation with a stronger grasp than
+a recollection, and a recollection with a stronger grasp than an image.
+When attention is relaxed the line of demarcation between these psychic
+states tends to be effaced; the sensation becomes vague and floating
+like the recollection and the image, while the recollection and the
+image, on the contrary, become objective and acquire something of the
+brilliance and relief of the sensation. The very same cause--enfeeblement
+of attention--thus produces opposite effects, on the one side raising
+the tone, on the other lowering it, so that states of mind which are
+ordinarily distinct tend to be approximated and confused, as we may
+observe in the hypnagogic condition.[238]
+
+Although Dugas makes no reference to Janet, it is not difficult to
+see that he has assimilated some of the views of that distinguished
+investigator of psychic mysteries. Janet, as we know, in various morbid
+psychic conditions, attaches great explanatory force to the individual's
+loss of hold, through psychic weakness, of his own personality, and
+to the diminished sense of reality and even depersonalisation thence
+ensuing. It so happens that Janet himself has set forth a theory of
+pseudo-reminiscence which is characteristic of his own attitude, and also
+harmonises with the wider outlook which now marks the attempts to explain
+these perversions of memory. Janet declares that pseudo-reminiscence is a
+negative phenomenon and belongs to a group in which various other feelings
+of diminished sense of reality belong. These people all say in effect:
+'It seems to me that these things are not real; it seems to me that these
+events are not actual or present.' The essence of this form of paramnesia
+is thus more a negation of the present than an affirmation of the past.
+'The function of adaptation to the present moment,' Janet remarks, 'is
+the most complicated and the most recent of all. The function of the real
+is the most elevated and the most difficult of all cerebral functions.'
+Under various influences there is a diminution of nervous and psychic
+tension, and such suppression of the high tension of the mind leaves only
+the lower functions subsisting. When that fall of tension is rapid, there
+may be a crisis of which pseudo-reminiscence is one of the symptoms.[239]
+Janet would thus place pseudo-reminiscence among the manifestations of
+psychasthenia, though he leaves untouched the difficult question of its
+precise mechanism.
+
+The most comprehensive attempt to explain the mystery of paramnesia in
+recent years is certainly that made in an elaborately eclectic study
+by one of the most distinguished of living French thinkers, Professor
+Bergson.[240] He first casts a glance over what he considers the two
+main groups of explanations of this puzzling phenomenon: (1) those,
+advocated by Ribot, Fouillée, Lalande, Arnaud, Piéron, Myers, etc.,
+which involve the more or less simultaneous existence in consciousness
+of two images, of which one is the reproduction of the other; (2) those
+advocated by Janet, Heymans, Léon-Kindberg, Dromard and Albès, etc.,
+which insist on the lower mental tone, the diminished attention, the
+lack of synthetising power, which mark the condition in which paramnesia
+occurs. Bergson is quite ready to accept the principles of both these
+groups of explanations, and to combine them. But, he argues, to understand
+the phenomenon adequately, we must go deeper; we must analyse the normal
+mechanism of memory. And he finds, if we do this, that not merely the
+moment of a paramnesic illusion, but every moment of our life, offers two
+aspects, actual and virtual, perception on one side, and memory on the
+other. The moment itself, indeed, consists of such a scission, for it
+is always moving, always a fleeting boundary between the immediate past
+and the immediate future, and would be a mere abstraction if it were not
+'precisely the mobile mirror which ceaselessly reflects perception in
+recollection.' When the matter is thus regarded a recollection is seen
+to be, in reality, not something which has been, but something which
+is, proceeding _pari passu_ with the perception it reproduces. It is a
+recollection of the moment taking place at that moment. Belonging to the
+past as regards its form, it belongs to the present as regards its matter.
+It is recollection of the present. Now this is exactly the state in which
+the paramnesic person consciously finds himself, and the only problem
+before us, therefore, is to ascertain why every one at every moment is not
+conscious of the same experience. Bergson replies that nothing is more
+useless for present action than the recollection of the present. It has
+nothing to tell us; we hold the real object, and to give up that for its
+recollection would be to sacrifice the substance to the shadow. Therefore
+we obstinately and persistently turn away from the recollection of the
+present. It emerges consciously only under the influence of some abnormal
+or pathological disturbance of attention. Paramnesia is an anomaly of this
+kind, and it is due to a temporary enfeeblement of the general attention
+to life, a momentary arrest of the forward movement of consciousness.
+'False recognition,' Bergson concludes, 'may thus be regarded as the most
+inoffensive form of inattention to life. It seems to result from the
+combined play of perception and memory given up to their own energy. It
+would take place at every moment if it were not that will, ceaselessly
+directed towards action, prevents the present from folding in on itself by
+pushing it indefinitely into the future.'
+
+So far as my own explanation is concerned, it will be seen that I still
+place weight on the general condition of temporary or chronic nervous
+fatigue as the soil on which paramnesia arises--a belief now accepted by
+most psychologists[241]--and that I think we must search for the clue to
+the mechanism of the illusion in those dreaming and hypnagogic states
+in which it most often occurs. As regards a definite explanation of the
+mechanism we must, in the face of so many ingenious and complicated
+theories, perhaps still await more general agreement.[242] What I have
+suggested, and am still inclined to maintain, is that the psychic
+enfeeblement, temporary or chronic, which is the general preliminary
+condition of paramnesia, whether or not there is any subjective sensation
+of increased power, may account for the paramnesia by bringing an
+externally aroused perception down to a lower and fainter stage on which
+it is on a level with an internally aroused perception--a memory. Just
+as in hypnagogic paramnesia the vivid and life-like dream, or internal
+impression, is raised to the class of memories, and becomes the shadow
+of a real experience, so in waking paramnesia the external impression
+is lowered to the same class. Perception is alike dulled in each case,
+and the immediate experience follows the line of least resistance--this
+time too carelessly or too prematurely--to join the great bulk of our
+experiences.
+
+We thus realise how it is that that doubling of experience occurs. The
+mind has for the moment become flaccid and enfeebled; its loosened texture
+has, as it were, abnormally enlarged the meshes in which sensations are
+caught and sifted, so that they run through too easily. In other words,
+they are not properly _apperceived_. To use a crude simile, it is as
+though we poured water into a sieve. The impressions of the world which
+are actual sensations as they strike the relaxed psychic meshwork are
+instantaneously passed through to become memories, and we see them in both
+forms at the same moment, and are unable to distinguish one from the other.
+
+In sleep, and in the hypnagogic state, as in hypnosis, we accept a
+suggestion, with or without a struggle. In the waking paramnesic state
+we seem to find, in a slighter stage of a like condition, _the same
+process in a reversed form_. Instead of accepting a representation as
+an actual present fact, we accept the actual present fact as merely
+a representation. The centres of perception are in such a state of
+exhaustion and disorder that they receive an actual external sensation
+in the feebler shape of a representation. The actual fact becomes merely
+a suggestion of far distant things. It reaches consciousness in the
+enfeebled shape of an old memory--
+
+    '... like to something I remember
+    A great while since, a long, long time ago.'
+
+Paramnesia is thus an internal hallucination, a reversed hallucination,
+it is true, but while so reversed, the stream of consciousness is still
+following the line of least resistance.
+
+It is along some such lines as these, it seems to me, that we may best
+attempt to explain the phenomena of paramnesia, phenomena which are of no
+little interest since, in earlier stages of culture, they may well have
+had a real influence on belief, suggesting to primitive man that he had
+somehow had wider experiences than he knew of, and that, as Wordsworth put
+it, he trailed clouds of glory behind him.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 192: It is as well to bear in mind that this dream occurred when
+Maury was a student, long before he began to study dreaming, and (as Egger
+has pointed out) was probably not written down until thirteen years later.
+On these grounds alone it is not entitled to serious consideration.]
+
+[Footnote 193: As Sir Samuel Wilks once remarked ('On the Nature of
+Dreams,' _Medical Magazine_, Feb. 1894), 'The dreamer merely forms a
+mental picture, and the _description_ of it he calls his dream.']
+
+[Footnote 194: Egger, 'La Durée apparente des Rêves,' _Revue
+Philosophique_, Jan. 1895, pp. 41-59; Clavière, 'La Rapidité de la Pensée
+dans le Rêve,' _ib._ May 1897, p. 509; Piéron, 'La Rapidité des Processes
+Psychiques,' _ib._ Jan. 1903, pp. 89-95; Foucault, _Le Rêve_, pp. 158 _et
+seq.;_ Tobolowska, _Etude sur les Illusions du Temps dans les Rêves du
+Sommeil Normal:_ Thèse de Paris, 1900.]
+
+[Footnote 195: Thus Freud tells (_Jahrbuch für Psychoanalytische
+Forschungen_, vol. i. part ii. p. 387) of a man who was obsessed by the
+idea that he should never pass money until he had carefully cleaned it,
+for fear he might be infecting other people, but was quite unaware that
+this obsession sprang from remorse due to his own sins of sexual impurity.
+In such a case there is, of course, not only a crumpling of consciousness,
+but a definite dislocation and transference of the parts.]
+
+[Footnote 196: We also see here an interesting dissociation of the motor
+(speech) centre from the visual centre; it is the latter which is in this
+instance most closely in touch with facts.]
+
+[Footnote 197: The 'selvdrolla' dream, recorded in a previous chapter (p.
+43), illustrates the same point with the difference that the crumpled up
+portion of consciousness never became visible in the dream.]
+
+[Footnote 198: R. L. Stevenson, 'A Chapter on Dreams,' in _Across the
+Plains_, 1892.]
+
+[Footnote 199: In most cases the missing memory, after making itself felt
+outside the conscious area, seems to reach that area, not so much by its
+own spontaneous unconscious movement as by a tentative search for clues.
+Thus I read one day the words 'the breaking of a goblet by a little black
+imp,' and immediately became conscious that I was reminded of something
+similar in recent experience, but could not tell what. I asked myself
+if it could have been in a dream. In a few moments, however, the memory
+recurred to me that two hours previously I had noticed a broken vase, and
+casually wondered how it had become broken. Under such circumstances we
+are for a time thinking of something, and yet have no conscious knowledge
+as to what we are thinking of.]
+
+[Footnote 200: Jastrow remarks, somewhat in the same way (_The
+Subconscious_, p. 93), that 'a letting down of the effort, a focusing of
+the mind upon a point a little or a good deal to one side of the fixation
+point, distinctly aids the mental vision.' The process seems, however,
+to be most effective when it is automatic, for attention cannot easily
+relax its own tension. A large number of the discoveries and solutions of
+difficulties effected in dreams are due to this dispersal of attention
+over a wider field, so enabling the missing relationship to be detected.
+See, for instance, some cases recorded by Newbold (_Psychological
+Review_, March 1896, p. 132), as of Dr. Hilprecht, the Assyriologist, who
+discovered in a dream that two fragments of tablets he had vainly been
+endeavouring to decipher, were really parts of the same tablet.]
+
+[Footnote 201: Hypermnesia, or excessive memory, is found in waking
+life in various abnormal conditions. It is not uncommon in men of
+genius; Macaulay is a well-known example. It scarcely seems, however,
+an especially favourable condition for keen intellectual power; the
+mental machine that is clogged with unnecessary and unimportant facts can
+scarcely fail to work under difficulties. 'Hypermnesia,' remarks Stoddart
+('Early Symptoms of Mental Disease,' _British Medical Journal_, 11th May
+1907), 'occurs most frequently in certain cases of idiocy, and in some
+cases of chronic mania. One such patient could enumerate all the occasions
+when any given medical officer had played tennis since he entered the
+institution.' Hypermnesia in dreams has been dealt with by Carl du Prel,
+_Philosophy of Mysticism_, vol. ii. ch. i.]
+
+[Footnote 202: This delay is worth mentioning, for it is conceivable that,
+in the case of a weak recollection, transference to the subconscious
+sphere of sleep might involve a temporary disappearance from the conscious
+waking sphere.]
+
+[Footnote 203: There is a possible interest in the exact length of the
+interval. Swoboda (_Die Perioden des Menschlichen Organismus in ihrer
+psychologischen und biologischen Bedeutung_, 1904) believes that the
+recurrence of memories tends to obey a law of periodicity, so that, for
+instance, a melody heard at a concert may recur at a regular interval. I
+cannot say that I have myself found evidence of such periodicity, though I
+have made several observations on the recurrence of such memories.]
+
+[Footnote 204: Similarly, Foucault (_Le Rêve_, p. 79) records the dream
+of a lady concerning a place called Brétigny, near Dijon, though when
+awake she was not aware there is such a place there. Elsewhere (p. 214)
+Foucault also gives examples of sensations, not consciously perceived
+in the waking state, but revived in dream. Beaunis, in his interesting
+'Contribution à la Psychologie du Rêve' (_American Journal of Psychology_,
+July-Oct. 1903) narrates a dream of his own in which a forgotten or
+unconscious memory revived. Many such dreams could easily be brought
+together. An often-quoted dream, apparently of this kind (see _e.g._,
+_British Medical Journal_, 7th April 1900, p. 850), is that of Archbishop
+Benson who, like his predecessor, Laud, took an interest in his dreams.
+He dreamed that he was suffering severely in his chest, and that his
+doctor, on being called in, told him that he had angĭna pectoris. The
+archbishop in his dream exclaimed with indignation: 'Angǐna, angǐna!' The
+dream made such an impression on him that he looked the matter up, but
+only found the ordinary pronunciation, angīna, recorded. A week later he
+was at Cambridge, dining in hall at Trinity, and seated next to Munro,
+the Professor of Latin, who happened to ask him about the death of Thomas
+Arnold. 'He died of angĭna pectoris,' said Benson. Munro smiled grimly
+and said softly: 'Of angǐna, as we now call it.' There can be no doubt
+that Benson, who was closely in touch with the academic world, had met
+with this correction, which is accepted by all modern Latinists, and
+'forgotten' it.]
+
+[Footnote 205: Xenoglossia, as well as the tendency to utter gibberish,
+are both classed under glossolalia. See _e.g._ E. Lombard, 'Phenomènes de
+Glossolalie,' _Archives de Psychologie_, July 1907.]
+
+[Footnote 206: In the eighteenth century Lord Monboddo (_Ancient
+Metaphysics_, vol. iii., 1782, p. 217) referred to a Countess of Laval
+who, during the delirium of illness, spoke the Breton tongue which she had
+known as a child, but long since forgotten.]
+
+[Footnote 207: In a somewhat similar manner the muscular contractions of
+the hysterical may disappear during sleep, as may their paralyses and
+their anaesthesias, as well as their losses of memory. (These phenomena
+have been especially observed and studied by Raymond and Janet, _Névroses
+et Idées Fixes_, vol. ii.) Such characteristics of the sleep of the
+hysterical may well be a manifestation of the same tendency which in the
+sleep of normal people leads to hypermnesia. In this connection reference
+may be made to the interesting opposition between attention and memory
+developed by Dr. Marie de Manacéïne ('De l'antagonisme qui existe entre
+chaque effort de l'attention et des innervations motrices,' _Atti dell'
+XI. Congresso Internazionale Medico_, 1894, Rome, vol. ii., 'Fisiologia,'
+p. 48). Concentrated attention, she argues, paralyses memory, and there is
+an absolute antagonism between motor innervation, or real movement, which
+favours memory, and the concentrated effort which favours attention. 'In
+psychological researches we must always separate the phenomena of memory
+from the phenomena of attention, for memory is only possible through
+muscular movement, and attention, on the contrary, is only active through
+the suppression of movement.' In sleep, it is true, there may be no
+actual movement, but there is relaxation of muscular tension and freedom
+of motor ideas. It should be added that not all investigators confirm
+Manacéïne's conclusion as to the antagonism between the conditions for
+memory and attention. Thus R. MacDougall ('The Physical Characteristics
+of Attention,' _Psychological Review_, March 1895), while finding that
+muscular relaxation accompanies the recall of memories, finds also, though
+not so markedly and constantly, a similar relaxation accompanying both
+voluntary and spontaneous attention.]
+
+[Footnote 208: The term 'paramnesia' was devised by Kraepelin, who
+wrote the first comprehensive study of the subject, though he offered
+no explanatory theory of it ('Ueber Erinnerungsfälschungen,' _Archiv
+für Psychiatrie_, Bd. xvii. and xviii.). A very clear and comprehensive
+account of the subject, up to the date of the article, was given by W. H.
+Burnham ('Paramnesia,' _American Journal of Psychology_, May 1889). In
+the following pages, together with much new matter, I have made use of my
+paper entitled 'A Note on Hypnagogic Paramnesia,' published in _Mind_,
+vol. vi. No. 22, in 1896.]
+
+[Footnote 209: It has long been recognised by psychologists that
+paramnesia occurs in dreams. Thus Burnham refers to it as frequent, and
+Kraepelin mentions that he once dreamed of smoking a cigar for the fourth
+or fifth time, though he had never smoked in his life.]
+
+[Footnote 210: In alcoholic insanity, for instance, especially when it
+leads to the occurrence of Korsakoff's syndrome, there is a notable degree
+of mental weakness with a tendency to form false memories, both in the
+form of confabulation (or the filling by imagination of lacunae in memory)
+and pseudo-reminiscence. (See _e.g._ John Turner, 'Alcoholic Insanity,'
+_Journal of Mental Science_, Jan. 1910, p. 41.)]
+
+[Footnote 211: Dr. Marie de Manacéïne, who has studied the phenomena of
+the hypnagogic state experimentally in much detail (_Sleep_, pp. 195-220),
+finds that in its deepest stage it is marked by echolalia, or the tendency
+to repeat automatically what is said, and in a less deep stage by abnormal
+suggestibility or the tendency to accept ideas and especially emotions.
+She considers that the hypnagogic state becomes abnormal when it lasts for
+more than fifteen seconds. It may last for more than six minutes, and is
+then of serious import. She shows reason to believe that the hypnagogic
+state is substantially identical with the hypnotic state, and she regards
+it as probably due to cerebral anaemia. She finds it especially marked in
+children under fifteen, the more so if they belong to the working-class,
+and rather common among adolescent girls and young women, especially
+if anaemic, but among adults rarer in women than in men, becoming more
+frequent in both sexes with old age; the phlegmatic are more liable to it
+than the sanguine or the nervous.]
+
+[Footnote 212: Sully, _The Human Mind_, vol. ii. p. 317. Foucault (_Le
+Rêve_, p. 300), briefly notes that he has often had the illusion of
+seeming to remember a fact which does not exist, and of recollecting a
+person he has never seen.]
+
+[Footnote 213: F. W. Colegrove, 'Individual Memories,' _American Journal
+of Psychology_, Jan. 1899.]
+
+[Footnote 214: See _e.g._ for such cases in sane persons, Hack Tuke,
+'Hallucinations,' _Brain_, vol. xi., 1889. A man with chronic systematised
+delusions writes: 'I am obsessed at nights; that is, I am made the
+recipient of projected thoughts which become translated into dreams, and
+on several occasions I have found, just after waking, and while still in a
+very passive state, that some one was speaking to me in the ear.']
+
+[Footnote 215: Hughlings Jackson (_Practitioner_, May 1874, also
+_Brain_, July 1888, and _Brain_, 1899, p. 534) applied this term to the
+intellectual aura preceding an epileptic attack and considered that
+'pseudo-reminiscence' itself might indicate a slight epileptic paroxysm
+in persons who show other symptoms of epilepsy. Gowers also (_Epilepsy_,
+2nd ed., p. 133) considers 'dreamy state' to be closely associated with
+minor attacks of epilepsy; and Crichton-Browne (_Dreamy Mental States_)
+holds the same view. It should be added that 'dreamy state' by no means
+necessarily involves pseudo-reminiscence; see _e.g._ S. Taylor, 'A Case
+of Dreamy State,' _Lancet_, 9th Aug. 1890, p. 276, and W. A. Turner, 'The
+Problem of Epilepsy,' _British Medical Journal_, 2nd April 1910, p. 805.
+Leroy found that pseudo-reminiscence is usually rare in association with
+epilepsy.]
+
+[Footnote 216: 'The feeling of pre-existence,' writes Dr. J. G. Kiernan
+in a private letter, 'frequently occurs as a consequence of delusions
+of memory in epilepsy. The case on which George Sand built her story of
+_Consuelo_ was one reported of an epileptic who during the epileptic
+states had delusions of living in a distant historic past of which he
+retained the memory as facts during the normal state. I know of two
+epileptic theosophists who base their belief in transmigration on the
+memories of their epileptic period. In my judgment a large part of
+Swedenborg's visions were instances of delusions of memory.']
+
+[Footnote 217: Professor Grasset ('La Sensation du "Déjà Vu,"' _Journal
+de Psychologie Normale et Pathologique_, Nov.-Feb. 1904) considers
+that a feeling of anguish is the characteristic accompaniment of a
+true paramnesic manifestation. This statement is too pronounced. There
+is usually some emotional disturbance, but its degree depends on the
+temperament of the person experiencing the phenomenon. Sometimes the
+sensation of pseudo-reminiscence may be accompanied, as a medical man
+subject to epilepsy (mentioned by Hughlings Jackson) found in his own
+case, by 'a slight sense of satisfaction,' as in the finding of something
+that had been sought for.]
+
+[Footnote 218: _Revue Philosophique_, November 1893.]
+
+[Footnote 219: _Revue Philosophique_, January 1894.]
+
+[Footnote 220: Heymans found that students liable to paramnesia tended to
+possess an aptitude for languages and an inaptitude for mathematics.]
+
+[Footnote 221: Paul Bourget, the novelist, in an interesting letter
+published by Grasset (_loc. cit._) states that this experience has been
+habitual with him from as long back as he can remember, occurring in
+regard to things heard or felt more than to things seen, and accompanied
+by an emotional trouble similar to that experienced in dreams of dead
+friends who appear as living, though even in his dreams the dreamer knows
+that they are dead. Bourget adds that he is of emotional temperament, and
+that the phenomenon was more pronounced in childhood than it is now.]
+
+[Footnote 222: Paul Lapie, _Revue Philosophique_, March 1894; Charles
+_Méré, Mercure de France_, July 1903; Sully, Tannery, and Buccola also
+considered that this is a factor in the explanation of the phenomenon.
+Freud (_Zur Psychopathologie des Alltagsleben_, 1907, p. 122) brings
+forward a modification of this theory, and believes that false recognition
+is a reminiscence of unconscious day-dreams.]
+
+[Footnote 223: For a minute and searching criticism of the theory of the
+duplex brain, see especially four articles by Bonne in the _Archives de
+Neurologie_, March-June 1907.]
+
+[Footnote 224: 'Epilepsy' wrote Binns long ago (_Anatomy of Sleep_, 1845,
+p. 431), 'is a disease which in some of its symptoms strongly resembles
+abnormal sleep.' The conditions under which a paramnesic manifestation
+may really replace an epileptic fit are well described by a literary man
+with hereditary epilepsy whose case has been recorded by Haskovec of
+Prague (_XIIIe. Congrès International de Médecine: Comptes Rendus_, vol.
+viii., 'Psychiatrie' p. 125): 'One day at the theatre, under the influence
+of the heat and perhaps the music, I experienced extreme excitement and
+fatigue. I thought I was about to have an attack, and resisted with all
+my strength, and it failed to take place. But I found myself in a strange
+psychic state. On leaving the theatre I seemed to be dreaming. I saw and
+heard everything and talked as usual. But everything seemed strange.
+Nothing seemed to reach directly _me_ or to be a real impression, but
+merely the automatic reproduction of something learnt, only I felt that I
+had lived it all before and felt it; at that moment I simply seemed to be
+observing it.']
+
+[Footnote 225: _Centralblatt für Nervenheilkunde_, April 1886. In some
+forms of insanity the false recognition of a person may become a fixed
+delusion. This question has been studied by Albès in his Paris thesis, _De
+I'Illusion de Fausse Reconnaissance_, 1906.]
+
+[Footnote 226: E. Maitland, _Anna Kingsford_, vol. i. p. 3. Lalande
+(_Revue Philosophique_, November 1893, p. 487) gives a precisely similar
+case in a child.]
+
+[Footnote 227: As quoted by Jastrow, _The Subconscious_, p. 248.]
+
+[Footnote 228: Leroy, _Etude sur l'Illusion de Fausse Reconnaissance_,
+1898, with forty-nine new observations. Leroy states, however (in declared
+opposition to my view), that only a minority of his cases actually mention
+fatigue.]
+
+[Footnote 229: Heymans, 'Eine Enquête über Depersonnalisation und Fausse
+Reconnaissance,' _Zeitschrift für Psychologie und Physiologie der
+Sinnesorgane_, November, 1903; also a further paper in the same journal
+confirming his conclusions, January 1906.]
+
+[Footnote 230: Féré, 'Deuxième Note sur la Fausse Reconnaissance,'
+_Journal de Neurologie_, 1905.]
+
+[Footnote 231: Dromard et Albès, 'L'Illusion dit de Fausse
+Reconnaissance,' _Journal de Psychologie Normale et Pathologique_,
+May-June 1905.]
+
+[Footnote 232: Dugas, 'Observations sur des Erreurs "Formelles" de la
+Mémoire,' _Revue Philosophique_, July 1908.]
+
+[Footnote 233: A friend, liable to this form of paramnesia, wrote to me
+after the publication of my first paper on the subject: 'I find, as you
+foretold, that it is difficult to recall an experience of this kind in all
+its details. I feel sure, however, that it is not necessarily allied with
+an enfeebled or overwrought nervous system. It was commonest with me in my
+youth, at a time when my life was a pleasant one, and my brain not fagged
+as now. I still [aged 43] have it occasionally, but not so frequently as
+twenty years ago.' It may be added that my friend, of Highland family,
+was a man of keen and emotional nervous temperament, a strenuous mental
+worker--whence at one time a serious breakdown in health--and had
+published two volumes of poems in early life. The greater liability to
+paramnesia in early life, which is generally recognised, is comparable to
+the special liability of children to hypnagogic visions, both phenomena
+being probably due to the greater excitability and easier exhaustibility
+of the youthful brain.]
+
+[Footnote 234: For instance, by Allin, 'Recognition,' _American Journal of
+Psychology_, January 1896.]
+
+[Footnote 235: The explanation of paramnesia here set forth received on
+its first publication the approval of Léon Marillier, who considered
+it 'ingenious and seductive,' and as adequately accounting for the
+phenomena, provided we bear in mind that the loss of a clear feeling of
+time is characteristic of hypnagogic and allied states, the perception
+of each moment being immediately transferred into an ancient memory, and
+consequently recognised (_L'Année Biologique_, third year, 1897, p. 772).
+This necessity for taking into account the co-existence of perception
+and illusory remembrance has largely moulded several of the theories of
+paramnesia. Thus Jean de Pury (_Archives de Psychologie_, December 1902),
+while affirming that pseudo-reminiscence is due to an _anteriorisation_
+of actual perceptions, regards it as of the nature of a double refraction
+such as that simultaneously produced on two faces of a prism by the same
+image; under the influence of conditions he is unable to define, an image
+appears for the moment on the plane both of the past and of the present,
+and psychically we see double just as physically we see double when the
+parallelism of our visual rays is disturbed. Piéron, again, taking up a
+theory at one time favoured by Dugas, and previously suggested in one form
+or another by Ribot and Fouillée, assumes the formation of two images: one
+which, owing to distraction or fatigue, reaches consciousness after having
+traversed subconsciousness, and so takes on a dream-like and effaced
+character, and almost simultaneously with this a direct perception which
+has not thus changed its character; the shock of the conflict between
+these two produces the pseudo-reminiscence ('Sur l'Interpretation des
+Faits de Paramnésie,' _Revue Philosophique_, August 1902). Albès, in his
+Paris thesis, criticises this explanation, pointing out that a sequence of
+this kind very frequently occurs, but produces no pseudo-reminiscence.]
+
+[Footnote 236: Michel Léon-Kindberg, 'Le Sentiment du Déjà Vu,' _Revue de
+Psychiatrie_, April 1903, No. 4.]
+
+[Footnote 237: G. Ballet, 'Un Cas de Fausse Reconnaissance,' _Revue
+Neurologique_, 1904, p. 1221.]
+
+[Footnote 238: Dugas, 'Observations sur des Erreurs "Formelles" de la
+Mémoire', _Revue Philosophique_, July 1908; _ib._ June 1910. Dugas makes
+no reference to Janet, nor to my paper on Hypnagogic Paramnesia, but his
+statement of the matter to some extent combines and harmonises those of
+the two earlier writers.]
+
+[Footnote 239: P. Janet, 'A Propos du Déjà Vu,' _Journal de Psychologie
+Normale et Pathologique_, July-August 1905.]
+
+[Footnote 240: H. Bergson, 'Le Souvenir du Présent et la Fausse
+Reconnaissance,' _Revue Philosophique_, December 1908. It should be
+remarked that, except in the attempt to explain why paramnesia is not
+normally habitual, Bergson's paper is based on the ideas or suggestions of
+previous writers.]
+
+[Footnote 241: Before the appearance of my paper, as already mentioned,
+Anjel had emphasised the significance of fatigue in the production of
+paramnesia (_Archiv für Psychiatrie_, Bd. viii. pp. 57 _et seq._). His
+theory, indeed (only known to me through brief summaries)--according to
+which the pseudo-reminiscence is due to the tardy apprehension by the
+fatigued mind of a sensation which is thus degraded to the level of a
+reproduced impression--seems practically identical with that which I
+independently reached in the light of hypnagogic phenomena.]
+
+[Footnote 242: I disregard those theories which invoke histological
+explanations, as by some peculiar disposition of the neurons. Such
+explanations are as much outside the psychologist's sphere as the
+old-fashioned explanations by reference to God and the Devil. A known
+physiological or pathological process may, indeed, quite properly be
+recognised by the psychologist; such, for instance, as the disturbance
+of the heart associated with some dreams. Even minute changes in the
+brain, when they have been properly determined by the histologist, may be
+effectively invoked by the psychologist if they seem to supply an exact
+physical correlative to his own findings. But for the psychologist to go
+outside his own field, and invent a purely fanciful and arbitrary neuronic
+scheme to suit a psychic process, explains nothing. It is merely child's
+play. The stuff that the psychologist works with must be psychical, just
+as the stuff of the physicist's work must be physical.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+    The Fundamental Nature of Dreaming--Insanity and Dreaming--The
+    Child's Psychic State and the Dream State--Primitive Thought and
+    Dreams--Dreaming and Myth-Making--Genius and Dreams--Dreaming as a
+    Road into the Infinite.
+
+
+In the preceding chapters we have traced some of the elementary tendencies
+which prevail in the formation of dreams. These tendencies are in some
+respects so unlike those that rule in waking life--slight and subtle as
+their unlikeness often seems--that we are justified in regarding the
+psychic phenomena of sleeping life as constituting a world of their own.
+
+Yet when we look at the phenomena a little more deeply we realise that,
+however differentiated they have become, dream life is yet strictly
+co-ordinated with other forms of psychic life. If we pierce below the
+surface we seem to reach a primitive fundamental psychic stage in
+which the dreamer, the madman, the child, and the savage alike have
+their starting point, and possess a degree of community from which the
+waking, civilised, sane adult of to-day is shut out, so that he can
+only comprehend it by an intellectual effort.[243] It thus happens that
+the ways of thinking and feeling of the child and the savage and the
+lunatic each furnish a road by which we may reach a psychic world which is
+essentially that of the dreamer.
+
+The resemblance of insanity to dream life has, above all, impressed
+observers from the time when the nature of insanity was first definitely
+recognised. It would be outside the limits of the present book to discuss
+the points at which dreams resemble or differ from insanity, but it is
+worth while to touch on the question of their affinity. The recognition of
+this affinity, or at all events analogy, though it was stated by Cabanis
+to be due to Cullen, is as old as Aristotle, and has constantly been put
+forward afresh. Thus in the sixteenth century Du Laurens (A. Laurentius),
+in his treatise on the disease of melancholy, as insanity was then termed,
+compared it to dreaming.[244] The same point is still constantly brought
+forward by the more philosophic physician. 'Find out all about dreams,'
+Hughlings Jackson has said, 'and you will have found out all about
+insanity.' From the wider standpoint of the psychologist, Jastrow points
+out that not only insanity, but all the forms of delirium, including the
+drug-intoxications, are 'variants of dream consciousness.'
+
+The reality of the affinity of dreaming and insanity is well illustrated
+by a case, coming under the observation of Marro, in which a dream,
+formed according to the ordinary rules of dreaming, produced a temporary
+fit of insanity in an otherwise perfectly sane subject.[245] In this
+case a highly intelligent but somewhat neurotic young man was returning
+to Italy after pursuing his studies abroad, and reached Turin, on the
+homeward journey, in a somewhat tired state. In the train he believed
+that he had detected some cardsharpers, and that they suspected him of
+finding them out, and bore him ill-will in consequence. This produced a
+state of general nervous apprehension. At the hotel his room was over
+the kitchen; it was in consequence very hot, and to a late hour he could
+still hear voices and catch snatches of conversation, which seemed to him
+to be directed against himself. His suspicions deepened, he heard noises,
+in reality due to the kitchen utensils, which seemed preparations for
+his murder, and he ultimately became convinced that there was a plot to
+set fire to his room in order to force him to leave it, when he would be
+seized and murdered. He resolved to escape, got out of the window with
+his revolver in his hand, found his way to another part of the house,
+encountered a man who had been awakened by his movements, and shot at him,
+believing him to be a party to the imaginary conspiracy. He was seized and
+taken to the asylum, where he speedily regained calm, and realised the
+delusion into which he had fallen. When questioned by Marro, on reaching
+the asylum, he was unaware that he had ever fallen asleep during the
+night; he could not, however, account for all the time that had elapsed
+before he left the room, and it was probable, Marro concludes, that he
+was in a state between waking and sleeping, and that his delusion was
+constituted in a dream. Fatigue, nervous apprehension, an unduly hot
+bedroom, the close proximity of servants' voices, and the sound of kitchen
+utensils, had thus combined, in a state of partial sleep, to produce in an
+otherwise sane person, a morbid condition in every respect identical with
+that found in insane persons who are suffering from systematised delusions
+of persecution.[246]
+
+The resemblance of the child's psychic state to the dream state is an
+observation of less ancient date than that of the analogy between dreaming
+and insanity, but it has frequently been made by modern psychologists. 'In
+dreams,' says Freud, 'the child with his impulses lives again,'[247] and
+Giessler has devoted a chapter to the points of resemblance between dream
+life and the mental activity of children.[248]
+
+I should be more especially inclined to find the dream-like character of
+the child's mind at three points: (1) the abnormally logical tendency
+of the child's mind and the daring mental fusions which he effects in
+forming theories; (2) the greater preponderance of hypnagogic phenomena
+and hallucinations in childhood, as well as the large element of reverie
+or day-dreaming in the child's life, and the facility with which he
+confuses this waking imagination with reality; and (3) the child's
+tendency to mistake, also, the dreams of the night for real events.[249]
+This last tendency is of serious practical import when it leads a child,
+in all innocence, to make criminal charges against other persons.[250]
+This tendency clearly indicates the close resemblance which there is for
+children between dream life and waking life; it also shows the great
+vividness which children's dreams possess. In imaginative children, it
+may be added, a rich and vivid dream life is not infrequently the direct
+source of literary activities which lead to distinction in later life.[251]
+
+The child, we are often told, is the representative of the modern savage
+and the primitive man. That is not, in any strict sense, true, nor can we
+assume without question that early man and modern savages are identical.
+But we can have very little doubt that in our dreams we are brought near
+to ways of thought and feeling that are sometimes closer to those of early
+man, as well as of latter-day savages, than are our psychic modes in
+civilisation.[252] So remote are we to-day from the world of our dreams
+that we very rarely draw from them the inspiration of our waking lives.
+For the primitive man the laws of the waking world are not yet widely
+differentiated from the laws of the sleeping world, and he finds it not
+unreasonable to seek illumination for the problems of one world in the
+phenomena of the other. The doctrine of animism, as first formulated by
+Tylor (more especially in his _Primitive Culture_) finds in dreams the
+chief source of primitive religion and philosophy. Of recent years there
+has been a tendency to reject the theory of animism.[253] Certainly it is
+possible to rely too exclusively on dreams as the inspiration of early
+man; if the evidence of dreams had not been in a line with the evidence
+that he derived from other sources, there is no reason why the man of
+primitive times should have attached any peculiar value to dreams. But
+if the animistic conception presents too extreme a view of the primitive
+importance of dreaming, we must beware lest the reaction against it should
+lead us to fall into the opposite extreme. Durkheim argues that it is
+unlikely that early man attaches much significance to dreams, for the
+modern peasant, who is the representative of primitive man, appears to
+dream very little, and not to attach much importance to his dreams. But
+it is by no means true that the peasant of civilisation, with his fixed
+agricultural life, corresponds to early man who was mainly a hunter and
+often a nomad. Under the conditions of civilisation the peasant is fed
+regularly and leads a peaceful, stolid, laborious, and equable life,
+which is altogether unfavourable to psychic activity of any kind, awake
+or asleep. The savage man, now and ever, as a hunter and fighter, leads
+a life of comparative idleness, broken by spurts of violent activity;
+sometimes he can gorge himself with food, sometimes he is on the verge
+of starvation. He lives under conditions that are more favourable to the
+psychic side of life, awake or asleep, than is the case with the peasant
+of civilisation.
+
+Moreover, it must be remembered that all the peoples whom we may fairly
+regard as in some degree resembling early man possess a specialised caste
+of exceptional men who artificially cultivate their psychic activities,
+and thereby exert great influence on their fellows. These are termed,
+after their very typical representatives in some Siberian tribes,
+_shamans_, and combine the functions of priests and sorcerers and medicine
+men. It is nearly everywhere found that the shaman--who is often, it would
+appear, at the outset a somewhat abnormal person--cultivates solitude,
+fasting, and all manner of ascetic practices, thereby acquiring an unusual
+aptitude to dream, to see visions, to experience hallucinations, and, it
+may well be, to acquire abnormally clairvoyant powers. The shamans of the
+Andamanese are called by a word signifying dreamer, and in various parts
+of the world the shaman finds the first sign of his vocation in a dream.
+The evocation of dreams is often the chief end of the shaman's abnormal
+method of life. Thus, among the Salish Indians of British Columbia, dreams
+are the proper mode of communication with guardian spirits, and 'prolonged
+fasts, bathings, forced vomitings, and other exhausting bodily exercises
+are the means adopted for inducing the mystic dreams and visions.'[254]
+
+When we witness the phenomena of Shamanism in all parts of the world it
+is difficult to dispute the statement of Lucretius that the gods first
+appeared to men in dreams. This may be said to be literally true; even
+to-day it often happens that the savage's totem, who is practically
+his tutelary deity, first appears to him in a dream.[255] An influence
+which seems likely to have been so persistent may well have had a large
+plastic power in moulding the myths and legends which everywhere embody
+the religious impulses of men. This idea was long ago suggested by Hobbes.
+'From this ignorance of how to distinguish dreams and other strong
+Fancies,' he wrote, 'from Vision and Sense, did arise the greatest part of
+the Religion of the Gentiles in time past, that worshipped Satyrs, Fauns,
+Nymphs, and the like.'[256]
+
+Ludwig Laistner, however, appears to have been the first to argue in
+detail that dreams, and especially nightmares, have played an important
+part in the evolution of mythological ideas. 'If we bear in mind,' he said
+in the Preface to his great work, 'how intimately poetry and religion
+are connected with myth, we encounter the surprising fact that the first
+germ of these highly important vital manifestations is not to be found
+in any action of the waking mind, but in sleep, and that the chief and
+oldest teacher of productive imagination is not to be found in the
+experiences of life, but in the phantasies of dream.'[257] The pictures
+men formed of the over-world and the under-world have the character of
+dreams and hypnagogic visions, and this is true even within the sphere of
+Christianity.[258] The invention of Hell, Maudsley has declared, would
+find an adequate explanation, if such is needed, in the sufferings of some
+delirious patients, while the apocalyptic vision of Heaven with which
+our Christian Bible concludes, is, Beaunis remarks, nothing but a long
+dream.[259] And if it is true, as Baudelaire has said, that 'every well
+conformed brain carries within it two infinites: Heaven and Hell,' we may
+well believe that both Heaven and Hell find their most vivid symbolism in
+the spontaneous action of dreams.
+
+In migraine and the epileptic aura visions of diminutive creatures
+sometimes occur, and occasionally micropsic vision in which real objects
+appear diminished. It has been suggested by Sir Lauder Brunton that we may
+here have the origin of fairies, at all events for some races of fairies;
+for fairies, though diminutive in some countries, as in England, are not
+diminutive in others, as in Ireland. A more normal and frequent channel
+of intercourse with such creatures is, however, to be found in dreams.
+This is illustrated by the following dream experienced by a lady: 'I saw
+a man wheeling along a cripple. Eventually the cripple became reduced to
+about the size of a walnut, and the man told me that he had the power of
+becoming any size and of going anywhere. To my horror he then threw him
+into the water. In answer to my remonstrances that he would surely be
+drowned, the man said that it was all right, the little fellow would be
+home in a few hours. He then shouted out, "What time do you expect to get
+back?" The tiny creature, who was paddling along in the water, then took
+out a miniature watch, and replied: "About seven!"'[260] In a dream of my
+own I saw little creatures, a few inches high, moving about and acting on
+a diminutive stage. Though I regarded them as really living creatures, and
+not marionettes, the spectacle caused me no surprise.
+
+The dream-like character of myths, legends, and fairy tales is probably,
+however, not entirely due to direct borrowing from the actual dreams of
+sleep, or even from the hallucinations connected with insanity, music, or
+drugs, though all these may have played their part. The greater nearness
+of the primitive mind to the dream-state involves more than a tendency
+to embody in waking life conceptions obtained from dreams. It means that
+the waking psychic life itself is capable of acting in a way resembling
+that of the sleeping psychic life, and of evolving conceptions similar to
+dreams.
+
+This point of view has in recent years been especially set forth by Freud
+and his school, who argue that the laws of the formation of myths and
+fairy tales are identical with the laws in accordance with which dreams
+are formed.[261] It certainly seems to be true that the resemblances
+between dreams and legends are not adequately explained by supposing that
+the latter are moulded out of the former. We have to believe that on the
+myth-making plane of thought we are really on a plane that is more nearly
+parallel with that of dreaming than is our ordinary civilised thought.
+We are in a world of things that are supernormally enormous or delicate,
+and the emotional vibrations vastly enlarged, a world in which miracles
+happen on every hand and cause us no surprise. Slaughter and destruction
+take place on the heroic scale with a minimum expenditure of effort; men
+are transformed into beasts and beasts into men, so that men and beasts
+converse with each other.[262]
+
+Finally, it may be observed that the atmosphere into which genius
+leads us, and indeed all art, is the atmosphere of the world of dreams.
+The man of genius, it is often said, has the child within him; he is,
+according to the ancient dictum, which is still accepted, not without an
+admixture of insanity, and he is unquestionably related to the primitive
+myth-maker. All these characteristics, as we see, bring him near to the
+sphere of dreaming, and we may say that the man of genius is in closer
+touch with the laws of the dream world than is the ordinary civilised
+man. 'It would be no great paradox,' remarks Maudsley, 'to say that the
+creative work of genius was excellent dreaming, and dramatic dreaming
+distracted genius.'[263] This has often been recognised by some of the
+most typical men of genius. Charles Lamb, in speaking of Spenser, referred
+to the analogy between dreaming and imagination. Coleridge, one of the
+most essential of imaginative men, argued that the laws of drama and of
+dreaming are the same.[264] Nietzsche, more recently, has developed the
+affinity of dreaming to art, and in his _Birth of Tragedy_ argued that
+the Appollonian or dream-like element is one of the two constituents of
+tragedy. Mallarmé further believed that symbolism, which we have seen to
+be fundamental in dreaming, is of the essence of art. 'To name an object,'
+he said, 'is to suppress three-quarters of the enjoyment in a poem which
+is made up of the happiness of gradually divining; to suggest--that is
+our dream. The perfect usage of this mystery constitutes symbolism: to
+evoke an object, little by little, in order to exhibit a state of the
+soul, or, inversely, to choose an object, and to disengage from it a state
+of the soul by a series of decipherments.'[265] It may be added that
+imaginative and artistic men have always been prone to day-dreaming and
+reverie, allowing their fancies to wander uncontrolled, and in so doing
+they have found profit to their work.[266] From Socrates onwards, too,
+men of genius have sometimes been liable to fall into states of trance,
+or waking dream, in which their mission or their vision has become more
+clearly manifested;[267] the hallucinatory voices which have determined
+the vocation of many great teachers belong to psychic states allied to
+these trances.
+
+It is scarcely necessary to refer to the occasional creative activity
+of men of genius during actual sleep or to the debts which they have
+acknowledged to suggestions received in dreams.[268] This has perhaps,
+indeed, been more often exaggerated than overlooked. There can be no doubt
+that a great many writers and thinkers, including some of the highest
+eminence, have sometimes been indebted to their dreams. We might expect as
+much, for most people occasionally have more or less vivid or suggestive
+new ideas in dreams,[269] and it is natural that this should occur more
+often, and to a higher degree, in persons of unusual intellectual force
+and activity. But it is more doubtful whether the creative activity of
+normal dreams ever reaches a sufficient perfection to take, as it stands,
+a very high place in a master's work. Coleridge's 'Kubla Khan' has the
+most notable claim to be an exception to this rule. This poem was written
+by Coleridge in 1788, soon after 'Christabel,' and at a time when the poet
+was suffering much from depression, and taking a great deal of laudanum.
+We are entitled to assume, therefore, that the poem was composed under
+the influence of opium, and not in normal sleep. It may be added that
+it is difficult to believe that Coleridge could have recalled the whole
+poem from either a normal or abnormal dream; as a rule, when we compose
+verses in sleep we can usually recall only the last two, or at most four,
+lines.[270] Moreover, there is reason to believe that the first draft of
+'Kubla Khan' was not the poem as we now know it.[271]
+
+After Coleridge's 'Kubla Khan' the most important artistic composition
+usually assigned to a dream is the _Trillo del Diavolo_ sonata of Tartini,
+the eighteenth-century composer and violinist, who has been called the
+prototype of Paganini. Tartini, who was a man of nervous and emotional
+temperament, seems to have possessed real genius, and this sonata is his
+principal work. But there is not the slightest ground for stating that it
+was composed in a dream, and Tartini himself made no such claim.[272]
+
+The imaginative reality of dreams is perhaps appreciated by none so
+much as by those who are deprived of some of their external senses. Thus
+a deaf and dumb writer of ability who has precise and highly emotional
+dreams--which sometimes remind him of the atmosphere of Poe's tales, and
+are occasionally in organised sequence from night to night--writes: 'The
+enormous reality and vividness of these dreams is their remarkable point.
+They leave a mark behind. When I come to consider I believe that much that
+I have written, and many things that I have said and thought and believed,
+are directly due to these dream-experiences and my ponderings over how
+they came. Beneath the superficiality of our conscious mind--prim, smug,
+self-satisfied, owlishly wise--there lies the vast gulf of a subconscious
+personality that is dark and obscure, seldom seen or even suspected. It is
+this, I think, that wells up into my dreams. It is always there--always
+affecting us and modifying us, and bringing about strange and unforeseen
+new things in us--but in these dreams I peer over the edge of the
+conscious world into the giant-house and Utgard of the subconscious, lit
+by one ray of sunset that shows the weltering deeps of it. And the vivid
+sense of this is responsible for many things in my life.'[273]
+
+Dreaming is thus one of our roads into the infinite. And it is interesting
+to observe how we attain it--by limitation. The circle of our conscious
+life is narrowed during sleep; it is even by a process of psychic
+dissociation broken up into fragments. From that narrowed and broken-up
+consciousness the outlook becomes vaster and more mysterious, full
+of strange and unsuspected fascination, and the possibilities of new
+experiences, just as a philosophic mite inhabiting a universe consisting
+of a Stilton cheese would probably be compelled to regard everything
+outside the cheese as belonging to the realm of the Infinite. In reality,
+if we think of it, all our visions of the infinite are similarly
+conditioned. It is only by emphasising our finiteness that we ever become
+conscious of the infinite. The infinite can only be that which stretches
+far beyond the boundaries of our own personality. It is the charm of
+dreams that they introduce us into a new infinity. Time and space are
+annihilated, gravity is suspended, and we are joyfully borne up in the
+air, as it were in the arms of angels; we are brought into a deeper
+communion with Nature, and in dreams a man listens to the arguments of his
+dog with as little surprise as Balaam heard the reproaches of his ass.
+The unexpected limitations of our dream world, the exclusion of so many
+elements which are present even unconsciously in waking life, impart a
+splendid freedom and ease to the intellectual operations of the sleeping
+mind, and an extravagant romance, a poignant tragedy, to our emotions. 'He
+has never known happiness,' said Lamb, speaking out of his own experience,
+'who has never been mad.' And there are many who taste in dreams a
+happiness they never know when awake.[274] In the waking moments of our
+complex civilised life we are ever in a state of suspense which makes
+all great conclusions impossible; the multiplicity of the facts of life,
+always present to consciousness, restrains the free play of logic (except
+for that happy dreamer, the mathematician), and surrounds most of our
+pains and nearly all our pleasures with infinite qualifications; we are
+tied down to a sober tameness. In our dreams the fetters of civilisation
+are loosened, and we know the fearful joy of freedom.
+
+In this way the Paradise of dreams has been a reservoir from which men
+have always drawn consolation and sweet memory and hope, even belief, the
+imagination and gratification of desires that the world restrained, the
+promise and proof of the dearest and deepest aspirations.
+
+Yet, while there is thus a real sense in which dreams produce their effect
+by the retraction of the field of consciousness and the limitation of the
+psychic activities which mark ordinary life, it remains true that if we
+take into account the complete psychic life of dreaming, subconscious as
+well as conscious, it is waking, not sleeping, life which may be said to
+be limited.[275] Thus it is, as we have seen, that the most fundamental
+and the most primitive forms of psychic life, as well as the rarest and
+the most abnormal, all seem to have their prototype in the vast world of
+dreams. Sleep, Vaschide has said, is not, as Homer thought, the brother of
+Death, but of Life, and, it may be added, the elder brother.
+
+'We dream, see visions, converse with chimæras,' said Joseph Glanvill, the
+seventeenth-century philosopher; 'the one half of our life is a romance,
+a fiction.' And what of the other half? Pepys tells us how another
+distinguished man of the same century, Sir William Petty, 'proposed it as
+a thing that is truly questionable whether there really be any difference
+between waking and dreaming.'[276] Our dreams are said to be delusions,
+constituted in much the same way as the delusion of the insane. But, says
+Godfernaux, 'all life is a series of systematised delusions, more or less
+durable.' Men weary of too much living have sometimes found consolation
+in this likeness of the world of dreams to the world of life. 'When thou
+hast roused thyself from sleep thou hast perceived that they were only
+dreams which troubled thee,' wrote the Imperial Stoic to himself in his
+_Meditations;_ 'now in thy waking hours look at these things about thee as
+thou didst look at those dreams.' Dreams are true while they last. Can we,
+at the best, say more of life?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+We set out to study as carefully as possible the small field of dream
+consciousness belonging to a few persons, not, it may be, abnormal, of
+whom it was possible to speak with some assurance. The great naturalist,
+Linnæus, once said that he could spend a lifetime in studying as much of
+the earth as he could cover with his hand. However small the patch we
+investigate, it will lead us back to the sun at last. There is nothing
+too minute or too trivial. I have often remembered with a pang, how, long
+years ago, I once gave pain by saying, with the arrogance of boyhood, that
+it was foolish to tell one's dreams. I have done penance for that remark
+since. 'Il faut cultiver notre jardin,' said the wise philosopher of the
+eighteenth century. I have cultivated, so far as I care to, my garden of
+dreams, and it scarcely seems to me that it is a large garden. Yet every
+path of it, I sometimes think, might lead at last to the heart of the
+universe.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote 243: Certain phases of waking psychic life are, however, closely
+related to dreaming. This is obviously the case as regards day-dreaming or
+reverie. (See _e.g._ Janet, _Névroses et Idées Fixes_, vol. i. pp. 390-6.)
+It would also appear that wit is the result of a process analogous to that
+fusion of incompatible elements which we have found to prevail in dreams.
+Our dreams are sometimes full of usually ineffective wit; I could easily
+quote dreams in illustration. (Freud has, from his point of view, studied
+the analogy between wit and dreaming in _Der Witz und seine Beziehung zum
+Unbewussten_.)]
+
+[Footnote 244: In more recent times Moreau of Tours, especially,
+argued (_Du Haschich et de l'Aliénation Mentale_, 1845) that
+_haschisch_-intoxication is insanity, and that insanity is a waking dream.]
+
+[Footnote 245: In insane subjects a dream not uncommonly forms the
+starting point of a delusion, and many illustrative examples could be
+brought forward.]
+
+[Footnote 246: Marro, _La Pubertà_, pp. 286-92.]
+
+[Footnote 247: Freud, _Die Traumdeutung_, p. 13. Elsewhere (p. 135) Freud
+remarks: 'The deeper we go in the analysis of dreams the more frequently
+we come across traces of childish experience which form a latent source
+of dreams.' The same point had been previously emphasised by Sully, 'The
+Dream as a Revelation,' _Fortnightly Review_, March 1893.]
+
+[Footnote 248: C. M. Giessler, _Die Physiologischen Beziehungen der
+Traumvorgänge_, ch. iv.]
+
+[Footnote 249: Jewell, who gives illustrations in evidence, concludes
+(_American Journal of Psychology_, January 1905, pp. 25-8) that 'the
+confusion of dreams with real life is almost universal with children, and
+quite common among adolescents and adults.']
+
+[Footnote 250: Hans Gross, the distinguished criminologist, refers
+(_Kriminalpsychologie_, p. 672) to two cases of children who brought
+criminal charges which were apparently based on dreams. Gross mentions
+that this may often be suspected when the child says nothing at the time,
+and shows no excitement or depression until a day or two after the date of
+the alleged event. For confusion of dream with reality, see also Gross,
+_Gesammelte Kriminalistische Aufsätze_, vol. ii. p. 174.]
+
+[Footnote 251: Thus Rachilde (Mme. Vallette) writes that as a young
+girl her dreams were so vivid that 'I would often ask myself if I had
+not an existence in two forms: my waking personality and my dreaming
+personality. Sometimes I was deceived and imagined that my real life was
+dreams.' She instinctively began to write at the age of twelve, and it
+was by completing her dreams that she became a novelist (Chabaneix, _Le
+Subconscient_, p. 49). George Sand's early day-dreams, of which she gives
+so interesting an account (_Histoire de ma Vie_, part III. ch. viii),
+developed around the central figure of Corambé, first seen in a real
+dream. Corambé was, at the same time, a divine being, to whom she erected
+an altar. So that of the child it may be said, as Lucretius said of
+primitive man, that the gods first appear in dreams.]
+
+[Footnote 252: 'In sleep,' says Sully (_Fortnightly Review_, March 1893),
+'we have a reversion to a more primitive type of experience.' 'Dreaming,'
+says Jastrow (_The Subconscious_, p. 219), 'may be viewed as a reversion
+to a more primitive type of thought.']
+
+[Footnote 253: This tendency is notably represented by Durkheim ('Origines
+de la Pensée Religieuse,' _Revue Philosophique_, January 1909) and Crawley
+(_The Idea of the Soul_, 1909).]
+
+[Footnote 254: Hill Tout, _Journal_, Anthropological Institute,
+January-June 1905, p. 143; Sidney Hartland, in his presidential address
+to the Anthropological Section of the British Association, in 1906,
+emphasised the significance of dreams in Shamanism, and Sir Everard im
+Thurn, in his _Among the Indians of Guiana_, shows how practically real
+are dreams to the savage mind.]
+
+[Footnote 255: See, _e. g_., as regards the American Indians, Thornton
+Parker in the _Open Court_, May 1901.]
+
+[Footnote 256: _Leviathan_, part I. ch. ii.]
+
+[Footnote 257: Laistner, _Das Rätsel der Sphinx_, 1889, vol. 1. p.
+xiii. While Laistner was chiefly concerned with the exploration of the
+religious myths, he pointed out that epics and fairy-tales (Amor and
+Psyche, the stories of the Nibelung and Baldur, etc.) may be similarly
+explained. It seems probable that his investigations received a stimulus
+in the earlier experiments of J. Boerner (_Das Alpdrücken_, 1855) on the
+production of nightmare. Laistner has had many followers, notable C. Ruths
+(_Experimental-Untersuchungen über Musikphantome_, 1898), who argues (pp.
+415-46) that the old Greek myths had their chief root in dream phenomena,
+in delirium, and in the visions aroused in some persons by hearing music,
+while he considers that many fabulous monsters and dragons have arisen
+from the combinations seen in dreams. We know that the Greeks, who were
+such great myth-makers, much occupied themselves in lying in wait for
+dreams, and in oneiromancy and necromancy (_e.g._, Bouché-Leclercq,
+_Histoire de la Divination dans l'Antiquité_, vol. 1. Bk. ii. ch. i. pp.
+277-329). In this way alone it is doubtless true that, as Jewell says,
+'dreams have had a great effect upon the history of the world.']
+
+[Footnote 258: For evidence regarding the high esteem in which many of the
+greatest Greek and Latin Fathers held dreams as divine revelations, see
+_e.g._, Sully, Art. 'Dreams,' _Encyclopædia Britannica_.]
+
+[Footnote 259: There is still a natural tendency in the uninstructed mind
+to identify spontaneous visual phenomena with Heaven. 'When I gets to
+bed,' said an aged and superannuated dustman to Vanderkiste (_The Dens of
+London_, p. 14), 'I says my prayers, and I puts my hands afore my eyes--so
+[covering his face with his hands]; well, I sees such beautiful things,
+sparkles like, all afloating about, and I wished to ax yer, sir, if that
+ain't a something of Heaven, sir.']
+
+[Footnote 260: This was the only traceable element in the dream. The
+dreamer was accustomed to look at her watch on awaking in the morning,
+and, if it was seven or later, not to go to sleep again.]
+
+[Footnote 261: Freud, 'Der Dichter und das Phantasieren' (1908), in second
+series of his _Sammlung Kleiner Schriften zur Neurosenlehre;_ K. Abraham,
+_Traum und Mythus_ (1909); and O. Rank, _Der Mythus von der Geburt
+des Helden_ (1909), both published in the _Schriften zur angewandten
+Seelenkunde_, edited by Freud.]
+
+[Footnote 262: Synesius refers to conversations with sheep in dreams,
+and he was probably the first to suggest that such dream phenomena may
+be the origin of fables in which animals speak. The dog and the cat,
+as we should expect, seem most frequently to speak in the dreams of
+civilised people. Thus I dreamed that I had a conversation with a cat who
+spoke with fair clearness and sense, though the whole of her sentences
+were not intelligible. I was not surprised at this relative lack of
+intelligibility, but neither was I surprised at her speaking at all. I
+have also encountered a talking parrot whose speech was more relevant than
+that of most talking parrots; this somewhat surprised me. In legends a
+wider range of animals are able to speak, no doubt because the primitive
+legend-makers were familiar with a wider range of animal life. How natural
+it is to the uninstructed mind to treat animals like human beings is well
+shown by the experiences of Helen Keller, the blind deaf-mute, who writes
+(_The World I Live in_, p. 147): 'After my education began, the world
+which came within my reach was all alive.... It was two years before I
+could be made to believe that my dogs did not understand what I said, and
+I always apologised to them when I ran into or stepped on them.']
+
+[Footnote 263: _Journal of Mental Science_, January 1909, p. 16.]
+
+[Footnote 264: 'Images and thoughts,' he said, 'possess a power in and
+of themselves independent of that act of the judgment or understanding
+by which we affirm or deny the existence of a reality correspondent to
+them. Such is the ordinary state of the mind in dreams.... Add to this
+a voluntary lending of the will to this suspension of one of its own
+operations, and you have the true theory of stage illusion.']
+
+[Footnote 265: Quoted by Paul Delior, _Remy de Gourmont et son Œuvre_, p.
+14.]
+
+[Footnote 266: Thus even Leonardo da Vinci (Solmi, _Frammenti_, p. 285)
+acknowledged the benefit which he had gained by gazing at clouds or at
+mud-bespattered walls; and recommended the practice to other artists,
+for thereby, he says, they will receive suggestions for landscapes,
+battlepieces, 'and infinite things,' which they may bring to perfection.
+He compared this to the possibility of hearing words in the sounds of
+bells. Some other distinguished artists have adopted somewhat similar
+practices which are fundamentally the child's habit of seeing pictures in
+the fire.]
+
+[Footnote 267: Thus Tennyson (_Memoir_, by his son, vol. i. p. 320) was
+subject from boyhood to a kind of waking trance. 'This has generally
+come upon me,' he wrote, 'through repeating my own name two or three
+times to myself silently.' (It thus seems to have been a sort of
+auto-hypnotisation.) In this state, individuality seemed to dissolve, he
+said, and he found in it a proof that the extinction of personality by
+death would not involve loss of life, but rather a fuller life. We are so
+easily convinced in these matters!]
+
+[Footnote 268: See _e.g._, De Manacéïne, _Sleep_, p. 314; Arturo Morselli,
+'Dei Sogni nei Genii,' _La Cultura_, 1899.]
+
+[Footnote 269: Thus I once planned in a dream a paper on the Progress of
+Psychology, which seemed to me on awakening to present a quite workable
+though not notably brilliant scheme.]
+
+[Footnote 270: Sante de Sanctis, however (_I Sogni_, p. 369), reproduces a
+dream poem of twelve lines.]
+
+[Footnote 271: See note in J. D. Campbell's edition of Coleridge's
+_Poetical Works_, p. 592.]
+
+[Footnote 272: Tartini composed the sonata--a noble and beautiful work
+which still survives--at the age of twenty-one. In old age he told Lalande
+the astronomer (as the latter relates in his _Voyage d'un Français en
+Italie_, 1765, vol. ix. p. 55) that he had had a dream in which he sold
+his soul to the Devil, and it occurred to him in his dream to hand his
+fiddle to the Devil to see what he could do with it. 'But how great was
+my astonishment when I heard him play with consummate skill a sonata of
+such exquisite beauty as surpassed the boldest flights of my imagination.
+I felt enraptured, transported, enchanted; my breath was taken away, and
+I awoke. Seizing my violin I tried to retain the sounds I had heard. But
+it was in vain. The piece I then composed, the "Devil's Sonata," was the
+best I ever wrote, but how far below the one I had heard in my dream!'
+The dream, it will be seen, was of a fairly common type, and to Tartini's
+excitable temperament it served as a stimulus to his finest energies.
+But the real 'Devil's Sonata' was hopelessly lost. (See the articles on
+Tartini in Fetis, _Biographic Universelle des Musiciens_, and Grove's
+_Dictionary of Music and Musicians_.)]
+
+[Footnote 273: Helen Keller, the blind deaf-mute, has written some
+interesting chapters on her dreams in _The World I Live in_. For the
+most part it would seem that the dream life of the blind (which has been
+studied by, among others, Jastrow, _Fact and Fable in Psychology_, pp. 337
+_et seq._) is not usually rich or vivid.]
+
+[Footnote 274: See _e.g._, Marie de Manacéïne, _Sleep_, p. 313.]
+
+[Footnote 275: This aspect of dreaming has been set forth by Bergson
+(_Revue Philosophique_, December 1908, p. 574). 'The dream state,' he
+remarks, 'is the substratum of our normal state. Nothing is added in
+waking life; on the contrary, waking life is obtained by the limitation,
+concentration, and tension of that diffuse psychological life which is the
+life of dreaming. The perception and the memory which we find in dreaming
+are, in a sense, more natural than those of waking life: consciousness is
+then amused in perceiving for the sake of perceiving, and in remembering
+for the sake of remembering, without care for life, that is to say for
+the accomplishment of actions. To be awake is to eliminate, to choose, to
+concentrate the totality of the diffused life of dreaming to a point, to a
+practical problem. To be awake is to will; cease to will, detach yourself
+from life, become disinterested: in so doing you pass from the waking ego
+to the dreaming ego, which is less _tense_, but more _extended_ than the
+other.']
+
+[Footnote 276: Pepys, _Diary_, 2nd April 1664.]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+    Abraham, K., 65, 272.
+
+    After-images, 26.
+
+    Albès, 246, 248, 252, 256.
+
+    Alcohol, 250.
+
+    Aliotta, 102.
+
+    Allin, 249.
+
+    Analogy in dreams, 41.
+
+    Andamanese shamans, 268.
+
+    Anaesthesia from drugs, 101.
+
+    Andrews, Grace, 84, 108.
+
+    Animism and dreaming, 210, 266.
+
+    Anjel, 247, 257.
+
+    Antoninus, 281.
+
+    Apperception in dreams, 68, 259.
+
+    Apraxia, 97.
+
+    Aristotle, 17, 31, 65, 92.
+
+    Arnaud, 255.
+
+    Artemidorus of Daldi, 157.
+
+    Atavistic dreams, alleged, 133.
+
+    Attention in dreams, 24 _et seq.;_ 67, 219, 229, 252.
+
+    Auditory element in dreams, 77 _et seq._
+
+    Augustine, St., 239.
+
+    Aural origin of some dreams, alleged, 139.
+
+    Autoscopy, 163.
+
+
+    Bach, 153.
+
+    Baldwin, 2, 4, 68.
+
+    Ballet, G., 253.
+
+    Bancroft, H. H., 37.
+
+    Baudelaire, 152.
+
+    Beaunis, 14, 33, 72, 132, 145, 203, 211, 224, 270.
+
+    Beddoes, T., 199.
+
+    Benson, Archbishop, 224.
+
+    Bergson, 137, 255 _et seq._, 280.
+
+    Binet, 56, 57, 58, 201.
+
+    Binns, 246.
+
+    Binswanger, L., 144.
+
+    Birds in dreams, 37.
+
+    Bladder as a stimulant to dreams, 88, 96, 163, 164.
+
+    Bleuler, 150, 154.
+
+    Blind, dreams of the, 278.
+
+    Blood, dreams of, 183.
+
+    Bode, 2.
+
+    Boerner, J., 269.
+
+    Bolton, F. E., 133.
+
+    Bolton, J., 69.
+
+    Bonatelli, 247.
+
+    Bonne, 244.
+
+    Bouché-Leclercq, 270.
+
+    Bourget, 241.
+
+    Bradley, F. H., 97.
+
+    Bramwell, J. M., 188.
+
+    Brill, 165.
+
+    Brodie, Sir B., 13.
+
+    Brown, Horatio, 30, 108.
+
+    Browning, 146.
+
+    Brunton, Sir Lauder, 270.
+
+    Buccola, 244.
+
+    Buchan, 90.
+
+    Burnham, 230, 242.
+
+
+    Cabanis, 13.
+
+    Calkins, 17.
+
+    Capuana, 92.
+
+    Cardiac stimuli of dreams, 88, 90, 136, 140.
+
+    Carpenter, W., 14.
+
+    Cerebral light, 27.
+
+    Cervantes, 129.
+
+    Chabaneix, 130, 143, 206, 265.
+
+    Child, psychic state of, 189, 264.
+
+    Childhood, hypnogogic hallucinations of, 28 _et seq._, 232.
+
+    Chloroform anaesthesia compared to dreaming, 16, 32, 34, 135, 137.
+
+    Christina the Wonderful, 144.
+
+    Cicero, 129.
+
+    Claparède, 171, 174.
+
+    Clarke, E. H., 30, 119.
+
+    Classification of dreams, 17, 71.
+
+    Clavière, 150, 215, 216.
+
+    Cleland, 155.
+
+    Colegrove, 234.
+
+    Coleridge, 273, 275.
+
+    Colour in dreams, 33.
+
+    Colour associations, 149.
+
+    Coloured hearing, 150.
+
+    Comar, 163.
+
+    Confusion in dreams, 36 _et seq._
+
+    Consciousness, definition of, 2.
+
+    Contrast dreams, 175, 208.
+
+    Cooley, 189.
+
+    Corning, L., 79.
+
+    Crawley, 266.
+
+    Crichton-Browne, 108.
+
+    Criminals, dreams of, 120.
+
+    Curnock, N., 228.
+
+
+    Dauriac, 79, 152.
+
+    Day-dreams, 167, 244, 261, 274.
+
+    Dead, dreams of the, 194 _et seq._
+
+    Delacroix, 60.
+
+    Delage, 31.
+
+    Delbœuf, 5, 23.
+
+    Delior, 274.
+
+    Descartes, 13.
+
+    Dickens, 239.
+
+    Dircks, H., 2.
+
+    Dissociation in dreams, 66, 148, 185, 195, 221.
+
+    Dissolving view, dreams compared to, 36, 47.
+
+    Dogs, sleep of, 15, 101.
+
+    Dramatic element in dreams, 180 _et seq._
+
+    Dreaming, alleged dreams of, 65.
+
+    Dreamless sleep, 14.
+
+    Dreamy state, 239.
+
+    Dromard, 248, 255.
+
+    Drowning, hallucinations of the, 145, 214.
+
+    Dugas, 240, 248, 252, 253.
+
+    Duplex brain, theory of, 244.
+
+    Durkheim, 266.
+
+    Dying, hallucinations of the, 145, 161.
+
+
+    Ecstasy, Hysterical, 144.
+
+    Egger, 213, 216.
+
+    Ellis, Havelock, 28, 37, 165, 168, 179, 191, 197.
+
+    Emotion in dreams, 94 _et seq._
+
+    Epilepsy and pseudo-reminiscence, 239, 245.
+
+    Epileptic dreams, 139.
+
+    Erotic dreams, 88, 126, 177.
+
+    Erotic symbolism, 65, 179.
+
+    Extrospection, 172.
+
+
+    Fairies and dreams, 270.
+
+    Falling, dreams of, 129 _et seq._
+
+    False recognition in dreams, 230 _et seq._
+
+    Fear in dreams, 121, 174.
+
+    Féré, 92, 139, 156, 163, 248.
+
+    Ferenczi, 168.
+
+    Ferrero, 151.
+
+    Fish, dreams of, 163.
+
+    Floating, dreams of, 143.
+
+    Flournoy, 174, 187.
+
+    Flying, dreams of, 129 _et seq._
+
+    Forman, Simon, 30.
+
+    Foucault, 5, 6, 7, 8, 13, 17, 22, 24, 174, 187, 195, 202, 215, 216,
+              224, 234.
+
+    Fouillée, 252, 255.
+
+    Freud, 52, 56, 65, 89, 99, 119, 120, 127, 133, 164 _et seq._, 210,
+              216, 217, 244, 262, 264, 272.
+
+    Fusion of dream imagery, 36 _et seq._
+
+
+    Galton, Sir F., 149.
+
+    Gassendi, 65, 202.
+
+    Genius and dreaming, 273.
+
+    Giessler, 22, 72, 174, 187, 189, 264.
+
+    Gissing, 170.
+
+    Glanvill, J., 280.
+
+    Glossolalia, 225.
+
+    Goblot, 6, 32, 154.
+
+    Godfernaux, 280.
+
+    Gods first appeared in dreams, 268.
+
+    Goethe, 70, 208.
+
+    Goncourt, E. de, 203.
+
+    Goncourt, J. de, 142.
+
+    Goron, 140.
+
+    Gowers, Sir W. R., 139, 239.
+
+    Grasset, 240, 243.
+
+    Greenwood, F., 66, 113, 163, 228.
+
+    Griesinger, 208.
+
+    Gross, Hans, 265.
+
+    Gruithuisen, 32.
+
+    Gustatory dreams, 85.
+
+    Guthrie, 76, 108, 138.
+
+    Guyon, E., 29, 31.
+
+
+    Hall, Stanley, 29, 65, 133, 174, 189.
+
+    Hallam, Florence, 74.
+
+    Hallucinations, 26, 159, 182, 188, 235, 271.
+
+    Hammond, 14, 65, 92, 104.
+
+    Hartland, E. S., 268.
+
+    Haschisch, 98, 215, 262.
+
+    Haskovec, 246.
+
+    Hawthorne, 228.
+
+    Head, H., 34, 121.
+
+    Headache and dreams, 34, 91, 116, 177.
+
+    Hearn, Lafcadio, 108, 133, 138, 209.
+
+    Heaven and dreams, 270.
+
+    Heine, 152.
+
+    Hell and dreams, 270.
+
+    Hermes, 129.
+
+    Herodotus, 89.
+
+    Herrick, C. L., 107.
+
+    Hervey de Saint-Denis, 159.
+
+    Heymans, 240, 248, 255.
+
+    Hilprecht, 220.
+
+    Hinton, James, 63.
+
+    Hippocrates, 13.
+
+    Hobbes, 31, 109, 269.
+
+    Holland, Sir H., 13.
+
+    Howells, W. D., 121.
+
+    Hutchinson, H., 132, 138.
+
+    Hypermnesia, 218 _et seq._
+
+    Hypnagogic hallucinations, 15, 28 _et seq._, 67, 141, 160, 181, 215,
+              232, 265.
+
+    Hypnagogic paramnesia, 232 _et seq._
+
+    Hypnopompic state, 238.
+
+    Hypnotism, 79, 231, 232, 234.
+
+    Hyslop, J. H., 27.
+
+    Hysteria, 67, 143, 162, 168, 187, 217, 219.
+
+
+    Icarus, 130, 138.
+
+    Ida of Louvain, St., 144.
+
+    Imagery in dreams, 21 _et seq._, 64, 104, 120.
+
+    Insane, hallucinations of, 34, 271.
+
+    Insanity compared to dreaming, 48, 69, 105, 170, 188, 231, 262
+              _et seq._
+
+    Isserlin, 165.
+
+
+    Jackson, Hughlings, 239, 240, 262.
+
+    James-Lange theory of emotion, 109.
+
+    Janet, 67, 144, 187, 229, 254, 255, 261.
+
+    Jastrow, J., 14, 64, 96, 220, 247, 262, 266, 278.
+
+    Jerome, St., 129.
+
+    Jessin, 242.
+
+    Jesus, 147, 210.
+
+    Jewell, 92, 99, 138, 140, 199, 211, 228, 265, 270.
+
+    Johnson, Dr., 185.
+
+    Joseph of Cupertino, St., 144.
+
+    Jones, Elmer, 32, 34, 135, 137.
+
+    Jones, Ernest, 165.
+
+    Jung, C. J., 89.
+
+
+    Kaleidoscope, dream process compared to, 21, 28.
+
+    Keller, Helen, 273, 278.
+
+    Kiernan, 92, 239.
+
+    Kingsford, Anna, 119, 247.
+
+    Kraepelin, 48, 230.
+
+    Krauss, F. S., 157.
+
+
+    Laistner, 269.
+
+    Lalande, 240, 247, 255.
+
+    Lalanne, 105.
+
+    Lamb, C., 273.
+
+    Languages remembered In sleep, 225.
+
+    Lapie, 243.
+
+    Laud, 176.
+
+    Laurentius, 17, 262.
+
+    Legends, symbolism in, 156, 209.
+
+    Leibnitz, 13.
+
+    Léon-Kindberg, 252, 255.
+
+    Leroy, 26, 60, 161, 239, 247.
+
+    Lessing, 14.
+
+    Levitation, 144.
+
+    Liepmann, 97, 170.
+
+    Lilliputian hallucinations, 161, 270.
+
+    Little, Graham, 108.
+
+    Linnæus, 281.
+
+    Locke, 14.
+
+    Logic of dreams, 5 _et seq._, 56 _et seq._
+
+    Logorrhœa, 170.
+
+    Lombard, E., 225.
+
+    Lombroso, 208.
+
+    Lorrain, Jacques le, 105.
+
+    Löwenfeld, 165.
+
+    Lubbock, 210.
+
+    Lucretius, 15, 129, 238, 268.
+
+
+    Macario, 92.
+
+    Macaulay, Lord, 221.
+
+    MacDougall, R., 79, 107, 138, 208, 229.
+
+    Macnish, 14.
+
+    Maeder, 156, 160, 164, 166.
+
+    Magnification of dream imagery, 104 _et seq._, 135, 160.
+
+    Maine de Biran, 26, 94.
+
+    Maitland, E., 119, 247.
+
+    Mallarmé, 274.
+
+    Manacéïne, Marie de, 119, 163, 187, 199, 229, 232, 275, 279.
+
+    Marillier, 251.
+
+    Marro, 263.
+
+    Marshall, H. R., 57.
+
+    Masselon, 92.
+
+    Maudsley, 119, 270, 273.
+
+    Maurier, G. du, 206.
+
+    Maury, 31, 32, 47, 186, 203, 213.
+
+    Memory and dreams, 8 _et seq._, 212 _et seq._
+
+    Mercier, C., 2, 110.
+
+    Méré, 243.
+
+    Mescal, 27, 28.
+
+    Metamorphosis of dream imagery, 22.
+
+    Metaphysics and dreams, 63.
+
+    Metchnikoff, 174.
+
+    Meunier, R., 84, 92, 108.
+
+    Migraine, 34, 270.
+
+    Millet, J., 150.
+
+    Miner, J. B., 138, 152.
+
+    Mitchell, Sir A., 13.
+
+    Mitchell, Weir, 32.
+
+    Moll, 234.
+
+    Monboddo, Lord, 158, 226.
+
+    Monroe, W. S., 74, 83.
+
+    Moral attitude in dreaming, 118 _et seq._
+
+    Moreau of Tours, 262.
+
+    Morphia dreams, 140.
+
+    Morselli, A., 275.
+
+    Mosso, 136.
+
+    Mourre, Baron, 24.
+
+    Movement in dreams, 20, 45, 96, 97 _et seq._
+
+    Movement in sleep, 15.
+
+    Müller, J., 32.
+
+    Murder, dreams of, 111 _et seq._, 142.
+
+    Murray, Elsie, 110.
+
+    Music, symbolism of, 151.
+
+    Music in dreams, 77 _et seq._
+
+    Myers, 255.
+
+    Myth-making and dreaming, 210, 269 _et seq._
+
+
+    Näcke, 13, 119, 175, 202, 208, 236.
+
+    Nayrac, 68.
+
+    Neologisms in dreams, 48.
+
+    Neurasthenia, 27.
+
+    Newbold, 220.
+
+    Newman, E., 153.
+
+    Nietzsche, 274.
+
+    Nightmare, 99, 181.
+
+    Night-terrors, 30, 96, 108.
+
+    Nitrous oxide anaesthesia, 101, 135.
+
+    Nocturnal enuresis, 90.
+
+    Number-forms, 149.
+
+
+    Olfactory dreams, 83.
+
+    Oneiromancy, 156, 270.
+
+    Opium visions, 28, 140.
+
+    Orpheus, 210.
+
+
+    Paramnesia, 230 _et seq._
+
+    Paraphasia, 48.
+
+    Parish, E., 67, 184, 235.
+
+    Parker, Thornton, 269.
+
+    Partridge, G. E., 29.
+
+    Paul, St., 191.
+
+    Pepys, 202, 280.
+
+    Periodicity in memory, 224.
+
+    Personality in dreams, division of, 187.
+
+    Peter, St., 146.
+
+    Petty, Sir W., 280.
+
+    Philostratus, 157.
+
+    Pick, 97.
+
+    Piderit, 155.
+
+    Piéron, 92, 145, 159, 162, 215, 216, 252, 255.
+
+    Pirro, 153.
+
+    Pliny the Elder, 157.
+
+    Prel, Carl du, 221.
+
+    Premonitory dreams, 91, 163.
+
+    Presentative dreams, 17, 71, 166.
+
+    Primitive psychic slate, 266.
+
+    Prince, Morton, 174, 187.
+
+    Prodromic dreams, 91, 157, 163.
+
+    Prophetic dreams, 93, 157.
+
+    Pseudo-reminiscence in dreams, 230 _et seq._
+
+    Psychasthenia, 255.
+
+    Punning in dreams, 51.
+
+    Purcell, 153.
+
+    Pury, Jean de, 251.
+
+    Pythagoras, 242.
+
+
+    Quincey, De, 28, 30.
+
+
+    Rachilde, 143, 265.
+
+    Raffaelli, 130.
+
+    Railway travelling, dreams of, 81, 119.
+
+    Rank, O., 272.
+
+    Rapidity of dreams, alleged, 213 _et seq._
+
+    Raymond, 229.
+
+    Reasoning in dreams, 56 _et seq._
+
+    Renan, 203.
+
+    Representative dreams, 17, 71, 167.
+
+    Respiratory stimuli to dreams, 134 _et seq._
+
+    Retinal element in dreams, 23, 26, 31, 183.
+
+    Rhythm, 138.
+
+    Ribot, 25, 26, 79, 85, 242, 252, 255.
+
+    Rochas, Colonel de, 79, 131, 144.
+
+    Rosenbach, 246.
+
+    Ruths, C., 79, 129, 211, 269.
+
+
+    Sageret, 41.
+
+    Saints, alleged levitation of, 144.
+
+    Salish Indians, 210, 268.
+
+    Sand, George, 239, 265.
+
+    Sante de Sanctis, 92, 120, 168, 199, 208, 276.
+
+    Savage, psychic state of, 190, 266.
+
+    Savage, G. H., 33.
+
+    Schaaffhausen, 13.
+
+    Scherner, 88, 135, 159, 163, 164.
+
+    School, dreams of return to, 83, 195.
+
+    Schopenhauer, 175.
+
+    Schroeder, T., 191.
+
+    Schweitzer, 153.
+
+    Scripture, E. W., 27.
+
+    Secondary self in dreams, 187.
+
+    Segre, 96.
+
+    Sensory impressions in sleep, 71 _et seq._
+
+    Shamans, 268.
+
+    Shelley, 241.
+
+    Silberer, 141.
+
+    Simon, Max, 91.
+
+    Skin sensations in dreams, 74 _et seq._, 117, 135, 137.
+
+    Sleep, dreamless, 14.
+
+    Smith, Hélène, 187.
+
+    Snakes, dreams of, 65.
+
+    Sollier, 144, 163, 188.
+
+    Solmi, 274.
+
+    Somnambulism, 95.
+
+    Spencer, Herbert, 130, 210.
+
+    Spontaneous character of dream imagery, 24.
+
+    Ssikorski, 145.
+
+    Stekel, 168.
+
+    Stewart, Dugald, 104.
+
+    Stoddart, 34, 221.
+
+    Stomach on dreams, influence of, 108 _et seq._
+
+    Storms as cause of dreams, 81.
+
+    Stout, 2, 4, 68, 98, 195.
+
+    Stevenson, R. L., 217.
+
+    Stretton, 2.
+
+    Strümpell, 14, 135.
+
+    Suarez de Mendoza, 150.
+
+    Subconscious, definition of, 4.
+
+    Subconsciousness in dreams, 23, 63.
+
+    Suggestibility in dreams, 230.
+
+    Sully, 17, 234, 242, 244, 264, 266, 270.
+
+    Sunshine in dreams, 2.
+
+    Sutton, Bland, 133.
+
+    Swedenborg, 239.
+
+    Swoboda, 224.
+
+    Syllogistic arrangement of dreams, 58.
+
+    Symbolism in dreams, 81, 91, 109, 141, 148 _et seq._
+
+    Symonds, J. A., 30, 108.
+
+    Synaesthesias, 149.
+
+    Synesius, 65, 129, 157, 227, 272.
+
+
+    Tactile sensations in dreams, 74 _et seq._, 85, 137.
+
+    Tannery, 5, 6, 66, 244.
+
+    Tartini, 276.
+
+    Taste dreams, 85.
+
+    Taylor, S., 239.
+
+    Therapeutic use of music during sleep, 79, 84.
+
+    Theresa, St., 144.
+
+    Thurn, Sir E. im, 268.
+
+    Tennyson, 275.
+
+    Time in dreams, estimate of, 250.
+
+    Tissié, 17, 72, 250.
+
+    Titchener, 85.
+
+    Tobolowska, 60, 216.
+
+    Toothache as a cause of dreams, 116.
+
+    Tout, Hill, 268.
+
+    Tuke, Hack, 235.
+
+    Turner, J., 231.
+
+    Turner, W. A., 239.
+
+    Tylor, 210, 266.
+
+
+    Urbantschitsch, 155.
+
+
+    Vanderkiste, 270.
+
+    Vaschide, 13, 92, 159, 162, 172, 199, 280.
+
+    Verbal transformations in dreams, 47.
+
+    Vesical dreams, 88, 96, 163, 164.
+
+    Vesme, C. de, 131.
+
+    Vigilambulism, 144.
+
+    Vinci, L. da, 274.
+
+    Visceral stimuli of dreams, 87 _et seq._, 121, 164.
+
+    Vision in dreams, 20.
+
+    Visual stimuli of dreams, 86, 108 _et seq._
+
+    Vold, Mourly, 32.
+
+    Volkelt, 89.
+
+    Vurpas, 172.
+
+
+    Wagner, 153, 183.
+
+    Weed, Sarah, 74.
+
+    Weygandt, 14, 72, 199.
+
+    Wigan, 244, 245.
+
+    Wiggam, 176, 208.
+
+    Wilks, Sir S., 214.
+
+    Wilson, A., 187.
+
+    Winslow, Forbes, 92.
+
+    Wish-dreams, 89, 165 _et seq._
+
+    Wordsworth, 215.
+
+    Wright, H., 96.
+
+    Wundt, 14, 23, 57, 72, 135, 136, 195, 210.
+
+
+    Zenoglossia, 225.
+
+    Printed in Great Britain by T. and A. CONSTABLE LTD.
+    at the Edinburgh University Press
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+    |                 Transcriber notes:                           |
+    |                                                              |
+    | P. 189. 'given him posion', changed 'posion' to 'poison'.    |
+    | P. 203. Added footnote [184] link.                           |
+    | P. 214. 'concommitants' changed to 'concomitants'.           |
+    | P. 215. 'alarum clock', changed 'alarum' to 'alarm'.         |
+    | P. 215. 'hashisch' changed to 'hashish'.                     |
+    | P. 231. Footnote 210, 'alcholic' changed to 'alcoholic'.     |
+    | P. 249. 'hue to' changed to 'due to'.                        |
+    | Fixed various punctuation                                    |
+    +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The World of Dreams, by Havelock Ellis
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-<pre>
-
-The Project Gutenberg EBook of The World of Dreams, by Havelock Ellis
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: The World of Dreams
-
-Author: Havelock Ellis
-
-Release Date: April 6, 2019 [EBook #59214]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WORLD OF DREAMS ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Turgut Dincer, Jane Robins and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
-book was produced from images made available by the
-HathiTrust Digital Library.)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-</pre>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i"></a></span></p>
-
-<hr class="chap nobreak" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii"></a></span></p>
-
-<h2>THE WORLD OF DREAMS</h2>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-
-<h3><em>BY THE SAME AUTHOR</em></h3>
-
-<hr class="r10" />
-
-<blockquote><p>T<span class="smcapa">HE</span> S<span class="smcapa">OUL</span> <span class="smcapa">OF</span> S<span class="smcapa">PAIN</span>.</p>
-
-<p>A<span class="smcapa">FFIRMATIONS</span>. <em>Second Edition.</em></p>
-
-<p>I<span class="smcapa">MPRESSIONS</span> <span class="smcapa">AND</span> C<span class="smcapa">OMMENTS</span>.</p>
-
-<p>I<span class="smcapa">MPRESSIONS</span> <span class="smcapa">AND</span> C<span class="smcapa">OMMENTS</span>. <em>Second Series.</em></p>
-
-<p>T<span class="smcapa">HE</span> T<span class="smcapa">ASK</span> <span class="smcapa">OF</span> S<span class="smcapa">OCIAL</span> H<span class="smcapa">YGIENE</span>.</p></blockquote>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii"></a></span></p>
-
-
-<div class="titlepage">
-<h1><span class="small80">THE<br />
-<br />
-WORLD OF DREAMS</span></h1>
-
-<p>BY</p>
-
-<p class="p2">HAVELOCK ELLIS</p>
-
-<p>'Sleep has its own world'</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/title.jpg" width="149" height="200" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>BOSTON AND NEW YORK<br />
-HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY<br />
-1922</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv"></a></span></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v"></a></span></p>
-
-
-
-<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE</h2>
-
-
-<p>There are at least four different ways of writing a
-book on dreams. There is, for instance, the <em>literary</em>
-method. In this way one goes to books or to the
-memories of other people for one's material, and so
-collects a great number of more or less wonderful
-stories. I have rejected this method, for it is entirely
-untrustworthy. Dreams are elusive at the best; only
-a very careful observer can set down a dream faithfully,
-even directly after it has occurred, and no one can
-safely entrust a dream to memory.</p>
-
-<p>There is, again, what I may call the <em>clinical</em> method
-of studying dreams by the personal observation and
-collection of facts, with summation and analysis of the
-results. On a large scale, with the aid of the <em>questionnaire</em>,
-this method has been especially carried on in the United
-States, notably at Clark University under the inspiration
-of Dr. Stanley Hall. A strict and scientific
-adherence to the clinical method of studying dreams
-has resulted in Professor Sante de Sanctis's book <em>I Sogni</em>
-(first edition 1899), which is, on the whole, the best
-book on dreams published in recent years.</p>
-
-<p>Then there is the <em>experimental</em> method, which, not
-content with mere objective study of the phenomena,
-endeavours to interfere with them and to find out the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span>
-results of interference. This method may be combined
-with other methods of studying dreams. In its pure
-form it has in recent years been especially practised by
-the late Mourly Vold. Its results are not without
-interest, but they do not cover a large part of the field,
-and they are not altogether reliable. Dreaming activity
-is so fluid and suggestible&mdash;and this is notably so when
-experimenter and subject are the same person&mdash;that
-interference with the phenomena deforms them, and we
-cannot be sure that by experiment we have really
-learned much about the life of dreams.</p>
-
-<p>There is, finally, the <em>introspective</em> method. This may
-be said to be the earliest of the more scientific methods
-of studying dreams. Maine de Biran was here a
-pioneer, and Maury, in his famous book, <cite>Le Sommeil et
-les R&ecirc;ves</cite> (1861), which inaugurated the modern study
-of dreams, adopted a mainly introspective method,
-though he was not always quite successful in avoiding
-the fallacies of that method. It is in France that this
-method has been most frequently and most successfully
-cultivated.</p>
-
-<p>Professor Sigmund Freud's <cite>Die Traumdeutung</cite> (first
-edition, 1900), may be said to belong to the introspective
-class, though to a special division which Freud himself
-terms psycho-analytic. This is undoubtedly the most
-original, the most daring, the most challenging of recent
-books on dreams, and is now the text-book of a whole
-school of investigators. It is not a book to be neglected,
-for it is written by one of the profoundest of living investigators
-into the obscure depths of the human soul.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span>
-Even if one rejects Freud's methods as unsatisfactory
-and his facts as unproved, the work of one so bold and
-so sincere cannot fail to be helpful and stimulating in
-the highest degree. If it is not the truth it will at
-least help us to reach the truth.</p>
-
-<p>The little book now presented to the reader belongs
-mainly to the introspective group of dream studies,
-though not to the psycho-analytic variety. It is based
-on data which have accumulated beneath my hands
-during more than twenty years, and some of the ideas
-developed in it were put forward in a paper 'On
-Dreaming of the Dead,' <cite>Psychological Review</cite>, Sept.
-1895; in 'A Note on Hypnagogic Paramnesia,' <cite>Mind</cite>,
-No. 22, 1896; and in 'The Stuff that Dreams are made
-of,' <cite>Popular Science Monthly</cite>, April 1899. The book
-is not the outcome of experiment or of any deliberate
-concentration of thought on dreaming. I have simply
-noted down dream experiences,&mdash;most often in myself,
-less often in immediate friends,&mdash;directly they
-have occurred, usually on awakening in the morning.
-The few unimportant exceptions to the rule are duly
-noted. By maintaining this rule I have been able to
-satisfy myself that everything I have set down is
-reasonably accurate. Such a method certainly tends
-towards the exclusion of peculiar and exceptional
-dreams. This I do not greatly regret. I am chiefly
-interested in the problems of normal dreaming; they
-are sufficiently puzzling and mysterious and they
-properly present themselves for explanation first. I do
-not wish it to be understood that I question the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span>
-existence of telepathic and other abnormal dream
-experiences. That is not the case. But it so happens
-that under the conditions I have laid down I have not
-met with any dreams that clearly and decisively belong
-to this abnormal class. Such few possible examples as
-have come under my immediate observation (in no
-case as personal experiences) are slight, and, moreover,
-sometimes of too intimate a character for full
-exposition.</p>
-
-<p>Thus my contribution to the psychology of dreaming
-is simple and unpretentious; it deals only with the
-fundamental elements of the subject. I do not make
-this statement entirely in a spirit of humility. It
-seems to me that in the past the literature of dreaming
-has often been overweighted by bad observation and
-reckless theory. By learning to observe and to understand
-the ordinary nightly experience of dream life we
-shall best be laying the foundation of future superstructures.
-For, rightly understood, dreams may
-furnish us with clues to the whole of life.</p>
-
-<p class="center">HAVELOCK ELLIS.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a><span class="big110">CONTENTS</span></h2>
-
-
-<h2 class="nobreak"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a><br />
-<br />
-<span class="small80">INTRODUCTION</span></h2>
-
-<blockquote><p><span class="shiftright smcapa">PAGE</span><br />
-<br />
-The House of Dreams&mdash;Fallacies in the Study of Dreams&mdash;Is it
-possible to Study Dreams?&mdash;How Fallacies may be Avoided&mdash;Do
-we always Dream during Sleep?&mdash;The Two Main
-Sources of Dreams with their Sub-divisions,      <span class="shiftright"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></span></p></blockquote>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a><br />
-<br />
-<span class="small80">THE ELEMENTS OF DREAM LIFE</span></h2>
-
-<blockquote><p>The Spontaneous Procession of Dream Imagery&mdash;Its Kaleidoscopic
-Character&mdash;Attention in Dreams&mdash;Relation of Drug
-Visions and Hypnagogic Imagery to Dreaming&mdash;Colour in
-Dreams&mdash;The Fusion of Dream Imagery&mdash;Compared to
-Dissolving Views&mdash;Sources of the Imagery&mdash;Various types
-of Fusion&mdash;The Sub-Conscious Element in Dreaming&mdash;Verbal
-Transformations as Links in Dream Imagery&mdash;The
-Reduplication of Visual Imagery in Motor and other Terms,      <span class="shiftright"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></span></p></blockquote>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a><br />
-<br />
-<span class="small80">THE LOGIC OF DREAMS</span></h2>
-
-<blockquote><p>All Dreaming is a Process of Reasoning&mdash;The Fundamental
-Character of Reasoning&mdash;Reasoning as a Synthesis of
-Images&mdash;Dream Reasoning Instinctive and Automatic&mdash;It
-is also Consciously carried on&mdash;This a result of the
-Fundamental Split in Intelligence&mdash;Dissociation&mdash;Dreaming
-as a Disturbance of Apperception,      <span class="shiftright"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></span></p></blockquote>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span></p>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a><br />
-<br />
-<span class="small80">THE SENSES IN DREAMS</span></h2>
-
-<blockquote><p>All Dreams probably contain both Presentative and Representative
-Elements&mdash;The Influence of Tactile Sensations on
-Dreams&mdash;Dreams excited by Auditory Stimuli&mdash;Dreams
-aroused by Odours and Tastes&mdash;The Influence of Visual
-Stimuli&mdash;Difficulty of distinguishing between Actual and
-Imagined Sensory Excitations&mdash;The Influence of Internal
-Visceral Stimuli on Dreaming&mdash;Erotic Dreams&mdash;Vesical
-Dreams&mdash;Cardiac Dreams and their Symbolism&mdash;Prodromic
-Dreams&mdash;Prophetic Dreams,      <span class="shiftright"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></span></p></blockquote>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a><br />
-<br />
-<span class="small80">EMOTION IN DREAMS</span></h2>
-
-<blockquote><p>Emotion and Imagination&mdash;How Stimuli are transformed into
-Emotion&mdash;Somnambulism&mdash;The Failure of Movement in
-Dreams&mdash;Nightmare&mdash;Influence of the approach of Awakening
-on imagined Dream movements&mdash;The Magnification of
-Imagery&mdash;Peripheral and Cerebral Conditions combine to
-produce this Imaginative Heightening&mdash;Emotion in Sleep
-also Heightened&mdash;Dreams formed to explain Heightened
-Emotions of unknown origin&mdash;The fundamental Place of
-Emotion in Dreams&mdash;Visceral and especially Gastric disturbance
-as a source of Emotion&mdash;Symbolism in Dreams&mdash;The
-Dreamer's Moral Attitude&mdash;Why Murder so often takes
-place in Dreams&mdash;Moral Feeling not Abolished in Dreams
-though sometimes Impaired,      <span class="shiftright"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></span></p></blockquote>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a><br />
-<br />
-<span class="small80">AVIATION IN DREAMS</span></h2>
-
-<blockquote><p>Dreams of Flying and Falling&mdash;Their Peculiar Vividness&mdash;Dreams
-of Flying an Alleged Survival of Primeval Experiences&mdash;Best
-explained as based on Respiratory Sensations
-combined with Cutaneous Anaesthesia&mdash;The Explanation
-of Dreams of Falling&mdash;The Sensation of Levitation sometimes
-experienced by Ecstatic Saints&mdash;Also experienced at
-the Moment of Death,      <span class="shiftright"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></span></p></blockquote>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span></p>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a><br />
-<br />
-<span class="small80">SYMBOLISM IN DREAMS</span></h2>
-
-<blockquote><p>The Dramatisation of Subjective Feelings Based on Dissociation&mdash;Analogies
-in Waking Life&mdash;The Synaesthesias and
-Number-forms&mdash;Symbolism in Language&mdash;In Music&mdash;The
-Organic Basis of Dream Symbolism&mdash;The Omnipotence of
-Symbolism&mdash;Oneiromancy&mdash;The Scientific Interpretation of
-Dreams&mdash;Why Symbolism prevails in Dreaming&mdash;Freud's
-Theory of Dreaming&mdash;Dreams as Fulfilled Wishes&mdash;Why this
-Theory cannot be applied to all Dreaming&mdash;The Complete
-Form of Symbolism in Dreams&mdash;Splitting up of Personality&mdash;Self-objectivation
-in Imaginary Personalities&mdash;The
-Dramatic Element in Dreams&mdash;Hallucinations&mdash;Multiple
-Personality&mdash;Insanity&mdash;Self-objectivation a Primitive Tendency&mdash;Its
-Survival in Civilisation,      <span class="shiftright"><a href="#Page_148">148</a></span></p></blockquote>
-
-
-<h2 class="nobreak"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a><br />
-<br />
-<span class="small80">DREAMS OF THE DEAD</span></h2>
-
-<blockquote><p>Mental Dissociation during sleep&mdash;Illustrated by the Dream of
-Returning to School Life&mdash;The Typical Dream of a Dead
-Friend&mdash;Examples&mdash;Early Records of this Type of Dream&mdash;Analysis
-of such Dreams&mdash;Atypical Forms&mdash;The Consolation
-sometimes afforded by Dreams of the Dead&mdash;Ancient
-Legends of this Dream Type&mdash;The Influence of Dreams on
-the Belief of Primitive Man in the Survival of the Dead,      <span class="shiftright"><a href="#Page_194">194</a></span></p></blockquote>
-
-
-<h2 class="nobreak"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</a><br />
-<br />
-<span class="small80">MEMORY IN DREAMS</span></h2>
-
-<blockquote><p>The Apparent Rapidity of Thought in Dreams&mdash;This Phenomenon
-largely due to the Dream being a Description of a Picture&mdash;The
-Experience of Drowning Persons&mdash;The Sense of Time
-in Dreams&mdash;The Crumpling of Consciousness in Dreams&mdash;The
-Recovery of Lost Memories through the Relaxation of
-Attention&mdash;The Emergence in Dreams of Memories not
-known to Waking Life&mdash;The Recollection of Forgotten
-Languages in Sleep&mdash;The Perversions of Memory in Dreams&mdash;Paramnesic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span>
-False Recollections&mdash;Hypnagogic Paramnesia&mdash;Dreams mistaken for Actual Events&mdash;The Phenomenon of
-Pseudo-Reminiscence&mdash;Its Relationship to Epilepsy&mdash;Its
-Prevalence especially among Imaginative and Nervously
-Exhausted Persons&mdash;The Theories put forward to Explain
-it&mdash;A Fatigue Product&mdash;Conditioned by Defective Attention
-and Apperception&mdash;Pseudo-Reminiscence a reversed Hallucination,      <span class="shiftright"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></span></p></blockquote>
-
-
-<h2 class="nobreak"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X</a><br />
-<br />
-<span class="small80">CONCLUSION</span></h2>
-
-<blockquote><p>The Fundamental Nature of Dreaming&mdash;Insanity and Dreaming&mdash;The
-Child's Psychic State and the Dream State&mdash;Primitive
-Thought and Dreams&mdash;Dreaming and Myth-Making&mdash;Genius
-and Dreams&mdash;Dreaming as a Road into the Infinite,      <span class="shiftright"><a href="#Page_261">261</a></span></p></blockquote>
-
-
-<blockquote><p><span class="p2"><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a></span>,      <span class="shiftright"><a href="#Page_283">283</a></span></p></blockquote>
-
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1"></a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<h2><a name="THE_WORLD_OF_DREAMS" id="THE_WORLD_OF_DREAMS"></a>THE WORLD OF DREAMS</h2>
-
-
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2>
-
-<p class="p6">INTRODUCTION</p>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>The House of Dreams&mdash;Fallacies in the Study of Dreams&mdash;Is it
-Possible to Study Dreams?&mdash;How Fallacies may be Avoided&mdash;Do
-we always Dream during Sleep?&mdash;The Two Main Sources
-of Dreams with their Sub-divisions.</p></blockquote>
-
-
-<p>W<span class="smcapa">HEN</span> we fall asleep we enter a dim and ancient house
-of shadow, unillumined by any direct ray from the
-outer world of waking life. We are borne about through
-its chambers, without conscious volition of our own;
-we fall down its mouldy and rotten staircases, we are
-haunted by strange sounds and odours from its mysterious
-recesses; we move among phantoms we cannot
-consciously control. As we emerge into the world of
-daily life again, for an instant the sunlight seems to
-flash into the obscure house before the door closes
-behind us; we catch one vivid glimpse of the chambers
-we have been wandering in, and a few more or less
-fragmentary memories come back to us of the life we
-have led there. But they soon fade away in the light
-of common day, and if a few hours later we seek to recall
-the strange experiences we have passed through, it
-usually happens that the visions of the night have
-already dissolved in memory into a few shreds of mist
-we can no longer reconstruct.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>For most of us our whole knowledge ends here. Our
-dreams are real enough while they last, but the interests
-of waking life absorb us so entirely that we rarely
-have leisure, and still less inclination, to subject our
-sleeping adventures, trivial and absurd as they must
-usually seem, to the careful tests which waking intelligence
-is accustomed to subject more obviously
-important matters to. The world of dreams and the
-mysterious light which prevails there<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> are abandoned
-entirely to our sleeping activities.</p>
-
-<p>This leading characteristic of dream life&mdash;the fact
-that it takes place in another and more shadowy world
-and in a different kind of consciousness<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>&mdash;has led
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>
-to the criticism of the study of dreams from the
-scientific side. We cannot really study our dreams,
-these objectors say, because we&mdash;that is to say, our
-waking consciousness&mdash;cannot come sufficiently closely
-in contact with them. Dreams, it is argued, are inevitably
-transformed in our hands; what we are studying
-is not our dreams, but only our waking, and probably
-altogether false, impressions of our dreams. There
-is a certain element of truth in this objection. It is
-very difficult, indeed impossible, to recall exactly, and
-in their proper order, even the details of a real adventure
-which has only just happened to us. It is,
-obviously, incomparably more difficult to recall an
-experience which took place, under such shadowy conditions,
-in a world so remote from the world of waking
-life. There is, further, the very definite difficulty
-that we only catch our dreams for a moment by the
-light, as it were, of the open door as we are emerging
-from sleep. In other words, our waking consciousness
-is for a moment observing and interpreting a process
-in another kind of consciousness, or even if we assert
-that it is the same consciousness it is still a consciousness
-that has been working under quite different conditions
-from waking consciousness, and accepting data
-which in the waking state it would not accept. For the
-student of dreams it must ever be a serious question
-how far the facts become inevitably distorted in this
-process. Sleeping or waking, it is probable, our consciousness
-never embraces the whole of the possible
-psychic field within us. There are, when we are dreaming<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
-as well as when we are awake&mdash;as will become
-clearer in the sequel&mdash;subconscious, or imperfectly
-conscious, states just below our consciousness, and
-exerting an influence upon it.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> Our latent psychic
-possessions, among which dreams move, would seem to
-be by no means always at the same depth; the specific
-gravity of consciousness, as it were, varies, and these
-latent elements rise or fall, becoming nearer to the
-conscious surface or falling further away from it. But
-the greatest change must take place when the waking
-surface is reached and the outer world breaks on sleeping
-consciousness. In that change there is doubtless
-a process of necessary and automatic transformation
-and interpretation. We may picture it, perhaps, as
-somewhat the same process as when a person skilled
-in both languages takes up a foreign book and reads it
-out in his own tongue. With practice the reader may
-become unconscious that he is transforming everything,
-that the words he utters are different from the words
-he sees, and that he even transposes their order, sometimes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
-putting in the middle of a sentence the verb he
-sees at the end.</p>
-
-<p>Yet even if we admit that the passage from sleeping
-to waking consciousness involves a change as complete
-as this&mdash;and it is probable, as we shall see, that some such
-change sometimes takes place&mdash;for a faithful interpreter
-the sense still remains the same. It is impossible to
-believe that the witness of waking consciousness to the
-nature of the visions it has caught at the threshold
-between sleeping and waking life is false, and the most
-convincing evidence of this is the utter unlikeness of
-these visions to the data of ordinary waking life.</p>
-
-<p>But even this conclusion has been subjected to severe
-criticism which we have to face before we proceed
-further. Foucault, an acute investigator of dream
-psychology&mdash;carrying to its extreme point a position
-more partially and tentatively stated by Delbœuf and
-Tannery&mdash;has denied that our dreams, as they finally
-present themselves to waking consciousness, at all
-correspond to the psychic process in sleep upon which
-they are founded, and he especially insists that the
-logical connections are superadded.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> He considers that
-dreaming is an 'observation of memory' made under
-such conditions that 'it would be very imprudent to
-regard the remembrance of the dream as reproducing
-faithfully the mental state of sleep.' During sleep,
-he believes, our dream ideas proceed, concurrently, it
-may be, but separately and independently; at the
-moment when awakening begins, the mind, as an act<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
-of immediate memory, grasps the plurality of separate
-pictures and applies itself spontaneously to the task of
-organising them according to the rules of logic and the
-laws of the real world, making a drama of them as like
-as possible to the dramas of waking life.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> He agrees
-with Goblot that 'the dream we remember is a waking
-thought,' and with Tannery that 'we do not remember
-our dreams, but only the reconstructions of them we
-effected at the moment of waking.' It is after awakening,
-Foucault concludes, that the dream develops, and
-its final shape depends on the period at which it is
-noted down; 'the evolution of the dream after awakening
-is a logical evolution, dominated and directed by
-the instinctive need to give a reasonable appearance
-to the <em>ensemble</em> of images and sensations present to the
-mind, and to assimilate the representation of the dream
-to the system of representations which constitutes our
-knowledge of the real world.'<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
-
-<p>In arguing his thesis, Foucault makes much of the
-modifications which can be proved to take place if any
-one is asked to repeat a dream at intervals of months.
-Under the influence of time and repetition a dream
-becomes more coherent and more conformed to reality.
-In illustration Foucault presents two versions of an
-insignificant dream in which a lady imagines that she
-is out with her husband for a drive, and in the course
-of it experiences a natural need which she seeks an
-opportunity to satisfy; the details of the first version
-were highly improbable; some months later they had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
-become much more like what might have occurred in
-real life. Such a process, Foucault thinks, is taking
-place from the first in the making of dreams as we
-know them awake.</p>
-
-<p>There are, undoubtedly, facts which may seem to
-support Foucault's argument that the logic of the dream,
-as we know it, is not in the original dream, but is introduced
-afterwards. Thus I once dreamed in the morning
-that I asked my wife if she had been into a certain
-room, and that she replied, 'Can't get in.' I immediately
-awoke and realised that my wife had actually
-spoken these words, not to me, but to an approaching
-servant, in anticipation of a message about entering
-a neighbouring room of which the door was locked.
-It is thus evident that although it seemed to me in my
-dream that the question came first and the answer
-followed in the ordinary course, in reality the answer
-came first. The question was a theory, supplied
-automatically by sleeping intelligence and prefixed
-to the answer, in which order they both appeared to
-sleeping consciousness, that is to say, in the only way
-in which sleeping consciousness can ever be known, as
-translated into waking consciousness.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p>
-
-<p>It must be borne in mind that such a dream as I have
-recorded&mdash;in which an actual sensory experience is
-introduced, untransformed, as a foreign body into sleeping
-consciousness&mdash;is not a typical dream. Dreams
-are, however, without doubt of various kinds, and we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
-may well admit that there is a class of dreams formed
-in this way. That supposition will, indeed, be helpful
-in explaining several dreams I shall have to record. The
-process is much the same as when a nervous person
-receives a telegram, and at once assumes that some
-dreaded accident has occurred, and that the telegram
-is the announcement of it. The craving for reasons
-is instinctive, and the dreamer's sense of logic even
-dominates his sense of time.</p>
-
-<p>But Foucault's argument is that waking consciousness
-effects this logical construction of the dream.
-Here his position is weak and incapable of proof. It is,
-indeed, contrary to all the tests we are able to apply to
-it. If it is the object of the logic of our dreams to make
-them conformable to our waking experience, that end,
-we must admit, is in most cases very far from being
-attained. In their original form, as Foucault views the
-matter, our dreams are simple dissociated images. In
-that shape they would present nothing whatever to
-shock the consciousness of waking life. The logic,
-hypothetically introduced solely to make them conformable
-to real life, is frequently a preposterous logic
-such as the consciousness of waking life could not
-accept or even conceive. This fact alone serves to
-throw serious doubt upon the theory that it is waking
-consciousness which impresses its logic upon our dreams.</p>
-
-<p>Nor, again, is there any analogy, and still less identity,
-between the process whereby we grasp a dream when
-we awake, and the process whereby the memory of a
-dream is transformed during months of waking life.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
-The latter is part of a general process affecting all our
-memories in greater or less degree. I visit, for instance,
-a foreign cathedral, and take careful note of the
-character and arrangement of buttresses and piers;
-a few months later, if I have failed to set the facts down,
-my memory of them will become uncertain, confused,
-and incorrect. But I need not, therefore, lose faith
-in the tolerable exactitude of my original impressions.
-In the same way, we cannot argue that the shifting
-memory of a dream during a long period of time throws
-the slightest doubt on the accuracy of our original
-impression of it. We never catch a dream in course
-of formation. As it presents itself to consciousness on
-awakening there may be doubtful points and there may
-be missing links, but the dream is, once for all, completed,
-and if there are doubtful points or missing
-links we recognise them as such. We make no attempt
-to supply a logic that is not there, and we never see any
-such process going on involuntarily. I should, indeed,
-myself be inclined to say that there is always a kind
-of gap between sleeping consciousness and waking
-consciousness; the change from the one to the other
-kind of consciousness seems to be effected by a slight
-shock, and the perception of the already completed
-dream is the first effort of waking consciousness. The
-existence of such a shock is indicated by the fact that,
-even at the first moment of waking consciousness, we
-never realise that a moment ago we were asleep. As
-soon as we realise that we are awake it seems to us that
-we have already been awake for an uncertain but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
-distinct period of time; some people, indeed, especially
-old people, on awaking, feel this so strongly that they
-deny they have been asleep. It once happened to me
-to be in the neighbourhood of a dynamite factory at
-the moment when a very disastrous explosion occurred;
-at the time my back was to the factory, and I am quite
-unable to say how long an interval occurred between
-the shock of the explosion and my own action in turning
-round to observe the straight shaft of smoke and solid
-material high in the air; there was a gap in consciousness,
-an interval of unknown and seemingly considerable
-length, caused by the deafening shock of the
-explosion, although it is probable that my action in
-turning round was almost or quite instantaneous. It
-seems to me that the transition from sleeping consciousness
-to waking consciousness occurs in a similar
-manner on a smaller scale.</p>
-
-<p>Although the view of Foucault that the dream is
-logically organised after sleep has ended seems, when we
-examine the evidence in its favour, to be unacceptable,
-we may still admit that, in some cases at all events,
-the dream only assumes final shape at the moment
-when sleeping consciousness is breaking up, that the
-dream, as we know it, is a final synthetic attempt of
-sleeping consciousness as it dissolves on the approach
-of waking consciousness. Sleeping consciousness, we
-may even imagine as saying to itself in effect:
-'Here comes our master, Waking Consciousness, who
-attaches such mighty importance to reason and logic
-and so forth. Quick! gather things up, put them in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
-order&mdash;any order will do&mdash;before he enters to take
-possession.' That is to say, in other words, that as
-sleeping consciousness comes nearer to the threshold
-of waking consciousness it is possible that the need for
-the same kind of causation or sequence which is manifested
-in waking consciousness may begin to make
-itself felt even to sleeping consciousness. Even this
-assumption seems, however, as regards most dreams,
-to be extravagant. In any case, and at whatever stage
-the dream is finally constituted, we are not entitled,
-it seems to me, to believe that any stage of its constitution
-falls outside the frontiers of sleep. It is
-satisfactory to be able to feel justified in reaching this
-conclusion. For if dreams were chiefly or mainly
-the product of waking consciousness they would certainly
-lose a considerable part of their significance and
-interest.</p>
-
-<p>Even, however, when we have reached this conclusion
-the path of the student is still far from easy. The
-undoubted fact that in any case the difficulties of observing
-and recording dreams are very great cannot
-fail to make us extremely careful. Although the dreams
-of some persons, who may be regarded as themselves
-of vivid and dramatic temperament, seem to be habitually
-vivid and dramatic to an extent which, in my own
-case, is extremely rare, one is usually justified in feeling
-a certain amount of suspicion in regard to dream-narratives
-which are at every point clear, coherent,
-connected, and intelligible. Dreams, as I know them
-on awaking from sleep, occasionally present episodes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>
-to which these epithets may be applied, but on the
-whole they are full of obscurities, of uncertainties, of
-inexplicable lacunae. The memory of dream events
-is lost so rapidly that one is constantly obliged to leave
-the exact nature of a detail in doubt. One seems to be
-recalling a landscape seen by a lightning flash. It is
-for this reason that I have made it a rule only to admit
-dreams which are noted very shortly, and if possible
-immediately, after the moment of awakening. It is
-further of importance in recording one's dreams, to note
-the emotional attitude experienced during the dream
-as well as any physical sensations felt on awakening.
-The attitude of dream consciousness towards dream
-visions usually varies from that of waking consciousness,
-although the normal extent of the difference is a disputable
-point. When I read dream narratives of landscapes
-which, as described, appear at every point as
-beautiful and impressive to waking consciousness as
-they appeared to dreaming consciousness, I usually
-suspect that, granting the good faith and accuracy of
-the narrator, we are really concerned, not with dreams
-in the proper sense, but with visions experienced under
-more abnormal conditions, and especially with drug
-visions. In the present inquiry I am only concerned
-to ascertain the most elementary and fundamental
-laws of the dream world, as they occur in fairly ordinary
-and normal persons, and therefore it becomes necessary
-to be very strict as to the conditions under which
-they were recorded. It is the most ordinary dreams
-that are most likely to reveal the ordinary laws of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
-dream life, but for this end it is necessary that they
-should be recorded with the greatest accuracy attainable.</p>
-
-<p>I am myself neither a constant nor, usually, a very
-vivid dreamer, and in these respects I am probably
-a fairly ordinary and normal person; the personal
-material which I have accumulated, though it spreads
-over twenty years, is not notably copious. Nor have I
-ever directed my attention in any systematic and concentrated
-manner to my dream life. To do so would be,
-I believe, to distort the phenomena. I have merely
-recorded any significant phenomena as they occurred.</p>
-
-<p>To remark that one is not a constant dreamer is not
-to assert that dreaming is rare, but merely that one's
-recollection of it is rare. Though we may only catch
-a glimpse of our latest vision of the night as we leave
-the house of sleep, it may well be that there were
-many earlier adventures of the night which are beyond
-the reach of waking consciousness. Sometimes, it is
-curious to note, we become vaguely conscious, during
-the day, for the first time, of a dream we have had
-during the night. Many psychologists, as well as
-metaphysicians&mdash;fearful to admit that the activity of
-the soul could ever cease&mdash;believe that we dream
-during the whole period of sleep; this has of recent years
-been the opinion of Vaschide, Foucault, N&auml;cke, and
-Sir Arthur Mitchell, as it formerly was of Sir Benjamin
-Brodie, Sir Henry Holland, and Schaaffhausen. In
-earlier days Hippocrates, Descartes, Leibnitz, and
-Cabanis seem to have been of the same opinion. On<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
-the other hand, Locke, Macnish, and Carpenter held
-that deep sleep is dreamless; this is also the opinion
-of Wundt, Beaunis, Str&uuml;mpell, Weygandt, Hammond,
-and Jastrow. Moreover, there are some people, like
-Lessing, who, so far as they know, never dream at all.
-My own personal experience scarcely inclines me to
-accept without qualification the belief that we are
-always dreaming during sleep. I find that my remembered
-dreams tend to be correlated with some
-slight mental or physical disturbance, and therefore
-it seems to me probable that, if dreams are continuous
-during sleep, they must, during completely undisturbed
-sleep, be of an extremely faint and shadowy character.
-To return to a metaphor I have before used, we may
-say that sleeping consciousness in its descent from the
-surface of the waking life may fall to a point at which
-its specific gravity being practically the same as that
-of its environment, a state approaching complete
-repose is attained.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> It cannot of course be said that
-the failure to remember dreams is any argument against
-their occurrence. It is well known that when the
-psychic activity of sleep assumes a definitely motor
-shape, as in talking in sleep and in somnambulism, it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
-is very rare for any recollection to remain on awakening,
-though we cannot doubt that psychic activity has been
-present. In the same way the dream that we remember
-when awakened from sound sleep by another person
-is by no means always due to that awakening. This
-is shown by the fact that if we were turning round
-or making other movements just before being thus
-awakened, the dream we remember&mdash;in one such case
-a dream of making one's way with difficulty between
-a sofa and a chair&mdash;may have no relation to the circumstance
-of the awakening, but clearly be suggested
-by the movements made during sleep, though these
-movements themselves remain unknown to waking
-consciousness. The movements of dogs during sound
-sleep&mdash;the rhythmical lifting of the paws, the wagging
-of the tail&mdash;point in the same direction.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
-
-<p>The fact that failure of memory by no means proves
-the absence of dreaming may be illustrated, not only
-by the forgetfulness of what takes place during hypnotic
-sleep, but by what we sometimes witness during partial
-anaesthesia maintained by drugs. This was well shown
-in a case I was once concerned with, where it was
-necessary to administer chloroform (preceded by the
-alcohol-chloroform-ether mixture) for a prolonged
-period during a difficult first confinement. The drug<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
-was not given to the point of causing complete abolition
-of mental activity, and the patient talked, and occasionally
-sang, throughout, referring to various events in
-her life, from childhood onwards. The sensation and
-the expression of pain were not altogether abolished,
-for slight cries and remarks about the discomfort and
-constraint imposed upon her were sometimes mingled
-in the same sentence with quite irrelevant remarks
-concerning, for instance, trivial details of housekeeping.
-Confusions of incompatible ideas also took place, as
-during ordinary dreaming. 'Where is the three-cornered
-nurse,' she thus asked, 'who does not mind
-what she does?' There was also the abnormal suggestibility
-of dream consciousness. The questions of
-bystanders were answered but always with a tendency
-to agree with everything that was said, this tendency
-even displaying itself with a certain ingenuity as when
-in reply to the playful random query: 'Were you
-drunk or sleeping last night?' she answered, with some
-hesitation: 'A little of both, I think.' To the casual
-observer, it might seem that there was a state of full
-consciousness on the basis of which a partial delirium
-had established itself. Yet on recovery from the drug
-there was no recollection of anything whatever that
-had taken place during its administration, and no sense
-of the lapse of time.</p>
-
-<p>Fantastic and marvellous as our dreams may sometimes
-be, they are in practically all cases made up of
-very simple elements. It is desirable that we should
-at the outset have a provisional notion as to the sources<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
-of these simple elements. Most writers on dreams
-hold that there are two great sources from which these
-elements are drawn: the vast reservoir of memories
-and the actual physical sensations experienced at the
-moment of dreaming, and interpreted by sleeping
-consciousness. Various names have been given to
-these two groups, the recognition of which is at least
-as old as Aristotle.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> Thus Sully calls them central
-and peripheral, Tissi&eacute;, psychic and sensorial, Foucault,
-imaginative and perceptive. Fairly convenient names
-are those adopted by Miss Calkins, who calls the first
-group representative, the second group presentative,
-meaning by representative 'connected through the fact
-of association with the waking life of the past,' and by
-presentative 'connected through sense excitation with
-the immediate present.'<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p>
-
-<p>The representative group falls into two subdivisions,
-according as the memories are of old or of recent
-date; these subdivisions are often quite distinct, recent
-dream memories belonging&mdash;probably with most people&mdash;to
-the previous day, while old dream memories are
-usually drawn from the experience of many years past,
-and frequently from early life. In the same way
-presentative impressions fall into two subdivisions,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
-according as they refer to external stimuli present to
-the senses, or to internal disturbances within the organism.
-It is scarcely necessary to observe that any or
-all of these four sub-groups, into which the whole of
-our dream life may be analysed, may become woven
-together in the same dream.</p>
-
-<p>I have called the classification 'provisional' because,
-though it is convenient to adopt it for the sake of orderly
-arrangement, when we come to consider the matter it
-will be found that the material of dreams is in reality
-all of the same order, and purely psychic, though it
-may be differentiated in accordance with the character
-of the stimulus which evokes the psychic material of
-which it is made. Strictly speaking, the source of the
-dream as a dream can only be central, and a truly
-presentative dream is impossible. If our senses receive
-an impression, external or internal, and we recognise
-and accept that impression for what we should
-recognise and accept it when awake, then we cannot
-be said to be dreaming. The internal and external
-stimuli which act upon sleeping consciousness are not
-a part of that consciousness, nor in any real sense its
-source or its cause. The ray of sunlight that falls on
-the dreamer, the falling off of his bedclothes, the indigestible
-supper he ate last night&mdash;these things can no
-more 'account' for his dream than the postman's
-knock can account for the contents of the letter he
-delivers. Whatever the stimuli from the physical
-world that may knock at the door of dreaming consciousness,
-that consciousness is apart from them, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>
-stimuli can only reach it by undergoing transformation.
-They must put off the character which they wear as
-phenomena of the waking world; they must put on
-the character of phenomena of another world, the world
-of dreams.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2>
-
-<p class="p6">THE ELEMENTS OF DREAM LIFE</p>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>The Spontaneous Procession of Dream Imagery&mdash;Its Kaleidoscopic
-Character&mdash;Attention in Dreams&mdash;Relation of Drug Visions and
-Hypnagogic Imagery to Dreaming&mdash;Colour in Dreams&mdash;The
-Fusion of Dream Imagery&mdash;Compared to Dissolving Views&mdash;Sources
-of the Imagery&mdash;Various types of Fusion&mdash;The Subconscious
-Element in Dreaming&mdash;Verbal Transformations as
-Links in Dream Imagery&mdash;The Reduplication of Visual Imagery
-in Motor and other Terms.</p></blockquote>
-
-
-<p>P<span class="smcapa">ERHAPS</span> the most elementary fact about dream vision
-is the perpetual and unceasing change which it is undergoing
-at every moment. Sight is for most of us
-the chief sensory activity of sleeping as it is of waking
-life; the commonest kind of dream is mainly a picture,
-but it is always a living and moving picture, however
-inanimate the objects which appear in vision before us
-would be in real life. No man ever gazed at a dream
-picture which was at rest to his sleeping eye as are the
-pictures we gaze at with our waking eyes. So far as
-my own experience is concerned, I have rarely in sleep
-seen a sentence, a word, a letter written on a sheet of
-dream-paper which was not changing beneath the eye
-of sleep. I dream, for instance, that I wish to stamp
-a letter, and look in my pocket-book for a penny stamp;
-I am able to find stamps of other values, I am able to
-find penny stamps that are torn or defaced or of an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>
-antiquated type disused thirty years ago; all sorts
-of stamps, as well as little pictures resembling stamps,
-develop and multiply beneath my gaze; the stamp I
-seek remains unfound, probably because it had appeared
-at the beginning of the series and suggested all the rest.
-That is indicated by another dream (experienced, it
-may be noted, during the early stage of a cold in the
-head): I have to catch a train; I see my hat hanging
-on a peg among other hats, and I move towards it;
-but as I do so it has vanished; and I wander among
-rows of hats, of all shapes and sizes, but not one of them
-mine. Sleeping consciousness is a stream in which we
-never bathe twice, for it is renewed every second. It
-is this as much as any characteristic of the visual
-dream&mdash;for the mainly auditory or motor dream often
-presents less difficulty in this respect&mdash;which makes it
-so difficult to recall and reproduce. We are, as it were,
-gazing at a constantly revolving kaleidoscope in which
-every slightest turn produces a new pattern, somewhat
-resembling that which immediately preceded it&mdash;so
-that, if the kaleidoscope were conscious we should say
-that each picture had been suggested by the preceding
-pattern&mdash;but yet definitely novel.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p>
-
-<p>Delbœuf has denied that this process ever involves
-any real metamorphosis of images; he regarded it as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
-an illusion due to rapid succession of distinct images
-which are afterwards combined in memory. That
-view is not, however, tenable; apart from the fact
-that it makes the illegitimate assumption that our
-recollection of a dream is entirely unreliable, it must be
-remembered that (as Giessler has pointed out) the
-shock of emotional horror or surprise that frequently
-accompanies such dreams suffices to prove the reality
-of the metamorphosis. Thus I once, as a youth, had
-a vivid dream of an albatross that became transformed
-into a woman, the beautiful eyes of the albatross taking
-on a womanly expression, but the bird's beak only
-being imperfectly changed into a nose as the bird-woman
-murmured, 'Do you love me?' In this case
-the vivid surprise of the dream was precisely associated
-with the simultaneous existence of the two sets of
-characters.</p>
-
-<p>It is not, however, necessary that there should be any
-metamorphosis of dream images, nor even that the
-procession of dream imagery should be continuous.
-And whether or not there is metamorphosis of images,
-whether the imagery is continuous or discontinuous,
-it seems to me that we must admit the possibility of
-its spontaneous character. That is, indeed, a debated,
-and, it may be admitted, a debateable point. Thus
-Foucault<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> accounts for the multiplication of almost
-similar images sometimes witnessed in dreams as due
-to <em>desire;</em> we see a number of things because we desire
-to possess a number of these things, and he explains a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
-dream of Delbœuf's, of a procession of lizards, as due
-to the fact that Delbœuf was a collector of lizards, in
-the same way as he would explain the dreams of thirsty
-people who imagine they are drinking repeated glasses
-of water or wine. I am quite unable to accept this
-explanation. The shifting and multiplication of dream
-imagery, as in the procession of lizards, is a fundamental
-and elementary character of spontaneous mental imagery,
-and is constant in some drug visions, notably
-those occasioned by mescal.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> The repetition of imaginary
-drinks in the dreams of a thirsty man belongs to
-another more special class in explanation of which
-desire may be more properly invoked; it is merely the
-expression of the fact that after the imaginary drink
-the dreamer remains thirsty, and the suggested image
-is therefore repeated.</p>
-
-<p>That in some cases there is what we may call a deliberate
-subconscious selection in the imagery presented
-to consciousness in dreams, there can be no
-doubt. But mental imagery is deeper and more
-elemental than any of the higher psychic functions
-even when exerted subconsciously. Just as the immense
-procession of continuous and totally unfamiliar imagery
-which is evoked by the action of mescal on the visual
-centres has no more connection with the subject's
-volition or desires than the procession of the starry
-skies, so likewise, we seem bound to admit, it may be
-in the case of a succession of separate images in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
-dreams. It is nearly always possible to find a link of
-connection between any two images chosen at random,
-and the link is often a real subconscious link, but not
-necessarily so. Discontinuous images may arise, it
-seems probable, from a psychic basis deeper than choice,
-their appearance being determined by their own dynamic
-condition at the moment. We must, as Baron Mourre<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a>
-not quite happily puts it, take into account 'the physiological
-state of ideas.' If we hold to the belief that
-dreaming is based on a fundamental and elementary
-tendency to the formation of continuous or discontinuous
-images, which may or may not be controlled by
-psychic emotions or impulses, we shall be delivered
-from many hazardous speculations.</p>
-
-<p>When we thus start with the recognition of a more or
-less spontaneous procession of images as the elemental
-stuff of dreams, one of the first problems we encounter
-is the relation of attention to that imagery. What is
-the degree and the nature of the attention we exert in
-dreams?</p>
-
-<p>'Sleep from the psychological point of view,' says
-Foucault, 'is a state of profound distraction or total
-inattention.' And Mourre shows by dreams of his own
-that any exercise of will in dreaming leads to awakening,
-and that the deeper the sleep the more absent is volition
-from dreams. Hence the involuntary wavering and
-perpetually mere meaningless change of dream imagery.
-Such concentration as is possible during sleep usually<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
-reveals a shifting, oscillating, uncertain movement of
-the vision before us. We are, as it were, reading a
-sign-post in the dusk, or making guesses at the names
-of the stations as our express train flashes by the painted
-letters. It is this factor in dreams which causes them
-so often to baffle our analysis. There is thus a failure
-of sleeping attention to fix definitely the final result&mdash;a
-failure which itself may evidently serve to carry on
-the dream process by suggesting new images and combinations.
-It can scarcely be said, however, that the
-question of attention in dreams is thus settled. It
-would be inconceivable that the terrible occurrences
-that may overtake us in dreams and the emotional
-turmoil aroused should be accompanied by 'total inattention
-and distraction.' Nor can it be said that that
-supposition agrees with the vivid memory which our
-dreams sometimes leave. We can probably account
-for the phenomena much more satisfactorily by adopting
-Ribot's useful distinction between voluntary attention
-and spontaneous attention.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> Voluntary or artificial
-attention is a product of education and training. It is
-directed by extrinsic force, is the result of deliberation,
-and is accompanied by some feeling of effort.
-It always acts on the muscles and by the muscles;
-without muscular tension there can be no voluntary
-attention. Spontaneous or natural attention, on the
-other hand, is that more fundamental kind of attention
-which exists anteriorly to any education or training,
-and is the only kind of attention which animals and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
-young children are capable of. It may be weak or
-strong, but always and everywhere it is based on
-emotional states; every creature moved by pleasure
-and pain is capable of spontaneous attention under the
-influence of those stimuli. These two kinds of attention
-are at the opposite poles from each other, and are
-incompatible with each other. There can be no doubt
-that, as Ribot himself pointed out, it is voluntary
-attention that is defective (though it may not always
-be entirely absent) in dreams;<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> the muscular weakness
-and inco-ordination of sleep involve this lack of attention
-which is indeed an essential condition of the restoration
-and repose of sleep. But all the characters of
-spontaneous attention are present. The attention we
-exercise in dreams is mainly of this fundamental, automatic,
-involuntary character, conditioned by the emotions
-we experience, and for the most part escaping all
-the efforts of our voluntary attention. Further, it has
-been ably argued by Leroy that a similar state of
-involuntary automatic attention, with concomitant
-diminution or disturbance of voluntary attention, is a
-necessary condition for the appearance of the visual
-and auditory hallucinations abnormally experienced
-in the waking state.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>There is, then, at the basis of dreaming a seemingly
-spontaneous procession of dream imagery which is
-always undergoing transformation into something
-different, yet not wholly different, from that which
-went before. It seems a mechanical flow of images,
-regulated by associations of resemblance, which sleeping
-consciousness recognises without either controlling or
-introducing foreign elements. This is probably the
-most elementary form of dreaming, that which is
-nearest to waking consciousness, and that in which
-the peripheral and retinal element of dreaming plays
-the largest part.</p>
-
-<p>The fundamental character of this spontaneous self-evolving
-procession of imagery is indicated by the
-significant fact that it tends to take place whenever the
-more retinal and peripheral part of the visual apparatus
-is affected by the exhaustion of undue stimulation, or
-even when the organism generally is disturbed or run
-down, as in neurasthenic conditions.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> The most
-obtrusive and familiar example of visual imagery is
-furnished by the procession of perpetually shifting and
-changing after-images which continue to evolve for a
-considerable time after we have looked at the sun or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
-other brilliant object.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> Less striking, but more intimately
-akin to the imagery of dreams, are the hypnagogic
-visions occurring as we fall asleep, especially after a day
-during which vision has been unusually stimulated and
-fatigued, though they do not seem necessarily dependent
-on such fatigue. Most vivid and instructive of all is the
-procession of visual imagery evoked by certain drugs.
-Of these the most remarkable and potent, as well as the
-best for study, is probably mescal, which happens also
-to be the only one with which I am myself well acquainted.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a>
-This substance provokes a constant succession
-of self-evolving visual imagery which constantly
-approaches and constantly eludes the semblance of
-real things; in the earlier stages these images closely
-resemble those produced by the kaleidoscope, and they
-change in a somewhat similar manner. Such spontaneous
-evolution of imagery is evidently a fundamental aptitude
-of the visual apparatus which many very slightly
-abnormal conditions may bring into prominence.</p>
-
-<p>The power of opium is somewhat similar, and, as
-DeQuincey long since pointed out, such power is simply
-a revival of a faculty usually possessed by children,
-although, judging from my own experiences with
-mescal, drugs exert it in a far more vivid and potent
-degree than that in which it usually occurs in the child.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
-The psychologists of childhood have not often investigated
-this phenomenon,<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> but so far as my own inquiries
-go, all or nearly all persons have possessed,
-when children, the power of seeing visions in the dark
-on the curtain of the closed eyelids, perhaps the representation
-of fairy tales they had read, perhaps
-merely commonplace processions of individuals or
-events, a tendency sometimes appearing for the same
-figure to recur again and again. I think it is fairly
-certain that the so-called 'lies' of children, told in good
-faith, are in part due to the occasional eruption of this
-faculty into daylight life. People who deny that they
-ever possessed this power have, almost certainly, only
-forgotten. I should myself be inclined to deny that I
-had ever had any such visionary faculty if it were not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
-that I can recall one occasion of its presence, at about
-the age of seven, when sleeping with a cousin of the
-same age; we amused ourselves by burying our heads
-in the pillows and watching a connected series of
-pictures which we were both alike able to see, each
-announcing any change in the picture as soon as it took
-place. This fact of community of vision served to
-impress on my mind the existence of a faculty of which
-otherwise I can recall no trace.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p>
-
-<p>Of these various groups of allied phenomena, that
-which more especially concerns us in the investigation
-of dreams is the group of phenomena most strictly
-called hypnagogic, belonging, that is to say, to the ante-chamber<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
-of sleep, when the senses are in repose and
-waking consciousness is slipping away, or else when,
-as we leave the world of dreams, waking consciousness
-is flowing back again. This state has been known
-from very ancient times. Aristotle referred to it, and
-in the dawn of modern scientific thought Hobbes
-described allied phenomena.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> The strictly psychological
-study of hypnagogic visions seems to have begun with
-Baillarger.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> Then, some years later, Maury, who had
-a rich personal experience of such phenomena, devoted
-a chapter to the hypnagogic state, and gave it its
-recognised name.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p>
-
-<p>Hypnagogic imagery, there can be little doubt, is
-not a purely ocular phenomenon, even when it is stimulated
-by ocular fatigue. It is a mixed phenomenon,
-partly retinal and partly central. That is to say that
-the eye supplies entoptic glimmerings, and the brain,
-acting on the suggestions thus received, superposes
-mental pictures to those glimmerings.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> They are thus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
-analogous to the pictures we may see in the fire or in
-the clouds. It must be added that the other senses
-also furnish corresponding rudiments which are filled
-in by the central activity; this is notably the case
-with faint buzzings and sounds in the ear, and in addition,
-muscular twitches and internal visceral sensations,
-all these becoming more prominent as the attentive
-activity of waking life subsides.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p>
-
-<p>What is the relation of hypnagogic imagery to dreams?
-Johannes M&uuml;ller, the great physiologist, long ago
-identified them, as previously had Gruithuisen and
-Burdach, while Maury&mdash;who himself possessed, however,
-a somewhat abnormal and irritable nervous system&mdash;regarded
-hypnotic imagery as furnishing the whole of
-the formative element of dreams, as being 'the embryogeny
-of dreams'; he frequently found that images
-which appeared to him in this way before going to sleep
-reappeared in dreams. This is supported by Mourly
-Vold, who made experiments on himself, and by fixing
-images as he fell asleep dreamed of the same images.
-Goblot, however, while regarding hypnagogic imagery
-as analogous with dream imagery, denies that it is
-identical. Since the hypnagogic state is the porch to
-sleep and dreams&mdash;the praedormitium, as Weir Mitchell
-terms it&mdash;we can scarcely fail to admit with Maury
-that hypnagogic imagery presents us with the germinal
-stuff of dreams. If it is not identical with the fully
-formed dream, it is still the early stage of dreaming.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
-This is certainly the view suggested by my own experience,
-even though I have never definitely recognised
-a dream as related to a previous hypnagogic
-image. It has, however, occasionally happened to me
-that as I have begun to lose waking consciousness a
-procession of images has drifted before my vision, and
-suddenly one of the figures I see has spoken. This
-hallucinatory voice occurring before I was fully asleep
-has startled me into full waking consciousness, and I
-have realised that, while yet in the hypnagogic stage,
-I was assisting at the birth of a dream.</p>
-
-<p>There is one point, it may be noted in passing, at
-which dreams do not usually correspond with some of
-the phenomena with which we may most naturally
-compare them. I refer to their presentation of colour.
-In the dreams of most people colour is rare. We seem
-usually, from this point of view, to remember a dream
-as we would remember a photograph, or, if any colour
-at all is present, a tinted drawing. Judging from my
-own experience, I should say that it is difficult to
-decide whether the absence of colour is due to its actual
-absence from the dream imagery, or merely to its failure
-to make any impression on memory. Some careful
-observers have, however, stated that the colour of their
-dream imagery is definitely grey. Thus Beaunis states
-that his dream imagery is usually <em xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">en grisaille</em>, like
-an image recalled in the waking state, though occasionally
-the colour is vivid, and Dr. Savage says that in his
-dreams colour is rarely or never present. 'I see landscapes
-of black and white, and flowers assume their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
-true form, but not their colours.'<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> This greyness of
-dream imagery corresponds to the disappearance of
-colour under chloroform anaesthesia. 'So long as the
-eyes could be held open voluntarily,' says Elmer Jones,
-'vision seemed quite normal, save that the colours of
-the spectrum faded out into a grey band.' Even in
-the early stage of some insanities also, as Stoddart has
-found, some degree of colour-blindness is present.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>
-Grace Andrews states, indeed, that in nearly half of
-her own visual dreams colour sensations were included.
-This seems to me exceptional. In my own experience,
-the emergence of a single colour, which usually strikes
-me as beautiful, is not rare. I see, for instance, a friend
-drinking wine copiously from a large goblet, and I
-judge by the colour of the wine that it is hock, or I am
-impressed by the shimmering grey tone of the poplin
-dresses worn by a group of ladies, which seems to
-indicate that the tone of the whole picture was not
-grey. I am inclined to think that when colour in a
-dream becomes more pronounced than this, the dream
-is not normal, but is associated with some degree of
-cerebral disturbance, and especially the presence of
-headache. This would agree with the fact that persons
-subject to migraine are liable to visual colour phenomena.
-As an example of a vivid colour dream associated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
-with headache, I may bring forward the following:
-I dreamed that an artist of note, with whom I am
-acquainted, was painting my portrait. (The pose of
-the portrait was standing, but I was lying down; this,
-however, caused me no surprise.) I saw the colours of
-the picture with great vividness, and I noted the extreme
-rapidity with which the artist painted; thus
-the red and black pattern of the necktie he had given
-me was suddenly changed to a totally different blue
-pattern, and the whole picture then appeared as a
-harmony of blues, the rapidity with which the artist
-effected these changes impressing me as very remarkable.
-In another dream in which I saw a painter
-occupied on a picture, a landscape representing sunrise,
-memory recalled the effect of light as vivid, but no
-definite sense of colour remained. This seems to me
-the normal condition of things in the ordinary dreams
-of most persons, colour, when it occurs, or when it is
-remembered, being for the most part confined to a single
-object or a single tint, and often being associated with a
-feeling of aesthetic pleasure.</p>
-
-<p>In ordinary dreaming there is usually something
-more than a spontaneous procession of related imagery.
-There is a more definitely central and psychic element.
-There is association, not only by obvious resemblance,
-but by contiguity, usually the casual contiguity of
-images received during the previous day, which forces
-together images related to each other indeed, but by
-no means obviously. Dreaming consciousness embodies
-and actively co-ordinates definite, and not merely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
-random, images. The passive and spontaneous flow of
-imagery is thus modified in its course.</p>
-
-<p>The image of the magic lantern well illustrates this
-character of dream experiences. The movement of the
-cinematograph, indeed, scarcely corresponds to that
-fusion of heterogeneous images which marks dream
-visions. Our dreams are like dissolving views in which
-the dissolving process is carried on swiftly or slowly,
-but always uninterruptedly, so that at any moment
-two (often, indeed, more) incongruous pictures are
-presented to consciousness, which strives to make one
-whole of them, and sometimes succeeds, and is sometimes
-baffled. Or we may say that the problem presented
-to dreaming consciousness resembles that experiment
-in which psychologists pronounce three wholly
-unconnected words and require the subject to combine
-them at once in a connected sentence. It is unnecessary
-to add that such analogies fail to indicate the
-subtle complexity of the apparatus which is at work
-in the manufacture of dreams.</p>
-
-<p>By this mechanism of dreaming, isolated impressions,
-or else impressions which have a resemblance or a
-connection which is not obvious to the waking intelligence,
-flow together in dreams to be welded into a
-whole. There is produced, in the strictest sense, a
-<em>confusion</em>. For instance, a lady, who in the course
-of the day has admired a fine baby and bought a
-big fish for dinner, dreams with horror and surprise
-of finding a fully developed live baby sewed up in a
-large cod-fish. Again, a lady who had been cooking<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
-in the course of the day and in the evening had read
-a scientific description of the way birds obtain and
-utilise their food, such as fruit and snails, dreams at
-night that she has discovered when out walking a kind
-of animal-fruit, a damson containing a snail within it,
-which she views with delight as admirably adapted for
-culinary purposes. Another lady, after carving a
-duck at dinner, dreams that she is trying to cut off
-a duck's leg, but seems to realise in her dream at the
-same time that it is really her husband's neck she is
-hacking at.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> In a dream of my own, children's heads
-took the form and shape of flowers of various shapes
-and hues, though mainly of the composite order (like
-chrysanthemums), and their eyes looked out from
-between the petals.</p>
-
-<p>It must be added that in a very considerable proportion
-of cases the combinations produced in dreams
-are far more plausible than in any of the instances just
-narrated; the whole dream may thus easily follow as
-commonplace and matter-of-fact a course as in real life.
-Thus, after going to live in a new neighbourhood, I
-dreamed that I entered a shop belonging to a certain
-firm, and saw there an employ&eacute; who, in real life, to
-my knowledge, had previously left another shop belonging<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
-to the same firm; an entirely probable combination
-was thus effected, and the dream conversation that
-followed was equally natural and probable. We do
-not go out of our way in dreams to invent absurdities;
-we simply accept the data presented to us, dealing with
-them as rationally as the intellectual instruments at
-our disposal may permit.</p>
-
-<p>The dream constituted by the falling together of
-trivial reminiscences is not always, however, as commonplace
-and plausible as in the dream just narrated. In
-other cases the falling together of equally trivial reminiscences
-may constitute a fantastic and imaginative
-picture altogether outside waking experience or waking
-thought. Thus I dream that it is my duty to watch
-beside a great king while he sleeps. He lies on a huge
-bed, fully clothed and booted, and with a great crimson
-mantle thrown over him. I am permitted to lie on the
-edge of the bed outside the mantle, but must on no
-account close my eyes, for I must be ready to respond
-at once to his call. The elements of such a picture are
-obviously so simple and commonplace that it is not
-surprising that I could not find that even one of them
-had been specially present to waking consciousness.
-Yet the picture that at that particular moment they
-fell together to compose&mdash;like the broken fragments
-of coloured glass in a kaleidoscope&mdash;is altogether
-alien alike to my experience and to my imagination.</p>
-
-<p>The source of the common confusion of dream
-imagery is to be found in very varying motives. In a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
-large proportion of cases, what we witness is merely
-the flowing together of impressions which have no
-real resemblance, but which happen to have been
-received at nearly the same time, and to admit of being
-fused; thus, in one case, occupation during the day
-partly in the fowl-yard and partly in the garden, led
-a lady to the dream project of breeding chickens by
-planting fowls' heads. Very frequently, however, there
-is a real resemblance in the two objects combined,
-although it is not a resemblance which would ever
-present itself to waking consciousness. The fowl-yard
-will supply another instance of this confusion also. I
-went to sleep thinking of a friend who was that night
-to stay at a certain hotel I had never seen. I dreamed
-that I saw the hotel in question; its fa&ccedil;ade was not
-unlike that of a common type of hotel, but the roof was
-flat and at no very great height from the ground, so
-that I was able to overlook the building and see into all
-the windows, an arrangement that struck me as bad.
-My ability to overlook the building was not, however,
-accompanied by any perception of its diminutiveness.
-On awakening I remembered that my wife had received
-a chicken incubator the day before, and we had examined
-it in the evening. The image of the hotel had fused
-with the image of the incubator.</p>
-
-<p>In another dream of the same type I imagined that
-I was with a dentist who was about to extract a tooth
-from a patient. Before applying the forceps he remarked
-to me (at the same time setting fire to a perfumed
-cloth at the end of something like a broomstick,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
-in order to dissipate the unpleasant odour) that it was
-the largest tooth he had ever seen. When extracted I
-found that it was indeed enormous, in the shape of a
-caldron, with walls an inch thick. Taking from my
-pocket a tape measure (such as I carried in waking life),
-I found the diameter to be not less than twenty-five
-inches; the interior was like roughly-hewn rock, and
-there were sea-weeds and lichen-like growths within.
-The size of the tooth seemed to me large, but not
-extraordinarily so. It is well known that pain in the
-teeth, or the dentist's manipulations, cause those organs
-to seem of extravagant extent; in dreams this tendency
-rules unchecked; thus a friend once dreamed that
-mice were playing about in a cavity in her tooth. But
-for the dream just quoted, there was no known dental
-origin; it arose solely or chiefly from a walk during the
-previous afternoon among the rocks of the Cornish
-coast at low tide, and the fantastic analogy, which had
-not occurred to waking consciousness, suggested itself
-during sleep.</p>
-
-<p>In another dream, illustrating the same kind of
-confusion of images having a real resemblance unnoticed
-in waking life, I seemed to see on a table a small hand-gong
-of a common type, struck by a hammer, but on
-striking it repeatedly, it produced flashes of light
-instead of the sounds normally produced by a gong.
-I concluded that the instrument must be out of order
-and called some one to attend to it, whereupon we
-proceeded to deal with it as though it were a diminutive
-battery of the kind used to work electric bells. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
-gong was one familiar to me at the time in daily life;
-on the previous day I had casually observed that it
-was misplaced. In my dream I discovered a resemblance
-which actually exists between a gong of the type
-in question and the lever-handle for turning on the
-electric light, soothing a certain doubt by saying to
-myself in my dream that the instrument served both
-for the production of sound and of light. This link of
-connection led to the association of an electric battery
-with the hand-gong, as well as to the attribution to the
-gong of light-giving properties.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p>
-
-<p>Such a dream serves as a transition to another very
-common kind of confusion of imagery in which two
-altogether unlike images are amalgamated through each
-happening to have in the mind a link of connection
-with some third idea. I dreamed that my wife's dog&mdash;a
-dog who, in real life, was constantly getting into
-trouble&mdash;had killed a child in the neighbouring town.
-On going thither I entered a butcher's shop, and saw
-the child lying on a table, mutilated and bleeding.
-After a time, however, I learned that it was not a child,
-but a pig that had been killed, and what I had previously
-taken for a child was now visibly a dead pig. I
-felt ashamed of my mistake, and the sympathy I had
-experienced now seemed excessive, especially when the
-butcher remarked that it was all right as he had been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
-fattening the pig and meant to kill it soon anyhow.
-Then the pig was cut open, though it made daring
-attempts to come to life again, during which I awoke.
-It is clear how, in this case, the idea of the butcher's
-shop served as a bridge from the image of the child to
-the image of the pig. Again, after a day in which I
-had received a letter from a lady, unknown to me,
-living in France, and later on had written out a summary
-of a criminal case in which a detective had to go over
-to France, I dreamed that some one told me that the
-lady I had heard from was a detective in the service
-of the French Government, and this explanation, though
-it seemed somewhat surprising, fully satisfied me.
-Here, it will be seen, the idea of France served as a
-bridge, and was utilised by sleeping consciousness to
-supply an answer to a question which had been asked
-by waking consciousness.</p>
-
-<p>The confusion of imagery may be more remote,
-embodying abstract ideas and without reference to
-recent impressions. Thus I dreamed that my wife
-was expounding to me a theory by which the substitution
-of slates for tiles in roofing had been accompanied
-by, and intimately associated with, the
-growing diminution of crime in England. I opposed
-this theory, pointing out the picturesqueness of tiles,
-their cheapness, and greater comfort both in winter and
-summer, but at the same time it occurred to me as
-a peculiar coincidence that tiles should have a sanguinary
-tinge suggestive of criminal bloodthirstiness. I
-need scarcely say that this bizarre theory had never<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
-suggested itself to my waking thoughts. There was,
-however, a real connecting link in the confusion&mdash;the
-redness, and it is a noteworthy point, of great significance
-in the interpretation of dreams, that that link,
-although clearly active from the first, remained subconscious
-until the end of the dream, when it presented
-itself as an entirely novel coincidence.</p>
-
-<p>I dreamed once that I was with a doctor in his surgery,
-and saw in his hand a note from a patient saying that
-doctors were fools and did him no good, but he had
-lately taken some <em>selvdrolla</em>, recommended by a friend,
-and it had done him more good than anything, so
-please send him some more. I saw the note clearly,
-not, indeed, being conscious of reading it word by word,
-but only of its meaning as I looked at it; the one word
-I actually seemed to see, letter by letter, was the name
-of the drug, and that changed and fluctuated beneath
-my vision as I gazed at it, the final impression being
-<em>selvdrolla</em>. The doctor took from a shelf a bottle
-containing a bright yellow oleaginous fluid, and poured
-a little out, remarking that it had lately come into
-favour, especially in uric acid disorders, but was extremely
-expensive. I expressed my surprise, having
-never before heard of it. Then, again to my surprise,
-he poured rather copiously from the bottle on to a
-plate of food, saying, in explanation, that it was pleasant
-to take and not dangerous. This was a vivid morning
-dream, and on awakening I had no difficulty in detecting
-the source of its various minor details, especially a
-note received on the previous evening and containing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
-a dubious figure, the precise nature of which I had
-used my pocket lens to determine. But what was
-<em>selvdrolla</em>, the most vivid element of the dream? I
-sought vainly among my recent memories, and had
-almost renounced the search when I recalled a large
-bottle of salad oil seen on the supper table the previous
-evening; not, indeed, resembling the dream bottle,
-but containing a precisely similar fluid. <em>Selvdrolla</em>
-was evidently a corruption of 'salad oil.' This dream
-illustrates the uncertainty of dream consciousness, but
-it also illustrates at the same time the element of
-certainty in dream <em>subconsciousness</em>. Throughout my
-dream I remained, consciously, in entire ignorance as to
-the real nature of <em>selvdrolla</em>, yet a latent element in
-consciousness was all the time presenting it to me in
-ever clearer imagery. We see that the subconscious
-element of dream life treats the conscious part much as
-a good-natured teacher treats a child whose lesson is
-only half learned, giving repeated clues and hints which
-the stupid child understands only at the last moment,
-or not at all. It is, indeed, a universal method, the
-method of Nature with man, throughout the whole of
-human evolution.</p>
-
-<p>It will be seen that at this point we are brought into
-contact with another characteristic of dream life:
-there is often more in dreams than dreaming consciousness
-is able to realise. On the one hand, the
-elements of dream life are drawn from a wider field
-than is normally accessible to waking consciousness;
-on the other hand, the focus of dream consciousness is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
-narrower than that of waking consciousness, and
-cannot apperceive all that is going on. There is at
-once more extension and more contraction than in the
-psychic life of the waking world. A very large part
-of the psychic life of sleep is outside our power, and
-some of it is even beyond our sight.</p>
-
-<p>It will be observed that the perpetual movement
-and the constant fusion of images which constitute the
-most fundamental character of dream life really combine
-two characteristics which, abstractly regarded, are
-distinct. The tendency of the dream image to be ever
-changing, ever putting forth some new feature which
-more or less radically alters its nature, is not a phenomenon
-of precisely the same nature as the tendency for
-two definite images, well known to waking consciousness,
-to become fused together, consciously or unconsciously,
-in dreams. Practically, however, there is
-no line of demarcation. What happens is that the
-image is ever spontaneously changing, and that each
-change is at once recognised by dreaming consciousness
-as a known object. Thus I dreamed that I was in a
-drawing-room and saw a beautiful and attractive
-woman with an unusually low evening dress entirely
-revealing the breasts; then, between the breasts,
-three additional nipples appeared, and I realised in
-my dream that here was a case of supernumerary
-breasts of sufficient scientific interest to be carefully
-examined later on; and then, as I gazed, I saw a
-number of little fleshy nipple-like protuberances on
-the body, and thereupon I realised that I was really<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
-looking at a case of the rare skin disease termed
-<em>molluscum fibrosum</em>. Thus the perpetually wavering
-and developing image is at the same time a succession
-of quite different images. On the other hand, when
-we seem to have a fusion of two definite images, what
-we really see in most cases is one image melting into the
-other and gradually losing its earlier character. In
-either case the process is the same interplay of automatic
-peripheral imagery and central ideas, whether
-the new image is brought into focus by, as it were, a
-current in consciousness, or is merely suggested by a
-spontaneous change in the previous image. How far
-the image suggests the idea or the idea the image, it
-is extremely difficult in most cases to say. The phenomenon
-we witness is a perpetually dissolving view;
-the vital process behind that phenomenon we must
-usually be content to be ignorant of.</p>
-
-<p>It sometimes happens that the dream image is
-slowly transformed without the dreamer realising the
-transformation. Thus an image of a doll may take
-on the character of a human being. In a dream of
-this kind&mdash;possibly suggested by Villiers de l'Isle
-Adam's <cite>L'Eve Future</cite>, though that book had not been
-recently in my mind&mdash;I imagined that a lady of my
-acquaintance (whose identity I could not recall on
-awakening) had taken a fancy to possess an artificial
-woman, constructed with vast ingenuity and at enormous
-expense. The skin and hair seemed real as I noted
-with a certain horror on observing the breasts and
-armpits, but in places&mdash;I noticed especially one arm&mdash;the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
-creature was as defective as an ill-made doll. It
-was, however, able to walk with a little support, and,
-most remarkable of all, it gave intelligent answers to
-questions; this alone it was that caused me a certain
-surprise. What at the beginning of the dream had only
-been an artificial image was evidently becoming a real
-human being, and one can readily believe that such
-stories as that of Pygmalion's statue may have been
-suggested by dream experiences.</p>
-
-<p>The dream is mainly a dissolving view, because for
-most of us it is above all a visual phenomenon. Those
-people who, in their dreams, at all events, if not also
-in waking life, are largely of auditory type, experience
-dreams in which words play exactly the same shifting,
-developing, and dissolving part played by images in
-the persons of more markedly visual type. In their
-dreams they resemble those insane people who, in some
-feeble and confusional states, manifest echolalia and
-confabulation, their ideas drifting along the associational
-paths of least resistance suggested by every
-random word they hear. Maury records successions
-of dream imagery strung together in a similar manner
-by a procession of verbal transformations; thus in one
-oft-quoted dream the scenes were connected by the
-words, <em>kilom&egrave;tre</em>, <em>kilos</em>, <em>Gilolo</em>, <em>Lobelia</em>, <em>Lopez</em>, <em>loto</em>.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a>
-In such a case the procession of verbal auditory imagery
-constitutes the basis of the dream. This is probably
-rare. In most people the basis of the dream is furnished
-by visual imagery, and auditory images only occasionally<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
-form an associative link, being more usually subordinated
-to the visual elements.</p>
-
-<p>The speech peculiarities of dreams have been very
-thoroughly investigated by Kraepelin,<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> who has brought
-together two hundred and eighty-one examples, partly
-observed in himself, though they are not common, and
-Kraepelin considers that the hearing centres fall more
-deeply asleep than the visual centres, the eyes being
-already sufficiently protected by the lids.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> Kraepelin
-classifies the speech disturbances of dreams into two
-great groups: (1) <em>paraphasia</em>, or disturbance of word-finding,
-where the idea is associated with a wrong
-word, which is sometimes a new formation<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a>; and
-(2) <em>disorders of oration</em>, in which the peculiarity lies,
-not in the words, but in their order. The speech
-disturbances of dreams, Kraepelin remarks, spring
-from deep disturbance of thought, such as occur in
-sensorial aphasia, and, as in such aphasia, the dreamer
-thinks his nonsense is quite clear and reasonable. Much
-the same may occur in alcoholic delirium and in <em>dementia
-pr&aelig;cox</em>.</p>
-
-<p>The invention of new words probably occurs frequently
-in dreams, without leaving a clear trace in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
-memory, and still more frequently, perhaps, as in the
-'selvdrolla' dream, already recorded, there are seeming
-new verbal formations which are really mere corruptions
-of imperfectly realised words. An example of a
-definite and precise new word seems to be furnished by
-the following dream, which was at all points vivid and
-precise. I saw quite close to me a huge tawny bird,
-with an orange bill. The creature got up and moved
-away, seeming as large as an ostrich. I asked a lady,
-standing by, who had some ornithological knowledge,
-what the bird was, and she replied that she thought it
-was a <em>jaleisa</em>. Then I asked the same question of a
-poor woman who was passing, curious to know what
-she would answer; she said, 'Oh, it's a kind of starling.'
-There was no doubt in my dream as to the spelling of
-'jaleisa,' but I am quite unable to account for the word.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a>
-It so happened, however, that before I went to bed I
-had been reading one of Calderon's plays, and I imagine
-that this pseudo-Spanish word had formed itself in my
-brain among the echoes of Calderon's enchanting music.
-The question arises as to why that ignorant old woman
-should have called the jaleisa a starling. It seems just
-possible that the more familiar name was suggested by
-the last syllable of the strange bird's name, the association
-being verbal. It is equally possible, and perhaps
-more likely, that the association followed by the more
-usual visual channel, and that the jaleisa's orange beak
-suggested the large orange beaks of newly hatched<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
-starlings, which had once, many years previously,
-vividly attracted my attention.</p>
-
-<p>A probable illustration of the influence of verbal association
-in diverting the current of a dream is seen in the
-harrowing narrative that follows: A lady dreamed that
-she went to an entertainment which turned out to be
-a kind of revival meeting, presided over by a lady, and
-full of uproar. It was suddenly realised that Hell was
-underneath the hall, and a man, supposed to be a slave,
-was torn to pieces and cast into Hell. A lady present
-was so much affected by the scene that she threw herself
-into a pool of water, and was drowned, her body
-being afterwards pulled out by a working man with a
-pitchfork. The dreamer was so overcome by these
-tragic events that she felt that there was nothing left
-but to commit suicide. Resolving to drown herself,
-she went to a lighthouse (which, however, somewhat
-resembled a bathing machine) on a height, in order
-to throw herself down into the sea. It was of an exquisite
-green tint, extremely lovely and attractive, but
-she had not the courage to leap in. She thought it
-might give her courage if she had a good meal first, so
-she returned to the hall and joined the lady who had
-presided over the meeting. They sat down to a dish
-of roast mutton, but, as they were eating, suddenly
-looked at each other with mutual understanding; they
-realised that they were eating the woman who had been
-drowned, and, it will be remarked, had been pulled out
-of the water by a fork. It was possible to account for
-every element of which this dream was made up, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
-its tragic character was unsupported by anything in
-waking life, and entirely native to the dream. The
-possibility of any guiding link between 'Hell' and
-'hall' had not presented itself to the dreamer, nor had
-it occurred to me when I set down the dream as here
-reproduced. It must be noted, however, that the
-revival meeting would itself tend to suggest the idea
-of Hell. It seems probable that verbal associations
-usually play only a subordinate part.</p>
-
-<p>Sometimes the verbal links of association in dreams,
-far from introducing tragedy, lead, by the conjunction
-of two words of the same sound, to puns. Thus a
-dreamer imagined that he and some friends were looking
-at a house with its bedroom or bedrooms open to
-the air, the front wall being gone, and they were laughing
-at the comical effect when a mysterious voice came
-saying, 'A three-walled bedroom is a side-burst
-stor(e)y.' As the dreamer awoke, he found himself
-laughing at this juxtaposition of the idea of the storey
-of a house-side split open, and the idea of a side-splitting
-story. The conditions of psychic activity during sleep&mdash;when
-ideas drift together from widely separated regions
-along channels of association which are usually held
-closed by the higher intellectual processes&mdash;seem,
-indeed, to be specially favourable to the production of
-puns and allied forms of witticism.<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> They may, therefore,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>be properly regarded as closely associated with
-subconscious activity.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p>
-
-<p>A verbal link is seen in the following 'recipe' invented
-on another occasion by the same dreamer:&mdash;</p>
-
-<div class="container">
-<div class="poem">
- <div class="stanza">
-  <div class="i0">'Call in the tipcat, cut off its tail;</div>
-  <div class="i1">Fold up some eggs in a saucepan;</div>
-  <div class="i0">Sit on the rest, like an elderly male,</div>
-  <div class="i1">And gulp down the whole as a horse can.'</div>
- </div>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>It is evident that the tipcat suggested a cat's tail, while
-the suggestion of a cooking recipe in 'cut off its tail'
-led on to eggs and saucepan; the eggs suggested
-'sitting,' while 'gulp,' as the dreamer noted, appeared
-as 'gallop,' and suggested the horse. The ease with
-which the whole fell into a completely rhymed doggerel
-stanza is due to the fact that the dreamer is a poet.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></p>
-
-<p>A more common phenomenon in my experience than
-association by verbal clues is a transference from visual
-terms into the terms of some other sense, and a repetition
-in that form. Thus a lady dreams that a large
-and very beautiful picture resembling tapestry forms
-itself before her, and in it she sees herself, only much
-more beautiful in shape, standing by a tree, and on the
-other side of the tree an old friend is standing, while
-there are a crowd of people around. Then she sees her
-friend touch her on the arm. At the same time the
-dreamer feels the touch. The visual image is reduplicated
-in a motor form. Such a phenomenon is doubtless<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
-a natural result of the special conditions of dream
-life. In waking life the senses are working co-ordinately,
-and if we see ourselves touched we shall probably
-feel ourselves touched. But in dreams the body is a
-vision, and not our real body, and when we see it
-touched, we realise we ought to feel it touched, and a
-tactile sensation is thus suggested and experienced.</p>
-
-<p>There are, however, other reduplications to which
-this explanation will not apply. Thus I imagined I
-was sitting at a window, at the top of a house, writing.
-As I looked up from my table I saw, with all the emotions
-naturally accompanying such a sight, a woman in
-her nightdress appear at a lofty window some distance
-off, and throw herself down. I went on writing, however,
-and found that in the course of my literary employment&mdash;I
-am not clear as to its precise nature&mdash;the
-very next thing I had to do was to describe exactly
-such a scene as I had just witnessed. I was extremely
-puzzled at such an extraordinary coincidence; it seemed
-to me wholly inexplicable. Again I dreamed that I
-was coming up the Thames (apparently in a steamboat),
-reading a novel, written by a friend, which was the
-history of some one who arrives in England coming
-up the Thames to London, by what I felt to be an
-extraordinary coincidence, in exactly the same way as
-I was at the moment. Then I found myself seemingly
-at the end of a London pier, with the river rippling at
-my feet, and in front the superb panorama of London;
-exactly the scene which, in less detail, was described in
-the book. Such dreams, reduplicating the imagery<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
-in a new sensory medium, are fairly common, with me
-at all events. The association is less that of analogy
-than of sensory media, as of the visual image becoming
-a verbal motor image. In other cases a scene is first
-seen as in reality, and then in a picture. Thus I
-dreamed that I was witnessing the performance of an
-orchestra, and observed that all the players had instruments
-of ancient pattern which, I understood, had been
-in constant use for several hundred years; I could
-recall the shapes of many on awaking, and none of them
-were quite modern; I could not, however, recall the
-character of the music, which seemed to make no impression
-on me, since I was absorbed in observing the
-shapes of the instruments. I specially observed an
-old framed engraving hanging on the wall, in my dream,
-representing precisely one of the instruments played
-on, and I understood that it was called a <em>bourdon</em>.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a>
-It is interesting to observe the profound astonishment
-with which sleeping consciousness apperceives such
-simple reduplication.</p>
-
-<p>In dreams planes of existence that in waking life
-are fundamentally distinct are brought together, so
-that events belonging to different planes move on the
-same plane, and even become combined. Acting and
-life, the picture and the reality, are no longer absolutely
-distinct. Art and life flow in the same channel. The
-reason, doubtless, is that for the dreamer the world of
-waking life, the world of things as they are to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
-waking senses, is closed and cannot even be completely
-recalled. So that all modes of representation are
-strictly on the same level, and it is, therefore, perfectly
-natural and logical that they should stand side by side
-and merge into one another.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
-
-<p class="p6">THE LOGIC OF DREAMS</p>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>All Dreaming is a Process of Reasoning&mdash;The Fundamental Character
-of Reasoning&mdash;Reasoning as a Synthesis of Images&mdash;Dream
-Reasoning Instinctive and Automatic&mdash;It is also Consciously
-carried on&mdash;This a result of the Fundamental Split in Intelligence&mdash;Dissociation&mdash;Dreaming
-as a Disturbance of Apperception.</p></blockquote>
-
-
-<p>I<span class="smcapa">N</span> dreams we are always reasoning. That is a general
-characteristic of dreams which is worth noting, because
-its significance is not usually recognised. It is sometimes
-imagined that reason is in abeyance during sleep.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a>
-So far from this being the case, we may almost be said
-to reason much more during sleep than when we are
-awake. That our reasoning is bad, often even preposterous,
-that it constantly ignores the most elementary
-facts of waking life, scarcely affects the question.
-All dreaming is a process of reasoning. That artful
-confusion of ideas and images which, at the outset, I
-referred to as the most constant feature of dream
-mechanism is nothing but a process of reasoning, a
-perpetual effort to argue out harmoniously the absurdly
-limited and incongruous data present to sleeping consciousness.
-Binet, grounding his conclusions on
-hypnotic experiments, finds that reasoning is the fundamental<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
-part of all thinking, the very texture of thought.<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a>
-It is founded on perception itself, which already contains
-all the elements of the ancient syllogism. For in
-all perception, as Binet plausibly argues, there is a
-succession of three images, of which the first fuses with
-the second, which, in its turn, suggests the third. Now
-this establishment of new associations, this construction
-of images, which, as we may easily convince ourselves,
-is precisely what takes place in dreaming, is reasoning
-itself.</p>
-
-<p>Reasoning may thus be regarded as a synthesis of
-images suggested by resemblance and contiguity, indeed
-a sort of logical vision, more intense even than
-actual vision, since it is capable of producing hallucinations.
-To reasoning all forms of mental activity may
-finally be reduced; mind, as Wundt has said, is a thing
-that reasons. Or, as H. R. Marshall puts it, 'reason is
-a mode of instinct.'<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> When we apply these general
-statements to dreaming, we may see that the whole
-phenomenon of dreaming is really the same process of
-image formation, based on resemblance and contiguity.
-Every dream is the outcome of this strenuous, wide-ranging
-instinct to reason. The supposed 'imaginative
-faculty,' regarded as so highly active during sleep, is
-the inevitable play of this automatic logic.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The syllogistic arrangement of dream imagery is
-carried on in an absolutely automatic manner; it is
-spontaneous, involuntary, without effort. Sleeping
-consciousness, though all the time it is weaving the data
-that reach it into some pattern of reason with immense
-ingenuity, is quite unaware that it is itself responsible
-for the arguments thus presented. In the evening,
-before going to bed, I glance casually through a newspaper;
-I see the usual kind of news, revolutionists in
-Russia, Irish affairs, crimes, etc.; I see also a caricature
-of the Liberal Party as a headless horseman on a
-barren plain. During sleep these unconnected impressions
-revive, float into dream consciousness, and spontaneously
-fall into as reasonable a whole as could be
-expected. I dream that by some chemical or mechanical
-device a man has succeeded in conveying the impression
-that he is headless, and is preparing to gallop across
-some district in Russia, with the idea of making so
-mysterious an impression upon the credulous population
-that he will be accepted as a great religious
-prophet. I distinctly see him careering across sands
-like those of the seashore, but I avoid going near him.
-Then I see figures approaching him in the far distance,
-and his progress ceases. I learn subsequently that he
-has been arrested and found to be an Irish criminal. A
-coherent story is thus formed out of a few random
-impressions.</p>
-
-<p>All such typical dreams are syllogistic. There is,
-that is to say, as Binet expresses it, the establishment
-of an association between two states of consciousness<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
-by means of an intermediate state which resembles the
-first, is associated with the second, and by fusing with
-the first associates it with the second. In this dream,
-for instance, we have the three terms of (1) headless
-horseman, (2) revolutionary crime, and (3) Russia and
-Ireland. The intermediate term, by the fact that it
-resembles the first, and is contiguous in the mind with
-the third, seems to fuse the first and the third terms, so
-that the headless horseman becomes an Irish criminal
-in Russia. In dreaming life, as in waking life, our minds
-are always moving by the construction of similar syllogisms,
-marked by more or less freedom and audacity.</p>
-
-<p>It is unnecessary to multiply examples of the instinctive
-and persistent efforts on the part of the sleeping
-mind to construct a coherent whole out of the incongruous
-elements that come before it; nearly every
-dream furnishes some proof of this profoundly rooted impulse.<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a>
-It is instructive, however, to consider the
-nature and the limitations of dreaming reason.</p>
-
-<p>This rationalisation and logical construction of
-imagery, it is necessary to realise, occurs at the very
-threshold of sleeping consciousness. The dreamer
-makes no effort to arrange isolated imagery; the
-arrangement has already occurred when the imagery
-comes to the focus of sleeping consciousness; so that
-this reasoning and arranging process is so fundamental
-and instinctive that it occurs in a region which may be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
-said to be subconscious to dreaming consciousness. If
-it were not so our dreams would never be real to us, for
-even dreaming consciousness could not accept as real
-a hallucination which it had itself arranged. In this
-sense it is true that, to some extent, our dreams are often
-based on an ultimate personal and emotional foundation.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p>
-
-<p>But this ingeniously guided and rationalised confusion
-of imagery by no means covers the whole of the
-reasoning process in dreams. This is a double process.
-It is first manifested subconsciously in the formation
-of dream imagery, and then it is manifested consciously
-in the dreamer's reaction to the imagery presented to
-him. Every dream is made up of action and reaction
-between a pseudo-universe and a freely responding
-individual. On the one side there is the irresistibly
-imposed imagery&mdash;really, though we know it not,
-conditioned and instinctively moulded by our own
-organism&mdash;which stands for what in our waking hours
-we may term God and Nature; on the other side is the
-Soul struggling with all its might, and very inefficient
-means, against the awful powers that oppose it. The
-problem of the waking world is presented over again<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>
-in this battle between the dreaming protagonist and his
-dreamed fate. Both of these elements are instinctively
-reasoned out, consciously or subconsciously; both are
-imperfect fragments from the rich reservoir of human
-personality.</p>
-
-<p>The things that happen to us in dreams, the pseudo-external
-world that is presented to sleeping consciousness&mdash;the
-imagery, that is, that floats before the mental
-eye of sleep&mdash;are a perpetual source of astonishment
-and argument to the dreamer. A large part of dreaming
-activity is concerned with the attempt to explain and
-reason out the phenomena we thus encounter, to construct
-a theory of them, or to determine the attitude
-which we ought to take up with regard to them. Most
-dreams will furnish evidence of this reasoning process.</p>
-
-<p>Thus a lady dreamed that an acquaintance wished to
-send a small sum of money to a person in Ireland. She
-rashly offered to take it over to Ireland. On arriving
-home she began to repent of her promise, as the weather
-was extremely wild and cold. She proceeded, however,
-to make preparations for dressing warmly, and went to
-consult an Irish friend, who said she would have to be
-floated over to Ireland tightly jammed in a crab basket.
-On returning home she fully discussed the matter with
-her husband, who thought it would be folly to undertake
-such a journey, and she finally relinquished it, with
-great relief. In this dream&mdash;the elements of which
-could all be accounted for&mdash;the association between
-sending money and the post-office, which would at once
-occur to waking consciousness, was closed; consciousness<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
-was a prey to such suggestions as reached it, but on
-the basis of those suggestions it reasoned and concluded
-quite sagaciously.</p>
-
-<p>Again (after looking at photographs of paintings and
-statuary, and also reading about the theatre), I
-dreamed that I was at the theatre, and that the performers
-were acting and dancing in a more or less, in
-some cases completely, nude state, but with admirable
-propriety and grace, and very charming effect. At
-first I was extremely surprised at so remarkable an
-innovation; but then I reflected that the beginnings
-of such a movement must have long been in progress
-on the stage unknown to me; and I proceeded to
-rehearse the reasons which made such a movement
-desirable. On another occasion, I dreamed that I was
-in the large <em>plaza</em> of a Spanish city (Pamplona possibly
-furnishing the elements of the picture), and that the
-governor emerged from his residence facing the square
-and began talking in English to the subordinate officials
-who were waiting to receive him. The real reason why
-he talked English was, of course, the simple one that
-he spoke the language native to the dreamer. But in
-my dream I was extremely puzzled why he should speak
-English. I looked carefully into his face to assure
-myself that he was not really English, and I finally
-concluded that he was speaking English in order not
-to be understood by the bystanders. Once more, I
-dreamed that I was looking at an architectural drawing
-of a steeple, of quite original design, somewhat in the
-shape of a cross, but very elongated. I attempted in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
-my dream to account for this elongation, and concluded
-that it was intended to neutralise the foreshortening
-caused when the steeple would be looked at from below.</p>
-
-<p>There is, we here see afresh, a fundamental split
-in dreaming intelligence. On the one side there is the
-subconscious, yet often highly intelligent, combination
-of imagery along rational although often bizarre lines.
-On the other side is concentrated the conscious intelligence
-of the dreamer, struggling to comprehend and
-explain the problems offered by the pseudo-external
-imagery thus presented to it. One might almost say
-that in dreams subconscious intelligence is playing a
-game with conscious intelligence. In a dream previously
-narrated (p. 43) subconscious intelligence offered
-to my dreaming consciousness the mysterious substance
-<em>selvdrolla</em>, and bid me guess what it was; I could not
-guess. And subconscious intelligence presented the
-drawing of the elongated steeple, and I was able to offer
-an explanation which seems fairly satisfactory. So
-that, in the world of dreams, it may be said, we see over
-again the process which, James Hinton was accustomed
-to say, we see in the universe of our waking life; God
-or Nature playing with man, compelling him to join
-in a game of hide-and-seek, and setting him problems
-which he must solve as best he can. It may well be,
-one may add, that the dream process furnishes the key
-to the metaphysical and even, indeed, the physical
-problems of our waking thoughts, and that the puzzles
-of the universe are questions that we ourselves unconsciously
-invent for ourselves to solve.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>We can never go behind the fantastic universe of our
-dreams. The validity of that universe is for dreaming
-consciousness unassailable. We may try to understand
-it and explain it, but we can never deny it, any
-more than we can deny the universe of our waking life,
-however we may attempt to analyse it. Dreaming
-consciousness never realises that the universe that
-confronts it springs from the same source as itself springs.
-I dreamed that a man was looking at his own house
-from a distance, and on the balcony he saw his daughter
-and a man by her side. 'Who is that man flirting with
-my daughter?' he asked. He produced a field-glass,
-and, on looking through it, he exclaimed: 'Good
-Heavens, it's myself!' Dreaming consciousness
-accepted this situation with perfect equanimity and
-solemnity. In the dream world there is, indeed, nothing
-else to do. We may puzzle over the facts presented to
-us; we may try to explain them; but it would be
-futile to deny them, even when they involve the possibility
-of a man being in two places at the same time.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p>
-
-<p>Only to a few people there comes occasionally in
-dreams a dim realisation of the unreality of the experience:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
-'After all, it does not matter,' they are able
-to say to themselves with more or less conviction, 'this
-is only a dream.' Thus one lady, dreaming that she is
-trying to kill three large snakes by stamping on them,
-wonders, while still dreaming, what it signifies to dream
-of snakes,<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> and another lady, when she dreams that she
-is in any unpleasant position&mdash;about to be shot, for
-instance&mdash;often says to herself: 'Never mind, I shall
-wake before it happens.'</p>
-
-<p>I have never detected in my own dreams any recognition
-that they are dreams. I may say, indeed, that
-I do not consider that such a thing is really possible,
-though it has been borne witness to by many philosophers
-and others from Aristotle and Synesius and
-Gassendi onwards. The phenomenon occurs; the
-person who says to himself that he is dreaming believes
-that he is still dreaming, but one may be permitted to
-doubt that he is. It seems far more probable that he
-has for a moment, without realising it, emerged at the
-waking surface of consciousness.<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> The only approach
-to a recognition of dreaming as dreaming that I have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>
-experienced, is connected with the reduplication that
-may sometimes occur, and the sense of a fatalistic
-predetermination. Thus I dreamed (with nothing that
-could suggest the dream) that I was one of a group of
-people who, as I realised, were carrying out a drama
-in which by force of circumstance I was destined to be
-the villain, having, by bad treatment, been driven to
-revenge. I knew at the outset how events would turn
-out, and yet, though it seemed real life, I felt vaguely
-that it was all a play that was merely being rehearsed.
-I had attained in the world of dreams to the Shakespearian
-feeling that it was all a stage, and I merely a
-player. So we may become the Prosperos of the life
-of dreams.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p>
-
-<p>This quality of dreaming consciousness is a manifestation,
-and the chief one, of what is called <em>dissociation</em>.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a>
-In dissociation we have a phenomenon which
-runs through the whole of the dreaming life, and is
-scarcely less fundamental than the process of fusion
-by which the imagery is built up. The fact that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
-reasoning of dreams is usually bad, is due partly to the
-absence of memory elements that would be present
-to waking consciousness, and partly to the absence of
-sensory elements to check the false reasoning which,
-without them, appears to us conclusive. That is to
-say, that there is a process of dissociation by which
-ordinary channels of association are temporarily blocked,
-perhaps by exhaustion of their conductive elements, and
-the conditions are prepared for the formation of the
-hallucination. It is, as Parish has argued, in sleep and
-in those sleep-resembling states called hypnagogic
-that a condition of dissociation leading to hallucination
-is most apt to occur.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p>
-
-<p>Thus it is that though the psychic frontier of the
-sleeping state is more extended than that of the normal
-waking state, the focus of sleeping consciousness is more
-contracted than that of waking consciousness. In
-other words, while facts are liable to drift from a very
-wide psychic distance under our dreaming attention,
-we cannot direct the searchlight of that attention at
-will over so wide a field as when we are awake. We deal
-with fewer psychic elements, though those elements
-are drawn from a wider field.</p>
-
-<p>The psychology of 'attention' is, indeed, a very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
-disputed matter.<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> There is no agreement as to whether
-it is central or peripheral, motor or sensory. As we have
-seen in the previous chapter, it seems reasonable to
-conclude, according to a convenient distinction established
-by Ribot, that spontaneous attention is persistent
-during sleep, but voluntary attention is at a
-minimum. In some such way, it seems, whatever
-theory of attention we adopt, we have to recognise that
-in dreams the attention is limited.</p>
-
-<p>Such a position is fortified by the conclusion of those
-who look at the problem, not so much in terms of
-attention as in terms of apperception. Apperception,
-according to Wundt, differs from perception in that
-while the latter is the appearance of a content in consciousness,
-the former is its reception into the state of
-attention. Or, as Stout defines it, apperception is 'the
-process by which a mental system appropriates a new
-element, or otherwise receives a fresh determination.'<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a>
-Apperception is, therefore, the final stage of attention,
-and ultimately, as Wundt remarks, it is one with will.
-Apperception and will, as most psychologists consider,
-like attention, are enfeebled and diminished, if not
-abolished, in sleep.</p>
-
-<p>In dreams, it thus comes about, we accept the facts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
-presented to us&mdash;that is the fundamental assumption
-of dream life&mdash;and we argue about those 'facts' with
-the help of all the mental resources which are at our
-disposal, only those resources are frequently inadequate.
-Sometimes they are startlingly inadequate, to such an
-extent, indeed, that we are unaware of possibilities
-which would be the very first to suggest themselves to
-waking consciousness. Thus the lady who wished to
-send a small sum of money to Ireland is not aware of
-the existence of postal orders, and when she decides to
-convey the money herself, she is not aware of the
-existence of boat-trains, or even of boats; she might
-have been living in palaeolithic times. She discusses
-the question in a clear and logical manner with the
-resources at her disposal, and reaches a rational conclusion,
-but considerations which would be the first
-to occur to waking consciousness are at the moment
-absent from sleeping consciousness; whole mental
-tracts have been dissociated, switched off from communication
-with consciousness; they are 'asleep,' even to
-sleeping consciousness.<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p>
-
-<p>The result is that we are not only dominated by the
-suggestion of our visions, but we are unable adequately
-to appreciate and criticise the situations which are
-presented to us. We instinctively continue to reason,
-and to reason clearly and logically with the material at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
-our disposal, but our reasoning is hopelessly absurd.
-We perceive in dreams, but we do not apperceive;
-we cannot, that is to say, test and sift the new experience,
-and co-ordinate it adequately with the whole
-body of our acquired mental possessions. The phenomena
-of dreaming furnish a delightful illustration of
-the fact that reasoning, in its rough form, is only the
-crudest and most elementary form of intellectual
-operation, and that the finer forms of thinking involve
-much more than logic. 'All the thinking in the world,'
-as Goethe puts it, 'will not lead us to thought.'</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2>
-
-<p class="p6">THE SENSES IN DREAMS</p>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>All Dreams probably contain both Presentative and Representative
-Elements&mdash;The Influence of Tactile Sensations on Dreams&mdash;Dreams
-excited by Auditory Stimuli&mdash;Dreams aroused by Odours
-and Tastes&mdash;The Influence of Visual Stimuli&mdash;Difficulty of distinguishing
-between Actual and Imagined Sensory Excitations&mdash;The
-Influence of Internal Visceral Stimuli on Dreaming&mdash;Erotic
-Dreams&mdash;Vesical Dreams&mdash;Cardiac Dreams and their Symbolism&mdash;Prodromic
-Dreams&mdash;Prophetic Dreams.</p></blockquote>
-
-
-<p>At the outset I adopted provisionally the usual classification
-of dreams into two classes: the peripheral or
-presentative group, excited by a stimulus from without,
-and the central or representative group, having its
-elements in memories. If, however, we look carefully
-at the matter, in the light of the experiences which we
-have encountered, it will be found that this classification,
-however superficially convenient it may be,
-fails to correspond to any radical duality of dream
-phenomena. When we closely question our dream
-experiences, it ceases to be clear that they really fall
-into two groups at all.</p>
-
-<p>On the one hand, it would appear that most, perhaps,
-indeed, all dreams that are sufficiently vivid to be
-clearly remembered on awakening, have received an
-initial stimulus from some external, or at all events,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
-peripheral source.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> There is something unusual or
-uncomfortable in the sleeper's position, or he has been
-subjected to some slight unusual strain which has
-modified his nervous condition, or there has been some
-deviation from his usual diet, or a physiological stress
-of some kind is making itself felt within him&mdash;careful
-self-questioning constantly reveals the actual or probable
-existence of some external or certainly peripheral
-stimulus of this kind. So that we seem entitled to say
-that in all dreams there is probably a presentative
-element.</p>
-
-<p>On the other hand, an even more cursory investigation
-of our dream life suffices to show that in every
-dream there is also a representative element. No
-dream can be said to be strictly and literally presentative.
-If, when I am seemingly asleep, a person speaks to me,
-and I become conscious that he is present and speaking,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>
-I am not entitled to say that I 'dream' it. A consciousness
-which perceives facts in the same way as
-they may be perceived by waking consciousness is not
-a dreaming consciousness. So that there are, in the
-literal sense, no presentative dreams. What happens
-is that the stimulus, instead of being presented directly
-to consciousness, and recognised for what it is to waking
-consciousness, serves to arouse old memories and ideas
-which dream consciousness accepts as a reasonable
-explanation of the external or peripheral stimulus.
-The stimulus may be said to be, in a sense, the cause
-of the dream, but the dream itself remains central,
-and as truly a combined picture of mental images as
-though there were no known peripheral stimulus at all.</p>
-
-<p>Thus, while it is true that the division of dreams
-into two classes corresponds to a recognisable distinction,
-it is yet a superficial and unimportant distinction.
-It is likely that all dreams have a peripheral or presentative
-element, and certain that they all have a
-central or representative element. This will become
-clearer if we now proceed to discuss those dreams which
-have, demonstrably, their exciting cause in some external
-or internal organic stimulus.</p>
-
-<p>The world which we enter through the portal of sleep
-presents such obvious and serious limitations that we
-are apt to under-estimate its real richness and variety.
-In some respects, indeed, we can accomplish in sleep
-what is beyond our reach awake. Thus it sometimes
-happens that we reason better in sleep than when awake,
-that we may find in dreams the solutions of difficulties<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
-which escape us awake, and that we may remember
-things which, when awake, we had forgotten. But
-even within the ordinary range of experience, it is interesting
-to note that our dreams contain the same
-elements as our waking life. The sensory activities
-which stir us during the day are equally active, though
-in strange transformations, in the world of dreams.</p>
-
-<p>It is probable that all the senses may furnish the
-medium through which stimuli may reach sleeping
-consciousness; though touch and hearing are doubtless
-the main channels to dream life. The eyes are closed,
-so that while the chief parts of our dream life are in
-terms of vision, direct visual stimuli can only be a
-very dim and uncertain influence. But no sense is
-absolutely excluded from activity in dreams.<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p>
-
-<p>Heat or cold sensations and pressure sensations, as
-well as their anaesthetic absence, undoubtedly play an
-important part in explaining various kinds of dreams.
-They do not necessarily result in rememberable dreams,
-even although it is possible that they still affect the
-current of sleeping consciousness. It is possible to press
-and massage the body of a sleeper all over, gently but
-firmly, without interrupting sleep. When the pressure<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
-reaches a considerable degree of vigour, the sleeper may
-move a muscle, perhaps the lips, even an arm, may go
-so far as to half wake and move the whole body. All
-these movements suggest that they have accompaniments
-on the psychic side, yet, on finally awakening,
-the sleeper may be unable to recall any memory of the
-occurrence, or any vestige of a dream.</p>
-
-<p>In a certain proportion of cases, however, a dream
-results. Thus a lady dreams that, with a number of
-other people, she is on board a ship which is rocking
-heavily, and on awakening she finds that her large
-dog is on the bed, vigorously scratching himself. The
-ship has clearly been the theory invented by sleeping
-consciousness to account for the unfamiliar sensations
-of movement.</p>
-
-<p>When living in the south of Spain, I awoke early one
-morning, and heard a mosquito buzzing. I fell asleep
-again and dreamed that a huge insect&mdash;as large as a
-lobster, but flat like a cockroach, and scarlet in colour&mdash;had
-alighted on my hand. The creature had two long
-horns, and from each of these proceeded numerous very
-long and delicate filaments which were inserted into my
-hand to a considerable depth. I had to cut the creature
-in half, and draw away the forepart, which was attached
-to my hand, with great care lest I should leave portions
-of the filaments in the flesh. This animal seemed all
-the more unpleasant because it was noiseless, and its
-attacks, I thought, imperceptible. I appeared to be
-attacked by a succession of them. On awakening,
-there was irritation of the left wrist, as though the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
-mosquito had bitten me, although I had long ceased to
-be bitten by mosquitoes. This dream, it will be seen,
-corresponds in an unusually close way to the idea of a
-presentative dream; imagination followed reality in
-presenting an insect as the cause of the sensation experienced
-(possibly because I had actually heard the
-mosquito when awake), but still, as in all dreams, the
-process was mainly central, and imagination was freely
-exercised in creating a creature adequate to explain
-the doubtless vague and massive cutaneous sensations
-transmitted to sleeping consciousness.<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a></p>
-
-<p>Perhaps one of the commonest skin sensations to
-excite dream formation is that of cold due to disturbance
-of the bed coverings. The following example may
-serve as an illustration of this class. I dreamed that I
-was in an hotel, mounting many flights of stairs, until
-I entered a room where the chambermaid was making
-the bed; the white bedclothes were scattered over
-everything, and looked to me like snow; then I became
-conscious that I was very cold, and it appeared to me
-that I really was surrounded by snow, for the chambermaid
-remarked that I was very courageous to come up
-so high in the hotel, very few people venturing to do so
-on account of the great cold at this height. I awoke to
-find that it was a cold night, and that I was entangled
-in the sheets, and partly uncovered. Nothing else<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
-had occurred to suggest this dream which sleeping
-consciousness had elaborated out of the two associated
-ideas of altitude and snow in order to explain the actual
-sensations experienced. It is noteworthy that, as in
-the dream just before narrated, there was here also a
-link with reality, this time furnished by the disarranged
-bedclothes.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p>
-
-<p>The auditory experiences of dreams, to a greater
-extent perhaps than those involving the sense of
-touch, may be based on spontaneous disturbances
-within the sensory mechanism. This is notably also
-the case with visual experiences, and in many respects
-the conditions in the ear are analogous. Apart from
-increased resonance of the ear, or hyperaesthesia of the
-auditory nerve, producing special sensitiveness to sounds,
-an increased flow of blood through the ear, as well as
-muscular contractions and mucous plugs in the external
-ear, furnish the faint rudimentary noises which, in sleep,
-may constitute the nucleus around which hallucinations
-crystallise. Disease of the ear may obviously act in
-the same way, but, even apart from actual disease,
-various nervous disturbances favour the production
-of auditory hallucinations during sleep, and, in marked
-cases, even awake.</p>
-
-<p>We may dream of listening to music in the absence
-of all external sounds having any musical character.
-In such cases, no doubt, the actual conditions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>
-within the auditory mechanism are suggesting music
-to the brain, but the resulting music seems usually to
-be less definite, less rememberable, than when it forms
-around the nucleus of an external series of sounds.
-In many of these cases it is probable that we do not
-hear music in our dream; we are simply under conditions
-in which we imagine that we hear music. Thus,
-on going to bed soon after supper, but not perceptibly
-suffering from indigestion, I dreamed that I was present
-at a public meeting combined with an orchestral concert.
-A speech was to be made by a man who looked
-like an old sailor or soldier, and meanwhile the
-orchestra was playing. The speaker&mdash;unaccustomed, I
-gathered, to the etiquette of such a meeting&mdash;suddenly
-interrupted the orchestra by a remark, and the surprised
-conductor stopped the performance for a moment and
-then continued, subsequent remarks by the speaker
-failing to affect the music, which continued to the end,
-becoming more lively and vigorous in character. But
-what the music was, I knew not at the time, nor could I
-recall any fragment of it on awakening. It is even
-possible that such a dream is mainly visual, and that no
-hallucinatory music is heard, its occurrence being merely
-deduced from the nature of the vision.</p>
-
-<p>If the dreams evoked by sounds within the ear are
-usually difficult to trace in normal persons under
-ordinary circumstances, this is not the case with dreams
-suggested by sounds which strike the ear from without.
-These constitute one of the most interesting groups
-of dreams as well as one of the easiest to explain, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
-they are very frequent.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> Their mechanism may,
-indeed, be observed under some circumstances even in
-the waking state. In some persons, music, a voice, a
-bird's song, even a word, a comment, arouse phantoms
-of colour and form, light and shade, coloured clouds,
-streams, waves, etc. The phenomena are especially
-rich when produced by an orchestra. Such 'music-phantoms,'
-as they are termed, are a special and freer
-development of the narrow and rigid phenomena of
-'colour-hearing.' They have been studied by Dr.
-Ruths.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> We have to remember that music possesses a
-fundamental motor basis. As Dauriac remarks, music
-may be defined as 'movement clothed with sound.'<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a>
-It tends to produce movement, or, failing movement,
-to produce motor imagery.<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></p>
-
-<p>Dreams excited by definite external auditory stimuli
-may be of various character. A not uncommon source&mdash;especially
-for those who live on a wind-swept coast&mdash;is
-the occurrence of storms. A lady dreams, for instance,
-that her little dog has fallen off a high cliff and that she<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>
-hears his shrieks; it was an extremely windy night, and
-her window was open. The dream has some resemblance
-to one which Burdach recorded that he shared with a companion
-in an hotel during a storm; they both dreamed
-they were wandering at night among high precipices.</p>
-
-<p>On one occasion I awoke in the middle of a windy
-night imagining I had been listening to an opera of
-Gluck's (which in reality I had never heard), and experiencing
-all the sense of delicious waves of melody
-which one actually experiences in listening to such
-operas as <em>Alceste</em>. A fragment of a melody I had heard
-in the dream still persisted in my memory on awaking,
-so that I could mentally repeat it, when it seemed as
-agreeable as in the dream, though unfamiliar.</p>
-
-<p>The following dream had also a similar origin. I
-imagined that I was assisting at a spectacle of somewhat
-dubious erotic character, in company with other persons
-who, out of modesty, covered their faces with their
-hands with the decorous gesture which recalled (as
-dream consciousness evidently realised) that of people
-during prayer in church. Thereupon a beautiful voice
-was heard in the background loudly chanting a versicle
-of the Te Deum. This awoke me, and I seemed to
-realise when half awake that the voice I had heard in
-the dream was a real voice. There had, however, been
-no real voice, only the loud howling of the wind and the
-beating of the rain on the window panes.</p>
-
-<p>Once, on a very windy night, and when, perhaps,
-suffering a trifling disturbance of health&mdash;for there was
-slight pleurodynic pain the next morning&mdash;I dreamed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>
-I was quietly at home with friends, when suddenly the
-sky became illuminated. We found that this was due
-to steady and continuous lightning, a state of things
-which remained throughout the dream, the sky presenting
-the appearance of a cracked and crushed sheet
-of melting ice.<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> By and by, fragments of buildings
-and similar debris were whirled past in the air, and I
-caught sight of a woman driven above me by her skirts.
-We now realised the imminent approach of a terrific
-cyclone which, at any moment, might carry the house
-and ourselves away. I remembered no more.</p>
-
-<p>Yet another dream may be mentioned as likewise
-directly due to a violent storm and the rattling of a
-window near my bed. The latter sound evidently
-recalled to sleeping consciousness the sound of the
-rattling window of a railway train, and I dreamed that
-I was travelling to Berlin with a medical friend. There
-were the accompaniments, not unfamiliar in dreams,
-of rushing along interminable platforms, and up and
-down endless stairs, finding myself in a carriage of the
-wrong class, with, in consequence, more wandering along
-corridors, and finally finding that my friend had been
-left behind. The character of the dream may have been
-influenced by slight indigestion. In this dream, unlike
-those already recorded as due to external stimuli, the
-elements of the dream were not the pure invention of
-dreaming imagination, but compacted entirely of ideas
-that had been recently familiar.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The following dream was due to an auditory stimulus
-of different character. I dreamed that I was listening
-to a performance of Haydn's <cite>Creation</cite>, the orchestral
-part of the performance seeming to consist chiefly of the
-very realistic representation of the song of birds, though
-I could not identify the note of any particular bird.
-Then followed solos by male singers, whom I saw,
-especially one who attracted my attention by singing
-at the close in a scarcely audible voice. On awakening,
-the source of the dream was not immediately obvious,
-but I soon realised that it was the song of a canary in
-another room. I had never heard Haydn's <cite>Creation</cite>,
-except in fragments, nor thought of it at any recent
-period; its reputation as regards the realistic representation
-of natural sounds had evidently caused it to
-be put forward by sleeping consciousness as a plausible
-explanation of the sounds heard, and the visual centres
-had accepted the theory.</p>
-
-<p>However far-fetched and improbable our dreams may
-seem to the waking mind, they are, from the point of
-view of the sleeping mind, serious and careful attempts
-to construct an adequate theory of the phenomena.
-The imagery is sought from far afield only to fit the facts
-more accurately. Thus a lady dreamed that her dog
-was being crushed out flat in a large old-fashioned box-mangle.
-She awoke to find that water from a burst
-pipe was falling from the ceiling on to the floor on the
-landing outside her door, close to where the dog had his
-bed. She had never seen a mangle of this kind since
-she was a child, or had any occasion to think of it, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>
-the rhythm and sound of it somewhat resembled that
-of the falling water.</p>
-
-<p>One more example of an auditory dream may be given.
-I dreamed that I was back in a schoolroom of my boyhood,
-with two or three of the present masters. The
-room had been entirely changed, and it contained much
-new school apparatus and, notably, on a table, several
-miniature engines, of different character, actually working.
-I said to the masters that I wished all these
-apparatus had been there twenty years ago (a considerable
-under-estimate of the actual interval since I left
-that schoolroom), so that I might have enjoyed the
-benefit of them. 'All life is made up of machinery,'
-I found myself uttering aloud as I awoke, 'and unless
-you understand machinery you can't understand life.'
-It was not till some moments later that I became
-conscious of a faint whirring sound which puzzled me
-till I realised that it was the sound of distant machinery
-entering through the open window. This had, undoubtedly,
-suggested the engines of the dream, though
-I had not been conscious in my dream of hearing any
-sounds, and the small size of the dream engines corresponded
-to the faintness of the actual sounds.</p>
-
-<p>Dreams aroused by odours do not usually seem to
-occur except on the experimental application of them
-to the sleeper's nostrils, and experiments in this direction
-are not usually successful.<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> Occasionally, however,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>smell dreams occur without any traceable sensory
-source, and Grace Andrews, for instance, records a
-dream of the sea, accompanied by the seashore odour,
-'a pure and rich sensation of smell.' In my own case
-olfactory dreams have been rare and insignificant.</p>
-
-<p>Taste, as we usually understand it, really involves,
-as is well known, an element of smell, and taste dreams
-of this kind seem to occur from time to time under the
-influence of any slight disturbance of the mucous
-membrane of the mouth or slight indigestion. It is
-possible that the latter element was present in the
-following dream: I imagined that, following the example
-of a friend, I gave some cigarettes to a tramp we
-had casually met, and that, in return, we felt compelled
-to drink some raw gin he carried. I did so with some
-misgiving as to the possible results of drinking from a
-tramp's flask, but although in real life I had not tasted
-gin for many years, the hot burning taste of the spirit
-was very distinct. On awakening, my lips seemed hot
-and dry, and it was doubtless this labial sensation which
-led dream consciousness to seek a plausible explanation
-in cigarettes and spirits. Although the spirit seemed to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
-have the specific flavour of gin, it is always difficult, if
-not impossible, in dream sensations, to distinguish
-between what one feels and what one merely concludes
-that one feels. In such a case, that is to say, it remains
-doubtful whether the labial sensation evokes the specific
-hallucination of gin, or whether it merely suggests to
-sleeping consciousness that the gin has been tasted,
-much as it is possible to suggest to the hypnotised
-person that the substance he is tasting is a quite
-different substance, that salt is sugar, or that water
-is wine.</p>
-
-<p>As with dreams of smell, it is not always possible to
-detect any external stimulation as the cause for a taste
-or pseudo-taste dream.<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> This may be illustrated by a
-dream which belongs strictly to the tactile class; I
-dreamed that I called upon a medical acquaintance
-whose assistant I found in a dark surgery. I absently
-took up a broken medicine bottle and put it to my
-mouth, when my friend came in. I spoke to him on
-some medical topic, but he entered his carriage, and was
-driven off before he had time to answer me. I then
-found that my mouth was full of fragments of broken
-colourless glass, which I carefully removed. This
-dream was constructed, in the manner which has
-been often illustrated in the previous pages, of small
-separate incidents which had occurred during the
-immediately preceding days. One of the incidents<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
-was the fact that I had myself smashed a little coloured
-(not colourless) glass and carefully picked up the fragments.
-But the vividest part of the dream was the
-sensation of broken glass in the mouth, and on awaking
-no sensation could be detected in the mouth. So that
-though the most plausible explanation of such a dream
-would be the theory that the recent experience with
-broken glass had suggested to sleeping consciousness
-the explanation of an unpleasant sensation actually
-experienced in the mouth, there was nothing whatever
-to support that theory.</p>
-
-<p>The falling of light on the closed eyes, or the half
-opening of the eyes, has been found to serve as a visual
-stimulus to dreams, but I have myself no decisive
-evidence on this point.<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> In the case of a lady who
-dreamed that a lover was in her room, and that suddenly
-the door opened, and she saw her mother standing before
-her with a bright light, which awoke her, she could
-find nothing in the room, no light, to account for the
-dream. It is, of course, unnecessary for a dream of a
-bright light to be actually produced by an external
-visual stimulus accompanying the dream, for the
-spontaneous retino-cerebral activity itself produces
-sensations of light. Thus, on the night after a pleasant
-walk in a country lane through which the setting sun<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
-shone, I dreamed that I was walking along a lane in
-which I saw a bright light and my own vast shadow in
-front of me. It would seem that, on the whole, the
-curtain of the eyelids effectually shuts out light from
-the eye during sleep, and that the sense which is more
-active during the day than any other is the most carefully
-guarded of all during the night. The peculiarly
-delicate and unstable nature of the chemical basis of
-vision makes up for this protection from external
-stimulation, and by its spontaneous activity ensures
-that even in dreams vision is the predominant
-sense.</p>
-
-<p>What we find as regards the part played in dreams
-by excitations arising from the external specific senses
-holds good also for excitations arising from internal
-organic sensations. The main difference is that the
-stimuli which reach sleeping consciousness from the
-organs within the body&mdash;the stomach, heart, lungs,
-sexual apparatus, bladder, etc.&mdash;are usually more vague
-and massive, more difficult to recognise and identify,
-than are the more specific sensory stimuli which reach
-us from without. These visceral excitations may be
-transformed within the brain into imagery so unlike
-themselves that we may refuse to recognise them, and
-must frequently experience some amount of hesitation.
-Evidence of this fact will come before us in due course
-later on. I only wish to refer here to the more obvious
-part played in dreams by sensations arising within
-the body.</p>
-
-<p>We should expect that the visceral processes to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
-translated most clearly and directly into dreaming
-consciousness would be, not those which are regular
-and continuous, but those which assert themselves,
-more or less imperiously, at intervals. This is actually
-the case. The heart, for instance, probably plays a
-part in dreams only when disturbed in its action, and
-even then nearly always a very transformed part. On
-the other hand, when the impulses of the generative
-system arise in sleep to manifest themselves in erotic
-dreams, the resulting imagery is usually very clear, and
-with very definite and recognisable sexual associations.
-Erotic dreams are, indeed, in both men and women,
-among the most vivid of all dreams, and the most
-emotionally potent.<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p>
-
-<p>The bladder, again, is an internal organ which makes
-its functional needs felt only at intervals, and thus,
-when those needs occur during sleep, they become
-conscious in imagery which easily recalls the source
-of the stimulus. It may, indeed, be said that vesical
-dreams are full of instruction in the light they throw
-on the psychology of dreaming. This has long been
-well known to writers on dreams. Thus Scherner,
-many years ago, insisted on the interest and importance
-of vesical dreams. In women, especially, he regarded
-them as very frequent and developed, most dream
-stories of women, he considered, containing symbolic
-representations of this organic irritation. Water, in
-some form or another, is naturally the commonest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>
-symbol. In Scherner's opinion, also, all dreams of fish
-playing in the water are vesical dreams.<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p>
-
-<p>In its simplest form the vesical dream is what Freud
-would term a wish-dream of infantile type, frequently
-in the magnified form common in dreams, and sometimes
-transferred from the dreamer himself to become
-objectified in another person, or even an inanimate
-object.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> There is, however, a very important difference
-according to whether these dreams take place in an
-adult or in a young child. In the adult it almost invariably
-happens that the dream act remains merely
-a dream act, and no corresponding motor impulse is
-transmitted to the bladder. But when such dreams
-occur to very young children, in whose brains the motor
-inhibitory mechanism is not yet fully established, it
-not infrequently happens that the motor impulse is
-transmitted and the expulsive action of the bladder is
-set up in sympathy with the imagery of the dream;
-thus is established the condition known as nocturnal
-enuresis. As the young brain develops, and inhibition
-becomes more perfect, these vesical dreams cease to
-exert any actual effect on the bladder, even when, as
-sometimes happens, they continue to occur at intervals<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
-in adult life.<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> Occasionally, both in those who have
-and those who have not suffered from nocturnal enuresis
-in childhood (especially women), vesical dreams of this
-character may occur without even any real distension
-of the bladder. In some of these cases the dream can
-be shown to be due to a reminiscence or suggestion from
-the waking life of the previous day. Dreams stimulated
-by organic sensations from within are thus found
-to resemble those proceeding from sensory sensations
-from without in that they are both exactly simulated
-by dreams which are mainly of central origin.</p>
-
-<p>When we turn to those internal organs of the body
-which normally carry on their functions in a constant
-and equable manner, seldom or never obtruding themselves
-into the sphere of consciousness, any disturbance
-of function seems much less likely to be translated into
-dream consciousness in a simple and direct form. It is
-sufficient to take the example of the heart. When the
-heart is acting normally any consciousness of its action
-is as rare asleep as awake. Even when cardiac action
-is disturbed, either by disease or by temporary excitement,
-dream consciousness seldom realises the
-physical cause of the disturbance. Occasionally, indeed,
-the cardiac disturbance may reach sleeping
-consciousness without any very remote transformation;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
-thus a lady dreams that she is fainting while
-really breathing in a slightly laboured and spasmodic
-way; but at another period the same lady, at a time
-when she was suffering from some degree of heart
-weakness, dreamed one night, when the trouble was
-specially marked, that she was driving sweating horses
-up a steep hill, urging them on with the whip in order
-to avoid an express train which she imagined was behind
-her. This dream of sweating and panting horses
-climbing a hill has been noted by various observers to
-occur in connection with heart trouble.<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> The real
-difficulty of the panting and struggling heart instinctively
-finds its apparent explanation in a familiar
-spectacle of daily life.</p>
-
-<p>In another case a dreamer awoke from a disturbed
-sleep associated with indigestion, having the impression
-that burglars were tramping upstairs, but immediately
-realised that the tramp of the burglars' feet was really
-the beating of her own heart. Somewhat similarly,
-when suffering from headache, I have dreamed of
-hammering nails into a floor, a theory obviously invented
-to account for the thump of throbbing arteries.</p>
-
-<p>An interesting group of phenomena connected with
-the sensory influences discussed in this chapter is
-furnished by the premonitions of physical disorders
-and diseases sometimes experienced in dreams. A
-physical disturbance may reach sleeping consciousness
-many hours, or even days, before it is perceived by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
-waking consciousness, and become translated into a
-more or less fantastic dream. This has been recognised
-from of old, and Aristotle, for instance, observed that
-dreams magnify sensory excitations, and pointed out
-that they were thus useful to the physician in diagnosing
-symptoms not yet perceptible in the waking state.
-Thus Hammond knew a gentleman who, before an
-attack of hemiplegic paralysis, repeatedly dreamed
-that he had been cut in two down the middle line, and
-could only move on one side, while a young lady who
-dreamed she had swallowed molten lead, though quite
-well on awaking, was attacked by severe tonsilitis
-toward midday. Erythematous conditions of the skin,
-as has been pointed out to me by Dr. Kiernan, who has
-met with numerous cases in point, play an especial
-part in generating these dreams. Jewell, again, mentions
-a girl who dreamed, three days before being
-laid up with typhoid fever, that some one threw
-oil over her and set light to it. Macario, who was,
-perhaps, the first to record and study scientifically the
-dreams of this class, termed them prodromic.<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p>
-
-<p>'Prophetic' dreams, in which the dreamer foresees,
-not a physical condition which is already latent, but an
-external occurrence, belong to an entirely different<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
-class, and need not be discussed in detail here, since they
-are usually fallacious. A fairly common experience
-of this kind is the dream of an unknown person who is
-afterwards met in real life. These dreams fall into two
-groups: in the first the 'prophecy' is based on a
-failure of memory, the dreamer having really seen the
-person before; in the second, the subsequent 'recognition'
-of the person is due to the emotional preparation
-of the dream, and the concentrated expectation. Sante
-de Sanctis, who points this out, gives an experience of
-the kind which happened to the distinguished novelist,
-Capuana, who had a vivid dream of a dark lady, with
-expressive eyes, and three days after met the lady of
-his dream in the street.<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> Women, in a state of emotional
-expectation, have often mistaken dead (or even
-living) persons for missing husbands or children, and
-any one who has observed how, when a noted criminal
-flies from justice, he is soon 'recognised,' from his
-portrait, in the most various parts of the world, will
-have no difficulty in believing that it is easily possible
-to 'recognise' people from dream portraits, which are
-much vaguer than photographs. That there are other
-prophetic dreams, less easy to account for, I am ready
-to admit, though they have not come under my own
-immediate observation.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2>
-
-<p class="p6">EMOTION IN DREAMS</p>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Emotion and Imagination&mdash;How Stimuli are transformed into Emotion&mdash;Somnambulism&mdash;The
-Failure of Movement in Dreams&mdash;Nightmare&mdash;Influence
-of the approach of Awakening on imagined
-Dream Movements&mdash;The Magnification of Imagery&mdash;Peripheral
-and Cerebral Conditions combine to produce this Imaginative
-Heightening&mdash;Emotion in Sleep also Heightened&mdash;Dreams formed
-to explain Heightened Emotions of unknown origin&mdash;The fundamental
-Place of Emotion in Dreams&mdash;Visceral and especially
-Gastric disturbance as a source of Emotion&mdash;Symbolism in
-Dreams&mdash;The Dreamer's Moral Attitude&mdash;Why Murder so often
-takes place in Dreams&mdash;Moral Feeling not Abolished in Dreams
-though sometimes Impaired.</p></blockquote>
-
-
-<p>Whether the influences which stimulate our dreams
-arise from without or from within the organism, they
-are always filtered and diffused through the obscured
-channels of perception. They reach the brain at last
-in a vague and massive shape which may or may not
-betray to waking analysis the source from which they
-arise, but will certainly have become so changed in
-these organic channels that their affective tone will
-be predominant. They are, that is to say, largely
-transformed into <em>emotion</em>. And, when so transformed,
-they become the origin of what we regard as the imaginative
-element in dreams.<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Sleep is especially favourable to the production of
-emotion because while it allows a considerable amount
-of activity to sensory activities, and a very wide freedom
-to the imagery founded on sensory activities, it largely
-and in many directions inhibits motor activity.
-The actions suggested by sensory excitation cannot,
-therefore, be carried out. As soon as the impulse
-enters motor channels it is impeded, broken up, and
-scattered in a vain struggle. This process is transmitted
-to the brain as a wave of emotion.</p>
-
-<p>Sometimes, indeed, as we know, motor co-ordinations,
-usually inhibited in sleep, are not so inhibited.
-The dreamer is able to execute, perfectly or imperfectly,
-some action which, really or in imagination, he desires
-to execute. He is then said to be in a state of somnambulism.
-The somnambulist, in the wide sense of the
-word, is not necessarily a person who walks in his sleep,
-but any person in whom a group of co-ordinated muscles
-is sufficiently awake to respond more or less adequately
-to the motor impulse from the sleeping brain. To talk
-in sleep is a form of somnambulism. When the motor
-channels are thus unimpeded, there is usually no
-memory of a dream on awaking. The impulses that
-reach consciousness can be, as it were, quickly and
-easily drained off to the surface of the nervous system,
-and they tend to leave no deep impress on consciousness.</p>
-
-<p>'I worked late last night,' writes a lady, a novelist,
-'went to bed, and dropped into a dead kind of sleep.
-When I woke this morning about seven a funny thing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>
-had happened. Two candles were burning in my room.
-When I went to bed I had only one burning, and I know
-I put that out. Now, there were two burning side by
-side as if I had been writing, and they had evidently
-been burning only an hour or so, I must have got up
-and lighted them in my sleep.'<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> The actions carried
-out in the somnambulistic condition are not usually
-co-ordinated with the action of higher emotions: thus,
-a young woman was impelled by a distended bladder,
-while still asleep, to get out of bed and proceeded to
-carry out the suggested action, but without further precautions,
-on to the floor; she was only awakened by an
-exclamation from her sister, who had been aroused by the
-sound. We seem to see that under a strong stimulus&mdash;unfinished
-work in one case, vesical tension in the other&mdash;the
-motor centres have awakened to activity in the
-early morning while the higher centres are still soundly
-asleep. If the second sleeper had not been awakened,
-in neither case would any memory of the incidents have
-remained.<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> There has been no struggle, and no resultant
-emotions have, therefore, been aroused to
-impress consciousness. It is evident that the lack of
-adaptation between sensory and motor activity is an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
-important factor in dreams, and contributes to impart
-to them their emotional character.</p>
-
-<p>In somnambulism we have a state which is in some
-respects the reverse of that usual in dreams. The
-higher centres are, indeed, split off from the lower
-centres, but it is the former that are asleep and the
-latter are awake, whereas in ordinary dreaming the
-higher centres are acting in accordance with their
-means, while the lower centres are quiescent. Somnambulism
-is an approximation to a condition found
-in some diseases of the brain when, as a result of lesion
-of the higher nervous levels, we have a mental state&mdash;the
-ideatory apraxia of Liepmann&mdash;in which the
-muscular system carries out plans, but the plans are
-defective because not supervised by the higher centres.
-In ordinary dreams, on the other hand, we have a state
-comparable to that produced by brain lesions in what
-Pick terms motor apraxia, in which the higher centres
-are acting freely, but their plans are never carried into
-action owing to failure of the motor centres.</p>
-
-<p>This characteristic of dreaming has seemed puzzling
-to some writers. They ask why, in our dreams, we
-should sometimes be so conscious of failure of movement,
-and why, when we strive to move in dreams,
-we do not always actually move.<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>There scarcely seems to me to be any serious difficulty
-here; still, the question is one of considerable
-interest and importance. It is necessary to point out
-in the first place that, however complete the actual
-absence of movement, there is usually no failure of
-movement in the dream vision. We dream that we are
-talking, that we are moving from place to place, that
-we are performing various actions. We are conscious
-of no difficulty, even sometimes of a peculiar facility,
-in executing these movements. And in normal persons,
-under normal conditions, it would seem that the dream
-movements take place without even an incipient degree
-of corresponding actual movement perceptible to an
-observer. The efferent motor channels, and even to a
-large extent the afferent sensory channels, are asleep,
-and the whole representative circuit is completed within
-the brain, or, as we say, imaginatively.<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> Thus a
-middle-aged friend, whose habits are by no means
-athletic, dreams that, desiring to attract some one's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>
-attention, he rests one knee on his wife's small work-table,
-and holding the foot of the other leg in one hand,
-he whirls rapidly and easily round and round on the
-pivot of the knee which rests on the table, the dream
-afterwards continuing without any awakening. A lady,
-again, who, when awake, is unable to swim, and knows
-no reason why she should think of swimming, vividly
-dreams that she jumps from a houseboat into the river,
-and proceeds to swim on her side with great ease, this
-dream also continuing without awakening. These
-dreamers were able to execute triumphantly the muscular
-feats they planned, because they had not really attempted
-to execute them at all, and, moreover, no
-sufficient sensory messages reached the brain to give
-information that the limbs were not actually obeying
-the orders of the brain. The dreamers were probably
-in a somewhat deep state of sleep.<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a></p>
-
-<p>The dreams in which we seem to ourselves to be
-suffering from the difficulty or impossibility of movement
-thus constitute a special class. Jewell would
-apply to them the term 'nightmare,' which he regards
-as 'characterised by inability to move or speak.' When,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
-in dreams, we become conscious of difficult movement, it
-has frequently, and perhaps usually, happened that the
-motor channels are not entirely closed, the sensory
-channels unusually open, and very frequently, though
-not necessarily, this is associated with the approach of
-awakening. I dreamed that I was walking with a
-friend, that we quarrelled, and that thereupon I crossed
-the road, and walked on ahead of him. These actions
-seemed entirely effortless. Gradually, however, I became
-conscious of immense and ineffectual effort in
-keeping in front, and slowly began to experience, as I
-awakened, a feeling of lassitude in my actual and
-motionless limbs. In the process of awakening, I take
-it, the increased, but still defective, efflux of sensation
-from the legs, conveying the message of their real
-position, entered into conflict with the dream imagery,
-and produced a struggle in consciousness. It is by no
-means necessary to assume that there was a complete
-absence of sensory impressions from the legs during
-the earlier part of the dream; on the contrary, it is
-probable that the feeling of lassitude was itself the
-cause of the dream, the idea of walking being a theory
-to account for the lassitude; this seems more probable
-than that the actual lassitude was caused by the mental
-exertion in the dream.</p>
-
-<p>In a dream which a friend tells me he has often had,
-and always finds painful, he imagines he is climbing a
-mountain, and at last reaches a point at which, notwithstanding
-all his efforts, further progress is impossible.
-It seems probable that this dream is also an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>
-example of the conflict due to the process of awakening.
-In this case, however, the solution is complicated by
-the fact that in earlier life the dreamer had really once
-found himself in the situation he now only experiences
-in dreams.</p>
-
-<p>It is sometimes possible to prove, through the evidence
-of a witness, that in our dreams of movements executed
-with difficulty, we are really sufficiently awake on the
-motor side to be making actual movements, though
-these actual movements may only very roughly correspond
-to the movements we imagine we are trying to
-make. Very frequently, no doubt, dreams of difficult
-movement co-exist with, or are caused by, some degree
-of actual movement. In some such cases, indeed, the
-slight and imperfect actual movement may, in dream
-consciousness, be a complete and adequate movement.
-In these cases the imperfect sensory messages
-are not, it seems, sufficiently precise to reveal to
-sleeping consciousness the imperfection of the motor
-impulses.</p>
-
-<p>Exactly the same thing occurs under the allied
-conditions of anaesthesia produced by drugs. Thus,
-on one occasion, when coming to consciousness after
-the administration of nitrous oxide gas, I had the
-sensation of crying out aloud, but in reality, as I was
-informed by a friend at my side, I merely made a
-slight guttural sound. In the same way we see sleeping
-dogs making slight movements of all their paws in
-succession, a faint and abortive movement of running,
-which in the sleeping dog's consciousness may, doubtless,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
-be accompanied by the notion that he is dashing
-across a field after a rabbit.</p>
-
-<p>In these dreams of failure of movement, it seems to
-me, the dream process, as the result of an approximation
-to the waking state, has become mixed with actual
-sensori-motor impulses, but the threshold of waking
-life is still too far off for actual movements to be completely
-and successfully accomplished, and in the case
-of the limbs the eye cannot be used to guide movements
-which the muscular and cutaneous sensations are still
-too dead to guide. It is important to remember that
-in waking life, under pathological conditions, we may
-have a precisely similar state of things. In some states
-of cerebro-spinal degeneration, resulting in defective
-sensibility of muscle and nerve, the subject sways
-unsteadily when he closes his eyes, and when there is
-loss of sensibility in the arm it is sometimes impossible
-to hold objects in the hand except with the guiding
-aid afforded by the eye.<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a></p>
-
-<p>In a dream, dating from fifteen years back, that I
-now regard as conditioned by the approach of the
-moment of awakening, I imagined that I was making
-huge efforts to copy in a copy-book a capital H, engraved
-in a rather peculiar fashion, but really offering
-no difficulties to any waking schoolchild. By no means<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
-could I get the proportions right, if, indeed, I could
-make any stroke at all, and at the end of my painful
-and ineffectual efforts I seemed to be trying to write
-on sand, which was merely displaced by my hand.
-This final impression seems clearly to be that of a
-dreamer who is already sufficiently awake to be conscious
-of the bedclothes yielding to the touch.</p>
-
-<p>The foregoing dream suggests that failure of movement
-in dreaming may tend to be associated with an
-accentuation of that shifting of imagery which is one
-of the most primary elements in dreaming, both failure
-of movement and accentuation of shifting imagery
-being, perhaps, alike due to the approach towards the
-waking state. Thus, if in a dream one is brushing
-one's coat, one finds, without any overwhelming surprise,
-that fresh patches of dust appear again and again,
-even when one's efforts in brushing them away are
-successful. Even when we feel able to effect movement
-in our dream, there may still be a failure of that
-movement to effect its object.</p>
-
-<p>The question of movement in dreams, of the presence
-or absence of effort and inhibition, is thus seen to be
-explicable by reference to the depth of sleep and the
-particular groups of centres involved. In full normal
-sleep movements are purely ideatory, and no difficulty
-arises in executing any movement, for the reason that
-there really is no movement at all, or even any attempt
-at movement, while, even if slight movement occurs,
-no message of its actual defectiveness can reach the
-brain. Movement or attempt at movement, with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>
-more or less inhibition, tends to occur when the motor
-and sensory centres are in a partially aroused state;
-it is a phenomenon which belongs to the period immediately
-before awakening.<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a></p>
-
-<p>It is doubtless mainly due to the diffusion of inhibited
-nervous impulses through many channels, and the
-vague and massive character which they hence assume
-in consciousness, that we must attribute the magnification
-of dream imagery, and the exaggeration of dream
-feelings. This is not a constant tendency of our dreams;
-sometimes, indeed, perhaps in special stages of sleep-consciousness,
-there is diminution, and people look no
-larger than dolls, and houses like doll's houses, while,
-on the emotional side, events which in real life would
-overwhelm us, may, in dreams, be accepted as matters
-of course. But the heightening of imagery and ideas
-and feelings is very common. There is a kind of normal
-megalomania in our dreams. We have already incidentally
-encountered many instances of this: a tooth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
-appears large enough for a mouse to play in, or like a
-great jagged rock; the irritation of a mosquito evokes
-the image of a huge scarlet beetle; in vesical dreams
-endless streams are seen to flow; a canary's song is
-heard as Haydn's <em>Creation</em>, and the howling of the
-wind becomes a chanted Te Deum.</p>
-
-<p>A French author has written an impressive literary
-description of his own purely visual dreams, with their
-magnificent exaggerations and joyous expansiveness,
-seeking to show that their chief character is their
-excessiveness; 'the flowers are almost women.'<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> I
-cannot, however, recognise this as characteristic of
-normal dreaming. It bears more resemblance to De
-Quincey's opium dreams, or to the visions which came
-to Heine as he listened to Berlioz's music. In normal
-dreaming the imagery may, indeed, be stupendously
-vast, or fantastically absurd, or poignantly intense.
-But normal dreams are not built on a consistently
-colossal scale. The megalomania of dreaming is only
-accidental and occasional, not systematic.<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></p>
-
-<p>The heightening of dream experiences may, however,
-be very complete in, as it were, every direction: thus
-a botanical friend joined a large party for a pleasant
-country excursion, in the course of which, while sitting
-in a waggonette, an acquaintance, a miller, standing in
-the road, handed up to him a dog-rose. In the course of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
-a dream of agreeable emotional tone on the night
-following, this incident was reproduced, but the miller
-had become an angel, who handed down to him, instead
-of up from below, a flower which was a moss-rose.</p>
-
-<p>Thus, not only do the actual stimuli taking place
-during sleep suggest to dream-consciousness imagery
-of a magnitude out of all proportion to their real intensity,
-but even the repercussion of the day's incidents
-in dreams under the influence of a favourable emotional
-tone may partake of the same heightening influence.</p>
-
-<p>We may say, therefore, that while the excessiveness
-of dream imagery is mainly due to the conditions of the
-nervous sensory and motor channels, there is also
-probably a heightened affectability of the cerebral
-centres themselves&mdash;perhaps due to their state of
-dissociation or absence of apperception<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a>&mdash;which leads
-us in our dreams to react extravagantly to the stimuli
-that reach the brain. A lady tells me that she often
-dreams of being very angry at things which, on awaking,
-she finds are mere trifles that would never make her
-angry when awake.<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> It is a common experience that
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>the things which, in our dreams, impress us as beautiful,
-eloquent, witty, profound, or amusing, no longer seem
-so, or only seem so in a much slighter degree, when we
-are able to recall them awake.</p>
-
-<p>All these various considerations lead us up to a central
-fact in the psychology of dreaming: the controlling
-power of emotion on dream ideas. From our present
-point of view we are now able to say that the chief
-function of dreams is to supply adequate theories to
-account for the magnified emotional impulses which
-are borne in on sleeping consciousness. This is the key
-to imagination in dreams. From the first we have seen
-that in dream life the mind is always freely and actively
-reasoning; we now see what is usually the real motive
-and aim of that reasoning. Sleeping consciousness
-is assailed by waves of emotion from various parts of
-the organism, but is entirely unable to detect their
-origin, and, therefore, invents an explanation of them.
-So that in sleep we have to weave theories concerning
-the unknowable origin of our emotions, just as when
-we are awake we weave theories concerning the
-ultimate origin of the totality of our experiences. The
-fundamental source of our dream life may thus be
-said to be emotion.<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>There is certainly no profounder emotional excitement
-during sleep than that which arises from a disturbed
-or distended stomach, and is reflected by the
-pneumogastric to the accelerated heart and the excited
-respiration.<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> We are thereby thrown into a state of
-emotional agitation, a state of agony and terror, such as
-we rarely or never attain during waking life. Sleeping
-consciousness, blindfolded and blundering, a prey to
-these massive waves from below, and fumbling about
-desperately for some explanation, jumps at the idea
-that only the attempt to escape some terrible danger
-or the guilty consciousness of some awful crime can
-account for this immense emotional uproar. Thus the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
-dream is suffused by a conviction which the continued
-emotion serves to support. We do not&mdash;it seems most
-simple and reasonable to conclude&mdash;experience terror
-because we think we have committed a crime, but we
-think we have committed a crime because we experience
-terror. And the fact that in such dreams we are far
-more concerned with escape from the results of crime
-than with any agony of remorse is not, as some have
-thought, due to our innate indifference to crime, but
-simply to the fact that our emotional state suggests to
-us active escape from danger rather than the more
-passive grief of remorse. Thus our dreams bear
-witness to the fact that our intelligence is often but a
-tool in the hands of our emotions.<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a></p>
-
-<p>In this tendency, it may be noted, we see the basis
-of the symbolism which plays so real a part in dreams.
-Such symbolism rests on the fact that we associate two
-things&mdash;even if the one happens to be physical and the
-other spiritual&mdash;which both happen to imply a similar
-state of feeling.<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> Symbolism of this kind is, indeed,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>characteristic of the human mind at all times, in all
-stages of its development. Thus the physical idea of
-<em>height</em> seems to express also a moral idea, which we feel
-to be correspondent, while wormwood and gall furnish
-a taste which enabled men to speak of what seemed to
-them the corresponding <em>bitterness</em> of death. In dreams
-this natural tendency of the mind is able to work unchecked
-and extravagantly. It acts with much facility
-on any impulse arising from the gastric region, because
-this region is the seat of various sensations and emotions,
-both physical and moral, which may thus act symbolically
-the one for the other.<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a></p>
-
-<p>Even when we realise the process of transformation
-and irradiation, through which organic sensations can
-alone reach the brain in sleep, and the inevitable 'errors
-of judgment' thus produced, it may still seem strange
-and puzzling to observe how a stimulus which has its
-origin in the stomach will, by affecting the neighbouring
-viscera, in its circuitous course along the nerves and
-through the brain, be transformed, as it may be, into a
-tragic scene which has never been experienced, nor even
-deliberately imagined, as for instance&mdash;to cite a dream<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>
-of my own&mdash;in the fiery vision of following a leader, in
-real life a peaceful and inoffensive man, who, revolver
-in hand, dashes among foes, shooting and shot at,
-every moment in danger of life, and always miraculously
-escaping.</p>
-
-<p>I may illustrate this transformation by the following
-example: A lady dreamed that her husband called her
-aside and said, 'Now, do not scream or make a fuss;
-I am going to tell you something. I have to kill a man.
-It is necessary, to put him out of his agony.' He then
-took her into his study, and showed her a young man
-lying on the floor, with a wound in his breast, and covered
-with blood. 'But how will you do it?' she asked.
-'Never mind,' he replied; 'leave that to me.' He
-took something up and leaned over the man. She
-turned aside and heard a horrible gurgling sound.
-Then all was over. 'Now,' he said, 'we must get rid
-of the body. I want you to send for So-and-so's cart,
-and tell him I wish to drive it.' The cart came. 'You
-must help me to make the body into a parcel,' he said
-to his wife; 'give me plenty of brown paper.' They
-made it into a parcel, and with terrible difficulty and
-effort the wife assisted her husband to get the body
-downstairs, and lift it into the cart. At every stage,
-however, she presented to him the difficulties of the
-situation. But he carelessly answered all objections,
-said he would take the body up to the moor, among the
-stones, remove the brown paper, and people would think
-the murdered man had killed himself. He drove off,
-and soon returned with the empty cart. 'What's this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
-blood in my cart?' asked the man to whom it belonged,
-looking inside. 'Oh, that's only paint,' replied the
-husband. But the dreamer had all along been full of
-apprehensions lest the deed should be discovered, and
-the last thing she could recall, before waking in terror,
-was looking out of the window at a large crowd which
-surrounded the house with shouts of 'Murder!' and
-threats.</p>
-
-<p>This tragedy, with its almost Elizabethan air, was
-built up out of a few commonplace impressions received
-during the previous day, none of which impressions
-contained any suggestion of murder. The tragic element
-appears to have been altogether due to the psychic
-influences of indigestion arising from a supper of
-pheasant.<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> To account for our oppression during
-sleep, sleeping consciousness assumes moral causes,
-which alone appear to it of sufficient gravity to be
-adequate to the immense emotions we are experiencing.
-Even in our waking and fully conscious states we are
-inclined to give the preference to moral over physical
-causes, quite irrespective of the justice of our preferences;
-in our sleeping states this tendency is exaggerated,
-and the reign of purely moral causes is not often
-disturbed by even a suggestion of physical causation.</p>
-
-<p>In an emotional dream of similar visceral origin, I
-dreamed that I was to die&mdash;why or how I could not tell<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>
-on awakening. With the object of putting an end to
-my sufferings, I imagined that my wife administered to
-me some substance mixed in jam. I found the taste
-peculiar, not bitter, as I recalled on awaking, but warm
-and spicy, and I asked what she had put in it. She
-replied that it was strychnine. I remarked that that
-would be a very painful mode of death, and refused to
-take any more. I debated with myself whether I had
-probably taken a poisonous dose, and had not better
-resort to an antidote; the only antidote that suggested
-itself to me was opium pills. Meanwhile the horror
-of impending death grew more and more acute until,
-at length, I awoke. I thereupon found that I had a
-headache, a faint taste in my mouth, and some general
-malaise evidently associated with a slightly disordered
-stomach. The definite images brought forward in the
-dream had all been fairly familiar during the previous
-day, but the idea of impending death which pervaded
-the whole dream so indefinitely and incoherently, yet
-so acutely, was entirely a theory to account for the
-massive and widely irradiated messages of discomfort
-which reached the sleeping brain.</p>
-
-<p>Many people are unwilling to admit that psychic
-phenomena so tragical, poignant, or pathetic as these
-dreams may be, should receive their stimulus from a
-source which they regard as so humble as the stomach.
-Thus Frederick Greenwood, whose conception of the
-function of dreaming was very exalted, only admitted
-this association with reluctance, and was careful to
-point out that 'if an unwholesome supper produces<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
-such phenomena, it does so only in the sense that a
-bird singing in the air produced Shelley's "Ode to a
-Skylark."'<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> That analogy really underestimates the
-distance of the physical stimulus of such dreams from
-its psychic concomitants. When we talk of dreams
-we must place ourselves at the dreamer's standpoint.
-The poet was conscious that his inspiration was stimulated
-by the bird's song, but the dreamer has no
-consciousness that the tragic experiences he passes
-through imaginatively are stimulated by the activity
-of his visceral organs. He is altogether unconscious of
-visceral disturbance; if he were conscious of any of
-these physical facts which occupy waking consciousness,
-he would no longer be a dreamer. He lives in a psychic
-world which physical facts, from within or from without,
-can never reach until they have been transformed.
-His position resembles, therefore, not that of the poet
-who deliberately seeks to interpret the song of the
-bird, but rather that of the bird itself, the poet 'hidden
-in the light of thought,' sublimely unconscious of the
-mechanism revealed in its own structure.</p>
-
-<p>The explanations devised by sleeping consciousness
-to account for visceral discomfort of gastric origin are
-not necessarily tragic. Thus I dreamed, after a somewhat
-indigestible meal, that I was slowly and painfully
-eating bread mingled with cinders and mouse's excrement,
-trying in vain to avoid these impurities, and
-after the meal was over, finding my mouth full of cinders.
-On awaking there was no traceable taste or sensation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
-of any kind in the mouth, and the dream was apparently
-a theory to account for some gastric disturbance.
-Such a theory seems less far-fetched than that of
-murder, and probably indicates much less marked and
-diffused visceral disturbance. Occasionally the explanatory
-theories of actual sensations accepted by sleeping
-consciousness are plausible and ingenious, indeed entirely
-adequate and probable. Thus a lady dreamed
-that she was drinking glass after glass of champagne,
-saying to herself the while that she would have to pay
-for this afterwards. On awaking she found that she
-was feeling the slight rheumatic pains and discomfort
-that she was really liable to experience after taking a
-glass or two of champagne. She had not tasted champagne,
-or thought of it, for some time previously; the
-dream champagne was a theory invented to account
-for the sensations which were actually experienced,
-though those sensations remained outside dreaming
-consciousness.</p>
-
-<p>Most of the examples I have presented of the influence
-of emotion of visceral origin in suggesting dream
-theories have had the stomach as their source. There
-can be no doubt that the stomach has enormous influence
-in this respect; its easily and constantly varying
-state of repletion, its central position and liability to
-press on other organs, its important nervous associations,
-together with the fact that sleep sometimes
-tends to impede its activity and initiate disturbance,
-combine to impart to it a manifold and extensive
-influence over the emotional state in sleep, and at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
-the same time render the source of that emotional
-state peculiarly difficult for sleeping consciousness to
-detect.</p>
-
-<p>It is, however, easy to show that any pronounced or
-massive feeling continuing or arising during sleep may
-similarly lead to an emotional state calling for explanation
-at the hands of sleeping consciousness. Thus,
-falling asleep with toothache during a singularly close
-night, I once dreamed that I had committed murder,
-having apparently killed several persons, and that I was
-occupied, after arrest, in considering whether my act
-was likely to be regarded as an unpremeditated act of
-manslaughter. A headache, again, may be a source
-of dreams. Thus, falling asleep with headache, I
-dream that I am waiting for an express train to London;
-an express comes up to the platform, and I cannot ascertain
-if it is the train I want. The explanation seems
-obvious; railway travelling is a cause of headache,
-and it is therefore put forward in the dream, with
-accompanying imagery, to account for the sensations
-experienced. The actual sensation, as is always the
-case in dreams, that is, the headache, remains subconscious,
-and, indeed, totally unconscious; the imagery
-it suggests alone occupies the field of consciousness.<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a>
-An entirely different type of dream may, however,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
-be associated with headache. Thus I once dreamed
-that I was in a vast gloomy English cathedral, and on
-the wall I observed a notice to the effect that on
-such a day evensong would take place without illumination
-of the cathedral in order to avoid attracting moths.
-I awoke with slight headache. Here the cool, silent
-gloom of the cathedral is the symbol of what is desired
-to soothe the aching head, and the fantastic suggestion
-read on the notice is merely the theory of dreaming
-consciousness which knows nothing of the real reason
-of the wish.</p>
-
-<p>Dreams of murder or impending death or the like
-tragic situations seem usually to be aroused by visceral
-stimuli. In some cases, however (as in Maury's famous
-dream of the guillotine), they are due to an external
-cutaneous sensation. When the stimulus thus comes
-from the periphery, the emotional element, even when
-the dreamed situation is tragic, seems usually (though
-this is not quite certain) to be less pronounced than when
-the stimulus is visceral. Thus in a dream of my own,
-which seemed to be due to a cramped position of the head
-and neck, I dreamed that I had died (though, somehow,
-I was not myself, but had become more or less identified
-with an ugly old woman), and was being autopsied.
-Then very gradually I became faintly and peacefully
-conscious of what was going on, though I remained
-motionless, and all the time believed that I was dead,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>
-and that my faint consciousness was merely a part of
-death. Preparations for the funeral were meanwhile
-being made, and I was about to be nailed down in my
-coffin. At this point I became horribly aware that
-these proceedings would cause suffocation, and, with
-great effort, I succeeded in moving my arms and speaking
-incoherently. Thereupon the funeral arrangements
-were discontinued, and very slowly I seemed to regain
-speech and the power of movement. But I felt that I
-must be extremely careful in making any movements,
-on account of the post-mortem wounds; especially
-I felt pain in my neck, and realised that it was necessary
-not to move my head, or the result might be instant
-death. In such a dream, it may be noted, and in some
-others I have recorded, we see very instructively the
-nature of the changes produced in the dream and in the
-dreamer's attitude by the approach of waking consciousness.
-The dreamer's relationship to his imagined
-situation becomes more and more what it would be if
-the situation occurred in real life, and as soon as there is
-painful effort and imperfect muscular movement, the
-coming of waking consciousness is imminent.</p>
-
-<p>The visceral and emotional element in dreaming
-helps to explain the dreamer's moral attitude and the
-real significance of those criminal actions in dreams
-which have often been misinterpreted. Many writers
-on dreaming have referred, with profound concern, to
-the facility and prevalence of murder in dreams, sometimes
-as a proof of the innate wickedness of human
-nature made manifest in the unconstraint of sleep,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
-sometimes as evidence of an atavistic return to the modes
-of feeling of our ancestors, the thin veneer of civilisation
-being removed during sleep. Maudsley and Mme.
-de Manac&eacute;&iuml;ne, for example, find evidence in such dreams
-of a return to primitive modes of feeling. Clarke
-speaks of 'the entire absence of the moral sense' from
-dreams.<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> Professor N&auml;cke, who has given much attention
-to the phenomena of dreaming, writes in a private
-letter: 'What I am amazed at, having perceived it in
-myself, is the little known fact that a person's character
-becomes <em>worse</em> in dreaming. Not only the most
-secret thoughts, wishes, and aspirations become clear,
-but also qualities which have never been observed
-before, as, for instance, that one becomes a murderer,
-an adulterer, etc.' Freud, especially, has elaborated
-this aspect of dreams as representing the fulfilment of
-the dreamer's most secret desires.<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a></p>
-
-<p>It may well be that there is an element of truth in
-the belief that in dreams we are brought back to mental
-conditions somewhat more closely approaching those of
-primitive times. It is the manifold variety and complexity
-of our mental representations which prevent us
-from responding immediately to impulse under civilised
-conditions, and when, by dissociation, only a few
-groups are present to consciousness, the inhibition on
-violent action tends to be removed. If, therefore, we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>
-are more violent, more immoral, more criminal, in our
-dreams than in waking life, this is by no means necessarily
-to be regarded as a revelation of our real nature,
-but is merely an inevitable result of the mental dissociation
-which prevents many important groups of
-mental representations from finding their way into consciousness,
-and at the same time brings all our mental
-possessions on to the same plane, so that the things
-we have merely thought or heard of have the same
-visual reality as our own actual experiences. The sleep
-of the real criminal, as Sante de Sanctis has shown on
-the basis of a wide experience, even of criminals guilty
-of serious acts of violence, tends to be peaceful and
-dreamless, and such dreams as they have are usually
-of a simple and innocent sort. If normal people often
-dream of crime, it is because they are more sensitive
-and imaginative, and because sleeping consciousness is
-strained to the utmost to invent a phantasmal tragedy
-adequate to account for the waves of emotion that
-beset it.<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a></p>
-
-<p>There is another reason why, in dreams, we may find
-ourselves engaged in criminal operations. The purely
-automatic process by which the imagery of dreams is
-perpetually shifting in pursuit of associations of resemblance
-or contiguity, leads to confusions which are not
-rooted in any personal or primitive impulse, as in the
-example I have previously referred to, of a lady who had
-carved a duck at dinner, and a few hours later woke up<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>
-exhausted by the imaginary effort of cutting off her
-husband's head. Such a dream is merely a mechanical
-turn of the visionary kaleidoscope, bringing together
-two unrelated images.</p>
-
-<p>The most potent cause of dream criminality, and
-especially of murders we have been guilty of before the
-dream commenced, seems clearly, however, to be that
-emotional factor of visceral origin which is well illustrated
-by one or two of the dreams already brought
-forward.<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> In these cases, again, we are not concerned
-with any primitive or personal impulse to crime, but
-we feel ourselves to be so possessed by all the physical
-symptoms of terror, that the only adequate explanation
-of our state seems to be the theory that we have committed
-murder. And if we are more concerned to flee
-from justice than to experience remorse, that is clearly
-because the really labouring and agitated heart suggests
-flight from pursuit far more than any passive emotion.<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a>
-There is, moreover, no more fundamental and primitive
-emotion than fear.</p>
-
-<p>While these considerations combine to deprive criminal
-dreams, when they occur, of any great significance
-as an index of the dreamer's latent morality, I must
-add that I am by no means prepared to agree that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>
-moral emotions are so absent from sleep as many
-writers have stated. There is often a diminished sense
-of morality, an easier yielding to temptation than would
-take place in real life, a diminished remorse&mdash;these
-tendencies being mainly due to the conditions of dream-life&mdash;but
-there is frequently a strong sense of morality
-in dreams, as well as a vivid perception of social proprieties.
-Those persons who have an unusually strong
-moral sense, when awake, frequently show, I think, a
-similar tendency when asleep, but in the dreams of most
-people moral and decorous considerations seem, as a rule,
-to make themselves more or less clearly felt, much as
-in waking life. It may be worth while to bring forward
-a few dreams which incidentally illustrate the moral
-attitude of the dreamer.</p>
-
-<p>A lady narrated the following dream immediately
-on awakening: 'I had murdered a woman from some
-moral or political motive&mdash;I forget what&mdash;and had come
-in great agony to my husband with her shoes and
-watch-chain. He promised to help me, and while I
-was wondering what could be done for the benefit of
-the woman's family, some one came in and announced
-that a lecture was about to be given on the beauty of
-nakedness. I then went, with several prim and respectable
-ladies of my acquaintance [the names were
-given], into a crowded hall. The lecturer who&mdash;so far
-as appearance is concerned&mdash;was a well-known Member
-of Parliament, then entered and gave a most eloquent
-address on Whitman, nakedness, ugly figures, etc.
-He especially emphasised the fact that the reason<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
-people are shocked at nakedness is that they usually
-only see unbeautiful bodies which repel them because
-they are unlike their ideals. Then he put out his hand,
-and a naked woman entered the room. Her loveliness
-was extreme; her form was perfectly rounded, but
-without suggestion of voluptuousness, though she was
-not an animated statue, but had all the characters of
-humanity; she walked with undulating thighs, head
-slightly drooping, and hair falling down and framing a
-face that expressed wonderful spiritual beauty and innocence.
-The lecturer led her round, saying, "This is
-beauty; now, if you can look at this and be ashamed&mdash;&mdash;"
-and he waved his arm. She went away, and a beautiful
-Apollo-like youth, slender but athletic, entered the
-room, also completely naked. He walked round the
-room alone, with an air of majestic virility. I applauded,
-clapping my hands, but a shiver went through
-the ladies present; their skin became like goose-flesh,
-and their lips quivered with horror as though they were
-about to be outraged. The youth went out, and the
-lecturer continued. At the climax of his oratory, the
-Apollo-like youth entered, dressed as a common soldier,
-with no appearance of beauty, and in a rough tone said:
-"'Ere! I want a shilling for this job." (And I sighed
-to myself: "It is always so.") No one had a shilling,
-and the lecturer proceeded to explain to the man that
-what he had done was for the sake of art and beauty,
-and for the moral good of the world. "What do I
-care for that?" he returned, "I want a drink." Then a
-lady among the audience produced a collar, wrote on it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>
-a testimonial expressing the gratitude of those present
-for the man's services on this occasion, and handed it to
-me to present to him. "Damn it," he said, "this is
-only worth twopence halfpenny; I want my shilling!"
-Then I awoke.' The idea of murder with which this
-dream began seems to suggest that it may have had its
-origin in some slight visceral disturbance of which the
-subject was unconscious, but nothing had occurred to
-suggest the details of the episode. The interesting
-feature about it is the presence throughout of moral
-notions and sentiments substantially true to the
-dreamer's waking ideas.</p>
-
-<p>In another dream of the same dreamer's the sense
-of responsibility is clearly present: 'Mrs. F. and
-Miss R. had called to see me, and I was sitting in my
-room talking to them, when a knock came at the door,
-and I found there a poor woman belonging to the neighbourhood,
-but who also combined in my dream the
-page-boy at a dear friend's house. From this friend,
-whom I had not heard from for some time, the woman
-bore a large letter. She tore it open in my presence,
-saying, "It says here that the bearer is to open this,"
-and produced from it another letter, a large document
-of a legal character in my friend's handwriting.
-When the woman began to open the second letter I
-remonstrated; I was sure that there was some mistake,
-that that letter was private, and that no one else ought
-to see it. The woman, however, firmly insisted that
-she must carry out her instructions; so we had a long
-discussion. After a time I called Mrs. F. and appealed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
-to her. She agreed with me that the instructions must
-only mean that the bearer was to open the outer envelope,
-not the inner letter. At last I took out five
-shillings and gave it to the woman, telling her that I
-would assume all the responsibility for opening the
-letter myself. With this she went away well satisfied,
-saying (as she would in real life), "All right, Mrs. &mdash;&mdash;,
-you're a lady, and you know. All right, my dear."
-Then at last I was able to tear open my letter and read
-these words: "<cite>Always use Sunlight Soap</cite>." My vexation
-was extreme.'</p>
-
-<p>On another occasion the same dreamer experienced
-remorse. She imagined she was in a restaurant, and
-the girl behind the counter pointed to a barrel of beer&mdash;a
-golden barrel, she said, with a magic key&mdash;which
-could only be opened by the owner. The dreamer
-declared, however, that she could open it, and, producing
-a key, proceeded to do so, handing round beer to
-the bystanders. Then she realised that she had been
-stealing, and was full of remorse. She asked a friend
-if she ought to tell the owner, but the friend replied,
-'By no means.' This conclusion of the dream seems
-to indicate that the moral sense, though present in
-dreams, is apt to be impaired.</p>
-
-<p>In yet another dream this dreamer exhibited a curious
-combination of moral sensibility and criminal indifference.
-She imagined that, while walking with a man,
-a friend, she revealed to him a secret of a woman friend's.
-Then, realising her betrayal of confidence, she decided
-that the best thing she could do would be to kill the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>
-man. On reflection, however, she thought that it would,
-after all, be unkind to do so since he was a friend, and
-so told him that if he ever repeated the secret she would
-have him torn to pieces. It will be seen that the betrayal
-of a secret was felt as a far more serious offence
-than murder. The facility with which, in such dreams
-as this, the suggestion of murder presents itself, even to
-dreamers who, when awake, cherish no bloodthirsty
-or revengeful ideas, is certainly remarkable.</p>
-
-<p>It is often said that in dreams erotic suggestions
-present themselves with extreme facility, and are
-eagerly accepted by the dreamer. To some extent
-there is truth in this statement, but it is by no means
-always true. This may be illustrated by the following
-dream, the sources of which could be easily traced;
-two days before I had seen the gambols of East Enders
-at Hampstead Heath on a Bank Holiday, and the day
-before I had visited a picture gallery, the two sets of
-impressions becoming ingeniously combined, according
-to the usual rule of dream confusion. I thought that
-when walking along a country lane a sudden turn brought
-me to a broader part of the road covered with grass, into
-the midst of a crowd of women, large and well-proportioned
-persons, mostly in a state of complete nudity,
-and engaged in romping together, more especially in
-tugs-of-war; some of them were on horseback. My
-appearance slightly disturbed them, I heard one cry
-out my name, and to some extent they drew back, and
-partly desisted from their games, but only to a very
-slight degree, and with no overpowering embarrassment.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>
-I was myself rather embarrassed, and, glancing
-at them again, turned back. Afterwards my walk
-again brought me in view of them, and it occurred to
-me that women are somewhat changing their customs,
-a very wholesome change, it seemed to me. But I
-remonstrated with one or two of them that they ought to
-keep in constant movement to avoid catching cold.
-No erotic suggestions were present, although the dream
-might be said to lend itself to such suggestions.</p>
-
-<p>The idea of moral retribution and eternal punishment
-may also be present in dreams. This may be illustrated
-by the dream of a lady who had an ill and restless girl
-companion sleeping with her, and was disturbed as well
-by a yelping and howling terrier outside. She had also
-lately heard that a friend had brought over a python
-from Africa. 'I dreamed last night I had a basket of
-cold squirming snakes beside me; they just touched
-me all over, but did not hurt; I felt mad with loathing
-and hate of them, and the beasts would not kill
-me. That, I thought, was my eternal punishment
-for my sins.' In her waking moments the dreamer
-was not apprehensive of eternal punishment, and it
-may be in such a case that, as Freud suggests, an
-unfamiliar moral idea emerges in sleep in much the
-same way as an unfamiliar or 'forgotten' fact may
-emerge.</p>
-
-<p>On the whole, it may be said that while the moral
-attitude of the dreaming state is not usually identical
-with that of the waking state, there still nearly always
-is a moral attitude. It could not well be otherwise.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
-Our emotional states are intimately bound up with
-moral relationships; we could not display such highly
-emotional states as we experience in dreams, with all
-their tragic accompaniments, in the absence of any
-sense of morality.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2>
-
-<p class="p6">AVIATION IN DREAMS</p>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Dreams of Flying and Falling&mdash;Their Peculiar Vividness&mdash;Dreams
-of Flying an Alleged Survival of Primeval Experiences&mdash;Best
-explained as based on Respiratory Sensations combined with
-Cutaneous Anaesthesia&mdash;The Explanation of Dreams of Falling&mdash;The
-Sensation of Levitation sometimes experienced by Ecstatic
-Saints&mdash;Also experienced at the Moment of Death.</p></blockquote>
-
-
-<p>Dreams of flying, with the dreams of falling they are
-sometimes associated with, may fairly be considered
-the best known and most frequent type of dream.
-They were among the earliest dreams to attract attention.
-Ruths argues that the Greek conception of the
-flying Hermes, the god who possessed special authority
-over dreams, was based on such experiences. Lucretius,
-in his interesting passage on the psychology of dreaming,
-speaks of falling from heights in dreams;<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> Cicero
-appears to refer to dreams of flying; St. Jerome
-mentions that he was subject to them; Synesius remarked
-that in dreams we fly with wings and view the
-world from afar; Cervantes accurately described the
-dream of falling.<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> From the inventors of the legend<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>
-of Icarus onwards, men have firmly cherished the belief
-that under some circumstances they could fly, and we
-may well suppose that that belief partly owes its conviction,
-and the resolve to make it practical, to the
-experiences that have been gained in dreams.</p>
-
-<p>No dreams, indeed, are so vivid and so convincing
-as dreams of flying; none leave behind them so strong
-a sense of the reality of the experience. Raffaelli,
-the eminent French painter, who is subject to the
-dreaming experience of floating in the air, confesses
-that it is so convincing that he has jumped out of bed
-on awaking and attempted to repeat it. 'I need not
-tell you,' he adds, 'that I have never been able to
-succeed.'<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> Herbert Spencer mentions that in a company
-of a dozen persons, three testified that in early
-life they had had such vivid dreams of flying downstairs,
-and were so strongly impressed by the reality
-of the experience, that they actually made the attempt,
-one of them suffering in consequence from an injured
-ankle.<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> The case is recorded of an old French lady
-who always maintained that on one occasion she actually
-had succeeded for a few instants in supporting herself
-on the air.<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> No one who is familiar with these dreaming
-experiences will be inclined to laugh at that old lady.
-It was during one of these dreams of levitation, in which
-one finds oneself leaping into the air and able to stay
-there, that it occurred to me that I would write a paper<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>
-on the subject, for I thought in my dream that
-this power I found myself possessed of was probably
-much more widespread than was commonly
-supposed, and that in any case it ought to be generally
-known.</p>
-
-<p>People who dabble in the occult have been so impressed
-by such dreams that they have sometimes
-believed that these flights represented a real excursion
-of the 'astral body.' This is the belief of Colonel
-de Rochas.<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a> C&eacute;sar de Vesme, the editor of the French
-edition of the <cite>Annals of Psychical Research</cite>, has thought
-it worth while to investigate the matter; and after
-summarising the results of a <em>questionnaire</em> concerning
-dreams of flying, he comes to the conclusion that 'the
-sensation of aerial flight in dreams is simply a hallucinatory
-phenomenon of an exclusively physiological [he
-means 'psychological'] kind,' and not evidence of the
-existence of the 'astral body.'<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> The fact, nevertheless,
-that so many people are found who believe such
-dreams to possess some kind of reality, clearly indicates
-the powerful impression they make.</p>
-
-<p>All my life, it seems to me, certainly from an early
-age, until recently, I have at intervals had dreams in
-which I imagined myself rhythmically bounding into<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
-the air, and supported on the air, remaining there for a
-perceptible interval; at other times I have felt myself
-gliding downstairs, but not supported by the stairs.
-In my case the experience is nearly always agreeable,
-involving a certain sense of power, and it usually
-evokes no marked surprise, occurring as a familiar and
-accustomed pleasure. On awaking I do not usually
-remember these dreams immediately, which seems to
-indicate that they are not due to causes specially
-operative at the end of sleep, or liable to bring sleep to a
-conclusion. But they leave behind them a vague yet
-profound sense of belief in their reality and reasonableness.</p>
-
-<p>Dream-flight, it is necessary to note, is not usually
-the sustained flight of a bird or an insect, and the
-dreamer rarely or never imagines that he is borne high
-into the air. Hutchinson states that of all those whom
-he has asked about the matter 'hardly one has ever
-known himself to make any high flights in his dreams.
-One almost always flies low, with a skimming manner,
-slightly, but only slightly, above the heads of pedestrians.'<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a></p>
-
-<p>Beaunis, from his own experience, describes what I
-should consider a typical kind of dream-flight as a series
-of light bounds, at one or two yards above the earth,
-each bound clearing from ten to twenty yards, the
-dream being accompanied by a delicious sensation of
-easy movement, as well as a lively satisfaction at
-being able to solve the problem of aerial locomotion by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>
-virtue of superior organisation alone.<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> Lafcadio Hearn,
-somewhat similarly, describes, in his <em>Shadowings</em>, a
-typical and frequent dream of his own as a series of
-bounds in long parabolic curves, rising to a height of
-some twenty-five feet, and always accompanied by the
-sense that a new power had been revealed which for the
-future would be a permanent possession.</p>
-
-<p>The attempt to explain dreams of flying has led to
-some bold hypotheses. Freud characteristically affirms
-that the dream of flying is the bridge to a concealed
-wish.<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> I have already mentioned the notion that
-dreams of flight are excursions of the 'astral body.'
-Professor Stanley Hall, who has himself, from childhood,
-had dreams of flying, argues, with scarcely less
-boldness, that we have here 'some faint reminiscent
-atavistic echo from the primeval sea'; and that such
-dreams are really survivals&mdash;psychic vestigial remains
-comparable to the rudimentary gill-slits not uncommonly
-found in man and other mammals&mdash;taking us back to
-the far past when man's ancestors needed no feet to
-swim or float.<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> Such a theory may accord with the
-profound conviction of reality that accompanies these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>
-dreams, though that may be more easily accounted for;
-but it has the very serious weakness that it offers an
-explanation which will not fit the facts. Our dreams
-are of flying, not of swimming; but the ancestors of
-the mammals probably lived in the water, not in the
-air. In preference to so hazardous a theory, it seems
-infinitely more reasonable to regard these dreams as
-an interpretation&mdash;a misinterpretation from the standpoint
-of waking life&mdash;of actual internal sensations.
-If we can find the adequate explanation of a psychic
-state in conditions actually existing within the organism
-itself at the time, it is needless to seek an explanation
-in conditions that ceased to exist untold millenniums
-ago.</p>
-
-<p>My own explanation was immediately suggested by
-the following dream. I dreamed that I was watching
-a girl acrobat, in appropriate costume, who was rhythmically
-rising to a great height in the air and then falling,
-without touching the floor, though each time she approached
-quite close to it. At last she ceased, exhausted
-and perspiring, and I had to lead her away. Her movements
-were not controlled by mechanism, and apparently
-I did not regard mechanism as necessary. It was
-a vivid dream, and I awoke with a distinct sensation of
-oppression in the chest. In trying to account for this
-dream, which was not founded on any memory, it
-occurred to me that probably I had here the key to a
-great group of dreams. The rhythmic rising and
-falling of the acrobat was simply the objectivation of
-the rhythmic rising and falling of my own respiratory<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>
-muscles&mdash;in some dreams, perhaps, of the systole and
-diastole of the heart's muscles&mdash;under the influence of
-some slight and unknown physical oppression, and this
-oppression was further translated into a condition of
-perspiring exhaustion in the girl, just as men with heart
-disease may dream of sweating and panting horses
-climbing uphill, in accordance with that tendency to
-magnification which marks dreams generally.<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a> We
-may recall also the curious sensation as of the body
-being transformed into a vast bellows or steam engine,
-which is often the last sensation felt before the unconsciousness
-produced by nitrous oxide gas.<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> When
-we are lying down there is a real rhythmic rising and
-falling of the chest and abdomen, centring in the
-diaphragm, a series of oscillations which at both extremes
-are only limited by the air. Moreover, in this
-position we have to recognise that the circulatory,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>
-nervous, and other systems of the whole internal
-organism, are differently balanced from what they are
-in the upright position, and that a disturbance of internal
-equilibrium always accompanies falling.</p>
-
-<p>It is also noteworthy (as, indeed, Wundt has briefly
-remarked) that the modifications produced by sleep
-in the respiratory process itself tend to facilitate its
-interpretation as a process of flying. Mosso showed that
-respiration in sleep is more thoracic than when awake,
-that it is lengthened, and that the respiratory pause is
-less marked.<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a> That is to say that both the aerial
-element and the actual rhythmic movement of the ribs
-become accentuated during sleep.</p>
-
-<p>That the respiratory element is the chief factor in
-dreams of flying is clearly indicated by the fact that
-many persons subject to such dreams are conscious on
-awaking from them of a sense of respiratory or cardiac
-disturbance. I am acquainted with a psychologist who,
-though not a frequent dreamer, is subject to dreams
-of flying, which do not affect him disagreeably, but on
-awaking from them he always perceives a slight flutter
-of the heart. Any such sensation is by no means constant
-with me, but I have occasionally noted it down
-in exactly the same words after this kind of dream.<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a>
-It is worth while to observe, in this connection, how
-large a number of people, and especially very young<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
-people, associate their dreams of flying with staircases.
-The most frequent cause of cardiac and respiratory
-stimulation, especially in children, who constantly run
-up and down them, is furnished by staircases, and
-though in health this fact may not be obvious, it is
-undoubtedly registered unconsciously, and may thus
-be utilised by dreaming intelligence.</p>
-
-<p>There is, however, another element entering into the
-problem of nocturnal aviation: the state of the skin
-sensations. Respiratory activity alone would scarcely
-suffice to produce the imagery of flight if sensations
-of tactile pressure remained to suggest contact with
-the earth. In dreams, however, the sense of movement
-suggested by respiratory activity is unaccompanied
-by the tactile pressure produced by boots or the contact
-of the ground with the soles of the feet. In addition,
-also, there is probably, as Bergson also has suggested,
-a numbness due to pressure on the parts supporting
-the weight of the body. Sleep is not a constant and
-uniform state of consciousness; a heightened consciousness
-of respiration may easily co-exist with a
-diminished consciousness of tactile pressure due to
-anaesthesia of the skin.<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> In normal sleep it may,
-indeed, be said that the conditions are probably often
-favourable to the production of this combination, and
-any slight thoracic disturbance even in healthy persons,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
-arising from heart or stomach, and acting on the
-respiration, serves to bring these conditions to sleeping
-consciousness and to determine the dream of
-flying.</p>
-
-<p>Dreams of flying are sometimes associated with
-dreams of falling, the falling sensation occurring either
-at the beginning or at the end of the dream; such a
-dream may be said to be of the Icarus type.<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a> Jewell
-considers that the two kinds of dream have the same
-causation, the difference being merely a difference of
-apperception. The frequent connection between the
-two dreams indicates that the causation is allied, but
-it scarcely seems to be identical. If it were identical,
-we should scarcely find that while the emotional tone
-of the dream of flying is usually agreeable, that of the
-dream of falling is usually disagreeable.<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a></p>
-
-<p>I have no personal experience of the sensation of falling
-in normal dreaming, although Jewell and Hutchinson
-have found that it is more common than flying, the latter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>
-regarding it, indeed, as the most common kind of dream,
-the dream of flying coming next in frequency. A friend
-who has no dreams of flying, but has experienced
-dreams of falling from his earliest years, tells me that
-they are always associated with feelings of terror. This
-suggests an organic cause, and the fact that the sensation
-of falling may occur in epileptic fits during sleep,<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> seems
-further to suggest the presence of circulatory and
-nervous disturbance. It would seem probable that
-while the same two factors&mdash;respiratory and tactile&mdash;are
-operative in both types of dream, they are not of
-equal force in each. In the dream of flying, respiratory
-activity is excited, and in response to excitation it works
-at a high level adequate to the needs of the organism.
-In the dream of falling it may be that respiratory
-activity is depressed, while concomitantly, perhaps,
-the anaesthetic state of the skin is increased. In the
-first state the abnormal activity of respiration triumphs
-in consciousness over the accompanying dulness of
-tactile sensation; in the second state the respiratory
-breathlessness is less influential than a numbness of
-the skin unconscious of any external pressure. This
-difference is rendered possible by the fact that in dreams
-of flying we are not usually far from the earth, and seem
-able to touch it lightly at intervals; that is to say that
-tactile sensitiveness is impaired, but is not entirely
-absent as it is in a dream of falling.<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>In my own experience the sensation of falling only
-occurs in illness or under the influence of drugs, sometimes
-when sleep seems incomplete, and it is an
-unpleasant, though not terrifying, sensation. I once
-experienced it in the most marked and persistent
-manner after taking a large dose of chlorodyne to
-subdue pain. Under such circumstances the sensation
-is probably due to the fact that the morphia in
-chlorodyne both weakens respiratory action and produces
-anaesthesia of the peripheral nerves, so that the
-skin becomes abnormally insensitive to the contact and
-pressure of the bed, and the sensation of descent is
-necessarily aroused.<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> It is possible that persons liable
-to the dream of falling are predisposed to a stage of
-sleep unconsciousness, in which cutaneous insensibility is
-marked. It is also possible that there is a contributory
-element of slight cardiac or respiratory disturbance.<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a></p>
-
-<p>In a dream belonging to this group, I imagined I was
-being rhythmically swung up and down in the air by a
-young woman, my feet never touching the ground;
-and then that I was swinging her similarly. At one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>
-time she seemed to be swinging me in too jerky and
-hurried a manner, and I explained to her that it must be
-done in a slower and more regular manner, though I
-was not conscious of the precise words I used. There
-had been some dyspepsia on the previous day, and
-on awaking I felt slight discomfort in the region of the
-heart. The symbolism into which slightly disturbed
-respiratory or cardiac action is here transformed seems
-very clear in this dream, because it shows the actual
-transition from the subjective sensation to the objective
-imagery of flying. By means of this symbolic imagery
-we find sleeping consciousness commanding the hurried
-heart to beat in a more healthy manner.</p>
-
-<p>Although, in youth, my dreams of flying were of what
-may be considered normal type, after the age of about
-thirty-five they tended, as illustrated by the example
-I have given, to take on a somewhat objective form.
-A further stage in this direction, the swinging movement
-being transformed to an inanimate object, is illustrated
-by a dream of comparatively recent date, in which I
-seemed to see an athlete of the music-hall, a graceful
-and muscular man, who was manipulating a large
-elastic ball, making it bound up from the floor. On
-awaking there was a distinct sensation of cardaic
-tremor and nervousness.<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a></p>
-
-<p>It may seem strange that dreams of flying, if so often<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
-due to organic disturbances, should usually be agreeable
-in character. It is not, however, necessary to
-assume that they are caused by serious interference
-with physiological functions; often, indeed, they may
-simply be due to the presence of a stage of consciousness
-in which respiration has become unduly prominent, as
-it is apt to be in the early stage of nitrous oxide anaesthesia,
-that is to say, to a relative wakefulness of the
-respiratory centres. It would seem that the disturbance
-is frequently almost, or quite, imperceptible on
-waking, and by no means to be compared with the
-more acute organic disturbances which result in dreams
-of murder, although it may be of nervous origin.<a name="FNanchor_123_123" id="FNanchor_123_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a>
-In some cases, however, it appears that dreams of flying
-are accompanied by circumstances of terror. Thus a
-medical correspondent, who describes his health as
-fairly good, writes in regard to dreams of flying: 'I
-have often had such dreams, and have wondered if
-others have them. Mine, however, are not so much
-dreams of flying, as dreams of being entirely devoid of
-weight, and of rising and falling at will. A singular
-feature of these levitation dreams is that they are always
-accompanied by an intense and agonising fear of an evil
-presence, a presence that I do not see but seem to feel,
-and my greatest terror is that I <em>shall</em> see it. The
-presence is ill-defined, but very real, and it seems to
-suggest the potentiality of all possible moral, mental,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
-and physical evil. In these dreams it always occurs
-to me that if this evil presence shall ever become embodied
-into a something that I could <em>see</em>, the sight of
-it would be so ineffably horrible as to drive me mad.
-So vivid has this fear been that on several occasions I
-have awakened in a cold sweat or a nameless fear that
-would persist for some minutes after I realised that I
-had only been dreaming.' This seems to be an abnormal
-type of the dream of flight.</p>
-
-<p>It is somewhat surprising that while dreams of
-floating in the air are so common and clearly indicate
-the respiratory source of the dream, dreams of floating
-on water seem to be rare, for as the actual experience
-of floating on water is fairly familiar, we might have
-expected that sleeping consciousness would have found
-here rather than in the never experienced idea of floating
-in air the explanation of its sensations. The dream
-of floating on water is, however, by no means unknown;
-thus Rachilde (Mme. Vallette), the French novelist
-and critic, whose dream life is vivid and remarkable,
-states that her most agreeable dream is that of floating
-on the surface of warm and transparent lakes or rivers.<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a>
-One of the correspondents of <cite>L'interm&eacute;diaire des
-Chercheurs et des Curieux</cite><a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> also states that he has often
-dreamed of walking on the water.</p>
-
-<p>It is not only in sleep that the sensation of flying is
-experienced. In hysteria a sense of peculiar lightness
-of the body, and the idea of the soul's power to fly, may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>
-occur incidentally,<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id="FNanchor_126_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> and may certainly be connected
-both with the vigilambulism, as Sollier terms the sleep-like
-tendencies of such cases, and the anaesthetic conditions
-found in the hysterical. It is noteworthy that
-Janet found that in an ecstatic person who experienced
-the sensation of rising in the air there was anaesthesia
-of the soles of the feet. In such hysterical ecstasy,
-which has always played so large a part in religious
-manifestations, it is well known that the sense of rising
-and floating in the air has often prominently appeared.
-St. Theresa occasionally felt herself lifted above the
-ground, and was fearful that this sign of divine favour
-would attract attention (though we are not told that
-that was the case), while St. Joseph of Cupertino,
-Christina the Wonderful, St. Ida of Louvain, with
-many another saint enshrined in the <em xml:lang="la" lang="la">Acta Sanctorum</em>,
-were permitted to experience this sensation; and since
-its reality is as convincing in the ecstatic state as it is
-in dreams, the saints have often been able to declare,
-in perfect good faith, that their levitation was real.<a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a>
-In all great religious movements among primitive
-peoples, similar phenomena occur, together with other
-nervous and hallucinatory manifestations. They occurred,
-for instance, in the great Russian religious
-movement which took place among the peasants in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
-the province of Kief during the winter of 1891-2. The
-leader of the movement, a devout member of the
-Stundist sect, a man with alcoholic heredity, who had
-received the revelation that he was saviour of the world,
-used not only to perceive perfumes so exquisite that
-they could only, as he was convinced, emanate from
-the Holy Ghost, but during prayer, together with a
-feeling of joy, he also had a sensation of bodily lightness
-and of floating in the air. His followers in many cases
-had the same experiences, and they delighted in jumping
-up into the air and shouting. In these cases the reality
-of the sensory obtuseness of the skin as an element in
-the manifestations was demonstrated, for Ssikorski,
-who had an opportunity of investigating these people,
-found that many of them, when in the ecstatic condition,
-were completely insensible to pain.</p>
-
-<p>The sensation of flying is one of the earliest to appear
-in the dreams of childhood.<a name="FNanchor_128_128" id="FNanchor_128_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> It is sometimes the last
-sensation at the moment of death. To rise, to fall, to
-glide away, has often been the last conscious sensation
-recalled by those who seemed to be dying, but have
-afterwards been brought back to life. Those rescued
-from drowning, for instance, have sometimes found that
-the last conscious sensation was a beatific feeling of
-being borne upwards. Pi&eacute;ron has also noted this
-sensation at the moment of death from disease in a
-number of cases, usually accompanied by a sense of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>
-well-being.<a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> The cases he describes were mostly tuberculous,
-and included individuals of both sexes, and of
-atheistic as well as religious belief. In all, the last sensation
-to which expression was given was one of flying, of
-moving upwards. In some death was peaceful, in others
-painful. In one case a girl died clasping the iron bars of
-the bed, in horror of being borne upwards. Pi&eacute;ron, no
-doubt rightly, associates this sensation with the similar
-sensation of rising and floating common in dreams, and
-with the feeling of moving upwards and resting on the
-air experienced by persons in the ecstatic state. In all
-these cases alike life is being concentrated in the brain
-and central organs, while the outlying districts of the
-body are becoming numb and dead.</p>
-
-<p>In this way it comes about that out of dreams and of
-dream-like waking states, one of the most permanent
-of human spiritual conceptions has been evolved. To
-float, to rise into the air, to fly up to heaven, has always
-seemed to man to be the final climax of spiritual activity.
-The angel is the most ethereal creature the human
-imagination can conceive. Browning's cry to his 'lyric
-love, half angel and half bird,' pathetically crude as
-poetry, is sound as psychology. The prophets and
-divine heroes of the race have constantly seemed to
-their devout followers to disappear at last by floating
-up into the sky, like Elijah, who went up 'by a whirlwind
-into heaven.' St. Peter once thought he saw his
-Master walking on the waves, and the last vision of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>
-Jesus in the Gospels reveals him rising into the air.
-For it is in the world of dreams that the human soul
-has its indestructible home, and in the attempt to
-realise these dreams lies a large part of our business
-in life.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2>
-
-<p class="p6">SYMBOLISM IN DREAMS</p>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>The Dramatisation of Subjective Feelings Based on Dissociation&mdash;Analogies
-in Waking Life&mdash;The Synaesthesias and Number-forms&mdash;Symbolism
-in Language&mdash;In Music&mdash;The Organic Basis of Dream
-Symbolism&mdash;The Omnipotence of Symbolism&mdash;Oneiromancy&mdash;The
-Scientific Interpretation of Dreams&mdash;Why Symbolism prevails
-in Dreaming&mdash;Freud's Theory of Dreaming&mdash;Dreams as
-Fulfilled Wishes&mdash;Why this Theory cannot be applied to all
-Dreaming&mdash;The Complete Form of Symbolism in Dreams&mdash;Splitting
-up of Personality&mdash;Self-objectivation in Imaginary
-Personalities&mdash;The Dramatic Element in Dreams&mdash;Hallucinations&mdash;Multiple
-Personality&mdash;Insanity&mdash;Self-objectivation a Primitive
-Tendency&mdash;Its Survival in Civilisation.</p></blockquote>
-
-
-<p>In discussing dreams of flying I have referred to a dream
-in which a slight disturbance of the heart's action was
-transformed by sleeping consciousness into the image of
-an athlete manipulating an elastic ball. This objectivation
-of what are really the dreamer's subjective sensations,
-although he is not conscious of them as subjective,
-is, indeed, a phenomenon which we have
-encountered many times. It is, however, so important
-a feature of dream psychology, and probably of such
-significant weight in its influence on waking life, that it
-is worth while to deal with it separately.</p>
-
-<p>The dramatisation of subjective elements of the
-personality, which contributes so largely to render our
-dreams vivid and interesting, rests on that dissociation,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>
-or falling apart of the constituent groups of psychic
-centres, which is so fundamental a fact of dream life.
-That is to say, that the usually coherent elements of
-our mental life are split up, and some of them&mdash;often,
-it is curious to note, precisely those which are at that
-very moment the most prominent and poignant&mdash;are
-reconstituted into what seems to us an outside and
-objective world, of which we are the interested or the
-merely curious spectators, but in neither case realise
-that we are ourselves the origin of.</p>
-
-<p>An elementary source of this tendency to objectivation
-is to be found, it may be noted, in the automatic
-impulse towards symbolism by which all sorts of feelings
-experienced by the dreamer become transformed
-into concrete visible images. When objectivation is
-thus attained, dissociation may be said to be secondary.
-So far indeed as I am able to dissect the dream-process,
-the tendency to symbolism seems nearly always to precede
-the dissociation in consciousness, though it may
-well be that the dissociation of the mental elements is
-a necessary subconscious condition for the symbolism.</p>
-
-<p>Sensory symbolism rests on a very fundamental
-psychic tendency. On the abnormal side we find it in
-the synaesthesias which, since Galton first drew attention
-to them in 1883, in his <cite>Inquiries into Human Faculty</cite>,
-have become well known, and are found among between
-six to over twelve per cent. of people. Galton investigated
-chiefly those kinds of synaesthesias which he
-called 'number-forms' and 'colour associations.' The
-number-form is characteristic of those people who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>
-almost invariably think of numerals in some more or
-less constant form of visual imagery, the number
-instantaneously calling up the picture. In persons who
-experience colour-associations, or coloured-hearing, there
-is a similar instantaneous manifestation of particular
-colours in connection with particular sounds, the
-different vowel sounds, for instance, each constantly
-and persistently evolving a definite tint, as <em>a</em> white,
-<em>e</em> vermilion, <em>i</em> yellow, etc., no two persons, however,
-having exactly the same colour scheme of
-sounds.<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a> These phenomena are not so very rare,
-and, though they must be regarded as abnormal,
-they occur in persons who are perfectly healthy and
-sane.</p>
-
-<p>It will be seen that a synaesthesia&mdash;which may involve
-taste, smell, and other senses besides hearing and
-sight&mdash;causes an impression of one sensory order to be
-automatically and involuntarily linked on to an impression
-of another totally different order. In other
-words, we may say that the one impression becomes the
-<em>symbol</em> of the other impression, for a symbol&mdash;which is
-literally a throwing together&mdash;means that two things
-of different orders have become so associated that one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>
-of them may be regarded as the sign and representative
-of the other.</p>
-
-<p>There is, however, another still more natural and
-fundamental form of symbolism which is entirely
-normal, and almost, indeed, physiological. This is the
-tendency by which qualities of one order become
-symbols of qualities of a totally different order, because
-they instinctively seem to have a similar effect on us.
-In this way, things in the physical order become
-symbols of things in the spiritual order. This symbolism
-penetrates indeed the whole of language; we cannot
-escape from it. The sea is <em>deep</em>, and so also may
-thoughts be; ice is <em>cold</em>, and we say the same of
-some hearts; sugar is <em>sweet</em>, as the lover finds also the
-presence of the beloved; quinine is <em>bitter</em>, and so is
-remorse. Not only our adjectives, but our substantives
-and our verbs are equally symbolical. To the etymological
-eye every sentence is full of metaphor, of symbol,
-of images that, strictly and originally, express sensory
-impressions of one order, but, as we use them to-day,
-express impressions of a totally different order. Language
-is largely the utilisation of symbols. This is
-a well-recognised fact which it is unnecessary to
-elaborate.<a name="FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a></p>
-
-<p>An interesting example of the natural tendency to
-symbolism, which may be compared to the allied
-tendency in dreaming, is furnished by another language,
-the language of music. Music is a representation of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>
-the world&mdash;the internal or the external world&mdash;which,
-except in so far as it may seek to reproduce the actual
-sounds of the world, can only be expressive by its
-symbolism. And the symbolism of music is so pronounced
-that it is even expressed in the elementary
-fact of musical pitch. Our minds are so constructed
-that the bass always seems <em>deep</em> to us and the treble
-<em>high</em>. We feel it incongruous to speak of a <em>high</em> bass
-voice or a <em>deep</em> soprano. It is difficult to avoid the
-conclusion that this and the like associations are fundamentally
-based, that there are, as an acute French
-philosophic student of music, Dauriac (in an essay
-'Des Images Sugg&eacute;r&eacute;es par l'Audition musicale'<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a>),
-has expressed it, 'sensorial correspondences,' as, indeed,
-Baudelaire had long since divined<a name="FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a>; that the
-motor image is that which demands from the listener
-the minimum of effort; and that music almost constantly
-evokes motor imagery.<a name="FNanchor_134_134" id="FNanchor_134_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The association between high notes and physical
-ascent, between low notes and physical descent, is certainly
-in any case very fixed.<a name="FNanchor_135_135" id="FNanchor_135_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> In Wagner's <em>Lohengrin</em>,
-the ascent and descent of the angelic chorus is thus
-indicated. Even if we go back to the early composers,
-the same correspondence is found. In Purcell it is
-very definite. In Bach&mdash;pure and abstract as his music
-is generally considered&mdash;not only this elementary
-association, but an immense amount of motor imagery
-is to be found; Bach shows, indeed, a curious pre-occupation
-in translating the definite sense of the words
-he is musically illustrating into corresponding musical
-terms; the skill and subtlety with which he accomplishes
-this, can often, as Pirro and Schweitzer have
-shown, be appreciated only by musicians.<a name="FNanchor_136_136" id="FNanchor_136_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_136_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a> It is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>
-sometimes said that this is 'realism' in music. That is
-a mistake. When the impressions derived from one
-sense are translated into those of another sense, there
-can be no question of realism. A composer may
-attempt a realistic representation of thunder, but his
-representation of lightning can only be symbolical;
-audible lightning can never be realistic.</p>
-
-<p>Not only is there an instinctive and direct association
-between sounds and motor imagery, but there is an
-indirect but equally instinctive association between
-sounds and visual imagery which, though not itself
-motor, has motor associations. Thus Bleuler considers
-it well established that among colour-hearers
-there is a tendency for photisms that are light in colour
-(and belonging, we may say, to the 'high' part of the
-spectrum) to be produced by sounds of high quality,
-and dark photisms by sounds of low quality; and, in
-the same way, sharply-defined pains or tactile sensations,
-as well as pointed forms, produce light photisms. Similarly,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>
-bright lights and pointed forms produce high
-photisms, whole low photisms are produced by opposite
-conditions. Urbantschitsch, again, by examining a
-large number of people who were not colour-hearers,
-found that a high note of a tuning-fork seems higher
-when looking at red, yellow, green, or blue, but lower
-if looking at violet. Thus two sensory qualities that
-are both symbolic of a third quality are symbolic to
-each other.</p>
-
-<p>This symbolism, we are justified in believing, is
-based on fundamental organic tendencies. Piderit,
-nearly half a century ago, forcibly argued that there is
-a real relationship of our most spiritual feelings and
-ideas to particular bodily movements and facial expressions.
-In a similar manner, he pointed out that
-bitter tastes and bitter thoughts tend to produce the
-same physical expression.<a name="FNanchor_137_137" id="FNanchor_137_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a> He also argued that the
-character of a man's looks&mdash;his <em>fixed</em> or <em>dreamy</em> eyes,
-his <em>lively</em> or <em>stiff</em> movements&mdash;correspond to real psychic
-characters. If this is so we have a physiological, almost
-anatomical, basis for symbolism. Cleland,<a name="FNanchor_138_138" id="FNanchor_138_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a> again, in
-an essay, 'On the Element of Symbolic Correlation
-in Expression,' argued that the key to a great part of
-expression is the correlation of movements and positions
-with ideas, so that there are, for instance, a host of
-associations in the human mind by which 'upward'
-represents the good, the great, and the living, while
-'downward' represents the evil and the dead. Such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>
-associations are so fundamental that they are found
-even in animals, whose gestures are, as F&eacute;r&eacute;<a name="FNanchor_139_139" id="FNanchor_139_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a> remarked,
-often metaphorical, so that a cat, for instance, will
-shake its paw, as if in contact with water, after any
-disagreeable experiences.</p>
-
-<p>The symbolism that to-day interpenetrates our language,
-and indeed our life generally, has mostly been
-inherited by us, with the traditions of civilisation,
-from an antiquity so primitive that we usually fail to
-interpret it. The rare additions we make to it in our
-ordinary normal life are for the most part deliberately
-conscious. But so soon as we fall below, or rise above,
-that ordinary normal level&mdash;to insanity and hallucination,
-to childhood, to savagery, to folk-lore and legend,
-to poetry and religion&mdash;we are at once plunged into a
-sea of symbolism.<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id="FNanchor_140_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a> There is even a normal sphere in
-which symbolism has free scope, and that is in the world
-of dreams.</p>
-
-<p>Oneiromancy, the symbolical interpretation of dreams,
-more especially as a method of divining the future, is a
-widespread art in early stages of culture. The discerning
-of dreams is represented in the Old Testament
-as a very serious and anxious matter (as in regard to
-Pharaoh's dream of the fat and lean cattle), and,
-nearer to our time, the dreams of great heroes, especially
-Charlemagne, are represented as highly important<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>
-events in the medi&aelig;val European epics. Little manuals
-on the interpretation of dreams have always been much
-valued by the uncultured classes, and among our
-current popular sayings there are many dicta concerning
-the significance, or the good or ill luck, of particular
-kinds of dreams.</p>
-
-<p>Oneiromancy has thus slowly degenerated to folk-lore
-and superstition. But at the outset it possessed
-something of the combined dignities of religion and of
-science. Not only were the old dream interpreters
-careful of the significance and results of individual
-dreams, in order to build up a body of doctrine, but they
-held that not every dream contained in it a divine
-message; thus they would not condescend to interpret
-dreams following on the drinking of wine, for only to
-the temperate, they declared, do the gods reveal their
-secrets.<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id="FNanchor_141_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a> The serious and elaborate way in which the
-interpretation of dreams was dealt with is well seen in
-the treatise on this subject by Artemidorus of Daldi,
-a native of Ephesus, and contemporary of Marcus
-Aurelius.<a name="FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_142_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a> He divided dreams into two classes:
-<em>theorematic</em> dreams, which come literally true, and
-<em>allegorical</em> dreams. The first group may be said to
-correspond to the modern groups of prophetic and
-proleptic or prodromic dreams, while the second group
-includes the symbolical dreams which have of recent
-years again attracted attention. Synesius, who lived<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
-in the fourth century, and eventually became a Christian
-bishop without altogether ceasing to be a Greek pagan,
-wrote a very notable treatise on dreaming, in which,
-with a genuinely Greek alertness of mind, he contrived
-to rationalise and almost to modernise the ancient
-doctrine of dream symbolism. He admits that it is in
-their obscurity that the truth of dreams resides, and
-that we must not expect to find any general rules in
-regard to dreams; no two people are alike, so that the
-same dream cannot have the same significance for every
-one, and we have to find out the rules of our own dreams.
-He had himself (like Galen) often been aided in his
-writings by his dreams, in this way getting his ideas
-into order, improving his style, and receiving criticisms
-of extravagant phrases. Once, too, in the days when
-he hunted, he invented a trap as a result of a dream.
-Synesius declares that attention to divination by
-dreams is good on moral grounds alone. For he who
-makes his bed a Delphian tripod will be careful to live
-a pure and noble life. In that way he will reach an end
-higher than that he aimed at.<a name="FNanchor_143_143" id="FNanchor_143_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a></p>
-
-<p>It seems to-day by no means improbable that, amid
-the absurdities of this popular oneiromancy, there are
-some items of real significance. Until recent years,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>
-however, the absurdities have frightened away the
-scientific investigator. Almost the only investigator
-of the psychology of dreaming who ventured to admit
-a real symbolism in the dream world was Scherner,<a name="FNanchor_144_144" id="FNanchor_144_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a>
-and his arguments were not usually accepted nor even
-easy to accept. When we are faced by the question
-of definite and constant symbols it still remains true
-that scepticism is often called for. But there can
-be no manner of doubt that our dreams are full of
-symbolism.<a name="FNanchor_145_145" id="FNanchor_145_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a></p>
-
-<p>The conditions of dream life, indeed, lend themselves
-with a peculiar facility to the formation of
-symbolism, that is to say, of images which, while
-evoked by a definite stimulus, are themselves of a totally
-different order from that stimulus. The very fact that
-we <em>sleep</em>, that is to say, that the avenues of sense which
-would normally supply the real image of corresponding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>
-order to the stimulus are more or less closed, renders
-symbolism inevitable.<a name="FNanchor_146_146" id="FNanchor_146_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> The direct channels being thus
-largely choked, other allied and parallel associations
-come into play, and since the control of attention
-and apperception is diminished, such play is often unimpeded.
-Symbolism is the natural and inevitable result
-of these conditions.<a name="FNanchor_147_147" id="FNanchor_147_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_147_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a></p>
-
-<p>It might still be asked why we do not in dreams more
-often recognise the actual source of the stimuli applied
-to us. If a dreamer's feet are in contact with something
-hot, it might seem more natural that he should
-think of the actual hot-water bottle, rather than of an
-imaginary Etna, and that, if he hears a singing in his
-ears, he should argue the presence of the real bird he
-has often heard rather than a performance of Haydn's
-<em>Creation</em>, which he has never heard. Here, however,
-we have to remember the tendency to magnification
-in dream imagery, a tendency which rests on the emotionality
-of dreams. Emotion is normally heightened
-in dreams. Every impression reaches sleeping consciousness
-through this emotional atmosphere, in an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>
-enlarged form, vaguer it may be, but more massive.
-The sleeping brain is thus not dealing with actual
-impressions&mdash;if we are justified in speaking of the
-impressions of waking life as 'actual'&mdash;even when
-actual impressions are being made upon it, but with
-transformed impressions. The problem before it is to
-find an adequate cause, not for the actual impression,
-but for the transformed and enlarged impression.
-Under these circumstances symbolism is quite inevitable.
-Even when the nature of an excitation is rightly perceived
-its quality cannot be rightly perceived. The
-dreamer may be able to perceive that he is being bitten,
-but the massive and profound impression of a bite
-which reaches his dreaming consciousness would not
-be adequately accounted for by the supposition of the
-real mosquito that is the cause of it; the only adequate
-explanation of the transformed impression received
-is to be found (as in a dream already narrated) in a
-creature as large as a lobster. This creature is the
-symbol of the real mosquito.<a name="FNanchor_148_148" id="FNanchor_148_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_148_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a> We have the same
-phenomenon under somewhat similar conditions in the
-intoxication of chloroform and nitrous oxide.</p>
-
-<p>The obscuration during sleep of the external sensory<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>
-channels, with the checks on false conclusions they
-furnish, is not alone sufficient to explain the symbolism
-of dreams. The dissociation of thought during sleep,
-with the diminished attention and apperception involved,
-is also a factor. The magnification of special
-isolated sensory impressions in dreaming consciousness
-is associated with a general bluntness, even an absolute
-quiescence, of the external sensory mechanism. One
-part of the organism, and it seems usually a visceral
-part, is thus apt to magnify its place in consciousness
-at the expense of the rest. As Vaschide and Pi&eacute;ron say,
-during sleep 'the internal sensations develop at the
-expense of the peripheral sensations.' That indeed
-seems to be the secret of the immense emotional turmoil
-of our dreams. Yet it is very rare for these internal
-sensations to reach the sleeping brain as what they are.
-They become conscious, not as literal messages, but as
-symbolical transformations. The excited or labouring
-heart recalls to the brain no memory of itself, but some
-symbolical image of excitement or labour. There is
-association, indeed, but it is association not along the
-matter-of-fact lines of our ordinary waking civilised
-life, but along much more fundamental and primitive
-channels, which in waking life we have now abandoned
-or never knew.</p>
-
-<p>There is another consideration which may be put forward
-to account for one group of dream-symbolisms.
-It has been found that certain hysterical subjects of old
-standing when in the hypnotic state are able to receive
-mental pictures of their own viscera, even though they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>
-may be quite ignorant of any knowledge of the shape
-of these viscera. This <em>autoscopy</em>, as it has been called,
-has been specially studied by F&eacute;r&eacute;, Comar, and Sollier.<a name="FNanchor_149_149" id="FNanchor_149_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a>
-Hysteria is a condition which is in many respects closely
-allied to sleep, and if it is to be accepted as a real fact
-that autoscopy occasionally occurs in the abnormal
-psychic state of hypnotic sleep in hysterical persons,
-it is possible to ask whether it may not sometimes
-occur normally in the allied state of sleep. In the
-hypnotic state it is known that parts of the organism
-normally involuntary may become subject to the will;
-it is not incredible that similarly parts normally
-insensitive may become sufficiently sensitive to reveal
-their own shape or condition. We may thus, indeed,
-the more easily understand those premonitory dreams
-in which the dreamer becomes conscious of morbid
-conditions which are not perceptible to waking consciousness
-until they have attained a greater degree of
-intensity.<a name="FNanchor_150_150" id="FNanchor_150_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_150_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The recognition of the transformation in dream life
-of internal sensations into symbolic motor imagery is
-ancient. Hippocrates said that to dream, for instance,
-of springs and wells denoted some disturbance of the
-bladder. In such a case a disturbed bladder sends to
-the brain, not the naked message of its own needs, but
-a symbolic message of those needs in motor imagery,
-as (in one case known to me) of a large cistern with a
-stream of water flowing from it.<a name="FNanchor_151_151" id="FNanchor_151_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_151_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a> Sometimes the
-symbolism aroused by visceral processes remains
-physiological; thus indigestion frequently leads to
-dreams of eating, as of chewing all sorts of inedible
-and repulsive substances, and occasionally&mdash;it would
-seem more abnormally&mdash;to agreeable dreams of food.</p>
-
-<p>It is due to the genius of Professor Sigmund Freud,
-of Vienna&mdash;to-day the most daring and original psychologist
-in the field of morbid psychic phenomena&mdash;that
-we owe the long-neglected recognition of the large
-place of symbolism in dreaming. Scherner had argued
-in favour of this aspect of dreams, but he was an
-undistinguished and unreliable psychologist, and his
-arguments failed to be influential. Freud avows
-himself a partisan of Scherner's theory of dreaming and
-opponent of all other theories,<a name="FNanchor_152_152" id="FNanchor_152_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_152_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a> but his treatment of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>
-the matter is incomparably more searching and profound.
-Freud, however, goes far beyond the fundamental&mdash;and,
-as I believe, undeniable&mdash;proposition
-that dream-imagery is largely symbolic. He holds
-that behind the symbolism of dreams there lies ultimately
-a <em>wish;</em> he believes, moreover, that this wish tends
-to be really of more or less sexual character, and, further,
-that it is tinged by elements that go back to the dreamer's
-infantile days. As Freud views the mechanism of
-dreams, it is far from exhibiting mere disordered mental
-activity, but is (much as he has also argued hysteria
-to be<a name="FNanchor_153_153" id="FNanchor_153_153"></a><a href="#Footnote_153_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a>) the outcome of a desire, which is driven back by
-a kind of inhibition or censure (<em>i.e.</em>, that kind of moral
-check which is still more alert in the waking state), and
-is seeking new forms of expression. There is first in
-the dream the process of what Freud calls condensation
-(<em>Verdichtung</em>), a process which is that fusion of separate
-elements which must be recognised at the outset of
-every discussion of dreaming, but Freud maintains that
-in this fusion all the elements have a point in common,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>
-and overlie one another like the pictures in a Galtonian
-composite photograph. Then there comes the process
-of displacement or transference (<em>Verschiebung</em>), a process
-by which the really central and emotional basis of the
-dream is concealed beneath trifles. Then there is the
-process of dramatisation or transformation into a concrete
-situation of which the elements have a symbolic
-value. Thus, as Maeder puts it, summarising Freud's
-views, 'behind the apparently insignificant events of
-the day utilised in the dream there is always an important
-idea or event hidden. We only dream of things
-that are worth while. What at first sight seems to be
-a trifle is a grey wall which hides a great palace. The
-significance of the dream is not so much held in the
-dream itself as in that substratum of it which has not
-passed the threshold and which analysis alone can bring
-to light.'</p>
-
-<p>'We only dream of things that are worth while.'
-That is the point at which many of us are no longer
-able to follow Freud. That dreams of the type studied
-by Freud do actually occur may be accepted; it may
-even be considered proved. But to assert that all
-dreams must be made to fit into this one formula is to
-make far too large a demand. As regards the presentative
-element in dreams&mdash;the element that is based
-on actual sensory stimulation&mdash;it is in most cases unreasonable
-to invoke Freud's formula at all. If, when
-I am asleep, the actual song of a bird causes me to dream
-that I am at a concert, that picture may be regarded as
-a natural symbol of the actual sensation, and it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>
-unreasonable to expect that psycho-analysis could reveal
-any hidden personal reason why the symbol should
-take the form of a concert. And, if so, then Freud's
-formula fails to hold good for phenomena which cover
-one of the two main divisions of dreams, even on a
-superficial classification, and perhaps enter into all
-dreams.</p>
-
-<p>But even if we take dreams of the remaining or
-representative class&mdash;the dreams made up of images
-not directly dependent on actual sensation&mdash;we still
-have to maintain a cautious attitude. A very large
-proportion of the dreams in this class seem to be, so
-far as the personal life is concerned, in no sense 'worth
-while.' It would, indeed, be surprising if they were.
-It seems to be fairly clear that in sleep, as certainly
-in the hypnagogic state, attention is diminished, and
-apperceptive power weakened. That alone seems to
-involve a relaxation of the tension by which we will
-and desire our personal ends. At the same time, by no
-longer concentrating our psychic activities at the focus
-of desire it enables indifferent images to enter more easily
-the field of sleeping consciousness. It might even be
-argued that the activity of desire, when it manifests
-itself in sleep and follows the course indicated by
-Freud, corresponds to a special form of sleep in which
-attention and apperception, though in modified forms,
-are more active than in ordinary sleep.<a name="FNanchor_154_154" id="FNanchor_154_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_154_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a> Such dreams<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
-seem to occur with special frequency, or in more definitely
-marked forms, in the neurotic and especially the
-hysterical, and if it is true that the hysterical are to
-some extent asleep even when they are awake, it may
-also be said that they are to some extent awake even
-when they are asleep. Freud certainly holds, probably
-with truth, that there is no fundamental distinction
-between normal people and psychoneurotic people,
-and that there is, for instance, as Ferenczi says, emphasising
-this point, 'a streak of hysterical disposition
-in everybody.' Freud has, indeed, made interesting
-analytic studies of his own dreams, but the great body
-of material accumulated by him and his school is derived
-from the dreams of the neurotic. Thus Stekel states
-that he has analysed many thousand dreams, but his
-lengthy study on the interpretation of dreams deals
-exclusively with the dreams of the neurotic.<a name="FNanchor_155_155" id="FNanchor_155_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_155_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a> Stekel
-believes, moreover, that from the structure of the dream
-life conclusions may be drawn, not only as to the life
-and character of the dreamer, but also as to his neurosis,
-the hysterical person dreaming differently from the
-obsessed person, and so on. If that is the case we are
-certainly justified in doubting whether conclusions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>
-drawn from the study of the dreams of neurotic people
-can be safely held to represent the normal dream life,
-even though it may be true that there is no definite
-frontier between them. Whatever may be the case
-among the neurotic, in ordinary normal sleep the images
-that drift across the field of consciousness, though they
-have a logic of their own, seem in a large proportion of
-cases to be quite explicable without resort to the theory
-that they stand in vital but concealed relationship to
-our most intimate self.</p>
-
-<p>Even in waking life, and at normal moments which
-are not those of reverie, it seems possible to trace the
-appearance in the field of consciousness of images which
-are evoked neither by any known mental or physical
-circumstance of the moment, or any hidden desire,
-images that are as disconnected from the immediate
-claims of desire and even of association as those of
-dreams seem so largely to be. It sometimes occurs to
-me&mdash;as doubtless it occurs to other people&mdash;that at
-some moment when my thoughts are normally occupied
-with the work immediately before me, there suddenly
-appears on the surface of consciousness a totally unrelated
-picture. A scene arises, vague but usually
-recognisable, of some city or landscape&mdash;Australian,
-Russian, Spanish, it matters not what&mdash;seen casually
-long years ago, and possibly never thought of since,
-and possessing no kind of known association either
-with the matter in hand or with my personal life generally.
-It comes to the surface of consciousness as softly,
-as unexpectedly, as disconnectedly, as a minute bubble<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>
-might arise and break on the surface of an actual stream
-from ancient organic material silently disintegrating
-in the depths beneath.<a name="FNanchor_156_156" id="FNanchor_156_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_156_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a> Every one who has travelled
-much cannot fail to possess, hidden in his psychic depths,
-a practically infinite number of such forgotten pictures,
-devoid of all personal emotion. It is possible to maintain,
-as a matter of theory, that when they come up to
-consciousness, they are evoked by some real, though
-untraceable, resemblance which they possess to the
-psychic or physical state existing when they reappear.
-But that theory cannot be demonstrated. Nor, it
-may be added, is it more plausible than the simple but
-equally unprovable theory that such scenes do really
-come to the surface of consciousness as the result of
-some slight spontaneous disintegration in a minute
-cerebral centre, and have no more immediately preceding
-psychic cause than my psychic realisation of
-the emergence of the sun from behind a cloud has any
-psychic preceding cause.</p>
-
-<p>Similarly, in insanity, Liepmann, in his study <cite>Ueber
-Ideenflucht</cite>, has forcibly argued that ordinary logorrhœa&mdash;the
-incontinence of ideas linked together by superficial<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span>
-associations of resemblance or contiguity&mdash;is a
-linking <em>without direction</em>, that is, corresponding to no
-interest, either practical or theoretical, of the individual.
-Or, as Clapar&egrave;de puts it, logorrhœa is a trouble in the
-reaction of <em>interest</em> in life. It seems most reasonable
-to believe that in ordinary sleep the flow of imagery
-follows, for the most part, the same easy course. That
-course may to waking consciousness often seem peculiar,
-but to waking consciousness the conditions of dreaming
-life are peculiar. Under these conditions, however, we
-may well believe that the tendency to movement in the
-direction of least resistance still prevails. And as
-attention and will are weakened and loosened during
-sleep, the tense concentration on personal ends must also
-be relaxed. We become more disinterested. Personal
-desire tends for the most part rather to fall into the background
-than to become more prominent. If it were not
-a period in which desire were ordinarily relaxed, sleep
-would cease to be a period of rest and recuperation.</p>
-
-<p>Sleeping consciousness is a vast world, a world scarcely
-less vast than that of waking consciousness. It is
-futile to imagine that a single formula can cover all its
-manifold varieties and all its degrees of depth. Those
-who imagine that all dreaming is a symbolism which a
-single cypher will serve to interpret must not be surprised
-if, however unjustly, they are thought to resemble
-those persons who claim to find on every page of Shakespeare
-a cypher revealing the authorship of Bacon.
-In the case of Freud's theory of dream interpretation,
-I hold the cypher to be real, but I believe that it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>
-impossible to regard so narrow and exclusive an interpretation
-as adequate to explain the whole world of
-dreams. It would, <em>a priori</em>, be incomprehensible that
-sleeping consciousness should exert so extraordinary a
-selective power among the variegated elements of waking
-life, and, experientially, there seems no adequate
-ground to suppose that it does exert such selective
-action. On the contrary, it is, for the most part,
-supremely impartial in bringing forward and combining
-all the manifestations, the most trivial as well as the
-most intimate, of our waking life. There is a symptom
-of mental disorder called <em>extrospection</em>, in which the
-patient fastens his attention so minutely on events that
-he comes to interpret the most trifling signs and incidents
-as full of hidden significance, and may so build
-up a systematised delusion.<a name="FNanchor_157_157" id="FNanchor_157_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_157_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a> The investigator of
-dreams must always bear in mind the risk of falling
-into morbid extrospection.</p>
-
-<p>Such considerations seem to indicate that it is not
-true that every dream, every mental image, is 'worth
-while,' though at the same time they by no means
-diminish the validity of special and purposive methods
-of investigating dream consciousness. Freud and those
-who are following him have shown, by the expenditure
-of much patience and skill, that his method of dream-interpretation
-may in many cases yield coherent results
-which it is not easy to account for by chance. It is
-quite possible, however, to recognise Freud's service<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>
-in vindicating the large place of symbolism in dreams,
-and to welcome the application of his psycho-analytic
-method to dreams, while yet denying that this is the
-only method of interpreting dreams. Freud argues
-that all dreaming is purposive and significant, and that
-we must put aside the belief that dreams are the mere
-trivial outcome of the dissociated activity of brain
-centres. It remains true, however, that, while reason
-plays a larger part in dreams than most people realise,
-the activity of dissociated brain centres furnishes one
-of the best keys to the explanation of psychic phenomena
-during sleep. It would be difficult to believe in
-any case that in the relaxation of sleep our thoughts
-are still pursuing a deliberately purposeful direction
-under the control of our waking impulses. Many
-facts indicate&mdash;though Freud's school may certainly
-claim that such facts have not been thoroughly interpreted&mdash;that,
-as a matter of fact, this control is
-often conspicuously lacking. There is, for instance,
-the well-known fact that our most recent and acute
-emotional experiences&mdash;precisely those which might
-most ardently formulate themselves in a wish&mdash;are
-rarely mirrored in our dreams, though recent occurrences
-of more trivial nature, as well as older events
-of more serious import, easily find place there. That
-is easily accounted for by the supposition&mdash;not quite
-in a line with a generalised wish-theory&mdash;that the
-exhausted emotions of the day find rest at night.</p>
-
-<p>It must also be said that even when we admit that a
-strong emotion may symbolically construct an elaborate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>
-dream edifice which needs analysis to be interpreted,
-we narrow the process unduly if we assert that the
-emotion is necessarily a wish. Desire is certainly very
-fundamental in life and very primitive. But there is
-another equally fundamental and primitive emotion&mdash;fear.<a name="FNanchor_158_158" id="FNanchor_158_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_158_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a>
-We may very well expect to find this emotion,
-as well as desire, subjacent to dream phenomena.<a name="FNanchor_159_159" id="FNanchor_159_159"></a><a href="#Footnote_159_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a></p>
-
-<p>The infantile form of the wish-dream, alike in
-adults and children, is thus, there can be little doubt,
-extremely common, and, even in its symbolic forms,
-it is a real and not rare phenomenon. But it is impossible
-to follow Freud when he declares that all
-dreams fall into the group of wish-dreams. The
-world of psychic life during sleep is, like the waking
-world, rich and varied; it cannot be covered by a single
-formula. Freud's subtle and searching analytic genius
-has greatly contributed to enlarge our knowledge of
-this world of sleep. We may recognise the value of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>
-his contribution to the psychology of dreams while
-refusing to accept a premature and narrow generalisation.</p>
-
-<p>The wish-dream of the kind elaborately investigated
-by Freud may be accepted as one type of dreaming,
-and a very interesting type, but it seems evident that
-it is only one type. There are even other types which
-seem closely related to it, and yet are quite distinct.
-This is, for instance, the case with the contrast-dream.
-The contrast-dream of N&auml;cke's type represents the
-emergence of characteristics which are distinctly opposed
-to the dreamer's character and habits. Thus,
-in the course of four consecutive nights, I have dreamed
-in much detail that (1) I was the mayor of a large
-northern city about to take the chair at a local meeting
-of the Bible Society; (2) that I was a soldier in the
-heat of battle; and (3) that I was meditating the step
-of going on the stage as a comedian&mdash;the only r&ocirc;le of
-the three which seemed to cause me any nervousness or
-misgiving. In contrast-dreams of this type we are not
-concerned with the eruption of concealed and repressed
-wishes. They are merely based on vestigial possibilities,
-entirely alien to our temperament as it has
-developed in life, and only a part of our complex personalities
-in the sense that, as Schopenhauer said, whatever
-path we take in life there are latent germs within us
-which could only have developed in an exactly opposite
-path. Even the very same dream may be due to quite
-different causes. To take a very simple dream, for we
-may best argue on the simplest facts: the dream<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>
-of eating. We dream of eating when we are hungry,
-but sometimes we also dream of eating when the stomach
-is suffering from repletion. The dream is the same,
-but the psychological mechanism is entirely different,
-in the one case emotional, in the other intellectual.
-In the first case the picture of eating is built up in response
-to an organic visceral craving, and we have an
-elementary wish-dream of what Freud would call infantile
-type; in the second case the same dream is a
-theory, embodied in a concrete picture, to account for
-the existence of the repletion experienced.</p>
-
-<p>There cannot be the slightest doubt that the wish-dream,
-in its simple or what Freud calls its infantile
-form, represents an extremely common type of dream.<a name="FNanchor_160_160" id="FNanchor_160_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_160_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a>
-A large number of the dreams of children are concerned
-with wishes and their fulfilments. Those dreams of
-adults which are aroused by actual organic sensations
-also tend to fall, though not invariably, into the same
-form. Again, we chance to want a thing when we are
-awake; when we are asleep we dream we have found it.
-It may also be said, almost with certainty, that in some
-cases our dreams are the fulfilment of unexpressed and
-unconscious waking wishes. Even the best people,
-it is probable, may occasionally dream of events which
-represent the fulfilment of wishes they have never
-consciously formulated. Archbishop Laud was accustomed
-to note down his dreams in his Diary. On one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>
-occasion we find him setting down a disturbing dream,
-in which he saw the Lord Keeper dead, and 'rotten
-already.' A little later we find that Laud is 'much
-concerned at the envy and undeserved hatred borne
-to me by the Lord Keeper.'<a name="FNanchor_161_161" id="FNanchor_161_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_161_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a> It is not difficult to see
-in the Archbishop's relations to the Lord Keeper an
-explanation of his dream.</p>
-
-<p>If, however, wishes, conscious or unconscious, are
-often fulfilled in dreams, and if, as we have seen reason
-to conclude, symbolism is a fundamental tendency of
-dreaming activity, it is inevitable that wish-dreams
-should sometimes take on a symbolic form. It is thus,
-for instance, that I interpret my dream of being in an
-English cathedral and seeing on the wall a notice to
-the effect that at evensong on such a day the edifice
-will not be illuminated, in order to avoid attracting
-moths; I awake with a slight headache, and the unilluminated
-cathedral was the symbol of the coolness
-and absence of glare which one desires when suffering
-from headache.</p>
-
-<p>There cannot, also, be any doubt that erotic wishes
-frequently make themselves felt as dreams, both in the
-infantile and the symbolic form. It is sufficient to
-bring forward one illustration. It is furnished by a
-young lady of somewhat neurotic tendencies and
-heredity, aged twenty-three, musical and intelligent,
-who was in love with her music-master, the organist
-at her church. The dream was written down at the
-time. 'I was at the school of my childhood, and I was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>
-told that I was St. Agnes Virgin and Martyr, and in
-five minutes' time I was to be beheaded with a large
-knife. The sheen of the blade frightened me so much
-that I asked if instead I might be strangled by the man
-I was in love with. Permission was given if I could
-induce him to come in time. I ran to our church
-(saying to myself that I knew it was a dream, but that
-I <em>must</em> see what he would say) over huge stones that
-cut my bare feet, and wondered what age I was living
-in, longing to meet some women in order to find out.
-When I did, they all wore crinolines. I rushed up the
-central aisle, which was full of people, thinking that, as
-I was going to be killed, nothing could matter. Mr. T.
-(the organist) was giving a choir practice in the vestry.
-I ran up to him and said: "Come at once, I am going
-to be killed." He became very angry, and said: "Do
-go away; you are always interrupting my choir
-practice." I said: "Don't you understand? I am
-going to be killed at once; there is a knife hanging over
-my head, but I would rather be strangled by you, and
-they said I could if I fetched you in time." As soon as
-he understood that he came at once. Then it seemed in
-the dream that we were married, and had a son, who
-was to be a musical composer. I said I must say goodbye
-to this son first, and told the nurse to bring him to
-me. When he came I said: "Good-bye, I am going
-to be killed." He said, "Mother, am I a boy or a girl?
-When I am with boys I don't seem like them, and they
-call me a girl, and yet I don't look like a girl." I
-replied: "You are both in one, because you are going<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span>
-to be a perfect musical genius."' In this dream, which
-represents the fulfilment in sleep of an affection unsatisfied
-in life, we see side by side the infantile and the
-symbolic fulfilments of the erotic wish, culminating
-in a gifted musical child. The wish to be strangled is an
-undoubted erotic symbol,<a name="FNanchor_162_162" id="FNanchor_162_162"></a><a href="#Footnote_162_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a> and it is significant that in
-the course of the dream the accepted death by strangulation
-became fused with marriage, although the idea
-of death still inconsistently survives, doubtless because
-dream consciousness failed to realise that the accepted
-form of death was a subconsciously furnished symbol
-of the consummation of marriage.</p>
-
-<p>The wish-dream of Freud's type has presented itself
-for consideration here, because it is a special and
-elaborate illustration of symbolism in dreaming.
-The important place of symbols in dreaming is by
-no means dependent on the validity of this particular
-type of dream, and we may now proceed to
-continue the discussion of the significance of the
-symbolic tendency during sleep in its most important
-form.</p>
-
-<p>The symbols we have so far been mainly concerned
-with have been the result of a tendency of dreaming
-consciousness to objectify feelings and affections within
-the organism in concrete objects or processes outside
-the organism. In its complete form this symbolic
-tendency becomes the objectivation of part of the
-dreamer's feelings or personality in a distinct imaginary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>
-personality. A process of dramatisation occurs, and
-the dreamer finds himself in action and reaction, friendly
-or hostile or indifferent, with seemingly external personalities
-which, by the light of the analysis possible on
-awakening, are demonstrably created out of split-off
-portions of his own personality.<a name="FNanchor_163_163" id="FNanchor_163_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_163_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a> A common and
-simple form of such objectivation, closely allied to some
-of the symbolisms already brought forward, occurs
-when the dreamer sees the image of a person suffering
-from some affection of a part of the body and finds on
-awakening that he is himself experiencing pain or discomfort
-in that part. Thus a medical man dreams he
-is examining a tumour in a patient's groin, and on
-awakening finds slight irritation in the same region of
-his own body. And similarly, just as our bodily needs,
-when experienced during sleep, may be symbolised by
-inanimate natural objects and processes, so they may
-also become objective in the image of another person
-who is occupied in gratifying the need which we are
-ourselves unconsciously experiencing.</p>
-
-<p>An interesting and significant group of cases is
-furnished by those dreams in which&mdash;as the result of
-some compression or effort&mdash;the tactile and muscular
-sensations of our own limbs are split off from sleeping
-consciousness and built up into an imaginary personality.
-Thus a medical friend, shortly after an attack
-of influenza, dreamed that in conversation with a lady
-patient his hand rested on her knee; she requested him<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
-to remove it, but his efforts to do so were fruitless, and he
-awoke in horror from this unprofessional situation to
-find that his hand was firmly clasped between his own
-knees. His body had thus been divided in dreaming
-consciousness between himself and an imaginary other
-person; the knee had become the other person's,
-while the hand remained his own, the hand being
-claimed in preference to the knee no doubt on account
-of its greater tactile sensibility and more complexly
-intimate association with the brain. In the hypnagogic
-(or hypnopompic) state such dream sensations may
-almost reach the intensity of hallucination. Thus,
-after an indigestible supper, I awake with the vivid
-feeling that some one is lying on me and attempting
-to drag off the bedclothes, and I find myself violently
-attempting, but apparently in vain, to articulate: 'Who
-is there?' In a dream of similar type, which occurred
-when lying on my back (and possibly with slight indigestion
-due to an unusually late dinner), I awoke
-making a kind of inarticulate exclamation which
-awakened my wife. I had dreamed that I was lying
-in bed, and that some unseen creature&mdash;more supernatural
-than human, it seemed&mdash;was violently dragging
-the bedclothes off me, while I shouted to it, very distinctly
-it seemed to me, 'Avaunt, avaunt!'</p>
-
-<p>It is evident that my own sense of oppression, my
-own unconscious and involuntary movements in disturbing
-the bedclothes, were reconstructed by sleeping
-consciousness as the actions of an external person, in
-the second case, a supernatural creature, which, it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>
-interesting to note, I duly accepted as such and addressed
-in the conventionally appropriate manner of old
-romance. The illusion may persist for some moments
-after waking. A lady, after breathing rather loudly
-and convulsively for a few seconds, wakes up, saying
-'There is a rat or a mouse on the bed, shaking it up and
-down.' 'You were asleep,' her husband replied, 'as
-I knew by your breathing.' 'Oh, I was breathing like
-that,' she said, 'to make it jump off.' Here we see
-that, somewhat as in the previous cases, the dreamer's
-own muscular activity is, during sleep, reconstructed
-into the image of an external force; but when she is
-in the semi-waking hypnagogic stage, she recognises
-that the activity was her own, though still unable to
-dismiss the delusion based on the theory formed during
-sleep.</p>
-
-<p>At this point we reach the threshold of hallucination,
-and the next case to be brought forward may be said to
-lie on the threshold, for an impression received in the
-hypnagogic (or hypnopompic) stage is accepted in its
-illusional form, even when the dreamer is fully awake.
-A farmer's daughter&mdash;a bright girl of twenty-one, with
-quick nervous reactions, but untrained mind&mdash;dreamed
-that she saw her brother (dead some years previously)
-with blood streaming from his fingers. She awoke
-in a fright, and was comforting herself with the thought
-that it was only a dream when she felt a hand grip her
-shoulder three times in succession. There was no one
-in the room, the door was locked, and no explanation
-seemed possible to her. She was very frightened, got<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span>
-up at once, dressed, and spent the rest of the night
-downstairs working. She was so convinced that a real
-hand had touched her that, although it seemed impossible,
-she asked her brothers if they had not been playing
-a trick on her. The nervous shock was considerable,
-and she was unable to sleep well for some weeks afterwards.
-She naturally knew nothing about abnormal
-psychic phenomena, and was utterly puzzled to explain
-the experience, except by supposing that it may have
-been a ghost. The explanation is really very simple.
-It is well recognised that involuntary muscular twitches
-may occur in the shoulder, especially after it has been
-subjected to pressure, and that in some cases such
-contractions may simulate a touch.<a name="FNanchor_164_164" id="FNanchor_164_164"></a><a href="#Footnote_164_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a> The dream of a
-bleeding hand indicates, when we bear in mind the
-tendency to objectify sensations symbolically, now
-familiar to us in dreaming, that the dreamer's arm was
-probably pressed beneath her in a cramped position.<a name="FNanchor_165_165" id="FNanchor_165_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_165_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a>
-This pressure would account, not only for the dream, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>
-for the muscular twitches occurring on awakening.
-The nature of the dream, the terrified emotional state
-it produced, and the mental obscurity of the hypnagogic
-state, naturally combined, in a subject unaccustomed
-to self-analysis, to create an illusion which
-reflection is unable to dispel, though in the normal
-waking state she would probably have given no attention
-at all to such muscular twitches. Strictly speaking,
-such an experience is an illusion&mdash;that is to say, a misinterpretation
-of a real sensation&mdash;and not a hallucination&mdash;or
-perception without known objective causation&mdash;but
-there is no clear line of demarcation. In any
-case it may now be taken as proved that hallucinations
-tend to occur in the neighbourhood of sleep, and therefore
-to partake of the nature of dreams.<a name="FNanchor_166_166" id="FNanchor_166_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_166_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a></p>
-
-<p>So far we have been concerned with the tendency in
-dreams to objectify portions of the body by constructing
-out of them new personalities. But precisely the same
-process goes on in sleep with regard to our thoughts
-and feelings. We split off portions of these also and
-construct other personalities out of them, and sometimes
-even endow the persons thus formed with thoughts
-and feelings more native to our own normal personality
-than those which we reserve for ourselves. Thus a
-lady who dreamed that when walking with a friend
-she discovered a species of animal fruit, a kind of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span>
-damson containing a snail, expressed her delight at
-finding a combination so admirably adapted to culinary
-purposes; it was the friend who, retaining the attitude
-of her own waking moments, uttered an exclamation
-of disgust. Most of the dreams in which there is any
-dramatic element are due to this splitting up of personality;
-in our dreams we may experience shame or
-confusion from the rebukes or the arguments of other
-persons, but the persons who administer the rebuke
-or apply the argument are still ourselves.<a name="FNanchor_167_167" id="FNanchor_167_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_167_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a></p>
-
-<p>Some writers on dreaming have marvelled greatly
-at this tendency of the sleeping mind to objectify
-portions of itself, and so to create imaginary personalities
-and evolve dramatic situations. It has seemed
-to them quite unaccountable except as the outcome of
-a special gift of imagination appertaining to sleep. Yet,
-remarkable as it is, this process is simply the inevitable
-outcome of the conditions under which psychic life
-exists during sleep. If we realise that a more or less
-pronounced degree of dissociation of the contents of
-the mind occurs during sleep, and if we also realise that,
-sleeping fully as much as waking, mind is a thing that
-instinctively reasons, and cannot refrain from building
-up hypotheses, then we may easily see how the personages
-and situations of dreams develop. Much the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>
-same process might, under some circumstances, occur
-in waking life. If, for instance, we heard an unknown
-voice speaking behind a curtain, we could not fail to
-build up an imaginary person in connection with that
-voice, the characteristics of the imaginary person being
-largely determined by the nature of the voice and of
-the things it uttered: it would, further, be quite easy
-to enter into conversation with the person we had thus
-constructed. That is what seems to occur in dreams.
-We hear a voice behind the curtain of darkness, and to
-fit that voice and the things it utters we instinctively
-form a picture which, in virtue of the hallucinatory
-aptitude of sleep, is thrown against the curtain; it is
-then quite easy to enter into conversation with the
-person we have thus constructed. It no more occurs
-to us during sleep to suppose that the voice we hear is
-only a voice and nothing more, than it would occur to
-us awake to suppose that the voice behind the curtain
-is only a voice and nothing more. The process is the
-same; the difference is that in dreams we are, without
-knowing it, living among what from the waking point
-of view are called hallucinations.</p>
-
-<p>This process by which dreams are formed in sleeping
-consciousness through the splitting of the dreamer's
-personality for the construction of other personalities
-has been recognised ever since dreams began to be
-seriously studied. Maury referred to the scission of
-personality in dreams.<a name="FNanchor_168_168" id="FNanchor_168_168"></a><a href="#Footnote_168_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a> Delboeuf dealt with what he
-termed the altruising by the dreamer of part of his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span>
-representations.<a name="FNanchor_169_169" id="FNanchor_169_169"></a><a href="#Footnote_169_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a> Foucault terms the same process
-personalisation.<a name="FNanchor_170_170" id="FNanchor_170_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_170_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a> Giessler attempts elaborately to explain
-the enigma of self-diremption&mdash;the formation of
-a secondary self&mdash;in dreams; if, he argues, a touch or
-other sensation exceeds the dream-body's capacity of
-adaptation&mdash;<em>i.e.</em>, if the state of stimulus is above the
-apperceptive threshold&mdash;only one part of the perception
-is referred to the dream-body and the other is
-transferred to a secondary self.<a name="FNanchor_171_171" id="FNanchor_171_171"></a><a href="#Footnote_171_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a> This explanation,
-while it very fairly covers the presentative class of
-dreams, directly connected with sensory stimuli, cannot
-so easily be applied to the dramatisation of our representative
-dreams, which are not obviously traceable to
-direct bodily stimulation.</p>
-
-<p>The splitting up of personality is indeed a very pronounced
-and widely extended tendency of the mind,
-and has, during recent years, been elaborately studied.
-We thus have the basis of that psychic phenomenon
-which is variously termed secondary personality, double
-personality, duplex personality, multiple personality,
-alternation of personality, etc.,<a name="FNanchor_172_172" id="FNanchor_172_172"></a><a href="#Footnote_172_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a> and in earlier ages
-was regarded as due to possession by demons. Such
-conditions seem to be usually associated with hysteria.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>
-The essential fact about hysteria is, according to Janet,
-its lack of synthetising power, which is at the same time
-a lack of attention and of apperception, and has as its
-result a disintegration of the field of consciousness into
-mutually exclusive parts; that is to say, there is a process
-of dissociation. Now that is a condition resembling,
-as we have seen, the condition found in dreaming. It
-is not, therefore, difficult to accept the view of Sollier
-and others, that hysteria is a condition allied to sleep,
-a condition of vigilambulism in which the patients are
-often unable to obtain normal sleep, simply because
-they are all the time in a state of abnormal sleep; as
-one said to Sollier: 'I cannot sleep because I am
-asleep all the time.' It may thus be the case that
-hysterical multiple personalities<a name="FNanchor_173_173" id="FNanchor_173_173"></a><a href="#Footnote_173_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a> furnish a pathological
-analogue of that tendency to the dramatic objectivation
-of portions of our personality which is normal and
-healthy in dreams.</p>
-
-<p>Similarly in insanity we have an even more constant
-and pronounced tendency for the subject to attribute
-his own sensations to imaginary individuals, and to
-create personalities out of portions of the real personality.
-All the illusions, delusions, and hallucinations
-of the insane are merely the manifold manifestations
-of this tendency. Without it the insanity would not
-exist. It is not because he is subjected to unusual
-sensations&mdash;visionary, auditory, tactile, olfactory,
-visceral, etc.&mdash;that a man is insane. It is because he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>
-creates imaginary personalities to account for these
-sensations; if his food tastes strange some one has
-given him <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'posion'">poison</ins> if he hears a strange voice it is some
-one communicating with him by telephones or microphones
-or hypnotism; if he feels a strange internal
-sensation it is perhaps because he has another person
-inside him. The case has even been recorded of a man
-who attributed any feeling he experienced, even the
-most normal sensations of hunger and thirst, to the
-people around him. It is exactly the same process as
-goes on in our dreams. The sane man, the normal
-waking man, may experience all these strange sensations,
-but he recognises that they are the spontaneous outcome
-of his own organisation.</p>
-
-<p>We may, however, advance a step beyond this
-position. This self-objectivation, this dramatisation
-of our experiences, is not confined to sleep and to
-pathological conditions which resemble sleep. It is
-natural and primitive in a far wider sense. The infant
-will gaze inquisitively at its own feet, watch their
-movements, play with them, 'punish' them; consciousness
-has not absorbed them as part of the self.<a name="FNanchor_174_174" id="FNanchor_174_174"></a><a href="#Footnote_174_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a>
-The infant really acts and feels towards the remote
-parts of his own body as the adult acts and feels in
-dreaming. We are reminded of the generalisation of
-Giessler that dream consciousness corresponds to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>
-normal psychic state in childhood, while sleeping subconsciousness
-corresponds to the embryonic psychic
-state; so that the dream state represents the
-renascence of the ego disentangling itself from the
-impersonal sensations and indistinct images of the
-embryonic stage of life. That sleeping consciousness is
-the primitive embryonic consciousness is, indeed, indicated,
-it has often seemed to me, by the fact that in
-many animals the embryonic position is the position of
-rest and sleep. Ducklings and chicks in the shell have
-their heads beneath their wing. The dog lies with his
-feet together, head flexed, and hind-quarters drawn up.
-Man, alike in the womb and asleep, tends to be curled
-up, with the flexors predominating over the extensors.</p>
-
-<p>The savage has gone beyond the infant in ability
-to assimilate the impressions of his own limbs, but on
-the psychic side he still constantly tends to objectify
-his own feelings and ideas, re-creating them as external
-beings. Primitive man has done so from the first, and
-this impulse has struck its roots into all our most
-fundamental human traditions even as they survive
-in civilisation to-day. The man of the early world
-moves, like the dreamer, among a sea of emotions
-and ideas which he cannot recognise the origin of,
-and, like the dreamer, he instinctively dramatises them.
-But, unlike the dreamer, he gives stability to the images
-he has thus created and in good faith mistaken for
-independent beings. Thus we have the animistic
-stages of culture, and early man peoples his world with
-gods and spirits and demons and fairies and ghosts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>
-which enter into the traditions of his race, and are more
-or less accepted even by a later race which no longer
-creates them for itself.</p>
-
-<p>In our more advanced civilisations we are still struggling
-with later forms of that Protean tendency to
-objectify the self and to animate the things and even
-the people around us with our own spirit. The impatient
-and imperfectly bred child, or even man, kicks
-viciously the object he stumbles against, animate or
-inanimate, in order to revenge a wrong which exists
-only in himself. On a slightly higher plane, the men of
-medi&aelig;val times brought actions in the law courts
-against offending animals and solemnly pronounced
-sentence against them as 'criminals,'<a name="FNanchor_175_175" id="FNanchor_175_175"></a><a href="#Footnote_175_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a> while even to-day
-society still 'punishes' the human criminal because it
-has imaginatively re-created him in the image of an
-ordinary normal person, and lacks the intelligence to
-perceive that he has been moulded by the laws of his
-nature and environment into a creature which we do
-well to protect ourselves against, but have no right
-to 'punish.'<a name="FNanchor_176_176" id="FNanchor_176_176"></a><a href="#Footnote_176_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a> Everywhere we still see around us the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>
-surviving relics of this primitive tendency of men to
-project their own personalities into external objects.
-A fine civilisation lies largely in the due subordination
-of this tendency, in the realisation and control of our
-own emotional possibilities, and in the resultant growth
-of personal responsibility.</p>
-
-<p>It is thus impossible to over-estimate the immense
-importance of the primitive symbolic tendency to
-objectify the subjective. Men have taken out of their
-own hearts their best feelings and their worst feelings,
-and have personalised and dramatised them, bowed
-down to them or stamped on them, unable to hear the
-voice with which each of their images spoke: 'I am
-thyself.' Our conceptions of religion, of morals, of
-many of the mightiest phenomena of life, especially
-the more exceptional phenomena, have grown up under
-this influence, which still serves to support many
-movements of to-day by some people imagined to be
-modern.</p>
-
-<p>Dreaming, as we have seen, is not the sole source of
-such conceptions. But they could scarcely have been
-found convincing, and possibly could not even have
-arisen, among races which were wholly devoid of dream
-experiences. A large part of all progress in psychological
-knowledge, and, indeed, a large part of civilisation
-itself, lies in realising that the apparently objective
-is really subjective, that the angels and demons and
-geniuses of all sorts that once seemed to be external
-forces taking possession of feeble and vacant individualities
-are themselves but modes of action of marvellously<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span>
-rich and varied personalities. In our dreams we
-are brought back into the magic circle of early culture,
-and we shrink and shudder in the presence of imaginative
-phantoms that are built up of our own thoughts
-and emotions, and are really our own flesh.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
-
-<p class="p6">DREAMS OF THE DEAD</p>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>Mental Dissociation during Sleep&mdash;Illustrated by the Dream of Returning
-to School Life&mdash;The Typical Dream of a Dead Friend&mdash;Examples&mdash;Early
-Records of this Type of Dream&mdash;Analysis
-of such Dreams&mdash;Atypical Forms&mdash;The Consolation sometimes
-afforded by Dreams of the Dead&mdash;Ancient Legends of this Dream
-Type&mdash;The Influence of Dreams on the Belief of Primitive Man
-in the Survival of the Dead.</p></blockquote>
-
-
-<p>Our memories tend to fall into groups or systems.
-We all possess a great number of such systematised
-groups of impressions. Every period of life, every subject
-we have occupied ourselves with, every intimate
-friend we have had, each represents a more or less separate
-mass of ideas and feelings. Within each system
-one idea or feeling easily calls up another belonging
-to the same system. Moreover, in full and alert waking
-life, each system is in touch with the systems related to
-it. If there crowd into the field of consciousness the
-memories belonging to one period of life, or one country
-we have lived in, we can control and criticise those
-memories by reference to others belonging to another
-period or another country. If we are overwhelmed by
-the thoughts and emotions associated with the memory
-of one friend we can restore our mental balance by
-evoking the thoughts and emotions associated with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span>
-another friend. The various systems are in this way
-co-ordinated in apperception.<a name="FNanchor_177_177" id="FNanchor_177_177"></a><a href="#Footnote_177_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a></p>
-
-<p>In sleep, however, these groups are not usually so
-firmly held together by the cords along which we can
-move in our waking moments from one to the other.
-They are, as it were, loosened from their moorings, and
-on the sea of sleeping consciousness they drift apart or
-jostle together in new and what seem to be random
-associations. This is that process of dissociation which
-we find so marked in dreaming, and in all those psychic
-phenomena&mdash;hallucinations, hysteria, multiple personality,
-insanity&mdash;which are allied to dreaming.</p>
-
-<p>A simple illustration of the clash and confusion of
-two opposing systems of memories in dreams, when due
-apperceptive control is lacking, is supplied by a common
-and well-recognised type of dream, the dream of returning
-to the school of youth.<a name="FNanchor_178_178" id="FNanchor_178_178"></a><a href="#Footnote_178_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a> Many people are
-occasionally liable to this dream, which is often vivid
-and disturbing. We may have left the schoolroom
-thirty years or more ago, and never seen it since; it
-may have vanished from our waking thoughts. Yet
-from time to time we find ourselves there in our dreams,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span>
-and called upon to take our old place, always with a
-sense of conflict, a vague discomfort, a feeling of something
-incongruous and humiliating, for we realise that
-we are now too old. Here is a dream in illustration:
-I find myself back at my old school, but my old schoolmaster
-is not there; he is away ill, as I am told by his
-substitute, whose face somehow seems familiar, though
-I cannot recall where I have seen it. I do not know
-any of the boys; I am returning after an absence of
-some months. I realise that I am to take my old place
-again, and yet I feel a profound repulsion to do so,
-a sense that it is somehow incongruous. This latter
-feeling seems to prevail, for I finally assume the part
-of a visitor, and remark, insincerely, to the master that
-it is pleasant to see the old place again.</p>
-
-<p>In such a case as this it seems that a picture from an
-ancient system of memories floats across the field of
-sleeping consciousness, and the dreamer is naturally
-drawn into that system and begins to adapt himself
-to its demands. But, as he does so, the influence of
-other later and incompatible systems of memories
-begins unconsciously to affect the dreamer.<a name="FNanchor_179_179" id="FNanchor_179_179"></a><a href="#Footnote_179_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a> The cords
-of connection, however, which when awake would
-enable him to adjust critically the opposing systems,
-are not acting; apperception is defective. Yet the
-opposing systems are there, outside the immediate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>
-field of consciousness, and jostling the ancient system
-which has come into the central focus. Finally this
-jostling of the ancient system by more recent systems
-causes a harmonising modification in consciousness.
-The dreamer ceases to be a boy in his old school, and
-assumes the part of a visitor.</p>
-
-<p>Dreams of our recently dead friends furnish a type of
-dream which is formed in exactly the same way as these
-dreams of a return to school life. The only difference
-is that they often present it in a more vivid, pronounced,
-and poignantly emotional shape. This is so, partly
-from the very subject of such dreams, and partly
-because the fact of death definitely divides our impressions
-of our dead friends into two groups, which are
-intimately allied to each other by their subject, and yet
-absolutely opposed by the fact that in the one group
-the friend is alive, and in the other dead.</p>
-
-<p>I proceed to present two series of dreams&mdash;one in a
-man, the other in a woman&mdash;illustrating this type of
-dream.<a name="FNanchor_180_180" id="FNanchor_180_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_180_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a></p>
-
-<p><em>Observation I.</em>&mdash;Mr. C., age about twenty-eight, a
-man of scientific training and aptitudes. Shortly
-after his mother's death he repeatedly dreamed that
-she had come to life again. She had been buried, but
-it was somehow found out that she was not really dead.
-Mr. C. describes the painful intellectual struggles that
-went on in these dreams, the arguments in favour of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span>
-death from the impossibility of prolonged life in the
-grave, and how these doubts were finally swallowed
-up in a sense of wonder and joy because his mother was
-actually there, alive, in his dream.</p>
-
-<p>These dreams became less frequent as time went on,
-but some years later occurred an isolated dream which
-clearly shows a further stage in the same process. Mr.
-C. dreamed that his father had just returned home, and
-that he (the dreamer) was puzzled to make out where
-his mother was. After puzzling a long time he asked
-his sister, but at the very moment he asked it flashed
-upon him&mdash;more, he thinks, with a feeling of relief at
-the solution of a painful difficulty than with grief&mdash;that
-his mother was dead.</p>
-
-<p><em>Observation II.</em>&mdash;Mrs. F., age about thirty, highly
-intelligent but of somewhat emotional temperament.
-A week after the death of a lifelong friend to whom she
-was greatly attached, Mrs. F. dreamed for the first time
-of her friend, finding that she was alive, and then in
-the course of the dream discovering that she had been
-buried alive.</p>
-
-<p>A second dream occurred on the following night.
-Mrs. F. imagined that she went to see her friend, whom
-she found in bed, and to whom she told the strange
-things that she had heard (<em>i.e.</em>, that the friend was dead).
-Her friend then gave Mrs. F. a few things as souvenirs.
-But on leaving the room Mrs. F. was told that her friend
-was really dead, and had spoken to her after death.</p>
-
-<p>In a fourth dream, at a subsequent date, Mrs. F.
-imagined that her friend came to her, saying that she<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span>
-had returned to earth for a few minutes to give her
-messages and to assure her that she was happy in another
-world and in the enjoyment of the fullest life.</p>
-
-<p>Another dream occurred more than a year later.
-Some one brought to Mrs. F., in her dream, the news
-that her friend was still alive; she was taken to her
-and found her as in life. The friend said she had been
-away, but did not explain where or why she had been
-supposed dead. Mrs. F. asked no questions and felt
-no curiosity, being absorbed in the joy of finding her
-friend still alive, and they proceeded to talk over the
-things that had happened since they last met. It was
-a very vivid, natural, and detailed dream, and on
-awaking Mrs. F. felt somewhat exhausted. Although
-not superstitious, the dream gave her a feeling of
-consolation.</p>
-
-<p>The next series has been observed more recently.
-I include all the dreams and the intervals at which
-they occurred. The somewhat unexpected news reached
-me of the death of a near and lifelong friend when I was
-myself recovering from an attack of influenza. No
-dream which could be connected with this event occurred
-until about a fortnight later<a name="FNanchor_181_181" id="FNanchor_181_181"></a><a href="#Footnote_181_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a> (16th January).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>
-I then dreamed that I was with my friend and asking
-him (he had been a clergyman and Biblical scholar)
-whether, in his opinion, Jesus had been able to speak
-Greek. I awoke before I received his answer, but no
-sort of doubt, hesitation, or surprise was aroused by
-his appearance alive.</p>
-
-<p>Nineteen days later (4th February) occurred the
-next dream. This time I dreamed that my friend was
-just dead, and that I was gazing at a postcard of good
-wishes, written partly in Latin, which he had sent me
-a few days before (on the actual date of my birthday),
-and regretting that I had not answered it. There
-was no doubt in my mind as to the fact of his death.
-(I may remark that the last letter I had written to my
-friend was on his birthday, and he had been unable to
-reply, so that there was here one of those reversals
-which Freud and others have noted as not uncommon
-in dreams.)</p>
-
-<p>The next dream occurred thirty-four days later
-(10th March). I thought that I met my friend, and at
-once realised that it was not he but his wife who had
-died, and I clasped his hand sympathetically.</p>
-
-<p>Some months later (27th July) I again dreamed that
-I was walking with my friend and talking, as we might
-have talked, on topics of common interest. But at
-the same time I knew, and he knew that I knew, that
-he was to die on the morrow.</p>
-
-<p>Once more, a fortnight later (10th August), I dreamed
-that I had an appointment to meet my friend in a certain
-road, but he failed to appear. I began to wonder<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span>
-whether he had forgotten the appointment, or I had
-made a mistake, and I was seeking for the letter making
-the appointment when I awoke.</p>
-
-<p>It would appear that the dreams of this type are less
-pronounced in the ratio of the less pronounced affectional
-intensity of the relationship which unites the
-friends. The next dream concerned a man for whom
-I had the highest esteem and regard, but had not been
-intimately associated with. I dreamed that I saw this
-friend, who was the editor of a psychological journal,
-alive and well in his room, together with two foreign
-psychologists also known to me, who had apparently
-succeeded him in the editorship of the journal, for I
-saw their names on the title-page of a number of it
-which was put in my hands. It surprised me that,
-though alive and well, he should have ceased to edit
-the journal; the theory by which I satisfactorily
-accounted to myself for his appearance was that, though
-he had been so near death that his life was despaired of,
-he had not actually died; his death had been prematurely
-reported. It flashed across my dream consciousness,
-indeed, that I had read obituaries of my friend
-in the papers, but this reminiscence merely suggested
-the reflection that some one had been guilty of a grave
-indiscretion.<a name="FNanchor_182_182" id="FNanchor_182_182"></a><a href="#Footnote_182_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Although no attempt had been made to analyse this
-type of dream before 1895, the dream itself had often
-been noted down, as from its poignant and affecting
-character it could not fail to be. An early example is
-furnished by the philosopher Gassendi, who states that
-he dreamed he met a friend, that he greeted him as one
-returned from the dead, and that then, saying to himself
-in his dream that this was impossible, he concluded
-that he must be dreaming.<a name="FNanchor_183_183" id="FNanchor_183_183"></a><a href="#Footnote_183_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a> Pepys, again, in his <cite>Diary</cite>,
-on the 29th June 1667, a few months after his mother's
-death, dreamed that 'my mother told me she lacked a
-pair of gloves, and I remembered a pair of my wife's in
-my chamber, and resolved she should have them,
-but then recollected [reflected] how my mother came to
-be here when I was in mourning for her, and so thinking
-it to be a mistake in our thinking her all this while dead,
-I did contrive that it should be said to any that inquired<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span>
-that it was my mother-in-law, my wife's mother,
-that was dead, and we in mourning for.' This dream,
-Pepys adds, 'did trouble me mightily.' Edmond de
-Goncourt, in his <cite>Journal</cite> (27th July 1870), well describes
-how in the first dream of the dead brother to whom he
-was so tenderly attached, the two streams of memories
-appeared. He dreamed he was walking with his
-brother, but at the same time he knew he was in mourning
-for him, and friends were coming up to offer condolences;
-the emotions caused by the conflict of these
-two certainties&mdash;his brother's life affirmed by his
-presence and his death affirmed by all the other circumstances
-of the dream&mdash;was profoundly distressing.
-A few years earlier Renan, when his dearly loved sister
-Henrietta died by his side in the Lebanon, also had
-dreams of this type, which deeply affected even his
-cautious and sceptical nature. She had died of Syrian
-fever, from which he also was suffering, and shortly
-afterwards he wrote in a letter that 'in feverish dreams
-a terrible doubt has risen up before me; I have fancied
-I heard her voice calling to me from the vault where she
-was laid.' He comforted himself, however, with the
-thought that this horrible supposition was unjustified,
-since French doctors had been present at her death.
-Maury<a name="FNanchor_184_184" id="FNanchor_184_184"></a><a href="#Footnote_184_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a> also mentions that he had often had dreams of
-this type in which the dead appeared as living, though
-the sight of them always produced astonishment and
-doubt which the sleeping brain endeavoured to allay
-by some kind of explanation. Beaunis also describes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>
-how he has dreamed with surprise of meeting a friend
-whom even in his dream he knew to be dead.<a name="FNanchor_185_185" id="FNanchor_185_185"></a><a href="#Footnote_185_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a></p>
-
-<p>It is not difficult, in the light of all that we have been
-able to learn regarding the psychology of the world of
-dreams, to account for the process here described, for
-its frequency, and for its poignant emotional effects.
-This dream type is only a special variety of the
-commonest species of dream, in which two or more
-groups of reminiscences flow together and form a single
-bizarre congruity, a <em>confusion</em> in the strict sense of the
-word. The death of a friend sets up a barrier which
-cuts into two the stream of impressions concerning that
-friend. Thus, two streams of images flow into sleeping
-consciousness, one representing the friend as alive, the
-other as dead. The first stream comes from older and
-richer sources; the second is more poignant, but also
-more recent and more easily exhausted. The two
-streams break against each other in restless conflict,
-both, from the inevitable conditions of dream life,
-being accepted as true, and they eventually mix to form
-an absurd harmony, in which the older and stronger
-images (in accordance with that recognised tendency
-for old psychic impressions generally to be most stable)
-predominate over those that are more recent. Thus,
-in the first observation the dreamer seems to have
-begun his dream by imagining that his mother was
-alive as of old; then his more recent experiences
-interfered with the assertion of her death. This
-resulted in a struggle between the old-established<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>
-images representing her as alive and the later ones
-representing her as dead. The idea that she had come
-to life again was evidently a theory that had arisen in
-his brain to harmonise these two opposing currents.
-The theory was not accepted easily; all sorts of scientific
-objections arose to oppose it, but there could be no
-doubt, for his mother was there. The dreamer is in
-the same position as a paranoiac who constantly seems
-to hear threatening voices; henceforth he is absorbed
-in inventing a theory (electricity, hypnotism, or whatever
-it may be) to account for his hallucinations, and
-his whole view of life is modified accordingly. The
-dreamer, in the cases I am here concerned with, sees
-an image of the dead person as alive, and is therefore
-compelled to invent a theory to account for this image;
-the theories that most easily suggest themselves are
-either that the dead person has never really died, or
-else that he has come back from the dead for a brief
-space. The mental and emotional conflict which such
-dreams involve renders them very vivid. They make
-a profound impression even after awakening, and for
-some sensitive persons are almost too sacred to speak of.</p>
-
-<p>When a series of these dreams occurs concerning the
-same dead friend the tendency seems to be, on the
-whole&mdash;though there are certainly many exceptions&mdash;for
-the living reality of the vision of the dead friend
-to be more and more positively affirmed. Whether
-awake or asleep, it is very difficult for us to resist the
-evidence of our senses. It is even more difficult asleep
-than awake, for, as we have seen reason to believe,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span>
-apperception, with the critical control it involves, is
-weakened. Just as the savage or the child accepts as
-a reality the illusion of the sun traversing the sky,
-just as the paranoiac accepts the reality of the hallucinations
-he is subjected to, and gradually weaves them
-into a more or less plausible theory, so the dreamer
-seems to employ all the acutest powers of sleeping
-reason available to construct a theory in support of
-the reality of the visions of his dead friend.</p>
-
-<p>Sometimes atypical dreams of the dead occur in which
-even from the first there appears little clash or doubt.
-When the vision can thus easily be accepted, it is sometimes
-a source of consolation, joy, and even religious
-faith which may still persist in the waking state.
-Chabaneix has, for instance, recorded the dream experiences
-of a poet and philosopher who had been
-deeply attached to a woman with whom his relations
-were both passionate and intellectual. From the
-night after her death onwards, at intervals, he had
-dreams of the beloved woman, at first appearing as a
-floating vision, later as a vividly seen and tangible
-person; these dreams caused refreshment and mental
-invigoration, and seemed to bring the dreamer into
-renewed communication with his dead friend.<a name="FNanchor_186_186" id="FNanchor_186_186"></a><a href="#Footnote_186_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a></p>
-
-<p>I am indebted to a clergyman for the record of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span>
-somewhat similar experience. 'A close friendship,'
-he writes, 'once existed between myself and a lady,
-somewhat older, and of a religious temperament. We
-often discussed the life beyond the grave, and agreed
-that if she died first, and this appeared more than
-probable, as she was the victim of a mortal disease, she
-would appear to me. I may add that she was of a
-highly-strung and nervous nature, and though purely
-English had many of the psychic characteristics of
-the Celt. After her death, I looked for some appearance
-or manifestation, and about three days after dreamed
-that she had come back to me, and was discussing with
-me a matter which I much wished to speak about before
-her death, but was unable to, owing to her weakness
-and the presence of strangers. In the dream it was
-perfectly clear to me that she was a dead woman back
-from another sphere of existence. For some weeks
-after this I had similar experiences. They were never
-dreams of the old life and friendship before death, but
-always reappearances from the other world. Of course
-it may be said of this experience of mine, that it was
-merely the result of expectation. But I have found
-that the things most on my mind are rarely the subject
-of my dreams. Moreover, these dreams formed a
-series, lasting for weeks, and all of the same character,
-though the conversations differed.'</p>
-
-<p>When a dreamer awakes in an emotional state which
-corresponds to a dream he has just experienced, it is
-usually a safe assumption that the dream was the result,
-and not the cause, of the emotional state. That is by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span>
-no means always the case, however, and in the type of
-dream we are here concerned with it is rarely the case.
-Even though it may be quite true that an emotional state
-evoked the dream, it is equally true that in its turn the
-dream itself may arouse an emotional state. The
-dream of encountering a celestial visitant, especially
-if the visitant is a beloved friend, cannot fail to produce
-an especial effect of this kind. It is noteworthy
-that the emotional influence may be present even when
-the fact of dreaming has not been recalled. Thus a
-lady who, on waking in the morning could not remember
-having dreamed, realised during the day that
-she was feeling as she was accustomed to feel after
-dreaming of a beloved friend, and was ultimately able
-to recall fragments of the dream.<a name="FNanchor_187_187" id="FNanchor_187_187"></a><a href="#Footnote_187_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a> A man of so great
-an intellect as Goethe has borne witness to the consoling
-influence of dreams. 'I have had times in my life,'
-he said, in old age, to Eckermann, 'when I have fallen
-asleep in tears, but in my dreams the loveliest figures
-come to give me comfort and happiness, and I awake
-next morning once more fresh and cheerful.'<a name="FNanchor_188_188" id="FNanchor_188_188"></a><a href="#Footnote_188_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>If we take a wide sweep we shall find in many
-parts of the world stories and legends concerning
-the relationship of the living with the dead which
-have a singular resemblance with the typical dream
-of the dead here investigated. Thus, in Japan, it
-appears that stories of the returning of the dead are
-very common. Lafcadio Hearn reproduces one, as
-told by a Japanese, which closely resembles some
-of the dreams we have met with. 'A lover resolved
-to commit suicide on the grave of his sweetheart.
-He found her tomb and knelt before it, and prayed
-and wept, and whispered to her that which he was
-about to do. And suddenly he heard her voice cry
-to him "Anata!" and felt her hand upon his hand:
-and he turned and saw her kneeling beside him, smiling
-and beautiful as he remembered her, only a little pale.
-Then his heart leaped so that he could not speak for
-the wonder and the doubt and the joy of that moment.
-But she said, "Do not doubt; it is really I. I am not
-dead. It was all a mistake. I was buried because my
-parents thought me dead&mdash;buried too soon. Yet you
-see I am not dead, not a ghost. It is I; do not doubt
-it!"' It is perhaps worth mentioning that the
-incident told in the Fourth Gospel (xx. 11-18) as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span>
-occurring to Mary Magdalene when at the tomb of
-Jesus, recalls the dream process of fusion of images.
-She turns and sees, as she thinks, the gardener, but in
-the course of conversation it flashes on her that he is
-Jesus, risen from the tomb. In quite another part of
-the world the Salish Indians of British Columbia have
-a story of a man who goes back to the spirit-world to
-reclaim his lost wife; this can only be done under
-special conditions, and for some time refraining to
-touch her; if he breaks these conditions she vanishes
-in his arms, and he is left alone.<a name="FNanchor_189_189" id="FNanchor_189_189"></a><a href="#Footnote_189_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a> That story, again,
-cannot fail to remind us of the almost identical Greek
-legend of the return of Orpheus to the under-world to
-reclaim his dead wife Eurydice. If these myths and
-legends were not directly based on the dream-process,
-it can only be on the ground, alleged with some
-force by Freud's school, that myths and legends
-themselves develop by means of the same mechanism
-as dreams.</p>
-
-<p>The probable influence of dreams in originating or
-confirming the primitive belief of men in a spirit world
-has often been set forth. Herbert Spencer attached
-great importance to this factor in the constitution of the
-belief in another world, in spirits and in gods.<a name="FNanchor_190_190" id="FNanchor_190_190"></a><a href="#Footnote_190_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a> Wundt
-even considers that such dreams furnish the whole
-origin of animism. Other writers, less closely associated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span>
-with anthropological psychology, have argued in
-the same sense.<a name="FNanchor_191_191" id="FNanchor_191_191"></a><a href="#Footnote_191_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a></p>
-
-<p>But while these thinkers have in some cases specifically
-referred to dreams of the dead, and not merely
-to the widespread belief of savages that in sleep the
-soul leaves the body to wander over the earth, they
-have never realised that there is a special mechanism
-in the typical dream of a dead friend, due to mental
-dissociation during sleep, which powerfully suggests to
-us that death sets up no fatal barrier to the return of the
-dead. In dreams the dead are thus rendered indestructible;
-they cannot be finally killed, but rather tend to
-reappear in ever more clearly affirmed vitality. Dreams
-of this sort must certainly have come to men ever since
-men began to be. If their emotional effects are great
-to-day, we can well believe that they were much greater
-in the early days when dream life and what we call real
-life were less easily distinguished. The repercussion
-of this kind of dream through unmeasured ages cannot
-fail to have told at last on the traditions of the race.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2>
-
-<p class="p6">MEMORY IN DREAMS</p>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>The Apparent Rapidity of Thought in Dreams&mdash;This Phenomenon
-largely due to the Dream being a Description of a Picture&mdash;The
-Experience of Drowning Persons&mdash;The Sense of Time in Dreams&mdash;The
-Crumpling of Consciousness in Dreams&mdash;The Recovery of
-Lost Memories through the Relaxation of Attention&mdash;The
-Emergence in Dreams of Memories not known to Waking Life&mdash;The
-Recollection of Forgotten Languages in Sleep&mdash;The
-Perversions of Memory in Dreams&mdash;Paramnesic False Recollections&mdash;Hypnagogic
-Paramnesia&mdash;Dreams mistaken for Actual
-Events&mdash;The Phenomenon of Pseudo-Reminiscence&mdash;Its Relationship
-to Epilepsy&mdash;Its Prevalence especially among Imaginative
-and Nervously Exhausted Persons&mdash;The Theories put forward
-to Explain it&mdash;A Fatigue Product&mdash;Conditioned by Defective
-Attention and Apperception&mdash;Pseudo-Reminiscence a reversed
-Hallucination.</p></blockquote>
-
-
-<p>The peculiarities of memory in dreams&mdash;its defects,
-its aberrations, its excesses&mdash;have attracted attention
-ever since dreams began to be studied at all. It is not
-enough to assure ourselves that on awakening from
-a dream our memory of that dream may fairly be regarded
-as trustworthy so far as it extends. The
-characteristics of memory revealed within the reproduced
-dream have sometimes seemed so extraordinary
-as to be only explicable by the theory of supernatural
-intervention.</p>
-
-<p>A problem which at one time greatly puzzled the
-scientific students of dreaming is furnished at the outset<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span>
-by the apparent abnormal rapidity of the dream process,
-the piling together in a brief space of time of a great
-number of combined memories. Stories were told of
-people who, when awakened by sounds or contacts
-which must have aroused them almost immediately,
-had yet experienced elaborate visions which could only
-have been excited by the stimulus which caused the
-awakening. The dream of Maury&mdash;who, when
-awakened by a portion of the bed cornice falling on his
-neck, imagined that he was living in the days of the
-Reign of Terror, and, after many adventures, was
-being guillotined&mdash;has become famous.<a name="FNanchor_192_192" id="FNanchor_192_192"></a><a href="#Footnote_192_192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a></p>
-
-<p>It is unquestionably true that dreams are sometimes
-evoked by sensory stimuli which almost immediately
-awake the dreamer. But the supposition that this
-fairly common fact involves an extraordinary acceleration
-of the rapidity with which mental images are formed
-is due to a failure to comprehend the conditions under
-which psychic activity in sleep takes place. If the
-sleeper were wide awake, and were suddenly startled
-by a mysterious voice at the window or the door, he
-would arrive at a theory of the sound, and even form a
-plan of action, with at least as much rapidity as when
-the stimulus occurs during sleep. The difference is
-that in sleep the ordinary mental associations are more
-or less in abeyance, and the way is therefore easily open
-to new associations. These new associations, when we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span>
-look back at them from the standpoint of waking life,
-seem to us so bizarre, so far-fetched, that we think it
-must have required a long time to imagine them. We
-fail to realise that, under the conditions of dream
-thought, they have come about as automatically and
-as instantaneously as the ordinary psychic <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'concommitants'">concomitants</ins>
-of external stimulation in waking life. It must
-also be remembered that in all the cases in which the
-rapidity of the dream process has seemed so extraordinary,
-it has merely been a question of visual imagery,
-and it is obviously quite easy to see in an instant an
-elaborate picture or series of pictures which would take
-a long time to describe.<a name="FNanchor_193_193" id="FNanchor_193_193"></a><a href="#Footnote_193_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a> At the most the dreamer
-has merely seen a kind of cinematographic drama
-which has been condensed and run together in very
-much the way practised by the cinematographic artist,
-so that although the whole story seems to be shown in
-constant movement, in reality the action of hours is
-condensed into moments. Further, it has always to
-be borne in mind that, asleep as well as awake, intense
-emotion involves a loss of the sense of time. We say
-in a terrible crisis that moments seemed years, and
-when sleeping consciousness magnifies a trivial stimulation
-into the occasion of a great crisis the same effect
-is necessarily produced.</p>
-
-<p>Exactly the same illusion is experienced by persons
-who are rescued from drowning, or other dangerous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>
-situations. It sometimes seems to them that their
-whole life has passed before them in vision during those
-brief moments. But careful investigation of some of
-these cases, notably by Pi&eacute;ron, has shown that what
-really happened was that a scene from childhood,
-perhaps of some rather similar accident, came before
-the drowning man's mind and was followed by five,
-six, perhaps even ten or twelve momentary scenes from
-later life. When the time during which these scenes
-flashed through the mind was taken into account it
-was found that there had by no means been any
-remarkable mental rapidity.</p>
-
-<p>Such considerations have now led most scientific
-investigators of dreaming to regard these problems of
-dream memory as settled. Woodworth's observations
-on the hypnagogic or half-waking state revealed no
-remarkable rapidity of mental processes. Clavi&egrave;re
-showed by experiments with an <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'alarum'">alarm</ins> clock which
-struck twice with an interval of twenty-two seconds
-that speech dreams at all events take place merely with
-normal rapidity, or are even slightly slower than under
-waking conditions. The imagery of sleep, Clavi&egrave;re
-concluded, is not more rapid than the imagery of waking
-life, though to the dreamer it may seem to last for hours
-or days. It is often slackened rather than accelerated,
-says Pi&eacute;ron, who refers to the corresponding illusion
-under the influence of drugs like <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'hashisch'">hashish</ins>, though in
-some cases he finds that there is really a slight acceleration.
-The illusion is simply due, Foucault thinks, to
-the dreamer's belief that the events of his dream occupy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span>
-the same time as real events. This illusion of time,
-concludes Dr. Justine Tobolowska, in her Paris thesis
-on this subject, is simply the necessary and constant
-result of the form assumed by psychic life during
-sleep.<a name="FNanchor_194_194" id="FNanchor_194_194"></a><a href="#Footnote_194_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a></p>
-
-<p>If this peculiarity of memory in dreaming is not
-difficult to explain as a natural illusion, there are other
-and rarer characteristics of dream memory which are
-much more puzzling.</p>
-
-<p>In attempting to unravel these, it is probable that,
-as in explaining the illusion of rapidity, we must always
-bear in mind the tendency of memory-groups in dreams
-to fall apart from their waking links of association,
-so well as the complementary tendency to form associations
-which in waking life would only be attained by a
-strained effort. Apperception, with the power it involves
-of combining and bringing to a focus all the
-various groups of memories bearing on the point in
-hand, is defective. The focus of conscious attention
-is contracted, and there is the curious and significant
-phenomenon that sleeping consciousness is occasionally
-unconscious of psychic elements which yet are present
-just outside it and thrusting imagery into its focus.
-The imagery becomes conscious, but its relation to the
-existing focus of consciousness is not consciously perceived.
-Such a psychic mechanism, as Freud and his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span>
-disciples have shown, quite commonly appears in
-hysteria and obsessional neuroses when healthy normal
-consciousness is degraded to a pathological level resembling
-that which is normal in dreams.<a name="FNanchor_195_195" id="FNanchor_195_195"></a><a href="#Footnote_195_195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a> In such a
-case the surface of sleeping consciousness is, as it were,
-crumpled up, and the concealed portion appears only at
-the end of the dream or not at all. A simple example
-may make this clear. In a dream I ask a lady if she
-knows the work of the poet Bau; she replies that she
-does not; then I see before me a paper having on it
-the name Baudelaire, clearly the name which should
-have been contained in my query.<a name="FNanchor_196_196" id="FNanchor_196_196"></a><a href="#Footnote_196_196" class="fnanchor">[196]</a> In such a dream
-the crumpling and breaking of consciousness, at its very
-focus, is shown in the most unmistakable manner.<a name="FNanchor_197_197" id="FNanchor_197_197"></a><a href="#Footnote_197_197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a>
-But many of the most remarkable dreams of dramatic
-dreamers are due to the same phenomenon, which in
-an intellectual form is exactly the phenomenon which
-always makes a dramatic situation effective. Robert
-Louis Stevenson was an abnormally vivid dreamer,
-and found the germ of some of the plots of his stories
-in his dreams; he has described one of his dreams in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span>
-which the dreamer imagines he has committed a murder;
-the crime becomes known to a woman who, however,
-never denounces it; the murderer lives in terror, and
-cannot conceive why the woman prolongs his torture
-by this delay in giving him up to justice; only at the
-end of the dream comes the clue to the mystery, and the
-explanation of the woman's attitude, as she falls on her
-knees and cries: 'Do you not understand? I love
-you.'<a name="FNanchor_198_198" id="FNanchor_198_198"></a><a href="#Footnote_198_198" class="fnanchor">[198]</a></p>
-
-<p>There is another and very interesting class of dreams
-in which we find not merely that some memory-groups
-disappear from consciousness or become merely latent,
-but also that other memory-groups, latent or even lost
-to waking consciousness, float into the focus of sleeping
-consciousness. In other words, we can remember in
-sleep what we have forgotten awake. We then have
-what is called the <em>hypermnesia</em>, the excessive or abnormal
-memory, of sleep.</p>
-
-<p>There can be little doubt that the two processes&mdash;the
-sinking of some memory-groups and the emergence
-on the surface of other memory-groups which, so far as
-waking life is concerned, had apparently fallen to the
-depths and been drowned&mdash;are complementarily related
-to one another. We remember what we have
-forgotten because we forget what we remembered.
-The order of our waking impressions involves a certain
-tension, that is to say a certain attention, which holds
-them in our consciousness, and excludes any other
-order which might serve to bring lost memory-groups<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>
-to sight. Sometimes we are conscious of a lost memory
-which is just outside consciousness, but which, with
-the existing order of our memory-groups, we cannot
-bring into consciousness. We have the missing name,
-the missing memory, at the tip of our tongue, we say,
-but we cannot quite catch it.<a name="FNanchor_199_199" id="FNanchor_199_199"></a><a href="#Footnote_199_199" class="fnanchor">[199]</a> In dreams apperception
-is defective, the strain of conscious attention is relaxed,
-and the conditions are furnished under which new clues
-and strains may come into action and the missing name
-glide spontaneously into consciousness. Even the mere
-approach of sleep, with its accompanying relaxation of
-attention, may effect this end. Thus I was trying one
-day to recall the name of the unpleasant Chinese scent,
-patchouli. The name, though not usually unfamiliar,
-escaped me. At night, however, just before falling
-asleep, it spontaneously occurred to me. In the morning,
-when fully awake, I was again unable to recall it.</p>
-
-<p>In such a case we see how waking consciousness is
-tense in a certain direction, which happens not to be
-that in which the desired thing is to be found. Attention
-under such circumstances impedes rather than
-aids recollection. In this particular case, I felt convinced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span>
-that the name I wanted began with <em>h</em>, and thus
-my mind was intently directed towards a wrong quarter.
-But on the approach of sleep attention is automatically
-relaxed, and it is then possible for the forgotten
-word to slip in from its unexpected quarter. On
-these occasions it is by indirection that direction is
-found.<a name="FNanchor_200_200" id="FNanchor_200_200"></a><a href="#Footnote_200_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a></p>
-
-<p>It is interesting to observe that this same process of
-discovery due to the wider outlook of relaxed attention
-can take place, not only in sleep and the hypnagogic
-state, but also, subconsciously, in the fully waking
-state when the mind is occupied with some other subject.
-Thus in reading a MS., I came upon an illegible word
-which I was unable to identify, notwithstanding several
-guesses and careful scrutiny through a magnifying
-glass. I passed on, dismissing the subject from my
-mind. A quarter of an hour afterwards, when walking,
-and thinking of quite a different subject, I became
-conscious that the word 'ceremonial' had floated into
-the field of mental vision, and I at once realised that
-this was the unidentified word. The instance may be
-trivial, but no example could better show how the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span>
-mind may continue to work subconsciously in one
-direction while consciously working in an entirely
-different direction.</p>
-
-<p>In dreams, however, we can effect more than a mere
-recovery of memories which have temporarily escaped
-us, or the discovery of relationships which have eluded
-us. The dissociation of familiar memory-groups becomes
-so complete, the appearance of unfamiliar groups
-so eruptive, that we can remember things that have
-entirely and permanently sunk below the surface of
-waking consciousness, or even things which are so
-insignificant that they have never made any mark
-on waking consciousness at all. In this way, we may
-be said, in a certain sense, to remember things we never
-knew. The first dream which enabled me, some twenty
-years ago, to realise this hypermnesia of the mind in
-dreams<a name="FNanchor_201_201" id="FNanchor_201_201"></a><a href="#Footnote_201_201" class="fnanchor">[201]</a> was the following unimportant but instructive
-case. I woke up recalling the chief items of a rather
-vivid dream: I had imagined myself in a large old
-house, where the furniture, though of good quality,
-was ancient, and the chairs threatened to give way
-as one sat on them. The place belonged to one Sir<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span>
-Peter Bryan, a hale old gentleman, who was accompanied
-by his son and grandson. There was a question of my
-buying the place from him, and I was very complimentary
-to the old gentleman's appearance of youthfulness,
-absurdly affecting not to know which was the
-grandfather and which the grandson. On awaking
-I said to myself that here was a purely imaginative
-dream, quite unsuggested by any definite experiences.
-But when I began to recall the trifling incidents of the
-previous day, and the things I had seen and read, I
-realised that that was far from being the case. So far
-from the dream having been a pure effort of imagination,
-I found that every minute item could be traced
-to some separate source, though none of them had the
-slightest resemblance to the dream as a whole. The
-name of Sir Peter Bryan alone completely baffled me;
-I could not even recall that I had at that time ever heard
-of any one called Bryan. I abandoned the search and
-made my notes of the dream and its sources. I had
-scarcely done so when I chanced to take up a volume
-of biographies of eccentric personages, which I had
-glanced through carelessly the day before. I found
-that it contained, among others, the lives of Lord
-<em>Peter</em>borough and George <em>Bryan</em> Brummel. I had
-certainly seen those names the day before; yet before
-I took up the book once again it would have been
-impossible for me to recall the exact name of
-Beau Brummel. It so happened that the forgotten
-memory which in this case re-emerged to sleeping consciousness,
-was a fact of no consequence to myself or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span>
-any one else. But it furnishes the key to many
-dreams which have been of more serious import to the
-dreamers.</p>
-
-<p>Since then I have been able to observe among my
-friends several instances of dreams containing veracious
-though often trivial circumstances unknown to the
-dreamer when awake, though on consideration it was
-found to be in the highest degree probable that they had
-come under his notice, and been forgotten, or not
-consciously observed. Thus a musical correspondent
-tells me he once dreamed of playing a piece of Rubinstein's
-in the presence of a friend who told him he had
-made a mistake in re-striking a tied note. In the
-morning he found the dream friend was correct. But
-up to then he had always repeated the note. Usually
-when the forgotten or unnoticed circumstance is trivial,
-it is of quite recent date. That it is not always very
-recent may be illustrated by a dream of my own. I
-dreamed that I was in Spain and about to rejoin some
-friends at a place which was called, I thought, Daraus,
-but on reaching the booking-office I could not remember
-whether the place I wanted to go to was called Daraus,
-Varaus, or Zaraus, all which places, it seemed to me, really
-existed. On awaking, I made a note of the dream,
-exactly as reproduced here, but was unable to recall
-any place, in Spain or elsewhere, corresponding to any
-of these names. The dream seemed merely to illustrate
-the familiar way in which a dream image perpetually
-shifts in a meaningless fashion at the focus of sleeping
-consciousness. The note was put away, and a few<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span>
-months later taken out again.<a name="FNanchor_202_202" id="FNanchor_202_202"></a><a href="#Footnote_202_202" class="fnanchor">[202]</a> It was still equally
-impossible to me to recall any real name corresponding
-to the dream names. But on consulting the Spanish
-guide-books and railway time-tables, I found that, on
-the line between San Sebastian and Bilbao, there really
-is a little seaside resort, in a beautiful situation, called
-Zarauz, and I realised, moreover, that I had actually
-passed that station in the train two hundred and fifty
-days before the date of my dream.<a name="FNanchor_203_203" id="FNanchor_203_203"></a><a href="#Footnote_203_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a> I had no associations
-with this place, though I may have admired it at
-the time; in any case it vanished permanently from
-conscious memory, perhaps aided by the fatigue of a
-long night journey before entering Spain. Even sleeping
-memory, I may remark, only recovered it with an
-effort, for it is notable that the name was gradually
-approached by three successive attempts.<a name="FNanchor_204_204" id="FNanchor_204_204"></a><a href="#Footnote_204_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>A special form of lost or unconscious memories recurring
-in sleep is constituted by the cases in which
-people when asleep, or in a somnambulistic state, can
-speak languages which they have forgotten, or never
-consciously known, when awake. A simple instance,
-known to me, is furnished by a servant who had been
-taken to Paris for a few weeks six months before, but
-had never learned to speak a word of French, and whose
-mistress overheard her talking in her sleep, and repeating
-various French phrases, like 'Je ne sais pas, Monsieur';
-she had certainly heard these phrases, though she maintained,
-when awake, that she was ignorant of them.
-Speaking in a language not consciously known, or
-xenoglossia, as it is now termed, occurs under various
-abnormal conditions, as well as in sleep, and is sometimes
-classed with the tendency which is found, especially
-under great religious excitement, to 'speak with
-tongues,' or to utter gibberish.<a name="FNanchor_205_205" id="FNanchor_205_205"></a><a href="#Footnote_205_205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a> But in various sleep-like
-states it occurs as a true revival of forgotten<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>
-memories, sometimes of memories which belong to childhood
-and in normal consciousness have been long
-overlaid and lost. On one occasion, by the bedside of
-a lady who was kept for a considerable period in a light
-condition of chloroform anaesthesia, the patient began
-to talk in an unfamiliar language which one of us
-recognised as Welsh; as a child, she afterwards owned,
-she had known Welsh, but had long since forgotten it.<a name="FNanchor_206_206" id="FNanchor_206_206"></a><a href="#Footnote_206_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a>
-A similar reproduction of lost memories occurs in the
-hypnotic state.</p>
-
-<p>This psychic process, by which unconscious memories
-become conscious in dreams, is of considerable interest
-and importance because it lends itself to many delusions.
-Not only the ignorant and uncultured, but
-even well-trained and acute minds, are often so unskilled
-in mental analysis that they are quite unable
-to pierce beneath the phenomenon of conscious ignorance
-to the deeper fact of unconscious memory; they
-are completely baffled, or else they resort to the wildest
-hypotheses. This is illustrated by the following
-narrative received twelve years ago from a medical
-correspondent in Baltimore. 'Several years ago,' he
-writes, 'a friend made a social call at my house and in
-the course of conversation spoke very enthusiastically
-of Mascagni's <cite>Cavalleria Rusticana</cite>, the first performance
-of which in the United States he had attended
-a few nights previously. I had never even heard of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span>
-the opera before, but that night I dreamed that I heard
-it performed. The dream was a very vivid one, so
-vivid that several times during the next day I found
-myself humming airs from the dream opera. Several
-evenings later I went to the theatre to see a comedy,
-and before the curtain rose the orchestra played a
-selection which I instantly recognised as part of my
-dream opera. I exclaimed to a lady who was with me:
-"That selection is from <cite>Cavalleria Rusticana</cite>." On
-inquiring of the leader of the orchestra such proved
-to be the case.' Now, at that period, shortly after the
-first appearance of <cite>Cavalleria Rusticana</cite>, portions of it
-had become extremely popular and were heard everywhere,
-by no means merely on the operatic stage. It
-was difficult not to have heard something of it. There
-cannot be the slightest doubt that my correspondent
-had heard not only the name but the music, though,
-writing at an interval of some years, he probably
-exaggerated the extent of his unconscious recollections.
-This seems the simple explanation of what to my
-correspondent was an inexplicable mystery. Other
-people, like the late Frederick Greenwood, not content
-to remain baffled, go further and regard such dreams
-as 'dreams of revelation,' as they also consider that
-class of dreams in which the dreamer works out the
-solution of a difficulty which he had vainly grappled
-with when awake.</p>
-
-<p>This is a kind of dream which has occurred in all
-ages, and has at times been put down to divine interposition.
-Sixteen centuries ago Bishop Synesius<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span>
-of Ptolemais wrote that in his hunting days a dream
-revealed to him an idea for a trap which he successfully
-employed in snaring animals, and at the present time
-inventions made in dreams have been successfully
-patented. The Rev. Nehemiah Curnock, who lately
-succeeded in deciphering Wesley's <cite>Journal</cite>, has stated
-that an important missing clue to the cypher came to
-him in a dream. A friend of my own, an expert in
-chemistry, was not long since in frequent communication
-with a practical manufacturer, assisting him
-in his inventions by scientific advice. One day the
-manufacturer wrote to my friend asking if the latter
-had been thinking of him during the night, for he had
-been much puzzled by a difficulty, and during the night
-had seen a vision of my friend who explained the solution
-of the difficulty; in the morning the proposed
-solution proved successful. There was, however, no
-telepathic element in the case; the dreamer's solution
-was his own.</p>
-
-<p>An interesting group of cases in this class is furnished
-by the dreams in which the dreamer, in opposition to
-his waking judgment, sees an acquaintance in whom
-he reposes trust acting in a manner unworthy of that
-trust, subsequent events proving that the estimate
-formed during sleep was sounder than that of waking
-life. Hawthorne (in his <cite>American Notebooks</cite>), Greenwood,
-Jewell, and others have recorded cases of this
-kind.</p>
-
-<p>Various as these phenomena are, they fall into the
-same scheme. They all help to illustrate the fact that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span>
-though on one side mental life in sleep is feeble and
-defective, on the other side it shows a tendency to
-vigorous excess. Sleep, as we know, involves a relaxation
-of tension, both physical and psychic; attention
-is no longer focused at a deliberately selected spot.<a name="FNanchor_207_207" id="FNanchor_207_207"></a><a href="#Footnote_207_207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a>
-The voluntary field becomes narrower, but the involuntary
-field becomes extended. Thus it happens
-that the contents of our minds fall into a new order,
-an order which is often fantastic but, on the other
-hand, is sometimes a more natural and even a more
-rational order than that we attain in waking life.
-Our eyes close, our muscles grow slack, the reins fall
-from our hands. But it sometimes happens that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span>
-horse knows the road home even better than we know
-it ourselves.</p>
-
-<p>Hypermnesia, or abnormally wide range of recollection,
-is not the only or the most common modification
-of memory during sleep. We find much more commonly,
-and indeed as one of the chief characteristics of sleep,
-an abnormally narrow range of recollection. We find,
-also, and perhaps as a result of that narrow range,
-paramnesia or perversion of memory. The best known
-form of paramnesia is that in which we have the illusion
-that the event which is at the moment happening to us
-has happened to us before.<a name="FNanchor_208_208" id="FNanchor_208_208"></a><a href="#Footnote_208_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a></p>
-
-<p>This form of paramnesia is common in dreams, though
-it is often so slightly pronounced that we either fail to
-recall it on awakening or attach no significance to it.<a name="FNanchor_209_209" id="FNanchor_209_209"></a><a href="#Footnote_209_209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a>
-I dream, for instance, that I am walking along a path,
-along which, it seems to me, I have often walked before,
-and that the path skirts the lawn of a house by which
-stands a policeman whom, also, it seems to me, I have
-often seen there before; the policeman approaches me
-and says, 'You have come to see Mr. So-and-so, sir?'<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span>
-and thereupon I suddenly recollect, with some confusion,
-that I have come to see Mr. So-and-so, and I
-walk up to the door. Again, an author dreams that he
-sees a list of his own books with, at the head of them,
-one entitled 'The Book of Glory.' He could not
-recall writing it (and to waking consciousness the name
-was entirely unknown), but the only reflection he made
-in his dream was 'How stupid to have forgotten!'
-In this case there was evidently some resistance to the
-suggestion, which yet was quickly accepted. In all
-such dreams it seems that we are in a state of mental
-weakness associated with defective apperceptual control
-and undue suggestibility, very similar to the state
-found in some forms of confusional insanity or of
-precocious dementia.<a name="FNanchor_210_210" id="FNanchor_210_210"></a><a href="#Footnote_210_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a> Consciousness feebly slides
-down the path of least resistance; it accepts every
-suggestion; the objects presented to it seem things
-that it knew before, the things that are suggested to it
-to do seem things that it already wanted to do before.
-Paramnesia, thus regarded, seems simply a natural
-outcome of a state of consciousness temporarily depressed
-below its normal standard of vigour.</p>
-
-<p>It must be remembered that the suggestibility of
-sleeping consciousness varies in degree, and in the face
-of serious improbabilities there is often a considerable
-amount of resistance, just as the hypnotised person<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>
-seriously resists the suggestions that fundamentally
-outrage his nature. But some degree of suggestibility,
-some tendency to regard the things that come before
-us in dreams as familiar&mdash;in other words, as things that
-have happened to us before&mdash;is not merely a natural
-result of defective apperception, but one of the very
-conditions of dreaming. It enables us to carry on our
-dreams; without it their progress would be fatally
-inhibited by doubt, uncertainty, and struggle. So it
-is, perhaps, that in all dreaming, or at all events in
-certain stages of sleeping consciousness, we are liable
-to fall into a state of pseudo-reminiscence.</p>
-
-<p>It is an interesting and highly significant fact that
-this paramnesic delusion of our dreams&mdash;the feeling
-that the thing that is happening to us is the thing that
-has happened to us before or that might happen to us
-again&mdash;tends to persist in the hypnagogic (or hypnopompic)
-stage immediately following sleep. When we
-have half awakened from a dream and are just able to
-realise that it was a dream, that dream constantly
-tends to appear in a more plausible or probable light
-than is possible a few moments later when we are fully
-awake.<a name="FNanchor_211_211" id="FNanchor_211_211"></a><a href="#Footnote_211_211" class="fnanchor">[211]</a></p>
-
-<p>The first experience which enabled me clearly to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>
-realise this phenomenon, and its probable explanation,
-occurred many years ago. About the middle of the
-night I had a very vivid dream, in which I imagined that
-two friends&mdash;a gentleman and his daughter&mdash;with a
-certain Lord Chesterfield (I had lately been reading
-the <cite>Letters</cite> of the famous Lord Chesterfield), were
-together at a hotel, that they were playing with
-weapons, that the lady accidentally killed or wounded
-Lord Chesterfield, and that she then changed clothes
-with him with the object of escaping, and avoiding
-discovery which would somehow be dangerous. I was
-informed of the matter, and was much concerned. I
-awoke, and my first thought was that I had just had a
-curious dream which I must not forget in the morning.
-But then I seemed to remember that it was a real and
-familiar event. This second thought lulled my mental
-activity, and I went to sleep again. In the morning I
-was able to recall the main points in my dream, and
-my thoughts on awaking from it.</p>
-
-<p>Since then I have given attention to the point, and
-I have found on recalling my half-waking consciousness
-after dreams that, while it is doubtless rare to catch
-the assertion 'That really occurred,' it is less rare to
-catch the vague assertion, 'That is the kind of thing
-that does occur.' I find that this latter impression<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span>
-appears, like the former, after vivid dreams which contain
-no physical impossibility, but which the full
-waking consciousness refuses to recognise as among
-the things that are probable. As an example quite
-unlike that just recorded, I may mention a dream in
-which I imagined that I was proving the frequency
-of local intermarriage by noting in directories the
-frequency of the presence of people of the same name in
-neighbouring towns and villages. On half-awaking
-I still believed that I had actually been engaged in such
-a task&mdash;that is, either that the dream was real or that
-it referred to a real event&mdash;and it was not until I was
-sufficiently awake to recognise the fallacy of such a
-method of investigation that I realised that it was
-purely a dream.</p>
-
-<p>This phenomenon has long been known, although
-its significance has not been perceived. Brierre de
-Boismont pointed out that certain vivid dreams are
-not recognised as dreams, but are mistaken for reality
-after waking, though he scarcely recognised the normal
-limitation of this mistake to the hypnagogic state.
-Moll compared such dreams, thus continued into waking
-life, to continuative post-hypnotic suggestions.
-Sully mentioned awaking from dreams which 'still
-wear the aspect of old acquaintances, so that for the
-moment I think they are waking realities.'<a name="FNanchor_212_212" id="FNanchor_212_212"></a><a href="#Footnote_212_212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a> Colegrove,
-in his study of memory, recorded many cases<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span>
-in which young people mistook their dreams for actual
-events.<a name="FNanchor_213_213" id="FNanchor_213_213"></a><a href="#Footnote_213_213" class="fnanchor">[213]</a></p>
-
-<p>This persistence of the memory illusion of sleep into
-the subsequent hypnagogic state is obviously related
-to the allied persistence, more occasionally found, of
-the visual, auditory, and other sensory hallucinations
-of sleep into the hypnagogic state.<a name="FNanchor_214_214" id="FNanchor_214_214"></a><a href="#Footnote_214_214" class="fnanchor">[214]</a> Visions thus seen
-persisting from dreams for a few moments into waking
-life are often very baffling and disturbing, as has already
-been pointed out, to ignorant and untrained people.
-Such visions may occur in the hypnagogic state, even
-when there has been no conscious precedent dream,
-and it is indeed probable, as Parish has argued, that it
-is precisely in the hypnagogic state, the narthex of the
-church of dreams, as I may term it, that hallucinations
-are most liable to occur. That illusions may momentarily
-occur in this state is obvious; thus falling asleep
-for a few minutes when seated before a black hollow
-smouldering fire, with red ashes at the bottom, I awake
-with the illusion that I see a curtain on fire, and have
-already leaned forward to snatch it away before I realise
-my mistake.</p>
-
-<p>Under normal conditions, the liability of a dream
-memory to be mistaken for an actual event seems to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>
-greater when an interval has elapsed before the dream
-is remembered, such an interval making it difficult
-to distinguish one class of memories from the other,
-provided the dream has been of a plausible character.
-Thus Professor N&auml;cke has recorded that his wife dreamed
-that an acquaintance, an old lady, had called at the
-house; this dream was apparently forgotten until
-forty or fifty hours afterwards when, on passing the old
-lady's house, it was recalled, and the dreamer was only
-with much difficulty convinced that the dream was not
-an actual occurrence. When we are concerned with
-memories of childhood, it not infrequently happens
-that we cannot distinguish with absolute certainty
-between real occurrences and what may possibly have
-been dreams.</p>
-
-<p>In normal physical and mental health, however, it
-seems rare for the hallucinatory influence of dreams to
-extend beyond the hypnagogic state, but any impairment
-of the bodily health generally, and of the brain
-in particular, may extend this confusion. Thus in a
-case of heart disease terminating fatally, the patient,
-though in health he was by no means visionary or
-impressionable, became liable during sleep in the day-time
-to dreams of an entirely reasonable character
-which he had great difficulty in distinguishing from the
-real facts of life, never feeling sure what had actually
-happened, and what had been only a dream. In disordered
-cerebral and nervous conditions the same
-illusion becomes still more marked. This is notably
-the case in hysteria. In some forms of insanity, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>
-many alienists have shown, this mistake is sometimes
-permanent and the dream may become an integral
-and persistent part of waking life. At this point,
-however, we leave the normal world of dreams and
-enter the sphere of pathology.</p>
-
-<p>In the normal persistence of the dream illusion into
-the hypnagogic state with which we are here concerned,
-the dream usually presents a possible, though, it may be,
-highly improbable event. The half-waking or hypnagogic
-intelligence seems to be deceived by this element
-of life-like possibility. Consequently a fallacy of perception
-takes place strictly comparable to the fallacious
-perception which, in the case of an external sensation,
-we call an illusion. In the ordinary illusion an externally
-excited sensation of one kind is mistaken for
-an externally excited sensation of another kind. In
-this case a centrally excited sensation of one order
-(dream image) is mistaken for a centrally excited
-sensation of another order (memory). The phenomenon
-is, therefore, a mental illusion belonging to the group
-of false memories, and it may be termed hypnagogic
-paramnesia.</p>
-
-<p>The process seems to have a certain interest, and it
-may throw light on some rather obscure phenomena.
-When we are able to recall a vivid dream, usually a
-fairly probable dream, with no idea as to when it was
-dreamed, and thus find ourselves in possession of
-experiences of which we cannot certainly say that they
-happened in waking life or in dream life, it seems
-probable that this hypnagogic paramnesia has come into<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span>
-action; the half-waking consciousness dismisses the
-vivid and life-like dream as an old and familiar experience,
-shunting it off into temporary forgetfulness, unless
-some accident again brings it into consciousness with,
-as it were, a fragment of that wrong label still sticking
-to it. Such a paramnesic process may thus also help
-to account for the mighty part which, as so many
-thinkers from Lucretius onwards have seen, dreams
-have played in moulding human action and human
-belief. It is a means whereby waking life and dream
-life are brought to an apparently common level.</p>
-
-<p>By hypnagogic paramnesia I mean a false memory
-occurring in the ante-chamber of sleep, but not necessarily
-before sleep. Myers's invention of the word
-'hypnopompic' seems scarcely necessary even for
-pedantic reasons. I take the condition of consciousness
-to be almost the same whether the sleep is coming on
-or passing away. In the Chesterfield dream it is indeed
-impossible to say whether the phenomenon is
-'hypnagogic' or 'hypnopompic'; in such a case the
-twilight consciousness is as much conditioned by the
-sleep that is passing away as by the sleep that is coming
-on.</p>
-
-<p>If this memory illusion of the half-waking state may
-be regarded as a variety of paramnesia, a new horizon
-is opened out to us. May not the hypnagogic variety
-throw light on the general phenomenon of paramnesia
-which has led to so many strange and complicated
-theories? I think it may.</p>
-
-<p>Paramnesia, as we have seen, is the psychologist's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span>
-name for a hallucination of memory which is sometimes
-called 'pseudo-reminiscence,' and by medical writers
-(who especially associate it with epilepsy) regarded
-as a symptom of 'dreamy state,'<a name="FNanchor_215_215" id="FNanchor_215_215"></a><a href="#Footnote_215_215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a> while by French
-authors it is often termed 'false recognition' or 'sensation
-du d&eacute;j&agrave; vu.' Dickens, who seems himself to
-have experienced it, thus describes it in <cite>David Copperfield:</cite>
-'We have all some experience of a feeling that
-comes over us occasionally, of what we are saying and
-doing having been said or done before, in a remote
-time, of having been surrounded, dim ages ago, by the
-same faces, objects, and circumstances, of our knowing
-perfectly what will be said next, as if we suddenly
-remembered it.' Sometimes it seems that this previous
-occurrence can only have taken place in a previous
-existence,<a name="FNanchor_216_216" id="FNanchor_216_216"></a><a href="#Footnote_216_216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a> whence we probably have, as St. Augustine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span>
-seems first to have suggested, the origin of the idea
-of metempsychosis, of the transmigration of souls;
-sometimes it seems to have happened before in a
-dream; sometimes the subject of the experience is
-totally baffled in the attempt to account for the feeling
-of familiarity which has overtaken him. In any case
-he is liable to an emotion of distress which would
-scarcely be caused by the coincidence of resemblance
-with a real previous experience.<a name="FNanchor_217_217" id="FNanchor_217_217"></a><a href="#Footnote_217_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a></p>
-
-<p>Paramnesia of this kind is known, according to the
-observations of Lalande,<a name="FNanchor_218_218" id="FNanchor_218_218"></a><a href="#Footnote_218_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a> to thirty people in a hundred,
-and Heymans found it in a considerable proportion of
-students of both sexes. Such estimates are probably
-too high if we take into consideration the general
-population. This experience seems, as Dugas and
-others have noted,<a name="FNanchor_219_219" id="FNanchor_219_219"></a><a href="#Footnote_219_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a> to affect educated people, and
-notably people of more than average intellect, who
-use their brains much, especially in artistic and emotional
-work, to a very much greater degree than the
-ignorant and phlegmatic manual worker.<a name="FNanchor_220_220" id="FNanchor_220_220"></a><a href="#Footnote_220_220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a> Dickens
-has already been mentioned; many other notable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span>
-writers have referred to this or some allied feeling,
-stating that they had experienced it, and Sir James
-Crichton-Browne brings forward a number of passages
-from the poets in evidence of their familiarity with
-such phenomena.<a name="FNanchor_221_221" id="FNanchor_221_221"></a><a href="#Footnote_221_221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a> Shelley (who appears on at least
-two occasions to have experienced hallucinations also)
-underwent what may be regarded as an experience of
-paramnesia (described in his <cite>Speculations on Metaphysics</cite>)
-which is of interest in the present connection
-because it brings this phenomenon into relation with
-dreams. He was walking with a friend in the neighbourhood
-of Oxford, when he suddenly turned the
-corner of a country lane and saw 'a common scene' of
-a windmill, etc., which, it immediately seemed to him,
-he recollected having seen before in a dream of long
-ago. Five years afterwards he was so agitated in writing
-this down that he could not finish the account.
-The real resemblance of 'a common scene' with a
-similar dream scene, even supposing it could be recollected
-when the two experiences were separated by a
-long interval, would scarcely be a coincidence likely
-to cause agitation. The emotion aroused seems to
-mark the experience as belonging to the class of paramnesic
-illusions which so often make a peculiarly vivid
-impression on those to whom they occur.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>A great many theories have been put forward by
-psychologists and others to account for this paramnesic
-phenomenon. The most ancient explanation,
-long anterior to the beginnings of scientific psychology,
-was the theory that the occurrence which, as it now
-happens, strikes us as so overwhelmingly familiar
-had actually occurred to us in a previous existence
-long ages before; thus Pythagoras, according to the
-ancient story, when he visited the temple of Juno at
-Argos recognised the shield he had worn ages before
-when he was Euphorbus and fought with Menelaus
-in the Trojan war. A much more recent theory runs
-to the opposite extreme and claims that all or nearly
-all these cases of recognition indicate a real but confused
-reminiscence of past events in our present life,
-dim recollections which the subject is unable definitely
-to locate. This is the explanation largely relied on by
-Ribot, Jessen, Sander, Sully, Burnham, and many
-others. It was perhaps largely due to ignorance of
-the phenomenon; Ribot, when he wrote his book on
-the diseases of memory, considered that only three or
-four cases had been recorded, for an abnormal phenomenon
-always seems rare until it is recognised and
-definitely searched for. Undoubtedly, this theory will
-explain a considerable proportion of cases, but not
-really typical cases in which the subject has an
-overwhelming conviction that even the minute details
-of the present experience have been experienced before.
-We may read a new poem with a vague sense of familiarity,
-but such an experience never puts on a really<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span>
-paramnesic character, for we quickly realise that it is
-explainable by the fact that the writer of the poem has
-fallen under the influence of some greater master. The
-only experience I can personally speak of as at all
-approaching true paramnesia occurred on visiting
-the ruins of Pevensey Castle many years ago. On
-going up the slope towards the ivy-covered ruins,
-bathed in bright sunlight, I experienced a strange and
-abiding sense of familiarity with the scene. Three
-theories might account for this experience (for I refrain
-from including the Pythagorean theory that I experienced
-a reminiscence of the experience of a possible
-ancestor coming from across the Thames to the assistance
-of Harold against William the Conqueror at this
-spot): (1) that it was a case of true paramnesia; (2)
-that I had been taken to the spot as a child; (3) that
-the view was included among a series of coloured stereoscopic
-pictures with which I was familiar as a child, and
-which certainly contained similar scenes. I incline
-to this last explanation. Here, as elsewhere, there are
-no keys which will unlock all doors.</p>
-
-<p>A modification of the theory that the pseudo-reminiscence
-is an unrecognised real reminiscence
-is furnished by Grasset, who considers that the phenomenon
-is due to a subconscious impression previously
-received, but only reaching consciousness under the
-influence of the new similar impression. This theory
-would include the revival of dream images, and is therefore
-related to the theory of Lapie and M&eacute;r&eacute;, according
-to which the feeling of many of these subjects that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span>
-what they now experience had happened before in a
-dream is the correct explanation of the phenomenon.<a name="FNanchor_222_222" id="FNanchor_222_222"></a><a href="#Footnote_222_222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a></p>
-
-<p>We enter on a different class of explanations with
-the early theory of Wigan that such cases are due to
-the duality of the brain, the two hemispheres not acting
-quite simultaneously. This is a somewhat crude conception,
-though it may seem approximately on the lines
-of more recent theories. The theory of the duplex
-brain, each hemisphere being supposed capable of
-acting independently, was at one time invoked to explain
-many phenomena, but it is no longer regarded as
-tenable.<a name="FNanchor_223_223" id="FNanchor_223_223"></a><a href="#Footnote_223_223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a></p>
-
-<p>We may dismiss these theories, which have been
-effectively criticised by others, and revert to our clue in
-the sleeping and hypnagogic state. The hypnagogic
-state is a transition between waking and sleeping. It
-is thus a condition of mental feebleness and suggestibility
-doubtless correlated with a condition of irregular
-brain anaemia. A plausible suggestion under such
-conditions is too readily accepted. Does ordinary
-paramnesia occur under similar conditions of mental
-feebleness and suggestibility? It is rare to find descriptions
-of paramnesic experiences by scientific
-observers who are alive to the importance of accurately<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span>
-recording all the conditions, but there is some reason
-to think that paramnesia does occur in states produced
-by excitement, exhaustion, and allied causes.
-The earliest case of paramnesia recorded in detail by a
-trained observer is that described by Wigan as occurring
-to himself at the funeral of the Princess Charlotte.
-He had passed several disturbed nights previous to the
-ceremony, with almost complete deprivation of rest
-on the night immediately preceding; he was suffering
-from grief as well as from exhaustion from want of
-food; he had been standing for four hours, and would
-have fainted on taking his place by the coffin if it had
-not been for the excitement of the occasion. When the
-music ceased the coffin slowly sank in absolute silence,
-broken by an outburst of grief from the bereaved
-husband. 'In an instant,' Wigan proceeds, 'I felt
-not merely an <em>impression</em>, but a <em>conviction</em>, that I had
-seen the whole scene before on some former occasion.'
-Such a condition may fairly be regarded as an artificial
-reproduction, by means of emotion, excitement, and
-exhaustion, of the condition which occurs simply and
-naturally in sleep or on its hypnagogic borderland.</p>
-
-<p>The frequency&mdash;if it may be taken to be a fact&mdash;of
-the occurrence of pseudo-reminiscence in epileptics,
-noted by various medical observers, whether at the
-onset of the fit or independently of any obvious muscular
-convulsion, may be significant in this connection.
-There is no good reason to suppose that pseudo-reminiscence
-has a true relation to epilepsy, and still less
-that it necessarily constitutes a minor epileptic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span>
-paroxysm. But the special sleep-like condition of
-contracted cerebral circulation in epilepsy renders it
-favourable to paramnesia as well as to hallucinatory
-phenomena.<a name="FNanchor_224_224" id="FNanchor_224_224"></a><a href="#Footnote_224_224" class="fnanchor">[224]</a></p>
-
-<p>Independently of epilepsy, any condition of temporary
-and perhaps chronic nervous exhaustion may produce,
-or at all events predispose to, the paramnesic delusion
-of recognising present experiences as familiar. Thus
-Rosenbach has recorded the case of a sane and healthy
-man, who, after severe mental labour, followed by
-sleeplessness, seemed to know all the people he met in
-the street, though on close examination he found he
-was mistaken.<a name="FNanchor_225_225" id="FNanchor_225_225"></a><a href="#Footnote_225_225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a> Such a condition may even be almost
-congenital. Thus of Anna Kingsford, who was of highly
-strung and neurotic disposition, we are told that, as a
-child, 'all that she read struck her as already familiar
-to her, so that she seemed to herself to be recovering<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span>
-old recollections rather than acquiring fresh knowledge.'<a name="FNanchor_226_226" id="FNanchor_226_226"></a><a href="#Footnote_226_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a></p>
-
-<p>It is noteworthy that artificial anaesthesia by drugs
-which produce an abnormal sleep also favours paramnesia.
-Thus Sir William Ramsay<a name="FNanchor_227_227" id="FNanchor_227_227"></a><a href="#Footnote_227_227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a> has stated that
-when, under an anaesthetic, he heard a slight noise in
-the street, 'I not merely knew that it had happened
-before, but I could have predicted that it would happen
-at that very moment.'</p>
-
-<p>In all these conditions we appear to be in the presence
-of an enfeebled, excited, and impaired state of consciousness
-approximating to the true confusion of dream
-consciousness. It seems as if externally aroused sensations
-in such cases are received by the exhausted
-cerebral centres in so blurred a form that an illusion
-takes place, and they are mistaken for internally
-excited sensations, for memories.</p>
-
-<p>That paramnesia is a fatigue product&mdash;even though
-often a product of nervous hyperaesthesia&mdash;is indicated
-by the statements of many who have described it.
-Anjel long ago emphasised this fatigue, and Bonatelli,
-also at an early period, found that illusions of memory
-were specially liable to occur in states of unusual
-nervous irritability. During recent years this characteristic
-of paramnesia has been more and more
-frequently recognised. Bernard Leroy, who devoted a
-lengthy and important Paris thesis to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span>
-pseudo-reminiscence,<a name="FNanchor_228_228" id="FNanchor_228_228"></a><a href="#Footnote_228_228" class="fnanchor">[228]</a> showed that a certain proportion of cases
-indicated the presence of fatigue or distraction.
-Heymans found that it was in the evening, when his
-subjects were in a passive condition, tired, exhausted,
-or engaged in uncongenial work, that they were most
-liable to the experience.<a name="FNanchor_229_229" id="FNanchor_229_229"></a><a href="#Footnote_229_229" class="fnanchor">[229]</a> F&eacute;r&eacute; brought forward a
-case in which, as he pointed out, pseudo-reminiscence
-in a healthy man, convalescent from influenza, was
-associated with fatigue and disappeared with it.<a name="FNanchor_230_230" id="FNanchor_230_230"></a><a href="#Footnote_230_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a>
-Dromard and Alb&egrave;s declare that pseudo-reminiscence
-is 'a phenomenon of exhaustion,' and one of them makes
-the significant statement: 'I become more easily the
-prey of this illusion when, by chance and without
-thinking of it, I simultaneously apply my attention
-to an external object and an internal thought.'<a name="FNanchor_231_231" id="FNanchor_231_231"></a><a href="#Footnote_231_231" class="fnanchor">[231]</a> Dugas,
-again, considers that all the various forms of paramnesia
-have 'one common character, which is that they occur
-as the result of prolonged or intense fatigue';<a name="FNanchor_232_232" id="FNanchor_232_232"></a><a href="#Footnote_232_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a> he
-adds that most of the cases of paramnesia he has noted
-in young people during fifteen years coincided with
-periods of anaemia and nervous weakness.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>It is not, however, necessary to believe that fatigue,
-in the ordinary sense of the word, whether physical or
-mental, is the invariable accompaniment of paramnesia.
-If it is the presence of a condition resembling that of
-sleep or the hypnagogic state which predisposes to
-the experience, that condition may be produced by
-other circumstances. Distraction, excited hyperaesthesia
-simulating increased power, and various chronic psychic
-states <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'hue'">due</ins> to a highly-strung or over-strained nervous
-system may all tend in the same direction, even though
-no sense of exhaustion is felt.<a name="FNanchor_233_233" id="FNanchor_233_233"></a><a href="#Footnote_233_233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a> This is doubtless why
-it is that so many poets, novelists, and other men
-of strenuous intellectual aptitude are liable to this
-experience.</p>
-
-<p>It has been argued by some who admit that there is
-often an element of fatigue in paramnesia,<a name="FNanchor_234_234" id="FNanchor_234_234"></a><a href="#Footnote_234_234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a> that the
-real cause of the false memory is an abnormal celerity
-of perception, perhaps due to hyperaesthesia. The
-scene would thus be perceived so quickly that the subject<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span>
-concludes that he must have had this experience before.
-That the subject often has a feeling of unusual rapidity
-of perception may very well be admitted. But there
-is no reason whatever to suppose that the perception
-actually is received with any such unusual rapidity.
-The probabilities are in the other direction. We know
-that many influences (such as drugs like alcohol) which
-produce a feeling of heightened and quickened perceptions
-really have a slowing and dulling effect, in
-the same way as the wise and beautiful things we utter
-in dreams are usually found on awaking to be commonplace,
-if not meaningless. There is no evidence to show
-that paramnesia is accompanied by a real heightening
-of perception, while, as we have seen, a broad survey
-of the facts makes it more reasonable to suppose that
-we have, on the contrary, a sudden fall towards the
-dream state, a state in which, as Tissi&eacute; and others have
-pointed out, there are many stages.</p>
-
-<p>It must be remembered in this connection that in the
-hypnagogic and other states related to sleep we are not
-able to estimate time conditions consciously, though,
-as the frequent ability to wake at fixed moments indicates,
-we may do so subconsciously. Time is long,
-short, or non-existent in dream-like states. This is
-always true of the onset of the hypnagogic state. When
-I am suddenly awakened at night by a voice or a bell
-or other stimulus, I often find it very difficult to say
-whether I was or was not already awake, and have
-frequently replied, when so awakened, that I was already
-awake. That is an illusion, as is shown by the frequency<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span>
-with which elderly people who fall asleep in the day
-time, will declare, though they may have been snoring
-a moment before, that they have never been asleep.
-By a somewhat similar paramnesic illusion we can
-never fix the exact moment when we awake. When
-we become conscious that we are awake it always
-seems to us that we are already awake, awake for an
-indefinite time, and not that we have just awakened.
-If I had to register the exact moment I awake in the
-morning I should usually feel that I was considerably
-late in making the observation. It seems that the imperfect
-hypnagogic consciousness projects itself behind.
-At the first onset, consciousness is not sufficiently
-developed to be able to realise that it is beginning, and
-when it becomes sufficiently developed to make such a
-statement the moment when it can be correctly made is
-already past. Consciousness is only able to assert
-that it has been continuing for an indefinite time.
-And that assertion involves a paramnesic illusion of
-putting back a present experience into the past, analogous
-to the illusion of pseudo-reminiscence.<a name="FNanchor_235_235" id="FNanchor_235_235"></a><a href="#Footnote_235_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>If we realise these characteristics of paramnesia
-we can scarcely fail to conclude that we are concerned
-here with illusions which, while they fall within the
-sphere of memory, are largely conditioned by the whole
-psychic condition. As in dreams, it is inattention,
-failure of apperception, defective association of the
-mental contents, which make the paramnesia possible.
-Paramnesia is, as Fouill&eacute;e has said, a kind of diplopia
-or seeing double in the mental field. 'I have the
-impression,' says one of the writers on this subject who
-himself experiences the sensation, 'that the present
-reality has a <em>double</em>.' Actual double vision is due to
-the failure of that muscular co-ordination which, as
-Ribot and others have insisted, is of the very essence of
-attention. This wider psychic basis on which paramnesia
-rests has of late been recognised by several psychologists.
-Thus L&eacute;on-Kindberg states that in paramnesia
-there is an absence of mental attention, of the
-effort of synthesis necessary to grasp an actual occurrence,
-which is, therefore, perceived with the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span>
-facility as a memory not requiring synthesis, with the
-resulting illusion that it is a memory.<a name="FNanchor_236_236" id="FNanchor_236_236"></a><a href="#Footnote_236_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a> Ballet, again,
-regards paramnesia as a transitory or permanent
-psychasthenic state, due to dissociation.<a name="FNanchor_237_237" id="FNanchor_237_237"></a><a href="#Footnote_237_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a> Dugas, also,
-who has repeatedly returned to this subject during
-many years, in his latest contributions attaches
-primary importance to this broader factor of paramnesia.
-In analysing memory, he says, there is an
-element which, though often overlooked, is capital:
-the recognition of a state of consciousness not merely
-as passed, but as bound up with our own personal
-past; when that synthetic function ceases to be accomplished,
-or is only accomplished defectively, then
-memory is lacking or perverted. Nervous weakness,
-he proceeds, produces failure of attention, the inhibitory
-power of attention being no longer exerted, and the
-psychic elements fall back to anarchy. Now many
-psychic states, such as sensations, recollections, and
-images, differ from each other less by their substance
-than by the way in which the mind takes hold of and
-apprehends them. The mind seizes a sensation with a
-stronger grasp than a recollection, and a recollection
-with a stronger grasp than an image. When attention
-is relaxed the line of demarcation between these psychic
-states tends to be effaced; the sensation becomes
-vague and floating like the recollection and the image,
-while the recollection and the image, on the contrary,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span>
-become objective and acquire something of the brilliance
-and relief of the sensation. The very same cause&mdash;enfeeblement
-of attention&mdash;thus produces opposite
-effects, on the one side raising the tone, on the other
-lowering it, so that states of mind which are ordinarily
-distinct tend to be approximated and confused, as we
-may observe in the hypnagogic condition.<a name="FNanchor_238_238" id="FNanchor_238_238"></a><a href="#Footnote_238_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a></p>
-
-<p>Although Dugas makes no reference to Janet, it
-is not difficult to see that he has assimilated some of
-the views of that distinguished investigator of psychic
-mysteries. Janet, as we know, in various morbid
-psychic conditions, attaches great explanatory force
-to the individual's loss of hold, through psychic weakness,
-of his own personality, and to the diminished
-sense of reality and even depersonalisation thence
-ensuing. It so happens that Janet himself has set
-forth a theory of pseudo-reminiscence which is characteristic
-of his own attitude, and also harmonises with
-the wider outlook which now marks the attempts to
-explain these perversions of memory. Janet declares
-that pseudo-reminiscence is a negative phenomenon
-and belongs to a group in which various other feelings
-of diminished sense of reality belong. These people all
-say in effect: 'It seems to me that these things are not
-real; it seems to me that these events are not actual
-or present.' The essence of this form of paramnesia<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span>
-is thus more a negation of the present than an affirmation
-of the past. 'The function of adaptation to the
-present moment,' Janet remarks, 'is the most complicated
-and the most recent of all. The function of the
-real is the most elevated and the most difficult of all
-cerebral functions.' Under various influences there is
-a diminution of nervous and psychic tension, and such
-suppression of the high tension of the mind leaves
-only the lower functions subsisting. When that fall
-of tension is rapid, there may be a crisis of which pseudo-reminiscence
-is one of the symptoms.<a name="FNanchor_239_239" id="FNanchor_239_239"></a><a href="#Footnote_239_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a> Janet would
-thus place pseudo-reminiscence among the manifestations
-of psychasthenia, though he leaves untouched
-the difficult question of its precise mechanism.</p>
-
-<p>The most comprehensive attempt to explain the
-mystery of paramnesia in recent years is certainly that
-made in an elaborately eclectic study by one of the most
-distinguished of living French thinkers, Professor
-Bergson.<a name="FNanchor_240_240" id="FNanchor_240_240"></a><a href="#Footnote_240_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a> He first casts a glance over what he considers
-the two main groups of explanations of this
-puzzling phenomenon: (1) those, advocated by Ribot,
-Fouill&eacute;e, Lalande, Arnaud, Pi&eacute;ron, Myers, etc., which
-involve the more or less simultaneous existence in
-consciousness of two images, of which one is the reproduction
-of the other; (2) those advocated by
-Janet, Heymans, L&eacute;on-Kindberg, Dromard and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span>
-Alb&egrave;s, etc., which insist on the lower mental tone,
-the diminished attention, the lack of synthetising
-power, which mark the condition in which paramnesia
-occurs. Bergson is quite ready to accept the principles
-of both these groups of explanations, and to combine
-them. But, he argues, to understand the phenomenon
-adequately, we must go deeper; we must analyse the
-normal mechanism of memory. And he finds, if we do
-this, that not merely the moment of a paramnesic
-illusion, but every moment of our life, offers two aspects,
-actual and virtual, perception on one side, and memory
-on the other. The moment itself, indeed, consists
-of such a scission, for it is always moving, always a
-fleeting boundary between the immediate past and the
-immediate future, and would be a mere abstraction
-if it were not 'precisely the mobile mirror which ceaselessly
-reflects perception in recollection.' When the
-matter is thus regarded a recollection is seen to be, in
-reality, not something which has been, but something
-which is, proceeding <em xml:lang="la" lang="la">pari passu</em> with the perception it
-reproduces. It is a recollection of the moment taking
-place at that moment. Belonging to the past as regards
-its form, it belongs to the present as regards its
-matter. It is recollection of the present. Now this is
-exactly the state in which the paramnesic person
-consciously finds himself, and the only problem before
-us, therefore, is to ascertain why every one at every
-moment is not conscious of the same experience.
-Bergson replies that nothing is more useless for present
-action than the recollection of the present. It has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span>
-nothing to tell us; we hold the real object, and to
-give up that for its recollection would be to sacrifice
-the substance to the shadow. Therefore we obstinately
-and persistently turn away from the recollection of the
-present. It emerges consciously only under the influence
-of some abnormal or pathological disturbance
-of attention. Paramnesia is an anomaly of this kind,
-and it is due to a temporary enfeeblement of the general
-attention to life, a momentary arrest of the forward
-movement of consciousness. 'False recognition,' Bergson
-concludes, 'may thus be regarded as the most
-inoffensive form of inattention to life. It seems to
-result from the combined play of perception and memory
-given up to their own energy. It would take place at
-every moment if it were not that will, ceaselessly
-directed towards action, prevents the present from
-folding in on itself by pushing it indefinitely into the
-future.'</p>
-
-<p>So far as my own explanation is concerned, it will
-be seen that I still place weight on the general condition
-of temporary or chronic nervous fatigue as the soil
-on which paramnesia arises&mdash;a belief now accepted
-by most psychologists<a name="FNanchor_241_241" id="FNanchor_241_241"></a><a href="#Footnote_241_241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a>&mdash;and that I think we must
-search for the clue to the mechanism of the illusion in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span>
-those dreaming and hypnagogic states in which it most
-often occurs. As regards a definite explanation of the
-mechanism we must, in the face of so many ingenious
-and complicated theories, perhaps still await more
-general agreement.<a name="FNanchor_242_242" id="FNanchor_242_242"></a><a href="#Footnote_242_242" class="fnanchor">[242]</a> What I have suggested, and
-am still inclined to maintain, is that the psychic enfeeblement,
-temporary or chronic, which is the general
-preliminary condition of paramnesia, whether or not
-there is any subjective sensation of increased power,
-may account for the paramnesia by bringing an externally
-aroused perception down to a lower and fainter
-stage on which it is on a level with an internally aroused
-perception&mdash;a memory. Just as in hypnagogic paramnesia
-the vivid and life-like dream, or internal impression,
-is raised to the class of memories, and becomes the
-shadow of a real experience, so in waking paramnesia
-the external impression is lowered to the same class.
-Perception is alike dulled in each case, and the immediate
-experience follows the line of least resistance&mdash;this
-time too carelessly or too prematurely&mdash;to join
-the great bulk of our experiences.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>We thus realise how it is that that doubling of experience
-occurs. The mind has for the moment become
-flaccid and enfeebled; its loosened texture has, as it
-were, abnormally enlarged the meshes in which sensations
-are caught and sifted, so that they run through
-too easily. In other words, they are not properly
-<em>apperceived</em>. To use a crude simile, it is as though we
-poured water into a sieve. The impressions of the
-world which are actual sensations as they strike the
-relaxed psychic meshwork are instantaneously passed
-through to become memories, and we see them in both
-forms at the same moment, and are unable to distinguish
-one from the other.</p>
-
-<p>In sleep, and in the hypnagogic state, as in hypnosis,
-we accept a suggestion, with or without a struggle.
-In the waking paramnesic state we seem to find, in a
-slighter stage of a like condition, <em>the same process in a
-reversed form</em>. Instead of accepting a representation
-as an actual present fact, we accept the actual present
-fact as merely a representation. The centres of perception
-are in such a state of exhaustion and disorder
-that they receive an actual external sensation in the
-feebler shape of a representation. The actual fact
-becomes merely a suggestion of far distant things. It
-reaches consciousness in the enfeebled shape of an old
-memory&mdash;</p>
-
-<div class="container">
-<div class="poem">
- <div class="stanza">
-  <div class="i0">'... like to something I remember</div>
-  <div class="i0">A great while since, a long, long time ago.'</div>
- </div>
-</div>
-</div>
-
-<p>Paramnesia is thus an internal hallucination, a reversed
-hallucination, it is true, but while so reversed, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span>
-stream of consciousness is still following the line of least
-resistance.</p>
-
-<p>It is along some such lines as these, it seems to me,
-that we may best attempt to explain the phenomena
-of paramnesia, phenomena which are of no little
-interest since, in earlier stages of culture, they may well
-have had a real influence on belief, suggesting to
-primitive man that he had somehow had wider experiences
-than he knew of, and that, as Wordsworth put it,
-he trailed clouds of glory behind him.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2>
-
-<p class="p6">CONCLUSION</p>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p>The Fundamental Nature of Dreaming&mdash;Insanity and Dreaming&mdash;The
-Child's Psychic State and the Dream State&mdash;Primitive
-Thought and Dreams&mdash;Dreaming and Myth-Making&mdash;Genius
-and Dreams&mdash;Dreaming as a Road into the Infinite.</p></blockquote>
-
-
-<p>In the preceding chapters we have traced some of the
-elementary tendencies which prevail in the formation
-of dreams. These tendencies are in some respects so
-unlike those that rule in waking life&mdash;slight and subtle
-as their unlikeness often seems&mdash;that we are justified
-in regarding the psychic phenomena of sleeping life as
-constituting a world of their own.</p>
-
-<p>Yet when we look at the phenomena a little more
-deeply we realise that, however differentiated they have
-become, dream life is yet strictly co-ordinated with
-other forms of psychic life. If we pierce below the
-surface we seem to reach a primitive fundamental
-psychic stage in which the dreamer, the madman, the
-child, and the savage alike have their starting point,
-and possess a degree of community from which the
-waking, civilised, sane adult of to-day is shut out, so
-that he can only comprehend it by an intellectual
-effort.<a name="FNanchor_243_243" id="FNanchor_243_243"></a><a href="#Footnote_243_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a> It thus happens that the ways of thinking and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span>
-feeling of the child and the savage and the lunatic each
-furnish a road by which we may reach a psychic world
-which is essentially that of the dreamer.</p>
-
-<p>The resemblance of insanity to dream life has, above
-all, impressed observers from the time when the nature
-of insanity was first definitely recognised. It would be
-outside the limits of the present book to discuss the
-points at which dreams resemble or differ from insanity,
-but it is worth while to touch on the question of their
-affinity. The recognition of this affinity, or at all
-events analogy, though it was stated by Cabanis to be
-due to Cullen, is as old as Aristotle, and has constantly
-been put forward afresh. Thus in the sixteenth century
-Du Laurens (A. Laurentius), in his treatise on the
-disease of melancholy, as insanity was then termed,
-compared it to dreaming.<a name="FNanchor_244_244" id="FNanchor_244_244"></a><a href="#Footnote_244_244" class="fnanchor">[244]</a> The same point is still
-constantly brought forward by the more philosophic
-physician. 'Find out all about dreams,' Hughlings
-Jackson has said, 'and you will have found out all
-about insanity.' From the wider standpoint of the
-psychologist, Jastrow points out that not only insanity,
-but all the forms of delirium, including the drug-intoxications,
-are 'variants of dream consciousness.'</p>
-
-<p>The reality of the affinity of dreaming and insanity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span>
-is well illustrated by a case, coming under the observation
-of Marro, in which a dream, formed according
-to the ordinary rules of dreaming, produced a temporary
-fit of insanity in an otherwise perfectly sane subject.<a name="FNanchor_245_245" id="FNanchor_245_245"></a><a href="#Footnote_245_245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a>
-In this case a highly intelligent but somewhat neurotic
-young man was returning to Italy after pursuing his
-studies abroad, and reached Turin, on the homeward
-journey, in a somewhat tired state. In the train he
-believed that he had detected some cardsharpers, and
-that they suspected him of finding them out, and bore
-him ill-will in consequence. This produced a state of
-general nervous apprehension. At the hotel his room
-was over the kitchen; it was in consequence very hot,
-and to a late hour he could still hear voices and catch
-snatches of conversation, which seemed to him to be
-directed against himself. His suspicions deepened, he
-heard noises, in reality due to the kitchen utensils,
-which seemed preparations for his murder, and he
-ultimately became convinced that there was a plot
-to set fire to his room in order to force him to leave it,
-when he would be seized and murdered. He resolved
-to escape, got out of the window with his revolver in
-his hand, found his way to another part of the house,
-encountered a man who had been awakened by his
-movements, and shot at him, believing him to be a
-party to the imaginary conspiracy. He was seized
-and taken to the asylum, where he speedily regained
-calm, and realised the delusion into which he had fallen.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span>
-When questioned by Marro, on reaching the asylum,
-he was unaware that he had ever fallen asleep during
-the night; he could not, however, account for all the
-time that had elapsed before he left the room, and it
-was probable, Marro concludes, that he was in a state
-between waking and sleeping, and that his delusion was
-constituted in a dream. Fatigue, nervous apprehension,
-an unduly hot bedroom, the close proximity of servants'
-voices, and the sound of kitchen utensils, had thus
-combined, in a state of partial sleep, to produce in an
-otherwise sane person, a morbid condition in every
-respect identical with that found in insane persons who
-are suffering from systematised delusions of persecution.<a name="FNanchor_246_246" id="FNanchor_246_246"></a><a href="#Footnote_246_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a></p>
-
-<p>The resemblance of the child's psychic state to the
-dream state is an observation of less ancient date than
-that of the analogy between dreaming and insanity,
-but it has frequently been made by modern psychologists.
-'In dreams,' says Freud, 'the child with his impulses
-lives again,'<a name="FNanchor_247_247" id="FNanchor_247_247"></a><a href="#Footnote_247_247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a> and Giessler has devoted a chapter to
-the points of resemblance between dream life and the
-mental activity of children.<a name="FNanchor_248_248" id="FNanchor_248_248"></a><a href="#Footnote_248_248" class="fnanchor">[248]</a></p>
-
-<p>I should be more especially inclined to find the dream-like
-character of the child's mind at three points:
-(1) the abnormally logical tendency of the child's mind<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span>
-and the daring mental fusions which he effects in forming
-theories; (2) the greater preponderance of hypnagogic
-phenomena and hallucinations in childhood, as
-well as the large element of reverie or day-dreaming
-in the child's life, and the facility with which he confuses
-this waking imagination with reality; and (3) the
-child's tendency to mistake, also, the dreams of the
-night for real events.<a name="FNanchor_249_249" id="FNanchor_249_249"></a><a href="#Footnote_249_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a> This last tendency is of serious
-practical import when it leads a child, in all innocence,
-to make criminal charges against other persons.<a name="FNanchor_250_250" id="FNanchor_250_250"></a><a href="#Footnote_250_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a> This
-tendency clearly indicates the close resemblance which
-there is for children between dream life and waking
-life; it also shows the great vividness which children's
-dreams possess. In imaginative children, it may be
-added, a rich and vivid dream life is not infrequently
-the direct source of literary activities which lead to
-distinction in later life.<a name="FNanchor_251_251" id="FNanchor_251_251"></a><a href="#Footnote_251_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The child, we are often told, is the representative of
-the modern savage and the primitive man. That is
-not, in any strict sense, true, nor can we assume without
-question that early man and modern savages are
-identical. But we can have very little doubt that in
-our dreams we are brought near to ways of thought and
-feeling that are sometimes closer to those of early man, as
-well as of latter-day savages, than are our psychic modes
-in civilisation.<a name="FNanchor_252_252" id="FNanchor_252_252"></a><a href="#Footnote_252_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a> So remote are we to-day from the world
-of our dreams that we very rarely draw from them the
-inspiration of our waking lives. For the primitive man
-the laws of the waking world are not yet widely differentiated
-from the laws of the sleeping world, and he
-finds it not unreasonable to seek illumination for the
-problems of one world in the phenomena of the other.
-The doctrine of animism, as first formulated by Tylor
-(more especially in his <cite>Primitive Culture</cite>) finds in
-dreams the chief source of primitive religion and
-philosophy. Of recent years there has been a tendency
-to reject the theory of animism.<a name="FNanchor_253_253" id="FNanchor_253_253"></a><a href="#Footnote_253_253" class="fnanchor">[253]</a> Certainly it is
-possible to rely too exclusively on dreams as the inspiration
-of early man; if the evidence of dreams had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span>
-not been in a line with the evidence that he derived
-from other sources, there is no reason why the man of
-primitive times should have attached any peculiar
-value to dreams. But if the animistic conception
-presents too extreme a view of the primitive importance
-of dreaming, we must beware lest the reaction against
-it should lead us to fall into the opposite extreme.
-Durkheim argues that it is unlikely that early man
-attaches much significance to dreams, for the modern
-peasant, who is the representative of primitive man,
-appears to dream very little, and not to attach much
-importance to his dreams. But it is by no means
-true that the peasant of civilisation, with his fixed
-agricultural life, corresponds to early man who was
-mainly a hunter and often a nomad. Under the conditions
-of civilisation the peasant is fed regularly and
-leads a peaceful, stolid, laborious, and equable life,
-which is altogether unfavourable to psychic activity
-of any kind, awake or asleep. The savage man, now
-and ever, as a hunter and fighter, leads a life of comparative
-idleness, broken by spurts of violent activity;
-sometimes he can gorge himself with food, sometimes
-he is on the verge of starvation. He lives under conditions
-that are more favourable to the psychic side of
-life, awake or asleep, than is the case with the peasant
-of civilisation.</p>
-
-<p>Moreover, it must be remembered that all the peoples
-whom we may fairly regard as in some degree resembling
-early man possess a specialised caste of exceptional
-men who artificially cultivate their psychic activities,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span>
-and thereby exert great influence on their fellows.
-These are termed, after their very typical representatives
-in some Siberian tribes, <em>shamans</em>, and combine the
-functions of priests and sorcerers and medicine men.
-It is nearly everywhere found that the shaman&mdash;who
-is often, it would appear, at the outset a somewhat
-abnormal person&mdash;cultivates solitude, fasting, and all
-manner of ascetic practices, thereby acquiring an
-unusual aptitude to dream, to see visions, to experience
-hallucinations, and, it may well be, to acquire abnormally
-clairvoyant powers. The shamans of the Andamanese
-are called by a word signifying dreamer, and in
-various parts of the world the shaman finds the first
-sign of his vocation in a dream. The evocation of
-dreams is often the chief end of the shaman's abnormal
-method of life. Thus, among the Salish Indians of
-British Columbia, dreams are the proper mode of
-communication with guardian spirits, and 'prolonged
-fasts, bathings, forced vomitings, and other exhausting
-bodily exercises are the means adopted for inducing
-the mystic dreams and visions.'<a name="FNanchor_254_254" id="FNanchor_254_254"></a><a href="#Footnote_254_254" class="fnanchor">[254]</a></p>
-
-<p>When we witness the phenomena of Shamanism in all
-parts of the world it is difficult to dispute the statement
-of Lucretius that the gods first appeared to men in
-dreams. This may be said to be literally true; even
-to-day it often happens that the savage's totem, who is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span>
-practically his tutelary deity, first appears to him in a
-dream.<a name="FNanchor_255_255" id="FNanchor_255_255"></a><a href="#Footnote_255_255" class="fnanchor">[255]</a> An influence which seems likely to have been
-so persistent may well have had a large plastic power
-in moulding the myths and legends which everywhere
-embody the religious impulses of men. This idea was
-long ago suggested by Hobbes. 'From this ignorance
-of how to distinguish dreams and other strong Fancies,'
-he wrote, 'from Vision and Sense, did arise the greatest
-part of the Religion of the Gentiles in time past, that
-worshipped Satyrs, Fauns, Nymphs, and the like.'<a name="FNanchor_256_256" id="FNanchor_256_256"></a><a href="#Footnote_256_256" class="fnanchor">[256]</a></p>
-
-<p>Ludwig Laistner, however, appears to have been the
-first to argue in detail that dreams, and especially
-nightmares, have played an important part in the
-evolution of mythological ideas. 'If we bear in mind,'
-he said in the Preface to his great work, 'how intimately
-poetry and religion are connected with myth, we
-encounter the surprising fact that the first germ of these
-highly important vital manifestations is not to be found
-in any action of the waking mind, but in sleep, and that
-the chief and oldest teacher of productive imagination
-is not to be found in the experiences of life, but in the
-phantasies of dream.'<a name="FNanchor_257_257" id="FNanchor_257_257"></a><a href="#Footnote_257_257" class="fnanchor">[257]</a> The pictures men formed of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span>
-the over-world and the under-world have the character
-of dreams and hypnagogic visions, and this is true even
-within the sphere of Christianity.<a name="FNanchor_258_258" id="FNanchor_258_258"></a><a href="#Footnote_258_258" class="fnanchor">[258]</a> The invention of
-Hell, Maudsley has declared, would find an adequate
-explanation, if such is needed, in the sufferings of some
-delirious patients, while the apocalyptic vision of Heaven
-with which our Christian Bible concludes, is, Beaunis
-remarks, nothing but a long dream.<a name="FNanchor_259_259" id="FNanchor_259_259"></a><a href="#Footnote_259_259" class="fnanchor">[259]</a> And if it is true,
-as Baudelaire has said, that 'every well conformed
-brain carries within it two infinites: Heaven and Hell,'
-we may well believe that both Heaven and Hell find their
-most vivid symbolism in the spontaneous action of
-dreams.</p>
-
-<p>In migraine and the epileptic aura visions of diminutive
-creatures sometimes occur, and occasionally micropsic
-vision in which real objects appear diminished.
-It has been suggested by Sir Lauder Brunton that we
-may here have the origin of fairies, at all events for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span>
-some races of fairies; for fairies, though diminutive
-in some countries, as in England, are not diminutive
-in others, as in Ireland. A more normal and frequent
-channel of intercourse with such creatures is, however,
-to be found in dreams. This is illustrated by the
-following dream experienced by a lady: 'I saw a man
-wheeling along a cripple. Eventually the cripple
-became reduced to about the size of a walnut, and the
-man told me that he had the power of becoming any
-size and of going anywhere. To my horror he then
-threw him into the water. In answer to my remonstrances
-that he would surely be drowned, the man said
-that it was all right, the little fellow would be home
-in a few hours. He then shouted out, "What time do
-you expect to get back?" The tiny creature, who
-was paddling along in the water, then took out a
-miniature watch, and replied: "About seven!"'<a name="FNanchor_260_260" id="FNanchor_260_260"></a><a href="#Footnote_260_260" class="fnanchor">[260]</a>
-In a dream of my own I saw little creatures, a few inches
-high, moving about and acting on a diminutive stage.
-Though I regarded them as really living creatures, and
-not marionettes, the spectacle caused me no surprise.</p>
-
-<p>The dream-like character of myths, legends, and
-fairy tales is probably, however, not entirely due to
-direct borrowing from the actual dreams of sleep, or
-even from the hallucinations connected with insanity,
-music, or drugs, though all these may have played
-their part. The greater nearness of the primitive<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span>
-mind to the dream-state involves more than a tendency
-to embody in waking life conceptions obtained from
-dreams. It means that the waking psychic life itself
-is capable of acting in a way resembling that of the
-sleeping psychic life, and of evolving conceptions
-similar to dreams.</p>
-
-<p>This point of view has in recent years been especially
-set forth by Freud and his school, who argue that the
-laws of the formation of myths and fairy tales are
-identical with the laws in accordance with which
-dreams are formed.<a name="FNanchor_261_261" id="FNanchor_261_261"></a><a href="#Footnote_261_261" class="fnanchor">[261]</a> It certainly seems to be true that
-the resemblances between dreams and legends are not
-adequately explained by supposing that the latter are
-moulded out of the former. We have to believe that
-on the myth-making plane of thought we are really
-on a plane that is more nearly parallel with that
-of dreaming than is our ordinary civilised thought.
-We are in a world of things that are supernormally
-enormous or delicate, and the emotional vibrations
-vastly enlarged, a world in which miracles happen
-on every hand and cause us no surprise. Slaughter
-and destruction take place on the heroic scale with a
-minimum expenditure of effort; men are transformed
-into beasts and beasts into men, so that men and beasts
-converse with each other.<a name="FNanchor_262_262" id="FNanchor_262_262"></a><a href="#Footnote_262_262" class="fnanchor">[262]</a></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Finally, it may be observed that the atmosphere
-into which genius leads us, and indeed all art, is the
-atmosphere of the world of dreams. The man of genius,
-it is often said, has the child within him; he is, according
-to the ancient dictum, which is still accepted, not
-without an admixture of insanity, and he is unquestionably
-related to the primitive myth-maker. All these
-characteristics, as we see, bring him near to the sphere
-of dreaming, and we may say that the man of genius
-is in closer touch with the laws of the dream world
-than is the ordinary civilised man. 'It would be no
-great paradox,' remarks Maudsley, 'to say that the
-creative work of genius was excellent dreaming, and
-dramatic dreaming distracted genius.'<a name="FNanchor_263_263" id="FNanchor_263_263"></a><a href="#Footnote_263_263" class="fnanchor">[263]</a> This has often
-been recognised by some of the most typical men of
-genius. Charles Lamb, in speaking of Spenser, referred
-to the analogy between dreaming and imagination.
-Coleridge, one of the most essential of imaginative<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span>
-men, argued that the laws of drama and of dreaming
-are the same.<a name="FNanchor_264_264" id="FNanchor_264_264"></a><a href="#Footnote_264_264" class="fnanchor">[264]</a> Nietzsche, more recently, has developed
-the affinity of dreaming to art, and in his <cite>Birth
-of Tragedy</cite> argued that the Appollonian or dream-like
-element is one of the two constituents of tragedy.
-Mallarm&eacute; further believed that symbolism, which we
-have seen to be fundamental in dreaming, is of the
-essence of art. 'To name an object,' he said, 'is
-to suppress three-quarters of the enjoyment in a
-poem which is made up of the happiness of gradually
-divining; to suggest&mdash;that is our dream. The perfect
-usage of this mystery constitutes symbolism: to evoke
-an object, little by little, in order to exhibit a state of
-the soul, or, inversely, to choose an object, and to disengage
-from it a state of the soul by a series of decipherments.'<a name="FNanchor_265_265" id="FNanchor_265_265"></a><a href="#Footnote_265_265" class="fnanchor">[265]</a>
-It may be added that imaginative and artistic
-men have always been prone to day-dreaming and
-reverie, allowing their fancies to wander uncontrolled,
-and in so doing they have found profit to their work.<a name="FNanchor_266_266" id="FNanchor_266_266"></a><a href="#Footnote_266_266" class="fnanchor">[266]</a>
-From Socrates onwards, too, men of genius have sometimes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span>
-been liable to fall into states of trance, or waking
-dream, in which their mission or their vision has become
-more clearly manifested;<a name="FNanchor_267_267" id="FNanchor_267_267"></a><a href="#Footnote_267_267" class="fnanchor">[267]</a> the hallucinatory voices
-which have determined the vocation of many great
-teachers belong to psychic states allied to these trances.</p>
-
-<p>It is scarcely necessary to refer to the occasional
-creative activity of men of genius during actual sleep
-or to the debts which they have acknowledged to
-suggestions received in dreams.<a name="FNanchor_268_268" id="FNanchor_268_268"></a><a href="#Footnote_268_268" class="fnanchor">[268]</a> This has perhaps,
-indeed, been more often exaggerated than overlooked.
-There can be no doubt that a great many writers and
-thinkers, including some of the highest eminence, have
-sometimes been indebted to their dreams. We might
-expect as much, for most people occasionally have
-more or less vivid or suggestive new ideas in dreams,<a name="FNanchor_269_269" id="FNanchor_269_269"></a><a href="#Footnote_269_269" class="fnanchor">[269]</a>
-and it is natural that this should occur more often, and
-to a higher degree, in persons of unusual intellectual
-force and activity. But it is more doubtful whether
-the creative activity of normal dreams ever reaches a
-sufficient perfection to take, as it stands, a very high
-place in a master's work. Coleridge's 'Kubla Khan'
-has the most notable claim to be an exception to this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span>
-rule. This poem was written by Coleridge in 1788,
-soon after 'Christabel,' and at a time when the poet
-was suffering much from depression, and taking a great
-deal of laudanum. We are entitled to assume, therefore,
-that the poem was composed under the influence
-of opium, and not in normal sleep. It may be added
-that it is difficult to believe that Coleridge could have
-recalled the whole poem from either a normal or abnormal
-dream; as a rule, when we compose verses in
-sleep we can usually recall only the last two, or at most
-four, lines.<a name="FNanchor_270_270" id="FNanchor_270_270"></a><a href="#Footnote_270_270" class="fnanchor">[270]</a> Moreover, there is reason to believe that
-the first draft of 'Kubla Khan' was not the poem as
-we now know it.<a name="FNanchor_271_271" id="FNanchor_271_271"></a><a href="#Footnote_271_271" class="fnanchor">[271]</a></p>
-
-<p>After Coleridge's 'Kubla Khan' the most important
-artistic composition usually assigned to a dream is the
-<em>Trillo del Diavolo</em> sonata of Tartini, the eighteenth-century
-composer and violinist, who has been called
-the prototype of Paganini. Tartini, who was a man of
-nervous and emotional temperament, seems to have
-possessed real genius, and this sonata is his principal
-work. But there is not the slightest ground for stating
-that it was composed in a dream, and Tartini himself
-made no such claim.<a name="FNanchor_272_272" id="FNanchor_272_272"></a><a href="#Footnote_272_272" class="fnanchor">[272]</a></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The imaginative reality of dreams is perhaps appreciated
-by none so much as by those who are deprived
-of some of their external senses. Thus a deaf and dumb
-writer of ability who has precise and highly emotional
-dreams&mdash;which sometimes remind him of the atmosphere
-of Poe's tales, and are occasionally in organised
-sequence from night to night&mdash;writes: 'The enormous
-reality and vividness of these dreams is their remarkable
-point. They leave a mark behind. When I
-come to consider I believe that much that I have written,
-and many things that I have said and thought and
-believed, are directly due to these dream-experiences
-and my ponderings over how they came. Beneath the
-superficiality of our conscious mind&mdash;prim, smug, self-satisfied,
-owlishly wise&mdash;there lies the vast gulf of a
-subconscious personality that is dark and obscure,
-seldom seen or even suspected. It is this, I think, that
-wells up into my dreams. It is always there&mdash;always
-affecting us and modifying us, and bringing about
-strange and unforeseen new things in us&mdash;but in these
-dreams I peer over the edge of the conscious world
-into the giant-house and Utgard of the subconscious,
-lit by one ray of sunset that shows the weltering deeps<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span>
-of it. And the vivid sense of this is responsible for
-many things in my life.'<a name="FNanchor_273_273" id="FNanchor_273_273"></a><a href="#Footnote_273_273" class="fnanchor">[273]</a></p>
-
-<p>Dreaming is thus one of our roads into the infinite.
-And it is interesting to observe how we attain it&mdash;by
-limitation. The circle of our conscious life is narrowed
-during sleep; it is even by a process of psychic
-dissociation broken up into fragments. From that
-narrowed and broken-up consciousness the outlook
-becomes vaster and more mysterious, full of strange
-and unsuspected fascination, and the possibilities of
-new experiences, just as a philosophic mite inhabiting
-a universe consisting of a Stilton cheese would probably
-be compelled to regard everything outside the
-cheese as belonging to the realm of the Infinite. In
-reality, if we think of it, all our visions of the infinite
-are similarly conditioned. It is only by emphasising
-our finiteness that we ever become conscious of the
-infinite. The infinite can only be that which stretches
-far beyond the boundaries of our own personality. It
-is the charm of dreams that they introduce us into a
-new infinity. Time and space are annihilated, gravity
-is suspended, and we are joyfully borne up in the air,
-as it were in the arms of angels; we are brought into
-a deeper communion with Nature, and in dreams a man
-listens to the arguments of his dog with as little surprise
-as Balaam heard the reproaches of his ass. The unexpected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span>
-limitations of our dream world, the exclusion
-of so many elements which are present even unconsciously
-in waking life, impart a splendid freedom and
-ease to the intellectual operations of the sleeping mind,
-and an extravagant romance, a poignant tragedy, to
-our emotions. 'He has never known happiness,' said
-Lamb, speaking out of his own experience, 'who has
-never been mad.' And there are many who taste in
-dreams a happiness they never know when awake.<a name="FNanchor_274_274" id="FNanchor_274_274"></a><a href="#Footnote_274_274" class="fnanchor">[274]</a>
-In the waking moments of our complex civilised life
-we are ever in a state of suspense which makes all
-great conclusions impossible; the multiplicity of the
-facts of life, always present to consciousness, restrains
-the free play of logic (except for that happy dreamer,
-the mathematician), and surrounds most of our pains
-and nearly all our pleasures with infinite qualifications;
-we are tied down to a sober tameness. In our dreams
-the fetters of civilisation are loosened, and we know
-the fearful joy of freedom.</p>
-
-<p>In this way the Paradise of dreams has been a
-reservoir from which men have always drawn consolation
-and sweet memory and hope, even belief, the
-imagination and gratification of desires that the world
-restrained, the promise and proof of the dearest and
-deepest aspirations.</p>
-
-<p>Yet, while there is thus a real sense in which dreams
-produce their effect by the retraction of the field of
-consciousness and the limitation of the psychic activities
-which mark ordinary life, it remains true that if<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span>
-we take into account the complete psychic life of dreaming,
-subconscious as well as conscious, it is waking, not
-sleeping, life which may be said to be limited.<a name="FNanchor_275_275" id="FNanchor_275_275"></a><a href="#Footnote_275_275" class="fnanchor">[275]</a> Thus it
-is, as we have seen, that the most fundamental and the
-most primitive forms of psychic life, as well as the rarest
-and the most abnormal, all seem to have their prototype
-in the vast world of dreams. Sleep, Vaschide has
-said, is not, as Homer thought, the brother of Death,
-but of Life, and, it may be added, the elder brother.</p>
-
-<p>'We dream, see visions, converse with chim&aelig;ras,'
-said Joseph Glanvill, the seventeenth-century philosopher;
-'the one half of our life is a romance, a
-fiction.' And what of the other half? Pepys tells us
-how another distinguished man of the same century,
-Sir William Petty, 'proposed it as a thing that is truly
-questionable whether there really be any difference
-between waking and dreaming.'<a name="FNanchor_276_276" id="FNanchor_276_276"></a><a href="#Footnote_276_276" class="fnanchor">[276]</a> Our dreams are said
-to be delusions, constituted in much the same way as
-the delusion of the insane. But, says Godfernaux,
-'all life is a series of systematised delusions, more or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span>
-less durable.' Men weary of too much living have
-sometimes found consolation in this likeness of the
-world of dreams to the world of life. 'When thou hast
-roused thyself from sleep thou hast perceived that they
-were only dreams which troubled thee,' wrote the
-Imperial Stoic to himself in his <cite>Meditations;</cite> 'now in
-thy waking hours look at these things about thee as
-thou didst look at those dreams.' Dreams are true
-while they last. Can we, at the best, say more of life?</p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<p>We set out to study as carefully as possible the small
-field of dream consciousness belonging to a few persons,
-not, it may be, abnormal, of whom it was possible
-to speak with some assurance. The great naturalist,
-Linn&aelig;us, once said that he could spend a lifetime in
-studying as much of the earth as he could cover with
-his hand. However small the patch we investigate, it
-will lead us back to the sun at last. There is nothing
-too minute or too trivial. I have often remembered
-with a pang, how, long years ago, I once gave pain by
-saying, with the arrogance of boyhood, that it was foolish
-to tell one's dreams. I have done penance for that
-remark since. 'Il faut cultiver notre jardin,' said the
-wise philosopher of the eighteenth century. I have
-cultivated, so far as I care to, my garden of dreams, and
-it scarcely seems to me that it is a large garden. Yet
-every path of it, I sometimes think, might lead at last
-to the heart of the universe.</p>
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282"></a></span></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span></p>
-
-
-
-
-<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2>
-
-
-<ul class="index">
-<li>A<span class="smcapa">BRAHAM</span>, K., <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-
-<li>After-images, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Alb&egrave;s, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Alcohol, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Aliotta, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Allin, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Analogy in dreams, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Andamanese shamans, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Anaesthesia from drugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Andrews, Grace, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Animism and dreaming, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Anjel, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Antoninus, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Apperception in dreams, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Apraxia, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Aristotle, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Arnaud, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Artemidorus of Daldi, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Atavistic dreams, alleged, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Attention in dreams, <a href="#Page_24">24</a> <em>et seq.;</em> <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Auditory element in dreams, <a href="#Page_77">77</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
-
-<li>Augustine, St., <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Aural origin of some dreams, alleged, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Autoscopy, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">B<span class="smcapa">ACH</span>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Baldwin, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Ballet, G., <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Bancroft, H. H., <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Baudelaire, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Beaunis, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Beddoes, T., <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Benson, Archbishop, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Bergson, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a> <em>et seq.</em>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Binet, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Binns, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Binswanger, L., <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Birds in dreams, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Bladder as a stimulant to dreams, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Bleuler, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Blind, dreams of the, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Blood, dreams of, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Bode, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Boerner, J., <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Bolton, F. E., <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Bolton, J., <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Bonatelli, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Bonne, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Bouch&eacute;-Leclercq, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Bourget, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Bradley, F. H., <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Bramwell, J. M., <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Brill, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Brodie, Sir B., <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Brown, Horatio, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Browning, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Brunton, Sir Lauder, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Buccola, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Buchan, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Burnham, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">C<span class="smcapa">ABANIS</span>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Calkins, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Capuana, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Cardiac stimuli of dreams, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Carpenter, W., <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Cerebral light, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Cervantes, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Chabaneix, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Child, psychic state of, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Childhood, hypnogogic hallucinations of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a> <em>et seq.</em>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Chloroform anaesthesia compared to dreaming, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Christina the Wonderful, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Cicero, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Clapar&egrave;de, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Clarke, E. H., <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span></li>
-
-<li>Classification of dreams, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Clavi&egrave;re, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Cleland, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Colegrove, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Coleridge, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Colour in dreams, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Colour associations, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Coloured hearing, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Comar, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Confusion in dreams, <a href="#Page_36">36</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
-
-<li>Consciousness, definition of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Contrast dreams, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Cooley, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Corning, L., <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Crawley, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Crichton-Browne, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Criminals, dreams of, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Curnock, N., <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">D<span class="smcapa">AURIAC</span>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Day-dreams, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Dead, dreams of the, <a href="#Page_194">194</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
-
-<li>Delacroix, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Delage, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Delbœuf, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Delior, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Descartes, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Dickens, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Dircks, H., <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Dissociation in dreams, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Dissolving view, dreams compared to, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Dogs, sleep of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Dramatic element in dreams, <a href="#Page_180">180</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
-
-<li>Dreaming, alleged dreams of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Dreamless sleep, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Dreamy state, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Dromard, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Drowning, hallucinations of the, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Dugas, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Duplex brain, theory of, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Durkheim, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Dying, hallucinations of the, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">E<span class="smcapa">CSTASY, HYSTERICAL</span>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Egger, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Ellis, Havelock, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Emotion in dreams, <a href="#Page_94">94</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
-
-<li>Epilepsy and pseudo-reminiscence, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Epileptic dreams, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Erotic dreams, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Erotic symbolism, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Extrospection, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">F<span class="smcapa">AIRIES AND DREAMS</span>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Falling, dreams of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
-
-<li>False recognition in dreams, <a href="#Page_230">230</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
-
-<li>Fear in dreams, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
-
-<li>F&eacute;r&eacute;, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Ferenczi, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Ferrero, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Fish, dreams of, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Floating, dreams of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Flournoy, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Flying, dreams of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
-
-<li>Forman, Simon, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Foucault, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Fouill&eacute;e, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Freud, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a> <em>et seq.</em>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Fusion of dream imagery, <a href="#Page_36">36</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">G<span class="smcapa">ALTON</span>, S<span class="smcapa">IR</span> F., <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Gassendi, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Genius and dreaming, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Giessler, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Gissing, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Glanvill, J., <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Glossolalia, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Goblot, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Godfernaux, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Gods first appeared in dreams, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Goethe, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Goncourt, E. de, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Goncourt, J. de, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Goron, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Gowers, Sir W. R., <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Grasset, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Greenwood, F., <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Griesinger, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Gross, Hans, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Gruithuisen, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Gustatory dreams, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[285]</a></span></li>
-
-<li>Guthrie, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Guyon, E., <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">H<span class="smcapa">ALL</span>, S<span class="smcapa">TANLEY</span>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Hallam, Florence, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Hallucinations, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Hammond, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Hartland, E. S., <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Haschisch, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Haskovec, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Hawthorne, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Head, H., <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Headache and dreams, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Hearn, Lafcadio, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Heaven and dreams, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Heine, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Hell and dreams, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Hermes, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Herodotus, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Herrick, C. L., <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Hervey de Saint-Denis, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Heymans, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Hilprecht, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Hinton, James, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Hippocrates, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Hobbes, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Holland, Sir H., <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Howells, W. D., <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Hutchinson, H., <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Hypermnesia, <a href="#Page_218">218</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
-
-<li>Hypnagogic hallucinations, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a> <em>et seq.</em>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Hypnagogic paramnesia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
-
-<li>Hypnopompic state, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Hypnotism, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Hyslop, J. H., <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Hysteria, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">I<span class="smcapa">CARUS</span>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Ida of Louvain, St., <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Imagery in dreams, <a href="#Page_21">21</a> <em>et seq.</em>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Insane, hallucinations of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Insanity compared to dreaming, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
-
-<li>Isserlin, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">J<span class="smcapa">ACKSON</span>, H<span class="smcapa">UGHLINGS</span>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
-
-<li>James-Lange theory of emotion, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Janet, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Jastrow, J., <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Jerome, St., <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Jessin, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Jesus, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Jewell, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Johnson, Dr., <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Joseph of Cupertino, St., <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Jones, Elmer, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Jones, Ernest, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Jung, C. J., <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">K<span class="smcapa">ALEIDOSCOPE, DREAM PROCESS COMPARED TO</span>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Keller, Helen, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Kiernan, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Kingsford, Anna, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Kraepelin, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Krauss, F. S., <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">L<span class="smcapa">AISTNER</span>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Lalande, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Lalanne, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Lamb, C., <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Languages remembered In sleep, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Lapie, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Laud, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Laurentius, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Legends, symbolism in, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Leibnitz, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
-
-<li>L&eacute;on-Kindberg, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Leroy, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Lessing, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Levitation, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Liepmann, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Lilliputian hallucinations, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Little, Graham, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Linn&aelig;us, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Locke, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Logic of dreams, <a href="#Page_5">5</a> <em>et seq.</em>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
-
-<li>Logorrhœa, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Lombard, E., <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Lombroso, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Lorrain, Jacques le, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
-
-<li>L&ouml;wenfeld, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Lubbock, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[286]</a></span></li>
-
-<li>Lucretius, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">M<span class="smcapa">ACARIO</span>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Macaulay, Lord, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
-
-<li>MacDougall, R., <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Macnish, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Maeder, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Magnification of dream imagery, <a href="#Page_104">104</a> <em>et seq.</em>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Maine de Biran, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Maitland, E., <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Mallarm&eacute;, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Manac&eacute;&iuml;ne, Marie de, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Marillier, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Marro, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Marshall, H. R., <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Masselon, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Maudsley, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Maurier, G. du, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Maury, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Memory and dreams, <a href="#Page_8">8</a> <em>et seq.</em>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
-
-<li>Mercier, C., <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
-
-<li>M&eacute;r&eacute;, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Mescal, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Metamorphosis of dream imagery, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Metaphysics and dreams, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Metchnikoff, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Meunier, R., <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Migraine, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Millet, J., <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Miner, J. B., <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Mitchell, Sir A., <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Mitchell, Weir, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Moll, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Monboddo, Lord, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Monroe, W. S., <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Moral attitude in dreaming, <a href="#Page_118">118</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
-
-<li>Moreau of Tours, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Morphia dreams, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Morselli, A., <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Mosso, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Mourre, Baron, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Movement in dreams, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
-
-<li>Movement in sleep, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-
-<li>M&uuml;ller, J., <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Murder, dreams of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a> <em>et seq.</em>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Murray, Elsie, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Music, symbolism of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Music in dreams, <a href="#Page_77">77</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
-
-<li>Myers, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Myth-making and dreaming, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">N&auml;cke</span>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Nayrac, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Neologisms in dreams, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Neurasthenia, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Newbold, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Newman, E., <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Nietzsche, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Nightmare, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Night-terrors, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Nitrous oxide anaesthesia, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Nocturnal enuresis, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Number-forms, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">O<span class="smcapa">LFACTORY DREAMS</span>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Oneiromancy, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Opium visions, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Orpheus, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">P<span class="smcapa">ARAMNESIA</span>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
-
-<li>Paraphasia, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Parish, E., <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Parker, Thornton, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Partridge, G. E., <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Paul, St., <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Pepys, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Periodicity in memory, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Personality in dreams, division of, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Peter, St., <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Petty, Sir W., <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Philostratus, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Pick, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Piderit, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Pi&eacute;ron, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Pirro, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Pliny the Elder, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Prel, Carl du, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Premonitory dreams, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Presentative dreams, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Primitive psychic slate, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Prince, Morton, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Prodromic dreams, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[287]</a></span></li>
-
-<li>Prophetic dreams, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Pseudo-reminiscence in dreams, <a href="#Page_230">230</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
-
-<li>Psychasthenia, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Punning in dreams, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Purcell, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Pury, Jean de, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Pythagoras, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">Q<span class="smcapa">UINCEY</span>, D<span class="smcapa">E</span>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">R<span class="smcapa">ACHILDE</span>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Raffaelli, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Railway travelling, dreams of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Rank, O., <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Rapidity of dreams, alleged, <a href="#Page_213">213</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
-
-<li>Raymond, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Reasoning in dreams, <a href="#Page_56">56</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
-
-<li>Renan, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Representative dreams, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Respiratory stimuli to dreams, <a href="#Page_134">134</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
-
-<li>Retinal element in dreams, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Rhythm, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Ribot, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Rochas, Colonel de, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Rosenbach, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Ruths, C., <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">S<span class="smcapa">AGERET</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Saints, alleged levitation of, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Salish Indians, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Sand, George, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Sante de Sanctis, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Savage, psychic state of, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Savage, G. H., <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Schaaffhausen, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Scherner, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
-
-<li>School, dreams of return to, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Schopenhauer, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Schroeder, T., <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Schweitzer, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Scripture, E. W., <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Secondary self in dreams, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Segre, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Sensory impressions in sleep, <a href="#Page_71">71</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
-
-<li>Shamans, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Shelley, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Silberer, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Simon, Max, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Skin sensations in dreams, <a href="#Page_74">74</a> <em>et seq.</em>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Sleep, dreamless, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Smith, H&eacute;l&egrave;ne, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Snakes, dreams of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Sollier, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Solmi, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Somnambulism, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Spencer, Herbert, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Spontaneous character of dream imagery, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Ssikorski, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Stekel, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Stewart, Dugald, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Stoddart, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Stomach on dreams, influence of, <a href="#Page_108">108</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
-
-<li>Storms as cause of dreams, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Stout, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Stevenson, R. L., <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Stretton, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Str&uuml;mpell, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Suarez de Mendoza, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Subconscious, definition of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Subconsciousness in dreams, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Suggestibility in dreams, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Sully, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Sunshine in dreams, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Sutton, Bland, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Swedenborg, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Swoboda, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Syllogistic arrangement of dreams, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Symbolism in dreams, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
-
-<li>Symonds, J. A., <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Synaesthesias, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Synesius, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">T<span class="smcapa">ACTILE SENSATIONS IN DREAMS</span>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a> <em>et seq.</em>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Tannery, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Tartini, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Taste dreams, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Taylor, S., <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Therapeutic use of music during sleep, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span></li>
-
-<li>Theresa, St., <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Thurn, Sir E. im, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Tennyson, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Time in dreams, estimate of, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Tissi&eacute;, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Titchener, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Tobolowska, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Toothache as a cause of dreams, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Tout, Hill, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Tuke, Hack, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Turner, J., <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Turner, W. A., <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Tylor, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">U<span class="smcapa">RBANTSCHITSCH</span>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">V<span class="smcapa">ANDERKISTE</span>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Vaschide, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Verbal transformations in dreams, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Vesical dreams, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Vesme, C. de, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Vigilambulism, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Vinci, L. da, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Visceral stimuli of dreams, <a href="#Page_87">87</a> <em>et seq.</em>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Vision in dreams, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Visual stimuli of dreams, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
-
-<li>Vold, Mourly, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Volkelt, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Vurpas, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">W<span class="smcapa">AGNER</span>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Weed, Sarah, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Weygandt, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Wigan, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Wiggam, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Wilks, Sir S., <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Wilson, A., <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Winslow, Forbes, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Wish-dreams, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
-
-<li>Wordsworth, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Wright, H., <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
-
-<li>Wundt, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
-
-
-<li class="ifrst">Z<span class="smcapa">ENOGLOSSIA</span>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-
-<p class="center">Printed in Great Britain by T. and A. C<span class="smcapa">ONSTABLE</span> L<span class="smcapa">TD</span>.<br />
-at the Edinburgh University Press<br /></p>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The subdued quality of the light in normal dreaming&mdash;the usual
-absence of sunshine and generally even of colour&mdash;has long been noted.
-'We never dream of being in the sunshine,' says Henry Dircks (<em>Lancet</em>,
-11th June 1870, p. 863), though too absolutely; 'light and shade form
-no requisite elements.... The liveliest and most impressive dream is,
-in reality, a true night scene, very dubiously lighted up, and in which the
-nearest objects are those which we principally observe and which most
-interest us.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> As some writers give a rather special meaning to the word 'consciousness,'
-I may say that I simply mean by it (as defined by Baldwin and Stout
-in the <cite>Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology</cite>) 'the distinctive character
-of whatever may be called mental life,' or, as Professor Stratton puts it,
-in defence of this broad definition (<cite>Psychological Bulletin</cite>, April 1906),
-'consciousness designates the common and generic feature of our psychic
-acts.' Dreaming then becomes, as defined by Baldwin and Stout, 'conscious
-process during sleep.' It should be added that there is much
-uncertainty about any definition of consciousness. Bode ('Some Recent
-Definitions of Consciousness,' <cite>Psychological Review</cite>, July 1908) thinks it
-'a matter for legitimate doubt' whether any definition of consciousness
-can be adequate, and Mercier (art. 'Consciousness' in Tuke's <cite>Dictionary of
-Psychological Medicine</cite>) boldly proclaims&mdash;quite justly, I think&mdash;that
-'consciousness is not susceptible of definition,' for we can never go behind
-it or outside it. That we have to admit various kinds, or at all events
-various degrees, of consciousness will become clear in our discussion of
-dreaming.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> By 'subconscious' is meant, as defined by Baldwin and Stout, 'not
-clearly recognised in a present state of consciousness, yet entering into the
-development of subsequent states of consciousness.' Some psychologists
-strongly dislike the word 'subconscious.' They are even disposed to
-argue that there is no subconscious mind, and that before and after the
-stage of 'awareness,' psychic facts only exist as 'dispositions of brain
-cells.' The psychologist, however, as such, has no concern with brain cells
-which belong to the histologist. When we occupy ourselves with dreams
-we realise at every step that it is possible for psychic states to exist and to
-affect our 'awareness,' while at the same time they are not immediately
-within the sphere of that 'awareness.' Psychic states of this kind seem
-most properly termed 'subconscious,' that is to say slightly, partially, or
-imperfectly conscious. Any objection to so precise and convenient a term
-for a real phenomenon seems, indeed, to belong to the sphere of personal
-idiosyncrasy into which we have perhaps no right to intrude.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Foucault, <cite>Le R&ecirc;ve</cite>, 1906.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Foucault, <em>op. cit.</em>, ch. iv.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Foucault, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 49.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> This occasionally retrospective character of dreams has long been
-known, and was referred to by the writer of an article on 'Dreams and
-Dreaming' in the <cite>Lancet</cite> for 24th November 1877.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> The old French case (quoted by Macnish) of a woman, with a portion
-of her skull removed, whose brain bulged out during dreams but was
-motionless in dreamless sleep, as well as the more recent similar case known
-to Hammond (<cite>Treatise on Insanity</cite>, p. 233), supports the belief that the
-psychic activity which is not manifested in rememberable dreams is probably
-at the most of a very shadowy character. Even during waking life
-psychic activity often falls to a very low ebb; Beaunis, who has investigated
-this question ('Comment Fonctionne mon Cerveau,' <cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>,
-January 1909), describes a condition which he names 'psychic twilight'
-and regards as frequently occurring.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Lucretius long ago referred to the significance of this fact (lib. iv.
-vv. 988-994), and he stated that the hallucination persisted for a time even
-after the dog had awakened. I have never myself been able to see any
-trace of such hypnagogic hallucination or delusion in dogs who awake from
-dreams, though I have frequently looked for it; it always seems to me
-that the dog who seemingly awakes from a dream of hunting grasps the
-fireside facts of life around him immediately and easily.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> This classification of the sources of dreams has, however, been generally
-accepted for little more than a century. At an earlier period it was not
-usually believed to cover the whole ground. Thus Des Laurens (A.
-Laurentius) in the sixteenth century, in his treatise on the Disease of
-Melancholy (insanity), says that there are three kinds of dreams: (1) of
-Nature (<em>i.e.</em> due to external causes); (2) of the mind (<em>i.e.</em> based on memories);
-and, above both these classes, (3) dreams from God and the devil.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> M. W. Calkins, 'Statistics of Dreams,' <cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>,
-April 1893.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> The simile of the kaleidoscope for the most elementary process of
-dreaming has often suggested itself. Thus in an article on dreaming in
-the <cite>Lancet</cite> (24th November 1877) we read: 'The combinations are new,
-but the materials are old, some recent, many remote and forgotten....
-The turn of the kaleidoscope is instantaneous and any new idea thrown
-into the field, perhaps in the act of turning, becomes an integral part of
-the picture.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Foucault, <cite>Le R&ecirc;ve</cite>, p. 182.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> This is in accordance with the view of Wundt, who attributes this
-multiplication of imagery to the retinal element.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Baron Charles Mourre, 'La Volont&eacute; dans le R&ecirc;ve,' <cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>,
-May 1903.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Ribot, <cite>Psychologie de l'Attention</cite>, 1889, chs. i. and ii.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Maine de Biran, perhaps the earliest accurate introspective observer
-of dreaming, noted the absence of all voluntary active attention. Beaunis
-regards attention as possible in dreams, but fails to distinguish between
-different kinds of attention.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> B. Leroy, 'Nature des Hallucinations,' <cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>, June 1907.
-As regards the importance of the absence of voluntary attention in the
-production of visual images, it may be remarked that even the after-image
-of a bright object in waking life is much more vivid when it occurs in a
-state of inattention and distraction. I noticed this phenomenon some
-years ago, especially when studying mescal, and in recent years it has been
-recorded by J. H. Hyslop (<cite>Psychological Review</cite>, May 1903).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> We must be cautious in assuming that such imagery is purely retinal.
-Scripture ('Cerebral light,' <cite>Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory</cite>,
-vol. v., 1899) argues that even the so-called 'retinal light' or '<em>eigenlicht</em>'
-is cerebral, not retinal at all, since it is single and not double, and differs
-from after-images, which are displaced by pressure on eyeball. This view
-is perhaps too extreme in the opposite direction.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> For a full and interesting study of these, see S. J. Franz, 'After-images'
-(Monograph Supplements to <cite>Psychological Review</cite>, vol. iii., No. 2, June
-1899). He agrees with those who regard after-images as entirely retinal in
-origin.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> See Havelock Ellis, 'A New Artificial Paradise,' <cite>Contemporary Review</cite>,
-January 1898; <em>ib.</em> 'Mescal: A Study of a Divine Plant,' <cite>Popular Science
-Monthly</cite>, May 1902.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> G. E. Partridge, however ('Reverie,' <cite>Pedagogical Seminary</cite>, April
-1898), has investigated hypnagogic phenomena in 826 children. They
-were asked to describe what they saw at night with closed eyes before
-falling asleep. Among these children 58&middot;5 per cent. of those aged from
-thirteen to sixteen saw things at night in this way; of those aged six the
-proportion was higher, 64&middot;2 per cent. There seemed to be a maximum at
-about the age of ten, and probably another maximum at a much earlier
-age. Stars were most frequently mentioned, being spoken of by 151
-children, colours by 145, people and faces 77, animals 31, scenes of the day
-21, flowers and fruit 18, pictures 15, God and angels 13. Partridge calls
-these phenomena hypnagogic; while, however, the hypnagogic visions of
-adults may well be a relic of children's visions, the latter have much
-greater range and vitality, for they are not confined to the moment before
-sleep, and the child sometimes has a certain amount of control over them.
-E. Guyon has studied hypnagogic and allied visions in children in his Paris
-thesis, <cite>Sur les Hallucinations Hypnagogiques</cite>, 1903. He believes that children
-always find them terrifying. That, however, is far from being the case and
-is merely due to a pre-occupation with morbid cases, which naturally attract
-most attention. (This is also illustrated by the examples given by Stanley
-Hall, 'A Study of Fears,' <cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>, 1897, pp. 186
-<em>et seq.</em>) The visions of the healthy child are not terrifying, and he accepts
-them in a completely matter-of-course way. He is no more puzzled or
-troubled by his waking dreams than by his sleeping dreams.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> The earliest detailed, though not typical, description of this phenomenon
-I have met with is by Dr. Simon Forman, the astrologer, in his
-entertaining <cite>Autobiography</cite>, written in 1600. He says that, as a child of six,
-'So soon as he was always laid down to sleep he should see in visions
-always many mighty mountains and hills come rolling against him, as
-though they would overrun him and fall on him and bruise him, yet he
-got up always to the top of them and with much ado went over them.
-Then should he see many great waters like to drown him, boiling and
-raging against him as though they would swallow him up, yet he thought
-he did overpass them. And these dreams and visions he had every night
-continually for three or four years' space.' He believed they were sent
-him by God to signify the troubles of his later years. De Quincey accurately
-described the phenomenon in 1821, in his <cite>Confessions of an English
-Opium-Eater:</cite> 'I know not whether my reader is aware, that many
-children, perhaps most, have a power of painting, as it were, upon the
-darkness, all sorts of phantoms: in some, that power is simply a mechanic
-affection of the eye; others have a voluntary or a semi-voluntary power to
-dismiss or to summon them, or, as a child once said to me when I questioned
-him on this matter, "I can tell them to go and they go; but sometimes
-they come, when I don't tell them to come."' E. H. Clarke (<cite>Visions</cite>,
-1878, pp. 212-216) discussed the ability of children to see visions, and
-pointed out the element of will in this ability. It seems unusual for
-auditory impressions to intrude, though J. A. Symonds (biography by
-Horatio Brown, vol. i. p. 7), in describing his own night-terrors as a child,
-speaks of phantasmal voices which blended with the caterwauling of cats
-on the roof.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> 'From being long and vehemently attent upon geometrical figures,'
-Hobbes says after referring to the after-images of the sun (<cite>Leviathan</cite>,
-part i., ch. 2), 'a man shall in the dark (though awake) have the images
-of lines and angles before his eyes: which kind of fancy hath no particular
-name; as being a thing that doth not commonly fall into men's discourse.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Baillarger, 'De l'Influence de l'Etat Interm&eacute;diaire &agrave; la veille et au
-sommeil sur la Production et la Marche des Hallucinations,' <cite>Annales
-M&eacute;dico-Psychologiques</cite>, vol. v., 1845.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Maury, <cite>Le Sommeil et les R&ecirc;ves</cite>, 1861, pp. 50-77. Good descriptions of
-hypnagogic imagery are given by Greenwood, <cite>Imagination and Dreams</cite>,
-pp. 16-18, and Ladd, 'The Psychology of Visual Dreams,' <cite>Mind</cite>, 1892.
-See also Sante di Sanctis, <cite>I Sogni</cite>, pp. 337 <em>et seq.</em></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> This is the explanation offered by, for example, Delage (<cite>Comptes-rendus
-de l'Acad&eacute;mie des Sciences</cite>, vol. cxxxvi., No. 12, pp. 731 <em>et seq.</em>).
-It is accepted by Guyon and others. Delage insists on the retinal element
-since he finds that hypnagogic images follow the movements of the eye.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> Similarly, under chloroform, Elmer Jones found that vision is at first
-stimulated.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> G. H. Savage, 'Dreams: Normal and Morbid,' <cite>St. Thomas's Hospital
-Gazette</cite>, February 1908.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> <cite>British Medical Journal</cite>, 11th May 1907. The actual hallucinations of
-the insane are usually coloured normally. Head, however, finds (<cite>Brain</cite>,
-1901, p. 353) that the waking visual hallucinations sometimes associated
-with visceral disease are always white, black, or grey, and never coloured
-or even tinted.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> The transformation of birds into human beings seems peculiarly
-common in dreams. I have referred to this point elsewhere (<cite>Studies
-in the Psychology of Sex</cite>, vol. i. 3rd ed., p. 193). It is an interesting and
-doubtless significant fact that the same transformation is accepted in
-the myths of primitive peoples. Thus, according to H. H. Bancroft
-(<cite>Native Races of the Pacific</cite>, vol. i. p. 93), a pantomime dance of the
-Aleuts represents the transformation of a captive bird into a lovely
-woman who falls exhausted into the arms of the hunter.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> It is noteworthy that this marked tendency in dreams to discover
-analogies, although doubtless a tendency of primitive thought, is also a
-progressive tendency. 'The conquests of science,' says Sageret ('L'Analogie
-Scientifique,' <cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>, January 1909), 'are the conquests
-of analogy.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> Maury, <cite>Le Sommeil et les R&ecirc;ves</cite>, p. 115.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Kraepelin, 'Ueber Sprachst&ouml;rungen im Tr&auml;ume,' <cite>Psychologische
-Arbeiten</cite>, Bd. v., 1906, pp. 1-104; cf. Lombard, 'Glossolalie,' <cite>Archives de
-Psychologie</cite>, July 1907.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> This is confirmed by the fact that under chloroform anaesthesia
-hearing is the first sense to be lost and vision the last (Elmer Jones,
-'The Waning of Consciousness under Chloroform,' <cite>Psychological Review</cite>,
-January 1909).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> It may be recalled as not without significance that the formation of
-new words is fairly common among young children; see, <em>e.g.</em>, an interesting
-correspondence in <cite>Nature</cite>, 26th March and 9th April 1891.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> It can scarcely be derived from the unfamiliar word <em>chalizah</em>, the
-Hebrew name for the levirate.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Thus I have rarely ever attempted parody when awake, but
-once when at Montserrat, with thoughts far from humorous fields,
-I dreamed of making a parody (I am not quite clear of what) apparently
-suggested by the goose-pond in the cloisters of Barcelona
-Cathedral.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> This point of view has been specially developed by Freud, <cite>Der Witz
-und seine Beziehung zum Unbewussten</cite>.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> It may be noted that somewhat similar doggerel verse is sometimes
-made by the insane; see, <em>e.g.</em>, <cite>Journal of Mental Science</cite>, April 1907, p. 284.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> There was no known origin for this dream, and the word <em>bourdon</em> had
-no conscious associations for my mind; I was not even definitely aware
-that it is used in a musical sense.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> Freud brings together (<cite>Traumdeutung</cite>, pp. 38 <em>et seq.</em>) some of the different
-opinions regarding reasoning in dreams.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> 'Reasoning,' says Binet (<cite>La Psychologie du Raisonnement</cite>, 1886, p. 10),
-speaking without reference to dreaming, but in words that are exactly
-applicable to it, 'is an organisation of images determined by the properties
-of the images alone; it suffices for the images to be put in presence and
-they become organised; reason follows with the certainty of a reflex.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> H. R. Marshall, <cite>Instinct and Reason;</cite> <em>ib.</em> 'Reason a Mode of Instinct,'
-<cite>Psychological Review</cite>, March 1899.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Some of the most methodically absurd examples of dreaming logic
-cannot be effectively brought forward, as they are so personal that they
-require much explanation to make them intelligible.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Delacroix ('Sur la Structure Logique du R&ecirc;ve,' <cite>Revue de Metaphysique</cite>,
-November 1904), in opposition to Leroy and Tobolowska, goes so far as to
-say that 'the sense of the dream, the interpretation of the image, is given
-in the image, before the image, if one may say so; we are not concerned
-with a mere procession of images without internal connection, but are
-introduced into a pre-established organisation; wholes are decomposed
-and not separate elements united.' We have to remember that in dream
-life as in waking life the action is twofold; in either world when our psychic
-activity is of low intensity we combine external images into a fairly objective
-picture; when psychic activity is intense external images are
-subdued and controlled by that activity.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> A somewhat similar mistaken self-detachment may even occur momentarily
-in the waking condition. Thus Jastrow (<cite>The Subconscious</cite>, p. 137)
-refers to the 'lapse of consciousness' of a lady student who, while absorbed
-in her work, heard outside the door the shuffling of rubber heels such as she
-herself wore, and said 'There goes&mdash;&mdash;,' naming herself. That delusion
-was no doubt due to the eruption of a dream-like state of distraction. As
-regards the visual phantasm of the self (which has sometimes been seen by
-men of very distinguished intellectual power) it may be noted that it is
-favoured by the conditions of dream life. Our dream imagery is all
-pictural, sometimes even to dream consciousness, and to see oneself in
-the picture is, therefore, not so very much more remarkable than it is in
-waking life to come upon oneself among a bundle of photographs.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> As regards the significance of snakes in dreams, it may be remarked
-that the followers of Freud regard them as being, in the dreams of women,
-as they are in the speech and myths of primitive peoples, erotic symbols
-(<em>e.g.</em> Karl Abraham, <cite>Traum und Mythus</cite>, 1909, p. 19). It must be remembered,
-however, that this erotic symbolism is but a small part of the
-emotional interest aroused by snakes which are an extremely common
-source of fear, especially in the young. See <em>e.g.</em> Stanley Hall, 'A Study of
-Fears,' <cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>, 1897, pp. 205 <em>et seq</em>.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> It may even occur that a person partly wakes up, perceives what is
-going on around him, converses about it, falls asleep again, and imagines
-in the morning that the whole episode was a dream. Hammond, who also
-denies that we can dream we are dreaming, gives a case in illustration
-(<cite>Treatise on Insanity</cite>, p. 190).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> The vision of the dream world we thus attain corresponds exactly
-to the philosophy of life set forth by Jules de Gaultier, perhaps the
-most subtle and original of living thinkers; according to Gaultier the
-psychic improvisation which has created the spectacle of the world has,
-as it were, sworn 'never to recognise itself beneath the masks it has
-assumed, in order to retain the joy of an unending play of the
-unforeseen.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Dissociation may be defined as a condition in which, in the words of
-Tannery (<cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>, October 1898), 'the various organisms
-of the brain which in the waking state accomplish distinct functions with
-satisfactory agreement are, on the contrary, in a state of semi-independence.'
-There is, in Greenwood's words (<cite>Imagination in Dreams</cite>, p. 41),
-a 'loosening of mental bonds,' corresponding to the relaxation of muscular
-tension which also occurs before going to sleep.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> Edmund Parish, <cite>Hallucinations and Illusions: A Study of the
-Fallacies of Perception</cite> (Contemporary Science Series), 1897. It is significant
-to observe that in hysteria, which may be regarded as presenting
-a condition somewhat analogous to sleep, dissociation also occurs.
-'Hysteria,' says Janet (<cite>The Major Symptoms of Hysteria</cite>, 1907, p. 332),
-one of the greatest authorities, 'is a form of mental depression characterised
-by the retraction of the field of personal consciousness and a
-tendency to the dissociation and emancipation of the system of ideas and
-functions that constitute personality.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> The theories of attention are lucidly and concisely set forth by
-Nayrac, 'Le Processus et le M&eacute;canisme de l'Attention,' <cite>Revue Scientifique</cite>,
-7th April 1906.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> G. F. Stout, <cite>Analytic Psychology</cite>, vol. ii. p. 112. In the <cite>Dictionary of
-Philosophy and Psychology</cite>, again, Stout and Baldwin define apperception
-as 'the process of attention in so far as it involves interaction between the
-presentation of the object attended to, on the one hand, and the total
-preceding conscious content, together with pre-formed mental dispositions,
-on the other hand.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> A very similar state of things occurs in some forms of insanity, especially
-in the less profound states of mental confusion, when, as Bolton
-remarks ('Amentia and Dementia,' <cite>Journal of Mental Science</cite>, July 1906,
-p. 445), we find 'certain associated remnants of former experience combined
-into a sequence according to the normal laws of mental association.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> Although I reached this conclusion independently, as a result of the
-analysis of dream experiences, I find that it was set forth at a much earlier
-period by Wundt. 'Men are accustomed to regard most of the phantasms
-of dreams as hallucinations,' he writes (<cite>Grundz&uuml;ge der Physiologischer
-Psychologie</cite>, vol. iii.), 'but most dream representations are apparently
-illusions, initiated by the slight sensory impressions which are never
-extinguished in sleep.' Weygandt, in his brief but excellent book, <cite>Entstehung
-der Tra&auml;me</cite>, fully adopts this view, although I scarcely think he is
-always successful in his attempts to demonstrate it by his own dreams;
-such demonstration is necessarily often difficult or impossible because,
-apart from the dream itself, we seldom know what sensory impressions are
-persisting in our sleep. C. M. Giessler (<cite>Die Physiologische Beziehungen der
-Traumvorg&auml;nge</cite>, 1896, p. 2), who also proceeds from Wundt, likewise regards
-dreams as in general the more or less orderly and successive revival of
-psychic vestiges of waking life, conditioned by inner or outer excitations.
-Tissi&eacute; (in <cite>Les R&ecirc;ves</cite>, 1898), again, declares that 'dreams of purely psychic
-origin do not exist,' and Beaunis (<cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>,
-July-October 1903) also believes that all dreams need an internal or external
-stimulus from the organism.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> Thus W. S. Monroe ('Mental Elements of Dreams,' <cite>Journal of Philosophy</cite>,
-23rd November 1905) found that in nearly three hundred dreams
-of fifty-five women students of the Westfield Normal College (Massachusetts),
-visual imagery appeared in sixty-seven per cent. dreams, auditory
-in twenty-six per cent., tactile in eight per cent., motor in five per cent.,
-olfactory in a little over one per cent., and gustatory in rather under one
-per cent. In the results of observation recorded by Sarah Weed and
-Florence Hallam (<cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>, April 1896) the sensory
-imagery appears in the same order of frequency and approximately in the
-same proportions.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> In another case, a sensation of irritation in the palm led to a dream of
-being scratched by a cat. Guthrie mentions (<cite>Clinical Journal</cite>, 7th June
-1899) that as a child he used to dream of being tortured by savages by
-being slowly tickled under the arms when unable to move; he sweated
-much at night, and considers that the tickling thus caused was the source
-of the dreams.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> The corresponding sensation of heat can also, of course, be experienced
-in sleep, alike whether the stimulus comes from the brain or the skin.
-Thus I dreamed that, not knowing whether some water was hot or cold, I
-put my finger into it and felt it to be distinctly hot.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> The ease with which musical sounds can be applied during sleep and
-the beneficial results on emotional tone have suggested their therapeutic
-use. Leonard Corning ('The Use of Musical Vibrations before and during
-Sleep,' <cite>Medical Record</cite>, 21st January 1899) is regarded as the pioneer in this
-field.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> Ch. Ruths, <cite>Experimental-Untersuchungen &uuml;ber Musikphantome</cite>, 1898.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> Dauriac, 'Des Images Sugg&eacute;r&eacute;es par l'Audition Musicale,' <cite>Revue
-Philosophique</cite>, November 1902.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> De Rochas has described and reproduced the gestures and dances of
-his hypnotised subject, Lina, under the influence of music. Ribot (<cite>L'Imagination
-Cr&eacute;atrice</cite>, pp. 177 <em>et seq.</em>, 291 <em>et seq.</em>) has discussed the imagery
-suggested by music and points out that it is most pronounced in non-musical
-subjects. Fatigue and over-excitement are predisposing conditions
-in the production of this imagery, as is shown by MacDougall (<cite>Psychological
-Review</cite>, September 1898) in his own experience.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> One is tempted to think that this lightning may have been a symbolistic
-transformation of lancinating neuralgic pains, magnified, as sensations are
-apt to be, in sleep.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> In some experiments by Prof. W. S. Monroe on twenty women students
-at Westfield Normal School a crushed clove was placed on the tongue for
-ten successive nights on going to bed. Of 254 dreams reported as following
-there were seventeen taste dreams and eight smell dreams, and three of
-these dreams actually involved cloves. The clove also influenced dreams
-of other classes; thus, as a result of the burning sensation in the mouth,
-one dreamer imagined that the house was on fire (W. S. Monroe, 'A Study
-of Taste Dreams,' <cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>, January 1899). It has
-indeed been found, by Meunier, specially easy to apply olfactory stimuli
-during sleep and so improve the emotional tone (R. Meunier, 'A Propos
-d'oniroth&eacute;rapie,' <cite>Archives de Neurologie</cite>, March 1910). Meunier found
-that in his own case tuberose always called out agreeable dreams full of
-detail, though in another subject the dreams were always unpleasant. In
-hysterical subjects essence of geranium provoked various agreeable dreams
-followed by a pleasant emotional tone during the following day.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> Titchener ('Taste Dreams,' <cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>, January
-1895) records taste dreams by auto-suggestion, and Ribot (<cite>Psychology of the
-Emotions</cite>, p. 142) thinks there can be no doubt dreams of both taste and
-smell can occur without objective source.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Hammond (<cite>Treatise on Insanity</cite>, p. 229) knew a gentleman who
-dreamed he was in heaven and surrounded by dazzling brilliance, awaking
-to find that the smouldering fire had flared up. Weygandt dreamed that
-he was gazing at 'living pictures' illuminated by magnesium light, and
-awoke to find that the morning sun had just appeared from behind clouds
-and was flooding the room with light. See also Parish, <cite>Hallucinations and
-Illusions</cite>, p. 52.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> I have discussed erotic dreams in the study of 'Auto-erotism' in the
-first volume of my <cite>Studies in the Psychology of Sex</cite> (third edition, revised
-and enlarged, 1910).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> K. A. Scherner, <cite>Das Leben des Traums</cite>, 1861, pp. 187 <em>et seq.</em> Volkelt
-some years later (<cite>Die Traum-Phantasie</cite>, 1875, p. 74) pointed out the
-occurrence of somewhat similar vesical symbolisms (including in the case
-of women a filled knitting-bag) in dream life, though he regarded visions of
-water as the most usual indication in such dreams. Vesical dreams may,
-of course, contain other elements; see <em>e.g.</em> an example given by C. J. Jung,
-'L'Analyse des R&ecirc;ves,' <cite>L'Ann&eacute;e Psychologique</cite>, 15th year, 1909, p. 165.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> A typical dream of this kind, of sufficient importance to be embodied
-in history, occurred several thousand years ago to Astyages, King of the
-Medes, and has been recorded by Herodotus (Book 1. ch. 107).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> In the study of Auto-erotism mentioned in a previous note I have
-brought forward dreams illustrating some of the points in the text, and have
-also discussed the analogies and contrasts between vesical and erotic
-dreams. The fact that nocturnal enuresis is associated with vesical dreams,
-though referred to by Buchan in his <cite>Venus sine Concubitu</cite> more than a
-century ago, is still little known, but it is obviously a fact of clinical
-importance.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> So, for instance, the asthmatic patient of Max Simon (<cite>Le Monde des
-R&ecirc;ves</cite>, p. 40) who, during an attack, dreamed of sweating horses attempting
-to draw a heavy waggon uphill.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> Forbes Winslow also recorded cases (<cite>Obscure Diseases</cite>, pp. 611 <em>et seq.</em>),
-and many examples were brought together by Hammond (<cite>Treatise on
-Insanity</cite>, pp. 234 <em>et seq.</em>). Vaschide and Pi&eacute;ron discuss the matter and
-bring forward thirteen cases (<cite>La Psychologie du R&ecirc;ve</cite>, pp. 34 <em>et seq.</em>). F&eacute;r&eacute;
-recorded two cases in which dreams were the precursory symptoms of
-attacks of migraine (<cite>Revue de M&eacute;decine</cite>, 10th February 1903). Various
-cases, chiefly from the literature of the subject, are brought together by
-Paul Meunier and Masselon (<cite>Les R&ecirc;ves et leur Interpretation</cite>, 1910).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> Sante de Sanctis, <cite>I Sogni</cite>, p. 380.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> The dependence of sleeping imagination on emotion of organic origin was
-long ago clearly seen and set forth by the acute introspective psychologist,
-Maine de Biran (<cite>Œuvres In&eacute;dites</cite>, 'Fondements de la Psychologie,' p. 102).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> Jastrow (<cite>The Subconscious</cite>, p. 206) relates a similar case observed in a
-girl student.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> Herbert Wright, who finds that in children night-terrors are apt to be
-associated with somnambulism, points out that when the somnambulism
-replaces the night-terrors it leaves no memory behind (<cite>British Medical
-Journal</cite>, 19th August 1899, p. 465). An interesting study of movement in
-normal and morbid sleep has been contributed by Segre ('Contributo alla
-Conoscenza dei Movimenti del Sonno,' <cite>Archivio di Psichiatria</cite>, 1907,
-fasc. 1.).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> This question is, for instance, asked by F. H. Bradley ('On the Failure
-of Movement in Dreams,' <cite>Mind</cite>, 1894, p. 373). The explanation he prefers
-is that the dream vision is out of relation to the very dimly conscious actual
-position of the body, so that the information necessary to complete the
-idea of the movement is wanting. Only as regards the less complicated
-movements of lips, tongue, or finger, when the motor idea is in harmony
-with the actual position of the body movements, does movement take
-place. We have no means of distinguishing the real world from the world of
-our vision; 'our images thus move naturally to realise themselves in the
-world of our real limbs. But the world and its arrangement is for the
-moment out of connection with our ideas, and hence the attempt at motion
-for the most part must fail.' It is quite true that this conflict is an important
-factor in dreaming, but it fails to apply to the large number of
-movements which we dream of actually doing.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> The action of some drugs produces a state in this respect resembling
-that which prevails in dreams. 'Under the influence of a large dose of
-haschisch,' Professor Stout remarks (<cite>Analytic Psychology</cite>, vol. i. p. 14),
-'I found myself totally unable to distinguish between what I actually did
-and saw, and what I merely thought about.' Not only are the motor and
-sensory activities relatively dormant, but the central activity is perfectly
-able, and content, to dispense with their services. 'Thought,' as Jastrow
-says (<cite>Fact and Fable in Psychology</cite>, p. 386), 'is but more or less successfully
-suppressed action.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> This seems to me to be the answer to the question, asked by Freud,
-(<cite>Die Traumdeutung</cite>, p. 227), why we do not always dream of inhibited
-movement. Freud considers that the idea of inhibited movement, when it
-occurs in dreams, has no relation to the actual condition of the dreamer's
-nervous system, but is simply an ideatory symbol of an erotic wish that is
-no longer capable of fulfilment. But it is certain that sleep is not always
-at the same depth and that the various nervous groups are not always
-equally asleep. A dream arising on the basis of partial and imperfect sleep
-can scarcely fail to lead to the attempt at actual movement and the more
-or less complete inhibition of that movement, presenting a struggle which
-is often visible to the onlooker, and is not purely ideatory.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> This explanation, based on the depth and kind of the sleep, is entirely
-distinct from the theory of Aliotta (<cite>Il Pensiero e la Personalit&agrave; nei Sogni</cite>,
-1905), who believes that dreamers differ according to their nervous type, the
-person of visual type assisting passively at the spectacle of his dreams,
-while the person of motor type takes actual part in them. I have no
-evidence of this, though I believe that dreams differ in accordance with the
-dreamer's personal type.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> Dugald Stewart argued that there is loss of control over the muscular
-system during sleep, and the body, therefore, is not subject to our command;
-volition is present but it cannot influence the limbs. Hammond argued,
-on the contrary, that Stewart was quite wrong; the reason why voluntary
-movements are not performed during sleep is, he said, that volition is
-suspended. 'We do not will our actions when we are asleep. We imagine
-that we do, and that is all' (<cite>Treatise on Insanity</cite>, p. 205). Dugald Stewart
-and Hammond, though their phraseology may have been too metaphysical,
-were, from the standpoint I have adopted, both maintaining tenable
-positions. In one type of dream, we imagine we easily achieve all sorts of
-difficult and complicated actions, but in reality we make no movement;
-the ease and rapidity with which the mental machine moves is due to the
-fact that it is ungeared, and is effecting no work at all. In the other type
-of dream we make violent but inadequate efforts at movement and only
-partially succeed; the machine is partially geared, in a state intermediate
-between deep sleep and the waking condition.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> Jacques le Lorrain, <cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>, July 1895.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> The systematic megalomania of insanity can, however, have its rise in
-dreams; R&eacute;gis and Lalanne (<cite>International Medical Congress</cite>, 1900;
-<cite>Proceedings, Section de Psychiatrie</cite>, p. 227) met within a short period with
-four cases in which this had taken place.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> This indeed seems to have been recognised by Wundt, who regards a
-'functional rest of the sensory centres and of the apperception centre,'
-resulting in heightened latent energy which lends unusual strength to
-excitations, as a secondary condition of the dream state. K&uuml;lpe (<cite>Outline
-of Psychology</cite>, p. 212) argues that the existence of vivid dreams shows that
-fatigue with its diminished associability fails to affect the central sensations
-themselves; this increased excitability resulting from dissociation
-may itself, however, be regarded as a symptom of fatigue; hyperaesthesia
-and anaesthesia are alike signs of exhaustion.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> The exhaustion sometimes felt on awaking from a dream perhaps
-testifies to its emotional potency. Delboeuf states that a friend of his
-experienced a dream so terrible in its emotional strain that on awaking his
-black hair was found to have turned completely white.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> The fundamental character of emotion in dreams has been more or
-less clearly recognised by various investigators. Thus C. L. Herrick, who
-studied his own dreams for many months, found that the essential element
-is the emotional, and not the ideational, and that, indeed, when recalled
-<em>at once</em>, with closed eyes and before moving, they were nearly devoid of
-intellectual content (<cite>Journal of Comparative Neurology</cite>, vol. iii. p. 17, 1893).
-R. MacDougall considers that dreaming is 'a succession of intense states
-of feeling supported by a minimum of ideational content,' or, as he says
-again, more accurately, 'the feeling is primary; the idea-content is the
-inferred thing' (<cite>Psychological Review</cite>, vol. v. p. 2). Grace Andrews, who kept
-a record of her dreams (<cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>, October 1900),
-found that dream emotions are often stronger and more vivid than those
-of waking life; 'the dream emotion seems to me the most real element of
-the dream life.' P. Meunier, again ('Des R&ecirc;ves St&eacute;reotyp&eacute;s,' <cite>Journal de
-Psychologie Normale et Pathologique</cite>, September-October 1905), states that
-'the substratum of a dream consists of a cœn&aelig;sthesia or an emotional state.
-The intellectual operation which translates to the sleeper's consciousness,
-while he is asleep, this cœn&aelig;sthesia or emotional state is what we call a
-dream.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> The night-terrors of children have frequently been found to have their
-origin in gastric or intestinal disturbance. Graham Little brings together
-the opinions of various authorities on this point, though he is himself
-inclined to give chief importance to heart disease producing slight disturbances
-of breathing, since he has found that in nearly two-thirds of his
-cases (17 out of 30) night-terrors were associated with early heart disease
-(Graham Little, 'The Causation of Night-Terrors,' <cite>British Medical Journal</cite>,
-19th August 1899). It should be added that night-terrors are more usually
-divided into two classes: (1) idiopathic (purely cerebral in origin), and
-(2) symptomatic (due to reflex disturbance caused by various local disorders);
-see <em>e.g.</em> Guthrie, 'On Night-Terrors,' <cite>Clinical Journal</cite>, 7th January
-1899. J. A. Symonds has well described his own night-terrors as a child
-(Horatio Brown, <cite>J. A. Symonds</cite>, vol. i.). Lafcadio Hearn (in a paper on
-'Nightmare-Touch' in <cite>Shadowings</cite>) also gives a vivid account of his own
-childish night-terrors.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> It has not, I believe, been pointed out that such dreams might be
-invoked in support of the James-Lange or physiological theory of emotion,
-according to which the element of bodily change in emotion is the cause and
-not the result of the emotion.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> This physiological symbolism was clearly apprehended long ago by
-Hobbes: 'As anger causeth heat in some parts of the body when we are
-awake; so when we sleep the overheating of the same parts causeth
-anger, and raiseth up in the brain the imagination of an enemy. In the
-same manner as natural kindness, when we are awake, causeth desire
-and desire makes heat in certain other parts of the body; so also, too much
-heat in those parts, while we sleep, raiseth in the brain an imagination of
-some kindness shown. In sum, our dreams are the reverse of our waking
-imaginations; the motion, when we are awake, beginning at one end,
-and when we dream at another' (<cite>Leviathan</cite>, Part 1. ch. 2).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> 'The pains of disappointment, of anxiety, of unsuccess, of all displeasing
-emotions,' remarks Mercier (art. 'Consciousness,' Tuke's <cite>Dictionary
-of Psychological Medicine</cite>), 'are attended by a definite feeling of misery
-which is referred in every case to the epigastrium.' He adds that the
-pleasures of success and good repute, aesthetic enjoyment, etc., are also
-attended by a definite feeling in the same region. This fact indicates the
-extreme vagueness of organic sensation. There is in fact much uncertainty
-and great difference of opinion as to the nature, and even the existence,
-of organic sensation; see <em>e.g.</em> a careful summary of the chief views by
-Dr. Elsie Murray, 'Organic Sensation,' <cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>,
-July 1909.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> More than ten years later, the same dreamer, who had entirely forgotten
-the circumstances of this dream, again had a vivid dream of murder
-after eating pheasant at night; this time it was she herself who was to be
-killed, and she awoke imagining that she was struggling with the would-be
-murderer.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> F. Greenwood, <cite>Imagination in Dreams</cite>, p. 31.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> Dreams of railway travelling, and especially of losing trains, are not
-always associated with headache or any other recognisable condition.
-They constitute a very common type of dream not quite easy to explain.
-Dr. Savage mentions, for instance, that in his own case scarcely a week
-passes without such a dream, though in real life he scarcely ever loses a
-train and never worries about it. Wundt considers that the dreams in
-which we seek something we cannot find or have left something behind are
-due to indefinite coenaesthesic disturbances involving feelings of the same
-emotional tone, such as an uncomfortable position or a slight irregularity
-of respiration. I have myself independently observed the same connection,
-though it is not invariably traceable.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> E. H. Clarke, <cite>Visions</cite>, p. 294.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> An amusing, though solemn, interpretation of an ordinary dream of
-murder, railway travelling, and impending death, as experienced by Anna
-Kingsford, is furnished by her friend and biographer, Edward Maitland,
-<cite>Anna Kingsford</cite>, vol. i. p. 117.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> Various opinions in regard to morality in dreams are brought together
-by Freud, <cite>Die Traumdeutung</cite>, pp. 45 <em>et seq.</em></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> Head ('Mental Changes that Accompany Visceral Diseases,' <cite>Brain</cite>,
-1902, p. 802) refers to the association between visceral pain and the anti-social
-impulses, and thinks that the viscera, being part of the oldest and
-most autonomic system of the body, appear in consciousness as 'an
-intrusion from without, an inexplicable obsession.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> 'In my dreams,' W. D. Howells remarks, 'I am always less sorry for
-my misdeeds than for their possible discovery' ('True I talk of Dreams,'
-<cite>Harper's Magazine</cite>, May 1895).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> Bk. IV. 1014-15:</p>
-
-<div class="container">
-<div class="poem">
- <div class="stanza">
-  <div class="i5">'de montibus altis</div>
-  <div class="i0">Se quasi pr&aelig;cipitent ad terram corpore toto.'</div>
- </div>
-</div>
-</div></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> 'It has many times happened to me,' says the innkeeper's daughter in
-<cite>Don Quixote</cite> (Part I. ch. xvi.), 'to dream that I was falling down from a
-tower and never coming to the ground, and when I awoke from the dream
-to find myself as weak and shaken as if I had really fallen.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> Chabaneix, <cite>Le Subconscient</cite>, p. 43.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> Herbert Spencer, <cite>Principles of Sociology</cite>, 3rd ed., vol. i. p. 773.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> <cite>L'Interm&eacute;diaire des Chercheurs et des Curieux</cite>, May 31, 1906.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> De Rochas describes the phenomenon as 'a property of the human
-organism, more or less developed in different individuals, when the soul,
-disengaging itself from the bonds of the body, enters the domain, still so
-mysterious, of dreams' (<cite>L'Interm&eacute;diaire des Chercheurs et des Curieux</cite>,
-May 10, 1906). In subsequent numbers of the <cite>Interm&eacute;diaire</cite> various
-correspondents describe their own experiences of such dreams. In <cite>Luce e
-Ombra</cite> for June 1906, and in the <cite>Echo du Merveilleux</cite> for the same date,
-neither of which I have seen, are given other experiences.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> <cite>Annals of Psychical Research</cite>, November 1896.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> Horace Hutchinson, <cite>Dreams and their Meanings</cite>, p. 76.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> <cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>, July-October 1903, p. 14.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> 'The wish to be able to fly,' he declares (<cite>Eine Kindheitserinnerung des
-Leonardo da Vinci</cite>, p. 59), 'signifies in dreaming nothing else but the desire
-to be capable of sexual activities. It is a wish of early childhood.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> Stanley Hall, <cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>, January 1879, p. 158;
-also F. E. Bolton, 'Hydro-Psychoses,' <em>ib.</em>, January 1899, p. 183; as regards
-rudimentary gill-slits, Bland Sutton, <cite>Evolution and Disease</cite>, pp. 48 <em>et seq.</em>
-Lafcadio Hearn travels still further along this road in search for an explanation
-of dreams of flight, and evokes a 'memory of vanished planets with
-fainter powers of gravitation,' but he fails to state when the ancestors of
-man inhabited these problematical planets.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> I retain this statement of my explanation in almost the same words as
-first written down in 1895. I was not then aware that several psychologists
-had offered very similar explanations. Scherner (<cite>Das Leben des Traumes</cite>,
-1861) seems to have been the first to connect the lungs with dreams of
-flying, though he put forward the explanation in too fanciful a form and
-failed to realise that other factors, notably a change in skin pressure, are
-also involved. Str&uuml;mpell at a later date recognised this explanation, as
-well as Wundt.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> It is the same with chloroform. 'There are marked sensations in the
-vicinity of the heart,' says Elmer Jones ('The Waning of Consciousness
-under Chloroform,' <cite>Psychological Review</cite>, January 1909). 'The musculature
-of that organ seems thoroughly stimulated, and the contractions
-become violent and accelerated. The palpitations are as strong as would
-be experienced at the close of some violent bodily exertion.' It is significant,
-also, as bearing on the interpretation of the dream of flying, that
-under chloroform 'all movements made appeared to be much longer than
-they actually were. A slight movement of the tongue appeared to be
-magnified at least ten times. Clinching the fingers and opening them again
-produced the feeling of their moving through a space of several feet.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> See <em>e.g.</em> Marie de Manac&eacute;&iuml;ne, <cite>Sleep</cite>, p. 7.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> Horace Hutchinson, who in his <cite>Dreams and their Meanings</cite> (1901), has
-independently suggested that 'this flying dream is caused by some action
-of the breathing organs,' mentions the significant fact (p. 128) that the
-idea of filling the lungs as a help in levitation occurs in the flying dreams of
-many persons.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> We have an analogous state of tactile anaesthesia in the early stages of
-chloroform intoxication. Thus Elmer Jones found that this sense is, after
-hearing, the first to disappear. 'With the disappearance of the tactile
-sense and hearing,' he remarks, 'the body has completely lost its orientation.
-It appears to be nowhere, simply floating in space. It is a most
-ecstatic feeling.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> Lafcadio Hearn describes the fall as coming at the beginning of the
-dream. Dr. Guthrie (<cite>Clinical Journal</cite>, June 7, 1899), in his own case,
-describes the flying sensations as coming first and the falling as coming
-afterwards, and apparently due to sudden failure of the power of flight;
-the first part of the dream is agreeable but after the fall the dreamer awakes
-shaken, shocked, and breathless.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> The disagreeable nature of falling in dreams may probably be connected
-with the absence of rhythm usually present in dreams of flying.
-Most of the psychologists who have occupied themselves with rhythm
-have insisted on its pleasurable emotional tone, as leading to a state
-bordering on ecstasy (see <em>e.g.</em> J. B. Miner, 'Motor, Visual, and Applied
-Rhythms,' Monograph Supplement to <cite>Psychological Review</cite>, June 1903).
-The pleasure is especially marked, as MacDougall remarks, when there is
-'a coincidence of subjective and objective change.' In dreams of flying
-we have this coincidence, the real subjective rhythm being transformed
-in consciousness to an objective rhythm.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> F&eacute;r&eacute;, 'Note sur les R&ecirc;ves Epileptiques,' <cite>Revue de M&eacute;decine</cite>, September
-10, 1905.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> Sir W. R. Gowers has on several occasions (<em>e.g.</em> 'The Borderland of
-Epilepsy,' <cite>British Medical Journal</cite>, July 21, 1906) argued that dreams of
-falling have an aural origin, and are caused by contraction of the stapedius
-muscle, leading to a change in the ampullae which might suggest descent;
-he has himself suddenly awakened from such a dream and caught the sound
-of the muscular contraction. The opinion of so acute an investigator deserves
-consideration.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> Such sensations are, indeed, a recognised result of morphia. Morphinomaniacs,
-Goron remarks (<cite>Les Parias de l'Amour</cite>, p. 125), are apt to feel that
-they are flying or floating over the world.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> Jewell states that 'certain observers, peculiarly liable to dreams of
-falling or flying, ascribe these distinctly to faulty circulation, and say their
-physicians, to regulate the heart's action, have given them medicines which
-always relieve them and prevent such dreams' (<cite>American Journal of
-Psychology</cite>, January 1905, p. 8).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> Interesting evidence in favour of the respiratory origin of such visions
-is furnished by Silberer's observations on his own symbolic hypnagogic
-visions which are certainly allied to dream visions. He found (<cite>Jahrbuch
-f&uuml;r Psychoanalytische Forschungen</cite>, Bd. 1., 1909, p. 523) that on drawing a
-deep breath, and so raising the chest wall, the representation came to him
-of attempting with another person to raise a table in the air.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> J. de Goncourt (<cite>Journal des Goncourt</cite>, vol. iii. p. 3) mentions that after
-drinking port wine, to which he was unaccustomed, he had a dream in
-which he observed on his counterpane grotesque images in relief which rose
-and fell.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> Chabaneix, <cite>Le Subconscient</cite>, p. 43.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> May 30, 1906.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> L. Binswanger, 'Versuch einer Hysterieanalyse,' <cite>Jahrbuch f&uuml;r Psychoanalytische
-Forschungen</cite>, Bd. 1. 1909.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> Their word has often been accepted. Levitation as experienced by
-the saints has been studied by Colonel A. de Rochas, <cite>Les Fronti&egrave;res de
-la Science</cite>, 1904; also in <cite>Annales des Sciences Psychiques</cite>, January-February
-1901. 'Levitation is a perfectly real phenomena,' he concludes, 'and
-much more common than we might at first be tempted to believe.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> It seems to become less frequent after middle age. Beaunis states that
-in his case it ceased at the age of fifty. I found it disappear, or become rare,
-at a somewhat earlier age.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> H. Pi&eacute;ron, 'Contribution &agrave; la Psychologie des Mourants,' <cite>Revue
-Philosophique</cite>, December 1902.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> See <em>e.g.</em> Galton, <cite>Inquiries</cite> (Everyman's Library edition), pp. 79-112.
-Among more recent writings on this subject may be mentioned Bleuler,
-art. 'Secondary Sensations,' Tuke's <cite>Dictionary of Psychological Medicine;</cite>
-Suarez de Mendoza, <cite>L'Audition Color&eacute;e;</cite> Jules Millet, <cite>Audition Color&eacute;e;</cite>
-and especially a useful summary by Clavi&egrave;re, 'L'Audition Color&eacute;e,'
-<cite>L'Ann&eacute;e Psychologique</cite>, fifth year, 1899. A case of auditory gustation is
-recorded by A. M. Pierce, <cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>, 1907. It may
-be noted that Boris Sidis has argued (<cite>Psychological Review</cite>, January 1904)
-that all hallucinations are of the nature of secondary sensations.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> Ferrero, in his <cite>Lois Psychologiques du Symbolisme</cite> (1895), deals broadly
-with symbolism in human thought and life.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> <cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>, November 1902.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> 'Richard Wagner et Tannhauser' in <cite>L'Art Romantique</cite>.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> The motor imagery suggested by music is in some persons profuse and
-apparently capricious, and may be regarded as an anomaly comparable to a
-synaesthesia. Heine was an example of this, and he has described in
-<cite>Florentine Nights</cite> the visions aroused by the playing of Paganini, and
-elsewhere the visions evoked in him by the music of Berlioz. Though I
-do not myself experience this phenomenon, I have found that there is
-sometimes a tendency for music to arouse ideas of motor imagery; thus
-some melodies of Handel suggest a giant painting frescoes on a vast wall
-space. The most elementary motor relationship of music is seen in the
-tendency of many people to sway portions of their body&mdash;to 'beat time'&mdash;in
-sympathy with the music. (This phenomenon has been experimentally
-studied by J. B. Miner, 'Motor, Visual, and Applied Rhythms,' Monograph
-Supplement to the <cite>Psychological Review</cite>, vol. v., No. 4, June 1903). Music
-is fundamentally an audible dance, and the most primitive music is dance
-music.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> The instinctive nature of this tendency is shown by the fact that it
-persists even in sleep. Thus Weygandt relates that he once fell asleep in
-the theatre during one of the last scenes of <cite>Cavalleria Rusticana</cite>, when the
-tenor was singing in ever higher and higher tones, and dreamed that in
-order to reach the notes the performer was climbing up ladders and stairs
-on the stage.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> See, especially the attractive book of Andr&eacute; Pirro, <cite>L'Esth&eacute;tique de
-J. S. Bach</cite> (1907), and also Albert Schweitzer, <cite>J. S. Bach</cite> (1908), especially
-chapters xix.-xxiii. 'Concrete things,' says Ernest Newman, summarising
-some of these results (<cite>Nation</cite>, December 25, 1909), 'incessantly suggested
-abstract ideas or inward moods to Bach, and <em>vice vers&acirc;</em>. He would time
-after time use the same musical formula for the same word or idea. He
-first suggests the external concepts of "high" and "low," as other composers
-have done, by high or low notes, and motion up or down by ascending
-or descending themes. But Bach correlates with the outward, objective
-thing a whole series of things that are purely subjective. Thus moods of
-elation or of depression are to him the mental equivalents of the physical
-acts of going up or down. So he gives us a whole series of ascending
-themes to words that express "mounting" states of mind, as it were&mdash;such
-as pride, courage, strength, resolution&mdash;and descending themes to
-words that express "declining" states of mind&mdash;such as prostration,
-adoration, depression, discouragement, grief at sin, humility, poverty,
-fatigue, and illness. For the two sets of concepts, internal and external,
-he will use the same musical symbols. To represent the physical concept
-of "surrounding," again, he adopts the device of a circling or undulating
-theme. A crown or a garland suggests the same idea to him, so for this,
-too, he uses the same kind of theme. But the correspondence goes still
-further; for when he comes to the word "considering," he uses the same
-curving musical symbol once more&mdash;his notion of "considering" being
-that of looking round on all sides. Again, a word of purely external
-signification that suggests something twisted will have an appropriately
-twisted theme. Then come the subjective applications of the theme&mdash;the
-same disordered melodic outline is used to express a frame of mind
-like anxiety or confusion, or to depict the wiles of Satan. Careful study
-of the vocal works of Bach, and especially of the cantatas, has revealed a
-host of these curious symbols.' The whole subject, it may be added, has
-been briefly and suggestively discussed by Goblot, 'La Musique Descriptive,'
-<cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>, July 1901.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> T. Piderit, <cite>Mimik und Physiognomik</cite>, 1867, p. 73.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> J. Cleland, <cite>Evolution, Expression and Sensation</cite>, 1881.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> F&eacute;r&eacute;, 'La Physiologie dans les M&eacute;taphores,' <cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>,
-October 1895.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> Maeder discusses symbolism in some of these fields in his 'Die Symbolik
-in den Legenden, M&auml;rchen, Gebr&auml;uchen und Tr&auml;umen,' <cite>Psychiatrisch-Neurologische
-Wochenschrift</cite>, Nos. 6 and 7, May 1908.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> So Philostratus, and Pliny (<cite>Natural History</cite>, Bk. X. ch. CCXI.) puts the
-same point on somewhat more natural grounds.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> It has been translated by F. S. Krauss, <cite>Symbolik der Tr&auml;ume</cite>, 1881.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> A translation of Synesius's 'Treatise on Dreams' is included in
-Druon's <cite>Œuvres de Syn&eacute;sius</cite>, pp. 347 <em>et seq.</em> Synesius is probably best
-known to modern English readers through Charles Kingsley's novel,
-<em>Hypatia</em>. His treatise on dreams has been unduly neglected, though it
-commended itself mightily to the pioneering mind of Lord Monboddo,
-who even says (<cite>Ancient Metaphysics</cite>, vol. ii., 1782, p. 217) in reference
-to this treatise: 'Indeed it appears to me that since the days of Plato
-and Aristotle there has not been a philosopher of greater depth than
-Synesius.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_144_144" id="Footnote_144_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> K. A. Scherner, <cite>Das Leben des Traumes</cite>, 1861. In France Hervey de
-Saint-Denis, in a remarkable anonymous work which I have not seen
-(<cite>Les R&ecirc;ves et les Moyens de les Diriger</cite>, p. 356, quoted by Vaschide and
-Pi&eacute;ron, <cite>Psychologie du R&ecirc;ve</cite>, p. 26), tentatively put forward a symbolic
-theory of dreams, as a possible rival to the theory that permanent associations
-are set up as the result of a first chance coincidence. 'Do there
-exist,' he asked, 'bizarre analogies of internal sensations in virtue of
-which certain vibrations of the nerves, certain instinctive movements of
-our viscera, correspond to sensations apparently quite different? According
-to this hypothesis experience would bring to light mysterious affinities,
-the knowledge of which might become a genuine science;... and a
-real key to dreams would not be an unrealisable achievement if we could
-bring together and compare a sufficient number of observations.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> It is interesting to note that hallucinations may also be symbolic.
-Thus the Psychical Research Society's Committee on Hallucinations
-recognised a symbolic group, and recorded, for instance, the case of a man
-who, when his child lies dying, sees a blue flame in the air and hears a voice
-say, 'That's his soul' (<cite>Proceedings Society for Psychical Research</cite>, August
-1894, p. 125).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> Maeder states that the tendency to symbolism in dreams and similar
-modes of psychic activity is due to 'vague thinking in a condition of
-diminished attention.' This is, however, an inadequate statement and
-misses the central point.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> In the other spheres in which symbolism most tends to appear, the
-same or allied conditions exist. In hallucinations, which (as Parish and
-others have shown) tend to occur in hypnagogic or sleep-like states, the
-conditions are clearly the same. The symbolism of an art, and notably
-music, is due to the very conditions of the art, which exclude any appeal
-to other senses. The primitive mind reaches symbolism through a similar
-condition of things, coming as the result of ignorance and undeveloped
-powers of apperception. In insanity these powers are morbidly disturbed
-or destroyed, with the same result.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> The magnification we experience in dreams is manifested in their
-emotional aspects and in the emotional transformation of actual sensory
-stimuli, from without or from within the organism. The size of objects
-recalled by dreaming memory usually remains unchanged, and if changed
-it seems to be more usually diminished. 'Lilliputian hallucinations,'
-as they are termed by Leroy, who has studied them (<cite>Revue de Psychiatrie</cite>,
-1909, No. 8), in which diminutive, and frequently coloured, people are
-observed, may also occasionally occur in alcoholic and chloral intoxication,
-in circular insanity, and in various other morbid mental conditions. They
-are usually agreeable in character.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> Sollier, 'L'Autoscopie Interne,' <cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>, January 1903.
-Sollier deals with the objections made to the reality of the phenomenon.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> 'Many people,' writes Dr. Marie de Manac&eacute;&iuml;ne (<cite>Sleep</cite>, 1897, p. 294),
-'when threatened by a gastric or intestinal attack dream of seeing fish.
-The late Professor Sergius Botkine told me that he had found this coincidence
-in his own case, and I have myself several times found it in the
-case of a young girl who is well known to me. Some have supposed that
-the sleeping consciousness receives an impression of the elongated shape
-of the stomach or intestine; but such a supposition is easier to make than
-to prove.' Scherner associated dreams of fish with sensations arising from
-the bladder, and here also it may be said that we are concerned with a
-fish-like viscus. Greenwood (<cite>Imagination in Dreams</cite>, p. 195) stated that
-he had always been subject, at intervals of months or years, to a recurrent
-dream in which he would see a river swarming with fish that were finally
-piled in a horrible sweltering mass; this dream always left a feeling
-of 'squalid horror,' but he was never able to ascertain its cause and significance.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> Freud states (<cite>Die Traumdeutung</cite>, p. 233) that he knows a case in which
-(as in the <cite>Song of Songs</cite>) columns and pillars appear in dreams as symbols
-of the legs, and doors as symbols of the openings of the body.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> Freud, <cite>Die Traumdeutung</cite>, p. 66. This work, published in 1900, is
-the chief and most extensive statement of Freud's views. A shorter statement
-is embodied in a little volume of the 'Grenzfr&auml;gen' Series, <cite>Ueber
-den Traum</cite>, 1901. A brief exposition of Freud's position is given by
-Dr. A. Maeder of Zurich in 'Essai d'Interpretation de Quelques R&ecirc;ves,'
-<cite>Archives de Psychologie</cite>, April 1907; as also by Ernest Jones ('Freud's
-Theory of Dreams,' <cite>Review of Neurology and Psychiatry</cite>, March 1910, and
-<cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>, April 1910). For Freud's general psychological
-doctrine, see Brill's translation of 'Freud's Selected Papers on
-Hysteria,' 1909. There have been many serious criticisms of Freud's
-methods. As an example of such criticism, accompanying an exposition
-of the methods, reference may be made to Max Isserlin's 'Die Psychoanalytische
-Methode Freuds,' <cite>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r die Gesamte Neurologie und
-Psychiatrie</cite>, Bd. 1. Heft i. 1910. A judicious and qualified criticism of
-Freud's psychotherapeutic methods is given by L&ouml;wenfeld ('Zum gegenw&auml;rtigen
-Stande der Psychotherapeutie,' <cite>M&uuml;nchener medizinische Wochenschrift</cite>,
-Nos. 3 and 4, 1910).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_153_153" id="Footnote_153_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_153_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a> I have set forth Freud's views of hysteria, now regarded as almost
-epoch-making in character, in <cite>Studies of the Psychology of Sex</cite>, vol. i. 3rd
-ed. pp. 219 <em>et seq.</em></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_154_154" id="Footnote_154_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_154_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a> This is supported by the fact that in waking reverie, or day-dreams,
-wishes are obviously the motor force in building up visionary structures.
-Freud attaches great importance to reverie, for he considers that it furnishes
-the key to the comprehension of dreams (<em>e.g.</em> <cite>Sammlung Kleiner
-Schriften zur Neurosenlehre</cite>, 2nd series, pp. 138 <em>et seq.</em>, 197 <em>et seq.</em>). But
-it must be remembered that day-dreaming is not real dreaming, which
-takes place under altogether different physiological conditions, although
-it may quite fairly be claimed that day-dreaming represents a state intermediate
-between ordinary waking consciousness and consciousness during
-sleep.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_155_155" id="Footnote_155_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_155_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a> The special characteristics of dreaming in the hysterical were studied,
-before Freud turned his attention to the question, by Sante de Sanctis
-(<cite>I Sogni e il Sonno nell' Isterismo</cite>, 1896). See also Havelock Ellis, <cite>Studies
-in the Psychology of Sex</cite>, vol. i. 3rd ed., 1910, 'Auto-erotism.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_156_156" id="Footnote_156_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_156_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a> Gissing, the novelist, an acute observer of psychic states, in the most
-of his books, <cite>The Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft</cite>, has described
-this phenomenon: 'Every one, I suppose, is subject to a trick of mind
-which often puzzles me. I am reading or thinking, and at a moment,
-without any association or suggestion that I can discover, there rises
-before me the vision of a place I know. Impossible to explain why that
-particular spot should show itself to my mind's eye; the cerebral impulse
-is so subtle that no search may trace its origin.' Gissing proceeds to say
-that a thought, a phrase, an odour, a touch, a posture of the body, may
-possibly have furnished the link of association, but he knows no evidence
-for this theory.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_157_157" id="Footnote_157_157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_157_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a> Extrospection has been specially studied by Vaschide and Vurpas in
-<cite>La Logique Morbide</cite>.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_158_158" id="Footnote_158_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_158_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a> On the psychic importance of fears, see G. Stanley Hall, 'A Study of
-Fears,' <cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>, 1897, p. 183. Metchnikoff
-(<cite>Essais Optimistes</cite>, pp. 247 <em>et seq.</em>) insists on the mingled fear and strength
-of the anthropoid apes.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_159_159" id="Footnote_159_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_159_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a> Foucault has pointed this out, and Morton Prince, and Giessler (who
-admits that the wish-dream is common in children), and Flournoy (who
-remarks that not only a fear but any emotion can be equally effective),
-as well as Clapar&egrave;de. The last remarks that Freud might regard a fear as
-a suppressed desire, but it may equally be said that a desire involves, on
-its reverse side, a fear. Freud has indeed himself pointed out (<em>e.g.</em> <cite>Jahrbuch
-f&uuml;r Psychoanalytische Forschungen</cite>, Bd. 1., 1909, p. 362) that fears
-may be instinctively combined with wishes; he regards the association
-with a wish of an opposing fear as one of the components of some morbid
-psychic states. But he holds that the wish is the positive and fundamental
-element: 'The unconscious can only wish' ('Das Unbewusste kann nichts
-als w&uuml;nschen'), a statement that seems somewhat too metaphysical for
-the psychologist.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_160_160" id="Footnote_160_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> Thus A. Wiggam ('A Contribution to the Data of Dream Psychology,'
-<cite>Pedagogical Seminary</cite>, June 1909) records a great many wish-dreams,
-mostly in the young.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_161_161" id="Footnote_161_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_161_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a> Laud, <cite>Works</cite>, vol. iii. p. 144.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_162_162" id="Footnote_162_162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_162_162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a> Havelock Ellis, <cite>Studies in the Psychology of Sex</cite>, vol. iii., 'Love and
-Pain.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_163_163" id="Footnote_163_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a> The dramatic element in dreaming was dealt with at length by Carl du
-Prel (<cite>Philosophy of Mysticism</cite>, vol. i. ch. iii.), but he threw little light on it.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_164_164" id="Footnote_164_164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_164_164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a> Thus in the Psychical Research Society's 'Report on the <cite>Census of
-Hallucinations</cite>,' the case is given of an over-worked and worried man who,
-a few moments after leaving a tram car, had the vivid feeling that some
-one touched him on the shoulder, though on turning round he found no
-one near. He then remembered that on the car he had been leaning
-against an iron bolt, and that, therefore, what he had experienced was
-doubtless a spontaneous muscular contraction excited by the pressure
-(<cite>Proceedings, Society for Psychical Research</cite>, August 1894, p. 3). Touches
-felt on awakening, in correspondence with a dream, are not so very uncommon.
-Thus Wagner, when in love with Mathilde Wesendonk, wrote,
-in the private diary he kept for her, how, after a dream, 'as I awoke I
-distinctly felt a kiss on my brow.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_165_165" id="Footnote_165_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_165_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a> Various pressures lead to dreams of blood. Thus a friend with a weak
-heart tells me that when he sleeps on his left side he dreams of blood.
-In some of these cases it is possible that there are retinal sensations of
-red.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_166_166" id="Footnote_166_166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_166_166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a> In the <cite>Census of Hallucinations</cite> (chapter ix.) it was pointed out by
-the Psychical Research Society's Committee that hallucinations are
-specially apt to occur on awakening, or in the state between sleeping
-and waking; and Parish in his very searching study, <cite>Hallucinations and
-Illusions</cite> (Contemporary Science Series), has further developed this fact
-and insisted on its significance.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_167_167" id="Footnote_167_167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167_167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a> Dr. Johnson's remark on this point has often been quoted. He
-dreamed that he had been worsted in a verbal argument, and was thereby
-much mortified. 'Had not my judgment failed me,' he said, 'I should
-have seen that the wit of this supposed antagonist, by whose superiority
-I felt myself depressed, was as much furnished by me as that which I
-thought I had been uttering in my own character' (Boswell's <cite>Johnson</cite>, ed.
-by Hill, vol. iv. p. 5).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_168_168" id="Footnote_168_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a> Maury, <cite>Le Sommeil et les R&ecirc;ves</cite>, 1861, p. 118.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_169_169" id="Footnote_169_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_169_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a> Delbœuf, <cite>Le Sommeil et les R&ecirc;ves</cite>, pp. 24, <em>et seq</em>.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_170_170" id="Footnote_170_170"></a><a href="#FNanchor_170_170"><span class="label">[170]</span></a> Foucault, <cite>Le R&ecirc;ve</cite>, p. 137.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_171_171" id="Footnote_171_171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_171_171"><span class="label">[171]</span></a> Giessler, 'Das Ich im Tr&auml;ume,' <cite>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Psychologie und
-Physiologie der Sinnesorgane</cite>, 1905, Heft 4 and 5, pp. 300 <em>et seq.</em></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_172_172" id="Footnote_172_172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_172_172"><span class="label">[172]</span></a> See especially Pierre Janet's works, and also those of Morton Prince,
-Albert Wilson, etc. Flournoy's very elaborate study of Mlle. Hel&egrave;ne Smith
-(<cite>Des Indes &agrave; la Plan&egrave;te Mars</cite>, 1900) is noteworthy. A summary of some
-important cases of multiple personality will be found in Marie de
-Manac&eacute;&iuml;ne's <cite>Sleep</cite>, pp. 127 <em>et seq.</em>, and some bibliographical references,
-<em>ib.</em> p. 151.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_173_173" id="Footnote_173_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173_173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a> J. Milne Bramwell argues ('Secondary and Multiple Personalities,'
-<cite>Brain</cite>, 1900) that such cases are not invariably hysterical.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_174_174" id="Footnote_174_174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_174_174"><span class="label">[174]</span></a> See G. Stanley Hall, 'The Early Sense of Self,' <cite>American Journal of
-Psychology</cite>, April 1898. Cooley ('The Early Use of Self-Words by a Child,'
-<cite>Psychological Review</cite>, 1909, p. 94) finds that the child distinguishes between
-itself as (1) body and as (2) self-assertion united with action; it refers to
-the former as 'Baby,' and to the latter as 'I.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_175_175" id="Footnote_175_175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_175_175"><span class="label">[175]</span></a> See, <em>e.g.</em>, Havelock Ellis, <cite>The Criminal</cite>, 4th ed., 1910, p. 367.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_176_176" id="Footnote_176_176"></a><a href="#FNanchor_176_176"><span class="label">[176]</span></a> In the existing traditions of law and police, it is still possible to find
-many survivals of this tendency to objectify subjective impressions.
-Thus Mr. Theodore Schroeder has shown (<cite>Free Press Anthology</cite>, 1909,
-pp. 171 <em>et seq.</em>) that the prosecutions which have in various so-called
-civilised countries pursued many estimable and even noble works of
-literature, science, and art are based on the primitive notion that 'indecency'
-resides in the object and not in the person who experiences the
-feeling, and who ought, therefore, alone to be suppressed, if suppression
-is called for. This psychological fallacy continues to subsist, though it
-was unmasked in the clearest manner even by St. Paul (<em>e.g.</em> Romans
-xiv. 14). It is somewhat analogous to the medi&aelig;val conception
-of the criminality of animals.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_177_177" id="Footnote_177_177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177_177"><span class="label">[177]</span></a> I may refer to the very interesting discussion by Professor G. F. Stout
-(<cite>Analytic Psychology</cite>, vol. ii. p. 145) of the conflict of systems in apperception,
-and of the suspense and deadlock which occur when two or more
-systems come into conflict in such a way that the success of one is the
-defeat of the other. The discussion is full of interest from its undesigned
-bearing on the phenomena of dreaming.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_178_178" id="Footnote_178_178"></a><a href="#FNanchor_178_178"><span class="label">[178]</span></a> Foucault, for instance (<cite>Le R&ecirc;ve</cite>, p. 25), discusses and illustrates
-dreams of this type. I am not here concerned with the causation of this
-type of dream. Perhaps, as Wundt believes, it is due to some physical
-discomfort of the sleeper, such as a cramped position, expressing itself
-symbolically.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_179_179" id="Footnote_179_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_179_179"><span class="label">[179]</span></a> It may be added that dreams of returning to the school scenes of early
-life are not necessarily always of the type here described, as may be illustrated
-by the dream already brought forward on p. 83, which, it is worth
-while noticing, occurred after a day on which I had been thinking over
-the dreams of this class.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_180_180" id="Footnote_180_180"></a><a href="#FNanchor_180_180"><span class="label">[180]</span></a> I reproduce these two series in the same form as first published (Havelock
-Ellis, 'On Dreaming of the Dead,' <cite>Psychological Review</cite>, September
-1895) since they have formed the starting point of my own and others'
-investigation into this type of dream.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_181_181" id="Footnote_181_181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_181_181"><span class="label">[181]</span></a> It is well known, and has often been pointed out (by Weygandt, Sante
-de Sanctis, Jewell, etc., and perhaps first by T. Beddoes in his <cite>Hygeia</cite>,
-1803, vol. iii. p. 88), that while in childhood all the emotions of the past
-day are at once echoed in dreams, after adolescence, this is not so in the
-case of intense emotions, which do not emerge in dreams until after a more
-or less considerable interval. Marie de Manac&eacute;&iuml;ne and Sante de Sanctis
-attribute this to exhaustion of the emotion which needs a period of repair
-and organic synthesis before it can repeat itself. Vaschide believed that we
-dream of recent events in shallow sleep and of remote events in deep sleep;
-this sounds plausible, but will scarcely account for all the phenomena.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_182_182" id="Footnote_182_182"></a><a href="#FNanchor_182_182"><span class="label">[182]</span></a> Since the publication of my paper 'On Dreaming of the Dead,' several
-psychologists have returned to the subject. Thus Binet (<cite>L'Ann&eacute;e Psychologique</cite>,
-2nd year, issued in 1896, p. 848) gave a dream of his own, very
-similar to mine of the editor, in which a doctor, dead a month previously,
-is talking to him in his room. On Binet expressing surprise at seeing
-him, the doctor explains that he had only sent news of his death in order
-to see how many people would come to his funeral. Binet has also had
-two dreams, similar to that described on p. 200, in which he is walking in
-the country with a dead friend, who seems in good health, though the
-dreamer knows he will soon die. Foucault (<cite>Le R&ecirc;ve</cite>, p. 128), who, in
-accordance with his own theory, regards my dream of the editor as belonging
-to the period of awakening, brings forward a dream of his own in which
-he saw his father, dead six months before, sitting in a chair; at first this
-seems to him a hallucination, but he finally accepts the vision as real. I
-have had a number of letters from people who have had dreams of this type.
-One correspondent, an anthropologist and folk-lorist of note, says that
-his dreams of dead friends are of the type of Mrs. F.'s. Professor N&auml;cke
-writes that he has had such dreams (and see also his articles in the <cite>Archiv
-f&uuml;r Kriminalanthropologie</cite>, 1903, p. 307, and the <cite>Neurologisches Centralblatt</cite>,
-1910, No. 13). One young lady states that, thirteen years after her
-mother's death, she still dreams of her as coming to life again or never
-having really died. I may add that this type of dream is admirably
-illustrated in a series of dreams concerning a dead friend, published in a
-letter from a lady to <cite>Borderland</cite>, January 1896, p. 51.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_183_183" id="Footnote_183_183"></a><a href="#FNanchor_183_183"><span class="label">[183]</span></a> Gassendi, <cite>Syntagma Philosophicum</cite>, 1658, pars. 71, lib. viii. (<cite>Op&eacute;ra
-Omnia</cite>, vol. i.).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_184_184" id="Footnote_184_184"></a><a name="FNanchor_184a_184a" id="FNanchor_184a_184a"></a><a href="#FNanchor_184_184"><span class="label">[184]</span></a> Maury, <cite>Le Sommeil et les R&ecirc;ves</cite>, p. 145.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_185_185" id="Footnote_185_185"></a><a href="#FNanchor_185_185"><span class="label">[185]</span></a> <cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>, July-October, 1903, p. 18.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_186_186" id="Footnote_186_186"></a><a href="#FNanchor_186_186"><span class="label">[186]</span></a> Chabaneix, <cite>Le Subconscient chez les Artistes, les Savants et les Ecrivains</cite>,
-1897, pp. 45-8. Chabaneix was in touch with various persons of distinction,
-and one is inclined to identify the poet-philosopher with Sully-Prudhomme,
-at that time still living. Du Maurier's remarkable novel,
-<cite>Peter Ibbetson</cite>&mdash;which records similar serial dreams of union with a beloved
-woman after death, and seems to be based on real experience&mdash;may also
-be mentioned in this connection.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_187_187" id="Footnote_187_187"></a><a href="#FNanchor_187_187"><span class="label">[187]</span></a> Unconscious dream suggestions of this kind resemble, as R. MacDougall
-has remarked (<cite>Psychological Review</cite>, March 1898, p. 167), post-hypnotic
-suggestions.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_188_188" id="Footnote_188_188"></a><a href="#FNanchor_188_188"><span class="label">[188]</span></a> This type of dream&mdash;in which the emotion of the day is inverted in
-sleep, depressing emotions giving place to exalting emotions, and so on&mdash;is
-by some (Griesinger, Lombroso, Sante de Sanctis, etc.), termed the
-contrast-dream. The dream is in such a case, Sante de Sanctis remarks,
-complementary, having the same significance as a complementary after-image
-and indicating a phase of anabolic repair. Thus A. Wiggam (<cite>Pedagogical
-Seminary</cite>, June 1909), gives the case of a girl of twenty, who when
-tired and restless always has good dreams, while her dreams are bad when
-she is well and free from care. It should be added that, as understood
-by N&auml;cke ('Ueber Kontrast-Tr&auml;ume' <cite>Archiv f&uuml;r Kriminalanthropologie</cite>,
-1907), a contrast-dream is one that is in striking contrast to the dreamer's
-ordinary character. In this type of contrast-dream it is not quite clear
-that the mechanism is the same, and the contrast may sometimes be accidental.
-Thus a dream of being a soldier on a battlefield, with shells
-bursting around me, was merely suggested by a passage of Nietzsche, read
-in the evening, which contained the words 'the thunders of the battle
-of W&ouml;rth,' and the question of contrast or resemblance to my character
-and habits was irrelevant.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_189_189" id="Footnote_189_189"></a><a href="#FNanchor_189_189"><span class="label">[189]</span></a> <cite>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</cite>, July-December 1904, p. 339.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_190_190" id="Footnote_190_190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_190_190"><span class="label">[190]</span></a> See Herbert Spencer, <cite>Principles of Sociology</cite>, 3rd ed., 1885, vol. i.
-ch. x., especially pp. 140, 182, 201, 772. Spencer believed that Lubbock
-was the first to point out this factor in primitive beliefs, which has been
-chiefly developed by Tylor. It is, of course, by no means the only factor.
-See <em>post</em>, p. 266.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_191_191" id="Footnote_191_191"></a><a href="#FNanchor_191_191"><span class="label">[191]</span></a> Thus Professor Beaunis (<em>loc. cit.</em>) considers that dreams furnish the
-only rational explanation of the belief in survival after death. Jewell,
-again (<cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>, January 1905), also considers
-that dreams are responsible for primitive man's inability to conceive
-of death as ending our association with our friends; he brings forward
-evidence, highly significant in this connection, to show that children, on
-dreaming of the dead as alive, are influenced in waking life to doubt the
-reality of their death. Ruths, also writing since the publication of my
-first paper (<cite>Experimental-Untersuchungen &uuml;ber Musikphantome</cite>, 1898,
-pp. 438 <em>et seq.</em>), considers that the conception of an under-world is founded
-on dreams of the dead coming to life.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_192_192" id="Footnote_192_192"></a><a href="#FNanchor_192_192"><span class="label">[192]</span></a> It is as well to bear in mind that this dream occurred when Maury
-was a student, long before he began to study dreaming, and (as Egger has
-pointed out) was probably not written down until thirteen years later.
-On these grounds alone it is not entitled to serious consideration.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_193_193" id="Footnote_193_193"></a><a href="#FNanchor_193_193"><span class="label">[193]</span></a> As Sir Samuel Wilks once remarked ('On the Nature of Dreams,'
-<cite>Medical Magazine</cite>, Feb. 1894), 'The dreamer merely forms a mental
-picture, and the <em>description</em> of it he calls his dream.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_194_194" id="Footnote_194_194"></a><a href="#FNanchor_194_194"><span class="label">[194]</span></a> Egger, 'La Dur&eacute;e apparente des R&ecirc;ves,' <cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>, Jan.
-1895, pp. 41-59; Clavi&egrave;re, 'La Rapidit&eacute; de la Pens&eacute;e dans le R&ecirc;ve,' <em>ib.</em>
-May 1897, p. 509; Pi&eacute;ron, 'La Rapidit&eacute; des Processes Psychiques,' <em>ib.</em>
-Jan. 1903, pp. 89-95; Foucault, <cite>Le R&ecirc;ve</cite>, pp. 158 <em>et seq.;</em> Tobolowska,
-<cite>Etude sur les Illusions du Temps dans les R&ecirc;ves du Sommeil Normal:</cite> Th&egrave;se
-de Paris, 1900.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_195_195" id="Footnote_195_195"></a><a href="#FNanchor_195_195"><span class="label">[195]</span></a> Thus Freud tells (<cite>Jahrbuch f&uuml;r Psychoanalytische Forschungen</cite>, vol. i.
-part ii. p. 387) of a man who was obsessed by the idea that he should
-never pass money until he had carefully cleaned it, for fear he might be
-infecting other people, but was quite unaware that this obsession sprang
-from remorse due to his own sins of sexual impurity. In such a case there
-is, of course, not only a crumpling of consciousness, but a definite dislocation
-and transference of the parts.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_196_196" id="Footnote_196_196"></a><a href="#FNanchor_196_196"><span class="label">[196]</span></a> We also see here an interesting dissociation of the motor (speech)
-centre from the visual centre; it is the latter which is in this instance
-most closely in touch with facts.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_197_197" id="Footnote_197_197"></a><a href="#FNanchor_197_197"><span class="label">[197]</span></a> The 'selvdrolla' dream, recorded in a previous chapter (p. 43), illustrates
-the same point with the difference that the crumpled up portion of
-consciousness never became visible in the dream.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_198_198" id="Footnote_198_198"></a><a href="#FNanchor_198_198"><span class="label">[198]</span></a> R. L. Stevenson, 'A Chapter on Dreams,' in <cite>Across the Plains</cite>, 1892.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_199_199" id="Footnote_199_199"></a><a href="#FNanchor_199_199"><span class="label">[199]</span></a> In most cases the missing memory, after making itself felt outside
-the conscious area, seems to reach that area, not so much by its own
-spontaneous unconscious movement as by a tentative search for clues.
-Thus I read one day the words 'the breaking of a goblet by a little black
-imp,' and immediately became conscious that I was reminded of something
-similar in recent experience, but could not tell what. I asked myself if
-it could have been in a dream. In a few moments, however, the memory
-recurred to me that two hours previously I had noticed a broken vase,
-and casually wondered how it had become broken. Under such circumstances
-we are for a time thinking of something, and yet have no conscious
-knowledge as to what we are thinking of.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_200_200" id="Footnote_200_200"></a><a href="#FNanchor_200_200"><span class="label">[200]</span></a> Jastrow remarks, somewhat in the same way (<cite>The Subconscious</cite>, p. 93),
-that 'a letting down of the effort, a focusing of the mind upon a point
-a little or a good deal to one side of the fixation point, distinctly aids the
-mental vision.' The process seems, however, to be most effective when
-it is automatic, for attention cannot easily relax its own tension. A large
-number of the discoveries and solutions of difficulties effected in dreams
-are due to this dispersal of attention over a wider field, so enabling the
-missing relationship to be detected. See, for instance, some cases recorded
-by Newbold (<cite>Psychological Review</cite>, March 1896, p. 132), as of Dr. Hilprecht,
-the Assyriologist, who discovered in a dream that two fragments
-of tablets he had vainly been endeavouring to decipher, were really parts
-of the same tablet.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_201_201" id="Footnote_201_201"></a><a href="#FNanchor_201_201"><span class="label">[201]</span></a> Hypermnesia, or excessive memory, is found in waking life in various
-abnormal conditions. It is not uncommon in men of genius; Macaulay
-is a well-known example. It scarcely seems, however, an especially
-favourable condition for keen intellectual power; the mental machine
-that is clogged with unnecessary and unimportant facts can scarcely fail
-to work under difficulties. 'Hypermnesia,' remarks Stoddart ('Early
-Symptoms of Mental Disease,' <cite>British Medical Journal</cite>, 11th May 1907),
-'occurs most frequently in certain cases of idiocy, and in some cases of
-chronic mania. One such patient could enumerate all the occasions
-when any given medical officer had played tennis since he entered the
-institution.' Hypermnesia in dreams has been dealt with by Carl du
-Prel, <cite>Philosophy of Mysticism</cite>, vol. ii. ch. i.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_202_202" id="Footnote_202_202"></a><a href="#FNanchor_202_202"><span class="label">[202]</span></a> This delay is worth mentioning, for it is conceivable that, in the case
-of a weak recollection, transference to the subconscious sphere of sleep
-might involve a temporary disappearance from the conscious waking
-sphere.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_203_203" id="Footnote_203_203"></a><a href="#FNanchor_203_203"><span class="label">[203]</span></a> There is a possible interest in the exact length of the interval. Swoboda
-(<cite>Die Perioden des Menschlichen Organismus in ihrer psychologischen
-und biologischen Bedeutung</cite>, 1904) believes that the recurrence of memories
-tends to obey a law of periodicity, so that, for instance, a melody heard
-at a concert may recur at a regular interval. I cannot say that I have
-myself found evidence of such periodicity, though I have made several
-observations on the recurrence of such memories.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_204_204" id="Footnote_204_204"></a><a href="#FNanchor_204_204"><span class="label">[204]</span></a> Similarly, Foucault (<cite>Le R&ecirc;ve</cite>, p. 79) records the dream of a lady concerning
-a place called Br&eacute;tigny, near Dijon, though when awake she was
-not aware there is such a place there. Elsewhere (p. 214) Foucault also
-gives examples of sensations, not consciously perceived in the waking
-state, but revived in dream. Beaunis, in his interesting 'Contribution
-&agrave; la Psychologie du R&ecirc;ve' (<cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>, July-Oct.
-1903) narrates a dream of his own in which a forgotten or unconscious
-memory revived. Many such dreams could easily be brought together.
-An often-quoted dream, apparently of this kind (see <em>e.g.</em>, <cite>British Medical
-Journal</cite>, 7th April 1900, p. 850), is that of Archbishop Benson who, like
-his predecessor, Laud, took an interest in his dreams. He dreamed that
-he was suffering severely in his chest, and that his doctor, on being called
-in, told him that he had angĭna pectoris. The archbishop in his dream
-exclaimed with indignation: 'Angǐna, angǐna!' The dream made
-such an impression on him that he looked the matter up, but only found
-the ordinary pronunciation, angīna, recorded. A week later he was at
-Cambridge, dining in hall at Trinity, and seated next to Munro, the Professor
-of Latin, who happened to ask him about the death of Thomas
-Arnold. 'He died of angĭna pectoris,' said Benson. Munro smiled grimly
-and said softly: 'Of angǐna, as we now call it.' There can be no doubt
-that Benson, who was closely in touch with the academic world, had met
-with this correction, which is accepted by all modern Latinists, and
-'forgotten' it.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_205_205" id="Footnote_205_205"></a><a href="#FNanchor_205_205"><span class="label">[205]</span></a> Xenoglossia, as well as the tendency to utter gibberish, are both
-classed under glossolalia. See <em>e.g.</em> E. Lombard, 'Phenom&egrave;nes de Glossolalie,'
-<cite>Archives de Psychologie</cite>, July 1907.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_206_206" id="Footnote_206_206"></a><a href="#FNanchor_206_206"><span class="label">[206]</span></a> In the eighteenth century Lord Monboddo (<cite>Ancient Metaphysics</cite>,
-vol. iii., 1782, p. 217) referred to a Countess of Laval who, during the
-delirium of illness, spoke the Breton tongue which she had known as a
-child, but long since forgotten.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_207_207" id="Footnote_207_207"></a><a href="#FNanchor_207_207"><span class="label">[207]</span></a> In a somewhat similar manner the muscular contractions of the
-hysterical may disappear during sleep, as may their paralyses and their
-anaesthesias, as well as their losses of memory. (These phenomena have
-been especially observed and studied by Raymond and Janet, <cite>N&eacute;vroses
-et Id&eacute;es Fixes</cite>, vol. ii.) Such characteristics of the sleep of the hysterical
-may well be a manifestation of the same tendency which in the sleep of
-normal people leads to hypermnesia. In this connection reference may
-be made to the interesting opposition between attention and memory
-developed by Dr. Marie de Manac&eacute;&iuml;ne ('De l'antagonisme qui existe entre
-chaque effort de l'attention et des innervations motrices,' <cite>Atti dell' XI.
-Congresso Internazionale Medico</cite>, 1894, Rome, vol. ii., 'Fisiologia,' p. 48).
-Concentrated attention, she argues, paralyses memory, and there is an
-absolute antagonism between motor innervation, or real movement,
-which favours memory, and the concentrated effort which favours attention.
-'In psychological researches we must always separate the phenomena
-of memory from the phenomena of attention, for memory is only
-possible through muscular movement, and attention, on the contrary, is
-only active through the suppression of movement.' In sleep, it is true,
-there may be no actual movement, but there is relaxation of muscular
-tension and freedom of motor ideas. It should be added that not all
-investigators confirm Manac&eacute;&iuml;ne's conclusion as to the antagonism between
-the conditions for memory and attention. Thus R. MacDougall ('The
-Physical Characteristics of Attention,' <cite>Psychological Review</cite>, March 1895),
-while finding that muscular relaxation accompanies the recall of memories,
-finds also, though not so markedly and constantly, a similar relaxation
-accompanying both voluntary and spontaneous attention.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_208_208" id="Footnote_208_208"></a><a href="#FNanchor_208_208"><span class="label">[208]</span></a> The term 'paramnesia' was devised by Kraepelin, who wrote the
-first comprehensive study of the subject, though he offered no explanatory
-theory of it ('Ueber Erinnerungsf&auml;lschungen,' <cite>Archiv f&uuml;r Psychiatrie</cite>,
-Bd. xvii. and xviii.). A very clear and comprehensive account of the
-subject, up to the date of the article, was given by W. H. Burnham
-('Paramnesia,' <cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>, May 1889). In the
-following pages, together with much new matter, I have made use of my
-paper entitled 'A Note on Hypnagogic Paramnesia,' published in <cite>Mind</cite>,
-vol. vi. No. 22, in 1896.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_209_209" id="Footnote_209_209"></a><a href="#FNanchor_209_209"><span class="label">[209]</span></a> It has long been recognised by psychologists that paramnesia occurs
-in dreams. Thus Burnham refers to it as frequent, and Kraepelin mentions
-that he once dreamed of smoking a cigar for the fourth or fifth time,
-though he had never smoked in his life.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_210_210" id="Footnote_210_210"></a><a name="FNanchor_210a_210a" id="FNanchor_210a_210a"></a><a href="#FNanchor_210_210"><span class="label">[210]</span></a> In <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'alcholic'">alcoholic</ins> insanity, for instance, especially when it leads to the
-occurrence of Korsakoff's syndrome, there is a notable degree of mental
-weakness with a tendency to form false memories, both in the form of
-confabulation (or the filling by imagination of lacunae in memory) and
-pseudo-reminiscence. (See <em>e.g.</em> John Turner, 'Alcoholic Insanity,' <cite>Journal
-of Mental Science</cite>, Jan. 1910, p. 41.)</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_211_211" id="Footnote_211_211"></a><a href="#FNanchor_211_211"><span class="label">[211]</span></a> Dr. Marie de Manac&eacute;&iuml;ne, who has studied the phenomena of the
-hypnagogic state experimentally in much detail (<cite>Sleep</cite>, pp. 195-220), finds
-that in its deepest stage it is marked by echolalia, or the tendency to repeat
-automatically what is said, and in a less deep stage by abnormal suggestibility
-or the tendency to accept ideas and especially emotions. She
-considers that the hypnagogic state becomes abnormal when it lasts for
-more than fifteen seconds. It may last for more than six minutes, and
-is then of serious import. She shows reason to believe that the hypnagogic
-state is substantially identical with the hypnotic state, and she
-regards it as probably due to cerebral anaemia. She finds it especially
-marked in children under fifteen, the more so if they belong to the working-class,
-and rather common among adolescent girls and young women,
-especially if anaemic, but among adults rarer in women than in men, becoming
-more frequent in both sexes with old age; the phlegmatic are more
-liable to it than the sanguine or the nervous.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_212_212" id="Footnote_212_212"></a><a href="#FNanchor_212_212"><span class="label">[212]</span></a> Sully, <cite>The Human Mind</cite>, vol. ii. p. 317. Foucault (<cite>Le R&ecirc;ve</cite>, p. 300),
-briefly notes that he has often had the illusion of seeming to remember
-a fact which does not exist, and of recollecting a person he has never
-seen.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_213_213" id="Footnote_213_213"></a><a href="#FNanchor_213_213"><span class="label">[213]</span></a> F. W. Colegrove, 'Individual Memories,' <cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>,
-Jan. 1899.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_214_214" id="Footnote_214_214"></a><a href="#FNanchor_214_214"><span class="label">[214]</span></a> See <em>e.g.</em> for such cases in sane persons, Hack Tuke, 'Hallucinations,'
-<cite>Brain</cite>, vol. xi., 1889. A man with chronic systematised delusions writes:
-'I am obsessed at nights; that is, I am made the recipient of projected
-thoughts which become translated into dreams, and on several occasions
-I have found, just after waking, and while still in a very passive state,
-that some one was speaking to me in the ear.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_215_215" id="Footnote_215_215"></a><a href="#FNanchor_215_215"><span class="label">[215]</span></a> Hughlings Jackson (<cite>Practitioner</cite>, May 1874, also <cite>Brain</cite>, July 1888, and
-<cite>Brain</cite>, 1899, p. 534) applied this term to the intellectual aura preceding
-an epileptic attack and considered that 'pseudo-reminiscence' itself might
-indicate a slight epileptic paroxysm in persons who show other symptoms
-of epilepsy. Gowers also (<cite>Epilepsy</cite>, 2nd ed., p. 133) considers 'dreamy
-state' to be closely associated with minor attacks of epilepsy; and
-Crichton-Browne (<cite>Dreamy Mental States</cite>) holds the same view. It should
-be added that 'dreamy state' by no means necessarily involves pseudo-reminiscence;
-see <em>e.g.</em> S. Taylor, 'A Case of Dreamy State,' <cite>Lancet</cite>, 9th Aug.
-1890, p. 276, and W. A. Turner, 'The Problem of Epilepsy,' <cite>British Medical
-Journal</cite>, 2nd April 1910, p. 805. Leroy found that pseudo-reminiscence
-is usually rare in association with epilepsy.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_216_216" id="Footnote_216_216"></a><a href="#FNanchor_216_216"><span class="label">[216]</span></a> 'The feeling of pre-existence,' writes Dr. J. G. Kiernan in a private
-letter, 'frequently occurs as a consequence of delusions of memory in
-epilepsy. The case on which George Sand built her story of <cite>Consuelo</cite>
-was one reported of an epileptic who during the epileptic states had delusions
-of living in a distant historic past of which he retained the memory
-as facts during the normal state. I know of two epileptic theosophists
-who base their belief in transmigration on the memories of their epileptic
-period. In my judgment a large part of Swedenborg's visions were
-instances of delusions of memory.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_217_217" id="Footnote_217_217"></a><a href="#FNanchor_217_217"><span class="label">[217]</span></a> Professor Grasset ('La Sensation du "D&eacute;j&agrave; Vu,"' <cite>Journal de Psychologie
-Normale et Pathologique</cite>, Nov.-Feb. 1904) considers that a feeling
-of anguish is the characteristic accompaniment of a true paramnesic
-manifestation. This statement is too pronounced. There is usually some
-emotional disturbance, but its degree depends on the temperament of the
-person experiencing the phenomenon. Sometimes the sensation of pseudo-reminiscence
-may be accompanied, as a medical man subject to epilepsy
-(mentioned by Hughlings Jackson) found in his own case, by 'a slight sense
-of satisfaction,' as in the finding of something that had been sought for.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_218_218" id="Footnote_218_218"></a><a href="#FNanchor_218_218"><span class="label">[218]</span></a> <cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>, November 1893.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_219_219" id="Footnote_219_219"></a><a href="#FNanchor_219_219"><span class="label">[219]</span></a> <cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>, January 1894.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_220_220" id="Footnote_220_220"></a><a href="#FNanchor_220_220"><span class="label">[220]</span></a> Heymans found that students liable to paramnesia tended to possess
-an aptitude for languages and an inaptitude for mathematics.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_221_221" id="Footnote_221_221"></a><a href="#FNanchor_221_221"><span class="label">[221]</span></a> Paul Bourget, the novelist, in an interesting letter published by
-Grasset (<cite>loc. cit.</cite>) states that this experience has been habitual with him
-from as long back as he can remember, occurring in regard to things
-heard or felt more than to things seen, and accompanied by an emotional
-trouble similar to that experienced in dreams of dead friends who appear
-as living, though even in his dreams the dreamer knows that they are dead.
-Bourget adds that he is of emotional temperament, and that the phenomenon
-was more pronounced in childhood than it is now.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_222_222" id="Footnote_222_222"></a><a href="#FNanchor_222_222"><span class="label">[222]</span></a> Paul Lapie, <cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>, March 1894; Charles <cite>M&eacute;r&eacute;, Mercure
-de France</cite>, July 1903; Sully, Tannery, and Buccola also considered that
-this is a factor in the explanation of the phenomenon. Freud (<cite>Zur Psychopathologie
-des Alltagsleben</cite>, 1907, p. 122) brings forward a modification
-of this theory, and believes that false recognition is a reminiscence of
-unconscious day-dreams.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_223_223" id="Footnote_223_223"></a><a href="#FNanchor_223_223"><span class="label">[223]</span></a> For a minute and searching criticism of the theory of the duplex brain,
-see especially four articles by Bonne in the <cite>Archives de Neurologie</cite>, March-June
-1907.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_224_224" id="Footnote_224_224"></a><a href="#FNanchor_224_224"><span class="label">[224]</span></a> 'Epilepsy' wrote Binns long ago (<cite>Anatomy of Sleep</cite>, 1845, p. 431), 'is a
-disease which in some of its symptoms strongly resembles abnormal sleep.'
-The conditions under which a paramnesic manifestation may really replace
-an epileptic fit are well described by a literary man with hereditary epilepsy
-whose case has been recorded by Haskovec of Prague (<cite>XIIIe. Congr&egrave;s
-International de M&eacute;decine: Comptes Rendus</cite>, vol. viii., 'Psychiatrie'
-p. 125): 'One day at the theatre, under the influence of the heat and
-perhaps the music, I experienced extreme excitement and fatigue. I
-thought I was about to have an attack, and resisted with all my strength,
-and it failed to take place. But I found myself in a strange psychic state.
-On leaving the theatre I seemed to be dreaming. I saw and heard
-everything and talked as usual. But everything seemed strange. Nothing
-seemed to reach directly <em>me</em> or to be a real impression, but merely
-the automatic reproduction of something learnt, only I felt that I had
-lived it all before and felt it; at that moment I simply seemed to be
-observing it.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_225_225" id="Footnote_225_225"></a><a href="#FNanchor_225_225"><span class="label">[225]</span></a> <cite>Centralblatt f&uuml;r Nervenheilkunde</cite>, April 1886. In some forms of insanity
-the false recognition of a person may become a fixed delusion.
-This question has been studied by Alb&egrave;s in his Paris thesis, <cite>De I'Illusion
-de Fausse Reconnaissance</cite>, 1906.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_226_226" id="Footnote_226_226"></a><a href="#FNanchor_226_226"><span class="label">[226]</span></a> E. Maitland, <cite>Anna Kingsford</cite>, vol. i. p. 3. Lalande (<cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>,
-November 1893, p. 487) gives a precisely similar case in a
-child.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_227_227" id="Footnote_227_227"></a><a href="#FNanchor_227_227"><span class="label">[227]</span></a> As quoted by Jastrow, <cite>The Subconscious</cite>, p. 248.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_228_228" id="Footnote_228_228"></a><a href="#FNanchor_228_228"><span class="label">[228]</span></a> Leroy, <cite>Etude sur l'Illusion de Fausse Reconnaissance</cite>, 1898, with
-forty-nine new observations. Leroy states, however (in declared opposition
-to my view), that only a minority of his cases actually mention fatigue.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_229_229" id="Footnote_229_229"></a><a href="#FNanchor_229_229"><span class="label">[229]</span></a> Heymans, 'Eine Enqu&ecirc;te &uuml;ber Depersonnalisation und Fausse Reconnaissance,'
-<cite>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Psychologie und Physiologie der Sinnesorgane</cite>,
-November, 1903; also a further paper in the same journal confirming his
-conclusions, January 1906.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_230_230" id="Footnote_230_230"></a><a href="#FNanchor_230_230"><span class="label">[230]</span></a> F&eacute;r&eacute;, 'Deuxi&egrave;me Note sur la Fausse Reconnaissance,' <cite>Journal de
-Neurologie</cite>, 1905.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_231_231" id="Footnote_231_231"></a><a href="#FNanchor_231_231"><span class="label">[231]</span></a> Dromard et Alb&egrave;s, 'L'Illusion dit de Fausse Reconnaissance,' <cite>Journal
-de Psychologie Normale et Pathologique</cite>, May-June 1905.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_232_232" id="Footnote_232_232"></a><a href="#FNanchor_232_232"><span class="label">[232]</span></a> Dugas, 'Observations sur des Erreurs "Formelles" de la M&eacute;moire,'
-<cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>, July 1908.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_233_233" id="Footnote_233_233"></a><a href="#FNanchor_233_233"><span class="label">[233]</span></a> A friend, liable to this form of paramnesia, wrote to me after the publication
-of my first paper on the subject: 'I find, as you foretold, that it
-is difficult to recall an experience of this kind in all its details. I feel sure,
-however, that it is not necessarily allied with an enfeebled or overwrought
-nervous system. It was commonest with me in my youth, at a time when
-my life was a pleasant one, and my brain not fagged as now. I still
-[aged 43] have it occasionally, but not so frequently as twenty years ago.'
-It may be added that my friend, of Highland family, was a man of keen
-and emotional nervous temperament, a strenuous mental worker&mdash;whence
-at one time a serious breakdown in health&mdash;and had published two volumes
-of poems in early life. The greater liability to paramnesia in early life,
-which is generally recognised, is comparable to the special liability of
-children to hypnagogic visions, both phenomena being probably due to
-the greater excitability and easier exhaustibility of the youthful brain.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_234_234" id="Footnote_234_234"></a><a href="#FNanchor_234_234"><span class="label">[234]</span></a> For instance, by Allin, 'Recognition,' <cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>,
-January 1896.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_235_235" id="Footnote_235_235"></a><a href="#FNanchor_235_235"><span class="label">[235]</span></a> The explanation of paramnesia here set forth received on its first
-publication the approval of L&eacute;on Marillier, who considered it 'ingenious
-and seductive,' and as adequately accounting for the phenomena, provided
-we bear in mind that the loss of a clear feeling of time is characteristic of
-hypnagogic and allied states, the perception of each moment being immediately
-transferred into an ancient memory, and consequently recognised
-(<cite>L'Ann&eacute;e Biologique</cite>, third year, 1897, p. 772). This necessity for
-taking into account the co-existence of perception and illusory remembrance
-has largely moulded several of the theories of paramnesia. Thus
-Jean de Pury (<cite>Archives de Psychologie</cite>, December 1902), while affirming
-that pseudo-reminiscence is due to an <em>anteriorisation</em> of actual perceptions,
-regards it as of the nature of a double refraction such as that simultaneously
-produced on two faces of a prism by the same image; under the influence
-of conditions he is unable to define, an image appears for the moment
-on the plane both of the past and of the present, and psychically we see
-double just as physically we see double when the parallelism of our visual
-rays is disturbed. Pi&eacute;ron, again, taking up a theory at one time favoured
-by Dugas, and previously suggested in one form or another by Ribot and
-Fouill&eacute;e, assumes the formation of two images: one which, owing to
-distraction or fatigue, reaches consciousness after having traversed subconsciousness,
-and so takes on a dream-like and effaced character, and
-almost simultaneously with this a direct perception which has not thus
-changed its character; the shock of the conflict between these two produces
-the pseudo-reminiscence ('Sur l'Interpretation des Faits de Paramn&eacute;sie,'
-<cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>, August 1902). Alb&egrave;s, in his Paris thesis,
-criticises this explanation, pointing out that a sequence of this kind very
-frequently occurs, but produces no pseudo-reminiscence.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_236_236" id="Footnote_236_236"></a><a href="#FNanchor_236_236"><span class="label">[236]</span></a> Michel L&eacute;on-Kindberg, 'Le Sentiment du D&eacute;j&agrave; Vu,' <cite>Revue de Psychiatrie</cite>,
-April 1903, No. 4.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_237_237" id="Footnote_237_237"></a><a href="#FNanchor_237_237"><span class="label">[237]</span></a> G. Ballet, 'Un Cas de Fausse Reconnaissance,' <cite>Revue Neurologique</cite>,
-1904, p. 1221.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_238_238" id="Footnote_238_238"></a><a href="#FNanchor_238_238"><span class="label">[238]</span></a> Dugas, 'Observations sur des Erreurs "Formelles" de la M&eacute;moire',
-<cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>, July 1908; <em>ib.</em> June 1910. Dugas makes no reference
-to Janet, nor to my paper on Hypnagogic Paramnesia, but his statement
-of the matter to some extent combines and harmonises those of the two
-earlier writers.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_239_239" id="Footnote_239_239"></a><a href="#FNanchor_239_239"><span class="label">[239]</span></a> P. Janet, 'A Propos du D&eacute;j&agrave; Vu,' <cite>Journal de Psychologie Normale et
-Pathologique</cite>, July-August 1905.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_240_240" id="Footnote_240_240"></a><a href="#FNanchor_240_240"><span class="label">[240]</span></a> H. Bergson, 'Le Souvenir du Pr&eacute;sent et la Fausse Reconnaissance,'
-<cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>, December 1908. It should be remarked that, except
-in the attempt to explain why paramnesia is not normally habitual,
-Bergson's paper is based on the ideas or suggestions of previous writers.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_241_241" id="Footnote_241_241"></a><a href="#FNanchor_241_241"><span class="label">[241]</span></a> Before the appearance of my paper, as already mentioned, Anjel had
-emphasised the significance of fatigue in the production of paramnesia
-(<cite>Archiv f&uuml;r Psychiatrie</cite>, Bd. viii. pp. 57 <em>et seq.</em>). His theory, indeed (only
-known to me through brief summaries)&mdash;according to which the pseudo-reminiscence
-is due to the tardy apprehension by the fatigued mind of
-a sensation which is thus degraded to the level of a reproduced impression&mdash;seems
-practically identical with that which I independently reached
-in the light of hypnagogic phenomena.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_242_242" id="Footnote_242_242"></a><a href="#FNanchor_242_242"><span class="label">[242]</span></a> I disregard those theories which invoke histological explanations, as
-by some peculiar disposition of the neurons. Such explanations are as
-much outside the psychologist's sphere as the old-fashioned explanations
-by reference to God and the Devil. A known physiological or pathological
-process may, indeed, quite properly be recognised by the psychologist;
-such, for instance, as the disturbance of the heart associated with
-some dreams. Even minute changes in the brain, when they have been
-properly determined by the histologist, may be effectively invoked by the
-psychologist if they seem to supply an exact physical correlative to his
-own findings. But for the psychologist to go outside his own field, and
-invent a purely fanciful and arbitrary neuronic scheme to suit a psychic
-process, explains nothing. It is merely child's play. The stuff that the
-psychologist works with must be psychical, just as the stuff of the physicist's
-work must be physical.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_243_243" id="Footnote_243_243"></a><a href="#FNanchor_243_243"><span class="label">[243]</span></a> Certain phases of waking psychic life are, however, closely related to
-dreaming. This is obviously the case as regards day-dreaming or reverie.
-(See <em>e.g.</em> Janet, <cite>N&eacute;vroses et Id&eacute;es Fixes</cite>, vol. i. pp. 390-6.) It would also
-appear that wit is the result of a process analogous to that fusion of incompatible
-elements which we have found to prevail in dreams. Our
-dreams are sometimes full of usually ineffective wit; I could easily quote
-dreams in illustration. (Freud has, from his point of view, studied the
-analogy between wit and dreaming in <cite>Der Witz und seine Beziehung zum
-Unbewussten</cite>.)</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_244_244" id="Footnote_244_244"></a><a href="#FNanchor_244_244"><span class="label">[244]</span></a> In more recent times Moreau of Tours, especially, argued (<cite>Du Haschich
-et de l'Ali&eacute;nation Mentale</cite>, 1845) that <em>haschisch</em>-intoxication is insanity, and
-that insanity is a waking dream.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_245_245" id="Footnote_245_245"></a><a href="#FNanchor_245_245"><span class="label">[245]</span></a> In insane subjects a dream not uncommonly forms the starting point
-of a delusion, and many illustrative examples could be brought forward.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_246_246" id="Footnote_246_246"></a><a href="#FNanchor_246_246"><span class="label">[246]</span></a> Marro, <cite>La Pubert&agrave;</cite>, pp. 286-92.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_247_247" id="Footnote_247_247"></a><a href="#FNanchor_247_247"><span class="label">[247]</span></a> Freud, <cite>Die Traumdeutung</cite>, p. 13. Elsewhere (p. 135) Freud remarks:
-'The deeper we go in the analysis of dreams the more frequently we come
-across traces of childish experience which form a latent source of dreams.'
-The same point had been previously emphasised by Sully, 'The Dream
-as a Revelation,' <cite>Fortnightly Review</cite>, March 1893.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_248_248" id="Footnote_248_248"></a><a href="#FNanchor_248_248"><span class="label">[248]</span></a> C. M. Giessler, <cite>Die Physiologischen Beziehungen der Traumvorg&auml;nge</cite>,
-ch. iv.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_249_249" id="Footnote_249_249"></a><a href="#FNanchor_249_249"><span class="label">[249]</span></a> Jewell, who gives illustrations in evidence, concludes (<cite>American
-Journal of Psychology</cite>, January 1905, pp. 25-8) that 'the confusion of
-dreams with real life is almost universal with children, and quite common
-among adolescents and adults.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_250_250" id="Footnote_250_250"></a><a href="#FNanchor_250_250"><span class="label">[250]</span></a> Hans Gross, the distinguished criminologist, refers (<cite>Kriminalpsychologie</cite>,
-p. 672) to two cases of children who brought criminal charges which
-were apparently based on dreams. Gross mentions that this may often
-be suspected when the child says nothing at the time, and shows no excitement
-or depression until a day or two after the date of the alleged event.
-For confusion of dream with reality, see also Gross, <cite>Gesammelte Kriminalistische
-Aufs&auml;tze</cite>, vol. ii. p. 174.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_251_251" id="Footnote_251_251"></a><a href="#FNanchor_251_251"><span class="label">[251]</span></a> Thus Rachilde (Mme. Vallette) writes that as a young girl her dreams
-were so vivid that 'I would often ask myself if I had not an existence
-in two forms: my waking personality and my dreaming personality.
-Sometimes I was deceived and imagined that my real life was dreams.'
-She instinctively began to write at the age of twelve, and it was by completing
-her dreams that she became a novelist (Chabaneix, <cite>Le Subconscient</cite>,
-p. 49). George Sand's early day-dreams, of which she gives so
-interesting an account (<cite>Histoire de ma Vie</cite>, part III. ch. viii), developed
-around the central figure of Coramb&eacute;, first seen in a real dream.
-Coramb&eacute; was, at the same time, a divine being, to whom she erected an
-altar. So that of the child it may be said, as Lucretius said of primitive
-man, that the gods first appear in dreams.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_252_252" id="Footnote_252_252"></a><a href="#FNanchor_252_252"><span class="label">[252]</span></a> 'In sleep,' says Sully (<cite>Fortnightly Review</cite>, March 1893), 'we have a
-reversion to a more primitive type of experience.' 'Dreaming,' says
-Jastrow (<cite>The Subconscious</cite>, p. 219), 'may be viewed as a reversion to a
-more primitive type of thought.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_253_253" id="Footnote_253_253"></a><a href="#FNanchor_253_253"><span class="label">[253]</span></a> This tendency is notably represented by Durkheim ('Origines de la
-Pens&eacute;e Religieuse,' <cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>, January 1909) and Crawley
-(<cite>The Idea of the Soul</cite>, 1909).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_254_254" id="Footnote_254_254"></a><a href="#FNanchor_254_254"><span class="label">[254]</span></a> Hill Tout, <cite>Journal</cite>, Anthropological Institute, January-June 1905,
-p. 143; Sidney Hartland, in his presidential address to the Anthropological
-Section of the British Association, in 1906, emphasised the significance
-of dreams in Shamanism, and Sir Everard im Thurn, in his <cite>Among
-the Indians of Guiana</cite>, shows how practically real are dreams to the savage
-mind.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_255_255" id="Footnote_255_255"></a><a href="#FNanchor_255_255"><span class="label">[255]</span></a> See, <em>e.g</em>., as regards the American Indians, Thornton Parker in the
-<cite>Open Court</cite>, May 1901.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_256_256" id="Footnote_256_256"></a><a href="#FNanchor_256_256"><span class="label">[256]</span></a> <cite>Leviathan</cite>, part I. ch. ii.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_257_257" id="Footnote_257_257"></a><a href="#FNanchor_257_257"><span class="label">[257]</span></a> Laistner, <cite>Das R&auml;tsel der Sphinx</cite>, 1889, vol. 1. p. xiii. While Laistner
-was chiefly concerned with the exploration of the religious myths, he
-pointed out that epics and fairy-tales (Amor and Psyche, the stories of the
-Nibelung and Baldur, etc.) may be similarly explained. It seems probable
-that his investigations received a stimulus in the earlier experiments
-of J. Boerner (<cite>Das Alpdr&uuml;cken</cite>, 1855) on the production of nightmare.
-Laistner has had many followers, notable C. Ruths (<cite>Experimental-Untersuchungen
-&uuml;ber Musikphantome</cite>, 1898), who argues (pp. 415-46) that the
-old Greek myths had their chief root in dream phenomena, in delirium,
-and in the visions aroused in some persons by hearing music, while he
-considers that many fabulous monsters and dragons have arisen from the
-combinations seen in dreams. We know that the Greeks, who were such
-great myth-makers, much occupied themselves in lying in wait for dreams,
-and in oneiromancy and necromancy (<em>e.g.</em>, Bouch&eacute;-Leclercq, <cite>Histoire de la
-Divination dans l'Antiquit&eacute;</cite>, vol. 1. Bk. ii. ch. i. pp. 277-329). In this way
-alone it is doubtless true that, as Jewell says, 'dreams have had a great
-effect upon the history of the world.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_258_258" id="Footnote_258_258"></a><a href="#FNanchor_258_258"><span class="label">[258]</span></a> For evidence regarding the high esteem in which many of the greatest
-Greek and Latin Fathers held dreams as divine revelations, see <em>e.g.</em>, Sully,
-Art. 'Dreams,' <cite>Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica</cite>.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_259_259" id="Footnote_259_259"></a><a href="#FNanchor_259_259"><span class="label">[259]</span></a> There is still a natural tendency in the uninstructed mind to identify
-spontaneous visual phenomena with Heaven. 'When I gets to bed,' said
-an aged and superannuated dustman to Vanderkiste (<cite>The Dens of London</cite>,
-p. 14), 'I says my prayers, and I puts my hands afore my eyes&mdash;so [covering
-his face with his hands]; well, I sees such beautiful things, sparkles
-like, all afloating about, and I wished to ax yer, sir, if that ain't a something
-of Heaven, sir.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_260_260" id="Footnote_260_260"></a><a href="#FNanchor_260_260"><span class="label">[260]</span></a> This was the only traceable element in the dream. The dreamer
-was accustomed to look at her watch on awaking in the morning, and, if
-it was seven or later, not to go to sleep again.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_261_261" id="Footnote_261_261"></a><a href="#FNanchor_261_261"><span class="label">[261]</span></a> Freud, 'Der Dichter und das Phantasieren' (1908), in second series
-of his <cite>Sammlung Kleiner Schriften zur Neurosenlehre;</cite> K. Abraham,
-<cite>Traum und Mythus</cite> (1909); and O. Rank, <cite>Der Mythus von der Geburt des
-Helden</cite> (1909), both published in the <cite>Schriften zur angewandten Seelenkunde</cite>,
-edited by Freud.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_262_262" id="Footnote_262_262"></a><a href="#FNanchor_262_262"><span class="label">[262]</span></a> Synesius refers to conversations with sheep in dreams, and he was
-probably the first to suggest that such dream phenomena may be the
-origin of fables in which animals speak. The dog and the cat, as we
-should expect, seem most frequently to speak in the dreams of civilised
-people. Thus I dreamed that I had a conversation with a cat who spoke
-with fair clearness and sense, though the whole of her sentences were not
-intelligible. I was not surprised at this relative lack of intelligibility, but
-neither was I surprised at her speaking at all. I have also encountered
-a talking parrot whose speech was more relevant than that of most talking
-parrots; this somewhat surprised me. In legends a wider range of
-animals are able to speak, no doubt because the primitive legend-makers
-were familiar with a wider range of animal life. How natural it is to the
-uninstructed mind to treat animals like human beings is well shown by
-the experiences of Helen Keller, the blind deaf-mute, who writes (<cite>The
-World I Live in</cite>, p. 147): 'After my education began, the world which
-came within my reach was all alive.... It was two years before I could
-be made to believe that my dogs did not understand what I said, and I
-always apologised to them when I ran into or stepped on them.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_263_263" id="Footnote_263_263"></a><a href="#FNanchor_263_263"><span class="label">[263]</span></a> <cite>Journal of Mental Science</cite>, January 1909, p. 16.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_264_264" id="Footnote_264_264"></a><a href="#FNanchor_264_264"><span class="label">[264]</span></a> 'Images and thoughts,' he said, 'possess a power in and of themselves
-independent of that act of the judgment or understanding by which we
-affirm or deny the existence of a reality correspondent to them. Such is
-the ordinary state of the mind in dreams.... Add to this a voluntary
-lending of the will to this suspension of one of its own operations, and
-you have the true theory of stage illusion.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_265_265" id="Footnote_265_265"></a><a href="#FNanchor_265_265"><span class="label">[265]</span></a> Quoted by Paul Delior, <cite>Remy de Gourmont et son Œuvre</cite>, p. 14.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_266_266" id="Footnote_266_266"></a><a href="#FNanchor_266_266"><span class="label">[266]</span></a> Thus even Leonardo da Vinci (Solmi, <cite>Frammenti</cite>, p. 285) acknowledged
-the benefit which he had gained by gazing at clouds or at mud-bespattered
-walls; and recommended the practice to other artists, for
-thereby, he says, they will receive suggestions for landscapes, battlepieces,
-'and infinite things,' which they may bring to perfection. He
-compared this to the possibility of hearing words in the sounds of bells.
-Some other distinguished artists have adopted somewhat similar practices
-which are fundamentally the child's habit of seeing pictures in the fire.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_267_267" id="Footnote_267_267"></a><a href="#FNanchor_267_267"><span class="label">[267]</span></a> Thus Tennyson (<cite>Memoir</cite>, by his son, vol. i. p. 320) was subject from
-boyhood to a kind of waking trance. 'This has generally come upon
-me,' he wrote, 'through repeating my own name two or three times to
-myself silently.' (It thus seems to have been a sort of auto-hypnotisation.)
-In this state, individuality seemed to dissolve, he said, and he found in
-it a proof that the extinction of personality by death would not involve loss
-of life, but rather a fuller life. We are so easily convinced in these matters!</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_268_268" id="Footnote_268_268"></a><a href="#FNanchor_268_268"><span class="label">[268]</span></a> See <em>e.g.</em>, De Manac&eacute;&iuml;ne, <cite>Sleep</cite>, p. 314; Arturo Morselli, 'Dei Sogni nei
-Genii,' <cite>La Cultura</cite>, 1899.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_269_269" id="Footnote_269_269"></a><a href="#FNanchor_269_269"><span class="label">[269]</span></a> Thus I once planned in a dream a paper on the Progress of Psychology,
-which seemed to me on awakening to present a quite workable though
-not notably brilliant scheme.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_270_270" id="Footnote_270_270"></a><a href="#FNanchor_270_270"><span class="label">[270]</span></a> Sante de Sanctis, however (<cite>I Sogni</cite>, p. 369), reproduces a dream poem
-of twelve lines.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_271_271" id="Footnote_271_271"></a><a href="#FNanchor_271_271"><span class="label">[271]</span></a> See note in J. D. Campbell's edition of Coleridge's <cite>Poetical Works</cite>, p. 592.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_272_272" id="Footnote_272_272"></a><a href="#FNanchor_272_272"><span class="label">[272]</span></a> Tartini composed the sonata&mdash;a noble and beautiful work which
-still survives&mdash;at the age of twenty-one. In old age he told Lalande
-the astronomer (as the latter relates in his <cite>Voyage d'un Fran&ccedil;ais en
-Italie</cite>, 1765, vol. ix. p. 55) that he had had a dream in which he sold his
-soul to the Devil, and it occurred to him in his dream to hand his fiddle
-to the Devil to see what he could do with it. 'But how great was
-my astonishment when I heard him play with consummate skill a
-sonata of such exquisite beauty as surpassed the boldest flights of my
-imagination. I felt enraptured, transported, enchanted; my breath
-was taken away, and I awoke. Seizing my violin I tried to retain the
-sounds I had heard. But it was in vain. The piece I then composed,
-the "Devil's Sonata," was the best I ever wrote, but how far below the one
-I had heard in my dream!' The dream, it will be seen, was of a fairly
-common type, and to Tartini's excitable temperament it served as a
-stimulus to his finest energies. But the real 'Devil's Sonata' was hopelessly
-lost. (See the articles on Tartini in Fetis, <cite>Biographic Universelle
-des Musiciens</cite>, and Grove's <cite>Dictionary of Music and Musicians</cite>.)</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_273_273" id="Footnote_273_273"></a><a href="#FNanchor_273_273"><span class="label">[273]</span></a> Helen Keller, the blind deaf-mute, has written some interesting
-chapters on her dreams in <cite>The World I Live in</cite>. For the most part it
-would seem that the dream life of the blind (which has been studied
-by, among others, Jastrow, <cite>Fact and Fable in Psychology</cite>, pp. 337 <em>et seq.</em>)
-is not usually rich or vivid.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_274_274" id="Footnote_274_274"></a><a href="#FNanchor_274_274"><span class="label">[274]</span></a> See <em>e.g.</em>, Marie de Manac&eacute;&iuml;ne, <cite>Sleep</cite>, p. 313.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_275_275" id="Footnote_275_275"></a><a href="#FNanchor_275_275"><span class="label">[275]</span></a> This aspect of dreaming has been set forth by Bergson (<cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>,
-December 1908, p. 574). 'The dream state,' he remarks, 'is
-the substratum of our normal state. Nothing is added in waking life; on
-the contrary, waking life is obtained by the limitation, concentration, and
-tension of that diffuse psychological life which is the life of dreaming.
-The perception and the memory which we find in dreaming are, in a sense,
-more natural than those of waking life: consciousness is then amused
-in perceiving for the sake of perceiving, and in remembering for the sake
-of remembering, without care for life, that is to say for the accomplishment
-of actions. To be awake is to eliminate, to choose, to concentrate the
-totality of the diffused life of dreaming to a point, to a practical problem.
-To be awake is to will; cease to will, detach yourself from life, become
-disinterested: in so doing you pass from the waking ego to the dreaming
-ego, which is less <em>tense</em>, but more <em>extended</em> than the other.'</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a name="Footnote_276_276" id="Footnote_276_276"></a><a href="#FNanchor_276_276"><span class="label">[276]</span></a> Pepys, <cite>Diary</cite>, 2nd April 1664.</p></div></div>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-
-<div class="transnote">
-<p class="p5">Transcriber notes:</p>
-
-<p>P. <a href="#Page_189">189</a>. 'given him posion', changed 'posion' to 'poison'.<br />
-P. <a href="#Page_203">203</a>. Added footnote [<a href="#FNanchor_184a_184a">184</a>] link.<br />
-P. <a href="#Page_214">214</a>. 'concommitants' changed to 'concomitants'.<br />
-P. <a href="#Page_215">215</a>. 'alarum clock', changed 'alarum' to 'alarm'.<br />
-P. <a href="#Page_215">215</a>. 'hashisch' changed to 'hashish'.<br />
-P. <a href="#Page_231">231</a>. Footnote <a href="#FNanchor_210a_210a">210</a>, 'alcholic' changed to 'alcoholic'.<br />
-P. <a href="#Page_249">249</a>. 'hue to' changed to 'due to'.<br />
-Fixed various punctuation</p>
-</div>
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-<pre>
-
-
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+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The World of Dreams, by Havelock Ellis
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
+other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
+the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
+to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
+
+Title: The World of Dreams
+
+Author: Havelock Ellis
+
+Release Date: April 6, 2019 [EBook #59214]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WORLD OF DREAMS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Turgut Dincer, Jane Robins and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+book was produced from images made available by the
+HathiTrust Digital Library.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i"></a></span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap nobreak" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii"></a></span></p>
+
+<h2>THE WORLD OF DREAMS</h2>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+
+<h3><em>BY THE SAME AUTHOR</em></h3>
+
+<hr class="r10" />
+
+<blockquote><p>T<span class="smcapa">HE</span> S<span class="smcapa">OUL</span> <span class="smcapa">OF</span> S<span class="smcapa">PAIN</span>.</p>
+
+<p>A<span class="smcapa">FFIRMATIONS</span>. <em>Second Edition.</em></p>
+
+<p>I<span class="smcapa">MPRESSIONS</span> <span class="smcapa">AND</span> C<span class="smcapa">OMMENTS</span>.</p>
+
+<p>I<span class="smcapa">MPRESSIONS</span> <span class="smcapa">AND</span> C<span class="smcapa">OMMENTS</span>. <em>Second Series.</em></p>
+
+<p>T<span class="smcapa">HE</span> T<span class="smcapa">ASK</span> <span class="smcapa">OF</span> S<span class="smcapa">OCIAL</span> H<span class="smcapa">YGIENE</span>.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii"></a></span></p>
+
+
+<div class="titlepage">
+<h1><span class="small80">THE<br />
+<br />
+WORLD OF DREAMS</span></h1>
+
+<p>BY</p>
+
+<p class="p2">HAVELOCK ELLIS</p>
+
+<p>'Sleep has its own world'</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/title.jpg" width="149" height="200" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>BOSTON AND NEW YORK<br />
+HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY<br />
+1922</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv"></a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v"></a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>There are at least four different ways of writing a
+book on dreams. There is, for instance, the <em>literary</em>
+method. In this way one goes to books or to the
+memories of other people for one's material, and so
+collects a great number of more or less wonderful
+stories. I have rejected this method, for it is entirely
+untrustworthy. Dreams are elusive at the best; only
+a very careful observer can set down a dream faithfully,
+even directly after it has occurred, and no one can
+safely entrust a dream to memory.</p>
+
+<p>There is, again, what I may call the <em>clinical</em> method
+of studying dreams by the personal observation and
+collection of facts, with summation and analysis of the
+results. On a large scale, with the aid of the <em>questionnaire</em>,
+this method has been especially carried on in the United
+States, notably at Clark University under the inspiration
+of Dr. Stanley Hall. A strict and scientific
+adherence to the clinical method of studying dreams
+has resulted in Professor Sante de Sanctis's book <em>I Sogni</em>
+(first edition 1899), which is, on the whole, the best
+book on dreams published in recent years.</p>
+
+<p>Then there is the <em>experimental</em> method, which, not
+content with mere objective study of the phenomena,
+endeavours to interfere with them and to find out the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span>
+results of interference. This method may be combined
+with other methods of studying dreams. In its pure
+form it has in recent years been especially practised by
+the late Mourly Vold. Its results are not without
+interest, but they do not cover a large part of the field,
+and they are not altogether reliable. Dreaming activity
+is so fluid and suggestible&mdash;and this is notably so when
+experimenter and subject are the same person&mdash;that
+interference with the phenomena deforms them, and we
+cannot be sure that by experiment we have really
+learned much about the life of dreams.</p>
+
+<p>There is, finally, the <em>introspective</em> method. This may
+be said to be the earliest of the more scientific methods
+of studying dreams. Maine de Biran was here a
+pioneer, and Maury, in his famous book, <cite>Le Sommeil et
+les R&ecirc;ves</cite> (1861), which inaugurated the modern study
+of dreams, adopted a mainly introspective method,
+though he was not always quite successful in avoiding
+the fallacies of that method. It is in France that this
+method has been most frequently and most successfully
+cultivated.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Sigmund Freud's <cite>Die Traumdeutung</cite> (first
+edition, 1900), may be said to belong to the introspective
+class, though to a special division which Freud himself
+terms psycho-analytic. This is undoubtedly the most
+original, the most daring, the most challenging of recent
+books on dreams, and is now the text-book of a whole
+school of investigators. It is not a book to be neglected,
+for it is written by one of the profoundest of living investigators
+into the obscure depths of the human soul.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span>
+Even if one rejects Freud's methods as unsatisfactory
+and his facts as unproved, the work of one so bold and
+so sincere cannot fail to be helpful and stimulating in
+the highest degree. If it is not the truth it will at
+least help us to reach the truth.</p>
+
+<p>The little book now presented to the reader belongs
+mainly to the introspective group of dream studies,
+though not to the psycho-analytic variety. It is based
+on data which have accumulated beneath my hands
+during more than twenty years, and some of the ideas
+developed in it were put forward in a paper 'On
+Dreaming of the Dead,' <cite>Psychological Review</cite>, Sept.
+1895; in 'A Note on Hypnagogic Paramnesia,' <cite>Mind</cite>,
+No. 22, 1896; and in 'The Stuff that Dreams are made
+of,' <cite>Popular Science Monthly</cite>, April 1899. The book
+is not the outcome of experiment or of any deliberate
+concentration of thought on dreaming. I have simply
+noted down dream experiences,&mdash;most often in myself,
+less often in immediate friends,&mdash;directly they
+have occurred, usually on awakening in the morning.
+The few unimportant exceptions to the rule are duly
+noted. By maintaining this rule I have been able to
+satisfy myself that everything I have set down is
+reasonably accurate. Such a method certainly tends
+towards the exclusion of peculiar and exceptional
+dreams. This I do not greatly regret. I am chiefly
+interested in the problems of normal dreaming; they
+are sufficiently puzzling and mysterious and they
+properly present themselves for explanation first. I do
+not wish it to be understood that I question the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span>
+existence of telepathic and other abnormal dream
+experiences. That is not the case. But it so happens
+that under the conditions I have laid down I have not
+met with any dreams that clearly and decisively belong
+to this abnormal class. Such few possible examples as
+have come under my immediate observation (in no
+case as personal experiences) are slight, and, moreover,
+sometimes of too intimate a character for full
+exposition.</p>
+
+<p>Thus my contribution to the psychology of dreaming
+is simple and unpretentious; it deals only with the
+fundamental elements of the subject. I do not make
+this statement entirely in a spirit of humility. It
+seems to me that in the past the literature of dreaming
+has often been overweighted by bad observation and
+reckless theory. By learning to observe and to understand
+the ordinary nightly experience of dream life we
+shall best be laying the foundation of future superstructures.
+For, rightly understood, dreams may
+furnish us with clues to the whole of life.</p>
+
+<p class="center">HAVELOCK ELLIS.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a><span class="big110">CONTENTS</span></h2>
+
+
+<h2 class="nobreak"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="small80">INTRODUCTION</span></h2>
+
+<blockquote><p><span class="shiftright smcapa">PAGE</span><br />
+<br />
+The House of Dreams&mdash;Fallacies in the Study of Dreams&mdash;Is it
+possible to Study Dreams?&mdash;How Fallacies may be Avoided&mdash;Do
+we always Dream during Sleep?&mdash;The Two Main
+Sources of Dreams with their Sub-divisions,      <span class="shiftright"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></span></p></blockquote>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="small80">THE ELEMENTS OF DREAM LIFE</span></h2>
+
+<blockquote><p>The Spontaneous Procession of Dream Imagery&mdash;Its Kaleidoscopic
+Character&mdash;Attention in Dreams&mdash;Relation of Drug
+Visions and Hypnagogic Imagery to Dreaming&mdash;Colour in
+Dreams&mdash;The Fusion of Dream Imagery&mdash;Compared to
+Dissolving Views&mdash;Sources of the Imagery&mdash;Various types
+of Fusion&mdash;The Sub-Conscious Element in Dreaming&mdash;Verbal
+Transformations as Links in Dream Imagery&mdash;The
+Reduplication of Visual Imagery in Motor and other Terms,      <span class="shiftright"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></span></p></blockquote>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="small80">THE LOGIC OF DREAMS</span></h2>
+
+<blockquote><p>All Dreaming is a Process of Reasoning&mdash;The Fundamental
+Character of Reasoning&mdash;Reasoning as a Synthesis of
+Images&mdash;Dream Reasoning Instinctive and Automatic&mdash;It
+is also Consciously carried on&mdash;This a result of the
+Fundamental Split in Intelligence&mdash;Dissociation&mdash;Dreaming
+as a Disturbance of Apperception,      <span class="shiftright"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></span></p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="small80">THE SENSES IN DREAMS</span></h2>
+
+<blockquote><p>All Dreams probably contain both Presentative and Representative
+Elements&mdash;The Influence of Tactile Sensations on
+Dreams&mdash;Dreams excited by Auditory Stimuli&mdash;Dreams
+aroused by Odours and Tastes&mdash;The Influence of Visual
+Stimuli&mdash;Difficulty of distinguishing between Actual and
+Imagined Sensory Excitations&mdash;The Influence of Internal
+Visceral Stimuli on Dreaming&mdash;Erotic Dreams&mdash;Vesical
+Dreams&mdash;Cardiac Dreams and their Symbolism&mdash;Prodromic
+Dreams&mdash;Prophetic Dreams,      <span class="shiftright"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></span></p></blockquote>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="small80">EMOTION IN DREAMS</span></h2>
+
+<blockquote><p>Emotion and Imagination&mdash;How Stimuli are transformed into
+Emotion&mdash;Somnambulism&mdash;The Failure of Movement in
+Dreams&mdash;Nightmare&mdash;Influence of the approach of Awakening
+on imagined Dream movements&mdash;The Magnification of
+Imagery&mdash;Peripheral and Cerebral Conditions combine to
+produce this Imaginative Heightening&mdash;Emotion in Sleep
+also Heightened&mdash;Dreams formed to explain Heightened
+Emotions of unknown origin&mdash;The fundamental Place of
+Emotion in Dreams&mdash;Visceral and especially Gastric disturbance
+as a source of Emotion&mdash;Symbolism in Dreams&mdash;The
+Dreamer's Moral Attitude&mdash;Why Murder so often takes
+place in Dreams&mdash;Moral Feeling not Abolished in Dreams
+though sometimes Impaired,      <span class="shiftright"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></span></p></blockquote>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="small80">AVIATION IN DREAMS</span></h2>
+
+<blockquote><p>Dreams of Flying and Falling&mdash;Their Peculiar Vividness&mdash;Dreams
+of Flying an Alleged Survival of Primeval Experiences&mdash;Best
+explained as based on Respiratory Sensations
+combined with Cutaneous Anaesthesia&mdash;The Explanation
+of Dreams of Falling&mdash;The Sensation of Levitation sometimes
+experienced by Ecstatic Saints&mdash;Also experienced at
+the Moment of Death,      <span class="shiftright"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></span></p></blockquote>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="small80">SYMBOLISM IN DREAMS</span></h2>
+
+<blockquote><p>The Dramatisation of Subjective Feelings Based on Dissociation&mdash;Analogies
+in Waking Life&mdash;The Synaesthesias and
+Number-forms&mdash;Symbolism in Language&mdash;In Music&mdash;The
+Organic Basis of Dream Symbolism&mdash;The Omnipotence of
+Symbolism&mdash;Oneiromancy&mdash;The Scientific Interpretation of
+Dreams&mdash;Why Symbolism prevails in Dreaming&mdash;Freud's
+Theory of Dreaming&mdash;Dreams as Fulfilled Wishes&mdash;Why this
+Theory cannot be applied to all Dreaming&mdash;The Complete
+Form of Symbolism in Dreams&mdash;Splitting up of Personality&mdash;Self-objectivation
+in Imaginary Personalities&mdash;The
+Dramatic Element in Dreams&mdash;Hallucinations&mdash;Multiple
+Personality&mdash;Insanity&mdash;Self-objectivation a Primitive Tendency&mdash;Its
+Survival in Civilisation,      <span class="shiftright"><a href="#Page_148">148</a></span></p></blockquote>
+
+
+<h2 class="nobreak"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="small80">DREAMS OF THE DEAD</span></h2>
+
+<blockquote><p>Mental Dissociation during sleep&mdash;Illustrated by the Dream of
+Returning to School Life&mdash;The Typical Dream of a Dead
+Friend&mdash;Examples&mdash;Early Records of this Type of Dream&mdash;Analysis
+of such Dreams&mdash;Atypical Forms&mdash;The Consolation
+sometimes afforded by Dreams of the Dead&mdash;Ancient
+Legends of this Dream Type&mdash;The Influence of Dreams on
+the Belief of Primitive Man in the Survival of the Dead,      <span class="shiftright"><a href="#Page_194">194</a></span></p></blockquote>
+
+
+<h2 class="nobreak"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="small80">MEMORY IN DREAMS</span></h2>
+
+<blockquote><p>The Apparent Rapidity of Thought in Dreams&mdash;This Phenomenon
+largely due to the Dream being a Description of a Picture&mdash;The
+Experience of Drowning Persons&mdash;The Sense of Time
+in Dreams&mdash;The Crumpling of Consciousness in Dreams&mdash;The
+Recovery of Lost Memories through the Relaxation of
+Attention&mdash;The Emergence in Dreams of Memories not
+known to Waking Life&mdash;The Recollection of Forgotten
+Languages in Sleep&mdash;The Perversions of Memory in Dreams&mdash;Paramnesic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span>
+False Recollections&mdash;Hypnagogic Paramnesia&mdash;Dreams mistaken for Actual Events&mdash;The Phenomenon of
+Pseudo-Reminiscence&mdash;Its Relationship to Epilepsy&mdash;Its
+Prevalence especially among Imaginative and Nervously
+Exhausted Persons&mdash;The Theories put forward to Explain
+it&mdash;A Fatigue Product&mdash;Conditioned by Defective Attention
+and Apperception&mdash;Pseudo-Reminiscence a reversed Hallucination,      <span class="shiftright"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></span></p></blockquote>
+
+
+<h2 class="nobreak"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="small80">CONCLUSION</span></h2>
+
+<blockquote><p>The Fundamental Nature of Dreaming&mdash;Insanity and Dreaming&mdash;The
+Child's Psychic State and the Dream State&mdash;Primitive
+Thought and Dreams&mdash;Dreaming and Myth-Making&mdash;Genius
+and Dreams&mdash;Dreaming as a Road into the Infinite,      <span class="shiftright"><a href="#Page_261">261</a></span></p></blockquote>
+
+
+<blockquote><p><span class="p2"><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a></span>,      <span class="shiftright"><a href="#Page_283">283</a></span></p></blockquote>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1"></a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="THE_WORLD_OF_DREAMS" id="THE_WORLD_OF_DREAMS"></a>THE WORLD OF DREAMS</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<p class="p6">INTRODUCTION</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>The House of Dreams&mdash;Fallacies in the Study of Dreams&mdash;Is it
+Possible to Study Dreams?&mdash;How Fallacies may be Avoided&mdash;Do
+we always Dream during Sleep?&mdash;The Two Main Sources
+of Dreams with their Sub-divisions.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>W<span class="smcapa">HEN</span> we fall asleep we enter a dim and ancient house
+of shadow, unillumined by any direct ray from the
+outer world of waking life. We are borne about through
+its chambers, without conscious volition of our own;
+we fall down its mouldy and rotten staircases, we are
+haunted by strange sounds and odours from its mysterious
+recesses; we move among phantoms we cannot
+consciously control. As we emerge into the world of
+daily life again, for an instant the sunlight seems to
+flash into the obscure house before the door closes
+behind us; we catch one vivid glimpse of the chambers
+we have been wandering in, and a few more or less
+fragmentary memories come back to us of the life we
+have led there. But they soon fade away in the light
+of common day, and if a few hours later we seek to recall
+the strange experiences we have passed through, it
+usually happens that the visions of the night have
+already dissolved in memory into a few shreds of mist
+we can no longer reconstruct.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>For most of us our whole knowledge ends here. Our
+dreams are real enough while they last, but the interests
+of waking life absorb us so entirely that we rarely
+have leisure, and still less inclination, to subject our
+sleeping adventures, trivial and absurd as they must
+usually seem, to the careful tests which waking intelligence
+is accustomed to subject more obviously
+important matters to. The world of dreams and the
+mysterious light which prevails there<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> are abandoned
+entirely to our sleeping activities.</p>
+
+<p>This leading characteristic of dream life&mdash;the fact
+that it takes place in another and more shadowy world
+and in a different kind of consciousness<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>&mdash;has led
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span>
+to the criticism of the study of dreams from the
+scientific side. We cannot really study our dreams,
+these objectors say, because we&mdash;that is to say, our
+waking consciousness&mdash;cannot come sufficiently closely
+in contact with them. Dreams, it is argued, are inevitably
+transformed in our hands; what we are studying
+is not our dreams, but only our waking, and probably
+altogether false, impressions of our dreams. There
+is a certain element of truth in this objection. It is
+very difficult, indeed impossible, to recall exactly, and
+in their proper order, even the details of a real adventure
+which has only just happened to us. It is,
+obviously, incomparably more difficult to recall an
+experience which took place, under such shadowy conditions,
+in a world so remote from the world of waking
+life. There is, further, the very definite difficulty
+that we only catch our dreams for a moment by the
+light, as it were, of the open door as we are emerging
+from sleep. In other words, our waking consciousness
+is for a moment observing and interpreting a process
+in another kind of consciousness, or even if we assert
+that it is the same consciousness it is still a consciousness
+that has been working under quite different conditions
+from waking consciousness, and accepting data
+which in the waking state it would not accept. For the
+student of dreams it must ever be a serious question
+how far the facts become inevitably distorted in this
+process. Sleeping or waking, it is probable, our consciousness
+never embraces the whole of the possible
+psychic field within us. There are, when we are dreaming<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>
+as well as when we are awake&mdash;as will become
+clearer in the sequel&mdash;subconscious, or imperfectly
+conscious, states just below our consciousness, and
+exerting an influence upon it.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> Our latent psychic
+possessions, among which dreams move, would seem to
+be by no means always at the same depth; the specific
+gravity of consciousness, as it were, varies, and these
+latent elements rise or fall, becoming nearer to the
+conscious surface or falling further away from it. But
+the greatest change must take place when the waking
+surface is reached and the outer world breaks on sleeping
+consciousness. In that change there is doubtless
+a process of necessary and automatic transformation
+and interpretation. We may picture it, perhaps, as
+somewhat the same process as when a person skilled
+in both languages takes up a foreign book and reads it
+out in his own tongue. With practice the reader may
+become unconscious that he is transforming everything,
+that the words he utters are different from the words
+he sees, and that he even transposes their order, sometimes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span>
+putting in the middle of a sentence the verb he
+sees at the end.</p>
+
+<p>Yet even if we admit that the passage from sleeping
+to waking consciousness involves a change as complete
+as this&mdash;and it is probable, as we shall see, that some such
+change sometimes takes place&mdash;for a faithful interpreter
+the sense still remains the same. It is impossible to
+believe that the witness of waking consciousness to the
+nature of the visions it has caught at the threshold
+between sleeping and waking life is false, and the most
+convincing evidence of this is the utter unlikeness of
+these visions to the data of ordinary waking life.</p>
+
+<p>But even this conclusion has been subjected to severe
+criticism which we have to face before we proceed
+further. Foucault, an acute investigator of dream
+psychology&mdash;carrying to its extreme point a position
+more partially and tentatively stated by Delbœuf and
+Tannery&mdash;has denied that our dreams, as they finally
+present themselves to waking consciousness, at all
+correspond to the psychic process in sleep upon which
+they are founded, and he especially insists that the
+logical connections are superadded.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> He considers that
+dreaming is an 'observation of memory' made under
+such conditions that 'it would be very imprudent to
+regard the remembrance of the dream as reproducing
+faithfully the mental state of sleep.' During sleep,
+he believes, our dream ideas proceed, concurrently, it
+may be, but separately and independently; at the
+moment when awakening begins, the mind, as an act<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span>
+of immediate memory, grasps the plurality of separate
+pictures and applies itself spontaneously to the task of
+organising them according to the rules of logic and the
+laws of the real world, making a drama of them as like
+as possible to the dramas of waking life.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> He agrees
+with Goblot that 'the dream we remember is a waking
+thought,' and with Tannery that 'we do not remember
+our dreams, but only the reconstructions of them we
+effected at the moment of waking.' It is after awakening,
+Foucault concludes, that the dream develops, and
+its final shape depends on the period at which it is
+noted down; 'the evolution of the dream after awakening
+is a logical evolution, dominated and directed by
+the instinctive need to give a reasonable appearance
+to the <em>ensemble</em> of images and sensations present to the
+mind, and to assimilate the representation of the dream
+to the system of representations which constitutes our
+knowledge of the real world.'<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
+
+<p>In arguing his thesis, Foucault makes much of the
+modifications which can be proved to take place if any
+one is asked to repeat a dream at intervals of months.
+Under the influence of time and repetition a dream
+becomes more coherent and more conformed to reality.
+In illustration Foucault presents two versions of an
+insignificant dream in which a lady imagines that she
+is out with her husband for a drive, and in the course
+of it experiences a natural need which she seeks an
+opportunity to satisfy; the details of the first version
+were highly improbable; some months later they had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>
+become much more like what might have occurred in
+real life. Such a process, Foucault thinks, is taking
+place from the first in the making of dreams as we
+know them awake.</p>
+
+<p>There are, undoubtedly, facts which may seem to
+support Foucault's argument that the logic of the dream,
+as we know it, is not in the original dream, but is introduced
+afterwards. Thus I once dreamed in the morning
+that I asked my wife if she had been into a certain
+room, and that she replied, 'Can't get in.' I immediately
+awoke and realised that my wife had actually
+spoken these words, not to me, but to an approaching
+servant, in anticipation of a message about entering
+a neighbouring room of which the door was locked.
+It is thus evident that although it seemed to me in my
+dream that the question came first and the answer
+followed in the ordinary course, in reality the answer
+came first. The question was a theory, supplied
+automatically by sleeping intelligence and prefixed
+to the answer, in which order they both appeared to
+sleeping consciousness, that is to say, in the only way
+in which sleeping consciousness can ever be known, as
+translated into waking consciousness.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p>
+
+<p>It must be borne in mind that such a dream as I have
+recorded&mdash;in which an actual sensory experience is
+introduced, untransformed, as a foreign body into sleeping
+consciousness&mdash;is not a typical dream. Dreams
+are, however, without doubt of various kinds, and we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>
+may well admit that there is a class of dreams formed
+in this way. That supposition will, indeed, be helpful
+in explaining several dreams I shall have to record. The
+process is much the same as when a nervous person
+receives a telegram, and at once assumes that some
+dreaded accident has occurred, and that the telegram
+is the announcement of it. The craving for reasons
+is instinctive, and the dreamer's sense of logic even
+dominates his sense of time.</p>
+
+<p>But Foucault's argument is that waking consciousness
+effects this logical construction of the dream.
+Here his position is weak and incapable of proof. It is,
+indeed, contrary to all the tests we are able to apply to
+it. If it is the object of the logic of our dreams to make
+them conformable to our waking experience, that end,
+we must admit, is in most cases very far from being
+attained. In their original form, as Foucault views the
+matter, our dreams are simple dissociated images. In
+that shape they would present nothing whatever to
+shock the consciousness of waking life. The logic,
+hypothetically introduced solely to make them conformable
+to real life, is frequently a preposterous logic
+such as the consciousness of waking life could not
+accept or even conceive. This fact alone serves to
+throw serious doubt upon the theory that it is waking
+consciousness which impresses its logic upon our dreams.</p>
+
+<p>Nor, again, is there any analogy, and still less identity,
+between the process whereby we grasp a dream when
+we awake, and the process whereby the memory of a
+dream is transformed during months of waking life.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+The latter is part of a general process affecting all our
+memories in greater or less degree. I visit, for instance,
+a foreign cathedral, and take careful note of the
+character and arrangement of buttresses and piers;
+a few months later, if I have failed to set the facts down,
+my memory of them will become uncertain, confused,
+and incorrect. But I need not, therefore, lose faith
+in the tolerable exactitude of my original impressions.
+In the same way, we cannot argue that the shifting
+memory of a dream during a long period of time throws
+the slightest doubt on the accuracy of our original
+impression of it. We never catch a dream in course
+of formation. As it presents itself to consciousness on
+awakening there may be doubtful points and there may
+be missing links, but the dream is, once for all, completed,
+and if there are doubtful points or missing
+links we recognise them as such. We make no attempt
+to supply a logic that is not there, and we never see any
+such process going on involuntarily. I should, indeed,
+myself be inclined to say that there is always a kind
+of gap between sleeping consciousness and waking
+consciousness; the change from the one to the other
+kind of consciousness seems to be effected by a slight
+shock, and the perception of the already completed
+dream is the first effort of waking consciousness. The
+existence of such a shock is indicated by the fact that,
+even at the first moment of waking consciousness, we
+never realise that a moment ago we were asleep. As
+soon as we realise that we are awake it seems to us that
+we have already been awake for an uncertain but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+distinct period of time; some people, indeed, especially
+old people, on awaking, feel this so strongly that they
+deny they have been asleep. It once happened to me
+to be in the neighbourhood of a dynamite factory at
+the moment when a very disastrous explosion occurred;
+at the time my back was to the factory, and I am quite
+unable to say how long an interval occurred between
+the shock of the explosion and my own action in turning
+round to observe the straight shaft of smoke and solid
+material high in the air; there was a gap in consciousness,
+an interval of unknown and seemingly considerable
+length, caused by the deafening shock of the
+explosion, although it is probable that my action in
+turning round was almost or quite instantaneous. It
+seems to me that the transition from sleeping consciousness
+to waking consciousness occurs in a similar
+manner on a smaller scale.</p>
+
+<p>Although the view of Foucault that the dream is
+logically organised after sleep has ended seems, when we
+examine the evidence in its favour, to be unacceptable,
+we may still admit that, in some cases at all events,
+the dream only assumes final shape at the moment
+when sleeping consciousness is breaking up, that the
+dream, as we know it, is a final synthetic attempt of
+sleeping consciousness as it dissolves on the approach
+of waking consciousness. Sleeping consciousness, we
+may even imagine as saying to itself in effect:
+'Here comes our master, Waking Consciousness, who
+attaches such mighty importance to reason and logic
+and so forth. Quick! gather things up, put them in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
+order&mdash;any order will do&mdash;before he enters to take
+possession.' That is to say, in other words, that as
+sleeping consciousness comes nearer to the threshold
+of waking consciousness it is possible that the need for
+the same kind of causation or sequence which is manifested
+in waking consciousness may begin to make
+itself felt even to sleeping consciousness. Even this
+assumption seems, however, as regards most dreams,
+to be extravagant. In any case, and at whatever stage
+the dream is finally constituted, we are not entitled,
+it seems to me, to believe that any stage of its constitution
+falls outside the frontiers of sleep. It is
+satisfactory to be able to feel justified in reaching this
+conclusion. For if dreams were chiefly or mainly
+the product of waking consciousness they would certainly
+lose a considerable part of their significance and
+interest.</p>
+
+<p>Even, however, when we have reached this conclusion
+the path of the student is still far from easy. The
+undoubted fact that in any case the difficulties of observing
+and recording dreams are very great cannot
+fail to make us extremely careful. Although the dreams
+of some persons, who may be regarded as themselves
+of vivid and dramatic temperament, seem to be habitually
+vivid and dramatic to an extent which, in my own
+case, is extremely rare, one is usually justified in feeling
+a certain amount of suspicion in regard to dream-narratives
+which are at every point clear, coherent,
+connected, and intelligible. Dreams, as I know them
+on awaking from sleep, occasionally present episodes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>
+to which these epithets may be applied, but on the
+whole they are full of obscurities, of uncertainties, of
+inexplicable lacunae. The memory of dream events
+is lost so rapidly that one is constantly obliged to leave
+the exact nature of a detail in doubt. One seems to be
+recalling a landscape seen by a lightning flash. It is
+for this reason that I have made it a rule only to admit
+dreams which are noted very shortly, and if possible
+immediately, after the moment of awakening. It is
+further of importance in recording one's dreams, to note
+the emotional attitude experienced during the dream
+as well as any physical sensations felt on awakening.
+The attitude of dream consciousness towards dream
+visions usually varies from that of waking consciousness,
+although the normal extent of the difference is a disputable
+point. When I read dream narratives of landscapes
+which, as described, appear at every point as
+beautiful and impressive to waking consciousness as
+they appeared to dreaming consciousness, I usually
+suspect that, granting the good faith and accuracy of
+the narrator, we are really concerned, not with dreams
+in the proper sense, but with visions experienced under
+more abnormal conditions, and especially with drug
+visions. In the present inquiry I am only concerned
+to ascertain the most elementary and fundamental
+laws of the dream world, as they occur in fairly ordinary
+and normal persons, and therefore it becomes necessary
+to be very strict as to the conditions under which
+they were recorded. It is the most ordinary dreams
+that are most likely to reveal the ordinary laws of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+dream life, but for this end it is necessary that they
+should be recorded with the greatest accuracy attainable.</p>
+
+<p>I am myself neither a constant nor, usually, a very
+vivid dreamer, and in these respects I am probably
+a fairly ordinary and normal person; the personal
+material which I have accumulated, though it spreads
+over twenty years, is not notably copious. Nor have I
+ever directed my attention in any systematic and concentrated
+manner to my dream life. To do so would be,
+I believe, to distort the phenomena. I have merely
+recorded any significant phenomena as they occurred.</p>
+
+<p>To remark that one is not a constant dreamer is not
+to assert that dreaming is rare, but merely that one's
+recollection of it is rare. Though we may only catch
+a glimpse of our latest vision of the night as we leave
+the house of sleep, it may well be that there were
+many earlier adventures of the night which are beyond
+the reach of waking consciousness. Sometimes, it is
+curious to note, we become vaguely conscious, during
+the day, for the first time, of a dream we have had
+during the night. Many psychologists, as well as
+metaphysicians&mdash;fearful to admit that the activity of
+the soul could ever cease&mdash;believe that we dream
+during the whole period of sleep; this has of recent years
+been the opinion of Vaschide, Foucault, N&auml;cke, and
+Sir Arthur Mitchell, as it formerly was of Sir Benjamin
+Brodie, Sir Henry Holland, and Schaaffhausen. In
+earlier days Hippocrates, Descartes, Leibnitz, and
+Cabanis seem to have been of the same opinion. On<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+the other hand, Locke, Macnish, and Carpenter held
+that deep sleep is dreamless; this is also the opinion
+of Wundt, Beaunis, Str&uuml;mpell, Weygandt, Hammond,
+and Jastrow. Moreover, there are some people, like
+Lessing, who, so far as they know, never dream at all.
+My own personal experience scarcely inclines me to
+accept without qualification the belief that we are
+always dreaming during sleep. I find that my remembered
+dreams tend to be correlated with some
+slight mental or physical disturbance, and therefore
+it seems to me probable that, if dreams are continuous
+during sleep, they must, during completely undisturbed
+sleep, be of an extremely faint and shadowy character.
+To return to a metaphor I have before used, we may
+say that sleeping consciousness in its descent from the
+surface of the waking life may fall to a point at which
+its specific gravity being practically the same as that
+of its environment, a state approaching complete
+repose is attained.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> It cannot of course be said that
+the failure to remember dreams is any argument against
+their occurrence. It is well known that when the
+psychic activity of sleep assumes a definitely motor
+shape, as in talking in sleep and in somnambulism, it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+is very rare for any recollection to remain on awakening,
+though we cannot doubt that psychic activity has been
+present. In the same way the dream that we remember
+when awakened from sound sleep by another person
+is by no means always due to that awakening. This
+is shown by the fact that if we were turning round
+or making other movements just before being thus
+awakened, the dream we remember&mdash;in one such case
+a dream of making one's way with difficulty between
+a sofa and a chair&mdash;may have no relation to the circumstance
+of the awakening, but clearly be suggested
+by the movements made during sleep, though these
+movements themselves remain unknown to waking
+consciousness. The movements of dogs during sound
+sleep&mdash;the rhythmical lifting of the paws, the wagging
+of the tail&mdash;point in the same direction.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
+
+<p>The fact that failure of memory by no means proves
+the absence of dreaming may be illustrated, not only
+by the forgetfulness of what takes place during hypnotic
+sleep, but by what we sometimes witness during partial
+anaesthesia maintained by drugs. This was well shown
+in a case I was once concerned with, where it was
+necessary to administer chloroform (preceded by the
+alcohol-chloroform-ether mixture) for a prolonged
+period during a difficult first confinement. The drug<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
+was not given to the point of causing complete abolition
+of mental activity, and the patient talked, and occasionally
+sang, throughout, referring to various events in
+her life, from childhood onwards. The sensation and
+the expression of pain were not altogether abolished,
+for slight cries and remarks about the discomfort and
+constraint imposed upon her were sometimes mingled
+in the same sentence with quite irrelevant remarks
+concerning, for instance, trivial details of housekeeping.
+Confusions of incompatible ideas also took place, as
+during ordinary dreaming. 'Where is the three-cornered
+nurse,' she thus asked, 'who does not mind
+what she does?' There was also the abnormal suggestibility
+of dream consciousness. The questions of
+bystanders were answered but always with a tendency
+to agree with everything that was said, this tendency
+even displaying itself with a certain ingenuity as when
+in reply to the playful random query: 'Were you
+drunk or sleeping last night?' she answered, with some
+hesitation: 'A little of both, I think.' To the casual
+observer, it might seem that there was a state of full
+consciousness on the basis of which a partial delirium
+had established itself. Yet on recovery from the drug
+there was no recollection of anything whatever that
+had taken place during its administration, and no sense
+of the lapse of time.</p>
+
+<p>Fantastic and marvellous as our dreams may sometimes
+be, they are in practically all cases made up of
+very simple elements. It is desirable that we should
+at the outset have a provisional notion as to the sources<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+of these simple elements. Most writers on dreams
+hold that there are two great sources from which these
+elements are drawn: the vast reservoir of memories
+and the actual physical sensations experienced at the
+moment of dreaming, and interpreted by sleeping
+consciousness. Various names have been given to
+these two groups, the recognition of which is at least
+as old as Aristotle.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> Thus Sully calls them central
+and peripheral, Tissi&eacute;, psychic and sensorial, Foucault,
+imaginative and perceptive. Fairly convenient names
+are those adopted by Miss Calkins, who calls the first
+group representative, the second group presentative,
+meaning by representative 'connected through the fact
+of association with the waking life of the past,' and by
+presentative 'connected through sense excitation with
+the immediate present.'<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p>
+
+<p>The representative group falls into two subdivisions,
+according as the memories are of old or of recent
+date; these subdivisions are often quite distinct, recent
+dream memories belonging&mdash;probably with most people&mdash;to
+the previous day, while old dream memories are
+usually drawn from the experience of many years past,
+and frequently from early life. In the same way
+presentative impressions fall into two subdivisions,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+according as they refer to external stimuli present to
+the senses, or to internal disturbances within the organism.
+It is scarcely necessary to observe that any or
+all of these four sub-groups, into which the whole of
+our dream life may be analysed, may become woven
+together in the same dream.</p>
+
+<p>I have called the classification 'provisional' because,
+though it is convenient to adopt it for the sake of orderly
+arrangement, when we come to consider the matter it
+will be found that the material of dreams is in reality
+all of the same order, and purely psychic, though it
+may be differentiated in accordance with the character
+of the stimulus which evokes the psychic material of
+which it is made. Strictly speaking, the source of the
+dream as a dream can only be central, and a truly
+presentative dream is impossible. If our senses receive
+an impression, external or internal, and we recognise
+and accept that impression for what we should
+recognise and accept it when awake, then we cannot
+be said to be dreaming. The internal and external
+stimuli which act upon sleeping consciousness are not
+a part of that consciousness, nor in any real sense its
+source or its cause. The ray of sunlight that falls on
+the dreamer, the falling off of his bedclothes, the indigestible
+supper he ate last night&mdash;these things can no
+more 'account' for his dream than the postman's
+knock can account for the contents of the letter he
+delivers. Whatever the stimuli from the physical
+world that may knock at the door of dreaming consciousness,
+that consciousness is apart from them, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>
+stimuli can only reach it by undergoing transformation.
+They must put off the character which they wear as
+phenomena of the waking world; they must put on
+the character of phenomena of another world, the world
+of dreams.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<p class="p6">THE ELEMENTS OF DREAM LIFE</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>The Spontaneous Procession of Dream Imagery&mdash;Its Kaleidoscopic
+Character&mdash;Attention in Dreams&mdash;Relation of Drug Visions and
+Hypnagogic Imagery to Dreaming&mdash;Colour in Dreams&mdash;The
+Fusion of Dream Imagery&mdash;Compared to Dissolving Views&mdash;Sources
+of the Imagery&mdash;Various types of Fusion&mdash;The Subconscious
+Element in Dreaming&mdash;Verbal Transformations as
+Links in Dream Imagery&mdash;The Reduplication of Visual Imagery
+in Motor and other Terms.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>P<span class="smcapa">ERHAPS</span> the most elementary fact about dream vision
+is the perpetual and unceasing change which it is undergoing
+at every moment. Sight is for most of us
+the chief sensory activity of sleeping as it is of waking
+life; the commonest kind of dream is mainly a picture,
+but it is always a living and moving picture, however
+inanimate the objects which appear in vision before us
+would be in real life. No man ever gazed at a dream
+picture which was at rest to his sleeping eye as are the
+pictures we gaze at with our waking eyes. So far as
+my own experience is concerned, I have rarely in sleep
+seen a sentence, a word, a letter written on a sheet of
+dream-paper which was not changing beneath the eye
+of sleep. I dream, for instance, that I wish to stamp
+a letter, and look in my pocket-book for a penny stamp;
+I am able to find stamps of other values, I am able to
+find penny stamps that are torn or defaced or of an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>
+antiquated type disused thirty years ago; all sorts
+of stamps, as well as little pictures resembling stamps,
+develop and multiply beneath my gaze; the stamp I
+seek remains unfound, probably because it had appeared
+at the beginning of the series and suggested all the rest.
+That is indicated by another dream (experienced, it
+may be noted, during the early stage of a cold in the
+head): I have to catch a train; I see my hat hanging
+on a peg among other hats, and I move towards it;
+but as I do so it has vanished; and I wander among
+rows of hats, of all shapes and sizes, but not one of them
+mine. Sleeping consciousness is a stream in which we
+never bathe twice, for it is renewed every second. It
+is this as much as any characteristic of the visual
+dream&mdash;for the mainly auditory or motor dream often
+presents less difficulty in this respect&mdash;which makes it
+so difficult to recall and reproduce. We are, as it were,
+gazing at a constantly revolving kaleidoscope in which
+every slightest turn produces a new pattern, somewhat
+resembling that which immediately preceded it&mdash;so
+that, if the kaleidoscope were conscious we should say
+that each picture had been suggested by the preceding
+pattern&mdash;but yet definitely novel.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p>
+
+<p>Delbœuf has denied that this process ever involves
+any real metamorphosis of images; he regarded it as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+an illusion due to rapid succession of distinct images
+which are afterwards combined in memory. That
+view is not, however, tenable; apart from the fact
+that it makes the illegitimate assumption that our
+recollection of a dream is entirely unreliable, it must be
+remembered that (as Giessler has pointed out) the
+shock of emotional horror or surprise that frequently
+accompanies such dreams suffices to prove the reality
+of the metamorphosis. Thus I once, as a youth, had
+a vivid dream of an albatross that became transformed
+into a woman, the beautiful eyes of the albatross taking
+on a womanly expression, but the bird's beak only
+being imperfectly changed into a nose as the bird-woman
+murmured, 'Do you love me?' In this case
+the vivid surprise of the dream was precisely associated
+with the simultaneous existence of the two sets of
+characters.</p>
+
+<p>It is not, however, necessary that there should be any
+metamorphosis of dream images, nor even that the
+procession of dream imagery should be continuous.
+And whether or not there is metamorphosis of images,
+whether the imagery is continuous or discontinuous,
+it seems to me that we must admit the possibility of
+its spontaneous character. That is, indeed, a debated,
+and, it may be admitted, a debateable point. Thus
+Foucault<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> accounts for the multiplication of almost
+similar images sometimes witnessed in dreams as due
+to <em>desire;</em> we see a number of things because we desire
+to possess a number of these things, and he explains a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+dream of Delbœuf's, of a procession of lizards, as due
+to the fact that Delbœuf was a collector of lizards, in
+the same way as he would explain the dreams of thirsty
+people who imagine they are drinking repeated glasses
+of water or wine. I am quite unable to accept this
+explanation. The shifting and multiplication of dream
+imagery, as in the procession of lizards, is a fundamental
+and elementary character of spontaneous mental imagery,
+and is constant in some drug visions, notably
+those occasioned by mescal.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> The repetition of imaginary
+drinks in the dreams of a thirsty man belongs to
+another more special class in explanation of which
+desire may be more properly invoked; it is merely the
+expression of the fact that after the imaginary drink
+the dreamer remains thirsty, and the suggested image
+is therefore repeated.</p>
+
+<p>That in some cases there is what we may call a deliberate
+subconscious selection in the imagery presented
+to consciousness in dreams, there can be no
+doubt. But mental imagery is deeper and more
+elemental than any of the higher psychic functions
+even when exerted subconsciously. Just as the immense
+procession of continuous and totally unfamiliar imagery
+which is evoked by the action of mescal on the visual
+centres has no more connection with the subject's
+volition or desires than the procession of the starry
+skies, so likewise, we seem bound to admit, it may be
+in the case of a succession of separate images in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+dreams. It is nearly always possible to find a link of
+connection between any two images chosen at random,
+and the link is often a real subconscious link, but not
+necessarily so. Discontinuous images may arise, it
+seems probable, from a psychic basis deeper than choice,
+their appearance being determined by their own dynamic
+condition at the moment. We must, as Baron Mourre<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a>
+not quite happily puts it, take into account 'the physiological
+state of ideas.' If we hold to the belief that
+dreaming is based on a fundamental and elementary
+tendency to the formation of continuous or discontinuous
+images, which may or may not be controlled by
+psychic emotions or impulses, we shall be delivered
+from many hazardous speculations.</p>
+
+<p>When we thus start with the recognition of a more or
+less spontaneous procession of images as the elemental
+stuff of dreams, one of the first problems we encounter
+is the relation of attention to that imagery. What is
+the degree and the nature of the attention we exert in
+dreams?</p>
+
+<p>'Sleep from the psychological point of view,' says
+Foucault, 'is a state of profound distraction or total
+inattention.' And Mourre shows by dreams of his own
+that any exercise of will in dreaming leads to awakening,
+and that the deeper the sleep the more absent is volition
+from dreams. Hence the involuntary wavering and
+perpetually mere meaningless change of dream imagery.
+Such concentration as is possible during sleep usually<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+reveals a shifting, oscillating, uncertain movement of
+the vision before us. We are, as it were, reading a
+sign-post in the dusk, or making guesses at the names
+of the stations as our express train flashes by the painted
+letters. It is this factor in dreams which causes them
+so often to baffle our analysis. There is thus a failure
+of sleeping attention to fix definitely the final result&mdash;a
+failure which itself may evidently serve to carry on
+the dream process by suggesting new images and combinations.
+It can scarcely be said, however, that the
+question of attention in dreams is thus settled. It
+would be inconceivable that the terrible occurrences
+that may overtake us in dreams and the emotional
+turmoil aroused should be accompanied by 'total inattention
+and distraction.' Nor can it be said that that
+supposition agrees with the vivid memory which our
+dreams sometimes leave. We can probably account
+for the phenomena much more satisfactorily by adopting
+Ribot's useful distinction between voluntary attention
+and spontaneous attention.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> Voluntary or artificial
+attention is a product of education and training. It is
+directed by extrinsic force, is the result of deliberation,
+and is accompanied by some feeling of effort.
+It always acts on the muscles and by the muscles;
+without muscular tension there can be no voluntary
+attention. Spontaneous or natural attention, on the
+other hand, is that more fundamental kind of attention
+which exists anteriorly to any education or training,
+and is the only kind of attention which animals and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span>
+young children are capable of. It may be weak or
+strong, but always and everywhere it is based on
+emotional states; every creature moved by pleasure
+and pain is capable of spontaneous attention under the
+influence of those stimuli. These two kinds of attention
+are at the opposite poles from each other, and are
+incompatible with each other. There can be no doubt
+that, as Ribot himself pointed out, it is voluntary
+attention that is defective (though it may not always
+be entirely absent) in dreams;<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> the muscular weakness
+and inco-ordination of sleep involve this lack of attention
+which is indeed an essential condition of the restoration
+and repose of sleep. But all the characters of
+spontaneous attention are present. The attention we
+exercise in dreams is mainly of this fundamental, automatic,
+involuntary character, conditioned by the emotions
+we experience, and for the most part escaping all
+the efforts of our voluntary attention. Further, it has
+been ably argued by Leroy that a similar state of
+involuntary automatic attention, with concomitant
+diminution or disturbance of voluntary attention, is a
+necessary condition for the appearance of the visual
+and auditory hallucinations abnormally experienced
+in the waking state.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>There is, then, at the basis of dreaming a seemingly
+spontaneous procession of dream imagery which is
+always undergoing transformation into something
+different, yet not wholly different, from that which
+went before. It seems a mechanical flow of images,
+regulated by associations of resemblance, which sleeping
+consciousness recognises without either controlling or
+introducing foreign elements. This is probably the
+most elementary form of dreaming, that which is
+nearest to waking consciousness, and that in which
+the peripheral and retinal element of dreaming plays
+the largest part.</p>
+
+<p>The fundamental character of this spontaneous self-evolving
+procession of imagery is indicated by the
+significant fact that it tends to take place whenever the
+more retinal and peripheral part of the visual apparatus
+is affected by the exhaustion of undue stimulation, or
+even when the organism generally is disturbed or run
+down, as in neurasthenic conditions.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> The most
+obtrusive and familiar example of visual imagery is
+furnished by the procession of perpetually shifting and
+changing after-images which continue to evolve for a
+considerable time after we have looked at the sun or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span>
+other brilliant object.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> Less striking, but more intimately
+akin to the imagery of dreams, are the hypnagogic
+visions occurring as we fall asleep, especially after a day
+during which vision has been unusually stimulated and
+fatigued, though they do not seem necessarily dependent
+on such fatigue. Most vivid and instructive of all is the
+procession of visual imagery evoked by certain drugs.
+Of these the most remarkable and potent, as well as the
+best for study, is probably mescal, which happens also
+to be the only one with which I am myself well acquainted.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a>
+This substance provokes a constant succession
+of self-evolving visual imagery which constantly
+approaches and constantly eludes the semblance of
+real things; in the earlier stages these images closely
+resemble those produced by the kaleidoscope, and they
+change in a somewhat similar manner. Such spontaneous
+evolution of imagery is evidently a fundamental aptitude
+of the visual apparatus which many very slightly
+abnormal conditions may bring into prominence.</p>
+
+<p>The power of opium is somewhat similar, and, as
+DeQuincey long since pointed out, such power is simply
+a revival of a faculty usually possessed by children,
+although, judging from my own experiences with
+mescal, drugs exert it in a far more vivid and potent
+degree than that in which it usually occurs in the child.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+The psychologists of childhood have not often investigated
+this phenomenon,<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> but so far as my own inquiries
+go, all or nearly all persons have possessed,
+when children, the power of seeing visions in the dark
+on the curtain of the closed eyelids, perhaps the representation
+of fairy tales they had read, perhaps
+merely commonplace processions of individuals or
+events, a tendency sometimes appearing for the same
+figure to recur again and again. I think it is fairly
+certain that the so-called 'lies' of children, told in good
+faith, are in part due to the occasional eruption of this
+faculty into daylight life. People who deny that they
+ever possessed this power have, almost certainly, only
+forgotten. I should myself be inclined to deny that I
+had ever had any such visionary faculty if it were not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span>
+that I can recall one occasion of its presence, at about
+the age of seven, when sleeping with a cousin of the
+same age; we amused ourselves by burying our heads
+in the pillows and watching a connected series of
+pictures which we were both alike able to see, each
+announcing any change in the picture as soon as it took
+place. This fact of community of vision served to
+impress on my mind the existence of a faculty of which
+otherwise I can recall no trace.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p>
+
+<p>Of these various groups of allied phenomena, that
+which more especially concerns us in the investigation
+of dreams is the group of phenomena most strictly
+called hypnagogic, belonging, that is to say, to the ante-chamber<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>
+of sleep, when the senses are in repose and
+waking consciousness is slipping away, or else when,
+as we leave the world of dreams, waking consciousness
+is flowing back again. This state has been known
+from very ancient times. Aristotle referred to it, and
+in the dawn of modern scientific thought Hobbes
+described allied phenomena.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> The strictly psychological
+study of hypnagogic visions seems to have begun with
+Baillarger.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> Then, some years later, Maury, who had
+a rich personal experience of such phenomena, devoted
+a chapter to the hypnagogic state, and gave it its
+recognised name.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p>
+
+<p>Hypnagogic imagery, there can be little doubt, is
+not a purely ocular phenomenon, even when it is stimulated
+by ocular fatigue. It is a mixed phenomenon,
+partly retinal and partly central. That is to say that
+the eye supplies entoptic glimmerings, and the brain,
+acting on the suggestions thus received, superposes
+mental pictures to those glimmerings.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> They are thus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+analogous to the pictures we may see in the fire or in
+the clouds. It must be added that the other senses
+also furnish corresponding rudiments which are filled
+in by the central activity; this is notably the case
+with faint buzzings and sounds in the ear, and in addition,
+muscular twitches and internal visceral sensations,
+all these becoming more prominent as the attentive
+activity of waking life subsides.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p>
+
+<p>What is the relation of hypnagogic imagery to dreams?
+Johannes M&uuml;ller, the great physiologist, long ago
+identified them, as previously had Gruithuisen and
+Burdach, while Maury&mdash;who himself possessed, however,
+a somewhat abnormal and irritable nervous system&mdash;regarded
+hypnotic imagery as furnishing the whole of
+the formative element of dreams, as being 'the embryogeny
+of dreams'; he frequently found that images
+which appeared to him in this way before going to sleep
+reappeared in dreams. This is supported by Mourly
+Vold, who made experiments on himself, and by fixing
+images as he fell asleep dreamed of the same images.
+Goblot, however, while regarding hypnagogic imagery
+as analogous with dream imagery, denies that it is
+identical. Since the hypnagogic state is the porch to
+sleep and dreams&mdash;the praedormitium, as Weir Mitchell
+terms it&mdash;we can scarcely fail to admit with Maury
+that hypnagogic imagery presents us with the germinal
+stuff of dreams. If it is not identical with the fully
+formed dream, it is still the early stage of dreaming.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+This is certainly the view suggested by my own experience,
+even though I have never definitely recognised
+a dream as related to a previous hypnagogic
+image. It has, however, occasionally happened to me
+that as I have begun to lose waking consciousness a
+procession of images has drifted before my vision, and
+suddenly one of the figures I see has spoken. This
+hallucinatory voice occurring before I was fully asleep
+has startled me into full waking consciousness, and I
+have realised that, while yet in the hypnagogic stage,
+I was assisting at the birth of a dream.</p>
+
+<p>There is one point, it may be noted in passing, at
+which dreams do not usually correspond with some of
+the phenomena with which we may most naturally
+compare them. I refer to their presentation of colour.
+In the dreams of most people colour is rare. We seem
+usually, from this point of view, to remember a dream
+as we would remember a photograph, or, if any colour
+at all is present, a tinted drawing. Judging from my
+own experience, I should say that it is difficult to
+decide whether the absence of colour is due to its actual
+absence from the dream imagery, or merely to its failure
+to make any impression on memory. Some careful
+observers have, however, stated that the colour of their
+dream imagery is definitely grey. Thus Beaunis states
+that his dream imagery is usually <em xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">en grisaille</em>, like
+an image recalled in the waking state, though occasionally
+the colour is vivid, and Dr. Savage says that in his
+dreams colour is rarely or never present. 'I see landscapes
+of black and white, and flowers assume their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
+true form, but not their colours.'<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> This greyness of
+dream imagery corresponds to the disappearance of
+colour under chloroform anaesthesia. 'So long as the
+eyes could be held open voluntarily,' says Elmer Jones,
+'vision seemed quite normal, save that the colours of
+the spectrum faded out into a grey band.' Even in
+the early stage of some insanities also, as Stoddart has
+found, some degree of colour-blindness is present.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>
+Grace Andrews states, indeed, that in nearly half of
+her own visual dreams colour sensations were included.
+This seems to me exceptional. In my own experience,
+the emergence of a single colour, which usually strikes
+me as beautiful, is not rare. I see, for instance, a friend
+drinking wine copiously from a large goblet, and I
+judge by the colour of the wine that it is hock, or I am
+impressed by the shimmering grey tone of the poplin
+dresses worn by a group of ladies, which seems to
+indicate that the tone of the whole picture was not
+grey. I am inclined to think that when colour in a
+dream becomes more pronounced than this, the dream
+is not normal, but is associated with some degree of
+cerebral disturbance, and especially the presence of
+headache. This would agree with the fact that persons
+subject to migraine are liable to visual colour phenomena.
+As an example of a vivid colour dream associated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
+with headache, I may bring forward the following:
+I dreamed that an artist of note, with whom I am
+acquainted, was painting my portrait. (The pose of
+the portrait was standing, but I was lying down; this,
+however, caused me no surprise.) I saw the colours of
+the picture with great vividness, and I noted the extreme
+rapidity with which the artist painted; thus
+the red and black pattern of the necktie he had given
+me was suddenly changed to a totally different blue
+pattern, and the whole picture then appeared as a
+harmony of blues, the rapidity with which the artist
+effected these changes impressing me as very remarkable.
+In another dream in which I saw a painter
+occupied on a picture, a landscape representing sunrise,
+memory recalled the effect of light as vivid, but no
+definite sense of colour remained. This seems to me
+the normal condition of things in the ordinary dreams
+of most persons, colour, when it occurs, or when it is
+remembered, being for the most part confined to a single
+object or a single tint, and often being associated with a
+feeling of aesthetic pleasure.</p>
+
+<p>In ordinary dreaming there is usually something
+more than a spontaneous procession of related imagery.
+There is a more definitely central and psychic element.
+There is association, not only by obvious resemblance,
+but by contiguity, usually the casual contiguity of
+images received during the previous day, which forces
+together images related to each other indeed, but by
+no means obviously. Dreaming consciousness embodies
+and actively co-ordinates definite, and not merely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
+random, images. The passive and spontaneous flow of
+imagery is thus modified in its course.</p>
+
+<p>The image of the magic lantern well illustrates this
+character of dream experiences. The movement of the
+cinematograph, indeed, scarcely corresponds to that
+fusion of heterogeneous images which marks dream
+visions. Our dreams are like dissolving views in which
+the dissolving process is carried on swiftly or slowly,
+but always uninterruptedly, so that at any moment
+two (often, indeed, more) incongruous pictures are
+presented to consciousness, which strives to make one
+whole of them, and sometimes succeeds, and is sometimes
+baffled. Or we may say that the problem presented
+to dreaming consciousness resembles that experiment
+in which psychologists pronounce three wholly
+unconnected words and require the subject to combine
+them at once in a connected sentence. It is unnecessary
+to add that such analogies fail to indicate the
+subtle complexity of the apparatus which is at work
+in the manufacture of dreams.</p>
+
+<p>By this mechanism of dreaming, isolated impressions,
+or else impressions which have a resemblance or a
+connection which is not obvious to the waking intelligence,
+flow together in dreams to be welded into a
+whole. There is produced, in the strictest sense, a
+<em>confusion</em>. For instance, a lady, who in the course
+of the day has admired a fine baby and bought a
+big fish for dinner, dreams with horror and surprise
+of finding a fully developed live baby sewed up in a
+large cod-fish. Again, a lady who had been cooking<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
+in the course of the day and in the evening had read
+a scientific description of the way birds obtain and
+utilise their food, such as fruit and snails, dreams at
+night that she has discovered when out walking a kind
+of animal-fruit, a damson containing a snail within it,
+which she views with delight as admirably adapted for
+culinary purposes. Another lady, after carving a
+duck at dinner, dreams that she is trying to cut off
+a duck's leg, but seems to realise in her dream at the
+same time that it is really her husband's neck she is
+hacking at.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> In a dream of my own, children's heads
+took the form and shape of flowers of various shapes
+and hues, though mainly of the composite order (like
+chrysanthemums), and their eyes looked out from
+between the petals.</p>
+
+<p>It must be added that in a very considerable proportion
+of cases the combinations produced in dreams
+are far more plausible than in any of the instances just
+narrated; the whole dream may thus easily follow as
+commonplace and matter-of-fact a course as in real life.
+Thus, after going to live in a new neighbourhood, I
+dreamed that I entered a shop belonging to a certain
+firm, and saw there an employ&eacute; who, in real life, to
+my knowledge, had previously left another shop belonging<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
+to the same firm; an entirely probable combination
+was thus effected, and the dream conversation that
+followed was equally natural and probable. We do
+not go out of our way in dreams to invent absurdities;
+we simply accept the data presented to us, dealing with
+them as rationally as the intellectual instruments at
+our disposal may permit.</p>
+
+<p>The dream constituted by the falling together of
+trivial reminiscences is not always, however, as commonplace
+and plausible as in the dream just narrated. In
+other cases the falling together of equally trivial reminiscences
+may constitute a fantastic and imaginative
+picture altogether outside waking experience or waking
+thought. Thus I dream that it is my duty to watch
+beside a great king while he sleeps. He lies on a huge
+bed, fully clothed and booted, and with a great crimson
+mantle thrown over him. I am permitted to lie on the
+edge of the bed outside the mantle, but must on no
+account close my eyes, for I must be ready to respond
+at once to his call. The elements of such a picture are
+obviously so simple and commonplace that it is not
+surprising that I could not find that even one of them
+had been specially present to waking consciousness.
+Yet the picture that at that particular moment they
+fell together to compose&mdash;like the broken fragments
+of coloured glass in a kaleidoscope&mdash;is altogether
+alien alike to my experience and to my imagination.</p>
+
+<p>The source of the common confusion of dream
+imagery is to be found in very varying motives. In a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>
+large proportion of cases, what we witness is merely
+the flowing together of impressions which have no
+real resemblance, but which happen to have been
+received at nearly the same time, and to admit of being
+fused; thus, in one case, occupation during the day
+partly in the fowl-yard and partly in the garden, led
+a lady to the dream project of breeding chickens by
+planting fowls' heads. Very frequently, however, there
+is a real resemblance in the two objects combined,
+although it is not a resemblance which would ever
+present itself to waking consciousness. The fowl-yard
+will supply another instance of this confusion also. I
+went to sleep thinking of a friend who was that night
+to stay at a certain hotel I had never seen. I dreamed
+that I saw the hotel in question; its fa&ccedil;ade was not
+unlike that of a common type of hotel, but the roof was
+flat and at no very great height from the ground, so
+that I was able to overlook the building and see into all
+the windows, an arrangement that struck me as bad.
+My ability to overlook the building was not, however,
+accompanied by any perception of its diminutiveness.
+On awakening I remembered that my wife had received
+a chicken incubator the day before, and we had examined
+it in the evening. The image of the hotel had fused
+with the image of the incubator.</p>
+
+<p>In another dream of the same type I imagined that
+I was with a dentist who was about to extract a tooth
+from a patient. Before applying the forceps he remarked
+to me (at the same time setting fire to a perfumed
+cloth at the end of something like a broomstick,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
+in order to dissipate the unpleasant odour) that it was
+the largest tooth he had ever seen. When extracted I
+found that it was indeed enormous, in the shape of a
+caldron, with walls an inch thick. Taking from my
+pocket a tape measure (such as I carried in waking life),
+I found the diameter to be not less than twenty-five
+inches; the interior was like roughly-hewn rock, and
+there were sea-weeds and lichen-like growths within.
+The size of the tooth seemed to me large, but not
+extraordinarily so. It is well known that pain in the
+teeth, or the dentist's manipulations, cause those organs
+to seem of extravagant extent; in dreams this tendency
+rules unchecked; thus a friend once dreamed that
+mice were playing about in a cavity in her tooth. But
+for the dream just quoted, there was no known dental
+origin; it arose solely or chiefly from a walk during the
+previous afternoon among the rocks of the Cornish
+coast at low tide, and the fantastic analogy, which had
+not occurred to waking consciousness, suggested itself
+during sleep.</p>
+
+<p>In another dream, illustrating the same kind of
+confusion of images having a real resemblance unnoticed
+in waking life, I seemed to see on a table a small hand-gong
+of a common type, struck by a hammer, but on
+striking it repeatedly, it produced flashes of light
+instead of the sounds normally produced by a gong.
+I concluded that the instrument must be out of order
+and called some one to attend to it, whereupon we
+proceeded to deal with it as though it were a diminutive
+battery of the kind used to work electric bells. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>
+gong was one familiar to me at the time in daily life;
+on the previous day I had casually observed that it
+was misplaced. In my dream I discovered a resemblance
+which actually exists between a gong of the type
+in question and the lever-handle for turning on the
+electric light, soothing a certain doubt by saying to
+myself in my dream that the instrument served both
+for the production of sound and of light. This link of
+connection led to the association of an electric battery
+with the hand-gong, as well as to the attribution to the
+gong of light-giving properties.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p>
+
+<p>Such a dream serves as a transition to another very
+common kind of confusion of imagery in which two
+altogether unlike images are amalgamated through each
+happening to have in the mind a link of connection
+with some third idea. I dreamed that my wife's dog&mdash;a
+dog who, in real life, was constantly getting into
+trouble&mdash;had killed a child in the neighbouring town.
+On going thither I entered a butcher's shop, and saw
+the child lying on a table, mutilated and bleeding.
+After a time, however, I learned that it was not a child,
+but a pig that had been killed, and what I had previously
+taken for a child was now visibly a dead pig. I
+felt ashamed of my mistake, and the sympathy I had
+experienced now seemed excessive, especially when the
+butcher remarked that it was all right as he had been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+fattening the pig and meant to kill it soon anyhow.
+Then the pig was cut open, though it made daring
+attempts to come to life again, during which I awoke.
+It is clear how, in this case, the idea of the butcher's
+shop served as a bridge from the image of the child to
+the image of the pig. Again, after a day in which I
+had received a letter from a lady, unknown to me,
+living in France, and later on had written out a summary
+of a criminal case in which a detective had to go over
+to France, I dreamed that some one told me that the
+lady I had heard from was a detective in the service
+of the French Government, and this explanation, though
+it seemed somewhat surprising, fully satisfied me.
+Here, it will be seen, the idea of France served as a
+bridge, and was utilised by sleeping consciousness to
+supply an answer to a question which had been asked
+by waking consciousness.</p>
+
+<p>The confusion of imagery may be more remote,
+embodying abstract ideas and without reference to
+recent impressions. Thus I dreamed that my wife
+was expounding to me a theory by which the substitution
+of slates for tiles in roofing had been accompanied
+by, and intimately associated with, the
+growing diminution of crime in England. I opposed
+this theory, pointing out the picturesqueness of tiles,
+their cheapness, and greater comfort both in winter and
+summer, but at the same time it occurred to me as
+a peculiar coincidence that tiles should have a sanguinary
+tinge suggestive of criminal bloodthirstiness. I
+need scarcely say that this bizarre theory had never<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
+suggested itself to my waking thoughts. There was,
+however, a real connecting link in the confusion&mdash;the
+redness, and it is a noteworthy point, of great significance
+in the interpretation of dreams, that that link,
+although clearly active from the first, remained subconscious
+until the end of the dream, when it presented
+itself as an entirely novel coincidence.</p>
+
+<p>I dreamed once that I was with a doctor in his surgery,
+and saw in his hand a note from a patient saying that
+doctors were fools and did him no good, but he had
+lately taken some <em>selvdrolla</em>, recommended by a friend,
+and it had done him more good than anything, so
+please send him some more. I saw the note clearly,
+not, indeed, being conscious of reading it word by word,
+but only of its meaning as I looked at it; the one word
+I actually seemed to see, letter by letter, was the name
+of the drug, and that changed and fluctuated beneath
+my vision as I gazed at it, the final impression being
+<em>selvdrolla</em>. The doctor took from a shelf a bottle
+containing a bright yellow oleaginous fluid, and poured
+a little out, remarking that it had lately come into
+favour, especially in uric acid disorders, but was extremely
+expensive. I expressed my surprise, having
+never before heard of it. Then, again to my surprise,
+he poured rather copiously from the bottle on to a
+plate of food, saying, in explanation, that it was pleasant
+to take and not dangerous. This was a vivid morning
+dream, and on awakening I had no difficulty in detecting
+the source of its various minor details, especially a
+note received on the previous evening and containing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+a dubious figure, the precise nature of which I had
+used my pocket lens to determine. But what was
+<em>selvdrolla</em>, the most vivid element of the dream? I
+sought vainly among my recent memories, and had
+almost renounced the search when I recalled a large
+bottle of salad oil seen on the supper table the previous
+evening; not, indeed, resembling the dream bottle,
+but containing a precisely similar fluid. <em>Selvdrolla</em>
+was evidently a corruption of 'salad oil.' This dream
+illustrates the uncertainty of dream consciousness, but
+it also illustrates at the same time the element of
+certainty in dream <em>subconsciousness</em>. Throughout my
+dream I remained, consciously, in entire ignorance as to
+the real nature of <em>selvdrolla</em>, yet a latent element in
+consciousness was all the time presenting it to me in
+ever clearer imagery. We see that the subconscious
+element of dream life treats the conscious part much as
+a good-natured teacher treats a child whose lesson is
+only half learned, giving repeated clues and hints which
+the stupid child understands only at the last moment,
+or not at all. It is, indeed, a universal method, the
+method of Nature with man, throughout the whole of
+human evolution.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen that at this point we are brought into
+contact with another characteristic of dream life:
+there is often more in dreams than dreaming consciousness
+is able to realise. On the one hand, the
+elements of dream life are drawn from a wider field
+than is normally accessible to waking consciousness;
+on the other hand, the focus of dream consciousness is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>
+narrower than that of waking consciousness, and
+cannot apperceive all that is going on. There is at
+once more extension and more contraction than in the
+psychic life of the waking world. A very large part
+of the psychic life of sleep is outside our power, and
+some of it is even beyond our sight.</p>
+
+<p>It will be observed that the perpetual movement
+and the constant fusion of images which constitute the
+most fundamental character of dream life really combine
+two characteristics which, abstractly regarded, are
+distinct. The tendency of the dream image to be ever
+changing, ever putting forth some new feature which
+more or less radically alters its nature, is not a phenomenon
+of precisely the same nature as the tendency for
+two definite images, well known to waking consciousness,
+to become fused together, consciously or unconsciously,
+in dreams. Practically, however, there is
+no line of demarcation. What happens is that the
+image is ever spontaneously changing, and that each
+change is at once recognised by dreaming consciousness
+as a known object. Thus I dreamed that I was in a
+drawing-room and saw a beautiful and attractive
+woman with an unusually low evening dress entirely
+revealing the breasts; then, between the breasts,
+three additional nipples appeared, and I realised in
+my dream that here was a case of supernumerary
+breasts of sufficient scientific interest to be carefully
+examined later on; and then, as I gazed, I saw a
+number of little fleshy nipple-like protuberances on
+the body, and thereupon I realised that I was really<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>
+looking at a case of the rare skin disease termed
+<em>molluscum fibrosum</em>. Thus the perpetually wavering
+and developing image is at the same time a succession
+of quite different images. On the other hand, when
+we seem to have a fusion of two definite images, what
+we really see in most cases is one image melting into the
+other and gradually losing its earlier character. In
+either case the process is the same interplay of automatic
+peripheral imagery and central ideas, whether
+the new image is brought into focus by, as it were, a
+current in consciousness, or is merely suggested by a
+spontaneous change in the previous image. How far
+the image suggests the idea or the idea the image, it
+is extremely difficult in most cases to say. The phenomenon
+we witness is a perpetually dissolving view;
+the vital process behind that phenomenon we must
+usually be content to be ignorant of.</p>
+
+<p>It sometimes happens that the dream image is
+slowly transformed without the dreamer realising the
+transformation. Thus an image of a doll may take
+on the character of a human being. In a dream of
+this kind&mdash;possibly suggested by Villiers de l'Isle
+Adam's <cite>L'Eve Future</cite>, though that book had not been
+recently in my mind&mdash;I imagined that a lady of my
+acquaintance (whose identity I could not recall on
+awakening) had taken a fancy to possess an artificial
+woman, constructed with vast ingenuity and at enormous
+expense. The skin and hair seemed real as I noted
+with a certain horror on observing the breasts and
+armpits, but in places&mdash;I noticed especially one arm&mdash;the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span>
+creature was as defective as an ill-made doll. It
+was, however, able to walk with a little support, and,
+most remarkable of all, it gave intelligent answers to
+questions; this alone it was that caused me a certain
+surprise. What at the beginning of the dream had only
+been an artificial image was evidently becoming a real
+human being, and one can readily believe that such
+stories as that of Pygmalion's statue may have been
+suggested by dream experiences.</p>
+
+<p>The dream is mainly a dissolving view, because for
+most of us it is above all a visual phenomenon. Those
+people who, in their dreams, at all events, if not also
+in waking life, are largely of auditory type, experience
+dreams in which words play exactly the same shifting,
+developing, and dissolving part played by images in
+the persons of more markedly visual type. In their
+dreams they resemble those insane people who, in some
+feeble and confusional states, manifest echolalia and
+confabulation, their ideas drifting along the associational
+paths of least resistance suggested by every
+random word they hear. Maury records successions
+of dream imagery strung together in a similar manner
+by a procession of verbal transformations; thus in one
+oft-quoted dream the scenes were connected by the
+words, <em>kilom&egrave;tre</em>, <em>kilos</em>, <em>Gilolo</em>, <em>Lobelia</em>, <em>Lopez</em>, <em>loto</em>.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a>
+In such a case the procession of verbal auditory imagery
+constitutes the basis of the dream. This is probably
+rare. In most people the basis of the dream is furnished
+by visual imagery, and auditory images only occasionally<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
+form an associative link, being more usually subordinated
+to the visual elements.</p>
+
+<p>The speech peculiarities of dreams have been very
+thoroughly investigated by Kraepelin,<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> who has brought
+together two hundred and eighty-one examples, partly
+observed in himself, though they are not common, and
+Kraepelin considers that the hearing centres fall more
+deeply asleep than the visual centres, the eyes being
+already sufficiently protected by the lids.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> Kraepelin
+classifies the speech disturbances of dreams into two
+great groups: (1) <em>paraphasia</em>, or disturbance of word-finding,
+where the idea is associated with a wrong
+word, which is sometimes a new formation<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a>; and
+(2) <em>disorders of oration</em>, in which the peculiarity lies,
+not in the words, but in their order. The speech
+disturbances of dreams, Kraepelin remarks, spring
+from deep disturbance of thought, such as occur in
+sensorial aphasia, and, as in such aphasia, the dreamer
+thinks his nonsense is quite clear and reasonable. Much
+the same may occur in alcoholic delirium and in <em>dementia
+pr&aelig;cox</em>.</p>
+
+<p>The invention of new words probably occurs frequently
+in dreams, without leaving a clear trace in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
+memory, and still more frequently, perhaps, as in the
+'selvdrolla' dream, already recorded, there are seeming
+new verbal formations which are really mere corruptions
+of imperfectly realised words. An example of a
+definite and precise new word seems to be furnished by
+the following dream, which was at all points vivid and
+precise. I saw quite close to me a huge tawny bird,
+with an orange bill. The creature got up and moved
+away, seeming as large as an ostrich. I asked a lady,
+standing by, who had some ornithological knowledge,
+what the bird was, and she replied that she thought it
+was a <em>jaleisa</em>. Then I asked the same question of a
+poor woman who was passing, curious to know what
+she would answer; she said, 'Oh, it's a kind of starling.'
+There was no doubt in my dream as to the spelling of
+'jaleisa,' but I am quite unable to account for the word.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a>
+It so happened, however, that before I went to bed I
+had been reading one of Calderon's plays, and I imagine
+that this pseudo-Spanish word had formed itself in my
+brain among the echoes of Calderon's enchanting music.
+The question arises as to why that ignorant old woman
+should have called the jaleisa a starling. It seems just
+possible that the more familiar name was suggested by
+the last syllable of the strange bird's name, the association
+being verbal. It is equally possible, and perhaps
+more likely, that the association followed by the more
+usual visual channel, and that the jaleisa's orange beak
+suggested the large orange beaks of newly hatched<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+starlings, which had once, many years previously,
+vividly attracted my attention.</p>
+
+<p>A probable illustration of the influence of verbal association
+in diverting the current of a dream is seen in the
+harrowing narrative that follows: A lady dreamed that
+she went to an entertainment which turned out to be
+a kind of revival meeting, presided over by a lady, and
+full of uproar. It was suddenly realised that Hell was
+underneath the hall, and a man, supposed to be a slave,
+was torn to pieces and cast into Hell. A lady present
+was so much affected by the scene that she threw herself
+into a pool of water, and was drowned, her body
+being afterwards pulled out by a working man with a
+pitchfork. The dreamer was so overcome by these
+tragic events that she felt that there was nothing left
+but to commit suicide. Resolving to drown herself,
+she went to a lighthouse (which, however, somewhat
+resembled a bathing machine) on a height, in order
+to throw herself down into the sea. It was of an exquisite
+green tint, extremely lovely and attractive, but
+she had not the courage to leap in. She thought it
+might give her courage if she had a good meal first, so
+she returned to the hall and joined the lady who had
+presided over the meeting. They sat down to a dish
+of roast mutton, but, as they were eating, suddenly
+looked at each other with mutual understanding; they
+realised that they were eating the woman who had been
+drowned, and, it will be remarked, had been pulled out
+of the water by a fork. It was possible to account for
+every element of which this dream was made up, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+its tragic character was unsupported by anything in
+waking life, and entirely native to the dream. The
+possibility of any guiding link between 'Hell' and
+'hall' had not presented itself to the dreamer, nor had
+it occurred to me when I set down the dream as here
+reproduced. It must be noted, however, that the
+revival meeting would itself tend to suggest the idea
+of Hell. It seems probable that verbal associations
+usually play only a subordinate part.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the verbal links of association in dreams,
+far from introducing tragedy, lead, by the conjunction
+of two words of the same sound, to puns. Thus a
+dreamer imagined that he and some friends were looking
+at a house with its bedroom or bedrooms open to
+the air, the front wall being gone, and they were laughing
+at the comical effect when a mysterious voice came
+saying, 'A three-walled bedroom is a side-burst
+stor(e)y.' As the dreamer awoke, he found himself
+laughing at this juxtaposition of the idea of the storey
+of a house-side split open, and the idea of a side-splitting
+story. The conditions of psychic activity during sleep&mdash;when
+ideas drift together from widely separated regions
+along channels of association which are usually held
+closed by the higher intellectual processes&mdash;seem,
+indeed, to be specially favourable to the production of
+puns and allied forms of witticism.<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> They may, therefore,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>be properly regarded as closely associated with
+subconscious activity.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p>
+
+<p>A verbal link is seen in the following 'recipe' invented
+on another occasion by the same dreamer:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="container">
+<div class="poem">
+ <div class="stanza">
+  <div class="i0">'Call in the tipcat, cut off its tail;</div>
+  <div class="i1">Fold up some eggs in a saucepan;</div>
+  <div class="i0">Sit on the rest, like an elderly male,</div>
+  <div class="i1">And gulp down the whole as a horse can.'</div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is evident that the tipcat suggested a cat's tail, while
+the suggestion of a cooking recipe in 'cut off its tail'
+led on to eggs and saucepan; the eggs suggested
+'sitting,' while 'gulp,' as the dreamer noted, appeared
+as 'gallop,' and suggested the horse. The ease with
+which the whole fell into a completely rhymed doggerel
+stanza is due to the fact that the dreamer is a poet.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a></p>
+
+<p>A more common phenomenon in my experience than
+association by verbal clues is a transference from visual
+terms into the terms of some other sense, and a repetition
+in that form. Thus a lady dreams that a large
+and very beautiful picture resembling tapestry forms
+itself before her, and in it she sees herself, only much
+more beautiful in shape, standing by a tree, and on the
+other side of the tree an old friend is standing, while
+there are a crowd of people around. Then she sees her
+friend touch her on the arm. At the same time the
+dreamer feels the touch. The visual image is reduplicated
+in a motor form. Such a phenomenon is doubtless<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+a natural result of the special conditions of dream
+life. In waking life the senses are working co-ordinately,
+and if we see ourselves touched we shall probably
+feel ourselves touched. But in dreams the body is a
+vision, and not our real body, and when we see it
+touched, we realise we ought to feel it touched, and a
+tactile sensation is thus suggested and experienced.</p>
+
+<p>There are, however, other reduplications to which
+this explanation will not apply. Thus I imagined I
+was sitting at a window, at the top of a house, writing.
+As I looked up from my table I saw, with all the emotions
+naturally accompanying such a sight, a woman in
+her nightdress appear at a lofty window some distance
+off, and throw herself down. I went on writing, however,
+and found that in the course of my literary employment&mdash;I
+am not clear as to its precise nature&mdash;the
+very next thing I had to do was to describe exactly
+such a scene as I had just witnessed. I was extremely
+puzzled at such an extraordinary coincidence; it seemed
+to me wholly inexplicable. Again I dreamed that I
+was coming up the Thames (apparently in a steamboat),
+reading a novel, written by a friend, which was the
+history of some one who arrives in England coming
+up the Thames to London, by what I felt to be an
+extraordinary coincidence, in exactly the same way as
+I was at the moment. Then I found myself seemingly
+at the end of a London pier, with the river rippling at
+my feet, and in front the superb panorama of London;
+exactly the scene which, in less detail, was described in
+the book. Such dreams, reduplicating the imagery<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+in a new sensory medium, are fairly common, with me
+at all events. The association is less that of analogy
+than of sensory media, as of the visual image becoming
+a verbal motor image. In other cases a scene is first
+seen as in reality, and then in a picture. Thus I
+dreamed that I was witnessing the performance of an
+orchestra, and observed that all the players had instruments
+of ancient pattern which, I understood, had been
+in constant use for several hundred years; I could
+recall the shapes of many on awaking, and none of them
+were quite modern; I could not, however, recall the
+character of the music, which seemed to make no impression
+on me, since I was absorbed in observing the
+shapes of the instruments. I specially observed an
+old framed engraving hanging on the wall, in my dream,
+representing precisely one of the instruments played
+on, and I understood that it was called a <em>bourdon</em>.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a>
+It is interesting to observe the profound astonishment
+with which sleeping consciousness apperceives such
+simple reduplication.</p>
+
+<p>In dreams planes of existence that in waking life
+are fundamentally distinct are brought together, so
+that events belonging to different planes move on the
+same plane, and even become combined. Acting and
+life, the picture and the reality, are no longer absolutely
+distinct. Art and life flow in the same channel. The
+reason, doubtless, is that for the dreamer the world of
+waking life, the world of things as they are to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
+waking senses, is closed and cannot even be completely
+recalled. So that all modes of representation are
+strictly on the same level, and it is, therefore, perfectly
+natural and logical that they should stand side by side
+and merge into one another.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<p class="p6">THE LOGIC OF DREAMS</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>All Dreaming is a Process of Reasoning&mdash;The Fundamental Character
+of Reasoning&mdash;Reasoning as a Synthesis of Images&mdash;Dream
+Reasoning Instinctive and Automatic&mdash;It is also Consciously
+carried on&mdash;This a result of the Fundamental Split in Intelligence&mdash;Dissociation&mdash;Dreaming
+as a Disturbance of Apperception.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>I<span class="smcapa">N</span> dreams we are always reasoning. That is a general
+characteristic of dreams which is worth noting, because
+its significance is not usually recognised. It is sometimes
+imagined that reason is in abeyance during sleep.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a>
+So far from this being the case, we may almost be said
+to reason much more during sleep than when we are
+awake. That our reasoning is bad, often even preposterous,
+that it constantly ignores the most elementary
+facts of waking life, scarcely affects the question.
+All dreaming is a process of reasoning. That artful
+confusion of ideas and images which, at the outset, I
+referred to as the most constant feature of dream
+mechanism is nothing but a process of reasoning, a
+perpetual effort to argue out harmoniously the absurdly
+limited and incongruous data present to sleeping consciousness.
+Binet, grounding his conclusions on
+hypnotic experiments, finds that reasoning is the fundamental<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>
+part of all thinking, the very texture of thought.<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a>
+It is founded on perception itself, which already contains
+all the elements of the ancient syllogism. For in
+all perception, as Binet plausibly argues, there is a
+succession of three images, of which the first fuses with
+the second, which, in its turn, suggests the third. Now
+this establishment of new associations, this construction
+of images, which, as we may easily convince ourselves,
+is precisely what takes place in dreaming, is reasoning
+itself.</p>
+
+<p>Reasoning may thus be regarded as a synthesis of
+images suggested by resemblance and contiguity, indeed
+a sort of logical vision, more intense even than
+actual vision, since it is capable of producing hallucinations.
+To reasoning all forms of mental activity may
+finally be reduced; mind, as Wundt has said, is a thing
+that reasons. Or, as H. R. Marshall puts it, 'reason is
+a mode of instinct.'<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> When we apply these general
+statements to dreaming, we may see that the whole
+phenomenon of dreaming is really the same process of
+image formation, based on resemblance and contiguity.
+Every dream is the outcome of this strenuous, wide-ranging
+instinct to reason. The supposed 'imaginative
+faculty,' regarded as so highly active during sleep, is
+the inevitable play of this automatic logic.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The syllogistic arrangement of dream imagery is
+carried on in an absolutely automatic manner; it is
+spontaneous, involuntary, without effort. Sleeping
+consciousness, though all the time it is weaving the data
+that reach it into some pattern of reason with immense
+ingenuity, is quite unaware that it is itself responsible
+for the arguments thus presented. In the evening,
+before going to bed, I glance casually through a newspaper;
+I see the usual kind of news, revolutionists in
+Russia, Irish affairs, crimes, etc.; I see also a caricature
+of the Liberal Party as a headless horseman on a
+barren plain. During sleep these unconnected impressions
+revive, float into dream consciousness, and spontaneously
+fall into as reasonable a whole as could be
+expected. I dream that by some chemical or mechanical
+device a man has succeeded in conveying the impression
+that he is headless, and is preparing to gallop across
+some district in Russia, with the idea of making so
+mysterious an impression upon the credulous population
+that he will be accepted as a great religious
+prophet. I distinctly see him careering across sands
+like those of the seashore, but I avoid going near him.
+Then I see figures approaching him in the far distance,
+and his progress ceases. I learn subsequently that he
+has been arrested and found to be an Irish criminal. A
+coherent story is thus formed out of a few random
+impressions.</p>
+
+<p>All such typical dreams are syllogistic. There is,
+that is to say, as Binet expresses it, the establishment
+of an association between two states of consciousness<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+by means of an intermediate state which resembles the
+first, is associated with the second, and by fusing with
+the first associates it with the second. In this dream,
+for instance, we have the three terms of (1) headless
+horseman, (2) revolutionary crime, and (3) Russia and
+Ireland. The intermediate term, by the fact that it
+resembles the first, and is contiguous in the mind with
+the third, seems to fuse the first and the third terms, so
+that the headless horseman becomes an Irish criminal
+in Russia. In dreaming life, as in waking life, our minds
+are always moving by the construction of similar syllogisms,
+marked by more or less freedom and audacity.</p>
+
+<p>It is unnecessary to multiply examples of the instinctive
+and persistent efforts on the part of the sleeping
+mind to construct a coherent whole out of the incongruous
+elements that come before it; nearly every
+dream furnishes some proof of this profoundly rooted impulse.<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a>
+It is instructive, however, to consider the
+nature and the limitations of dreaming reason.</p>
+
+<p>This rationalisation and logical construction of
+imagery, it is necessary to realise, occurs at the very
+threshold of sleeping consciousness. The dreamer
+makes no effort to arrange isolated imagery; the
+arrangement has already occurred when the imagery
+comes to the focus of sleeping consciousness; so that
+this reasoning and arranging process is so fundamental
+and instinctive that it occurs in a region which may be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>
+said to be subconscious to dreaming consciousness. If
+it were not so our dreams would never be real to us, for
+even dreaming consciousness could not accept as real
+a hallucination which it had itself arranged. In this
+sense it is true that, to some extent, our dreams are often
+based on an ultimate personal and emotional foundation.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p>
+
+<p>But this ingeniously guided and rationalised confusion
+of imagery by no means covers the whole of the
+reasoning process in dreams. This is a double process.
+It is first manifested subconsciously in the formation
+of dream imagery, and then it is manifested consciously
+in the dreamer's reaction to the imagery presented to
+him. Every dream is made up of action and reaction
+between a pseudo-universe and a freely responding
+individual. On the one side there is the irresistibly
+imposed imagery&mdash;really, though we know it not,
+conditioned and instinctively moulded by our own
+organism&mdash;which stands for what in our waking hours
+we may term God and Nature; on the other side is the
+Soul struggling with all its might, and very inefficient
+means, against the awful powers that oppose it. The
+problem of the waking world is presented over again<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>
+in this battle between the dreaming protagonist and his
+dreamed fate. Both of these elements are instinctively
+reasoned out, consciously or subconsciously; both are
+imperfect fragments from the rich reservoir of human
+personality.</p>
+
+<p>The things that happen to us in dreams, the pseudo-external
+world that is presented to sleeping consciousness&mdash;the
+imagery, that is, that floats before the mental
+eye of sleep&mdash;are a perpetual source of astonishment
+and argument to the dreamer. A large part of dreaming
+activity is concerned with the attempt to explain and
+reason out the phenomena we thus encounter, to construct
+a theory of them, or to determine the attitude
+which we ought to take up with regard to them. Most
+dreams will furnish evidence of this reasoning process.</p>
+
+<p>Thus a lady dreamed that an acquaintance wished to
+send a small sum of money to a person in Ireland. She
+rashly offered to take it over to Ireland. On arriving
+home she began to repent of her promise, as the weather
+was extremely wild and cold. She proceeded, however,
+to make preparations for dressing warmly, and went to
+consult an Irish friend, who said she would have to be
+floated over to Ireland tightly jammed in a crab basket.
+On returning home she fully discussed the matter with
+her husband, who thought it would be folly to undertake
+such a journey, and she finally relinquished it, with
+great relief. In this dream&mdash;the elements of which
+could all be accounted for&mdash;the association between
+sending money and the post-office, which would at once
+occur to waking consciousness, was closed; consciousness<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>
+was a prey to such suggestions as reached it, but on
+the basis of those suggestions it reasoned and concluded
+quite sagaciously.</p>
+
+<p>Again (after looking at photographs of paintings and
+statuary, and also reading about the theatre), I
+dreamed that I was at the theatre, and that the performers
+were acting and dancing in a more or less, in
+some cases completely, nude state, but with admirable
+propriety and grace, and very charming effect. At
+first I was extremely surprised at so remarkable an
+innovation; but then I reflected that the beginnings
+of such a movement must have long been in progress
+on the stage unknown to me; and I proceeded to
+rehearse the reasons which made such a movement
+desirable. On another occasion, I dreamed that I was
+in the large <em>plaza</em> of a Spanish city (Pamplona possibly
+furnishing the elements of the picture), and that the
+governor emerged from his residence facing the square
+and began talking in English to the subordinate officials
+who were waiting to receive him. The real reason why
+he talked English was, of course, the simple one that
+he spoke the language native to the dreamer. But in
+my dream I was extremely puzzled why he should speak
+English. I looked carefully into his face to assure
+myself that he was not really English, and I finally
+concluded that he was speaking English in order not
+to be understood by the bystanders. Once more, I
+dreamed that I was looking at an architectural drawing
+of a steeple, of quite original design, somewhat in the
+shape of a cross, but very elongated. I attempted in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+my dream to account for this elongation, and concluded
+that it was intended to neutralise the foreshortening
+caused when the steeple would be looked at from below.</p>
+
+<p>There is, we here see afresh, a fundamental split
+in dreaming intelligence. On the one side there is the
+subconscious, yet often highly intelligent, combination
+of imagery along rational although often bizarre lines.
+On the other side is concentrated the conscious intelligence
+of the dreamer, struggling to comprehend and
+explain the problems offered by the pseudo-external
+imagery thus presented to it. One might almost say
+that in dreams subconscious intelligence is playing a
+game with conscious intelligence. In a dream previously
+narrated (p. 43) subconscious intelligence offered
+to my dreaming consciousness the mysterious substance
+<em>selvdrolla</em>, and bid me guess what it was; I could not
+guess. And subconscious intelligence presented the
+drawing of the elongated steeple, and I was able to offer
+an explanation which seems fairly satisfactory. So
+that, in the world of dreams, it may be said, we see over
+again the process which, James Hinton was accustomed
+to say, we see in the universe of our waking life; God
+or Nature playing with man, compelling him to join
+in a game of hide-and-seek, and setting him problems
+which he must solve as best he can. It may well be,
+one may add, that the dream process furnishes the key
+to the metaphysical and even, indeed, the physical
+problems of our waking thoughts, and that the puzzles
+of the universe are questions that we ourselves unconsciously
+invent for ourselves to solve.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>We can never go behind the fantastic universe of our
+dreams. The validity of that universe is for dreaming
+consciousness unassailable. We may try to understand
+it and explain it, but we can never deny it, any
+more than we can deny the universe of our waking life,
+however we may attempt to analyse it. Dreaming
+consciousness never realises that the universe that
+confronts it springs from the same source as itself springs.
+I dreamed that a man was looking at his own house
+from a distance, and on the balcony he saw his daughter
+and a man by her side. 'Who is that man flirting with
+my daughter?' he asked. He produced a field-glass,
+and, on looking through it, he exclaimed: 'Good
+Heavens, it's myself!' Dreaming consciousness
+accepted this situation with perfect equanimity and
+solemnity. In the dream world there is, indeed, nothing
+else to do. We may puzzle over the facts presented to
+us; we may try to explain them; but it would be
+futile to deny them, even when they involve the possibility
+of a man being in two places at the same time.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p>
+
+<p>Only to a few people there comes occasionally in
+dreams a dim realisation of the unreality of the experience:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+'After all, it does not matter,' they are able
+to say to themselves with more or less conviction, 'this
+is only a dream.' Thus one lady, dreaming that she is
+trying to kill three large snakes by stamping on them,
+wonders, while still dreaming, what it signifies to dream
+of snakes,<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> and another lady, when she dreams that she
+is in any unpleasant position&mdash;about to be shot, for
+instance&mdash;often says to herself: 'Never mind, I shall
+wake before it happens.'</p>
+
+<p>I have never detected in my own dreams any recognition
+that they are dreams. I may say, indeed, that
+I do not consider that such a thing is really possible,
+though it has been borne witness to by many philosophers
+and others from Aristotle and Synesius and
+Gassendi onwards. The phenomenon occurs; the
+person who says to himself that he is dreaming believes
+that he is still dreaming, but one may be permitted to
+doubt that he is. It seems far more probable that he
+has for a moment, without realising it, emerged at the
+waking surface of consciousness.<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> The only approach
+to a recognition of dreaming as dreaming that I have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>
+experienced, is connected with the reduplication that
+may sometimes occur, and the sense of a fatalistic
+predetermination. Thus I dreamed (with nothing that
+could suggest the dream) that I was one of a group of
+people who, as I realised, were carrying out a drama
+in which by force of circumstance I was destined to be
+the villain, having, by bad treatment, been driven to
+revenge. I knew at the outset how events would turn
+out, and yet, though it seemed real life, I felt vaguely
+that it was all a play that was merely being rehearsed.
+I had attained in the world of dreams to the Shakespearian
+feeling that it was all a stage, and I merely a
+player. So we may become the Prosperos of the life
+of dreams.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p>
+
+<p>This quality of dreaming consciousness is a manifestation,
+and the chief one, of what is called <em>dissociation</em>.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a>
+In dissociation we have a phenomenon which
+runs through the whole of the dreaming life, and is
+scarcely less fundamental than the process of fusion
+by which the imagery is built up. The fact that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+reasoning of dreams is usually bad, is due partly to the
+absence of memory elements that would be present
+to waking consciousness, and partly to the absence of
+sensory elements to check the false reasoning which,
+without them, appears to us conclusive. That is to
+say, that there is a process of dissociation by which
+ordinary channels of association are temporarily blocked,
+perhaps by exhaustion of their conductive elements, and
+the conditions are prepared for the formation of the
+hallucination. It is, as Parish has argued, in sleep and
+in those sleep-resembling states called hypnagogic
+that a condition of dissociation leading to hallucination
+is most apt to occur.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p>
+
+<p>Thus it is that though the psychic frontier of the
+sleeping state is more extended than that of the normal
+waking state, the focus of sleeping consciousness is more
+contracted than that of waking consciousness. In
+other words, while facts are liable to drift from a very
+wide psychic distance under our dreaming attention,
+we cannot direct the searchlight of that attention at
+will over so wide a field as when we are awake. We deal
+with fewer psychic elements, though those elements
+are drawn from a wider field.</p>
+
+<p>The psychology of 'attention' is, indeed, a very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>
+disputed matter.<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> There is no agreement as to whether
+it is central or peripheral, motor or sensory. As we have
+seen in the previous chapter, it seems reasonable to
+conclude, according to a convenient distinction established
+by Ribot, that spontaneous attention is persistent
+during sleep, but voluntary attention is at a
+minimum. In some such way, it seems, whatever
+theory of attention we adopt, we have to recognise that
+in dreams the attention is limited.</p>
+
+<p>Such a position is fortified by the conclusion of those
+who look at the problem, not so much in terms of
+attention as in terms of apperception. Apperception,
+according to Wundt, differs from perception in that
+while the latter is the appearance of a content in consciousness,
+the former is its reception into the state of
+attention. Or, as Stout defines it, apperception is 'the
+process by which a mental system appropriates a new
+element, or otherwise receives a fresh determination.'<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a>
+Apperception is, therefore, the final stage of attention,
+and ultimately, as Wundt remarks, it is one with will.
+Apperception and will, as most psychologists consider,
+like attention, are enfeebled and diminished, if not
+abolished, in sleep.</p>
+
+<p>In dreams, it thus comes about, we accept the facts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
+presented to us&mdash;that is the fundamental assumption
+of dream life&mdash;and we argue about those 'facts' with
+the help of all the mental resources which are at our
+disposal, only those resources are frequently inadequate.
+Sometimes they are startlingly inadequate, to such an
+extent, indeed, that we are unaware of possibilities
+which would be the very first to suggest themselves to
+waking consciousness. Thus the lady who wished to
+send a small sum of money to Ireland is not aware of
+the existence of postal orders, and when she decides to
+convey the money herself, she is not aware of the
+existence of boat-trains, or even of boats; she might
+have been living in palaeolithic times. She discusses
+the question in a clear and logical manner with the
+resources at her disposal, and reaches a rational conclusion,
+but considerations which would be the first
+to occur to waking consciousness are at the moment
+absent from sleeping consciousness; whole mental
+tracts have been dissociated, switched off from communication
+with consciousness; they are 'asleep,' even to
+sleeping consciousness.<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p>
+
+<p>The result is that we are not only dominated by the
+suggestion of our visions, but we are unable adequately
+to appreciate and criticise the situations which are
+presented to us. We instinctively continue to reason,
+and to reason clearly and logically with the material at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+our disposal, but our reasoning is hopelessly absurd.
+We perceive in dreams, but we do not apperceive;
+we cannot, that is to say, test and sift the new experience,
+and co-ordinate it adequately with the whole
+body of our acquired mental possessions. The phenomena
+of dreaming furnish a delightful illustration of
+the fact that reasoning, in its rough form, is only the
+crudest and most elementary form of intellectual
+operation, and that the finer forms of thinking involve
+much more than logic. 'All the thinking in the world,'
+as Goethe puts it, 'will not lead us to thought.'</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<p class="p6">THE SENSES IN DREAMS</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>All Dreams probably contain both Presentative and Representative
+Elements&mdash;The Influence of Tactile Sensations on Dreams&mdash;Dreams
+excited by Auditory Stimuli&mdash;Dreams aroused by Odours
+and Tastes&mdash;The Influence of Visual Stimuli&mdash;Difficulty of distinguishing
+between Actual and Imagined Sensory Excitations&mdash;The
+Influence of Internal Visceral Stimuli on Dreaming&mdash;Erotic
+Dreams&mdash;Vesical Dreams&mdash;Cardiac Dreams and their Symbolism&mdash;Prodromic
+Dreams&mdash;Prophetic Dreams.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>At the outset I adopted provisionally the usual classification
+of dreams into two classes: the peripheral or
+presentative group, excited by a stimulus from without,
+and the central or representative group, having its
+elements in memories. If, however, we look carefully
+at the matter, in the light of the experiences which we
+have encountered, it will be found that this classification,
+however superficially convenient it may be,
+fails to correspond to any radical duality of dream
+phenomena. When we closely question our dream
+experiences, it ceases to be clear that they really fall
+into two groups at all.</p>
+
+<p>On the one hand, it would appear that most, perhaps,
+indeed, all dreams that are sufficiently vivid to be
+clearly remembered on awakening, have received an
+initial stimulus from some external, or at all events,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+peripheral source.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> There is something unusual or
+uncomfortable in the sleeper's position, or he has been
+subjected to some slight unusual strain which has
+modified his nervous condition, or there has been some
+deviation from his usual diet, or a physiological stress
+of some kind is making itself felt within him&mdash;careful
+self-questioning constantly reveals the actual or probable
+existence of some external or certainly peripheral
+stimulus of this kind. So that we seem entitled to say
+that in all dreams there is probably a presentative
+element.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, an even more cursory investigation
+of our dream life suffices to show that in every
+dream there is also a representative element. No
+dream can be said to be strictly and literally presentative.
+If, when I am seemingly asleep, a person speaks to me,
+and I become conscious that he is present and speaking,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>
+I am not entitled to say that I 'dream' it. A consciousness
+which perceives facts in the same way as
+they may be perceived by waking consciousness is not
+a dreaming consciousness. So that there are, in the
+literal sense, no presentative dreams. What happens
+is that the stimulus, instead of being presented directly
+to consciousness, and recognised for what it is to waking
+consciousness, serves to arouse old memories and ideas
+which dream consciousness accepts as a reasonable
+explanation of the external or peripheral stimulus.
+The stimulus may be said to be, in a sense, the cause
+of the dream, but the dream itself remains central,
+and as truly a combined picture of mental images as
+though there were no known peripheral stimulus at all.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, while it is true that the division of dreams
+into two classes corresponds to a recognisable distinction,
+it is yet a superficial and unimportant distinction.
+It is likely that all dreams have a peripheral or presentative
+element, and certain that they all have a
+central or representative element. This will become
+clearer if we now proceed to discuss those dreams which
+have, demonstrably, their exciting cause in some external
+or internal organic stimulus.</p>
+
+<p>The world which we enter through the portal of sleep
+presents such obvious and serious limitations that we
+are apt to under-estimate its real richness and variety.
+In some respects, indeed, we can accomplish in sleep
+what is beyond our reach awake. Thus it sometimes
+happens that we reason better in sleep than when awake,
+that we may find in dreams the solutions of difficulties<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>
+which escape us awake, and that we may remember
+things which, when awake, we had forgotten. But
+even within the ordinary range of experience, it is interesting
+to note that our dreams contain the same
+elements as our waking life. The sensory activities
+which stir us during the day are equally active, though
+in strange transformations, in the world of dreams.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that all the senses may furnish the
+medium through which stimuli may reach sleeping
+consciousness; though touch and hearing are doubtless
+the main channels to dream life. The eyes are closed,
+so that while the chief parts of our dream life are in
+terms of vision, direct visual stimuli can only be a
+very dim and uncertain influence. But no sense is
+absolutely excluded from activity in dreams.<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p>
+
+<p>Heat or cold sensations and pressure sensations, as
+well as their anaesthetic absence, undoubtedly play an
+important part in explaining various kinds of dreams.
+They do not necessarily result in rememberable dreams,
+even although it is possible that they still affect the
+current of sleeping consciousness. It is possible to press
+and massage the body of a sleeper all over, gently but
+firmly, without interrupting sleep. When the pressure<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+reaches a considerable degree of vigour, the sleeper may
+move a muscle, perhaps the lips, even an arm, may go
+so far as to half wake and move the whole body. All
+these movements suggest that they have accompaniments
+on the psychic side, yet, on finally awakening,
+the sleeper may be unable to recall any memory of the
+occurrence, or any vestige of a dream.</p>
+
+<p>In a certain proportion of cases, however, a dream
+results. Thus a lady dreams that, with a number of
+other people, she is on board a ship which is rocking
+heavily, and on awakening she finds that her large
+dog is on the bed, vigorously scratching himself. The
+ship has clearly been the theory invented by sleeping
+consciousness to account for the unfamiliar sensations
+of movement.</p>
+
+<p>When living in the south of Spain, I awoke early one
+morning, and heard a mosquito buzzing. I fell asleep
+again and dreamed that a huge insect&mdash;as large as a
+lobster, but flat like a cockroach, and scarlet in colour&mdash;had
+alighted on my hand. The creature had two long
+horns, and from each of these proceeded numerous very
+long and delicate filaments which were inserted into my
+hand to a considerable depth. I had to cut the creature
+in half, and draw away the forepart, which was attached
+to my hand, with great care lest I should leave portions
+of the filaments in the flesh. This animal seemed all
+the more unpleasant because it was noiseless, and its
+attacks, I thought, imperceptible. I appeared to be
+attacked by a succession of them. On awakening,
+there was irritation of the left wrist, as though the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+mosquito had bitten me, although I had long ceased to
+be bitten by mosquitoes. This dream, it will be seen,
+corresponds in an unusually close way to the idea of a
+presentative dream; imagination followed reality in
+presenting an insect as the cause of the sensation experienced
+(possibly because I had actually heard the
+mosquito when awake), but still, as in all dreams, the
+process was mainly central, and imagination was freely
+exercised in creating a creature adequate to explain
+the doubtless vague and massive cutaneous sensations
+transmitted to sleeping consciousness.<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a></p>
+
+<p>Perhaps one of the commonest skin sensations to
+excite dream formation is that of cold due to disturbance
+of the bed coverings. The following example may
+serve as an illustration of this class. I dreamed that I
+was in an hotel, mounting many flights of stairs, until
+I entered a room where the chambermaid was making
+the bed; the white bedclothes were scattered over
+everything, and looked to me like snow; then I became
+conscious that I was very cold, and it appeared to me
+that I really was surrounded by snow, for the chambermaid
+remarked that I was very courageous to come up
+so high in the hotel, very few people venturing to do so
+on account of the great cold at this height. I awoke to
+find that it was a cold night, and that I was entangled
+in the sheets, and partly uncovered. Nothing else<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
+had occurred to suggest this dream which sleeping
+consciousness had elaborated out of the two associated
+ideas of altitude and snow in order to explain the actual
+sensations experienced. It is noteworthy that, as in
+the dream just before narrated, there was here also a
+link with reality, this time furnished by the disarranged
+bedclothes.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a></p>
+
+<p>The auditory experiences of dreams, to a greater
+extent perhaps than those involving the sense of
+touch, may be based on spontaneous disturbances
+within the sensory mechanism. This is notably also
+the case with visual experiences, and in many respects
+the conditions in the ear are analogous. Apart from
+increased resonance of the ear, or hyperaesthesia of the
+auditory nerve, producing special sensitiveness to sounds,
+an increased flow of blood through the ear, as well as
+muscular contractions and mucous plugs in the external
+ear, furnish the faint rudimentary noises which, in sleep,
+may constitute the nucleus around which hallucinations
+crystallise. Disease of the ear may obviously act in
+the same way, but, even apart from actual disease,
+various nervous disturbances favour the production
+of auditory hallucinations during sleep, and, in marked
+cases, even awake.</p>
+
+<p>We may dream of listening to music in the absence
+of all external sounds having any musical character.
+In such cases, no doubt, the actual conditions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>
+within the auditory mechanism are suggesting music
+to the brain, but the resulting music seems usually to
+be less definite, less rememberable, than when it forms
+around the nucleus of an external series of sounds.
+In many of these cases it is probable that we do not
+hear music in our dream; we are simply under conditions
+in which we imagine that we hear music. Thus,
+on going to bed soon after supper, but not perceptibly
+suffering from indigestion, I dreamed that I was present
+at a public meeting combined with an orchestral concert.
+A speech was to be made by a man who looked
+like an old sailor or soldier, and meanwhile the
+orchestra was playing. The speaker&mdash;unaccustomed, I
+gathered, to the etiquette of such a meeting&mdash;suddenly
+interrupted the orchestra by a remark, and the surprised
+conductor stopped the performance for a moment and
+then continued, subsequent remarks by the speaker
+failing to affect the music, which continued to the end,
+becoming more lively and vigorous in character. But
+what the music was, I knew not at the time, nor could I
+recall any fragment of it on awakening. It is even
+possible that such a dream is mainly visual, and that no
+hallucinatory music is heard, its occurrence being merely
+deduced from the nature of the vision.</p>
+
+<p>If the dreams evoked by sounds within the ear are
+usually difficult to trace in normal persons under
+ordinary circumstances, this is not the case with dreams
+suggested by sounds which strike the ear from without.
+These constitute one of the most interesting groups
+of dreams as well as one of the easiest to explain, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+they are very frequent.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> Their mechanism may,
+indeed, be observed under some circumstances even in
+the waking state. In some persons, music, a voice, a
+bird's song, even a word, a comment, arouse phantoms
+of colour and form, light and shade, coloured clouds,
+streams, waves, etc. The phenomena are especially
+rich when produced by an orchestra. Such 'music-phantoms,'
+as they are termed, are a special and freer
+development of the narrow and rigid phenomena of
+'colour-hearing.' They have been studied by Dr.
+Ruths.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> We have to remember that music possesses a
+fundamental motor basis. As Dauriac remarks, music
+may be defined as 'movement clothed with sound.'<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a>
+It tends to produce movement, or, failing movement,
+to produce motor imagery.<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></p>
+
+<p>Dreams excited by definite external auditory stimuli
+may be of various character. A not uncommon source&mdash;especially
+for those who live on a wind-swept coast&mdash;is
+the occurrence of storms. A lady dreams, for instance,
+that her little dog has fallen off a high cliff and that she<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>
+hears his shrieks; it was an extremely windy night, and
+her window was open. The dream has some resemblance
+to one which Burdach recorded that he shared with a companion
+in an hotel during a storm; they both dreamed
+they were wandering at night among high precipices.</p>
+
+<p>On one occasion I awoke in the middle of a windy
+night imagining I had been listening to an opera of
+Gluck's (which in reality I had never heard), and experiencing
+all the sense of delicious waves of melody
+which one actually experiences in listening to such
+operas as <em>Alceste</em>. A fragment of a melody I had heard
+in the dream still persisted in my memory on awaking,
+so that I could mentally repeat it, when it seemed as
+agreeable as in the dream, though unfamiliar.</p>
+
+<p>The following dream had also a similar origin. I
+imagined that I was assisting at a spectacle of somewhat
+dubious erotic character, in company with other persons
+who, out of modesty, covered their faces with their
+hands with the decorous gesture which recalled (as
+dream consciousness evidently realised) that of people
+during prayer in church. Thereupon a beautiful voice
+was heard in the background loudly chanting a versicle
+of the Te Deum. This awoke me, and I seemed to
+realise when half awake that the voice I had heard in
+the dream was a real voice. There had, however, been
+no real voice, only the loud howling of the wind and the
+beating of the rain on the window panes.</p>
+
+<p>Once, on a very windy night, and when, perhaps,
+suffering a trifling disturbance of health&mdash;for there was
+slight pleurodynic pain the next morning&mdash;I dreamed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>
+I was quietly at home with friends, when suddenly the
+sky became illuminated. We found that this was due
+to steady and continuous lightning, a state of things
+which remained throughout the dream, the sky presenting
+the appearance of a cracked and crushed sheet
+of melting ice.<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> By and by, fragments of buildings
+and similar debris were whirled past in the air, and I
+caught sight of a woman driven above me by her skirts.
+We now realised the imminent approach of a terrific
+cyclone which, at any moment, might carry the house
+and ourselves away. I remembered no more.</p>
+
+<p>Yet another dream may be mentioned as likewise
+directly due to a violent storm and the rattling of a
+window near my bed. The latter sound evidently
+recalled to sleeping consciousness the sound of the
+rattling window of a railway train, and I dreamed that
+I was travelling to Berlin with a medical friend. There
+were the accompaniments, not unfamiliar in dreams,
+of rushing along interminable platforms, and up and
+down endless stairs, finding myself in a carriage of the
+wrong class, with, in consequence, more wandering along
+corridors, and finally finding that my friend had been
+left behind. The character of the dream may have been
+influenced by slight indigestion. In this dream, unlike
+those already recorded as due to external stimuli, the
+elements of the dream were not the pure invention of
+dreaming imagination, but compacted entirely of ideas
+that had been recently familiar.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The following dream was due to an auditory stimulus
+of different character. I dreamed that I was listening
+to a performance of Haydn's <cite>Creation</cite>, the orchestral
+part of the performance seeming to consist chiefly of the
+very realistic representation of the song of birds, though
+I could not identify the note of any particular bird.
+Then followed solos by male singers, whom I saw,
+especially one who attracted my attention by singing
+at the close in a scarcely audible voice. On awakening,
+the source of the dream was not immediately obvious,
+but I soon realised that it was the song of a canary in
+another room. I had never heard Haydn's <cite>Creation</cite>,
+except in fragments, nor thought of it at any recent
+period; its reputation as regards the realistic representation
+of natural sounds had evidently caused it to
+be put forward by sleeping consciousness as a plausible
+explanation of the sounds heard, and the visual centres
+had accepted the theory.</p>
+
+<p>However far-fetched and improbable our dreams may
+seem to the waking mind, they are, from the point of
+view of the sleeping mind, serious and careful attempts
+to construct an adequate theory of the phenomena.
+The imagery is sought from far afield only to fit the facts
+more accurately. Thus a lady dreamed that her dog
+was being crushed out flat in a large old-fashioned box-mangle.
+She awoke to find that water from a burst
+pipe was falling from the ceiling on to the floor on the
+landing outside her door, close to where the dog had his
+bed. She had never seen a mangle of this kind since
+she was a child, or had any occasion to think of it, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>
+the rhythm and sound of it somewhat resembled that
+of the falling water.</p>
+
+<p>One more example of an auditory dream may be given.
+I dreamed that I was back in a schoolroom of my boyhood,
+with two or three of the present masters. The
+room had been entirely changed, and it contained much
+new school apparatus and, notably, on a table, several
+miniature engines, of different character, actually working.
+I said to the masters that I wished all these
+apparatus had been there twenty years ago (a considerable
+under-estimate of the actual interval since I left
+that schoolroom), so that I might have enjoyed the
+benefit of them. 'All life is made up of machinery,'
+I found myself uttering aloud as I awoke, 'and unless
+you understand machinery you can't understand life.'
+It was not till some moments later that I became
+conscious of a faint whirring sound which puzzled me
+till I realised that it was the sound of distant machinery
+entering through the open window. This had, undoubtedly,
+suggested the engines of the dream, though
+I had not been conscious in my dream of hearing any
+sounds, and the small size of the dream engines corresponded
+to the faintness of the actual sounds.</p>
+
+<p>Dreams aroused by odours do not usually seem to
+occur except on the experimental application of them
+to the sleeper's nostrils, and experiments in this direction
+are not usually successful.<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> Occasionally, however,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>smell dreams occur without any traceable sensory
+source, and Grace Andrews, for instance, records a
+dream of the sea, accompanied by the seashore odour,
+'a pure and rich sensation of smell.' In my own case
+olfactory dreams have been rare and insignificant.</p>
+
+<p>Taste, as we usually understand it, really involves,
+as is well known, an element of smell, and taste dreams
+of this kind seem to occur from time to time under the
+influence of any slight disturbance of the mucous
+membrane of the mouth or slight indigestion. It is
+possible that the latter element was present in the
+following dream: I imagined that, following the example
+of a friend, I gave some cigarettes to a tramp we
+had casually met, and that, in return, we felt compelled
+to drink some raw gin he carried. I did so with some
+misgiving as to the possible results of drinking from a
+tramp's flask, but although in real life I had not tasted
+gin for many years, the hot burning taste of the spirit
+was very distinct. On awakening, my lips seemed hot
+and dry, and it was doubtless this labial sensation which
+led dream consciousness to seek a plausible explanation
+in cigarettes and spirits. Although the spirit seemed to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
+have the specific flavour of gin, it is always difficult, if
+not impossible, in dream sensations, to distinguish
+between what one feels and what one merely concludes
+that one feels. In such a case, that is to say, it remains
+doubtful whether the labial sensation evokes the specific
+hallucination of gin, or whether it merely suggests to
+sleeping consciousness that the gin has been tasted,
+much as it is possible to suggest to the hypnotised
+person that the substance he is tasting is a quite
+different substance, that salt is sugar, or that water
+is wine.</p>
+
+<p>As with dreams of smell, it is not always possible to
+detect any external stimulation as the cause for a taste
+or pseudo-taste dream.<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a> This may be illustrated by a
+dream which belongs strictly to the tactile class; I
+dreamed that I called upon a medical acquaintance
+whose assistant I found in a dark surgery. I absently
+took up a broken medicine bottle and put it to my
+mouth, when my friend came in. I spoke to him on
+some medical topic, but he entered his carriage, and was
+driven off before he had time to answer me. I then
+found that my mouth was full of fragments of broken
+colourless glass, which I carefully removed. This
+dream was constructed, in the manner which has
+been often illustrated in the previous pages, of small
+separate incidents which had occurred during the
+immediately preceding days. One of the incidents<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
+was the fact that I had myself smashed a little coloured
+(not colourless) glass and carefully picked up the fragments.
+But the vividest part of the dream was the
+sensation of broken glass in the mouth, and on awaking
+no sensation could be detected in the mouth. So that
+though the most plausible explanation of such a dream
+would be the theory that the recent experience with
+broken glass had suggested to sleeping consciousness
+the explanation of an unpleasant sensation actually
+experienced in the mouth, there was nothing whatever
+to support that theory.</p>
+
+<p>The falling of light on the closed eyes, or the half
+opening of the eyes, has been found to serve as a visual
+stimulus to dreams, but I have myself no decisive
+evidence on this point.<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a> In the case of a lady who
+dreamed that a lover was in her room, and that suddenly
+the door opened, and she saw her mother standing before
+her with a bright light, which awoke her, she could
+find nothing in the room, no light, to account for the
+dream. It is, of course, unnecessary for a dream of a
+bright light to be actually produced by an external
+visual stimulus accompanying the dream, for the
+spontaneous retino-cerebral activity itself produces
+sensations of light. Thus, on the night after a pleasant
+walk in a country lane through which the setting sun<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
+shone, I dreamed that I was walking along a lane in
+which I saw a bright light and my own vast shadow in
+front of me. It would seem that, on the whole, the
+curtain of the eyelids effectually shuts out light from
+the eye during sleep, and that the sense which is more
+active during the day than any other is the most carefully
+guarded of all during the night. The peculiarly
+delicate and unstable nature of the chemical basis of
+vision makes up for this protection from external
+stimulation, and by its spontaneous activity ensures
+that even in dreams vision is the predominant
+sense.</p>
+
+<p>What we find as regards the part played in dreams
+by excitations arising from the external specific senses
+holds good also for excitations arising from internal
+organic sensations. The main difference is that the
+stimuli which reach sleeping consciousness from the
+organs within the body&mdash;the stomach, heart, lungs,
+sexual apparatus, bladder, etc.&mdash;are usually more vague
+and massive, more difficult to recognise and identify,
+than are the more specific sensory stimuli which reach
+us from without. These visceral excitations may be
+transformed within the brain into imagery so unlike
+themselves that we may refuse to recognise them, and
+must frequently experience some amount of hesitation.
+Evidence of this fact will come before us in due course
+later on. I only wish to refer here to the more obvious
+part played in dreams by sensations arising within
+the body.</p>
+
+<p>We should expect that the visceral processes to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
+translated most clearly and directly into dreaming
+consciousness would be, not those which are regular
+and continuous, but those which assert themselves,
+more or less imperiously, at intervals. This is actually
+the case. The heart, for instance, probably plays a
+part in dreams only when disturbed in its action, and
+even then nearly always a very transformed part. On
+the other hand, when the impulses of the generative
+system arise in sleep to manifest themselves in erotic
+dreams, the resulting imagery is usually very clear, and
+with very definite and recognisable sexual associations.
+Erotic dreams are, indeed, in both men and women,
+among the most vivid of all dreams, and the most
+emotionally potent.<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p>
+
+<p>The bladder, again, is an internal organ which makes
+its functional needs felt only at intervals, and thus,
+when those needs occur during sleep, they become
+conscious in imagery which easily recalls the source
+of the stimulus. It may, indeed, be said that vesical
+dreams are full of instruction in the light they throw
+on the psychology of dreaming. This has long been
+well known to writers on dreams. Thus Scherner,
+many years ago, insisted on the interest and importance
+of vesical dreams. In women, especially, he regarded
+them as very frequent and developed, most dream
+stories of women, he considered, containing symbolic
+representations of this organic irritation. Water, in
+some form or another, is naturally the commonest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>
+symbol. In Scherner's opinion, also, all dreams of fish
+playing in the water are vesical dreams.<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p>
+
+<p>In its simplest form the vesical dream is what Freud
+would term a wish-dream of infantile type, frequently
+in the magnified form common in dreams, and sometimes
+transferred from the dreamer himself to become
+objectified in another person, or even an inanimate
+object.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> There is, however, a very important difference
+according to whether these dreams take place in an
+adult or in a young child. In the adult it almost invariably
+happens that the dream act remains merely
+a dream act, and no corresponding motor impulse is
+transmitted to the bladder. But when such dreams
+occur to very young children, in whose brains the motor
+inhibitory mechanism is not yet fully established, it
+not infrequently happens that the motor impulse is
+transmitted and the expulsive action of the bladder is
+set up in sympathy with the imagery of the dream;
+thus is established the condition known as nocturnal
+enuresis. As the young brain develops, and inhibition
+becomes more perfect, these vesical dreams cease to
+exert any actual effect on the bladder, even when, as
+sometimes happens, they continue to occur at intervals<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+in adult life.<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> Occasionally, both in those who have
+and those who have not suffered from nocturnal enuresis
+in childhood (especially women), vesical dreams of this
+character may occur without even any real distension
+of the bladder. In some of these cases the dream can
+be shown to be due to a reminiscence or suggestion from
+the waking life of the previous day. Dreams stimulated
+by organic sensations from within are thus found
+to resemble those proceeding from sensory sensations
+from without in that they are both exactly simulated
+by dreams which are mainly of central origin.</p>
+
+<p>When we turn to those internal organs of the body
+which normally carry on their functions in a constant
+and equable manner, seldom or never obtruding themselves
+into the sphere of consciousness, any disturbance
+of function seems much less likely to be translated into
+dream consciousness in a simple and direct form. It is
+sufficient to take the example of the heart. When the
+heart is acting normally any consciousness of its action
+is as rare asleep as awake. Even when cardiac action
+is disturbed, either by disease or by temporary excitement,
+dream consciousness seldom realises the
+physical cause of the disturbance. Occasionally, indeed,
+the cardiac disturbance may reach sleeping
+consciousness without any very remote transformation;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+thus a lady dreams that she is fainting while
+really breathing in a slightly laboured and spasmodic
+way; but at another period the same lady, at a time
+when she was suffering from some degree of heart
+weakness, dreamed one night, when the trouble was
+specially marked, that she was driving sweating horses
+up a steep hill, urging them on with the whip in order
+to avoid an express train which she imagined was behind
+her. This dream of sweating and panting horses
+climbing a hill has been noted by various observers to
+occur in connection with heart trouble.<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a> The real
+difficulty of the panting and struggling heart instinctively
+finds its apparent explanation in a familiar
+spectacle of daily life.</p>
+
+<p>In another case a dreamer awoke from a disturbed
+sleep associated with indigestion, having the impression
+that burglars were tramping upstairs, but immediately
+realised that the tramp of the burglars' feet was really
+the beating of her own heart. Somewhat similarly,
+when suffering from headache, I have dreamed of
+hammering nails into a floor, a theory obviously invented
+to account for the thump of throbbing arteries.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting group of phenomena connected with
+the sensory influences discussed in this chapter is
+furnished by the premonitions of physical disorders
+and diseases sometimes experienced in dreams. A
+physical disturbance may reach sleeping consciousness
+many hours, or even days, before it is perceived by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
+waking consciousness, and become translated into a
+more or less fantastic dream. This has been recognised
+from of old, and Aristotle, for instance, observed that
+dreams magnify sensory excitations, and pointed out
+that they were thus useful to the physician in diagnosing
+symptoms not yet perceptible in the waking state.
+Thus Hammond knew a gentleman who, before an
+attack of hemiplegic paralysis, repeatedly dreamed
+that he had been cut in two down the middle line, and
+could only move on one side, while a young lady who
+dreamed she had swallowed molten lead, though quite
+well on awaking, was attacked by severe tonsilitis
+toward midday. Erythematous conditions of the skin,
+as has been pointed out to me by Dr. Kiernan, who has
+met with numerous cases in point, play an especial
+part in generating these dreams. Jewell, again, mentions
+a girl who dreamed, three days before being
+laid up with typhoid fever, that some one threw
+oil over her and set light to it. Macario, who was,
+perhaps, the first to record and study scientifically the
+dreams of this class, termed them prodromic.<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p>
+
+<p>'Prophetic' dreams, in which the dreamer foresees,
+not a physical condition which is already latent, but an
+external occurrence, belong to an entirely different<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
+class, and need not be discussed in detail here, since they
+are usually fallacious. A fairly common experience
+of this kind is the dream of an unknown person who is
+afterwards met in real life. These dreams fall into two
+groups: in the first the 'prophecy' is based on a
+failure of memory, the dreamer having really seen the
+person before; in the second, the subsequent 'recognition'
+of the person is due to the emotional preparation
+of the dream, and the concentrated expectation. Sante
+de Sanctis, who points this out, gives an experience of
+the kind which happened to the distinguished novelist,
+Capuana, who had a vivid dream of a dark lady, with
+expressive eyes, and three days after met the lady of
+his dream in the street.<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> Women, in a state of emotional
+expectation, have often mistaken dead (or even
+living) persons for missing husbands or children, and
+any one who has observed how, when a noted criminal
+flies from justice, he is soon 'recognised,' from his
+portrait, in the most various parts of the world, will
+have no difficulty in believing that it is easily possible
+to 'recognise' people from dream portraits, which are
+much vaguer than photographs. That there are other
+prophetic dreams, less easy to account for, I am ready
+to admit, though they have not come under my own
+immediate observation.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<p class="p6">EMOTION IN DREAMS</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>Emotion and Imagination&mdash;How Stimuli are transformed into Emotion&mdash;Somnambulism&mdash;The
+Failure of Movement in Dreams&mdash;Nightmare&mdash;Influence
+of the approach of Awakening on imagined
+Dream Movements&mdash;The Magnification of Imagery&mdash;Peripheral
+and Cerebral Conditions combine to produce this Imaginative
+Heightening&mdash;Emotion in Sleep also Heightened&mdash;Dreams formed
+to explain Heightened Emotions of unknown origin&mdash;The fundamental
+Place of Emotion in Dreams&mdash;Visceral and especially
+Gastric disturbance as a source of Emotion&mdash;Symbolism in
+Dreams&mdash;The Dreamer's Moral Attitude&mdash;Why Murder so often
+takes place in Dreams&mdash;Moral Feeling not Abolished in Dreams
+though sometimes Impaired.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>Whether the influences which stimulate our dreams
+arise from without or from within the organism, they
+are always filtered and diffused through the obscured
+channels of perception. They reach the brain at last
+in a vague and massive shape which may or may not
+betray to waking analysis the source from which they
+arise, but will certainly have become so changed in
+these organic channels that their affective tone will
+be predominant. They are, that is to say, largely
+transformed into <em>emotion</em>. And, when so transformed,
+they become the origin of what we regard as the imaginative
+element in dreams.<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Sleep is especially favourable to the production of
+emotion because while it allows a considerable amount
+of activity to sensory activities, and a very wide freedom
+to the imagery founded on sensory activities, it largely
+and in many directions inhibits motor activity.
+The actions suggested by sensory excitation cannot,
+therefore, be carried out. As soon as the impulse
+enters motor channels it is impeded, broken up, and
+scattered in a vain struggle. This process is transmitted
+to the brain as a wave of emotion.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes, indeed, as we know, motor co-ordinations,
+usually inhibited in sleep, are not so inhibited.
+The dreamer is able to execute, perfectly or imperfectly,
+some action which, really or in imagination, he desires
+to execute. He is then said to be in a state of somnambulism.
+The somnambulist, in the wide sense of the
+word, is not necessarily a person who walks in his sleep,
+but any person in whom a group of co-ordinated muscles
+is sufficiently awake to respond more or less adequately
+to the motor impulse from the sleeping brain. To talk
+in sleep is a form of somnambulism. When the motor
+channels are thus unimpeded, there is usually no
+memory of a dream on awaking. The impulses that
+reach consciousness can be, as it were, quickly and
+easily drained off to the surface of the nervous system,
+and they tend to leave no deep impress on consciousness.</p>
+
+<p>'I worked late last night,' writes a lady, a novelist,
+'went to bed, and dropped into a dead kind of sleep.
+When I woke this morning about seven a funny thing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>
+had happened. Two candles were burning in my room.
+When I went to bed I had only one burning, and I know
+I put that out. Now, there were two burning side by
+side as if I had been writing, and they had evidently
+been burning only an hour or so, I must have got up
+and lighted them in my sleep.'<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a> The actions carried
+out in the somnambulistic condition are not usually
+co-ordinated with the action of higher emotions: thus,
+a young woman was impelled by a distended bladder,
+while still asleep, to get out of bed and proceeded to
+carry out the suggested action, but without further precautions,
+on to the floor; she was only awakened by an
+exclamation from her sister, who had been aroused by the
+sound. We seem to see that under a strong stimulus&mdash;unfinished
+work in one case, vesical tension in the other&mdash;the
+motor centres have awakened to activity in the
+early morning while the higher centres are still soundly
+asleep. If the second sleeper had not been awakened,
+in neither case would any memory of the incidents have
+remained.<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> There has been no struggle, and no resultant
+emotions have, therefore, been aroused to
+impress consciousness. It is evident that the lack of
+adaptation between sensory and motor activity is an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
+important factor in dreams, and contributes to impart
+to them their emotional character.</p>
+
+<p>In somnambulism we have a state which is in some
+respects the reverse of that usual in dreams. The
+higher centres are, indeed, split off from the lower
+centres, but it is the former that are asleep and the
+latter are awake, whereas in ordinary dreaming the
+higher centres are acting in accordance with their
+means, while the lower centres are quiescent. Somnambulism
+is an approximation to a condition found
+in some diseases of the brain when, as a result of lesion
+of the higher nervous levels, we have a mental state&mdash;the
+ideatory apraxia of Liepmann&mdash;in which the
+muscular system carries out plans, but the plans are
+defective because not supervised by the higher centres.
+In ordinary dreams, on the other hand, we have a state
+comparable to that produced by brain lesions in what
+Pick terms motor apraxia, in which the higher centres
+are acting freely, but their plans are never carried into
+action owing to failure of the motor centres.</p>
+
+<p>This characteristic of dreaming has seemed puzzling
+to some writers. They ask why, in our dreams, we
+should sometimes be so conscious of failure of movement,
+and why, when we strive to move in dreams,
+we do not always actually move.<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>There scarcely seems to me to be any serious difficulty
+here; still, the question is one of considerable
+interest and importance. It is necessary to point out
+in the first place that, however complete the actual
+absence of movement, there is usually no failure of
+movement in the dream vision. We dream that we are
+talking, that we are moving from place to place, that
+we are performing various actions. We are conscious
+of no difficulty, even sometimes of a peculiar facility,
+in executing these movements. And in normal persons,
+under normal conditions, it would seem that the dream
+movements take place without even an incipient degree
+of corresponding actual movement perceptible to an
+observer. The efferent motor channels, and even to a
+large extent the afferent sensory channels, are asleep,
+and the whole representative circuit is completed within
+the brain, or, as we say, imaginatively.<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a> Thus a
+middle-aged friend, whose habits are by no means
+athletic, dreams that, desiring to attract some one's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>
+attention, he rests one knee on his wife's small work-table,
+and holding the foot of the other leg in one hand,
+he whirls rapidly and easily round and round on the
+pivot of the knee which rests on the table, the dream
+afterwards continuing without any awakening. A lady,
+again, who, when awake, is unable to swim, and knows
+no reason why she should think of swimming, vividly
+dreams that she jumps from a houseboat into the river,
+and proceeds to swim on her side with great ease, this
+dream also continuing without awakening. These
+dreamers were able to execute triumphantly the muscular
+feats they planned, because they had not really attempted
+to execute them at all, and, moreover, no
+sufficient sensory messages reached the brain to give
+information that the limbs were not actually obeying
+the orders of the brain. The dreamers were probably
+in a somewhat deep state of sleep.<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a></p>
+
+<p>The dreams in which we seem to ourselves to be
+suffering from the difficulty or impossibility of movement
+thus constitute a special class. Jewell would
+apply to them the term 'nightmare,' which he regards
+as 'characterised by inability to move or speak.' When,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+in dreams, we become conscious of difficult movement, it
+has frequently, and perhaps usually, happened that the
+motor channels are not entirely closed, the sensory
+channels unusually open, and very frequently, though
+not necessarily, this is associated with the approach of
+awakening. I dreamed that I was walking with a
+friend, that we quarrelled, and that thereupon I crossed
+the road, and walked on ahead of him. These actions
+seemed entirely effortless. Gradually, however, I became
+conscious of immense and ineffectual effort in
+keeping in front, and slowly began to experience, as I
+awakened, a feeling of lassitude in my actual and
+motionless limbs. In the process of awakening, I take
+it, the increased, but still defective, efflux of sensation
+from the legs, conveying the message of their real
+position, entered into conflict with the dream imagery,
+and produced a struggle in consciousness. It is by no
+means necessary to assume that there was a complete
+absence of sensory impressions from the legs during
+the earlier part of the dream; on the contrary, it is
+probable that the feeling of lassitude was itself the
+cause of the dream, the idea of walking being a theory
+to account for the lassitude; this seems more probable
+than that the actual lassitude was caused by the mental
+exertion in the dream.</p>
+
+<p>In a dream which a friend tells me he has often had,
+and always finds painful, he imagines he is climbing a
+mountain, and at last reaches a point at which, notwithstanding
+all his efforts, further progress is impossible.
+It seems probable that this dream is also an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>
+example of the conflict due to the process of awakening.
+In this case, however, the solution is complicated by
+the fact that in earlier life the dreamer had really once
+found himself in the situation he now only experiences
+in dreams.</p>
+
+<p>It is sometimes possible to prove, through the evidence
+of a witness, that in our dreams of movements executed
+with difficulty, we are really sufficiently awake on the
+motor side to be making actual movements, though
+these actual movements may only very roughly correspond
+to the movements we imagine we are trying to
+make. Very frequently, no doubt, dreams of difficult
+movement co-exist with, or are caused by, some degree
+of actual movement. In some such cases, indeed, the
+slight and imperfect actual movement may, in dream
+consciousness, be a complete and adequate movement.
+In these cases the imperfect sensory messages
+are not, it seems, sufficiently precise to reveal to
+sleeping consciousness the imperfection of the motor
+impulses.</p>
+
+<p>Exactly the same thing occurs under the allied
+conditions of anaesthesia produced by drugs. Thus,
+on one occasion, when coming to consciousness after
+the administration of nitrous oxide gas, I had the
+sensation of crying out aloud, but in reality, as I was
+informed by a friend at my side, I merely made a
+slight guttural sound. In the same way we see sleeping
+dogs making slight movements of all their paws in
+succession, a faint and abortive movement of running,
+which in the sleeping dog's consciousness may, doubtless,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+be accompanied by the notion that he is dashing
+across a field after a rabbit.</p>
+
+<p>In these dreams of failure of movement, it seems to
+me, the dream process, as the result of an approximation
+to the waking state, has become mixed with actual
+sensori-motor impulses, but the threshold of waking
+life is still too far off for actual movements to be completely
+and successfully accomplished, and in the case
+of the limbs the eye cannot be used to guide movements
+which the muscular and cutaneous sensations are still
+too dead to guide. It is important to remember that
+in waking life, under pathological conditions, we may
+have a precisely similar state of things. In some states
+of cerebro-spinal degeneration, resulting in defective
+sensibility of muscle and nerve, the subject sways
+unsteadily when he closes his eyes, and when there is
+loss of sensibility in the arm it is sometimes impossible
+to hold objects in the hand except with the guiding
+aid afforded by the eye.<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a></p>
+
+<p>In a dream, dating from fifteen years back, that I
+now regard as conditioned by the approach of the
+moment of awakening, I imagined that I was making
+huge efforts to copy in a copy-book a capital H, engraved
+in a rather peculiar fashion, but really offering
+no difficulties to any waking schoolchild. By no means<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
+could I get the proportions right, if, indeed, I could
+make any stroke at all, and at the end of my painful
+and ineffectual efforts I seemed to be trying to write
+on sand, which was merely displaced by my hand.
+This final impression seems clearly to be that of a
+dreamer who is already sufficiently awake to be conscious
+of the bedclothes yielding to the touch.</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing dream suggests that failure of movement
+in dreaming may tend to be associated with an
+accentuation of that shifting of imagery which is one
+of the most primary elements in dreaming, both failure
+of movement and accentuation of shifting imagery
+being, perhaps, alike due to the approach towards the
+waking state. Thus, if in a dream one is brushing
+one's coat, one finds, without any overwhelming surprise,
+that fresh patches of dust appear again and again,
+even when one's efforts in brushing them away are
+successful. Even when we feel able to effect movement
+in our dream, there may still be a failure of that
+movement to effect its object.</p>
+
+<p>The question of movement in dreams, of the presence
+or absence of effort and inhibition, is thus seen to be
+explicable by reference to the depth of sleep and the
+particular groups of centres involved. In full normal
+sleep movements are purely ideatory, and no difficulty
+arises in executing any movement, for the reason that
+there really is no movement at all, or even any attempt
+at movement, while, even if slight movement occurs,
+no message of its actual defectiveness can reach the
+brain. Movement or attempt at movement, with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>
+more or less inhibition, tends to occur when the motor
+and sensory centres are in a partially aroused state;
+it is a phenomenon which belongs to the period immediately
+before awakening.<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a></p>
+
+<p>It is doubtless mainly due to the diffusion of inhibited
+nervous impulses through many channels, and the
+vague and massive character which they hence assume
+in consciousness, that we must attribute the magnification
+of dream imagery, and the exaggeration of dream
+feelings. This is not a constant tendency of our dreams;
+sometimes, indeed, perhaps in special stages of sleep-consciousness,
+there is diminution, and people look no
+larger than dolls, and houses like doll's houses, while,
+on the emotional side, events which in real life would
+overwhelm us, may, in dreams, be accepted as matters
+of course. But the heightening of imagery and ideas
+and feelings is very common. There is a kind of normal
+megalomania in our dreams. We have already incidentally
+encountered many instances of this: a tooth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+appears large enough for a mouse to play in, or like a
+great jagged rock; the irritation of a mosquito evokes
+the image of a huge scarlet beetle; in vesical dreams
+endless streams are seen to flow; a canary's song is
+heard as Haydn's <em>Creation</em>, and the howling of the
+wind becomes a chanted Te Deum.</p>
+
+<p>A French author has written an impressive literary
+description of his own purely visual dreams, with their
+magnificent exaggerations and joyous expansiveness,
+seeking to show that their chief character is their
+excessiveness; 'the flowers are almost women.'<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a> I
+cannot, however, recognise this as characteristic of
+normal dreaming. It bears more resemblance to De
+Quincey's opium dreams, or to the visions which came
+to Heine as he listened to Berlioz's music. In normal
+dreaming the imagery may, indeed, be stupendously
+vast, or fantastically absurd, or poignantly intense.
+But normal dreams are not built on a consistently
+colossal scale. The megalomania of dreaming is only
+accidental and occasional, not systematic.<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a></p>
+
+<p>The heightening of dream experiences may, however,
+be very complete in, as it were, every direction: thus
+a botanical friend joined a large party for a pleasant
+country excursion, in the course of which, while sitting
+in a waggonette, an acquaintance, a miller, standing in
+the road, handed up to him a dog-rose. In the course of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>
+a dream of agreeable emotional tone on the night
+following, this incident was reproduced, but the miller
+had become an angel, who handed down to him, instead
+of up from below, a flower which was a moss-rose.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, not only do the actual stimuli taking place
+during sleep suggest to dream-consciousness imagery
+of a magnitude out of all proportion to their real intensity,
+but even the repercussion of the day's incidents
+in dreams under the influence of a favourable emotional
+tone may partake of the same heightening influence.</p>
+
+<p>We may say, therefore, that while the excessiveness
+of dream imagery is mainly due to the conditions of the
+nervous sensory and motor channels, there is also
+probably a heightened affectability of the cerebral
+centres themselves&mdash;perhaps due to their state of
+dissociation or absence of apperception<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a>&mdash;which leads
+us in our dreams to react extravagantly to the stimuli
+that reach the brain. A lady tells me that she often
+dreams of being very angry at things which, on awaking,
+she finds are mere trifles that would never make her
+angry when awake.<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> It is a common experience that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>the things which, in our dreams, impress us as beautiful,
+eloquent, witty, profound, or amusing, no longer seem
+so, or only seem so in a much slighter degree, when we
+are able to recall them awake.</p>
+
+<p>All these various considerations lead us up to a central
+fact in the psychology of dreaming: the controlling
+power of emotion on dream ideas. From our present
+point of view we are now able to say that the chief
+function of dreams is to supply adequate theories to
+account for the magnified emotional impulses which
+are borne in on sleeping consciousness. This is the key
+to imagination in dreams. From the first we have seen
+that in dream life the mind is always freely and actively
+reasoning; we now see what is usually the real motive
+and aim of that reasoning. Sleeping consciousness
+is assailed by waves of emotion from various parts of
+the organism, but is entirely unable to detect their
+origin, and, therefore, invents an explanation of them.
+So that in sleep we have to weave theories concerning
+the unknowable origin of our emotions, just as when
+we are awake we weave theories concerning the
+ultimate origin of the totality of our experiences. The
+fundamental source of our dream life may thus be
+said to be emotion.<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>There is certainly no profounder emotional excitement
+during sleep than that which arises from a disturbed
+or distended stomach, and is reflected by the
+pneumogastric to the accelerated heart and the excited
+respiration.<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> We are thereby thrown into a state of
+emotional agitation, a state of agony and terror, such as
+we rarely or never attain during waking life. Sleeping
+consciousness, blindfolded and blundering, a prey to
+these massive waves from below, and fumbling about
+desperately for some explanation, jumps at the idea
+that only the attempt to escape some terrible danger
+or the guilty consciousness of some awful crime can
+account for this immense emotional uproar. Thus the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
+dream is suffused by a conviction which the continued
+emotion serves to support. We do not&mdash;it seems most
+simple and reasonable to conclude&mdash;experience terror
+because we think we have committed a crime, but we
+think we have committed a crime because we experience
+terror. And the fact that in such dreams we are far
+more concerned with escape from the results of crime
+than with any agony of remorse is not, as some have
+thought, due to our innate indifference to crime, but
+simply to the fact that our emotional state suggests to
+us active escape from danger rather than the more
+passive grief of remorse. Thus our dreams bear
+witness to the fact that our intelligence is often but a
+tool in the hands of our emotions.<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a></p>
+
+<p>In this tendency, it may be noted, we see the basis
+of the symbolism which plays so real a part in dreams.
+Such symbolism rests on the fact that we associate two
+things&mdash;even if the one happens to be physical and the
+other spiritual&mdash;which both happen to imply a similar
+state of feeling.<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> Symbolism of this kind is, indeed,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>characteristic of the human mind at all times, in all
+stages of its development. Thus the physical idea of
+<em>height</em> seems to express also a moral idea, which we feel
+to be correspondent, while wormwood and gall furnish
+a taste which enabled men to speak of what seemed to
+them the corresponding <em>bitterness</em> of death. In dreams
+this natural tendency of the mind is able to work unchecked
+and extravagantly. It acts with much facility
+on any impulse arising from the gastric region, because
+this region is the seat of various sensations and emotions,
+both physical and moral, which may thus act symbolically
+the one for the other.<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a></p>
+
+<p>Even when we realise the process of transformation
+and irradiation, through which organic sensations can
+alone reach the brain in sleep, and the inevitable 'errors
+of judgment' thus produced, it may still seem strange
+and puzzling to observe how a stimulus which has its
+origin in the stomach will, by affecting the neighbouring
+viscera, in its circuitous course along the nerves and
+through the brain, be transformed, as it may be, into a
+tragic scene which has never been experienced, nor even
+deliberately imagined, as for instance&mdash;to cite a dream<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>
+of my own&mdash;in the fiery vision of following a leader, in
+real life a peaceful and inoffensive man, who, revolver
+in hand, dashes among foes, shooting and shot at,
+every moment in danger of life, and always miraculously
+escaping.</p>
+
+<p>I may illustrate this transformation by the following
+example: A lady dreamed that her husband called her
+aside and said, 'Now, do not scream or make a fuss;
+I am going to tell you something. I have to kill a man.
+It is necessary, to put him out of his agony.' He then
+took her into his study, and showed her a young man
+lying on the floor, with a wound in his breast, and covered
+with blood. 'But how will you do it?' she asked.
+'Never mind,' he replied; 'leave that to me.' He
+took something up and leaned over the man. She
+turned aside and heard a horrible gurgling sound.
+Then all was over. 'Now,' he said, 'we must get rid
+of the body. I want you to send for So-and-so's cart,
+and tell him I wish to drive it.' The cart came. 'You
+must help me to make the body into a parcel,' he said
+to his wife; 'give me plenty of brown paper.' They
+made it into a parcel, and with terrible difficulty and
+effort the wife assisted her husband to get the body
+downstairs, and lift it into the cart. At every stage,
+however, she presented to him the difficulties of the
+situation. But he carelessly answered all objections,
+said he would take the body up to the moor, among the
+stones, remove the brown paper, and people would think
+the murdered man had killed himself. He drove off,
+and soon returned with the empty cart. 'What's this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+blood in my cart?' asked the man to whom it belonged,
+looking inside. 'Oh, that's only paint,' replied the
+husband. But the dreamer had all along been full of
+apprehensions lest the deed should be discovered, and
+the last thing she could recall, before waking in terror,
+was looking out of the window at a large crowd which
+surrounded the house with shouts of 'Murder!' and
+threats.</p>
+
+<p>This tragedy, with its almost Elizabethan air, was
+built up out of a few commonplace impressions received
+during the previous day, none of which impressions
+contained any suggestion of murder. The tragic element
+appears to have been altogether due to the psychic
+influences of indigestion arising from a supper of
+pheasant.<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a> To account for our oppression during
+sleep, sleeping consciousness assumes moral causes,
+which alone appear to it of sufficient gravity to be
+adequate to the immense emotions we are experiencing.
+Even in our waking and fully conscious states we are
+inclined to give the preference to moral over physical
+causes, quite irrespective of the justice of our preferences;
+in our sleeping states this tendency is exaggerated,
+and the reign of purely moral causes is not often
+disturbed by even a suggestion of physical causation.</p>
+
+<p>In an emotional dream of similar visceral origin, I
+dreamed that I was to die&mdash;why or how I could not tell<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>
+on awakening. With the object of putting an end to
+my sufferings, I imagined that my wife administered to
+me some substance mixed in jam. I found the taste
+peculiar, not bitter, as I recalled on awaking, but warm
+and spicy, and I asked what she had put in it. She
+replied that it was strychnine. I remarked that that
+would be a very painful mode of death, and refused to
+take any more. I debated with myself whether I had
+probably taken a poisonous dose, and had not better
+resort to an antidote; the only antidote that suggested
+itself to me was opium pills. Meanwhile the horror
+of impending death grew more and more acute until,
+at length, I awoke. I thereupon found that I had a
+headache, a faint taste in my mouth, and some general
+malaise evidently associated with a slightly disordered
+stomach. The definite images brought forward in the
+dream had all been fairly familiar during the previous
+day, but the idea of impending death which pervaded
+the whole dream so indefinitely and incoherently, yet
+so acutely, was entirely a theory to account for the
+massive and widely irradiated messages of discomfort
+which reached the sleeping brain.</p>
+
+<p>Many people are unwilling to admit that psychic
+phenomena so tragical, poignant, or pathetic as these
+dreams may be, should receive their stimulus from a
+source which they regard as so humble as the stomach.
+Thus Frederick Greenwood, whose conception of the
+function of dreaming was very exalted, only admitted
+this association with reluctance, and was careful to
+point out that 'if an unwholesome supper produces<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+such phenomena, it does so only in the sense that a
+bird singing in the air produced Shelley's "Ode to a
+Skylark."'<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a> That analogy really underestimates the
+distance of the physical stimulus of such dreams from
+its psychic concomitants. When we talk of dreams
+we must place ourselves at the dreamer's standpoint.
+The poet was conscious that his inspiration was stimulated
+by the bird's song, but the dreamer has no
+consciousness that the tragic experiences he passes
+through imaginatively are stimulated by the activity
+of his visceral organs. He is altogether unconscious of
+visceral disturbance; if he were conscious of any of
+these physical facts which occupy waking consciousness,
+he would no longer be a dreamer. He lives in a psychic
+world which physical facts, from within or from without,
+can never reach until they have been transformed.
+His position resembles, therefore, not that of the poet
+who deliberately seeks to interpret the song of the
+bird, but rather that of the bird itself, the poet 'hidden
+in the light of thought,' sublimely unconscious of the
+mechanism revealed in its own structure.</p>
+
+<p>The explanations devised by sleeping consciousness
+to account for visceral discomfort of gastric origin are
+not necessarily tragic. Thus I dreamed, after a somewhat
+indigestible meal, that I was slowly and painfully
+eating bread mingled with cinders and mouse's excrement,
+trying in vain to avoid these impurities, and
+after the meal was over, finding my mouth full of cinders.
+On awaking there was no traceable taste or sensation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span>
+of any kind in the mouth, and the dream was apparently
+a theory to account for some gastric disturbance.
+Such a theory seems less far-fetched than that of
+murder, and probably indicates much less marked and
+diffused visceral disturbance. Occasionally the explanatory
+theories of actual sensations accepted by sleeping
+consciousness are plausible and ingenious, indeed entirely
+adequate and probable. Thus a lady dreamed
+that she was drinking glass after glass of champagne,
+saying to herself the while that she would have to pay
+for this afterwards. On awaking she found that she
+was feeling the slight rheumatic pains and discomfort
+that she was really liable to experience after taking a
+glass or two of champagne. She had not tasted champagne,
+or thought of it, for some time previously; the
+dream champagne was a theory invented to account
+for the sensations which were actually experienced,
+though those sensations remained outside dreaming
+consciousness.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the examples I have presented of the influence
+of emotion of visceral origin in suggesting dream
+theories have had the stomach as their source. There
+can be no doubt that the stomach has enormous influence
+in this respect; its easily and constantly varying
+state of repletion, its central position and liability to
+press on other organs, its important nervous associations,
+together with the fact that sleep sometimes
+tends to impede its activity and initiate disturbance,
+combine to impart to it a manifold and extensive
+influence over the emotional state in sleep, and at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span>
+the same time render the source of that emotional
+state peculiarly difficult for sleeping consciousness to
+detect.</p>
+
+<p>It is, however, easy to show that any pronounced or
+massive feeling continuing or arising during sleep may
+similarly lead to an emotional state calling for explanation
+at the hands of sleeping consciousness. Thus,
+falling asleep with toothache during a singularly close
+night, I once dreamed that I had committed murder,
+having apparently killed several persons, and that I was
+occupied, after arrest, in considering whether my act
+was likely to be regarded as an unpremeditated act of
+manslaughter. A headache, again, may be a source
+of dreams. Thus, falling asleep with headache, I
+dream that I am waiting for an express train to London;
+an express comes up to the platform, and I cannot ascertain
+if it is the train I want. The explanation seems
+obvious; railway travelling is a cause of headache,
+and it is therefore put forward in the dream, with
+accompanying imagery, to account for the sensations
+experienced. The actual sensation, as is always the
+case in dreams, that is, the headache, remains subconscious,
+and, indeed, totally unconscious; the imagery
+it suggests alone occupies the field of consciousness.<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a>
+An entirely different type of dream may, however,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
+be associated with headache. Thus I once dreamed
+that I was in a vast gloomy English cathedral, and on
+the wall I observed a notice to the effect that on
+such a day evensong would take place without illumination
+of the cathedral in order to avoid attracting moths.
+I awoke with slight headache. Here the cool, silent
+gloom of the cathedral is the symbol of what is desired
+to soothe the aching head, and the fantastic suggestion
+read on the notice is merely the theory of dreaming
+consciousness which knows nothing of the real reason
+of the wish.</p>
+
+<p>Dreams of murder or impending death or the like
+tragic situations seem usually to be aroused by visceral
+stimuli. In some cases, however (as in Maury's famous
+dream of the guillotine), they are due to an external
+cutaneous sensation. When the stimulus thus comes
+from the periphery, the emotional element, even when
+the dreamed situation is tragic, seems usually (though
+this is not quite certain) to be less pronounced than when
+the stimulus is visceral. Thus in a dream of my own,
+which seemed to be due to a cramped position of the head
+and neck, I dreamed that I had died (though, somehow,
+I was not myself, but had become more or less identified
+with an ugly old woman), and was being autopsied.
+Then very gradually I became faintly and peacefully
+conscious of what was going on, though I remained
+motionless, and all the time believed that I was dead,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>
+and that my faint consciousness was merely a part of
+death. Preparations for the funeral were meanwhile
+being made, and I was about to be nailed down in my
+coffin. At this point I became horribly aware that
+these proceedings would cause suffocation, and, with
+great effort, I succeeded in moving my arms and speaking
+incoherently. Thereupon the funeral arrangements
+were discontinued, and very slowly I seemed to regain
+speech and the power of movement. But I felt that I
+must be extremely careful in making any movements,
+on account of the post-mortem wounds; especially
+I felt pain in my neck, and realised that it was necessary
+not to move my head, or the result might be instant
+death. In such a dream, it may be noted, and in some
+others I have recorded, we see very instructively the
+nature of the changes produced in the dream and in the
+dreamer's attitude by the approach of waking consciousness.
+The dreamer's relationship to his imagined
+situation becomes more and more what it would be if
+the situation occurred in real life, and as soon as there is
+painful effort and imperfect muscular movement, the
+coming of waking consciousness is imminent.</p>
+
+<p>The visceral and emotional element in dreaming
+helps to explain the dreamer's moral attitude and the
+real significance of those criminal actions in dreams
+which have often been misinterpreted. Many writers
+on dreaming have referred, with profound concern, to
+the facility and prevalence of murder in dreams, sometimes
+as a proof of the innate wickedness of human
+nature made manifest in the unconstraint of sleep,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span>
+sometimes as evidence of an atavistic return to the modes
+of feeling of our ancestors, the thin veneer of civilisation
+being removed during sleep. Maudsley and Mme.
+de Manac&eacute;&iuml;ne, for example, find evidence in such dreams
+of a return to primitive modes of feeling. Clarke
+speaks of 'the entire absence of the moral sense' from
+dreams.<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a> Professor N&auml;cke, who has given much attention
+to the phenomena of dreaming, writes in a private
+letter: 'What I am amazed at, having perceived it in
+myself, is the little known fact that a person's character
+becomes <em>worse</em> in dreaming. Not only the most
+secret thoughts, wishes, and aspirations become clear,
+but also qualities which have never been observed
+before, as, for instance, that one becomes a murderer,
+an adulterer, etc.' Freud, especially, has elaborated
+this aspect of dreams as representing the fulfilment of
+the dreamer's most secret desires.<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a></p>
+
+<p>It may well be that there is an element of truth in
+the belief that in dreams we are brought back to mental
+conditions somewhat more closely approaching those of
+primitive times. It is the manifold variety and complexity
+of our mental representations which prevent us
+from responding immediately to impulse under civilised
+conditions, and when, by dissociation, only a few
+groups are present to consciousness, the inhibition on
+violent action tends to be removed. If, therefore, we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span>
+are more violent, more immoral, more criminal, in our
+dreams than in waking life, this is by no means necessarily
+to be regarded as a revelation of our real nature,
+but is merely an inevitable result of the mental dissociation
+which prevents many important groups of
+mental representations from finding their way into consciousness,
+and at the same time brings all our mental
+possessions on to the same plane, so that the things
+we have merely thought or heard of have the same
+visual reality as our own actual experiences. The sleep
+of the real criminal, as Sante de Sanctis has shown on
+the basis of a wide experience, even of criminals guilty
+of serious acts of violence, tends to be peaceful and
+dreamless, and such dreams as they have are usually
+of a simple and innocent sort. If normal people often
+dream of crime, it is because they are more sensitive
+and imaginative, and because sleeping consciousness is
+strained to the utmost to invent a phantasmal tragedy
+adequate to account for the waves of emotion that
+beset it.<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a></p>
+
+<p>There is another reason why, in dreams, we may find
+ourselves engaged in criminal operations. The purely
+automatic process by which the imagery of dreams is
+perpetually shifting in pursuit of associations of resemblance
+or contiguity, leads to confusions which are not
+rooted in any personal or primitive impulse, as in the
+example I have previously referred to, of a lady who had
+carved a duck at dinner, and a few hours later woke up<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>
+exhausted by the imaginary effort of cutting off her
+husband's head. Such a dream is merely a mechanical
+turn of the visionary kaleidoscope, bringing together
+two unrelated images.</p>
+
+<p>The most potent cause of dream criminality, and
+especially of murders we have been guilty of before the
+dream commenced, seems clearly, however, to be that
+emotional factor of visceral origin which is well illustrated
+by one or two of the dreams already brought
+forward.<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> In these cases, again, we are not concerned
+with any primitive or personal impulse to crime, but
+we feel ourselves to be so possessed by all the physical
+symptoms of terror, that the only adequate explanation
+of our state seems to be the theory that we have committed
+murder. And if we are more concerned to flee
+from justice than to experience remorse, that is clearly
+because the really labouring and agitated heart suggests
+flight from pursuit far more than any passive emotion.<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a>
+There is, moreover, no more fundamental and primitive
+emotion than fear.</p>
+
+<p>While these considerations combine to deprive criminal
+dreams, when they occur, of any great significance
+as an index of the dreamer's latent morality, I must
+add that I am by no means prepared to agree that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span>
+moral emotions are so absent from sleep as many
+writers have stated. There is often a diminished sense
+of morality, an easier yielding to temptation than would
+take place in real life, a diminished remorse&mdash;these
+tendencies being mainly due to the conditions of dream-life&mdash;but
+there is frequently a strong sense of morality
+in dreams, as well as a vivid perception of social proprieties.
+Those persons who have an unusually strong
+moral sense, when awake, frequently show, I think, a
+similar tendency when asleep, but in the dreams of most
+people moral and decorous considerations seem, as a rule,
+to make themselves more or less clearly felt, much as
+in waking life. It may be worth while to bring forward
+a few dreams which incidentally illustrate the moral
+attitude of the dreamer.</p>
+
+<p>A lady narrated the following dream immediately
+on awakening: 'I had murdered a woman from some
+moral or political motive&mdash;I forget what&mdash;and had come
+in great agony to my husband with her shoes and
+watch-chain. He promised to help me, and while I
+was wondering what could be done for the benefit of
+the woman's family, some one came in and announced
+that a lecture was about to be given on the beauty of
+nakedness. I then went, with several prim and respectable
+ladies of my acquaintance [the names were
+given], into a crowded hall. The lecturer who&mdash;so far
+as appearance is concerned&mdash;was a well-known Member
+of Parliament, then entered and gave a most eloquent
+address on Whitman, nakedness, ugly figures, etc.
+He especially emphasised the fact that the reason<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span>
+people are shocked at nakedness is that they usually
+only see unbeautiful bodies which repel them because
+they are unlike their ideals. Then he put out his hand,
+and a naked woman entered the room. Her loveliness
+was extreme; her form was perfectly rounded, but
+without suggestion of voluptuousness, though she was
+not an animated statue, but had all the characters of
+humanity; she walked with undulating thighs, head
+slightly drooping, and hair falling down and framing a
+face that expressed wonderful spiritual beauty and innocence.
+The lecturer led her round, saying, "This is
+beauty; now, if you can look at this and be ashamed&mdash;&mdash;"
+and he waved his arm. She went away, and a beautiful
+Apollo-like youth, slender but athletic, entered the
+room, also completely naked. He walked round the
+room alone, with an air of majestic virility. I applauded,
+clapping my hands, but a shiver went through
+the ladies present; their skin became like goose-flesh,
+and their lips quivered with horror as though they were
+about to be outraged. The youth went out, and the
+lecturer continued. At the climax of his oratory, the
+Apollo-like youth entered, dressed as a common soldier,
+with no appearance of beauty, and in a rough tone said:
+"'Ere! I want a shilling for this job." (And I sighed
+to myself: "It is always so.") No one had a shilling,
+and the lecturer proceeded to explain to the man that
+what he had done was for the sake of art and beauty,
+and for the moral good of the world. "What do I
+care for that?" he returned, "I want a drink." Then a
+lady among the audience produced a collar, wrote on it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span>
+a testimonial expressing the gratitude of those present
+for the man's services on this occasion, and handed it to
+me to present to him. "Damn it," he said, "this is
+only worth twopence halfpenny; I want my shilling!"
+Then I awoke.' The idea of murder with which this
+dream began seems to suggest that it may have had its
+origin in some slight visceral disturbance of which the
+subject was unconscious, but nothing had occurred to
+suggest the details of the episode. The interesting
+feature about it is the presence throughout of moral
+notions and sentiments substantially true to the
+dreamer's waking ideas.</p>
+
+<p>In another dream of the same dreamer's the sense
+of responsibility is clearly present: 'Mrs. F. and
+Miss R. had called to see me, and I was sitting in my
+room talking to them, when a knock came at the door,
+and I found there a poor woman belonging to the neighbourhood,
+but who also combined in my dream the
+page-boy at a dear friend's house. From this friend,
+whom I had not heard from for some time, the woman
+bore a large letter. She tore it open in my presence,
+saying, "It says here that the bearer is to open this,"
+and produced from it another letter, a large document
+of a legal character in my friend's handwriting.
+When the woman began to open the second letter I
+remonstrated; I was sure that there was some mistake,
+that that letter was private, and that no one else ought
+to see it. The woman, however, firmly insisted that
+she must carry out her instructions; so we had a long
+discussion. After a time I called Mrs. F. and appealed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>
+to her. She agreed with me that the instructions must
+only mean that the bearer was to open the outer envelope,
+not the inner letter. At last I took out five
+shillings and gave it to the woman, telling her that I
+would assume all the responsibility for opening the
+letter myself. With this she went away well satisfied,
+saying (as she would in real life), "All right, Mrs. &mdash;&mdash;,
+you're a lady, and you know. All right, my dear."
+Then at last I was able to tear open my letter and read
+these words: "<cite>Always use Sunlight Soap</cite>." My vexation
+was extreme.'</p>
+
+<p>On another occasion the same dreamer experienced
+remorse. She imagined she was in a restaurant, and
+the girl behind the counter pointed to a barrel of beer&mdash;a
+golden barrel, she said, with a magic key&mdash;which
+could only be opened by the owner. The dreamer
+declared, however, that she could open it, and, producing
+a key, proceeded to do so, handing round beer to
+the bystanders. Then she realised that she had been
+stealing, and was full of remorse. She asked a friend
+if she ought to tell the owner, but the friend replied,
+'By no means.' This conclusion of the dream seems
+to indicate that the moral sense, though present in
+dreams, is apt to be impaired.</p>
+
+<p>In yet another dream this dreamer exhibited a curious
+combination of moral sensibility and criminal indifference.
+She imagined that, while walking with a man,
+a friend, she revealed to him a secret of a woman friend's.
+Then, realising her betrayal of confidence, she decided
+that the best thing she could do would be to kill the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span>
+man. On reflection, however, she thought that it would,
+after all, be unkind to do so since he was a friend, and
+so told him that if he ever repeated the secret she would
+have him torn to pieces. It will be seen that the betrayal
+of a secret was felt as a far more serious offence
+than murder. The facility with which, in such dreams
+as this, the suggestion of murder presents itself, even to
+dreamers who, when awake, cherish no bloodthirsty
+or revengeful ideas, is certainly remarkable.</p>
+
+<p>It is often said that in dreams erotic suggestions
+present themselves with extreme facility, and are
+eagerly accepted by the dreamer. To some extent
+there is truth in this statement, but it is by no means
+always true. This may be illustrated by the following
+dream, the sources of which could be easily traced;
+two days before I had seen the gambols of East Enders
+at Hampstead Heath on a Bank Holiday, and the day
+before I had visited a picture gallery, the two sets of
+impressions becoming ingeniously combined, according
+to the usual rule of dream confusion. I thought that
+when walking along a country lane a sudden turn brought
+me to a broader part of the road covered with grass, into
+the midst of a crowd of women, large and well-proportioned
+persons, mostly in a state of complete nudity,
+and engaged in romping together, more especially in
+tugs-of-war; some of them were on horseback. My
+appearance slightly disturbed them, I heard one cry
+out my name, and to some extent they drew back, and
+partly desisted from their games, but only to a very
+slight degree, and with no overpowering embarrassment.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>
+I was myself rather embarrassed, and, glancing
+at them again, turned back. Afterwards my walk
+again brought me in view of them, and it occurred to
+me that women are somewhat changing their customs,
+a very wholesome change, it seemed to me. But I
+remonstrated with one or two of them that they ought to
+keep in constant movement to avoid catching cold.
+No erotic suggestions were present, although the dream
+might be said to lend itself to such suggestions.</p>
+
+<p>The idea of moral retribution and eternal punishment
+may also be present in dreams. This may be illustrated
+by the dream of a lady who had an ill and restless girl
+companion sleeping with her, and was disturbed as well
+by a yelping and howling terrier outside. She had also
+lately heard that a friend had brought over a python
+from Africa. 'I dreamed last night I had a basket of
+cold squirming snakes beside me; they just touched
+me all over, but did not hurt; I felt mad with loathing
+and hate of them, and the beasts would not kill
+me. That, I thought, was my eternal punishment
+for my sins.' In her waking moments the dreamer
+was not apprehensive of eternal punishment, and it
+may be in such a case that, as Freud suggests, an
+unfamiliar moral idea emerges in sleep in much the
+same way as an unfamiliar or 'forgotten' fact may
+emerge.</p>
+
+<p>On the whole, it may be said that while the moral
+attitude of the dreaming state is not usually identical
+with that of the waking state, there still nearly always
+is a moral attitude. It could not well be otherwise.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span>
+Our emotional states are intimately bound up with
+moral relationships; we could not display such highly
+emotional states as we experience in dreams, with all
+their tragic accompaniments, in the absence of any
+sense of morality.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+<p class="p6">AVIATION IN DREAMS</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>Dreams of Flying and Falling&mdash;Their Peculiar Vividness&mdash;Dreams
+of Flying an Alleged Survival of Primeval Experiences&mdash;Best
+explained as based on Respiratory Sensations combined with
+Cutaneous Anaesthesia&mdash;The Explanation of Dreams of Falling&mdash;The
+Sensation of Levitation sometimes experienced by Ecstatic
+Saints&mdash;Also experienced at the Moment of Death.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>Dreams of flying, with the dreams of falling they are
+sometimes associated with, may fairly be considered
+the best known and most frequent type of dream.
+They were among the earliest dreams to attract attention.
+Ruths argues that the Greek conception of the
+flying Hermes, the god who possessed special authority
+over dreams, was based on such experiences. Lucretius,
+in his interesting passage on the psychology of dreaming,
+speaks of falling from heights in dreams;<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> Cicero
+appears to refer to dreams of flying; St. Jerome
+mentions that he was subject to them; Synesius remarked
+that in dreams we fly with wings and view the
+world from afar; Cervantes accurately described the
+dream of falling.<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> From the inventors of the legend<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span>
+of Icarus onwards, men have firmly cherished the belief
+that under some circumstances they could fly, and we
+may well suppose that that belief partly owes its conviction,
+and the resolve to make it practical, to the
+experiences that have been gained in dreams.</p>
+
+<p>No dreams, indeed, are so vivid and so convincing
+as dreams of flying; none leave behind them so strong
+a sense of the reality of the experience. Raffaelli,
+the eminent French painter, who is subject to the
+dreaming experience of floating in the air, confesses
+that it is so convincing that he has jumped out of bed
+on awaking and attempted to repeat it. 'I need not
+tell you,' he adds, 'that I have never been able to
+succeed.'<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> Herbert Spencer mentions that in a company
+of a dozen persons, three testified that in early
+life they had had such vivid dreams of flying downstairs,
+and were so strongly impressed by the reality
+of the experience, that they actually made the attempt,
+one of them suffering in consequence from an injured
+ankle.<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> The case is recorded of an old French lady
+who always maintained that on one occasion she actually
+had succeeded for a few instants in supporting herself
+on the air.<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> No one who is familiar with these dreaming
+experiences will be inclined to laugh at that old lady.
+It was during one of these dreams of levitation, in which
+one finds oneself leaping into the air and able to stay
+there, that it occurred to me that I would write a paper<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span>
+on the subject, for I thought in my dream that
+this power I found myself possessed of was probably
+much more widespread than was commonly
+supposed, and that in any case it ought to be generally
+known.</p>
+
+<p>People who dabble in the occult have been so impressed
+by such dreams that they have sometimes
+believed that these flights represented a real excursion
+of the 'astral body.' This is the belief of Colonel
+de Rochas.<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a> C&eacute;sar de Vesme, the editor of the French
+edition of the <cite>Annals of Psychical Research</cite>, has thought
+it worth while to investigate the matter; and after
+summarising the results of a <em>questionnaire</em> concerning
+dreams of flying, he comes to the conclusion that 'the
+sensation of aerial flight in dreams is simply a hallucinatory
+phenomenon of an exclusively physiological [he
+means 'psychological'] kind,' and not evidence of the
+existence of the 'astral body.'<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> The fact, nevertheless,
+that so many people are found who believe such
+dreams to possess some kind of reality, clearly indicates
+the powerful impression they make.</p>
+
+<p>All my life, it seems to me, certainly from an early
+age, until recently, I have at intervals had dreams in
+which I imagined myself rhythmically bounding into<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>
+the air, and supported on the air, remaining there for a
+perceptible interval; at other times I have felt myself
+gliding downstairs, but not supported by the stairs.
+In my case the experience is nearly always agreeable,
+involving a certain sense of power, and it usually
+evokes no marked surprise, occurring as a familiar and
+accustomed pleasure. On awaking I do not usually
+remember these dreams immediately, which seems to
+indicate that they are not due to causes specially
+operative at the end of sleep, or liable to bring sleep to a
+conclusion. But they leave behind them a vague yet
+profound sense of belief in their reality and reasonableness.</p>
+
+<p>Dream-flight, it is necessary to note, is not usually
+the sustained flight of a bird or an insect, and the
+dreamer rarely or never imagines that he is borne high
+into the air. Hutchinson states that of all those whom
+he has asked about the matter 'hardly one has ever
+known himself to make any high flights in his dreams.
+One almost always flies low, with a skimming manner,
+slightly, but only slightly, above the heads of pedestrians.'<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a></p>
+
+<p>Beaunis, from his own experience, describes what I
+should consider a typical kind of dream-flight as a series
+of light bounds, at one or two yards above the earth,
+each bound clearing from ten to twenty yards, the
+dream being accompanied by a delicious sensation of
+easy movement, as well as a lively satisfaction at
+being able to solve the problem of aerial locomotion by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>
+virtue of superior organisation alone.<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> Lafcadio Hearn,
+somewhat similarly, describes, in his <em>Shadowings</em>, a
+typical and frequent dream of his own as a series of
+bounds in long parabolic curves, rising to a height of
+some twenty-five feet, and always accompanied by the
+sense that a new power had been revealed which for the
+future would be a permanent possession.</p>
+
+<p>The attempt to explain dreams of flying has led to
+some bold hypotheses. Freud characteristically affirms
+that the dream of flying is the bridge to a concealed
+wish.<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> I have already mentioned the notion that
+dreams of flight are excursions of the 'astral body.'
+Professor Stanley Hall, who has himself, from childhood,
+had dreams of flying, argues, with scarcely less
+boldness, that we have here 'some faint reminiscent
+atavistic echo from the primeval sea'; and that such
+dreams are really survivals&mdash;psychic vestigial remains
+comparable to the rudimentary gill-slits not uncommonly
+found in man and other mammals&mdash;taking us back to
+the far past when man's ancestors needed no feet to
+swim or float.<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> Such a theory may accord with the
+profound conviction of reality that accompanies these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span>
+dreams, though that may be more easily accounted for;
+but it has the very serious weakness that it offers an
+explanation which will not fit the facts. Our dreams
+are of flying, not of swimming; but the ancestors of
+the mammals probably lived in the water, not in the
+air. In preference to so hazardous a theory, it seems
+infinitely more reasonable to regard these dreams as
+an interpretation&mdash;a misinterpretation from the standpoint
+of waking life&mdash;of actual internal sensations.
+If we can find the adequate explanation of a psychic
+state in conditions actually existing within the organism
+itself at the time, it is needless to seek an explanation
+in conditions that ceased to exist untold millenniums
+ago.</p>
+
+<p>My own explanation was immediately suggested by
+the following dream. I dreamed that I was watching
+a girl acrobat, in appropriate costume, who was rhythmically
+rising to a great height in the air and then falling,
+without touching the floor, though each time she approached
+quite close to it. At last she ceased, exhausted
+and perspiring, and I had to lead her away. Her movements
+were not controlled by mechanism, and apparently
+I did not regard mechanism as necessary. It was
+a vivid dream, and I awoke with a distinct sensation of
+oppression in the chest. In trying to account for this
+dream, which was not founded on any memory, it
+occurred to me that probably I had here the key to a
+great group of dreams. The rhythmic rising and
+falling of the acrobat was simply the objectivation of
+the rhythmic rising and falling of my own respiratory<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>
+muscles&mdash;in some dreams, perhaps, of the systole and
+diastole of the heart's muscles&mdash;under the influence of
+some slight and unknown physical oppression, and this
+oppression was further translated into a condition of
+perspiring exhaustion in the girl, just as men with heart
+disease may dream of sweating and panting horses
+climbing uphill, in accordance with that tendency to
+magnification which marks dreams generally.<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a> We
+may recall also the curious sensation as of the body
+being transformed into a vast bellows or steam engine,
+which is often the last sensation felt before the unconsciousness
+produced by nitrous oxide gas.<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> When
+we are lying down there is a real rhythmic rising and
+falling of the chest and abdomen, centring in the
+diaphragm, a series of oscillations which at both extremes
+are only limited by the air. Moreover, in this
+position we have to recognise that the circulatory,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span>
+nervous, and other systems of the whole internal
+organism, are differently balanced from what they are
+in the upright position, and that a disturbance of internal
+equilibrium always accompanies falling.</p>
+
+<p>It is also noteworthy (as, indeed, Wundt has briefly
+remarked) that the modifications produced by sleep
+in the respiratory process itself tend to facilitate its
+interpretation as a process of flying. Mosso showed that
+respiration in sleep is more thoracic than when awake,
+that it is lengthened, and that the respiratory pause is
+less marked.<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a> That is to say that both the aerial
+element and the actual rhythmic movement of the ribs
+become accentuated during sleep.</p>
+
+<p>That the respiratory element is the chief factor in
+dreams of flying is clearly indicated by the fact that
+many persons subject to such dreams are conscious on
+awaking from them of a sense of respiratory or cardiac
+disturbance. I am acquainted with a psychologist who,
+though not a frequent dreamer, is subject to dreams
+of flying, which do not affect him disagreeably, but on
+awaking from them he always perceives a slight flutter
+of the heart. Any such sensation is by no means constant
+with me, but I have occasionally noted it down
+in exactly the same words after this kind of dream.<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a>
+It is worth while to observe, in this connection, how
+large a number of people, and especially very young<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span>
+people, associate their dreams of flying with staircases.
+The most frequent cause of cardiac and respiratory
+stimulation, especially in children, who constantly run
+up and down them, is furnished by staircases, and
+though in health this fact may not be obvious, it is
+undoubtedly registered unconsciously, and may thus
+be utilised by dreaming intelligence.</p>
+
+<p>There is, however, another element entering into the
+problem of nocturnal aviation: the state of the skin
+sensations. Respiratory activity alone would scarcely
+suffice to produce the imagery of flight if sensations
+of tactile pressure remained to suggest contact with
+the earth. In dreams, however, the sense of movement
+suggested by respiratory activity is unaccompanied
+by the tactile pressure produced by boots or the contact
+of the ground with the soles of the feet. In addition,
+also, there is probably, as Bergson also has suggested,
+a numbness due to pressure on the parts supporting
+the weight of the body. Sleep is not a constant and
+uniform state of consciousness; a heightened consciousness
+of respiration may easily co-exist with a
+diminished consciousness of tactile pressure due to
+anaesthesia of the skin.<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> In normal sleep it may,
+indeed, be said that the conditions are probably often
+favourable to the production of this combination, and
+any slight thoracic disturbance even in healthy persons,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span>
+arising from heart or stomach, and acting on the
+respiration, serves to bring these conditions to sleeping
+consciousness and to determine the dream of
+flying.</p>
+
+<p>Dreams of flying are sometimes associated with
+dreams of falling, the falling sensation occurring either
+at the beginning or at the end of the dream; such a
+dream may be said to be of the Icarus type.<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a> Jewell
+considers that the two kinds of dream have the same
+causation, the difference being merely a difference of
+apperception. The frequent connection between the
+two dreams indicates that the causation is allied, but
+it scarcely seems to be identical. If it were identical,
+we should scarcely find that while the emotional tone
+of the dream of flying is usually agreeable, that of the
+dream of falling is usually disagreeable.<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a></p>
+
+<p>I have no personal experience of the sensation of falling
+in normal dreaming, although Jewell and Hutchinson
+have found that it is more common than flying, the latter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>
+regarding it, indeed, as the most common kind of dream,
+the dream of flying coming next in frequency. A friend
+who has no dreams of flying, but has experienced
+dreams of falling from his earliest years, tells me that
+they are always associated with feelings of terror. This
+suggests an organic cause, and the fact that the sensation
+of falling may occur in epileptic fits during sleep,<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a> seems
+further to suggest the presence of circulatory and
+nervous disturbance. It would seem probable that
+while the same two factors&mdash;respiratory and tactile&mdash;are
+operative in both types of dream, they are not of
+equal force in each. In the dream of flying, respiratory
+activity is excited, and in response to excitation it works
+at a high level adequate to the needs of the organism.
+In the dream of falling it may be that respiratory
+activity is depressed, while concomitantly, perhaps,
+the anaesthetic state of the skin is increased. In the
+first state the abnormal activity of respiration triumphs
+in consciousness over the accompanying dulness of
+tactile sensation; in the second state the respiratory
+breathlessness is less influential than a numbness of
+the skin unconscious of any external pressure. This
+difference is rendered possible by the fact that in dreams
+of flying we are not usually far from the earth, and seem
+able to touch it lightly at intervals; that is to say that
+tactile sensitiveness is impaired, but is not entirely
+absent as it is in a dream of falling.<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In my own experience the sensation of falling only
+occurs in illness or under the influence of drugs, sometimes
+when sleep seems incomplete, and it is an
+unpleasant, though not terrifying, sensation. I once
+experienced it in the most marked and persistent
+manner after taking a large dose of chlorodyne to
+subdue pain. Under such circumstances the sensation
+is probably due to the fact that the morphia in
+chlorodyne both weakens respiratory action and produces
+anaesthesia of the peripheral nerves, so that the
+skin becomes abnormally insensitive to the contact and
+pressure of the bed, and the sensation of descent is
+necessarily aroused.<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a> It is possible that persons liable
+to the dream of falling are predisposed to a stage of
+sleep unconsciousness, in which cutaneous insensibility is
+marked. It is also possible that there is a contributory
+element of slight cardiac or respiratory disturbance.<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a></p>
+
+<p>In a dream belonging to this group, I imagined I was
+being rhythmically swung up and down in the air by a
+young woman, my feet never touching the ground;
+and then that I was swinging her similarly. At one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span>
+time she seemed to be swinging me in too jerky and
+hurried a manner, and I explained to her that it must be
+done in a slower and more regular manner, though I
+was not conscious of the precise words I used. There
+had been some dyspepsia on the previous day, and
+on awaking I felt slight discomfort in the region of the
+heart. The symbolism into which slightly disturbed
+respiratory or cardiac action is here transformed seems
+very clear in this dream, because it shows the actual
+transition from the subjective sensation to the objective
+imagery of flying. By means of this symbolic imagery
+we find sleeping consciousness commanding the hurried
+heart to beat in a more healthy manner.</p>
+
+<p>Although, in youth, my dreams of flying were of what
+may be considered normal type, after the age of about
+thirty-five they tended, as illustrated by the example
+I have given, to take on a somewhat objective form.
+A further stage in this direction, the swinging movement
+being transformed to an inanimate object, is illustrated
+by a dream of comparatively recent date, in which I
+seemed to see an athlete of the music-hall, a graceful
+and muscular man, who was manipulating a large
+elastic ball, making it bound up from the floor. On
+awaking there was a distinct sensation of cardaic
+tremor and nervousness.<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a></p>
+
+<p>It may seem strange that dreams of flying, if so often<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span>
+due to organic disturbances, should usually be agreeable
+in character. It is not, however, necessary to
+assume that they are caused by serious interference
+with physiological functions; often, indeed, they may
+simply be due to the presence of a stage of consciousness
+in which respiration has become unduly prominent, as
+it is apt to be in the early stage of nitrous oxide anaesthesia,
+that is to say, to a relative wakefulness of the
+respiratory centres. It would seem that the disturbance
+is frequently almost, or quite, imperceptible on
+waking, and by no means to be compared with the
+more acute organic disturbances which result in dreams
+of murder, although it may be of nervous origin.<a name="FNanchor_123_123" id="FNanchor_123_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a>
+In some cases, however, it appears that dreams of flying
+are accompanied by circumstances of terror. Thus a
+medical correspondent, who describes his health as
+fairly good, writes in regard to dreams of flying: 'I
+have often had such dreams, and have wondered if
+others have them. Mine, however, are not so much
+dreams of flying, as dreams of being entirely devoid of
+weight, and of rising and falling at will. A singular
+feature of these levitation dreams is that they are always
+accompanied by an intense and agonising fear of an evil
+presence, a presence that I do not see but seem to feel,
+and my greatest terror is that I <em>shall</em> see it. The
+presence is ill-defined, but very real, and it seems to
+suggest the potentiality of all possible moral, mental,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>
+and physical evil. In these dreams it always occurs
+to me that if this evil presence shall ever become embodied
+into a something that I could <em>see</em>, the sight of
+it would be so ineffably horrible as to drive me mad.
+So vivid has this fear been that on several occasions I
+have awakened in a cold sweat or a nameless fear that
+would persist for some minutes after I realised that I
+had only been dreaming.' This seems to be an abnormal
+type of the dream of flight.</p>
+
+<p>It is somewhat surprising that while dreams of
+floating in the air are so common and clearly indicate
+the respiratory source of the dream, dreams of floating
+on water seem to be rare, for as the actual experience
+of floating on water is fairly familiar, we might have
+expected that sleeping consciousness would have found
+here rather than in the never experienced idea of floating
+in air the explanation of its sensations. The dream
+of floating on water is, however, by no means unknown;
+thus Rachilde (Mme. Vallette), the French novelist
+and critic, whose dream life is vivid and remarkable,
+states that her most agreeable dream is that of floating
+on the surface of warm and transparent lakes or rivers.<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a>
+One of the correspondents of <cite>L'interm&eacute;diaire des
+Chercheurs et des Curieux</cite><a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> also states that he has often
+dreamed of walking on the water.</p>
+
+<p>It is not only in sleep that the sensation of flying is
+experienced. In hysteria a sense of peculiar lightness
+of the body, and the idea of the soul's power to fly, may<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>
+occur incidentally,<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id="FNanchor_126_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> and may certainly be connected
+both with the vigilambulism, as Sollier terms the sleep-like
+tendencies of such cases, and the anaesthetic conditions
+found in the hysterical. It is noteworthy that
+Janet found that in an ecstatic person who experienced
+the sensation of rising in the air there was anaesthesia
+of the soles of the feet. In such hysterical ecstasy,
+which has always played so large a part in religious
+manifestations, it is well known that the sense of rising
+and floating in the air has often prominently appeared.
+St. Theresa occasionally felt herself lifted above the
+ground, and was fearful that this sign of divine favour
+would attract attention (though we are not told that
+that was the case), while St. Joseph of Cupertino,
+Christina the Wonderful, St. Ida of Louvain, with
+many another saint enshrined in the <em xml:lang="la" lang="la">Acta Sanctorum</em>,
+were permitted to experience this sensation; and since
+its reality is as convincing in the ecstatic state as it is
+in dreams, the saints have often been able to declare,
+in perfect good faith, that their levitation was real.<a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a>
+In all great religious movements among primitive
+peoples, similar phenomena occur, together with other
+nervous and hallucinatory manifestations. They occurred,
+for instance, in the great Russian religious
+movement which took place among the peasants in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span>
+the province of Kief during the winter of 1891-2. The
+leader of the movement, a devout member of the
+Stundist sect, a man with alcoholic heredity, who had
+received the revelation that he was saviour of the world,
+used not only to perceive perfumes so exquisite that
+they could only, as he was convinced, emanate from
+the Holy Ghost, but during prayer, together with a
+feeling of joy, he also had a sensation of bodily lightness
+and of floating in the air. His followers in many cases
+had the same experiences, and they delighted in jumping
+up into the air and shouting. In these cases the reality
+of the sensory obtuseness of the skin as an element in
+the manifestations was demonstrated, for Ssikorski,
+who had an opportunity of investigating these people,
+found that many of them, when in the ecstatic condition,
+were completely insensible to pain.</p>
+
+<p>The sensation of flying is one of the earliest to appear
+in the dreams of childhood.<a name="FNanchor_128_128" id="FNanchor_128_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> It is sometimes the last
+sensation at the moment of death. To rise, to fall, to
+glide away, has often been the last conscious sensation
+recalled by those who seemed to be dying, but have
+afterwards been brought back to life. Those rescued
+from drowning, for instance, have sometimes found that
+the last conscious sensation was a beatific feeling of
+being borne upwards. Pi&eacute;ron has also noted this
+sensation at the moment of death from disease in a
+number of cases, usually accompanied by a sense of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>
+well-being.<a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> The cases he describes were mostly tuberculous,
+and included individuals of both sexes, and of
+atheistic as well as religious belief. In all, the last sensation
+to which expression was given was one of flying, of
+moving upwards. In some death was peaceful, in others
+painful. In one case a girl died clasping the iron bars of
+the bed, in horror of being borne upwards. Pi&eacute;ron, no
+doubt rightly, associates this sensation with the similar
+sensation of rising and floating common in dreams, and
+with the feeling of moving upwards and resting on the
+air experienced by persons in the ecstatic state. In all
+these cases alike life is being concentrated in the brain
+and central organs, while the outlying districts of the
+body are becoming numb and dead.</p>
+
+<p>In this way it comes about that out of dreams and of
+dream-like waking states, one of the most permanent
+of human spiritual conceptions has been evolved. To
+float, to rise into the air, to fly up to heaven, has always
+seemed to man to be the final climax of spiritual activity.
+The angel is the most ethereal creature the human
+imagination can conceive. Browning's cry to his 'lyric
+love, half angel and half bird,' pathetically crude as
+poetry, is sound as psychology. The prophets and
+divine heroes of the race have constantly seemed to
+their devout followers to disappear at last by floating
+up into the sky, like Elijah, who went up 'by a whirlwind
+into heaven.' St. Peter once thought he saw his
+Master walking on the waves, and the last vision of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span>
+Jesus in the Gospels reveals him rising into the air.
+For it is in the world of dreams that the human soul
+has its indestructible home, and in the attempt to
+realise these dreams lies a large part of our business
+in life.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+<p class="p6">SYMBOLISM IN DREAMS</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>The Dramatisation of Subjective Feelings Based on Dissociation&mdash;Analogies
+in Waking Life&mdash;The Synaesthesias and Number-forms&mdash;Symbolism
+in Language&mdash;In Music&mdash;The Organic Basis of Dream
+Symbolism&mdash;The Omnipotence of Symbolism&mdash;Oneiromancy&mdash;The
+Scientific Interpretation of Dreams&mdash;Why Symbolism prevails
+in Dreaming&mdash;Freud's Theory of Dreaming&mdash;Dreams as
+Fulfilled Wishes&mdash;Why this Theory cannot be applied to all
+Dreaming&mdash;The Complete Form of Symbolism in Dreams&mdash;Splitting
+up of Personality&mdash;Self-objectivation in Imaginary
+Personalities&mdash;The Dramatic Element in Dreams&mdash;Hallucinations&mdash;Multiple
+Personality&mdash;Insanity&mdash;Self-objectivation a Primitive
+Tendency&mdash;Its Survival in Civilisation.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>In discussing dreams of flying I have referred to a dream
+in which a slight disturbance of the heart's action was
+transformed by sleeping consciousness into the image of
+an athlete manipulating an elastic ball. This objectivation
+of what are really the dreamer's subjective sensations,
+although he is not conscious of them as subjective,
+is, indeed, a phenomenon which we have
+encountered many times. It is, however, so important
+a feature of dream psychology, and probably of such
+significant weight in its influence on waking life, that it
+is worth while to deal with it separately.</p>
+
+<p>The dramatisation of subjective elements of the
+personality, which contributes so largely to render our
+dreams vivid and interesting, rests on that dissociation,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span>
+or falling apart of the constituent groups of psychic
+centres, which is so fundamental a fact of dream life.
+That is to say, that the usually coherent elements of
+our mental life are split up, and some of them&mdash;often,
+it is curious to note, precisely those which are at that
+very moment the most prominent and poignant&mdash;are
+reconstituted into what seems to us an outside and
+objective world, of which we are the interested or the
+merely curious spectators, but in neither case realise
+that we are ourselves the origin of.</p>
+
+<p>An elementary source of this tendency to objectivation
+is to be found, it may be noted, in the automatic
+impulse towards symbolism by which all sorts of feelings
+experienced by the dreamer become transformed
+into concrete visible images. When objectivation is
+thus attained, dissociation may be said to be secondary.
+So far indeed as I am able to dissect the dream-process,
+the tendency to symbolism seems nearly always to precede
+the dissociation in consciousness, though it may
+well be that the dissociation of the mental elements is
+a necessary subconscious condition for the symbolism.</p>
+
+<p>Sensory symbolism rests on a very fundamental
+psychic tendency. On the abnormal side we find it in
+the synaesthesias which, since Galton first drew attention
+to them in 1883, in his <cite>Inquiries into Human Faculty</cite>,
+have become well known, and are found among between
+six to over twelve per cent. of people. Galton investigated
+chiefly those kinds of synaesthesias which he
+called 'number-forms' and 'colour associations.' The
+number-form is characteristic of those people who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span>
+almost invariably think of numerals in some more or
+less constant form of visual imagery, the number
+instantaneously calling up the picture. In persons who
+experience colour-associations, or coloured-hearing, there
+is a similar instantaneous manifestation of particular
+colours in connection with particular sounds, the
+different vowel sounds, for instance, each constantly
+and persistently evolving a definite tint, as <em>a</em> white,
+<em>e</em> vermilion, <em>i</em> yellow, etc., no two persons, however,
+having exactly the same colour scheme of
+sounds.<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a> These phenomena are not so very rare,
+and, though they must be regarded as abnormal,
+they occur in persons who are perfectly healthy and
+sane.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen that a synaesthesia&mdash;which may involve
+taste, smell, and other senses besides hearing and
+sight&mdash;causes an impression of one sensory order to be
+automatically and involuntarily linked on to an impression
+of another totally different order. In other
+words, we may say that the one impression becomes the
+<em>symbol</em> of the other impression, for a symbol&mdash;which is
+literally a throwing together&mdash;means that two things
+of different orders have become so associated that one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span>
+of them may be regarded as the sign and representative
+of the other.</p>
+
+<p>There is, however, another still more natural and
+fundamental form of symbolism which is entirely
+normal, and almost, indeed, physiological. This is the
+tendency by which qualities of one order become
+symbols of qualities of a totally different order, because
+they instinctively seem to have a similar effect on us.
+In this way, things in the physical order become
+symbols of things in the spiritual order. This symbolism
+penetrates indeed the whole of language; we cannot
+escape from it. The sea is <em>deep</em>, and so also may
+thoughts be; ice is <em>cold</em>, and we say the same of
+some hearts; sugar is <em>sweet</em>, as the lover finds also the
+presence of the beloved; quinine is <em>bitter</em>, and so is
+remorse. Not only our adjectives, but our substantives
+and our verbs are equally symbolical. To the etymological
+eye every sentence is full of metaphor, of symbol,
+of images that, strictly and originally, express sensory
+impressions of one order, but, as we use them to-day,
+express impressions of a totally different order. Language
+is largely the utilisation of symbols. This is
+a well-recognised fact which it is unnecessary to
+elaborate.<a name="FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a></p>
+
+<p>An interesting example of the natural tendency to
+symbolism, which may be compared to the allied
+tendency in dreaming, is furnished by another language,
+the language of music. Music is a representation of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>
+the world&mdash;the internal or the external world&mdash;which,
+except in so far as it may seek to reproduce the actual
+sounds of the world, can only be expressive by its
+symbolism. And the symbolism of music is so pronounced
+that it is even expressed in the elementary
+fact of musical pitch. Our minds are so constructed
+that the bass always seems <em>deep</em> to us and the treble
+<em>high</em>. We feel it incongruous to speak of a <em>high</em> bass
+voice or a <em>deep</em> soprano. It is difficult to avoid the
+conclusion that this and the like associations are fundamentally
+based, that there are, as an acute French
+philosophic student of music, Dauriac (in an essay
+'Des Images Sugg&eacute;r&eacute;es par l'Audition musicale'<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a>),
+has expressed it, 'sensorial correspondences,' as, indeed,
+Baudelaire had long since divined<a name="FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a>; that the
+motor image is that which demands from the listener
+the minimum of effort; and that music almost constantly
+evokes motor imagery.<a name="FNanchor_134_134" id="FNanchor_134_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The association between high notes and physical
+ascent, between low notes and physical descent, is certainly
+in any case very fixed.<a name="FNanchor_135_135" id="FNanchor_135_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a> In Wagner's <em>Lohengrin</em>,
+the ascent and descent of the angelic chorus is thus
+indicated. Even if we go back to the early composers,
+the same correspondence is found. In Purcell it is
+very definite. In Bach&mdash;pure and abstract as his music
+is generally considered&mdash;not only this elementary
+association, but an immense amount of motor imagery
+is to be found; Bach shows, indeed, a curious pre-occupation
+in translating the definite sense of the words
+he is musically illustrating into corresponding musical
+terms; the skill and subtlety with which he accomplishes
+this, can often, as Pirro and Schweitzer have
+shown, be appreciated only by musicians.<a name="FNanchor_136_136" id="FNanchor_136_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_136_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a> It is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span>
+sometimes said that this is 'realism' in music. That is
+a mistake. When the impressions derived from one
+sense are translated into those of another sense, there
+can be no question of realism. A composer may
+attempt a realistic representation of thunder, but his
+representation of lightning can only be symbolical;
+audible lightning can never be realistic.</p>
+
+<p>Not only is there an instinctive and direct association
+between sounds and motor imagery, but there is an
+indirect but equally instinctive association between
+sounds and visual imagery which, though not itself
+motor, has motor associations. Thus Bleuler considers
+it well established that among colour-hearers
+there is a tendency for photisms that are light in colour
+(and belonging, we may say, to the 'high' part of the
+spectrum) to be produced by sounds of high quality,
+and dark photisms by sounds of low quality; and, in
+the same way, sharply-defined pains or tactile sensations,
+as well as pointed forms, produce light photisms. Similarly,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span>
+bright lights and pointed forms produce high
+photisms, whole low photisms are produced by opposite
+conditions. Urbantschitsch, again, by examining a
+large number of people who were not colour-hearers,
+found that a high note of a tuning-fork seems higher
+when looking at red, yellow, green, or blue, but lower
+if looking at violet. Thus two sensory qualities that
+are both symbolic of a third quality are symbolic to
+each other.</p>
+
+<p>This symbolism, we are justified in believing, is
+based on fundamental organic tendencies. Piderit,
+nearly half a century ago, forcibly argued that there is
+a real relationship of our most spiritual feelings and
+ideas to particular bodily movements and facial expressions.
+In a similar manner, he pointed out that
+bitter tastes and bitter thoughts tend to produce the
+same physical expression.<a name="FNanchor_137_137" id="FNanchor_137_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a> He also argued that the
+character of a man's looks&mdash;his <em>fixed</em> or <em>dreamy</em> eyes,
+his <em>lively</em> or <em>stiff</em> movements&mdash;correspond to real psychic
+characters. If this is so we have a physiological, almost
+anatomical, basis for symbolism. Cleland,<a name="FNanchor_138_138" id="FNanchor_138_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a> again, in
+an essay, 'On the Element of Symbolic Correlation
+in Expression,' argued that the key to a great part of
+expression is the correlation of movements and positions
+with ideas, so that there are, for instance, a host of
+associations in the human mind by which 'upward'
+represents the good, the great, and the living, while
+'downward' represents the evil and the dead. Such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span>
+associations are so fundamental that they are found
+even in animals, whose gestures are, as F&eacute;r&eacute;<a name="FNanchor_139_139" id="FNanchor_139_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a> remarked,
+often metaphorical, so that a cat, for instance, will
+shake its paw, as if in contact with water, after any
+disagreeable experiences.</p>
+
+<p>The symbolism that to-day interpenetrates our language,
+and indeed our life generally, has mostly been
+inherited by us, with the traditions of civilisation,
+from an antiquity so primitive that we usually fail to
+interpret it. The rare additions we make to it in our
+ordinary normal life are for the most part deliberately
+conscious. But so soon as we fall below, or rise above,
+that ordinary normal level&mdash;to insanity and hallucination,
+to childhood, to savagery, to folk-lore and legend,
+to poetry and religion&mdash;we are at once plunged into a
+sea of symbolism.<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id="FNanchor_140_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a> There is even a normal sphere in
+which symbolism has free scope, and that is in the world
+of dreams.</p>
+
+<p>Oneiromancy, the symbolical interpretation of dreams,
+more especially as a method of divining the future, is a
+widespread art in early stages of culture. The discerning
+of dreams is represented in the Old Testament
+as a very serious and anxious matter (as in regard to
+Pharaoh's dream of the fat and lean cattle), and,
+nearer to our time, the dreams of great heroes, especially
+Charlemagne, are represented as highly important<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>
+events in the medi&aelig;val European epics. Little manuals
+on the interpretation of dreams have always been much
+valued by the uncultured classes, and among our
+current popular sayings there are many dicta concerning
+the significance, or the good or ill luck, of particular
+kinds of dreams.</p>
+
+<p>Oneiromancy has thus slowly degenerated to folk-lore
+and superstition. But at the outset it possessed
+something of the combined dignities of religion and of
+science. Not only were the old dream interpreters
+careful of the significance and results of individual
+dreams, in order to build up a body of doctrine, but they
+held that not every dream contained in it a divine
+message; thus they would not condescend to interpret
+dreams following on the drinking of wine, for only to
+the temperate, they declared, do the gods reveal their
+secrets.<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id="FNanchor_141_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a> The serious and elaborate way in which the
+interpretation of dreams was dealt with is well seen in
+the treatise on this subject by Artemidorus of Daldi,
+a native of Ephesus, and contemporary of Marcus
+Aurelius.<a name="FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_142_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a> He divided dreams into two classes:
+<em>theorematic</em> dreams, which come literally true, and
+<em>allegorical</em> dreams. The first group may be said to
+correspond to the modern groups of prophetic and
+proleptic or prodromic dreams, while the second group
+includes the symbolical dreams which have of recent
+years again attracted attention. Synesius, who lived<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>
+in the fourth century, and eventually became a Christian
+bishop without altogether ceasing to be a Greek pagan,
+wrote a very notable treatise on dreaming, in which,
+with a genuinely Greek alertness of mind, he contrived
+to rationalise and almost to modernise the ancient
+doctrine of dream symbolism. He admits that it is in
+their obscurity that the truth of dreams resides, and
+that we must not expect to find any general rules in
+regard to dreams; no two people are alike, so that the
+same dream cannot have the same significance for every
+one, and we have to find out the rules of our own dreams.
+He had himself (like Galen) often been aided in his
+writings by his dreams, in this way getting his ideas
+into order, improving his style, and receiving criticisms
+of extravagant phrases. Once, too, in the days when
+he hunted, he invented a trap as a result of a dream.
+Synesius declares that attention to divination by
+dreams is good on moral grounds alone. For he who
+makes his bed a Delphian tripod will be careful to live
+a pure and noble life. In that way he will reach an end
+higher than that he aimed at.<a name="FNanchor_143_143" id="FNanchor_143_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a></p>
+
+<p>It seems to-day by no means improbable that, amid
+the absurdities of this popular oneiromancy, there are
+some items of real significance. Until recent years,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>
+however, the absurdities have frightened away the
+scientific investigator. Almost the only investigator
+of the psychology of dreaming who ventured to admit
+a real symbolism in the dream world was Scherner,<a name="FNanchor_144_144" id="FNanchor_144_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a>
+and his arguments were not usually accepted nor even
+easy to accept. When we are faced by the question
+of definite and constant symbols it still remains true
+that scepticism is often called for. But there can
+be no manner of doubt that our dreams are full of
+symbolism.<a name="FNanchor_145_145" id="FNanchor_145_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a></p>
+
+<p>The conditions of dream life, indeed, lend themselves
+with a peculiar facility to the formation of
+symbolism, that is to say, of images which, while
+evoked by a definite stimulus, are themselves of a totally
+different order from that stimulus. The very fact that
+we <em>sleep</em>, that is to say, that the avenues of sense which
+would normally supply the real image of corresponding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>
+order to the stimulus are more or less closed, renders
+symbolism inevitable.<a name="FNanchor_146_146" id="FNanchor_146_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> The direct channels being thus
+largely choked, other allied and parallel associations
+come into play, and since the control of attention
+and apperception is diminished, such play is often unimpeded.
+Symbolism is the natural and inevitable result
+of these conditions.<a name="FNanchor_147_147" id="FNanchor_147_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_147_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a></p>
+
+<p>It might still be asked why we do not in dreams more
+often recognise the actual source of the stimuli applied
+to us. If a dreamer's feet are in contact with something
+hot, it might seem more natural that he should
+think of the actual hot-water bottle, rather than of an
+imaginary Etna, and that, if he hears a singing in his
+ears, he should argue the presence of the real bird he
+has often heard rather than a performance of Haydn's
+<em>Creation</em>, which he has never heard. Here, however,
+we have to remember the tendency to magnification
+in dream imagery, a tendency which rests on the emotionality
+of dreams. Emotion is normally heightened
+in dreams. Every impression reaches sleeping consciousness
+through this emotional atmosphere, in an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span>
+enlarged form, vaguer it may be, but more massive.
+The sleeping brain is thus not dealing with actual
+impressions&mdash;if we are justified in speaking of the
+impressions of waking life as 'actual'&mdash;even when
+actual impressions are being made upon it, but with
+transformed impressions. The problem before it is to
+find an adequate cause, not for the actual impression,
+but for the transformed and enlarged impression.
+Under these circumstances symbolism is quite inevitable.
+Even when the nature of an excitation is rightly perceived
+its quality cannot be rightly perceived. The
+dreamer may be able to perceive that he is being bitten,
+but the massive and profound impression of a bite
+which reaches his dreaming consciousness would not
+be adequately accounted for by the supposition of the
+real mosquito that is the cause of it; the only adequate
+explanation of the transformed impression received
+is to be found (as in a dream already narrated) in a
+creature as large as a lobster. This creature is the
+symbol of the real mosquito.<a name="FNanchor_148_148" id="FNanchor_148_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_148_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a> We have the same
+phenomenon under somewhat similar conditions in the
+intoxication of chloroform and nitrous oxide.</p>
+
+<p>The obscuration during sleep of the external sensory<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span>
+channels, with the checks on false conclusions they
+furnish, is not alone sufficient to explain the symbolism
+of dreams. The dissociation of thought during sleep,
+with the diminished attention and apperception involved,
+is also a factor. The magnification of special
+isolated sensory impressions in dreaming consciousness
+is associated with a general bluntness, even an absolute
+quiescence, of the external sensory mechanism. One
+part of the organism, and it seems usually a visceral
+part, is thus apt to magnify its place in consciousness
+at the expense of the rest. As Vaschide and Pi&eacute;ron say,
+during sleep 'the internal sensations develop at the
+expense of the peripheral sensations.' That indeed
+seems to be the secret of the immense emotional turmoil
+of our dreams. Yet it is very rare for these internal
+sensations to reach the sleeping brain as what they are.
+They become conscious, not as literal messages, but as
+symbolical transformations. The excited or labouring
+heart recalls to the brain no memory of itself, but some
+symbolical image of excitement or labour. There is
+association, indeed, but it is association not along the
+matter-of-fact lines of our ordinary waking civilised
+life, but along much more fundamental and primitive
+channels, which in waking life we have now abandoned
+or never knew.</p>
+
+<p>There is another consideration which may be put forward
+to account for one group of dream-symbolisms.
+It has been found that certain hysterical subjects of old
+standing when in the hypnotic state are able to receive
+mental pictures of their own viscera, even though they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span>
+may be quite ignorant of any knowledge of the shape
+of these viscera. This <em>autoscopy</em>, as it has been called,
+has been specially studied by F&eacute;r&eacute;, Comar, and Sollier.<a name="FNanchor_149_149" id="FNanchor_149_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a>
+Hysteria is a condition which is in many respects closely
+allied to sleep, and if it is to be accepted as a real fact
+that autoscopy occasionally occurs in the abnormal
+psychic state of hypnotic sleep in hysterical persons,
+it is possible to ask whether it may not sometimes
+occur normally in the allied state of sleep. In the
+hypnotic state it is known that parts of the organism
+normally involuntary may become subject to the will;
+it is not incredible that similarly parts normally
+insensitive may become sufficiently sensitive to reveal
+their own shape or condition. We may thus, indeed,
+the more easily understand those premonitory dreams
+in which the dreamer becomes conscious of morbid
+conditions which are not perceptible to waking consciousness
+until they have attained a greater degree of
+intensity.<a name="FNanchor_150_150" id="FNanchor_150_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_150_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The recognition of the transformation in dream life
+of internal sensations into symbolic motor imagery is
+ancient. Hippocrates said that to dream, for instance,
+of springs and wells denoted some disturbance of the
+bladder. In such a case a disturbed bladder sends to
+the brain, not the naked message of its own needs, but
+a symbolic message of those needs in motor imagery,
+as (in one case known to me) of a large cistern with a
+stream of water flowing from it.<a name="FNanchor_151_151" id="FNanchor_151_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_151_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a> Sometimes the
+symbolism aroused by visceral processes remains
+physiological; thus indigestion frequently leads to
+dreams of eating, as of chewing all sorts of inedible
+and repulsive substances, and occasionally&mdash;it would
+seem more abnormally&mdash;to agreeable dreams of food.</p>
+
+<p>It is due to the genius of Professor Sigmund Freud,
+of Vienna&mdash;to-day the most daring and original psychologist
+in the field of morbid psychic phenomena&mdash;that
+we owe the long-neglected recognition of the large
+place of symbolism in dreaming. Scherner had argued
+in favour of this aspect of dreams, but he was an
+undistinguished and unreliable psychologist, and his
+arguments failed to be influential. Freud avows
+himself a partisan of Scherner's theory of dreaming and
+opponent of all other theories,<a name="FNanchor_152_152" id="FNanchor_152_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_152_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a> but his treatment of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>
+the matter is incomparably more searching and profound.
+Freud, however, goes far beyond the fundamental&mdash;and,
+as I believe, undeniable&mdash;proposition
+that dream-imagery is largely symbolic. He holds
+that behind the symbolism of dreams there lies ultimately
+a <em>wish;</em> he believes, moreover, that this wish tends
+to be really of more or less sexual character, and, further,
+that it is tinged by elements that go back to the dreamer's
+infantile days. As Freud views the mechanism of
+dreams, it is far from exhibiting mere disordered mental
+activity, but is (much as he has also argued hysteria
+to be<a name="FNanchor_153_153" id="FNanchor_153_153"></a><a href="#Footnote_153_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a>) the outcome of a desire, which is driven back by
+a kind of inhibition or censure (<em>i.e.</em>, that kind of moral
+check which is still more alert in the waking state), and
+is seeking new forms of expression. There is first in
+the dream the process of what Freud calls condensation
+(<em>Verdichtung</em>), a process which is that fusion of separate
+elements which must be recognised at the outset of
+every discussion of dreaming, but Freud maintains that
+in this fusion all the elements have a point in common,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span>
+and overlie one another like the pictures in a Galtonian
+composite photograph. Then there comes the process
+of displacement or transference (<em>Verschiebung</em>), a process
+by which the really central and emotional basis of the
+dream is concealed beneath trifles. Then there is the
+process of dramatisation or transformation into a concrete
+situation of which the elements have a symbolic
+value. Thus, as Maeder puts it, summarising Freud's
+views, 'behind the apparently insignificant events of
+the day utilised in the dream there is always an important
+idea or event hidden. We only dream of things
+that are worth while. What at first sight seems to be
+a trifle is a grey wall which hides a great palace. The
+significance of the dream is not so much held in the
+dream itself as in that substratum of it which has not
+passed the threshold and which analysis alone can bring
+to light.'</p>
+
+<p>'We only dream of things that are worth while.'
+That is the point at which many of us are no longer
+able to follow Freud. That dreams of the type studied
+by Freud do actually occur may be accepted; it may
+even be considered proved. But to assert that all
+dreams must be made to fit into this one formula is to
+make far too large a demand. As regards the presentative
+element in dreams&mdash;the element that is based
+on actual sensory stimulation&mdash;it is in most cases unreasonable
+to invoke Freud's formula at all. If, when
+I am asleep, the actual song of a bird causes me to dream
+that I am at a concert, that picture may be regarded as
+a natural symbol of the actual sensation, and it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span>
+unreasonable to expect that psycho-analysis could reveal
+any hidden personal reason why the symbol should
+take the form of a concert. And, if so, then Freud's
+formula fails to hold good for phenomena which cover
+one of the two main divisions of dreams, even on a
+superficial classification, and perhaps enter into all
+dreams.</p>
+
+<p>But even if we take dreams of the remaining or
+representative class&mdash;the dreams made up of images
+not directly dependent on actual sensation&mdash;we still
+have to maintain a cautious attitude. A very large
+proportion of the dreams in this class seem to be, so
+far as the personal life is concerned, in no sense 'worth
+while.' It would, indeed, be surprising if they were.
+It seems to be fairly clear that in sleep, as certainly
+in the hypnagogic state, attention is diminished, and
+apperceptive power weakened. That alone seems to
+involve a relaxation of the tension by which we will
+and desire our personal ends. At the same time, by no
+longer concentrating our psychic activities at the focus
+of desire it enables indifferent images to enter more easily
+the field of sleeping consciousness. It might even be
+argued that the activity of desire, when it manifests
+itself in sleep and follows the course indicated by
+Freud, corresponds to a special form of sleep in which
+attention and apperception, though in modified forms,
+are more active than in ordinary sleep.<a name="FNanchor_154_154" id="FNanchor_154_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_154_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a> Such dreams<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>
+seem to occur with special frequency, or in more definitely
+marked forms, in the neurotic and especially the
+hysterical, and if it is true that the hysterical are to
+some extent asleep even when they are awake, it may
+also be said that they are to some extent awake even
+when they are asleep. Freud certainly holds, probably
+with truth, that there is no fundamental distinction
+between normal people and psychoneurotic people,
+and that there is, for instance, as Ferenczi says, emphasising
+this point, 'a streak of hysterical disposition
+in everybody.' Freud has, indeed, made interesting
+analytic studies of his own dreams, but the great body
+of material accumulated by him and his school is derived
+from the dreams of the neurotic. Thus Stekel states
+that he has analysed many thousand dreams, but his
+lengthy study on the interpretation of dreams deals
+exclusively with the dreams of the neurotic.<a name="FNanchor_155_155" id="FNanchor_155_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_155_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a> Stekel
+believes, moreover, that from the structure of the dream
+life conclusions may be drawn, not only as to the life
+and character of the dreamer, but also as to his neurosis,
+the hysterical person dreaming differently from the
+obsessed person, and so on. If that is the case we are
+certainly justified in doubting whether conclusions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>
+drawn from the study of the dreams of neurotic people
+can be safely held to represent the normal dream life,
+even though it may be true that there is no definite
+frontier between them. Whatever may be the case
+among the neurotic, in ordinary normal sleep the images
+that drift across the field of consciousness, though they
+have a logic of their own, seem in a large proportion of
+cases to be quite explicable without resort to the theory
+that they stand in vital but concealed relationship to
+our most intimate self.</p>
+
+<p>Even in waking life, and at normal moments which
+are not those of reverie, it seems possible to trace the
+appearance in the field of consciousness of images which
+are evoked neither by any known mental or physical
+circumstance of the moment, or any hidden desire,
+images that are as disconnected from the immediate
+claims of desire and even of association as those of
+dreams seem so largely to be. It sometimes occurs to
+me&mdash;as doubtless it occurs to other people&mdash;that at
+some moment when my thoughts are normally occupied
+with the work immediately before me, there suddenly
+appears on the surface of consciousness a totally unrelated
+picture. A scene arises, vague but usually
+recognisable, of some city or landscape&mdash;Australian,
+Russian, Spanish, it matters not what&mdash;seen casually
+long years ago, and possibly never thought of since,
+and possessing no kind of known association either
+with the matter in hand or with my personal life generally.
+It comes to the surface of consciousness as softly,
+as unexpectedly, as disconnectedly, as a minute bubble<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>
+might arise and break on the surface of an actual stream
+from ancient organic material silently disintegrating
+in the depths beneath.<a name="FNanchor_156_156" id="FNanchor_156_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_156_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a> Every one who has travelled
+much cannot fail to possess, hidden in his psychic depths,
+a practically infinite number of such forgotten pictures,
+devoid of all personal emotion. It is possible to maintain,
+as a matter of theory, that when they come up to
+consciousness, they are evoked by some real, though
+untraceable, resemblance which they possess to the
+psychic or physical state existing when they reappear.
+But that theory cannot be demonstrated. Nor, it
+may be added, is it more plausible than the simple but
+equally unprovable theory that such scenes do really
+come to the surface of consciousness as the result of
+some slight spontaneous disintegration in a minute
+cerebral centre, and have no more immediately preceding
+psychic cause than my psychic realisation of
+the emergence of the sun from behind a cloud has any
+psychic preceding cause.</p>
+
+<p>Similarly, in insanity, Liepmann, in his study <cite>Ueber
+Ideenflucht</cite>, has forcibly argued that ordinary logorrhœa&mdash;the
+incontinence of ideas linked together by superficial<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span>
+associations of resemblance or contiguity&mdash;is a
+linking <em>without direction</em>, that is, corresponding to no
+interest, either practical or theoretical, of the individual.
+Or, as Clapar&egrave;de puts it, logorrhœa is a trouble in the
+reaction of <em>interest</em> in life. It seems most reasonable
+to believe that in ordinary sleep the flow of imagery
+follows, for the most part, the same easy course. That
+course may to waking consciousness often seem peculiar,
+but to waking consciousness the conditions of dreaming
+life are peculiar. Under these conditions, however, we
+may well believe that the tendency to movement in the
+direction of least resistance still prevails. And as
+attention and will are weakened and loosened during
+sleep, the tense concentration on personal ends must also
+be relaxed. We become more disinterested. Personal
+desire tends for the most part rather to fall into the background
+than to become more prominent. If it were not
+a period in which desire were ordinarily relaxed, sleep
+would cease to be a period of rest and recuperation.</p>
+
+<p>Sleeping consciousness is a vast world, a world scarcely
+less vast than that of waking consciousness. It is
+futile to imagine that a single formula can cover all its
+manifold varieties and all its degrees of depth. Those
+who imagine that all dreaming is a symbolism which a
+single cypher will serve to interpret must not be surprised
+if, however unjustly, they are thought to resemble
+those persons who claim to find on every page of Shakespeare
+a cypher revealing the authorship of Bacon.
+In the case of Freud's theory of dream interpretation,
+I hold the cypher to be real, but I believe that it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span>
+impossible to regard so narrow and exclusive an interpretation
+as adequate to explain the whole world of
+dreams. It would, <em>a priori</em>, be incomprehensible that
+sleeping consciousness should exert so extraordinary a
+selective power among the variegated elements of waking
+life, and, experientially, there seems no adequate
+ground to suppose that it does exert such selective
+action. On the contrary, it is, for the most part,
+supremely impartial in bringing forward and combining
+all the manifestations, the most trivial as well as the
+most intimate, of our waking life. There is a symptom
+of mental disorder called <em>extrospection</em>, in which the
+patient fastens his attention so minutely on events that
+he comes to interpret the most trifling signs and incidents
+as full of hidden significance, and may so build
+up a systematised delusion.<a name="FNanchor_157_157" id="FNanchor_157_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_157_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a> The investigator of
+dreams must always bear in mind the risk of falling
+into morbid extrospection.</p>
+
+<p>Such considerations seem to indicate that it is not
+true that every dream, every mental image, is 'worth
+while,' though at the same time they by no means
+diminish the validity of special and purposive methods
+of investigating dream consciousness. Freud and those
+who are following him have shown, by the expenditure
+of much patience and skill, that his method of dream-interpretation
+may in many cases yield coherent results
+which it is not easy to account for by chance. It is
+quite possible, however, to recognise Freud's service<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span>
+in vindicating the large place of symbolism in dreams,
+and to welcome the application of his psycho-analytic
+method to dreams, while yet denying that this is the
+only method of interpreting dreams. Freud argues
+that all dreaming is purposive and significant, and that
+we must put aside the belief that dreams are the mere
+trivial outcome of the dissociated activity of brain
+centres. It remains true, however, that, while reason
+plays a larger part in dreams than most people realise,
+the activity of dissociated brain centres furnishes one
+of the best keys to the explanation of psychic phenomena
+during sleep. It would be difficult to believe in
+any case that in the relaxation of sleep our thoughts
+are still pursuing a deliberately purposeful direction
+under the control of our waking impulses. Many
+facts indicate&mdash;though Freud's school may certainly
+claim that such facts have not been thoroughly interpreted&mdash;that,
+as a matter of fact, this control is
+often conspicuously lacking. There is, for instance,
+the well-known fact that our most recent and acute
+emotional experiences&mdash;precisely those which might
+most ardently formulate themselves in a wish&mdash;are
+rarely mirrored in our dreams, though recent occurrences
+of more trivial nature, as well as older events
+of more serious import, easily find place there. That
+is easily accounted for by the supposition&mdash;not quite
+in a line with a generalised wish-theory&mdash;that the
+exhausted emotions of the day find rest at night.</p>
+
+<p>It must also be said that even when we admit that a
+strong emotion may symbolically construct an elaborate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>
+dream edifice which needs analysis to be interpreted,
+we narrow the process unduly if we assert that the
+emotion is necessarily a wish. Desire is certainly very
+fundamental in life and very primitive. But there is
+another equally fundamental and primitive emotion&mdash;fear.<a name="FNanchor_158_158" id="FNanchor_158_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_158_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a>
+We may very well expect to find this emotion,
+as well as desire, subjacent to dream phenomena.<a name="FNanchor_159_159" id="FNanchor_159_159"></a><a href="#Footnote_159_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a></p>
+
+<p>The infantile form of the wish-dream, alike in
+adults and children, is thus, there can be little doubt,
+extremely common, and, even in its symbolic forms,
+it is a real and not rare phenomenon. But it is impossible
+to follow Freud when he declares that all
+dreams fall into the group of wish-dreams. The
+world of psychic life during sleep is, like the waking
+world, rich and varied; it cannot be covered by a single
+formula. Freud's subtle and searching analytic genius
+has greatly contributed to enlarge our knowledge of
+this world of sleep. We may recognise the value of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>
+his contribution to the psychology of dreams while
+refusing to accept a premature and narrow generalisation.</p>
+
+<p>The wish-dream of the kind elaborately investigated
+by Freud may be accepted as one type of dreaming,
+and a very interesting type, but it seems evident that
+it is only one type. There are even other types which
+seem closely related to it, and yet are quite distinct.
+This is, for instance, the case with the contrast-dream.
+The contrast-dream of N&auml;cke's type represents the
+emergence of characteristics which are distinctly opposed
+to the dreamer's character and habits. Thus,
+in the course of four consecutive nights, I have dreamed
+in much detail that (1) I was the mayor of a large
+northern city about to take the chair at a local meeting
+of the Bible Society; (2) that I was a soldier in the
+heat of battle; and (3) that I was meditating the step
+of going on the stage as a comedian&mdash;the only r&ocirc;le of
+the three which seemed to cause me any nervousness or
+misgiving. In contrast-dreams of this type we are not
+concerned with the eruption of concealed and repressed
+wishes. They are merely based on vestigial possibilities,
+entirely alien to our temperament as it has
+developed in life, and only a part of our complex personalities
+in the sense that, as Schopenhauer said, whatever
+path we take in life there are latent germs within us
+which could only have developed in an exactly opposite
+path. Even the very same dream may be due to quite
+different causes. To take a very simple dream, for we
+may best argue on the simplest facts: the dream<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>
+of eating. We dream of eating when we are hungry,
+but sometimes we also dream of eating when the stomach
+is suffering from repletion. The dream is the same,
+but the psychological mechanism is entirely different,
+in the one case emotional, in the other intellectual.
+In the first case the picture of eating is built up in response
+to an organic visceral craving, and we have an
+elementary wish-dream of what Freud would call infantile
+type; in the second case the same dream is a
+theory, embodied in a concrete picture, to account for
+the existence of the repletion experienced.</p>
+
+<p>There cannot be the slightest doubt that the wish-dream,
+in its simple or what Freud calls its infantile
+form, represents an extremely common type of dream.<a name="FNanchor_160_160" id="FNanchor_160_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_160_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a>
+A large number of the dreams of children are concerned
+with wishes and their fulfilments. Those dreams of
+adults which are aroused by actual organic sensations
+also tend to fall, though not invariably, into the same
+form. Again, we chance to want a thing when we are
+awake; when we are asleep we dream we have found it.
+It may also be said, almost with certainty, that in some
+cases our dreams are the fulfilment of unexpressed and
+unconscious waking wishes. Even the best people,
+it is probable, may occasionally dream of events which
+represent the fulfilment of wishes they have never
+consciously formulated. Archbishop Laud was accustomed
+to note down his dreams in his Diary. On one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>
+occasion we find him setting down a disturbing dream,
+in which he saw the Lord Keeper dead, and 'rotten
+already.' A little later we find that Laud is 'much
+concerned at the envy and undeserved hatred borne
+to me by the Lord Keeper.'<a name="FNanchor_161_161" id="FNanchor_161_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_161_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a> It is not difficult to see
+in the Archbishop's relations to the Lord Keeper an
+explanation of his dream.</p>
+
+<p>If, however, wishes, conscious or unconscious, are
+often fulfilled in dreams, and if, as we have seen reason
+to conclude, symbolism is a fundamental tendency of
+dreaming activity, it is inevitable that wish-dreams
+should sometimes take on a symbolic form. It is thus,
+for instance, that I interpret my dream of being in an
+English cathedral and seeing on the wall a notice to
+the effect that at evensong on such a day the edifice
+will not be illuminated, in order to avoid attracting
+moths; I awake with a slight headache, and the unilluminated
+cathedral was the symbol of the coolness
+and absence of glare which one desires when suffering
+from headache.</p>
+
+<p>There cannot, also, be any doubt that erotic wishes
+frequently make themselves felt as dreams, both in the
+infantile and the symbolic form. It is sufficient to
+bring forward one illustration. It is furnished by a
+young lady of somewhat neurotic tendencies and
+heredity, aged twenty-three, musical and intelligent,
+who was in love with her music-master, the organist
+at her church. The dream was written down at the
+time. 'I was at the school of my childhood, and I was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>
+told that I was St. Agnes Virgin and Martyr, and in
+five minutes' time I was to be beheaded with a large
+knife. The sheen of the blade frightened me so much
+that I asked if instead I might be strangled by the man
+I was in love with. Permission was given if I could
+induce him to come in time. I ran to our church
+(saying to myself that I knew it was a dream, but that
+I <em>must</em> see what he would say) over huge stones that
+cut my bare feet, and wondered what age I was living
+in, longing to meet some women in order to find out.
+When I did, they all wore crinolines. I rushed up the
+central aisle, which was full of people, thinking that, as
+I was going to be killed, nothing could matter. Mr. T.
+(the organist) was giving a choir practice in the vestry.
+I ran up to him and said: "Come at once, I am going
+to be killed." He became very angry, and said: "Do
+go away; you are always interrupting my choir
+practice." I said: "Don't you understand? I am
+going to be killed at once; there is a knife hanging over
+my head, but I would rather be strangled by you, and
+they said I could if I fetched you in time." As soon as
+he understood that he came at once. Then it seemed in
+the dream that we were married, and had a son, who
+was to be a musical composer. I said I must say goodbye
+to this son first, and told the nurse to bring him to
+me. When he came I said: "Good-bye, I am going
+to be killed." He said, "Mother, am I a boy or a girl?
+When I am with boys I don't seem like them, and they
+call me a girl, and yet I don't look like a girl." I
+replied: "You are both in one, because you are going<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span>
+to be a perfect musical genius."' In this dream, which
+represents the fulfilment in sleep of an affection unsatisfied
+in life, we see side by side the infantile and the
+symbolic fulfilments of the erotic wish, culminating
+in a gifted musical child. The wish to be strangled is an
+undoubted erotic symbol,<a name="FNanchor_162_162" id="FNanchor_162_162"></a><a href="#Footnote_162_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a> and it is significant that in
+the course of the dream the accepted death by strangulation
+became fused with marriage, although the idea
+of death still inconsistently survives, doubtless because
+dream consciousness failed to realise that the accepted
+form of death was a subconsciously furnished symbol
+of the consummation of marriage.</p>
+
+<p>The wish-dream of Freud's type has presented itself
+for consideration here, because it is a special and
+elaborate illustration of symbolism in dreaming.
+The important place of symbols in dreaming is by
+no means dependent on the validity of this particular
+type of dream, and we may now proceed to
+continue the discussion of the significance of the
+symbolic tendency during sleep in its most important
+form.</p>
+
+<p>The symbols we have so far been mainly concerned
+with have been the result of a tendency of dreaming
+consciousness to objectify feelings and affections within
+the organism in concrete objects or processes outside
+the organism. In its complete form this symbolic
+tendency becomes the objectivation of part of the
+dreamer's feelings or personality in a distinct imaginary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>
+personality. A process of dramatisation occurs, and
+the dreamer finds himself in action and reaction, friendly
+or hostile or indifferent, with seemingly external personalities
+which, by the light of the analysis possible on
+awakening, are demonstrably created out of split-off
+portions of his own personality.<a name="FNanchor_163_163" id="FNanchor_163_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_163_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a> A common and
+simple form of such objectivation, closely allied to some
+of the symbolisms already brought forward, occurs
+when the dreamer sees the image of a person suffering
+from some affection of a part of the body and finds on
+awakening that he is himself experiencing pain or discomfort
+in that part. Thus a medical man dreams he
+is examining a tumour in a patient's groin, and on
+awakening finds slight irritation in the same region of
+his own body. And similarly, just as our bodily needs,
+when experienced during sleep, may be symbolised by
+inanimate natural objects and processes, so they may
+also become objective in the image of another person
+who is occupied in gratifying the need which we are
+ourselves unconsciously experiencing.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting and significant group of cases is
+furnished by those dreams in which&mdash;as the result of
+some compression or effort&mdash;the tactile and muscular
+sensations of our own limbs are split off from sleeping
+consciousness and built up into an imaginary personality.
+Thus a medical friend, shortly after an attack
+of influenza, dreamed that in conversation with a lady
+patient his hand rested on her knee; she requested him<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>
+to remove it, but his efforts to do so were fruitless, and he
+awoke in horror from this unprofessional situation to
+find that his hand was firmly clasped between his own
+knees. His body had thus been divided in dreaming
+consciousness between himself and an imaginary other
+person; the knee had become the other person's,
+while the hand remained his own, the hand being
+claimed in preference to the knee no doubt on account
+of its greater tactile sensibility and more complexly
+intimate association with the brain. In the hypnagogic
+(or hypnopompic) state such dream sensations may
+almost reach the intensity of hallucination. Thus,
+after an indigestible supper, I awake with the vivid
+feeling that some one is lying on me and attempting
+to drag off the bedclothes, and I find myself violently
+attempting, but apparently in vain, to articulate: 'Who
+is there?' In a dream of similar type, which occurred
+when lying on my back (and possibly with slight indigestion
+due to an unusually late dinner), I awoke
+making a kind of inarticulate exclamation which
+awakened my wife. I had dreamed that I was lying
+in bed, and that some unseen creature&mdash;more supernatural
+than human, it seemed&mdash;was violently dragging
+the bedclothes off me, while I shouted to it, very distinctly
+it seemed to me, 'Avaunt, avaunt!'</p>
+
+<p>It is evident that my own sense of oppression, my
+own unconscious and involuntary movements in disturbing
+the bedclothes, were reconstructed by sleeping
+consciousness as the actions of an external person, in
+the second case, a supernatural creature, which, it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>
+interesting to note, I duly accepted as such and addressed
+in the conventionally appropriate manner of old
+romance. The illusion may persist for some moments
+after waking. A lady, after breathing rather loudly
+and convulsively for a few seconds, wakes up, saying
+'There is a rat or a mouse on the bed, shaking it up and
+down.' 'You were asleep,' her husband replied, 'as
+I knew by your breathing.' 'Oh, I was breathing like
+that,' she said, 'to make it jump off.' Here we see
+that, somewhat as in the previous cases, the dreamer's
+own muscular activity is, during sleep, reconstructed
+into the image of an external force; but when she is
+in the semi-waking hypnagogic stage, she recognises
+that the activity was her own, though still unable to
+dismiss the delusion based on the theory formed during
+sleep.</p>
+
+<p>At this point we reach the threshold of hallucination,
+and the next case to be brought forward may be said to
+lie on the threshold, for an impression received in the
+hypnagogic (or hypnopompic) stage is accepted in its
+illusional form, even when the dreamer is fully awake.
+A farmer's daughter&mdash;a bright girl of twenty-one, with
+quick nervous reactions, but untrained mind&mdash;dreamed
+that she saw her brother (dead some years previously)
+with blood streaming from his fingers. She awoke
+in a fright, and was comforting herself with the thought
+that it was only a dream when she felt a hand grip her
+shoulder three times in succession. There was no one
+in the room, the door was locked, and no explanation
+seemed possible to her. She was very frightened, got<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span>
+up at once, dressed, and spent the rest of the night
+downstairs working. She was so convinced that a real
+hand had touched her that, although it seemed impossible,
+she asked her brothers if they had not been playing
+a trick on her. The nervous shock was considerable,
+and she was unable to sleep well for some weeks afterwards.
+She naturally knew nothing about abnormal
+psychic phenomena, and was utterly puzzled to explain
+the experience, except by supposing that it may have
+been a ghost. The explanation is really very simple.
+It is well recognised that involuntary muscular twitches
+may occur in the shoulder, especially after it has been
+subjected to pressure, and that in some cases such
+contractions may simulate a touch.<a name="FNanchor_164_164" id="FNanchor_164_164"></a><a href="#Footnote_164_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a> The dream of a
+bleeding hand indicates, when we bear in mind the
+tendency to objectify sensations symbolically, now
+familiar to us in dreaming, that the dreamer's arm was
+probably pressed beneath her in a cramped position.<a name="FNanchor_165_165" id="FNanchor_165_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_165_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a>
+This pressure would account, not only for the dream, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>
+for the muscular twitches occurring on awakening.
+The nature of the dream, the terrified emotional state
+it produced, and the mental obscurity of the hypnagogic
+state, naturally combined, in a subject unaccustomed
+to self-analysis, to create an illusion which
+reflection is unable to dispel, though in the normal
+waking state she would probably have given no attention
+at all to such muscular twitches. Strictly speaking,
+such an experience is an illusion&mdash;that is to say, a misinterpretation
+of a real sensation&mdash;and not a hallucination&mdash;or
+perception without known objective causation&mdash;but
+there is no clear line of demarcation. In any
+case it may now be taken as proved that hallucinations
+tend to occur in the neighbourhood of sleep, and therefore
+to partake of the nature of dreams.<a name="FNanchor_166_166" id="FNanchor_166_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_166_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a></p>
+
+<p>So far we have been concerned with the tendency in
+dreams to objectify portions of the body by constructing
+out of them new personalities. But precisely the same
+process goes on in sleep with regard to our thoughts
+and feelings. We split off portions of these also and
+construct other personalities out of them, and sometimes
+even endow the persons thus formed with thoughts
+and feelings more native to our own normal personality
+than those which we reserve for ourselves. Thus a
+lady who dreamed that when walking with a friend
+she discovered a species of animal fruit, a kind of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span>
+damson containing a snail, expressed her delight at
+finding a combination so admirably adapted to culinary
+purposes; it was the friend who, retaining the attitude
+of her own waking moments, uttered an exclamation
+of disgust. Most of the dreams in which there is any
+dramatic element are due to this splitting up of personality;
+in our dreams we may experience shame or
+confusion from the rebukes or the arguments of other
+persons, but the persons who administer the rebuke
+or apply the argument are still ourselves.<a name="FNanchor_167_167" id="FNanchor_167_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_167_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a></p>
+
+<p>Some writers on dreaming have marvelled greatly
+at this tendency of the sleeping mind to objectify
+portions of itself, and so to create imaginary personalities
+and evolve dramatic situations. It has seemed
+to them quite unaccountable except as the outcome of
+a special gift of imagination appertaining to sleep. Yet,
+remarkable as it is, this process is simply the inevitable
+outcome of the conditions under which psychic life
+exists during sleep. If we realise that a more or less
+pronounced degree of dissociation of the contents of
+the mind occurs during sleep, and if we also realise that,
+sleeping fully as much as waking, mind is a thing that
+instinctively reasons, and cannot refrain from building
+up hypotheses, then we may easily see how the personages
+and situations of dreams develop. Much the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span>
+same process might, under some circumstances, occur
+in waking life. If, for instance, we heard an unknown
+voice speaking behind a curtain, we could not fail to
+build up an imaginary person in connection with that
+voice, the characteristics of the imaginary person being
+largely determined by the nature of the voice and of
+the things it uttered: it would, further, be quite easy
+to enter into conversation with the person we had thus
+constructed. That is what seems to occur in dreams.
+We hear a voice behind the curtain of darkness, and to
+fit that voice and the things it utters we instinctively
+form a picture which, in virtue of the hallucinatory
+aptitude of sleep, is thrown against the curtain; it is
+then quite easy to enter into conversation with the
+person we have thus constructed. It no more occurs
+to us during sleep to suppose that the voice we hear is
+only a voice and nothing more, than it would occur to
+us awake to suppose that the voice behind the curtain
+is only a voice and nothing more. The process is the
+same; the difference is that in dreams we are, without
+knowing it, living among what from the waking point
+of view are called hallucinations.</p>
+
+<p>This process by which dreams are formed in sleeping
+consciousness through the splitting of the dreamer's
+personality for the construction of other personalities
+has been recognised ever since dreams began to be
+seriously studied. Maury referred to the scission of
+personality in dreams.<a name="FNanchor_168_168" id="FNanchor_168_168"></a><a href="#Footnote_168_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a> Delboeuf dealt with what he
+termed the altruising by the dreamer of part of his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span>
+representations.<a name="FNanchor_169_169" id="FNanchor_169_169"></a><a href="#Footnote_169_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a> Foucault terms the same process
+personalisation.<a name="FNanchor_170_170" id="FNanchor_170_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_170_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a> Giessler attempts elaborately to explain
+the enigma of self-diremption&mdash;the formation of
+a secondary self&mdash;in dreams; if, he argues, a touch or
+other sensation exceeds the dream-body's capacity of
+adaptation&mdash;<em>i.e.</em>, if the state of stimulus is above the
+apperceptive threshold&mdash;only one part of the perception
+is referred to the dream-body and the other is
+transferred to a secondary self.<a name="FNanchor_171_171" id="FNanchor_171_171"></a><a href="#Footnote_171_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a> This explanation,
+while it very fairly covers the presentative class of
+dreams, directly connected with sensory stimuli, cannot
+so easily be applied to the dramatisation of our representative
+dreams, which are not obviously traceable to
+direct bodily stimulation.</p>
+
+<p>The splitting up of personality is indeed a very pronounced
+and widely extended tendency of the mind,
+and has, during recent years, been elaborately studied.
+We thus have the basis of that psychic phenomenon
+which is variously termed secondary personality, double
+personality, duplex personality, multiple personality,
+alternation of personality, etc.,<a name="FNanchor_172_172" id="FNanchor_172_172"></a><a href="#Footnote_172_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a> and in earlier ages
+was regarded as due to possession by demons. Such
+conditions seem to be usually associated with hysteria.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span>
+The essential fact about hysteria is, according to Janet,
+its lack of synthetising power, which is at the same time
+a lack of attention and of apperception, and has as its
+result a disintegration of the field of consciousness into
+mutually exclusive parts; that is to say, there is a process
+of dissociation. Now that is a condition resembling,
+as we have seen, the condition found in dreaming. It
+is not, therefore, difficult to accept the view of Sollier
+and others, that hysteria is a condition allied to sleep,
+a condition of vigilambulism in which the patients are
+often unable to obtain normal sleep, simply because
+they are all the time in a state of abnormal sleep; as
+one said to Sollier: 'I cannot sleep because I am
+asleep all the time.' It may thus be the case that
+hysterical multiple personalities<a name="FNanchor_173_173" id="FNanchor_173_173"></a><a href="#Footnote_173_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a> furnish a pathological
+analogue of that tendency to the dramatic objectivation
+of portions of our personality which is normal and
+healthy in dreams.</p>
+
+<p>Similarly in insanity we have an even more constant
+and pronounced tendency for the subject to attribute
+his own sensations to imaginary individuals, and to
+create personalities out of portions of the real personality.
+All the illusions, delusions, and hallucinations
+of the insane are merely the manifold manifestations
+of this tendency. Without it the insanity would not
+exist. It is not because he is subjected to unusual
+sensations&mdash;visionary, auditory, tactile, olfactory,
+visceral, etc.&mdash;that a man is insane. It is because he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>
+creates imaginary personalities to account for these
+sensations; if his food tastes strange some one has
+given him <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'posion'">poison</ins> if he hears a strange voice it is some
+one communicating with him by telephones or microphones
+or hypnotism; if he feels a strange internal
+sensation it is perhaps because he has another person
+inside him. The case has even been recorded of a man
+who attributed any feeling he experienced, even the
+most normal sensations of hunger and thirst, to the
+people around him. It is exactly the same process as
+goes on in our dreams. The sane man, the normal
+waking man, may experience all these strange sensations,
+but he recognises that they are the spontaneous outcome
+of his own organisation.</p>
+
+<p>We may, however, advance a step beyond this
+position. This self-objectivation, this dramatisation
+of our experiences, is not confined to sleep and to
+pathological conditions which resemble sleep. It is
+natural and primitive in a far wider sense. The infant
+will gaze inquisitively at its own feet, watch their
+movements, play with them, 'punish' them; consciousness
+has not absorbed them as part of the self.<a name="FNanchor_174_174" id="FNanchor_174_174"></a><a href="#Footnote_174_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a>
+The infant really acts and feels towards the remote
+parts of his own body as the adult acts and feels in
+dreaming. We are reminded of the generalisation of
+Giessler that dream consciousness corresponds to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span>
+normal psychic state in childhood, while sleeping subconsciousness
+corresponds to the embryonic psychic
+state; so that the dream state represents the
+renascence of the ego disentangling itself from the
+impersonal sensations and indistinct images of the
+embryonic stage of life. That sleeping consciousness is
+the primitive embryonic consciousness is, indeed, indicated,
+it has often seemed to me, by the fact that in
+many animals the embryonic position is the position of
+rest and sleep. Ducklings and chicks in the shell have
+their heads beneath their wing. The dog lies with his
+feet together, head flexed, and hind-quarters drawn up.
+Man, alike in the womb and asleep, tends to be curled
+up, with the flexors predominating over the extensors.</p>
+
+<p>The savage has gone beyond the infant in ability
+to assimilate the impressions of his own limbs, but on
+the psychic side he still constantly tends to objectify
+his own feelings and ideas, re-creating them as external
+beings. Primitive man has done so from the first, and
+this impulse has struck its roots into all our most
+fundamental human traditions even as they survive
+in civilisation to-day. The man of the early world
+moves, like the dreamer, among a sea of emotions
+and ideas which he cannot recognise the origin of,
+and, like the dreamer, he instinctively dramatises them.
+But, unlike the dreamer, he gives stability to the images
+he has thus created and in good faith mistaken for
+independent beings. Thus we have the animistic
+stages of culture, and early man peoples his world with
+gods and spirits and demons and fairies and ghosts<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>
+which enter into the traditions of his race, and are more
+or less accepted even by a later race which no longer
+creates them for itself.</p>
+
+<p>In our more advanced civilisations we are still struggling
+with later forms of that Protean tendency to
+objectify the self and to animate the things and even
+the people around us with our own spirit. The impatient
+and imperfectly bred child, or even man, kicks
+viciously the object he stumbles against, animate or
+inanimate, in order to revenge a wrong which exists
+only in himself. On a slightly higher plane, the men of
+medi&aelig;val times brought actions in the law courts
+against offending animals and solemnly pronounced
+sentence against them as 'criminals,'<a name="FNanchor_175_175" id="FNanchor_175_175"></a><a href="#Footnote_175_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a> while even to-day
+society still 'punishes' the human criminal because it
+has imaginatively re-created him in the image of an
+ordinary normal person, and lacks the intelligence to
+perceive that he has been moulded by the laws of his
+nature and environment into a creature which we do
+well to protect ourselves against, but have no right
+to 'punish.'<a name="FNanchor_176_176" id="FNanchor_176_176"></a><a href="#Footnote_176_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a> Everywhere we still see around us the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>
+surviving relics of this primitive tendency of men to
+project their own personalities into external objects.
+A fine civilisation lies largely in the due subordination
+of this tendency, in the realisation and control of our
+own emotional possibilities, and in the resultant growth
+of personal responsibility.</p>
+
+<p>It is thus impossible to over-estimate the immense
+importance of the primitive symbolic tendency to
+objectify the subjective. Men have taken out of their
+own hearts their best feelings and their worst feelings,
+and have personalised and dramatised them, bowed
+down to them or stamped on them, unable to hear the
+voice with which each of their images spoke: 'I am
+thyself.' Our conceptions of religion, of morals, of
+many of the mightiest phenomena of life, especially
+the more exceptional phenomena, have grown up under
+this influence, which still serves to support many
+movements of to-day by some people imagined to be
+modern.</p>
+
+<p>Dreaming, as we have seen, is not the sole source of
+such conceptions. But they could scarcely have been
+found convincing, and possibly could not even have
+arisen, among races which were wholly devoid of dream
+experiences. A large part of all progress in psychological
+knowledge, and, indeed, a large part of civilisation
+itself, lies in realising that the apparently objective
+is really subjective, that the angels and demons and
+geniuses of all sorts that once seemed to be external
+forces taking possession of feeble and vacant individualities
+are themselves but modes of action of marvellously<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span>
+rich and varied personalities. In our dreams we
+are brought back into the magic circle of early culture,
+and we shrink and shudder in the presence of imaginative
+phantoms that are built up of our own thoughts
+and emotions, and are really our own flesh.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+
+<p class="p6">DREAMS OF THE DEAD</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>Mental Dissociation during Sleep&mdash;Illustrated by the Dream of Returning
+to School Life&mdash;The Typical Dream of a Dead Friend&mdash;Examples&mdash;Early
+Records of this Type of Dream&mdash;Analysis
+of such Dreams&mdash;Atypical Forms&mdash;The Consolation sometimes
+afforded by Dreams of the Dead&mdash;Ancient Legends of this Dream
+Type&mdash;The Influence of Dreams on the Belief of Primitive Man
+in the Survival of the Dead.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>Our memories tend to fall into groups or systems.
+We all possess a great number of such systematised
+groups of impressions. Every period of life, every subject
+we have occupied ourselves with, every intimate
+friend we have had, each represents a more or less separate
+mass of ideas and feelings. Within each system
+one idea or feeling easily calls up another belonging
+to the same system. Moreover, in full and alert waking
+life, each system is in touch with the systems related to
+it. If there crowd into the field of consciousness the
+memories belonging to one period of life, or one country
+we have lived in, we can control and criticise those
+memories by reference to others belonging to another
+period or another country. If we are overwhelmed by
+the thoughts and emotions associated with the memory
+of one friend we can restore our mental balance by
+evoking the thoughts and emotions associated with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span>
+another friend. The various systems are in this way
+co-ordinated in apperception.<a name="FNanchor_177_177" id="FNanchor_177_177"></a><a href="#Footnote_177_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a></p>
+
+<p>In sleep, however, these groups are not usually so
+firmly held together by the cords along which we can
+move in our waking moments from one to the other.
+They are, as it were, loosened from their moorings, and
+on the sea of sleeping consciousness they drift apart or
+jostle together in new and what seem to be random
+associations. This is that process of dissociation which
+we find so marked in dreaming, and in all those psychic
+phenomena&mdash;hallucinations, hysteria, multiple personality,
+insanity&mdash;which are allied to dreaming.</p>
+
+<p>A simple illustration of the clash and confusion of
+two opposing systems of memories in dreams, when due
+apperceptive control is lacking, is supplied by a common
+and well-recognised type of dream, the dream of returning
+to the school of youth.<a name="FNanchor_178_178" id="FNanchor_178_178"></a><a href="#Footnote_178_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a> Many people are
+occasionally liable to this dream, which is often vivid
+and disturbing. We may have left the schoolroom
+thirty years or more ago, and never seen it since; it
+may have vanished from our waking thoughts. Yet
+from time to time we find ourselves there in our dreams,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span>
+and called upon to take our old place, always with a
+sense of conflict, a vague discomfort, a feeling of something
+incongruous and humiliating, for we realise that
+we are now too old. Here is a dream in illustration:
+I find myself back at my old school, but my old schoolmaster
+is not there; he is away ill, as I am told by his
+substitute, whose face somehow seems familiar, though
+I cannot recall where I have seen it. I do not know
+any of the boys; I am returning after an absence of
+some months. I realise that I am to take my old place
+again, and yet I feel a profound repulsion to do so,
+a sense that it is somehow incongruous. This latter
+feeling seems to prevail, for I finally assume the part
+of a visitor, and remark, insincerely, to the master that
+it is pleasant to see the old place again.</p>
+
+<p>In such a case as this it seems that a picture from an
+ancient system of memories floats across the field of
+sleeping consciousness, and the dreamer is naturally
+drawn into that system and begins to adapt himself
+to its demands. But, as he does so, the influence of
+other later and incompatible systems of memories
+begins unconsciously to affect the dreamer.<a name="FNanchor_179_179" id="FNanchor_179_179"></a><a href="#Footnote_179_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a> The cords
+of connection, however, which when awake would
+enable him to adjust critically the opposing systems,
+are not acting; apperception is defective. Yet the
+opposing systems are there, outside the immediate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span>
+field of consciousness, and jostling the ancient system
+which has come into the central focus. Finally this
+jostling of the ancient system by more recent systems
+causes a harmonising modification in consciousness.
+The dreamer ceases to be a boy in his old school, and
+assumes the part of a visitor.</p>
+
+<p>Dreams of our recently dead friends furnish a type of
+dream which is formed in exactly the same way as these
+dreams of a return to school life. The only difference
+is that they often present it in a more vivid, pronounced,
+and poignantly emotional shape. This is so, partly
+from the very subject of such dreams, and partly
+because the fact of death definitely divides our impressions
+of our dead friends into two groups, which are
+intimately allied to each other by their subject, and yet
+absolutely opposed by the fact that in the one group
+the friend is alive, and in the other dead.</p>
+
+<p>I proceed to present two series of dreams&mdash;one in a
+man, the other in a woman&mdash;illustrating this type of
+dream.<a name="FNanchor_180_180" id="FNanchor_180_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_180_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a></p>
+
+<p><em>Observation I.</em>&mdash;Mr. C., age about twenty-eight, a
+man of scientific training and aptitudes. Shortly
+after his mother's death he repeatedly dreamed that
+she had come to life again. She had been buried, but
+it was somehow found out that she was not really dead.
+Mr. C. describes the painful intellectual struggles that
+went on in these dreams, the arguments in favour of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span>
+death from the impossibility of prolonged life in the
+grave, and how these doubts were finally swallowed
+up in a sense of wonder and joy because his mother was
+actually there, alive, in his dream.</p>
+
+<p>These dreams became less frequent as time went on,
+but some years later occurred an isolated dream which
+clearly shows a further stage in the same process. Mr.
+C. dreamed that his father had just returned home, and
+that he (the dreamer) was puzzled to make out where
+his mother was. After puzzling a long time he asked
+his sister, but at the very moment he asked it flashed
+upon him&mdash;more, he thinks, with a feeling of relief at
+the solution of a painful difficulty than with grief&mdash;that
+his mother was dead.</p>
+
+<p><em>Observation II.</em>&mdash;Mrs. F., age about thirty, highly
+intelligent but of somewhat emotional temperament.
+A week after the death of a lifelong friend to whom she
+was greatly attached, Mrs. F. dreamed for the first time
+of her friend, finding that she was alive, and then in
+the course of the dream discovering that she had been
+buried alive.</p>
+
+<p>A second dream occurred on the following night.
+Mrs. F. imagined that she went to see her friend, whom
+she found in bed, and to whom she told the strange
+things that she had heard (<em>i.e.</em>, that the friend was dead).
+Her friend then gave Mrs. F. a few things as souvenirs.
+But on leaving the room Mrs. F. was told that her friend
+was really dead, and had spoken to her after death.</p>
+
+<p>In a fourth dream, at a subsequent date, Mrs. F.
+imagined that her friend came to her, saying that she<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span>
+had returned to earth for a few minutes to give her
+messages and to assure her that she was happy in another
+world and in the enjoyment of the fullest life.</p>
+
+<p>Another dream occurred more than a year later.
+Some one brought to Mrs. F., in her dream, the news
+that her friend was still alive; she was taken to her
+and found her as in life. The friend said she had been
+away, but did not explain where or why she had been
+supposed dead. Mrs. F. asked no questions and felt
+no curiosity, being absorbed in the joy of finding her
+friend still alive, and they proceeded to talk over the
+things that had happened since they last met. It was
+a very vivid, natural, and detailed dream, and on
+awaking Mrs. F. felt somewhat exhausted. Although
+not superstitious, the dream gave her a feeling of
+consolation.</p>
+
+<p>The next series has been observed more recently.
+I include all the dreams and the intervals at which
+they occurred. The somewhat unexpected news reached
+me of the death of a near and lifelong friend when I was
+myself recovering from an attack of influenza. No
+dream which could be connected with this event occurred
+until about a fortnight later<a name="FNanchor_181_181" id="FNanchor_181_181"></a><a href="#Footnote_181_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a> (16th January).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>
+I then dreamed that I was with my friend and asking
+him (he had been a clergyman and Biblical scholar)
+whether, in his opinion, Jesus had been able to speak
+Greek. I awoke before I received his answer, but no
+sort of doubt, hesitation, or surprise was aroused by
+his appearance alive.</p>
+
+<p>Nineteen days later (4th February) occurred the
+next dream. This time I dreamed that my friend was
+just dead, and that I was gazing at a postcard of good
+wishes, written partly in Latin, which he had sent me
+a few days before (on the actual date of my birthday),
+and regretting that I had not answered it. There
+was no doubt in my mind as to the fact of his death.
+(I may remark that the last letter I had written to my
+friend was on his birthday, and he had been unable to
+reply, so that there was here one of those reversals
+which Freud and others have noted as not uncommon
+in dreams.)</p>
+
+<p>The next dream occurred thirty-four days later
+(10th March). I thought that I met my friend, and at
+once realised that it was not he but his wife who had
+died, and I clasped his hand sympathetically.</p>
+
+<p>Some months later (27th July) I again dreamed that
+I was walking with my friend and talking, as we might
+have talked, on topics of common interest. But at
+the same time I knew, and he knew that I knew, that
+he was to die on the morrow.</p>
+
+<p>Once more, a fortnight later (10th August), I dreamed
+that I had an appointment to meet my friend in a certain
+road, but he failed to appear. I began to wonder<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span>
+whether he had forgotten the appointment, or I had
+made a mistake, and I was seeking for the letter making
+the appointment when I awoke.</p>
+
+<p>It would appear that the dreams of this type are less
+pronounced in the ratio of the less pronounced affectional
+intensity of the relationship which unites the
+friends. The next dream concerned a man for whom
+I had the highest esteem and regard, but had not been
+intimately associated with. I dreamed that I saw this
+friend, who was the editor of a psychological journal,
+alive and well in his room, together with two foreign
+psychologists also known to me, who had apparently
+succeeded him in the editorship of the journal, for I
+saw their names on the title-page of a number of it
+which was put in my hands. It surprised me that,
+though alive and well, he should have ceased to edit
+the journal; the theory by which I satisfactorily
+accounted to myself for his appearance was that, though
+he had been so near death that his life was despaired of,
+he had not actually died; his death had been prematurely
+reported. It flashed across my dream consciousness,
+indeed, that I had read obituaries of my friend
+in the papers, but this reminiscence merely suggested
+the reflection that some one had been guilty of a grave
+indiscretion.<a name="FNanchor_182_182" id="FNanchor_182_182"></a><a href="#Footnote_182_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Although no attempt had been made to analyse this
+type of dream before 1895, the dream itself had often
+been noted down, as from its poignant and affecting
+character it could not fail to be. An early example is
+furnished by the philosopher Gassendi, who states that
+he dreamed he met a friend, that he greeted him as one
+returned from the dead, and that then, saying to himself
+in his dream that this was impossible, he concluded
+that he must be dreaming.<a name="FNanchor_183_183" id="FNanchor_183_183"></a><a href="#Footnote_183_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a> Pepys, again, in his <cite>Diary</cite>,
+on the 29th June 1667, a few months after his mother's
+death, dreamed that 'my mother told me she lacked a
+pair of gloves, and I remembered a pair of my wife's in
+my chamber, and resolved she should have them,
+but then recollected [reflected] how my mother came to
+be here when I was in mourning for her, and so thinking
+it to be a mistake in our thinking her all this while dead,
+I did contrive that it should be said to any that inquired<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span>
+that it was my mother-in-law, my wife's mother,
+that was dead, and we in mourning for.' This dream,
+Pepys adds, 'did trouble me mightily.' Edmond de
+Goncourt, in his <cite>Journal</cite> (27th July 1870), well describes
+how in the first dream of the dead brother to whom he
+was so tenderly attached, the two streams of memories
+appeared. He dreamed he was walking with his
+brother, but at the same time he knew he was in mourning
+for him, and friends were coming up to offer condolences;
+the emotions caused by the conflict of these
+two certainties&mdash;his brother's life affirmed by his
+presence and his death affirmed by all the other circumstances
+of the dream&mdash;was profoundly distressing.
+A few years earlier Renan, when his dearly loved sister
+Henrietta died by his side in the Lebanon, also had
+dreams of this type, which deeply affected even his
+cautious and sceptical nature. She had died of Syrian
+fever, from which he also was suffering, and shortly
+afterwards he wrote in a letter that 'in feverish dreams
+a terrible doubt has risen up before me; I have fancied
+I heard her voice calling to me from the vault where she
+was laid.' He comforted himself, however, with the
+thought that this horrible supposition was unjustified,
+since French doctors had been present at her death.
+Maury<a name="FNanchor_184_184" id="FNanchor_184_184"></a><a href="#Footnote_184_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a> also mentions that he had often had dreams of
+this type in which the dead appeared as living, though
+the sight of them always produced astonishment and
+doubt which the sleeping brain endeavoured to allay
+by some kind of explanation. Beaunis also describes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>
+how he has dreamed with surprise of meeting a friend
+whom even in his dream he knew to be dead.<a name="FNanchor_185_185" id="FNanchor_185_185"></a><a href="#Footnote_185_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a></p>
+
+<p>It is not difficult, in the light of all that we have been
+able to learn regarding the psychology of the world of
+dreams, to account for the process here described, for
+its frequency, and for its poignant emotional effects.
+This dream type is only a special variety of the
+commonest species of dream, in which two or more
+groups of reminiscences flow together and form a single
+bizarre congruity, a <em>confusion</em> in the strict sense of the
+word. The death of a friend sets up a barrier which
+cuts into two the stream of impressions concerning that
+friend. Thus, two streams of images flow into sleeping
+consciousness, one representing the friend as alive, the
+other as dead. The first stream comes from older and
+richer sources; the second is more poignant, but also
+more recent and more easily exhausted. The two
+streams break against each other in restless conflict,
+both, from the inevitable conditions of dream life,
+being accepted as true, and they eventually mix to form
+an absurd harmony, in which the older and stronger
+images (in accordance with that recognised tendency
+for old psychic impressions generally to be most stable)
+predominate over those that are more recent. Thus,
+in the first observation the dreamer seems to have
+begun his dream by imagining that his mother was
+alive as of old; then his more recent experiences
+interfered with the assertion of her death. This
+resulted in a struggle between the old-established<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span>
+images representing her as alive and the later ones
+representing her as dead. The idea that she had come
+to life again was evidently a theory that had arisen in
+his brain to harmonise these two opposing currents.
+The theory was not accepted easily; all sorts of scientific
+objections arose to oppose it, but there could be no
+doubt, for his mother was there. The dreamer is in
+the same position as a paranoiac who constantly seems
+to hear threatening voices; henceforth he is absorbed
+in inventing a theory (electricity, hypnotism, or whatever
+it may be) to account for his hallucinations, and
+his whole view of life is modified accordingly. The
+dreamer, in the cases I am here concerned with, sees
+an image of the dead person as alive, and is therefore
+compelled to invent a theory to account for this image;
+the theories that most easily suggest themselves are
+either that the dead person has never really died, or
+else that he has come back from the dead for a brief
+space. The mental and emotional conflict which such
+dreams involve renders them very vivid. They make
+a profound impression even after awakening, and for
+some sensitive persons are almost too sacred to speak of.</p>
+
+<p>When a series of these dreams occurs concerning the
+same dead friend the tendency seems to be, on the
+whole&mdash;though there are certainly many exceptions&mdash;for
+the living reality of the vision of the dead friend
+to be more and more positively affirmed. Whether
+awake or asleep, it is very difficult for us to resist the
+evidence of our senses. It is even more difficult asleep
+than awake, for, as we have seen reason to believe,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span>
+apperception, with the critical control it involves, is
+weakened. Just as the savage or the child accepts as
+a reality the illusion of the sun traversing the sky,
+just as the paranoiac accepts the reality of the hallucinations
+he is subjected to, and gradually weaves them
+into a more or less plausible theory, so the dreamer
+seems to employ all the acutest powers of sleeping
+reason available to construct a theory in support of
+the reality of the visions of his dead friend.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes atypical dreams of the dead occur in which
+even from the first there appears little clash or doubt.
+When the vision can thus easily be accepted, it is sometimes
+a source of consolation, joy, and even religious
+faith which may still persist in the waking state.
+Chabaneix has, for instance, recorded the dream experiences
+of a poet and philosopher who had been
+deeply attached to a woman with whom his relations
+were both passionate and intellectual. From the
+night after her death onwards, at intervals, he had
+dreams of the beloved woman, at first appearing as a
+floating vision, later as a vividly seen and tangible
+person; these dreams caused refreshment and mental
+invigoration, and seemed to bring the dreamer into
+renewed communication with his dead friend.<a name="FNanchor_186_186" id="FNanchor_186_186"></a><a href="#Footnote_186_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a></p>
+
+<p>I am indebted to a clergyman for the record of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span>
+somewhat similar experience. 'A close friendship,'
+he writes, 'once existed between myself and a lady,
+somewhat older, and of a religious temperament. We
+often discussed the life beyond the grave, and agreed
+that if she died first, and this appeared more than
+probable, as she was the victim of a mortal disease, she
+would appear to me. I may add that she was of a
+highly-strung and nervous nature, and though purely
+English had many of the psychic characteristics of
+the Celt. After her death, I looked for some appearance
+or manifestation, and about three days after dreamed
+that she had come back to me, and was discussing with
+me a matter which I much wished to speak about before
+her death, but was unable to, owing to her weakness
+and the presence of strangers. In the dream it was
+perfectly clear to me that she was a dead woman back
+from another sphere of existence. For some weeks
+after this I had similar experiences. They were never
+dreams of the old life and friendship before death, but
+always reappearances from the other world. Of course
+it may be said of this experience of mine, that it was
+merely the result of expectation. But I have found
+that the things most on my mind are rarely the subject
+of my dreams. Moreover, these dreams formed a
+series, lasting for weeks, and all of the same character,
+though the conversations differed.'</p>
+
+<p>When a dreamer awakes in an emotional state which
+corresponds to a dream he has just experienced, it is
+usually a safe assumption that the dream was the result,
+and not the cause, of the emotional state. That is by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span>
+no means always the case, however, and in the type of
+dream we are here concerned with it is rarely the case.
+Even though it may be quite true that an emotional state
+evoked the dream, it is equally true that in its turn the
+dream itself may arouse an emotional state. The
+dream of encountering a celestial visitant, especially
+if the visitant is a beloved friend, cannot fail to produce
+an especial effect of this kind. It is noteworthy
+that the emotional influence may be present even when
+the fact of dreaming has not been recalled. Thus a
+lady who, on waking in the morning could not remember
+having dreamed, realised during the day that
+she was feeling as she was accustomed to feel after
+dreaming of a beloved friend, and was ultimately able
+to recall fragments of the dream.<a name="FNanchor_187_187" id="FNanchor_187_187"></a><a href="#Footnote_187_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a> A man of so great
+an intellect as Goethe has borne witness to the consoling
+influence of dreams. 'I have had times in my life,'
+he said, in old age, to Eckermann, 'when I have fallen
+asleep in tears, but in my dreams the loveliest figures
+come to give me comfort and happiness, and I awake
+next morning once more fresh and cheerful.'<a name="FNanchor_188_188" id="FNanchor_188_188"></a><a href="#Footnote_188_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>If we take a wide sweep we shall find in many
+parts of the world stories and legends concerning
+the relationship of the living with the dead which
+have a singular resemblance with the typical dream
+of the dead here investigated. Thus, in Japan, it
+appears that stories of the returning of the dead are
+very common. Lafcadio Hearn reproduces one, as
+told by a Japanese, which closely resembles some
+of the dreams we have met with. 'A lover resolved
+to commit suicide on the grave of his sweetheart.
+He found her tomb and knelt before it, and prayed
+and wept, and whispered to her that which he was
+about to do. And suddenly he heard her voice cry
+to him "Anata!" and felt her hand upon his hand:
+and he turned and saw her kneeling beside him, smiling
+and beautiful as he remembered her, only a little pale.
+Then his heart leaped so that he could not speak for
+the wonder and the doubt and the joy of that moment.
+But she said, "Do not doubt; it is really I. I am not
+dead. It was all a mistake. I was buried because my
+parents thought me dead&mdash;buried too soon. Yet you
+see I am not dead, not a ghost. It is I; do not doubt
+it!"' It is perhaps worth mentioning that the
+incident told in the Fourth Gospel (xx. 11-18) as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span>
+occurring to Mary Magdalene when at the tomb of
+Jesus, recalls the dream process of fusion of images.
+She turns and sees, as she thinks, the gardener, but in
+the course of conversation it flashes on her that he is
+Jesus, risen from the tomb. In quite another part of
+the world the Salish Indians of British Columbia have
+a story of a man who goes back to the spirit-world to
+reclaim his lost wife; this can only be done under
+special conditions, and for some time refraining to
+touch her; if he breaks these conditions she vanishes
+in his arms, and he is left alone.<a name="FNanchor_189_189" id="FNanchor_189_189"></a><a href="#Footnote_189_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a> That story, again,
+cannot fail to remind us of the almost identical Greek
+legend of the return of Orpheus to the under-world to
+reclaim his dead wife Eurydice. If these myths and
+legends were not directly based on the dream-process,
+it can only be on the ground, alleged with some
+force by Freud's school, that myths and legends
+themselves develop by means of the same mechanism
+as dreams.</p>
+
+<p>The probable influence of dreams in originating or
+confirming the primitive belief of men in a spirit world
+has often been set forth. Herbert Spencer attached
+great importance to this factor in the constitution of the
+belief in another world, in spirits and in gods.<a name="FNanchor_190_190" id="FNanchor_190_190"></a><a href="#Footnote_190_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a> Wundt
+even considers that such dreams furnish the whole
+origin of animism. Other writers, less closely associated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span>
+with anthropological psychology, have argued in
+the same sense.<a name="FNanchor_191_191" id="FNanchor_191_191"></a><a href="#Footnote_191_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a></p>
+
+<p>But while these thinkers have in some cases specifically
+referred to dreams of the dead, and not merely
+to the widespread belief of savages that in sleep the
+soul leaves the body to wander over the earth, they
+have never realised that there is a special mechanism
+in the typical dream of a dead friend, due to mental
+dissociation during sleep, which powerfully suggests to
+us that death sets up no fatal barrier to the return of the
+dead. In dreams the dead are thus rendered indestructible;
+they cannot be finally killed, but rather tend to
+reappear in ever more clearly affirmed vitality. Dreams
+of this sort must certainly have come to men ever since
+men began to be. If their emotional effects are great
+to-day, we can well believe that they were much greater
+in the early days when dream life and what we call real
+life were less easily distinguished. The repercussion
+of this kind of dream through unmeasured ages cannot
+fail to have told at last on the traditions of the race.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+
+<p class="p6">MEMORY IN DREAMS</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>The Apparent Rapidity of Thought in Dreams&mdash;This Phenomenon
+largely due to the Dream being a Description of a Picture&mdash;The
+Experience of Drowning Persons&mdash;The Sense of Time in Dreams&mdash;The
+Crumpling of Consciousness in Dreams&mdash;The Recovery of
+Lost Memories through the Relaxation of Attention&mdash;The
+Emergence in Dreams of Memories not known to Waking Life&mdash;The
+Recollection of Forgotten Languages in Sleep&mdash;The
+Perversions of Memory in Dreams&mdash;Paramnesic False Recollections&mdash;Hypnagogic
+Paramnesia&mdash;Dreams mistaken for Actual
+Events&mdash;The Phenomenon of Pseudo-Reminiscence&mdash;Its Relationship
+to Epilepsy&mdash;Its Prevalence especially among Imaginative
+and Nervously Exhausted Persons&mdash;The Theories put forward
+to Explain it&mdash;A Fatigue Product&mdash;Conditioned by Defective
+Attention and Apperception&mdash;Pseudo-Reminiscence a reversed
+Hallucination.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>The peculiarities of memory in dreams&mdash;its defects,
+its aberrations, its excesses&mdash;have attracted attention
+ever since dreams began to be studied at all. It is not
+enough to assure ourselves that on awakening from
+a dream our memory of that dream may fairly be regarded
+as trustworthy so far as it extends. The
+characteristics of memory revealed within the reproduced
+dream have sometimes seemed so extraordinary
+as to be only explicable by the theory of supernatural
+intervention.</p>
+
+<p>A problem which at one time greatly puzzled the
+scientific students of dreaming is furnished at the outset<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span>
+by the apparent abnormal rapidity of the dream process,
+the piling together in a brief space of time of a great
+number of combined memories. Stories were told of
+people who, when awakened by sounds or contacts
+which must have aroused them almost immediately,
+had yet experienced elaborate visions which could only
+have been excited by the stimulus which caused the
+awakening. The dream of Maury&mdash;who, when
+awakened by a portion of the bed cornice falling on his
+neck, imagined that he was living in the days of the
+Reign of Terror, and, after many adventures, was
+being guillotined&mdash;has become famous.<a name="FNanchor_192_192" id="FNanchor_192_192"></a><a href="#Footnote_192_192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a></p>
+
+<p>It is unquestionably true that dreams are sometimes
+evoked by sensory stimuli which almost immediately
+awake the dreamer. But the supposition that this
+fairly common fact involves an extraordinary acceleration
+of the rapidity with which mental images are formed
+is due to a failure to comprehend the conditions under
+which psychic activity in sleep takes place. If the
+sleeper were wide awake, and were suddenly startled
+by a mysterious voice at the window or the door, he
+would arrive at a theory of the sound, and even form a
+plan of action, with at least as much rapidity as when
+the stimulus occurs during sleep. The difference is
+that in sleep the ordinary mental associations are more
+or less in abeyance, and the way is therefore easily open
+to new associations. These new associations, when we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span>
+look back at them from the standpoint of waking life,
+seem to us so bizarre, so far-fetched, that we think it
+must have required a long time to imagine them. We
+fail to realise that, under the conditions of dream
+thought, they have come about as automatically and
+as instantaneously as the ordinary psychic <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'concommitants'">concomitants</ins>
+of external stimulation in waking life. It must
+also be remembered that in all the cases in which the
+rapidity of the dream process has seemed so extraordinary,
+it has merely been a question of visual imagery,
+and it is obviously quite easy to see in an instant an
+elaborate picture or series of pictures which would take
+a long time to describe.<a name="FNanchor_193_193" id="FNanchor_193_193"></a><a href="#Footnote_193_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a> At the most the dreamer
+has merely seen a kind of cinematographic drama
+which has been condensed and run together in very
+much the way practised by the cinematographic artist,
+so that although the whole story seems to be shown in
+constant movement, in reality the action of hours is
+condensed into moments. Further, it has always to
+be borne in mind that, asleep as well as awake, intense
+emotion involves a loss of the sense of time. We say
+in a terrible crisis that moments seemed years, and
+when sleeping consciousness magnifies a trivial stimulation
+into the occasion of a great crisis the same effect
+is necessarily produced.</p>
+
+<p>Exactly the same illusion is experienced by persons
+who are rescued from drowning, or other dangerous<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>
+situations. It sometimes seems to them that their
+whole life has passed before them in vision during those
+brief moments. But careful investigation of some of
+these cases, notably by Pi&eacute;ron, has shown that what
+really happened was that a scene from childhood,
+perhaps of some rather similar accident, came before
+the drowning man's mind and was followed by five,
+six, perhaps even ten or twelve momentary scenes from
+later life. When the time during which these scenes
+flashed through the mind was taken into account it
+was found that there had by no means been any
+remarkable mental rapidity.</p>
+
+<p>Such considerations have now led most scientific
+investigators of dreaming to regard these problems of
+dream memory as settled. Woodworth's observations
+on the hypnagogic or half-waking state revealed no
+remarkable rapidity of mental processes. Clavi&egrave;re
+showed by experiments with an <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'alarum'">alarm</ins> clock which
+struck twice with an interval of twenty-two seconds
+that speech dreams at all events take place merely with
+normal rapidity, or are even slightly slower than under
+waking conditions. The imagery of sleep, Clavi&egrave;re
+concluded, is not more rapid than the imagery of waking
+life, though to the dreamer it may seem to last for hours
+or days. It is often slackened rather than accelerated,
+says Pi&eacute;ron, who refers to the corresponding illusion
+under the influence of drugs like <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'hashisch'">hashish</ins>, though in
+some cases he finds that there is really a slight acceleration.
+The illusion is simply due, Foucault thinks, to
+the dreamer's belief that the events of his dream occupy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span>
+the same time as real events. This illusion of time,
+concludes Dr. Justine Tobolowska, in her Paris thesis
+on this subject, is simply the necessary and constant
+result of the form assumed by psychic life during
+sleep.<a name="FNanchor_194_194" id="FNanchor_194_194"></a><a href="#Footnote_194_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a></p>
+
+<p>If this peculiarity of memory in dreaming is not
+difficult to explain as a natural illusion, there are other
+and rarer characteristics of dream memory which are
+much more puzzling.</p>
+
+<p>In attempting to unravel these, it is probable that,
+as in explaining the illusion of rapidity, we must always
+bear in mind the tendency of memory-groups in dreams
+to fall apart from their waking links of association,
+so well as the complementary tendency to form associations
+which in waking life would only be attained by a
+strained effort. Apperception, with the power it involves
+of combining and bringing to a focus all the
+various groups of memories bearing on the point in
+hand, is defective. The focus of conscious attention
+is contracted, and there is the curious and significant
+phenomenon that sleeping consciousness is occasionally
+unconscious of psychic elements which yet are present
+just outside it and thrusting imagery into its focus.
+The imagery becomes conscious, but its relation to the
+existing focus of consciousness is not consciously perceived.
+Such a psychic mechanism, as Freud and his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span>
+disciples have shown, quite commonly appears in
+hysteria and obsessional neuroses when healthy normal
+consciousness is degraded to a pathological level resembling
+that which is normal in dreams.<a name="FNanchor_195_195" id="FNanchor_195_195"></a><a href="#Footnote_195_195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a> In such a
+case the surface of sleeping consciousness is, as it were,
+crumpled up, and the concealed portion appears only at
+the end of the dream or not at all. A simple example
+may make this clear. In a dream I ask a lady if she
+knows the work of the poet Bau; she replies that she
+does not; then I see before me a paper having on it
+the name Baudelaire, clearly the name which should
+have been contained in my query.<a name="FNanchor_196_196" id="FNanchor_196_196"></a><a href="#Footnote_196_196" class="fnanchor">[196]</a> In such a dream
+the crumpling and breaking of consciousness, at its very
+focus, is shown in the most unmistakable manner.<a name="FNanchor_197_197" id="FNanchor_197_197"></a><a href="#Footnote_197_197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a>
+But many of the most remarkable dreams of dramatic
+dreamers are due to the same phenomenon, which in
+an intellectual form is exactly the phenomenon which
+always makes a dramatic situation effective. Robert
+Louis Stevenson was an abnormally vivid dreamer,
+and found the germ of some of the plots of his stories
+in his dreams; he has described one of his dreams in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span>
+which the dreamer imagines he has committed a murder;
+the crime becomes known to a woman who, however,
+never denounces it; the murderer lives in terror, and
+cannot conceive why the woman prolongs his torture
+by this delay in giving him up to justice; only at the
+end of the dream comes the clue to the mystery, and the
+explanation of the woman's attitude, as she falls on her
+knees and cries: 'Do you not understand? I love
+you.'<a name="FNanchor_198_198" id="FNanchor_198_198"></a><a href="#Footnote_198_198" class="fnanchor">[198]</a></p>
+
+<p>There is another and very interesting class of dreams
+in which we find not merely that some memory-groups
+disappear from consciousness or become merely latent,
+but also that other memory-groups, latent or even lost
+to waking consciousness, float into the focus of sleeping
+consciousness. In other words, we can remember in
+sleep what we have forgotten awake. We then have
+what is called the <em>hypermnesia</em>, the excessive or abnormal
+memory, of sleep.</p>
+
+<p>There can be little doubt that the two processes&mdash;the
+sinking of some memory-groups and the emergence
+on the surface of other memory-groups which, so far as
+waking life is concerned, had apparently fallen to the
+depths and been drowned&mdash;are complementarily related
+to one another. We remember what we have
+forgotten because we forget what we remembered.
+The order of our waking impressions involves a certain
+tension, that is to say a certain attention, which holds
+them in our consciousness, and excludes any other
+order which might serve to bring lost memory-groups<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>
+to sight. Sometimes we are conscious of a lost memory
+which is just outside consciousness, but which, with
+the existing order of our memory-groups, we cannot
+bring into consciousness. We have the missing name,
+the missing memory, at the tip of our tongue, we say,
+but we cannot quite catch it.<a name="FNanchor_199_199" id="FNanchor_199_199"></a><a href="#Footnote_199_199" class="fnanchor">[199]</a> In dreams apperception
+is defective, the strain of conscious attention is relaxed,
+and the conditions are furnished under which new clues
+and strains may come into action and the missing name
+glide spontaneously into consciousness. Even the mere
+approach of sleep, with its accompanying relaxation of
+attention, may effect this end. Thus I was trying one
+day to recall the name of the unpleasant Chinese scent,
+patchouli. The name, though not usually unfamiliar,
+escaped me. At night, however, just before falling
+asleep, it spontaneously occurred to me. In the morning,
+when fully awake, I was again unable to recall it.</p>
+
+<p>In such a case we see how waking consciousness is
+tense in a certain direction, which happens not to be
+that in which the desired thing is to be found. Attention
+under such circumstances impedes rather than
+aids recollection. In this particular case, I felt convinced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span>
+that the name I wanted began with <em>h</em>, and thus
+my mind was intently directed towards a wrong quarter.
+But on the approach of sleep attention is automatically
+relaxed, and it is then possible for the forgotten
+word to slip in from its unexpected quarter. On
+these occasions it is by indirection that direction is
+found.<a name="FNanchor_200_200" id="FNanchor_200_200"></a><a href="#Footnote_200_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a></p>
+
+<p>It is interesting to observe that this same process of
+discovery due to the wider outlook of relaxed attention
+can take place, not only in sleep and the hypnagogic
+state, but also, subconsciously, in the fully waking
+state when the mind is occupied with some other subject.
+Thus in reading a MS., I came upon an illegible word
+which I was unable to identify, notwithstanding several
+guesses and careful scrutiny through a magnifying
+glass. I passed on, dismissing the subject from my
+mind. A quarter of an hour afterwards, when walking,
+and thinking of quite a different subject, I became
+conscious that the word 'ceremonial' had floated into
+the field of mental vision, and I at once realised that
+this was the unidentified word. The instance may be
+trivial, but no example could better show how the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span>
+mind may continue to work subconsciously in one
+direction while consciously working in an entirely
+different direction.</p>
+
+<p>In dreams, however, we can effect more than a mere
+recovery of memories which have temporarily escaped
+us, or the discovery of relationships which have eluded
+us. The dissociation of familiar memory-groups becomes
+so complete, the appearance of unfamiliar groups
+so eruptive, that we can remember things that have
+entirely and permanently sunk below the surface of
+waking consciousness, or even things which are so
+insignificant that they have never made any mark
+on waking consciousness at all. In this way, we may
+be said, in a certain sense, to remember things we never
+knew. The first dream which enabled me, some twenty
+years ago, to realise this hypermnesia of the mind in
+dreams<a name="FNanchor_201_201" id="FNanchor_201_201"></a><a href="#Footnote_201_201" class="fnanchor">[201]</a> was the following unimportant but instructive
+case. I woke up recalling the chief items of a rather
+vivid dream: I had imagined myself in a large old
+house, where the furniture, though of good quality,
+was ancient, and the chairs threatened to give way
+as one sat on them. The place belonged to one Sir<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span>
+Peter Bryan, a hale old gentleman, who was accompanied
+by his son and grandson. There was a question of my
+buying the place from him, and I was very complimentary
+to the old gentleman's appearance of youthfulness,
+absurdly affecting not to know which was the
+grandfather and which the grandson. On awaking
+I said to myself that here was a purely imaginative
+dream, quite unsuggested by any definite experiences.
+But when I began to recall the trifling incidents of the
+previous day, and the things I had seen and read, I
+realised that that was far from being the case. So far
+from the dream having been a pure effort of imagination,
+I found that every minute item could be traced
+to some separate source, though none of them had the
+slightest resemblance to the dream as a whole. The
+name of Sir Peter Bryan alone completely baffled me;
+I could not even recall that I had at that time ever heard
+of any one called Bryan. I abandoned the search and
+made my notes of the dream and its sources. I had
+scarcely done so when I chanced to take up a volume
+of biographies of eccentric personages, which I had
+glanced through carelessly the day before. I found
+that it contained, among others, the lives of Lord
+<em>Peter</em>borough and George <em>Bryan</em> Brummel. I had
+certainly seen those names the day before; yet before
+I took up the book once again it would have been
+impossible for me to recall the exact name of
+Beau Brummel. It so happened that the forgotten
+memory which in this case re-emerged to sleeping consciousness,
+was a fact of no consequence to myself or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span>
+any one else. But it furnishes the key to many
+dreams which have been of more serious import to the
+dreamers.</p>
+
+<p>Since then I have been able to observe among my
+friends several instances of dreams containing veracious
+though often trivial circumstances unknown to the
+dreamer when awake, though on consideration it was
+found to be in the highest degree probable that they had
+come under his notice, and been forgotten, or not
+consciously observed. Thus a musical correspondent
+tells me he once dreamed of playing a piece of Rubinstein's
+in the presence of a friend who told him he had
+made a mistake in re-striking a tied note. In the
+morning he found the dream friend was correct. But
+up to then he had always repeated the note. Usually
+when the forgotten or unnoticed circumstance is trivial,
+it is of quite recent date. That it is not always very
+recent may be illustrated by a dream of my own. I
+dreamed that I was in Spain and about to rejoin some
+friends at a place which was called, I thought, Daraus,
+but on reaching the booking-office I could not remember
+whether the place I wanted to go to was called Daraus,
+Varaus, or Zaraus, all which places, it seemed to me, really
+existed. On awaking, I made a note of the dream,
+exactly as reproduced here, but was unable to recall
+any place, in Spain or elsewhere, corresponding to any
+of these names. The dream seemed merely to illustrate
+the familiar way in which a dream image perpetually
+shifts in a meaningless fashion at the focus of sleeping
+consciousness. The note was put away, and a few<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span>
+months later taken out again.<a name="FNanchor_202_202" id="FNanchor_202_202"></a><a href="#Footnote_202_202" class="fnanchor">[202]</a> It was still equally
+impossible to me to recall any real name corresponding
+to the dream names. But on consulting the Spanish
+guide-books and railway time-tables, I found that, on
+the line between San Sebastian and Bilbao, there really
+is a little seaside resort, in a beautiful situation, called
+Zarauz, and I realised, moreover, that I had actually
+passed that station in the train two hundred and fifty
+days before the date of my dream.<a name="FNanchor_203_203" id="FNanchor_203_203"></a><a href="#Footnote_203_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a> I had no associations
+with this place, though I may have admired it at
+the time; in any case it vanished permanently from
+conscious memory, perhaps aided by the fatigue of a
+long night journey before entering Spain. Even sleeping
+memory, I may remark, only recovered it with an
+effort, for it is notable that the name was gradually
+approached by three successive attempts.<a name="FNanchor_204_204" id="FNanchor_204_204"></a><a href="#Footnote_204_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A special form of lost or unconscious memories recurring
+in sleep is constituted by the cases in which
+people when asleep, or in a somnambulistic state, can
+speak languages which they have forgotten, or never
+consciously known, when awake. A simple instance,
+known to me, is furnished by a servant who had been
+taken to Paris for a few weeks six months before, but
+had never learned to speak a word of French, and whose
+mistress overheard her talking in her sleep, and repeating
+various French phrases, like 'Je ne sais pas, Monsieur';
+she had certainly heard these phrases, though she maintained,
+when awake, that she was ignorant of them.
+Speaking in a language not consciously known, or
+xenoglossia, as it is now termed, occurs under various
+abnormal conditions, as well as in sleep, and is sometimes
+classed with the tendency which is found, especially
+under great religious excitement, to 'speak with
+tongues,' or to utter gibberish.<a name="FNanchor_205_205" id="FNanchor_205_205"></a><a href="#Footnote_205_205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a> But in various sleep-like
+states it occurs as a true revival of forgotten<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span>
+memories, sometimes of memories which belong to childhood
+and in normal consciousness have been long
+overlaid and lost. On one occasion, by the bedside of
+a lady who was kept for a considerable period in a light
+condition of chloroform anaesthesia, the patient began
+to talk in an unfamiliar language which one of us
+recognised as Welsh; as a child, she afterwards owned,
+she had known Welsh, but had long since forgotten it.<a name="FNanchor_206_206" id="FNanchor_206_206"></a><a href="#Footnote_206_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a>
+A similar reproduction of lost memories occurs in the
+hypnotic state.</p>
+
+<p>This psychic process, by which unconscious memories
+become conscious in dreams, is of considerable interest
+and importance because it lends itself to many delusions.
+Not only the ignorant and uncultured, but
+even well-trained and acute minds, are often so unskilled
+in mental analysis that they are quite unable
+to pierce beneath the phenomenon of conscious ignorance
+to the deeper fact of unconscious memory; they
+are completely baffled, or else they resort to the wildest
+hypotheses. This is illustrated by the following
+narrative received twelve years ago from a medical
+correspondent in Baltimore. 'Several years ago,' he
+writes, 'a friend made a social call at my house and in
+the course of conversation spoke very enthusiastically
+of Mascagni's <cite>Cavalleria Rusticana</cite>, the first performance
+of which in the United States he had attended
+a few nights previously. I had never even heard of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span>
+the opera before, but that night I dreamed that I heard
+it performed. The dream was a very vivid one, so
+vivid that several times during the next day I found
+myself humming airs from the dream opera. Several
+evenings later I went to the theatre to see a comedy,
+and before the curtain rose the orchestra played a
+selection which I instantly recognised as part of my
+dream opera. I exclaimed to a lady who was with me:
+"That selection is from <cite>Cavalleria Rusticana</cite>." On
+inquiring of the leader of the orchestra such proved
+to be the case.' Now, at that period, shortly after the
+first appearance of <cite>Cavalleria Rusticana</cite>, portions of it
+had become extremely popular and were heard everywhere,
+by no means merely on the operatic stage. It
+was difficult not to have heard something of it. There
+cannot be the slightest doubt that my correspondent
+had heard not only the name but the music, though,
+writing at an interval of some years, he probably
+exaggerated the extent of his unconscious recollections.
+This seems the simple explanation of what to my
+correspondent was an inexplicable mystery. Other
+people, like the late Frederick Greenwood, not content
+to remain baffled, go further and regard such dreams
+as 'dreams of revelation,' as they also consider that
+class of dreams in which the dreamer works out the
+solution of a difficulty which he had vainly grappled
+with when awake.</p>
+
+<p>This is a kind of dream which has occurred in all
+ages, and has at times been put down to divine interposition.
+Sixteen centuries ago Bishop Synesius<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span>
+of Ptolemais wrote that in his hunting days a dream
+revealed to him an idea for a trap which he successfully
+employed in snaring animals, and at the present time
+inventions made in dreams have been successfully
+patented. The Rev. Nehemiah Curnock, who lately
+succeeded in deciphering Wesley's <cite>Journal</cite>, has stated
+that an important missing clue to the cypher came to
+him in a dream. A friend of my own, an expert in
+chemistry, was not long since in frequent communication
+with a practical manufacturer, assisting him
+in his inventions by scientific advice. One day the
+manufacturer wrote to my friend asking if the latter
+had been thinking of him during the night, for he had
+been much puzzled by a difficulty, and during the night
+had seen a vision of my friend who explained the solution
+of the difficulty; in the morning the proposed
+solution proved successful. There was, however, no
+telepathic element in the case; the dreamer's solution
+was his own.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting group of cases in this class is furnished
+by the dreams in which the dreamer, in opposition to
+his waking judgment, sees an acquaintance in whom
+he reposes trust acting in a manner unworthy of that
+trust, subsequent events proving that the estimate
+formed during sleep was sounder than that of waking
+life. Hawthorne (in his <cite>American Notebooks</cite>), Greenwood,
+Jewell, and others have recorded cases of this
+kind.</p>
+
+<p>Various as these phenomena are, they fall into the
+same scheme. They all help to illustrate the fact that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span>
+though on one side mental life in sleep is feeble and
+defective, on the other side it shows a tendency to
+vigorous excess. Sleep, as we know, involves a relaxation
+of tension, both physical and psychic; attention
+is no longer focused at a deliberately selected spot.<a name="FNanchor_207_207" id="FNanchor_207_207"></a><a href="#Footnote_207_207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a>
+The voluntary field becomes narrower, but the involuntary
+field becomes extended. Thus it happens
+that the contents of our minds fall into a new order,
+an order which is often fantastic but, on the other
+hand, is sometimes a more natural and even a more
+rational order than that we attain in waking life.
+Our eyes close, our muscles grow slack, the reins fall
+from our hands. But it sometimes happens that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span>
+horse knows the road home even better than we know
+it ourselves.</p>
+
+<p>Hypermnesia, or abnormally wide range of recollection,
+is not the only or the most common modification
+of memory during sleep. We find much more commonly,
+and indeed as one of the chief characteristics of sleep,
+an abnormally narrow range of recollection. We find,
+also, and perhaps as a result of that narrow range,
+paramnesia or perversion of memory. The best known
+form of paramnesia is that in which we have the illusion
+that the event which is at the moment happening to us
+has happened to us before.<a name="FNanchor_208_208" id="FNanchor_208_208"></a><a href="#Footnote_208_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a></p>
+
+<p>This form of paramnesia is common in dreams, though
+it is often so slightly pronounced that we either fail to
+recall it on awakening or attach no significance to it.<a name="FNanchor_209_209" id="FNanchor_209_209"></a><a href="#Footnote_209_209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a>
+I dream, for instance, that I am walking along a path,
+along which, it seems to me, I have often walked before,
+and that the path skirts the lawn of a house by which
+stands a policeman whom, also, it seems to me, I have
+often seen there before; the policeman approaches me
+and says, 'You have come to see Mr. So-and-so, sir?'<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span>
+and thereupon I suddenly recollect, with some confusion,
+that I have come to see Mr. So-and-so, and I
+walk up to the door. Again, an author dreams that he
+sees a list of his own books with, at the head of them,
+one entitled 'The Book of Glory.' He could not
+recall writing it (and to waking consciousness the name
+was entirely unknown), but the only reflection he made
+in his dream was 'How stupid to have forgotten!'
+In this case there was evidently some resistance to the
+suggestion, which yet was quickly accepted. In all
+such dreams it seems that we are in a state of mental
+weakness associated with defective apperceptual control
+and undue suggestibility, very similar to the state
+found in some forms of confusional insanity or of
+precocious dementia.<a name="FNanchor_210_210" id="FNanchor_210_210"></a><a href="#Footnote_210_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a> Consciousness feebly slides
+down the path of least resistance; it accepts every
+suggestion; the objects presented to it seem things
+that it knew before, the things that are suggested to it
+to do seem things that it already wanted to do before.
+Paramnesia, thus regarded, seems simply a natural
+outcome of a state of consciousness temporarily depressed
+below its normal standard of vigour.</p>
+
+<p>It must be remembered that the suggestibility of
+sleeping consciousness varies in degree, and in the face
+of serious improbabilities there is often a considerable
+amount of resistance, just as the hypnotised person<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>
+seriously resists the suggestions that fundamentally
+outrage his nature. But some degree of suggestibility,
+some tendency to regard the things that come before
+us in dreams as familiar&mdash;in other words, as things that
+have happened to us before&mdash;is not merely a natural
+result of defective apperception, but one of the very
+conditions of dreaming. It enables us to carry on our
+dreams; without it their progress would be fatally
+inhibited by doubt, uncertainty, and struggle. So it
+is, perhaps, that in all dreaming, or at all events in
+certain stages of sleeping consciousness, we are liable
+to fall into a state of pseudo-reminiscence.</p>
+
+<p>It is an interesting and highly significant fact that
+this paramnesic delusion of our dreams&mdash;the feeling
+that the thing that is happening to us is the thing that
+has happened to us before or that might happen to us
+again&mdash;tends to persist in the hypnagogic (or hypnopompic)
+stage immediately following sleep. When we
+have half awakened from a dream and are just able to
+realise that it was a dream, that dream constantly
+tends to appear in a more plausible or probable light
+than is possible a few moments later when we are fully
+awake.<a name="FNanchor_211_211" id="FNanchor_211_211"></a><a href="#Footnote_211_211" class="fnanchor">[211]</a></p>
+
+<p>The first experience which enabled me clearly to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>
+realise this phenomenon, and its probable explanation,
+occurred many years ago. About the middle of the
+night I had a very vivid dream, in which I imagined that
+two friends&mdash;a gentleman and his daughter&mdash;with a
+certain Lord Chesterfield (I had lately been reading
+the <cite>Letters</cite> of the famous Lord Chesterfield), were
+together at a hotel, that they were playing with
+weapons, that the lady accidentally killed or wounded
+Lord Chesterfield, and that she then changed clothes
+with him with the object of escaping, and avoiding
+discovery which would somehow be dangerous. I was
+informed of the matter, and was much concerned. I
+awoke, and my first thought was that I had just had a
+curious dream which I must not forget in the morning.
+But then I seemed to remember that it was a real and
+familiar event. This second thought lulled my mental
+activity, and I went to sleep again. In the morning I
+was able to recall the main points in my dream, and
+my thoughts on awaking from it.</p>
+
+<p>Since then I have given attention to the point, and
+I have found on recalling my half-waking consciousness
+after dreams that, while it is doubtless rare to catch
+the assertion 'That really occurred,' it is less rare to
+catch the vague assertion, 'That is the kind of thing
+that does occur.' I find that this latter impression<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span>
+appears, like the former, after vivid dreams which contain
+no physical impossibility, but which the full
+waking consciousness refuses to recognise as among
+the things that are probable. As an example quite
+unlike that just recorded, I may mention a dream in
+which I imagined that I was proving the frequency
+of local intermarriage by noting in directories the
+frequency of the presence of people of the same name in
+neighbouring towns and villages. On half-awaking
+I still believed that I had actually been engaged in such
+a task&mdash;that is, either that the dream was real or that
+it referred to a real event&mdash;and it was not until I was
+sufficiently awake to recognise the fallacy of such a
+method of investigation that I realised that it was
+purely a dream.</p>
+
+<p>This phenomenon has long been known, although
+its significance has not been perceived. Brierre de
+Boismont pointed out that certain vivid dreams are
+not recognised as dreams, but are mistaken for reality
+after waking, though he scarcely recognised the normal
+limitation of this mistake to the hypnagogic state.
+Moll compared such dreams, thus continued into waking
+life, to continuative post-hypnotic suggestions.
+Sully mentioned awaking from dreams which 'still
+wear the aspect of old acquaintances, so that for the
+moment I think they are waking realities.'<a name="FNanchor_212_212" id="FNanchor_212_212"></a><a href="#Footnote_212_212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a> Colegrove,
+in his study of memory, recorded many cases<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span>
+in which young people mistook their dreams for actual
+events.<a name="FNanchor_213_213" id="FNanchor_213_213"></a><a href="#Footnote_213_213" class="fnanchor">[213]</a></p>
+
+<p>This persistence of the memory illusion of sleep into
+the subsequent hypnagogic state is obviously related
+to the allied persistence, more occasionally found, of
+the visual, auditory, and other sensory hallucinations
+of sleep into the hypnagogic state.<a name="FNanchor_214_214" id="FNanchor_214_214"></a><a href="#Footnote_214_214" class="fnanchor">[214]</a> Visions thus seen
+persisting from dreams for a few moments into waking
+life are often very baffling and disturbing, as has already
+been pointed out, to ignorant and untrained people.
+Such visions may occur in the hypnagogic state, even
+when there has been no conscious precedent dream,
+and it is indeed probable, as Parish has argued, that it
+is precisely in the hypnagogic state, the narthex of the
+church of dreams, as I may term it, that hallucinations
+are most liable to occur. That illusions may momentarily
+occur in this state is obvious; thus falling asleep
+for a few minutes when seated before a black hollow
+smouldering fire, with red ashes at the bottom, I awake
+with the illusion that I see a curtain on fire, and have
+already leaned forward to snatch it away before I realise
+my mistake.</p>
+
+<p>Under normal conditions, the liability of a dream
+memory to be mistaken for an actual event seems to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span>
+greater when an interval has elapsed before the dream
+is remembered, such an interval making it difficult
+to distinguish one class of memories from the other,
+provided the dream has been of a plausible character.
+Thus Professor N&auml;cke has recorded that his wife dreamed
+that an acquaintance, an old lady, had called at the
+house; this dream was apparently forgotten until
+forty or fifty hours afterwards when, on passing the old
+lady's house, it was recalled, and the dreamer was only
+with much difficulty convinced that the dream was not
+an actual occurrence. When we are concerned with
+memories of childhood, it not infrequently happens
+that we cannot distinguish with absolute certainty
+between real occurrences and what may possibly have
+been dreams.</p>
+
+<p>In normal physical and mental health, however, it
+seems rare for the hallucinatory influence of dreams to
+extend beyond the hypnagogic state, but any impairment
+of the bodily health generally, and of the brain
+in particular, may extend this confusion. Thus in a
+case of heart disease terminating fatally, the patient,
+though in health he was by no means visionary or
+impressionable, became liable during sleep in the day-time
+to dreams of an entirely reasonable character
+which he had great difficulty in distinguishing from the
+real facts of life, never feeling sure what had actually
+happened, and what had been only a dream. In disordered
+cerebral and nervous conditions the same
+illusion becomes still more marked. This is notably
+the case in hysteria. In some forms of insanity, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span>
+many alienists have shown, this mistake is sometimes
+permanent and the dream may become an integral
+and persistent part of waking life. At this point,
+however, we leave the normal world of dreams and
+enter the sphere of pathology.</p>
+
+<p>In the normal persistence of the dream illusion into
+the hypnagogic state with which we are here concerned,
+the dream usually presents a possible, though, it may be,
+highly improbable event. The half-waking or hypnagogic
+intelligence seems to be deceived by this element
+of life-like possibility. Consequently a fallacy of perception
+takes place strictly comparable to the fallacious
+perception which, in the case of an external sensation,
+we call an illusion. In the ordinary illusion an externally
+excited sensation of one kind is mistaken for
+an externally excited sensation of another kind. In
+this case a centrally excited sensation of one order
+(dream image) is mistaken for a centrally excited
+sensation of another order (memory). The phenomenon
+is, therefore, a mental illusion belonging to the group
+of false memories, and it may be termed hypnagogic
+paramnesia.</p>
+
+<p>The process seems to have a certain interest, and it
+may throw light on some rather obscure phenomena.
+When we are able to recall a vivid dream, usually a
+fairly probable dream, with no idea as to when it was
+dreamed, and thus find ourselves in possession of
+experiences of which we cannot certainly say that they
+happened in waking life or in dream life, it seems
+probable that this hypnagogic paramnesia has come into<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span>
+action; the half-waking consciousness dismisses the
+vivid and life-like dream as an old and familiar experience,
+shunting it off into temporary forgetfulness, unless
+some accident again brings it into consciousness with,
+as it were, a fragment of that wrong label still sticking
+to it. Such a paramnesic process may thus also help
+to account for the mighty part which, as so many
+thinkers from Lucretius onwards have seen, dreams
+have played in moulding human action and human
+belief. It is a means whereby waking life and dream
+life are brought to an apparently common level.</p>
+
+<p>By hypnagogic paramnesia I mean a false memory
+occurring in the ante-chamber of sleep, but not necessarily
+before sleep. Myers's invention of the word
+'hypnopompic' seems scarcely necessary even for
+pedantic reasons. I take the condition of consciousness
+to be almost the same whether the sleep is coming on
+or passing away. In the Chesterfield dream it is indeed
+impossible to say whether the phenomenon is
+'hypnagogic' or 'hypnopompic'; in such a case the
+twilight consciousness is as much conditioned by the
+sleep that is passing away as by the sleep that is coming
+on.</p>
+
+<p>If this memory illusion of the half-waking state may
+be regarded as a variety of paramnesia, a new horizon
+is opened out to us. May not the hypnagogic variety
+throw light on the general phenomenon of paramnesia
+which has led to so many strange and complicated
+theories? I think it may.</p>
+
+<p>Paramnesia, as we have seen, is the psychologist's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span>
+name for a hallucination of memory which is sometimes
+called 'pseudo-reminiscence,' and by medical writers
+(who especially associate it with epilepsy) regarded
+as a symptom of 'dreamy state,'<a name="FNanchor_215_215" id="FNanchor_215_215"></a><a href="#Footnote_215_215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a> while by French
+authors it is often termed 'false recognition' or 'sensation
+du d&eacute;j&agrave; vu.' Dickens, who seems himself to
+have experienced it, thus describes it in <cite>David Copperfield:</cite>
+'We have all some experience of a feeling that
+comes over us occasionally, of what we are saying and
+doing having been said or done before, in a remote
+time, of having been surrounded, dim ages ago, by the
+same faces, objects, and circumstances, of our knowing
+perfectly what will be said next, as if we suddenly
+remembered it.' Sometimes it seems that this previous
+occurrence can only have taken place in a previous
+existence,<a name="FNanchor_216_216" id="FNanchor_216_216"></a><a href="#Footnote_216_216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a> whence we probably have, as St. Augustine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span>
+seems first to have suggested, the origin of the idea
+of metempsychosis, of the transmigration of souls;
+sometimes it seems to have happened before in a
+dream; sometimes the subject of the experience is
+totally baffled in the attempt to account for the feeling
+of familiarity which has overtaken him. In any case
+he is liable to an emotion of distress which would
+scarcely be caused by the coincidence of resemblance
+with a real previous experience.<a name="FNanchor_217_217" id="FNanchor_217_217"></a><a href="#Footnote_217_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a></p>
+
+<p>Paramnesia of this kind is known, according to the
+observations of Lalande,<a name="FNanchor_218_218" id="FNanchor_218_218"></a><a href="#Footnote_218_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a> to thirty people in a hundred,
+and Heymans found it in a considerable proportion of
+students of both sexes. Such estimates are probably
+too high if we take into consideration the general
+population. This experience seems, as Dugas and
+others have noted,<a name="FNanchor_219_219" id="FNanchor_219_219"></a><a href="#Footnote_219_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a> to affect educated people, and
+notably people of more than average intellect, who
+use their brains much, especially in artistic and emotional
+work, to a very much greater degree than the
+ignorant and phlegmatic manual worker.<a name="FNanchor_220_220" id="FNanchor_220_220"></a><a href="#Footnote_220_220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a> Dickens
+has already been mentioned; many other notable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span>
+writers have referred to this or some allied feeling,
+stating that they had experienced it, and Sir James
+Crichton-Browne brings forward a number of passages
+from the poets in evidence of their familiarity with
+such phenomena.<a name="FNanchor_221_221" id="FNanchor_221_221"></a><a href="#Footnote_221_221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a> Shelley (who appears on at least
+two occasions to have experienced hallucinations also)
+underwent what may be regarded as an experience of
+paramnesia (described in his <cite>Speculations on Metaphysics</cite>)
+which is of interest in the present connection
+because it brings this phenomenon into relation with
+dreams. He was walking with a friend in the neighbourhood
+of Oxford, when he suddenly turned the
+corner of a country lane and saw 'a common scene' of
+a windmill, etc., which, it immediately seemed to him,
+he recollected having seen before in a dream of long
+ago. Five years afterwards he was so agitated in writing
+this down that he could not finish the account.
+The real resemblance of 'a common scene' with a
+similar dream scene, even supposing it could be recollected
+when the two experiences were separated by a
+long interval, would scarcely be a coincidence likely
+to cause agitation. The emotion aroused seems to
+mark the experience as belonging to the class of paramnesic
+illusions which so often make a peculiarly vivid
+impression on those to whom they occur.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A great many theories have been put forward by
+psychologists and others to account for this paramnesic
+phenomenon. The most ancient explanation,
+long anterior to the beginnings of scientific psychology,
+was the theory that the occurrence which, as it now
+happens, strikes us as so overwhelmingly familiar
+had actually occurred to us in a previous existence
+long ages before; thus Pythagoras, according to the
+ancient story, when he visited the temple of Juno at
+Argos recognised the shield he had worn ages before
+when he was Euphorbus and fought with Menelaus
+in the Trojan war. A much more recent theory runs
+to the opposite extreme and claims that all or nearly
+all these cases of recognition indicate a real but confused
+reminiscence of past events in our present life,
+dim recollections which the subject is unable definitely
+to locate. This is the explanation largely relied on by
+Ribot, Jessen, Sander, Sully, Burnham, and many
+others. It was perhaps largely due to ignorance of
+the phenomenon; Ribot, when he wrote his book on
+the diseases of memory, considered that only three or
+four cases had been recorded, for an abnormal phenomenon
+always seems rare until it is recognised and
+definitely searched for. Undoubtedly, this theory will
+explain a considerable proportion of cases, but not
+really typical cases in which the subject has an
+overwhelming conviction that even the minute details
+of the present experience have been experienced before.
+We may read a new poem with a vague sense of familiarity,
+but such an experience never puts on a really<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span>
+paramnesic character, for we quickly realise that it is
+explainable by the fact that the writer of the poem has
+fallen under the influence of some greater master. The
+only experience I can personally speak of as at all
+approaching true paramnesia occurred on visiting
+the ruins of Pevensey Castle many years ago. On
+going up the slope towards the ivy-covered ruins,
+bathed in bright sunlight, I experienced a strange and
+abiding sense of familiarity with the scene. Three
+theories might account for this experience (for I refrain
+from including the Pythagorean theory that I experienced
+a reminiscence of the experience of a possible
+ancestor coming from across the Thames to the assistance
+of Harold against William the Conqueror at this
+spot): (1) that it was a case of true paramnesia; (2)
+that I had been taken to the spot as a child; (3) that
+the view was included among a series of coloured stereoscopic
+pictures with which I was familiar as a child, and
+which certainly contained similar scenes. I incline
+to this last explanation. Here, as elsewhere, there are
+no keys which will unlock all doors.</p>
+
+<p>A modification of the theory that the pseudo-reminiscence
+is an unrecognised real reminiscence
+is furnished by Grasset, who considers that the phenomenon
+is due to a subconscious impression previously
+received, but only reaching consciousness under the
+influence of the new similar impression. This theory
+would include the revival of dream images, and is therefore
+related to the theory of Lapie and M&eacute;r&eacute;, according
+to which the feeling of many of these subjects that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span>
+what they now experience had happened before in a
+dream is the correct explanation of the phenomenon.<a name="FNanchor_222_222" id="FNanchor_222_222"></a><a href="#Footnote_222_222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a></p>
+
+<p>We enter on a different class of explanations with
+the early theory of Wigan that such cases are due to
+the duality of the brain, the two hemispheres not acting
+quite simultaneously. This is a somewhat crude conception,
+though it may seem approximately on the lines
+of more recent theories. The theory of the duplex
+brain, each hemisphere being supposed capable of
+acting independently, was at one time invoked to explain
+many phenomena, but it is no longer regarded as
+tenable.<a name="FNanchor_223_223" id="FNanchor_223_223"></a><a href="#Footnote_223_223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a></p>
+
+<p>We may dismiss these theories, which have been
+effectively criticised by others, and revert to our clue in
+the sleeping and hypnagogic state. The hypnagogic
+state is a transition between waking and sleeping. It
+is thus a condition of mental feebleness and suggestibility
+doubtless correlated with a condition of irregular
+brain anaemia. A plausible suggestion under such
+conditions is too readily accepted. Does ordinary
+paramnesia occur under similar conditions of mental
+feebleness and suggestibility? It is rare to find descriptions
+of paramnesic experiences by scientific
+observers who are alive to the importance of accurately<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span>
+recording all the conditions, but there is some reason
+to think that paramnesia does occur in states produced
+by excitement, exhaustion, and allied causes.
+The earliest case of paramnesia recorded in detail by a
+trained observer is that described by Wigan as occurring
+to himself at the funeral of the Princess Charlotte.
+He had passed several disturbed nights previous to the
+ceremony, with almost complete deprivation of rest
+on the night immediately preceding; he was suffering
+from grief as well as from exhaustion from want of
+food; he had been standing for four hours, and would
+have fainted on taking his place by the coffin if it had
+not been for the excitement of the occasion. When the
+music ceased the coffin slowly sank in absolute silence,
+broken by an outburst of grief from the bereaved
+husband. 'In an instant,' Wigan proceeds, 'I felt
+not merely an <em>impression</em>, but a <em>conviction</em>, that I had
+seen the whole scene before on some former occasion.'
+Such a condition may fairly be regarded as an artificial
+reproduction, by means of emotion, excitement, and
+exhaustion, of the condition which occurs simply and
+naturally in sleep or on its hypnagogic borderland.</p>
+
+<p>The frequency&mdash;if it may be taken to be a fact&mdash;of
+the occurrence of pseudo-reminiscence in epileptics,
+noted by various medical observers, whether at the
+onset of the fit or independently of any obvious muscular
+convulsion, may be significant in this connection.
+There is no good reason to suppose that pseudo-reminiscence
+has a true relation to epilepsy, and still less
+that it necessarily constitutes a minor epileptic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span>
+paroxysm. But the special sleep-like condition of
+contracted cerebral circulation in epilepsy renders it
+favourable to paramnesia as well as to hallucinatory
+phenomena.<a name="FNanchor_224_224" id="FNanchor_224_224"></a><a href="#Footnote_224_224" class="fnanchor">[224]</a></p>
+
+<p>Independently of epilepsy, any condition of temporary
+and perhaps chronic nervous exhaustion may produce,
+or at all events predispose to, the paramnesic delusion
+of recognising present experiences as familiar. Thus
+Rosenbach has recorded the case of a sane and healthy
+man, who, after severe mental labour, followed by
+sleeplessness, seemed to know all the people he met in
+the street, though on close examination he found he
+was mistaken.<a name="FNanchor_225_225" id="FNanchor_225_225"></a><a href="#Footnote_225_225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a> Such a condition may even be almost
+congenital. Thus of Anna Kingsford, who was of highly
+strung and neurotic disposition, we are told that, as a
+child, 'all that she read struck her as already familiar
+to her, so that she seemed to herself to be recovering<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span>
+old recollections rather than acquiring fresh knowledge.'<a name="FNanchor_226_226" id="FNanchor_226_226"></a><a href="#Footnote_226_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a></p>
+
+<p>It is noteworthy that artificial anaesthesia by drugs
+which produce an abnormal sleep also favours paramnesia.
+Thus Sir William Ramsay<a name="FNanchor_227_227" id="FNanchor_227_227"></a><a href="#Footnote_227_227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a> has stated that
+when, under an anaesthetic, he heard a slight noise in
+the street, 'I not merely knew that it had happened
+before, but I could have predicted that it would happen
+at that very moment.'</p>
+
+<p>In all these conditions we appear to be in the presence
+of an enfeebled, excited, and impaired state of consciousness
+approximating to the true confusion of dream
+consciousness. It seems as if externally aroused sensations
+in such cases are received by the exhausted
+cerebral centres in so blurred a form that an illusion
+takes place, and they are mistaken for internally
+excited sensations, for memories.</p>
+
+<p>That paramnesia is a fatigue product&mdash;even though
+often a product of nervous hyperaesthesia&mdash;is indicated
+by the statements of many who have described it.
+Anjel long ago emphasised this fatigue, and Bonatelli,
+also at an early period, found that illusions of memory
+were specially liable to occur in states of unusual
+nervous irritability. During recent years this characteristic
+of paramnesia has been more and more
+frequently recognised. Bernard Leroy, who devoted a
+lengthy and important Paris thesis to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span>
+pseudo-reminiscence,<a name="FNanchor_228_228" id="FNanchor_228_228"></a><a href="#Footnote_228_228" class="fnanchor">[228]</a> showed that a certain proportion of cases
+indicated the presence of fatigue or distraction.
+Heymans found that it was in the evening, when his
+subjects were in a passive condition, tired, exhausted,
+or engaged in uncongenial work, that they were most
+liable to the experience.<a name="FNanchor_229_229" id="FNanchor_229_229"></a><a href="#Footnote_229_229" class="fnanchor">[229]</a> F&eacute;r&eacute; brought forward a
+case in which, as he pointed out, pseudo-reminiscence
+in a healthy man, convalescent from influenza, was
+associated with fatigue and disappeared with it.<a name="FNanchor_230_230" id="FNanchor_230_230"></a><a href="#Footnote_230_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a>
+Dromard and Alb&egrave;s declare that pseudo-reminiscence
+is 'a phenomenon of exhaustion,' and one of them makes
+the significant statement: 'I become more easily the
+prey of this illusion when, by chance and without
+thinking of it, I simultaneously apply my attention
+to an external object and an internal thought.'<a name="FNanchor_231_231" id="FNanchor_231_231"></a><a href="#Footnote_231_231" class="fnanchor">[231]</a> Dugas,
+again, considers that all the various forms of paramnesia
+have 'one common character, which is that they occur
+as the result of prolonged or intense fatigue';<a name="FNanchor_232_232" id="FNanchor_232_232"></a><a href="#Footnote_232_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a> he
+adds that most of the cases of paramnesia he has noted
+in young people during fifteen years coincided with
+periods of anaemia and nervous weakness.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is not, however, necessary to believe that fatigue,
+in the ordinary sense of the word, whether physical or
+mental, is the invariable accompaniment of paramnesia.
+If it is the presence of a condition resembling that of
+sleep or the hypnagogic state which predisposes to
+the experience, that condition may be produced by
+other circumstances. Distraction, excited hyperaesthesia
+simulating increased power, and various chronic psychic
+states <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'hue'">due</ins> to a highly-strung or over-strained nervous
+system may all tend in the same direction, even though
+no sense of exhaustion is felt.<a name="FNanchor_233_233" id="FNanchor_233_233"></a><a href="#Footnote_233_233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a> This is doubtless why
+it is that so many poets, novelists, and other men
+of strenuous intellectual aptitude are liable to this
+experience.</p>
+
+<p>It has been argued by some who admit that there is
+often an element of fatigue in paramnesia,<a name="FNanchor_234_234" id="FNanchor_234_234"></a><a href="#Footnote_234_234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a> that the
+real cause of the false memory is an abnormal celerity
+of perception, perhaps due to hyperaesthesia. The
+scene would thus be perceived so quickly that the subject<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span>
+concludes that he must have had this experience before.
+That the subject often has a feeling of unusual rapidity
+of perception may very well be admitted. But there
+is no reason whatever to suppose that the perception
+actually is received with any such unusual rapidity.
+The probabilities are in the other direction. We know
+that many influences (such as drugs like alcohol) which
+produce a feeling of heightened and quickened perceptions
+really have a slowing and dulling effect, in
+the same way as the wise and beautiful things we utter
+in dreams are usually found on awaking to be commonplace,
+if not meaningless. There is no evidence to show
+that paramnesia is accompanied by a real heightening
+of perception, while, as we have seen, a broad survey
+of the facts makes it more reasonable to suppose that
+we have, on the contrary, a sudden fall towards the
+dream state, a state in which, as Tissi&eacute; and others have
+pointed out, there are many stages.</p>
+
+<p>It must be remembered in this connection that in the
+hypnagogic and other states related to sleep we are not
+able to estimate time conditions consciously, though,
+as the frequent ability to wake at fixed moments indicates,
+we may do so subconsciously. Time is long,
+short, or non-existent in dream-like states. This is
+always true of the onset of the hypnagogic state. When
+I am suddenly awakened at night by a voice or a bell
+or other stimulus, I often find it very difficult to say
+whether I was or was not already awake, and have
+frequently replied, when so awakened, that I was already
+awake. That is an illusion, as is shown by the frequency<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span>
+with which elderly people who fall asleep in the day
+time, will declare, though they may have been snoring
+a moment before, that they have never been asleep.
+By a somewhat similar paramnesic illusion we can
+never fix the exact moment when we awake. When
+we become conscious that we are awake it always
+seems to us that we are already awake, awake for an
+indefinite time, and not that we have just awakened.
+If I had to register the exact moment I awake in the
+morning I should usually feel that I was considerably
+late in making the observation. It seems that the imperfect
+hypnagogic consciousness projects itself behind.
+At the first onset, consciousness is not sufficiently
+developed to be able to realise that it is beginning, and
+when it becomes sufficiently developed to make such a
+statement the moment when it can be correctly made is
+already past. Consciousness is only able to assert
+that it has been continuing for an indefinite time.
+And that assertion involves a paramnesic illusion of
+putting back a present experience into the past, analogous
+to the illusion of pseudo-reminiscence.<a name="FNanchor_235_235" id="FNanchor_235_235"></a><a href="#Footnote_235_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>If we realise these characteristics of paramnesia
+we can scarcely fail to conclude that we are concerned
+here with illusions which, while they fall within the
+sphere of memory, are largely conditioned by the whole
+psychic condition. As in dreams, it is inattention,
+failure of apperception, defective association of the
+mental contents, which make the paramnesia possible.
+Paramnesia is, as Fouill&eacute;e has said, a kind of diplopia
+or seeing double in the mental field. 'I have the
+impression,' says one of the writers on this subject who
+himself experiences the sensation, 'that the present
+reality has a <em>double</em>.' Actual double vision is due to
+the failure of that muscular co-ordination which, as
+Ribot and others have insisted, is of the very essence of
+attention. This wider psychic basis on which paramnesia
+rests has of late been recognised by several psychologists.
+Thus L&eacute;on-Kindberg states that in paramnesia
+there is an absence of mental attention, of the
+effort of synthesis necessary to grasp an actual occurrence,
+which is, therefore, perceived with the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span>
+facility as a memory not requiring synthesis, with the
+resulting illusion that it is a memory.<a name="FNanchor_236_236" id="FNanchor_236_236"></a><a href="#Footnote_236_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a> Ballet, again,
+regards paramnesia as a transitory or permanent
+psychasthenic state, due to dissociation.<a name="FNanchor_237_237" id="FNanchor_237_237"></a><a href="#Footnote_237_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a> Dugas, also,
+who has repeatedly returned to this subject during
+many years, in his latest contributions attaches
+primary importance to this broader factor of paramnesia.
+In analysing memory, he says, there is an
+element which, though often overlooked, is capital:
+the recognition of a state of consciousness not merely
+as passed, but as bound up with our own personal
+past; when that synthetic function ceases to be accomplished,
+or is only accomplished defectively, then
+memory is lacking or perverted. Nervous weakness,
+he proceeds, produces failure of attention, the inhibitory
+power of attention being no longer exerted, and the
+psychic elements fall back to anarchy. Now many
+psychic states, such as sensations, recollections, and
+images, differ from each other less by their substance
+than by the way in which the mind takes hold of and
+apprehends them. The mind seizes a sensation with a
+stronger grasp than a recollection, and a recollection
+with a stronger grasp than an image. When attention
+is relaxed the line of demarcation between these psychic
+states tends to be effaced; the sensation becomes
+vague and floating like the recollection and the image,
+while the recollection and the image, on the contrary,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span>
+become objective and acquire something of the brilliance
+and relief of the sensation. The very same cause&mdash;enfeeblement
+of attention&mdash;thus produces opposite
+effects, on the one side raising the tone, on the other
+lowering it, so that states of mind which are ordinarily
+distinct tend to be approximated and confused, as we
+may observe in the hypnagogic condition.<a name="FNanchor_238_238" id="FNanchor_238_238"></a><a href="#Footnote_238_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a></p>
+
+<p>Although Dugas makes no reference to Janet, it
+is not difficult to see that he has assimilated some of
+the views of that distinguished investigator of psychic
+mysteries. Janet, as we know, in various morbid
+psychic conditions, attaches great explanatory force
+to the individual's loss of hold, through psychic weakness,
+of his own personality, and to the diminished
+sense of reality and even depersonalisation thence
+ensuing. It so happens that Janet himself has set
+forth a theory of pseudo-reminiscence which is characteristic
+of his own attitude, and also harmonises with
+the wider outlook which now marks the attempts to
+explain these perversions of memory. Janet declares
+that pseudo-reminiscence is a negative phenomenon
+and belongs to a group in which various other feelings
+of diminished sense of reality belong. These people all
+say in effect: 'It seems to me that these things are not
+real; it seems to me that these events are not actual
+or present.' The essence of this form of paramnesia<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span>
+is thus more a negation of the present than an affirmation
+of the past. 'The function of adaptation to the
+present moment,' Janet remarks, 'is the most complicated
+and the most recent of all. The function of the
+real is the most elevated and the most difficult of all
+cerebral functions.' Under various influences there is
+a diminution of nervous and psychic tension, and such
+suppression of the high tension of the mind leaves
+only the lower functions subsisting. When that fall
+of tension is rapid, there may be a crisis of which pseudo-reminiscence
+is one of the symptoms.<a name="FNanchor_239_239" id="FNanchor_239_239"></a><a href="#Footnote_239_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a> Janet would
+thus place pseudo-reminiscence among the manifestations
+of psychasthenia, though he leaves untouched
+the difficult question of its precise mechanism.</p>
+
+<p>The most comprehensive attempt to explain the
+mystery of paramnesia in recent years is certainly that
+made in an elaborately eclectic study by one of the most
+distinguished of living French thinkers, Professor
+Bergson.<a name="FNanchor_240_240" id="FNanchor_240_240"></a><a href="#Footnote_240_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a> He first casts a glance over what he considers
+the two main groups of explanations of this
+puzzling phenomenon: (1) those, advocated by Ribot,
+Fouill&eacute;e, Lalande, Arnaud, Pi&eacute;ron, Myers, etc., which
+involve the more or less simultaneous existence in
+consciousness of two images, of which one is the reproduction
+of the other; (2) those advocated by
+Janet, Heymans, L&eacute;on-Kindberg, Dromard and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span>
+Alb&egrave;s, etc., which insist on the lower mental tone,
+the diminished attention, the lack of synthetising
+power, which mark the condition in which paramnesia
+occurs. Bergson is quite ready to accept the principles
+of both these groups of explanations, and to combine
+them. But, he argues, to understand the phenomenon
+adequately, we must go deeper; we must analyse the
+normal mechanism of memory. And he finds, if we do
+this, that not merely the moment of a paramnesic
+illusion, but every moment of our life, offers two aspects,
+actual and virtual, perception on one side, and memory
+on the other. The moment itself, indeed, consists
+of such a scission, for it is always moving, always a
+fleeting boundary between the immediate past and the
+immediate future, and would be a mere abstraction
+if it were not 'precisely the mobile mirror which ceaselessly
+reflects perception in recollection.' When the
+matter is thus regarded a recollection is seen to be, in
+reality, not something which has been, but something
+which is, proceeding <em xml:lang="la" lang="la">pari passu</em> with the perception it
+reproduces. It is a recollection of the moment taking
+place at that moment. Belonging to the past as regards
+its form, it belongs to the present as regards its
+matter. It is recollection of the present. Now this is
+exactly the state in which the paramnesic person
+consciously finds himself, and the only problem before
+us, therefore, is to ascertain why every one at every
+moment is not conscious of the same experience.
+Bergson replies that nothing is more useless for present
+action than the recollection of the present. It has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span>
+nothing to tell us; we hold the real object, and to
+give up that for its recollection would be to sacrifice
+the substance to the shadow. Therefore we obstinately
+and persistently turn away from the recollection of the
+present. It emerges consciously only under the influence
+of some abnormal or pathological disturbance
+of attention. Paramnesia is an anomaly of this kind,
+and it is due to a temporary enfeeblement of the general
+attention to life, a momentary arrest of the forward
+movement of consciousness. 'False recognition,' Bergson
+concludes, 'may thus be regarded as the most
+inoffensive form of inattention to life. It seems to
+result from the combined play of perception and memory
+given up to their own energy. It would take place at
+every moment if it were not that will, ceaselessly
+directed towards action, prevents the present from
+folding in on itself by pushing it indefinitely into the
+future.'</p>
+
+<p>So far as my own explanation is concerned, it will
+be seen that I still place weight on the general condition
+of temporary or chronic nervous fatigue as the soil
+on which paramnesia arises&mdash;a belief now accepted
+by most psychologists<a name="FNanchor_241_241" id="FNanchor_241_241"></a><a href="#Footnote_241_241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a>&mdash;and that I think we must
+search for the clue to the mechanism of the illusion in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span>
+those dreaming and hypnagogic states in which it most
+often occurs. As regards a definite explanation of the
+mechanism we must, in the face of so many ingenious
+and complicated theories, perhaps still await more
+general agreement.<a name="FNanchor_242_242" id="FNanchor_242_242"></a><a href="#Footnote_242_242" class="fnanchor">[242]</a> What I have suggested, and
+am still inclined to maintain, is that the psychic enfeeblement,
+temporary or chronic, which is the general
+preliminary condition of paramnesia, whether or not
+there is any subjective sensation of increased power,
+may account for the paramnesia by bringing an externally
+aroused perception down to a lower and fainter
+stage on which it is on a level with an internally aroused
+perception&mdash;a memory. Just as in hypnagogic paramnesia
+the vivid and life-like dream, or internal impression,
+is raised to the class of memories, and becomes the
+shadow of a real experience, so in waking paramnesia
+the external impression is lowered to the same class.
+Perception is alike dulled in each case, and the immediate
+experience follows the line of least resistance&mdash;this
+time too carelessly or too prematurely&mdash;to join
+the great bulk of our experiences.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>We thus realise how it is that that doubling of experience
+occurs. The mind has for the moment become
+flaccid and enfeebled; its loosened texture has, as it
+were, abnormally enlarged the meshes in which sensations
+are caught and sifted, so that they run through
+too easily. In other words, they are not properly
+<em>apperceived</em>. To use a crude simile, it is as though we
+poured water into a sieve. The impressions of the
+world which are actual sensations as they strike the
+relaxed psychic meshwork are instantaneously passed
+through to become memories, and we see them in both
+forms at the same moment, and are unable to distinguish
+one from the other.</p>
+
+<p>In sleep, and in the hypnagogic state, as in hypnosis,
+we accept a suggestion, with or without a struggle.
+In the waking paramnesic state we seem to find, in a
+slighter stage of a like condition, <em>the same process in a
+reversed form</em>. Instead of accepting a representation
+as an actual present fact, we accept the actual present
+fact as merely a representation. The centres of perception
+are in such a state of exhaustion and disorder
+that they receive an actual external sensation in the
+feebler shape of a representation. The actual fact
+becomes merely a suggestion of far distant things. It
+reaches consciousness in the enfeebled shape of an old
+memory&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="container">
+<div class="poem">
+ <div class="stanza">
+  <div class="i0">'... like to something I remember</div>
+  <div class="i0">A great while since, a long, long time ago.'</div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Paramnesia is thus an internal hallucination, a reversed
+hallucination, it is true, but while so reversed, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span>
+stream of consciousness is still following the line of least
+resistance.</p>
+
+<p>It is along some such lines as these, it seems to me,
+that we may best attempt to explain the phenomena
+of paramnesia, phenomena which are of no little
+interest since, in earlier stages of culture, they may well
+have had a real influence on belief, suggesting to
+primitive man that he had somehow had wider experiences
+than he knew of, and that, as Wordsworth put it,
+he trailed clouds of glory behind him.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2>
+
+<p class="p6">CONCLUSION</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p>The Fundamental Nature of Dreaming&mdash;Insanity and Dreaming&mdash;The
+Child's Psychic State and the Dream State&mdash;Primitive
+Thought and Dreams&mdash;Dreaming and Myth-Making&mdash;Genius
+and Dreams&mdash;Dreaming as a Road into the Infinite.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+<p>In the preceding chapters we have traced some of the
+elementary tendencies which prevail in the formation
+of dreams. These tendencies are in some respects so
+unlike those that rule in waking life&mdash;slight and subtle
+as their unlikeness often seems&mdash;that we are justified
+in regarding the psychic phenomena of sleeping life as
+constituting a world of their own.</p>
+
+<p>Yet when we look at the phenomena a little more
+deeply we realise that, however differentiated they have
+become, dream life is yet strictly co-ordinated with
+other forms of psychic life. If we pierce below the
+surface we seem to reach a primitive fundamental
+psychic stage in which the dreamer, the madman, the
+child, and the savage alike have their starting point,
+and possess a degree of community from which the
+waking, civilised, sane adult of to-day is shut out, so
+that he can only comprehend it by an intellectual
+effort.<a name="FNanchor_243_243" id="FNanchor_243_243"></a><a href="#Footnote_243_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a> It thus happens that the ways of thinking and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span>
+feeling of the child and the savage and the lunatic each
+furnish a road by which we may reach a psychic world
+which is essentially that of the dreamer.</p>
+
+<p>The resemblance of insanity to dream life has, above
+all, impressed observers from the time when the nature
+of insanity was first definitely recognised. It would be
+outside the limits of the present book to discuss the
+points at which dreams resemble or differ from insanity,
+but it is worth while to touch on the question of their
+affinity. The recognition of this affinity, or at all
+events analogy, though it was stated by Cabanis to be
+due to Cullen, is as old as Aristotle, and has constantly
+been put forward afresh. Thus in the sixteenth century
+Du Laurens (A. Laurentius), in his treatise on the
+disease of melancholy, as insanity was then termed,
+compared it to dreaming.<a name="FNanchor_244_244" id="FNanchor_244_244"></a><a href="#Footnote_244_244" class="fnanchor">[244]</a> The same point is still
+constantly brought forward by the more philosophic
+physician. 'Find out all about dreams,' Hughlings
+Jackson has said, 'and you will have found out all
+about insanity.' From the wider standpoint of the
+psychologist, Jastrow points out that not only insanity,
+but all the forms of delirium, including the drug-intoxications,
+are 'variants of dream consciousness.'</p>
+
+<p>The reality of the affinity of dreaming and insanity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span>
+is well illustrated by a case, coming under the observation
+of Marro, in which a dream, formed according
+to the ordinary rules of dreaming, produced a temporary
+fit of insanity in an otherwise perfectly sane subject.<a name="FNanchor_245_245" id="FNanchor_245_245"></a><a href="#Footnote_245_245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a>
+In this case a highly intelligent but somewhat neurotic
+young man was returning to Italy after pursuing his
+studies abroad, and reached Turin, on the homeward
+journey, in a somewhat tired state. In the train he
+believed that he had detected some cardsharpers, and
+that they suspected him of finding them out, and bore
+him ill-will in consequence. This produced a state of
+general nervous apprehension. At the hotel his room
+was over the kitchen; it was in consequence very hot,
+and to a late hour he could still hear voices and catch
+snatches of conversation, which seemed to him to be
+directed against himself. His suspicions deepened, he
+heard noises, in reality due to the kitchen utensils,
+which seemed preparations for his murder, and he
+ultimately became convinced that there was a plot
+to set fire to his room in order to force him to leave it,
+when he would be seized and murdered. He resolved
+to escape, got out of the window with his revolver in
+his hand, found his way to another part of the house,
+encountered a man who had been awakened by his
+movements, and shot at him, believing him to be a
+party to the imaginary conspiracy. He was seized
+and taken to the asylum, where he speedily regained
+calm, and realised the delusion into which he had fallen.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span>
+When questioned by Marro, on reaching the asylum,
+he was unaware that he had ever fallen asleep during
+the night; he could not, however, account for all the
+time that had elapsed before he left the room, and it
+was probable, Marro concludes, that he was in a state
+between waking and sleeping, and that his delusion was
+constituted in a dream. Fatigue, nervous apprehension,
+an unduly hot bedroom, the close proximity of servants'
+voices, and the sound of kitchen utensils, had thus
+combined, in a state of partial sleep, to produce in an
+otherwise sane person, a morbid condition in every
+respect identical with that found in insane persons who
+are suffering from systematised delusions of persecution.<a name="FNanchor_246_246" id="FNanchor_246_246"></a><a href="#Footnote_246_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a></p>
+
+<p>The resemblance of the child's psychic state to the
+dream state is an observation of less ancient date than
+that of the analogy between dreaming and insanity,
+but it has frequently been made by modern psychologists.
+'In dreams,' says Freud, 'the child with his impulses
+lives again,'<a name="FNanchor_247_247" id="FNanchor_247_247"></a><a href="#Footnote_247_247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a> and Giessler has devoted a chapter to
+the points of resemblance between dream life and the
+mental activity of children.<a name="FNanchor_248_248" id="FNanchor_248_248"></a><a href="#Footnote_248_248" class="fnanchor">[248]</a></p>
+
+<p>I should be more especially inclined to find the dream-like
+character of the child's mind at three points:
+(1) the abnormally logical tendency of the child's mind<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span>
+and the daring mental fusions which he effects in forming
+theories; (2) the greater preponderance of hypnagogic
+phenomena and hallucinations in childhood, as
+well as the large element of reverie or day-dreaming
+in the child's life, and the facility with which he confuses
+this waking imagination with reality; and (3) the
+child's tendency to mistake, also, the dreams of the
+night for real events.<a name="FNanchor_249_249" id="FNanchor_249_249"></a><a href="#Footnote_249_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a> This last tendency is of serious
+practical import when it leads a child, in all innocence,
+to make criminal charges against other persons.<a name="FNanchor_250_250" id="FNanchor_250_250"></a><a href="#Footnote_250_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a> This
+tendency clearly indicates the close resemblance which
+there is for children between dream life and waking
+life; it also shows the great vividness which children's
+dreams possess. In imaginative children, it may be
+added, a rich and vivid dream life is not infrequently
+the direct source of literary activities which lead to
+distinction in later life.<a name="FNanchor_251_251" id="FNanchor_251_251"></a><a href="#Footnote_251_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The child, we are often told, is the representative of
+the modern savage and the primitive man. That is
+not, in any strict sense, true, nor can we assume without
+question that early man and modern savages are
+identical. But we can have very little doubt that in
+our dreams we are brought near to ways of thought and
+feeling that are sometimes closer to those of early man, as
+well as of latter-day savages, than are our psychic modes
+in civilisation.<a name="FNanchor_252_252" id="FNanchor_252_252"></a><a href="#Footnote_252_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a> So remote are we to-day from the world
+of our dreams that we very rarely draw from them the
+inspiration of our waking lives. For the primitive man
+the laws of the waking world are not yet widely differentiated
+from the laws of the sleeping world, and he
+finds it not unreasonable to seek illumination for the
+problems of one world in the phenomena of the other.
+The doctrine of animism, as first formulated by Tylor
+(more especially in his <cite>Primitive Culture</cite>) finds in
+dreams the chief source of primitive religion and
+philosophy. Of recent years there has been a tendency
+to reject the theory of animism.<a name="FNanchor_253_253" id="FNanchor_253_253"></a><a href="#Footnote_253_253" class="fnanchor">[253]</a> Certainly it is
+possible to rely too exclusively on dreams as the inspiration
+of early man; if the evidence of dreams had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span>
+not been in a line with the evidence that he derived
+from other sources, there is no reason why the man of
+primitive times should have attached any peculiar
+value to dreams. But if the animistic conception
+presents too extreme a view of the primitive importance
+of dreaming, we must beware lest the reaction against
+it should lead us to fall into the opposite extreme.
+Durkheim argues that it is unlikely that early man
+attaches much significance to dreams, for the modern
+peasant, who is the representative of primitive man,
+appears to dream very little, and not to attach much
+importance to his dreams. But it is by no means
+true that the peasant of civilisation, with his fixed
+agricultural life, corresponds to early man who was
+mainly a hunter and often a nomad. Under the conditions
+of civilisation the peasant is fed regularly and
+leads a peaceful, stolid, laborious, and equable life,
+which is altogether unfavourable to psychic activity
+of any kind, awake or asleep. The savage man, now
+and ever, as a hunter and fighter, leads a life of comparative
+idleness, broken by spurts of violent activity;
+sometimes he can gorge himself with food, sometimes
+he is on the verge of starvation. He lives under conditions
+that are more favourable to the psychic side of
+life, awake or asleep, than is the case with the peasant
+of civilisation.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, it must be remembered that all the peoples
+whom we may fairly regard as in some degree resembling
+early man possess a specialised caste of exceptional
+men who artificially cultivate their psychic activities,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span>
+and thereby exert great influence on their fellows.
+These are termed, after their very typical representatives
+in some Siberian tribes, <em>shamans</em>, and combine the
+functions of priests and sorcerers and medicine men.
+It is nearly everywhere found that the shaman&mdash;who
+is often, it would appear, at the outset a somewhat
+abnormal person&mdash;cultivates solitude, fasting, and all
+manner of ascetic practices, thereby acquiring an
+unusual aptitude to dream, to see visions, to experience
+hallucinations, and, it may well be, to acquire abnormally
+clairvoyant powers. The shamans of the Andamanese
+are called by a word signifying dreamer, and in
+various parts of the world the shaman finds the first
+sign of his vocation in a dream. The evocation of
+dreams is often the chief end of the shaman's abnormal
+method of life. Thus, among the Salish Indians of
+British Columbia, dreams are the proper mode of
+communication with guardian spirits, and 'prolonged
+fasts, bathings, forced vomitings, and other exhausting
+bodily exercises are the means adopted for inducing
+the mystic dreams and visions.'<a name="FNanchor_254_254" id="FNanchor_254_254"></a><a href="#Footnote_254_254" class="fnanchor">[254]</a></p>
+
+<p>When we witness the phenomena of Shamanism in all
+parts of the world it is difficult to dispute the statement
+of Lucretius that the gods first appeared to men in
+dreams. This may be said to be literally true; even
+to-day it often happens that the savage's totem, who is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span>
+practically his tutelary deity, first appears to him in a
+dream.<a name="FNanchor_255_255" id="FNanchor_255_255"></a><a href="#Footnote_255_255" class="fnanchor">[255]</a> An influence which seems likely to have been
+so persistent may well have had a large plastic power
+in moulding the myths and legends which everywhere
+embody the religious impulses of men. This idea was
+long ago suggested by Hobbes. 'From this ignorance
+of how to distinguish dreams and other strong Fancies,'
+he wrote, 'from Vision and Sense, did arise the greatest
+part of the Religion of the Gentiles in time past, that
+worshipped Satyrs, Fauns, Nymphs, and the like.'<a name="FNanchor_256_256" id="FNanchor_256_256"></a><a href="#Footnote_256_256" class="fnanchor">[256]</a></p>
+
+<p>Ludwig Laistner, however, appears to have been the
+first to argue in detail that dreams, and especially
+nightmares, have played an important part in the
+evolution of mythological ideas. 'If we bear in mind,'
+he said in the Preface to his great work, 'how intimately
+poetry and religion are connected with myth, we
+encounter the surprising fact that the first germ of these
+highly important vital manifestations is not to be found
+in any action of the waking mind, but in sleep, and that
+the chief and oldest teacher of productive imagination
+is not to be found in the experiences of life, but in the
+phantasies of dream.'<a name="FNanchor_257_257" id="FNanchor_257_257"></a><a href="#Footnote_257_257" class="fnanchor">[257]</a> The pictures men formed of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span>
+the over-world and the under-world have the character
+of dreams and hypnagogic visions, and this is true even
+within the sphere of Christianity.<a name="FNanchor_258_258" id="FNanchor_258_258"></a><a href="#Footnote_258_258" class="fnanchor">[258]</a> The invention of
+Hell, Maudsley has declared, would find an adequate
+explanation, if such is needed, in the sufferings of some
+delirious patients, while the apocalyptic vision of Heaven
+with which our Christian Bible concludes, is, Beaunis
+remarks, nothing but a long dream.<a name="FNanchor_259_259" id="FNanchor_259_259"></a><a href="#Footnote_259_259" class="fnanchor">[259]</a> And if it is true,
+as Baudelaire has said, that 'every well conformed
+brain carries within it two infinites: Heaven and Hell,'
+we may well believe that both Heaven and Hell find their
+most vivid symbolism in the spontaneous action of
+dreams.</p>
+
+<p>In migraine and the epileptic aura visions of diminutive
+creatures sometimes occur, and occasionally micropsic
+vision in which real objects appear diminished.
+It has been suggested by Sir Lauder Brunton that we
+may here have the origin of fairies, at all events for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span>
+some races of fairies; for fairies, though diminutive
+in some countries, as in England, are not diminutive
+in others, as in Ireland. A more normal and frequent
+channel of intercourse with such creatures is, however,
+to be found in dreams. This is illustrated by the
+following dream experienced by a lady: 'I saw a man
+wheeling along a cripple. Eventually the cripple
+became reduced to about the size of a walnut, and the
+man told me that he had the power of becoming any
+size and of going anywhere. To my horror he then
+threw him into the water. In answer to my remonstrances
+that he would surely be drowned, the man said
+that it was all right, the little fellow would be home
+in a few hours. He then shouted out, "What time do
+you expect to get back?" The tiny creature, who
+was paddling along in the water, then took out a
+miniature watch, and replied: "About seven!"'<a name="FNanchor_260_260" id="FNanchor_260_260"></a><a href="#Footnote_260_260" class="fnanchor">[260]</a>
+In a dream of my own I saw little creatures, a few inches
+high, moving about and acting on a diminutive stage.
+Though I regarded them as really living creatures, and
+not marionettes, the spectacle caused me no surprise.</p>
+
+<p>The dream-like character of myths, legends, and
+fairy tales is probably, however, not entirely due to
+direct borrowing from the actual dreams of sleep, or
+even from the hallucinations connected with insanity,
+music, or drugs, though all these may have played
+their part. The greater nearness of the primitive<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span>
+mind to the dream-state involves more than a tendency
+to embody in waking life conceptions obtained from
+dreams. It means that the waking psychic life itself
+is capable of acting in a way resembling that of the
+sleeping psychic life, and of evolving conceptions
+similar to dreams.</p>
+
+<p>This point of view has in recent years been especially
+set forth by Freud and his school, who argue that the
+laws of the formation of myths and fairy tales are
+identical with the laws in accordance with which
+dreams are formed.<a name="FNanchor_261_261" id="FNanchor_261_261"></a><a href="#Footnote_261_261" class="fnanchor">[261]</a> It certainly seems to be true that
+the resemblances between dreams and legends are not
+adequately explained by supposing that the latter are
+moulded out of the former. We have to believe that
+on the myth-making plane of thought we are really
+on a plane that is more nearly parallel with that
+of dreaming than is our ordinary civilised thought.
+We are in a world of things that are supernormally
+enormous or delicate, and the emotional vibrations
+vastly enlarged, a world in which miracles happen
+on every hand and cause us no surprise. Slaughter
+and destruction take place on the heroic scale with a
+minimum expenditure of effort; men are transformed
+into beasts and beasts into men, so that men and beasts
+converse with each other.<a name="FNanchor_262_262" id="FNanchor_262_262"></a><a href="#Footnote_262_262" class="fnanchor">[262]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Finally, it may be observed that the atmosphere
+into which genius leads us, and indeed all art, is the
+atmosphere of the world of dreams. The man of genius,
+it is often said, has the child within him; he is, according
+to the ancient dictum, which is still accepted, not
+without an admixture of insanity, and he is unquestionably
+related to the primitive myth-maker. All these
+characteristics, as we see, bring him near to the sphere
+of dreaming, and we may say that the man of genius
+is in closer touch with the laws of the dream world
+than is the ordinary civilised man. 'It would be no
+great paradox,' remarks Maudsley, 'to say that the
+creative work of genius was excellent dreaming, and
+dramatic dreaming distracted genius.'<a name="FNanchor_263_263" id="FNanchor_263_263"></a><a href="#Footnote_263_263" class="fnanchor">[263]</a> This has often
+been recognised by some of the most typical men of
+genius. Charles Lamb, in speaking of Spenser, referred
+to the analogy between dreaming and imagination.
+Coleridge, one of the most essential of imaginative<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span>
+men, argued that the laws of drama and of dreaming
+are the same.<a name="FNanchor_264_264" id="FNanchor_264_264"></a><a href="#Footnote_264_264" class="fnanchor">[264]</a> Nietzsche, more recently, has developed
+the affinity of dreaming to art, and in his <cite>Birth
+of Tragedy</cite> argued that the Appollonian or dream-like
+element is one of the two constituents of tragedy.
+Mallarm&eacute; further believed that symbolism, which we
+have seen to be fundamental in dreaming, is of the
+essence of art. 'To name an object,' he said, 'is
+to suppress three-quarters of the enjoyment in a
+poem which is made up of the happiness of gradually
+divining; to suggest&mdash;that is our dream. The perfect
+usage of this mystery constitutes symbolism: to evoke
+an object, little by little, in order to exhibit a state of
+the soul, or, inversely, to choose an object, and to disengage
+from it a state of the soul by a series of decipherments.'<a name="FNanchor_265_265" id="FNanchor_265_265"></a><a href="#Footnote_265_265" class="fnanchor">[265]</a>
+It may be added that imaginative and artistic
+men have always been prone to day-dreaming and
+reverie, allowing their fancies to wander uncontrolled,
+and in so doing they have found profit to their work.<a name="FNanchor_266_266" id="FNanchor_266_266"></a><a href="#Footnote_266_266" class="fnanchor">[266]</a>
+From Socrates onwards, too, men of genius have sometimes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span>
+been liable to fall into states of trance, or waking
+dream, in which their mission or their vision has become
+more clearly manifested;<a name="FNanchor_267_267" id="FNanchor_267_267"></a><a href="#Footnote_267_267" class="fnanchor">[267]</a> the hallucinatory voices
+which have determined the vocation of many great
+teachers belong to psychic states allied to these trances.</p>
+
+<p>It is scarcely necessary to refer to the occasional
+creative activity of men of genius during actual sleep
+or to the debts which they have acknowledged to
+suggestions received in dreams.<a name="FNanchor_268_268" id="FNanchor_268_268"></a><a href="#Footnote_268_268" class="fnanchor">[268]</a> This has perhaps,
+indeed, been more often exaggerated than overlooked.
+There can be no doubt that a great many writers and
+thinkers, including some of the highest eminence, have
+sometimes been indebted to their dreams. We might
+expect as much, for most people occasionally have
+more or less vivid or suggestive new ideas in dreams,<a name="FNanchor_269_269" id="FNanchor_269_269"></a><a href="#Footnote_269_269" class="fnanchor">[269]</a>
+and it is natural that this should occur more often, and
+to a higher degree, in persons of unusual intellectual
+force and activity. But it is more doubtful whether
+the creative activity of normal dreams ever reaches a
+sufficient perfection to take, as it stands, a very high
+place in a master's work. Coleridge's 'Kubla Khan'
+has the most notable claim to be an exception to this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span>
+rule. This poem was written by Coleridge in 1788,
+soon after 'Christabel,' and at a time when the poet
+was suffering much from depression, and taking a great
+deal of laudanum. We are entitled to assume, therefore,
+that the poem was composed under the influence
+of opium, and not in normal sleep. It may be added
+that it is difficult to believe that Coleridge could have
+recalled the whole poem from either a normal or abnormal
+dream; as a rule, when we compose verses in
+sleep we can usually recall only the last two, or at most
+four, lines.<a name="FNanchor_270_270" id="FNanchor_270_270"></a><a href="#Footnote_270_270" class="fnanchor">[270]</a> Moreover, there is reason to believe that
+the first draft of 'Kubla Khan' was not the poem as
+we now know it.<a name="FNanchor_271_271" id="FNanchor_271_271"></a><a href="#Footnote_271_271" class="fnanchor">[271]</a></p>
+
+<p>After Coleridge's 'Kubla Khan' the most important
+artistic composition usually assigned to a dream is the
+<em>Trillo del Diavolo</em> sonata of Tartini, the eighteenth-century
+composer and violinist, who has been called
+the prototype of Paganini. Tartini, who was a man of
+nervous and emotional temperament, seems to have
+possessed real genius, and this sonata is his principal
+work. But there is not the slightest ground for stating
+that it was composed in a dream, and Tartini himself
+made no such claim.<a name="FNanchor_272_272" id="FNanchor_272_272"></a><a href="#Footnote_272_272" class="fnanchor">[272]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The imaginative reality of dreams is perhaps appreciated
+by none so much as by those who are deprived
+of some of their external senses. Thus a deaf and dumb
+writer of ability who has precise and highly emotional
+dreams&mdash;which sometimes remind him of the atmosphere
+of Poe's tales, and are occasionally in organised
+sequence from night to night&mdash;writes: 'The enormous
+reality and vividness of these dreams is their remarkable
+point. They leave a mark behind. When I
+come to consider I believe that much that I have written,
+and many things that I have said and thought and
+believed, are directly due to these dream-experiences
+and my ponderings over how they came. Beneath the
+superficiality of our conscious mind&mdash;prim, smug, self-satisfied,
+owlishly wise&mdash;there lies the vast gulf of a
+subconscious personality that is dark and obscure,
+seldom seen or even suspected. It is this, I think, that
+wells up into my dreams. It is always there&mdash;always
+affecting us and modifying us, and bringing about
+strange and unforeseen new things in us&mdash;but in these
+dreams I peer over the edge of the conscious world
+into the giant-house and Utgard of the subconscious,
+lit by one ray of sunset that shows the weltering deeps<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span>
+of it. And the vivid sense of this is responsible for
+many things in my life.'<a name="FNanchor_273_273" id="FNanchor_273_273"></a><a href="#Footnote_273_273" class="fnanchor">[273]</a></p>
+
+<p>Dreaming is thus one of our roads into the infinite.
+And it is interesting to observe how we attain it&mdash;by
+limitation. The circle of our conscious life is narrowed
+during sleep; it is even by a process of psychic
+dissociation broken up into fragments. From that
+narrowed and broken-up consciousness the outlook
+becomes vaster and more mysterious, full of strange
+and unsuspected fascination, and the possibilities of
+new experiences, just as a philosophic mite inhabiting
+a universe consisting of a Stilton cheese would probably
+be compelled to regard everything outside the
+cheese as belonging to the realm of the Infinite. In
+reality, if we think of it, all our visions of the infinite
+are similarly conditioned. It is only by emphasising
+our finiteness that we ever become conscious of the
+infinite. The infinite can only be that which stretches
+far beyond the boundaries of our own personality. It
+is the charm of dreams that they introduce us into a
+new infinity. Time and space are annihilated, gravity
+is suspended, and we are joyfully borne up in the air,
+as it were in the arms of angels; we are brought into
+a deeper communion with Nature, and in dreams a man
+listens to the arguments of his dog with as little surprise
+as Balaam heard the reproaches of his ass. The unexpected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span>
+limitations of our dream world, the exclusion
+of so many elements which are present even unconsciously
+in waking life, impart a splendid freedom and
+ease to the intellectual operations of the sleeping mind,
+and an extravagant romance, a poignant tragedy, to
+our emotions. 'He has never known happiness,' said
+Lamb, speaking out of his own experience, 'who has
+never been mad.' And there are many who taste in
+dreams a happiness they never know when awake.<a name="FNanchor_274_274" id="FNanchor_274_274"></a><a href="#Footnote_274_274" class="fnanchor">[274]</a>
+In the waking moments of our complex civilised life
+we are ever in a state of suspense which makes all
+great conclusions impossible; the multiplicity of the
+facts of life, always present to consciousness, restrains
+the free play of logic (except for that happy dreamer,
+the mathematician), and surrounds most of our pains
+and nearly all our pleasures with infinite qualifications;
+we are tied down to a sober tameness. In our dreams
+the fetters of civilisation are loosened, and we know
+the fearful joy of freedom.</p>
+
+<p>In this way the Paradise of dreams has been a
+reservoir from which men have always drawn consolation
+and sweet memory and hope, even belief, the
+imagination and gratification of desires that the world
+restrained, the promise and proof of the dearest and
+deepest aspirations.</p>
+
+<p>Yet, while there is thus a real sense in which dreams
+produce their effect by the retraction of the field of
+consciousness and the limitation of the psychic activities
+which mark ordinary life, it remains true that if<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span>
+we take into account the complete psychic life of dreaming,
+subconscious as well as conscious, it is waking, not
+sleeping, life which may be said to be limited.<a name="FNanchor_275_275" id="FNanchor_275_275"></a><a href="#Footnote_275_275" class="fnanchor">[275]</a> Thus it
+is, as we have seen, that the most fundamental and the
+most primitive forms of psychic life, as well as the rarest
+and the most abnormal, all seem to have their prototype
+in the vast world of dreams. Sleep, Vaschide has
+said, is not, as Homer thought, the brother of Death,
+but of Life, and, it may be added, the elder brother.</p>
+
+<p>'We dream, see visions, converse with chim&aelig;ras,'
+said Joseph Glanvill, the seventeenth-century philosopher;
+'the one half of our life is a romance, a
+fiction.' And what of the other half? Pepys tells us
+how another distinguished man of the same century,
+Sir William Petty, 'proposed it as a thing that is truly
+questionable whether there really be any difference
+between waking and dreaming.'<a name="FNanchor_276_276" id="FNanchor_276_276"></a><a href="#Footnote_276_276" class="fnanchor">[276]</a> Our dreams are said
+to be delusions, constituted in much the same way as
+the delusion of the insane. But, says Godfernaux,
+'all life is a series of systematised delusions, more or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span>
+less durable.' Men weary of too much living have
+sometimes found consolation in this likeness of the
+world of dreams to the world of life. 'When thou hast
+roused thyself from sleep thou hast perceived that they
+were only dreams which troubled thee,' wrote the
+Imperial Stoic to himself in his <cite>Meditations;</cite> 'now in
+thy waking hours look at these things about thee as
+thou didst look at those dreams.' Dreams are true
+while they last. Can we, at the best, say more of life?</p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<p>We set out to study as carefully as possible the small
+field of dream consciousness belonging to a few persons,
+not, it may be, abnormal, of whom it was possible
+to speak with some assurance. The great naturalist,
+Linn&aelig;us, once said that he could spend a lifetime in
+studying as much of the earth as he could cover with
+his hand. However small the patch we investigate, it
+will lead us back to the sun at last. There is nothing
+too minute or too trivial. I have often remembered
+with a pang, how, long years ago, I once gave pain by
+saying, with the arrogance of boyhood, that it was foolish
+to tell one's dreams. I have done penance for that
+remark since. 'Il faut cultiver notre jardin,' said the
+wise philosopher of the eighteenth century. I have
+cultivated, so far as I care to, my garden of dreams, and
+it scarcely seems to me that it is a large garden. Yet
+every path of it, I sometimes think, might lead at last
+to the heart of the universe.</p>
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282"></a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2>
+
+
+<ul class="index">
+<li>A<span class="smcapa">BRAHAM</span>, K., <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+
+<li>After-images, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alb&egrave;s, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Alcohol, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aliotta, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Allin, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Analogy in dreams, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Andamanese shamans, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Anaesthesia from drugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Andrews, Grace, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Animism and dreaming, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Anjel, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Antoninus, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Apperception in dreams, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Apraxia, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aristotle, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Arnaud, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Artemidorus of Daldi, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Atavistic dreams, alleged, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Attention in dreams, <a href="#Page_24">24</a> <em>et seq.;</em> <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Auditory element in dreams, <a href="#Page_77">77</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
+
+<li>Augustine, St., <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Aural origin of some dreams, alleged, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Autoscopy, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">B<span class="smcapa">ACH</span>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Baldwin, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ballet, G., <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bancroft, H. H., <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Baudelaire, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beaunis, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Beddoes, T., <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Benson, Archbishop, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bergson, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a> <em>et seq.</em>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Binet, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Binns, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Binswanger, L., <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Birds in dreams, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bladder as a stimulant to dreams, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bleuler, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Blind, dreams of the, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Blood, dreams of, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bode, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Boerner, J., <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bolton, F. E., <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bolton, J., <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bonatelli, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bonne, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bouch&eacute;-Leclercq, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bourget, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bradley, F. H., <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Bramwell, J. M., <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Brill, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Brodie, Sir B., <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Brown, Horatio, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Browning, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Brunton, Sir Lauder, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Buccola, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Buchan, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Burnham, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">C<span class="smcapa">ABANIS</span>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Calkins, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Capuana, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cardiac stimuli of dreams, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Carpenter, W., <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cerebral light, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cervantes, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chabaneix, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Child, psychic state of, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Childhood, hypnogogic hallucinations of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a> <em>et seq.</em>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Chloroform anaesthesia compared to dreaming, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Christina the Wonderful, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cicero, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Clapar&egrave;de, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Clarke, E. H., <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Classification of dreams, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Clavi&egrave;re, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cleland, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Colegrove, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Coleridge, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Colour in dreams, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Colour associations, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Coloured hearing, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Comar, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Confusion in dreams, <a href="#Page_36">36</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
+
+<li>Consciousness, definition of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Contrast dreams, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Cooley, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Corning, L., <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crawley, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Crichton-Browne, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Criminals, dreams of, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Curnock, N., <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">D<span class="smcapa">AURIAC</span>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Day-dreams, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dead, dreams of the, <a href="#Page_194">194</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
+
+<li>Delacroix, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Delage, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Delbœuf, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Delior, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Descartes, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dickens, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dircks, H., <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dissociation in dreams, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dissolving view, dreams compared to, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dogs, sleep of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dramatic element in dreams, <a href="#Page_180">180</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
+
+<li>Dreaming, alleged dreams of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dreamless sleep, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dreamy state, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dromard, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Drowning, hallucinations of the, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dugas, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Duplex brain, theory of, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Durkheim, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Dying, hallucinations of the, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">E<span class="smcapa">CSTASY, HYSTERICAL</span>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Egger, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ellis, Havelock, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Emotion in dreams, <a href="#Page_94">94</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
+
+<li>Epilepsy and pseudo-reminiscence, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Epileptic dreams, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Erotic dreams, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Erotic symbolism, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Extrospection, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">F<span class="smcapa">AIRIES AND DREAMS</span>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Falling, dreams of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
+
+<li>False recognition in dreams, <a href="#Page_230">230</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
+
+<li>Fear in dreams, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+
+<li>F&eacute;r&eacute;, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ferenczi, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ferrero, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fish, dreams of, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Floating, dreams of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Flournoy, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Flying, dreams of, <a href="#Page_129">129</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
+
+<li>Forman, Simon, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Foucault, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fouill&eacute;e, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Freud, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a> <em>et seq.</em>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Fusion of dream imagery, <a href="#Page_36">36</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">G<span class="smcapa">ALTON</span>, S<span class="smcapa">IR</span> F., <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gassendi, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Genius and dreaming, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Giessler, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gissing, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Glanvill, J., <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Glossolalia, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Goblot, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Godfernaux, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gods first appeared in dreams, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Goethe, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Goncourt, E. de, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Goncourt, J. de, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Goron, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gowers, Sir W. R., <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Grasset, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Greenwood, F., <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Griesinger, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gross, Hans, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gruithuisen, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Gustatory dreams, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[285]</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Guthrie, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Guyon, E., <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">H<span class="smcapa">ALL</span>, S<span class="smcapa">TANLEY</span>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hallam, Florence, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hallucinations, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hammond, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hartland, E. S., <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Haschisch, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Haskovec, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hawthorne, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Head, H., <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Headache and dreams, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hearn, Lafcadio, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Heaven and dreams, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Heine, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hell and dreams, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hermes, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Herodotus, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Herrick, C. L., <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hervey de Saint-Denis, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Heymans, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hilprecht, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hinton, James, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hippocrates, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hobbes, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Holland, Sir H., <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Howells, W. D., <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hutchinson, H., <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hypermnesia, <a href="#Page_218">218</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
+
+<li>Hypnagogic hallucinations, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a> <em>et seq.</em>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hypnagogic paramnesia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
+
+<li>Hypnopompic state, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hypnotism, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hyslop, J. H., <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Hysteria, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">I<span class="smcapa">CARUS</span>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ida of Louvain, St., <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Imagery in dreams, <a href="#Page_21">21</a> <em>et seq.</em>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Insane, hallucinations of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Insanity compared to dreaming, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
+
+<li>Isserlin, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">J<span class="smcapa">ACKSON</span>, H<span class="smcapa">UGHLINGS</span>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
+
+<li>James-Lange theory of emotion, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Janet, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jastrow, J., <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jerome, St., <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jessin, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jesus, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jewell, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Johnson, Dr., <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Joseph of Cupertino, St., <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jones, Elmer, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jones, Ernest, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Jung, C. J., <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">K<span class="smcapa">ALEIDOSCOPE, DREAM PROCESS COMPARED TO</span>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Keller, Helen, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kiernan, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kingsford, Anna, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Kraepelin, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Krauss, F. S., <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">L<span class="smcapa">AISTNER</span>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lalande, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lalanne, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lamb, C., <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Languages remembered In sleep, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lapie, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Laud, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Laurentius, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Legends, symbolism in, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Leibnitz, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
+
+<li>L&eacute;on-Kindberg, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Leroy, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lessing, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Levitation, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Liepmann, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lilliputian hallucinations, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Little, Graham, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Linn&aelig;us, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Locke, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Logic of dreams, <a href="#Page_5">5</a> <em>et seq.</em>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
+
+<li>Logorrhœa, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lombard, E., <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lombroso, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lorrain, Jacques le, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+
+<li>L&ouml;wenfeld, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Lubbock, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[286]</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Lucretius, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">M<span class="smcapa">ACARIO</span>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Macaulay, Lord, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>MacDougall, R., <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Macnish, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maeder, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Magnification of dream imagery, <a href="#Page_104">104</a> <em>et seq.</em>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maine de Biran, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maitland, E., <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mallarm&eacute;, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Manac&eacute;&iuml;ne, Marie de, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Marillier, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Marro, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Marshall, H. R., <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Masselon, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maudsley, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maurier, G. du, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Maury, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Memory and dreams, <a href="#Page_8">8</a> <em>et seq.</em>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
+
+<li>Mercier, C., <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+
+<li>M&eacute;r&eacute;, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mescal, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Metamorphosis of dream imagery, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Metaphysics and dreams, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Metchnikoff, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Meunier, R., <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Migraine, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Millet, J., <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Miner, J. B., <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mitchell, Sir A., <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mitchell, Weir, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Moll, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Monboddo, Lord, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Monroe, W. S., <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Moral attitude in dreaming, <a href="#Page_118">118</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
+
+<li>Moreau of Tours, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Morphia dreams, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Morselli, A., <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mosso, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Mourre, Baron, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Movement in dreams, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
+
+<li>Movement in sleep, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+
+<li>M&uuml;ller, J., <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Murder, dreams of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a> <em>et seq.</em>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Murray, Elsie, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Music, symbolism of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Music in dreams, <a href="#Page_77">77</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
+
+<li>Myers, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Myth-making and dreaming, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst"><span class="smcap">N&auml;cke</span>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nayrac, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Neologisms in dreams, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Neurasthenia, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Newbold, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Newman, E., <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nietzsche, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nightmare, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Night-terrors, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nitrous oxide anaesthesia, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Nocturnal enuresis, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Number-forms, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">O<span class="smcapa">LFACTORY DREAMS</span>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Oneiromancy, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Opium visions, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Orpheus, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">P<span class="smcapa">ARAMNESIA</span>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
+
+<li>Paraphasia, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Parish, E., <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Parker, Thornton, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Partridge, G. E., <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Paul, St., <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pepys, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Periodicity in memory, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Personality in dreams, division of, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Peter, St., <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Petty, Sir W., <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Philostratus, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pick, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Piderit, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pi&eacute;ron, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pirro, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pliny the Elder, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Prel, Carl du, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Premonitory dreams, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Presentative dreams, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Primitive psychic slate, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Prince, Morton, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Prodromic dreams, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[287]</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Prophetic dreams, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pseudo-reminiscence in dreams, <a href="#Page_230">230</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
+
+<li>Psychasthenia, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Punning in dreams, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Purcell, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pury, Jean de, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Pythagoras, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Q<span class="smcapa">UINCEY</span>, D<span class="smcapa">E</span>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">R<span class="smcapa">ACHILDE</span>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Raffaelli, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Railway travelling, dreams of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rank, O., <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rapidity of dreams, alleged, <a href="#Page_213">213</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
+
+<li>Raymond, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Reasoning in dreams, <a href="#Page_56">56</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
+
+<li>Renan, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Representative dreams, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Respiratory stimuli to dreams, <a href="#Page_134">134</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
+
+<li>Retinal element in dreams, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rhythm, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ribot, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rochas, Colonel de, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Rosenbach, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ruths, C., <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">S<span class="smcapa">AGERET</span>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Saints, alleged levitation of, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Salish Indians, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sand, George, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sante de Sanctis, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Savage, psychic state of, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Savage, G. H., <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Schaaffhausen, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Scherner, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+
+<li>School, dreams of return to, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Schopenhauer, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Schroeder, T., <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Schweitzer, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Scripture, E. W., <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Secondary self in dreams, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Segre, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sensory impressions in sleep, <a href="#Page_71">71</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
+
+<li>Shamans, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Shelley, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Silberer, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Simon, Max, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Skin sensations in dreams, <a href="#Page_74">74</a> <em>et seq.</em>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sleep, dreamless, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Smith, H&eacute;l&egrave;ne, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Snakes, dreams of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sollier, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Solmi, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Somnambulism, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spencer, Herbert, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Spontaneous character of dream imagery, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Ssikorski, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stekel, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stewart, Dugald, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stoddart, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stomach on dreams, influence of, <a href="#Page_108">108</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
+
+<li>Storms as cause of dreams, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stout, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stevenson, R. L., <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Stretton, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Str&uuml;mpell, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Suarez de Mendoza, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Subconscious, definition of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Subconsciousness in dreams, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Suggestibility in dreams, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sully, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sunshine in dreams, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Sutton, Bland, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Swedenborg, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Swoboda, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Syllogistic arrangement of dreams, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Symbolism in dreams, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
+
+<li>Symonds, J. A., <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Synaesthesias, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Synesius, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">T<span class="smcapa">ACTILE SENSATIONS IN DREAMS</span>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a> <em>et seq.</em>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tannery, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tartini, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Taste dreams, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Taylor, S., <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Therapeutic use of music during sleep, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Theresa, St., <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Thurn, Sir E. im, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tennyson, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Time in dreams, estimate of, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tissi&eacute;, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Titchener, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tobolowska, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Toothache as a cause of dreams, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tout, Hill, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tuke, Hack, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Turner, J., <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Turner, W. A., <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Tylor, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">U<span class="smcapa">RBANTSCHITSCH</span>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">V<span class="smcapa">ANDERKISTE</span>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vaschide, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Verbal transformations in dreams, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vesical dreams, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vesme, C. de, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vigilambulism, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vinci, L. da, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Visceral stimuli of dreams, <a href="#Page_87">87</a> <em>et seq.</em>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vision in dreams, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Visual stimuli of dreams, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
+
+<li>Vold, Mourly, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Volkelt, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Vurpas, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">W<span class="smcapa">AGNER</span>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Weed, Sarah, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Weygandt, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wigan, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wiggam, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wilks, Sir S., <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wilson, A., <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Winslow, Forbes, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wish-dreams, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a> <em>et seq.</em></li>
+
+<li>Wordsworth, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wright, H., <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+
+<li>Wundt, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Z<span class="smcapa">ENOGLOSSIA</span>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<p class="center">Printed in Great Britain by T. and A. C<span class="smcapa">ONSTABLE</span> L<span class="smcapa">TD</span>.<br />
+at the Edinburgh University Press<br /></p>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The subdued quality of the light in normal dreaming&mdash;the usual
+absence of sunshine and generally even of colour&mdash;has long been noted.
+'We never dream of being in the sunshine,' says Henry Dircks (<em>Lancet</em>,
+11th June 1870, p. 863), though too absolutely; 'light and shade form
+no requisite elements.... The liveliest and most impressive dream is,
+in reality, a true night scene, very dubiously lighted up, and in which the
+nearest objects are those which we principally observe and which most
+interest us.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> As some writers give a rather special meaning to the word 'consciousness,'
+I may say that I simply mean by it (as defined by Baldwin and Stout
+in the <cite>Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology</cite>) 'the distinctive character
+of whatever may be called mental life,' or, as Professor Stratton puts it,
+in defence of this broad definition (<cite>Psychological Bulletin</cite>, April 1906),
+'consciousness designates the common and generic feature of our psychic
+acts.' Dreaming then becomes, as defined by Baldwin and Stout, 'conscious
+process during sleep.' It should be added that there is much
+uncertainty about any definition of consciousness. Bode ('Some Recent
+Definitions of Consciousness,' <cite>Psychological Review</cite>, July 1908) thinks it
+'a matter for legitimate doubt' whether any definition of consciousness
+can be adequate, and Mercier (art. 'Consciousness' in Tuke's <cite>Dictionary of
+Psychological Medicine</cite>) boldly proclaims&mdash;quite justly, I think&mdash;that
+'consciousness is not susceptible of definition,' for we can never go behind
+it or outside it. That we have to admit various kinds, or at all events
+various degrees, of consciousness will become clear in our discussion of
+dreaming.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> By 'subconscious' is meant, as defined by Baldwin and Stout, 'not
+clearly recognised in a present state of consciousness, yet entering into the
+development of subsequent states of consciousness.' Some psychologists
+strongly dislike the word 'subconscious.' They are even disposed to
+argue that there is no subconscious mind, and that before and after the
+stage of 'awareness,' psychic facts only exist as 'dispositions of brain
+cells.' The psychologist, however, as such, has no concern with brain cells
+which belong to the histologist. When we occupy ourselves with dreams
+we realise at every step that it is possible for psychic states to exist and to
+affect our 'awareness,' while at the same time they are not immediately
+within the sphere of that 'awareness.' Psychic states of this kind seem
+most properly termed 'subconscious,' that is to say slightly, partially, or
+imperfectly conscious. Any objection to so precise and convenient a term
+for a real phenomenon seems, indeed, to belong to the sphere of personal
+idiosyncrasy into which we have perhaps no right to intrude.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Foucault, <cite>Le R&ecirc;ve</cite>, 1906.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Foucault, <em>op. cit.</em>, ch. iv.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Foucault, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 49.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> This occasionally retrospective character of dreams has long been
+known, and was referred to by the writer of an article on 'Dreams and
+Dreaming' in the <cite>Lancet</cite> for 24th November 1877.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> The old French case (quoted by Macnish) of a woman, with a portion
+of her skull removed, whose brain bulged out during dreams but was
+motionless in dreamless sleep, as well as the more recent similar case known
+to Hammond (<cite>Treatise on Insanity</cite>, p. 233), supports the belief that the
+psychic activity which is not manifested in rememberable dreams is probably
+at the most of a very shadowy character. Even during waking life
+psychic activity often falls to a very low ebb; Beaunis, who has investigated
+this question ('Comment Fonctionne mon Cerveau,' <cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>,
+January 1909), describes a condition which he names 'psychic twilight'
+and regards as frequently occurring.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Lucretius long ago referred to the significance of this fact (lib. iv.
+vv. 988-994), and he stated that the hallucination persisted for a time even
+after the dog had awakened. I have never myself been able to see any
+trace of such hypnagogic hallucination or delusion in dogs who awake from
+dreams, though I have frequently looked for it; it always seems to me
+that the dog who seemingly awakes from a dream of hunting grasps the
+fireside facts of life around him immediately and easily.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> This classification of the sources of dreams has, however, been generally
+accepted for little more than a century. At an earlier period it was not
+usually believed to cover the whole ground. Thus Des Laurens (A.
+Laurentius) in the sixteenth century, in his treatise on the Disease of
+Melancholy (insanity), says that there are three kinds of dreams: (1) of
+Nature (<em>i.e.</em> due to external causes); (2) of the mind (<em>i.e.</em> based on memories);
+and, above both these classes, (3) dreams from God and the devil.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> M. W. Calkins, 'Statistics of Dreams,' <cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>,
+April 1893.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> The simile of the kaleidoscope for the most elementary process of
+dreaming has often suggested itself. Thus in an article on dreaming in
+the <cite>Lancet</cite> (24th November 1877) we read: 'The combinations are new,
+but the materials are old, some recent, many remote and forgotten....
+The turn of the kaleidoscope is instantaneous and any new idea thrown
+into the field, perhaps in the act of turning, becomes an integral part of
+the picture.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Foucault, <cite>Le R&ecirc;ve</cite>, p. 182.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> This is in accordance with the view of Wundt, who attributes this
+multiplication of imagery to the retinal element.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Baron Charles Mourre, 'La Volont&eacute; dans le R&ecirc;ve,' <cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>,
+May 1903.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Ribot, <cite>Psychologie de l'Attention</cite>, 1889, chs. i. and ii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> Maine de Biran, perhaps the earliest accurate introspective observer
+of dreaming, noted the absence of all voluntary active attention. Beaunis
+regards attention as possible in dreams, but fails to distinguish between
+different kinds of attention.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> B. Leroy, 'Nature des Hallucinations,' <cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>, June 1907.
+As regards the importance of the absence of voluntary attention in the
+production of visual images, it may be remarked that even the after-image
+of a bright object in waking life is much more vivid when it occurs in a
+state of inattention and distraction. I noticed this phenomenon some
+years ago, especially when studying mescal, and in recent years it has been
+recorded by J. H. Hyslop (<cite>Psychological Review</cite>, May 1903).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> We must be cautious in assuming that such imagery is purely retinal.
+Scripture ('Cerebral light,' <cite>Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory</cite>,
+vol. v., 1899) argues that even the so-called 'retinal light' or '<em>eigenlicht</em>'
+is cerebral, not retinal at all, since it is single and not double, and differs
+from after-images, which are displaced by pressure on eyeball. This view
+is perhaps too extreme in the opposite direction.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> For a full and interesting study of these, see S. J. Franz, 'After-images'
+(Monograph Supplements to <cite>Psychological Review</cite>, vol. iii., No. 2, June
+1899). He agrees with those who regard after-images as entirely retinal in
+origin.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> See Havelock Ellis, 'A New Artificial Paradise,' <cite>Contemporary Review</cite>,
+January 1898; <em>ib.</em> 'Mescal: A Study of a Divine Plant,' <cite>Popular Science
+Monthly</cite>, May 1902.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> G. E. Partridge, however ('Reverie,' <cite>Pedagogical Seminary</cite>, April
+1898), has investigated hypnagogic phenomena in 826 children. They
+were asked to describe what they saw at night with closed eyes before
+falling asleep. Among these children 58&middot;5 per cent. of those aged from
+thirteen to sixteen saw things at night in this way; of those aged six the
+proportion was higher, 64&middot;2 per cent. There seemed to be a maximum at
+about the age of ten, and probably another maximum at a much earlier
+age. Stars were most frequently mentioned, being spoken of by 151
+children, colours by 145, people and faces 77, animals 31, scenes of the day
+21, flowers and fruit 18, pictures 15, God and angels 13. Partridge calls
+these phenomena hypnagogic; while, however, the hypnagogic visions of
+adults may well be a relic of children's visions, the latter have much
+greater range and vitality, for they are not confined to the moment before
+sleep, and the child sometimes has a certain amount of control over them.
+E. Guyon has studied hypnagogic and allied visions in children in his Paris
+thesis, <cite>Sur les Hallucinations Hypnagogiques</cite>, 1903. He believes that children
+always find them terrifying. That, however, is far from being the case and
+is merely due to a pre-occupation with morbid cases, which naturally attract
+most attention. (This is also illustrated by the examples given by Stanley
+Hall, 'A Study of Fears,' <cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>, 1897, pp. 186
+<em>et seq.</em>) The visions of the healthy child are not terrifying, and he accepts
+them in a completely matter-of-course way. He is no more puzzled or
+troubled by his waking dreams than by his sleeping dreams.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> The earliest detailed, though not typical, description of this phenomenon
+I have met with is by Dr. Simon Forman, the astrologer, in his
+entertaining <cite>Autobiography</cite>, written in 1600. He says that, as a child of six,
+'So soon as he was always laid down to sleep he should see in visions
+always many mighty mountains and hills come rolling against him, as
+though they would overrun him and fall on him and bruise him, yet he
+got up always to the top of them and with much ado went over them.
+Then should he see many great waters like to drown him, boiling and
+raging against him as though they would swallow him up, yet he thought
+he did overpass them. And these dreams and visions he had every night
+continually for three or four years' space.' He believed they were sent
+him by God to signify the troubles of his later years. De Quincey accurately
+described the phenomenon in 1821, in his <cite>Confessions of an English
+Opium-Eater:</cite> 'I know not whether my reader is aware, that many
+children, perhaps most, have a power of painting, as it were, upon the
+darkness, all sorts of phantoms: in some, that power is simply a mechanic
+affection of the eye; others have a voluntary or a semi-voluntary power to
+dismiss or to summon them, or, as a child once said to me when I questioned
+him on this matter, "I can tell them to go and they go; but sometimes
+they come, when I don't tell them to come."' E. H. Clarke (<cite>Visions</cite>,
+1878, pp. 212-216) discussed the ability of children to see visions, and
+pointed out the element of will in this ability. It seems unusual for
+auditory impressions to intrude, though J. A. Symonds (biography by
+Horatio Brown, vol. i. p. 7), in describing his own night-terrors as a child,
+speaks of phantasmal voices which blended with the caterwauling of cats
+on the roof.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> 'From being long and vehemently attent upon geometrical figures,'
+Hobbes says after referring to the after-images of the sun (<cite>Leviathan</cite>,
+part i., ch. 2), 'a man shall in the dark (though awake) have the images
+of lines and angles before his eyes: which kind of fancy hath no particular
+name; as being a thing that doth not commonly fall into men's discourse.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Baillarger, 'De l'Influence de l'Etat Interm&eacute;diaire &agrave; la veille et au
+sommeil sur la Production et la Marche des Hallucinations,' <cite>Annales
+M&eacute;dico-Psychologiques</cite>, vol. v., 1845.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Maury, <cite>Le Sommeil et les R&ecirc;ves</cite>, 1861, pp. 50-77. Good descriptions of
+hypnagogic imagery are given by Greenwood, <cite>Imagination and Dreams</cite>,
+pp. 16-18, and Ladd, 'The Psychology of Visual Dreams,' <cite>Mind</cite>, 1892.
+See also Sante di Sanctis, <cite>I Sogni</cite>, pp. 337 <em>et seq.</em></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> This is the explanation offered by, for example, Delage (<cite>Comptes-rendus
+de l'Acad&eacute;mie des Sciences</cite>, vol. cxxxvi., No. 12, pp. 731 <em>et seq.</em>).
+It is accepted by Guyon and others. Delage insists on the retinal element
+since he finds that hypnagogic images follow the movements of the eye.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> Similarly, under chloroform, Elmer Jones found that vision is at first
+stimulated.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> G. H. Savage, 'Dreams: Normal and Morbid,' <cite>St. Thomas's Hospital
+Gazette</cite>, February 1908.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> <cite>British Medical Journal</cite>, 11th May 1907. The actual hallucinations of
+the insane are usually coloured normally. Head, however, finds (<cite>Brain</cite>,
+1901, p. 353) that the waking visual hallucinations sometimes associated
+with visceral disease are always white, black, or grey, and never coloured
+or even tinted.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> The transformation of birds into human beings seems peculiarly
+common in dreams. I have referred to this point elsewhere (<cite>Studies
+in the Psychology of Sex</cite>, vol. i. 3rd ed., p. 193). It is an interesting and
+doubtless significant fact that the same transformation is accepted in
+the myths of primitive peoples. Thus, according to H. H. Bancroft
+(<cite>Native Races of the Pacific</cite>, vol. i. p. 93), a pantomime dance of the
+Aleuts represents the transformation of a captive bird into a lovely
+woman who falls exhausted into the arms of the hunter.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> It is noteworthy that this marked tendency in dreams to discover
+analogies, although doubtless a tendency of primitive thought, is also a
+progressive tendency. 'The conquests of science,' says Sageret ('L'Analogie
+Scientifique,' <cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>, January 1909), 'are the conquests
+of analogy.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> Maury, <cite>Le Sommeil et les R&ecirc;ves</cite>, p. 115.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Kraepelin, 'Ueber Sprachst&ouml;rungen im Tr&auml;ume,' <cite>Psychologische
+Arbeiten</cite>, Bd. v., 1906, pp. 1-104; cf. Lombard, 'Glossolalie,' <cite>Archives de
+Psychologie</cite>, July 1907.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> This is confirmed by the fact that under chloroform anaesthesia
+hearing is the first sense to be lost and vision the last (Elmer Jones,
+'The Waning of Consciousness under Chloroform,' <cite>Psychological Review</cite>,
+January 1909).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> It may be recalled as not without significance that the formation of
+new words is fairly common among young children; see, <em>e.g.</em>, an interesting
+correspondence in <cite>Nature</cite>, 26th March and 9th April 1891.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> It can scarcely be derived from the unfamiliar word <em>chalizah</em>, the
+Hebrew name for the levirate.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Thus I have rarely ever attempted parody when awake, but
+once when at Montserrat, with thoughts far from humorous fields,
+I dreamed of making a parody (I am not quite clear of what) apparently
+suggested by the goose-pond in the cloisters of Barcelona
+Cathedral.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> This point of view has been specially developed by Freud, <cite>Der Witz
+und seine Beziehung zum Unbewussten</cite>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> It may be noted that somewhat similar doggerel verse is sometimes
+made by the insane; see, <em>e.g.</em>, <cite>Journal of Mental Science</cite>, April 1907, p. 284.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> There was no known origin for this dream, and the word <em>bourdon</em> had
+no conscious associations for my mind; I was not even definitely aware
+that it is used in a musical sense.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> Freud brings together (<cite>Traumdeutung</cite>, pp. 38 <em>et seq.</em>) some of the different
+opinions regarding reasoning in dreams.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> 'Reasoning,' says Binet (<cite>La Psychologie du Raisonnement</cite>, 1886, p. 10),
+speaking without reference to dreaming, but in words that are exactly
+applicable to it, 'is an organisation of images determined by the properties
+of the images alone; it suffices for the images to be put in presence and
+they become organised; reason follows with the certainty of a reflex.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> H. R. Marshall, <cite>Instinct and Reason;</cite> <em>ib.</em> 'Reason a Mode of Instinct,'
+<cite>Psychological Review</cite>, March 1899.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Some of the most methodically absurd examples of dreaming logic
+cannot be effectively brought forward, as they are so personal that they
+require much explanation to make them intelligible.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Delacroix ('Sur la Structure Logique du R&ecirc;ve,' <cite>Revue de Metaphysique</cite>,
+November 1904), in opposition to Leroy and Tobolowska, goes so far as to
+say that 'the sense of the dream, the interpretation of the image, is given
+in the image, before the image, if one may say so; we are not concerned
+with a mere procession of images without internal connection, but are
+introduced into a pre-established organisation; wholes are decomposed
+and not separate elements united.' We have to remember that in dream
+life as in waking life the action is twofold; in either world when our psychic
+activity is of low intensity we combine external images into a fairly objective
+picture; when psychic activity is intense external images are
+subdued and controlled by that activity.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> A somewhat similar mistaken self-detachment may even occur momentarily
+in the waking condition. Thus Jastrow (<cite>The Subconscious</cite>, p. 137)
+refers to the 'lapse of consciousness' of a lady student who, while absorbed
+in her work, heard outside the door the shuffling of rubber heels such as she
+herself wore, and said 'There goes&mdash;&mdash;,' naming herself. That delusion
+was no doubt due to the eruption of a dream-like state of distraction. As
+regards the visual phantasm of the self (which has sometimes been seen by
+men of very distinguished intellectual power) it may be noted that it is
+favoured by the conditions of dream life. Our dream imagery is all
+pictural, sometimes even to dream consciousness, and to see oneself in
+the picture is, therefore, not so very much more remarkable than it is in
+waking life to come upon oneself among a bundle of photographs.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> As regards the significance of snakes in dreams, it may be remarked
+that the followers of Freud regard them as being, in the dreams of women,
+as they are in the speech and myths of primitive peoples, erotic symbols
+(<em>e.g.</em> Karl Abraham, <cite>Traum und Mythus</cite>, 1909, p. 19). It must be remembered,
+however, that this erotic symbolism is but a small part of the
+emotional interest aroused by snakes which are an extremely common
+source of fear, especially in the young. See <em>e.g.</em> Stanley Hall, 'A Study of
+Fears,' <cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>, 1897, pp. 205 <em>et seq</em>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> It may even occur that a person partly wakes up, perceives what is
+going on around him, converses about it, falls asleep again, and imagines
+in the morning that the whole episode was a dream. Hammond, who also
+denies that we can dream we are dreaming, gives a case in illustration
+(<cite>Treatise on Insanity</cite>, p. 190).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> The vision of the dream world we thus attain corresponds exactly
+to the philosophy of life set forth by Jules de Gaultier, perhaps the
+most subtle and original of living thinkers; according to Gaultier the
+psychic improvisation which has created the spectacle of the world has,
+as it were, sworn 'never to recognise itself beneath the masks it has
+assumed, in order to retain the joy of an unending play of the
+unforeseen.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Dissociation may be defined as a condition in which, in the words of
+Tannery (<cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>, October 1898), 'the various organisms
+of the brain which in the waking state accomplish distinct functions with
+satisfactory agreement are, on the contrary, in a state of semi-independence.'
+There is, in Greenwood's words (<cite>Imagination in Dreams</cite>, p. 41),
+a 'loosening of mental bonds,' corresponding to the relaxation of muscular
+tension which also occurs before going to sleep.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> Edmund Parish, <cite>Hallucinations and Illusions: A Study of the
+Fallacies of Perception</cite> (Contemporary Science Series), 1897. It is significant
+to observe that in hysteria, which may be regarded as presenting
+a condition somewhat analogous to sleep, dissociation also occurs.
+'Hysteria,' says Janet (<cite>The Major Symptoms of Hysteria</cite>, 1907, p. 332),
+one of the greatest authorities, 'is a form of mental depression characterised
+by the retraction of the field of personal consciousness and a
+tendency to the dissociation and emancipation of the system of ideas and
+functions that constitute personality.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> The theories of attention are lucidly and concisely set forth by
+Nayrac, 'Le Processus et le M&eacute;canisme de l'Attention,' <cite>Revue Scientifique</cite>,
+7th April 1906.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> G. F. Stout, <cite>Analytic Psychology</cite>, vol. ii. p. 112. In the <cite>Dictionary of
+Philosophy and Psychology</cite>, again, Stout and Baldwin define apperception
+as 'the process of attention in so far as it involves interaction between the
+presentation of the object attended to, on the one hand, and the total
+preceding conscious content, together with pre-formed mental dispositions,
+on the other hand.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> A very similar state of things occurs in some forms of insanity, especially
+in the less profound states of mental confusion, when, as Bolton
+remarks ('Amentia and Dementia,' <cite>Journal of Mental Science</cite>, July 1906,
+p. 445), we find 'certain associated remnants of former experience combined
+into a sequence according to the normal laws of mental association.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> Although I reached this conclusion independently, as a result of the
+analysis of dream experiences, I find that it was set forth at a much earlier
+period by Wundt. 'Men are accustomed to regard most of the phantasms
+of dreams as hallucinations,' he writes (<cite>Grundz&uuml;ge der Physiologischer
+Psychologie</cite>, vol. iii.), 'but most dream representations are apparently
+illusions, initiated by the slight sensory impressions which are never
+extinguished in sleep.' Weygandt, in his brief but excellent book, <cite>Entstehung
+der Tra&auml;me</cite>, fully adopts this view, although I scarcely think he is
+always successful in his attempts to demonstrate it by his own dreams;
+such demonstration is necessarily often difficult or impossible because,
+apart from the dream itself, we seldom know what sensory impressions are
+persisting in our sleep. C. M. Giessler (<cite>Die Physiologische Beziehungen der
+Traumvorg&auml;nge</cite>, 1896, p. 2), who also proceeds from Wundt, likewise regards
+dreams as in general the more or less orderly and successive revival of
+psychic vestiges of waking life, conditioned by inner or outer excitations.
+Tissi&eacute; (in <cite>Les R&ecirc;ves</cite>, 1898), again, declares that 'dreams of purely psychic
+origin do not exist,' and Beaunis (<cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>,
+July-October 1903) also believes that all dreams need an internal or external
+stimulus from the organism.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> Thus W. S. Monroe ('Mental Elements of Dreams,' <cite>Journal of Philosophy</cite>,
+23rd November 1905) found that in nearly three hundred dreams
+of fifty-five women students of the Westfield Normal College (Massachusetts),
+visual imagery appeared in sixty-seven per cent. dreams, auditory
+in twenty-six per cent., tactile in eight per cent., motor in five per cent.,
+olfactory in a little over one per cent., and gustatory in rather under one
+per cent. In the results of observation recorded by Sarah Weed and
+Florence Hallam (<cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>, April 1896) the sensory
+imagery appears in the same order of frequency and approximately in the
+same proportions.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> In another case, a sensation of irritation in the palm led to a dream of
+being scratched by a cat. Guthrie mentions (<cite>Clinical Journal</cite>, 7th June
+1899) that as a child he used to dream of being tortured by savages by
+being slowly tickled under the arms when unable to move; he sweated
+much at night, and considers that the tickling thus caused was the source
+of the dreams.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> The corresponding sensation of heat can also, of course, be experienced
+in sleep, alike whether the stimulus comes from the brain or the skin.
+Thus I dreamed that, not knowing whether some water was hot or cold, I
+put my finger into it and felt it to be distinctly hot.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> The ease with which musical sounds can be applied during sleep and
+the beneficial results on emotional tone have suggested their therapeutic
+use. Leonard Corning ('The Use of Musical Vibrations before and during
+Sleep,' <cite>Medical Record</cite>, 21st January 1899) is regarded as the pioneer in this
+field.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> Ch. Ruths, <cite>Experimental-Untersuchungen &uuml;ber Musikphantome</cite>, 1898.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> Dauriac, 'Des Images Sugg&eacute;r&eacute;es par l'Audition Musicale,' <cite>Revue
+Philosophique</cite>, November 1902.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> De Rochas has described and reproduced the gestures and dances of
+his hypnotised subject, Lina, under the influence of music. Ribot (<cite>L'Imagination
+Cr&eacute;atrice</cite>, pp. 177 <em>et seq.</em>, 291 <em>et seq.</em>) has discussed the imagery
+suggested by music and points out that it is most pronounced in non-musical
+subjects. Fatigue and over-excitement are predisposing conditions
+in the production of this imagery, as is shown by MacDougall (<cite>Psychological
+Review</cite>, September 1898) in his own experience.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> One is tempted to think that this lightning may have been a symbolistic
+transformation of lancinating neuralgic pains, magnified, as sensations are
+apt to be, in sleep.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> In some experiments by Prof. W. S. Monroe on twenty women students
+at Westfield Normal School a crushed clove was placed on the tongue for
+ten successive nights on going to bed. Of 254 dreams reported as following
+there were seventeen taste dreams and eight smell dreams, and three of
+these dreams actually involved cloves. The clove also influenced dreams
+of other classes; thus, as a result of the burning sensation in the mouth,
+one dreamer imagined that the house was on fire (W. S. Monroe, 'A Study
+of Taste Dreams,' <cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>, January 1899). It has
+indeed been found, by Meunier, specially easy to apply olfactory stimuli
+during sleep and so improve the emotional tone (R. Meunier, 'A Propos
+d'oniroth&eacute;rapie,' <cite>Archives de Neurologie</cite>, March 1910). Meunier found
+that in his own case tuberose always called out agreeable dreams full of
+detail, though in another subject the dreams were always unpleasant. In
+hysterical subjects essence of geranium provoked various agreeable dreams
+followed by a pleasant emotional tone during the following day.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> Titchener ('Taste Dreams,' <cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>, January
+1895) records taste dreams by auto-suggestion, and Ribot (<cite>Psychology of the
+Emotions</cite>, p. 142) thinks there can be no doubt dreams of both taste and
+smell can occur without objective source.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Hammond (<cite>Treatise on Insanity</cite>, p. 229) knew a gentleman who
+dreamed he was in heaven and surrounded by dazzling brilliance, awaking
+to find that the smouldering fire had flared up. Weygandt dreamed that
+he was gazing at 'living pictures' illuminated by magnesium light, and
+awoke to find that the morning sun had just appeared from behind clouds
+and was flooding the room with light. See also Parish, <cite>Hallucinations and
+Illusions</cite>, p. 52.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> I have discussed erotic dreams in the study of 'Auto-erotism' in the
+first volume of my <cite>Studies in the Psychology of Sex</cite> (third edition, revised
+and enlarged, 1910).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> K. A. Scherner, <cite>Das Leben des Traums</cite>, 1861, pp. 187 <em>et seq.</em> Volkelt
+some years later (<cite>Die Traum-Phantasie</cite>, 1875, p. 74) pointed out the
+occurrence of somewhat similar vesical symbolisms (including in the case
+of women a filled knitting-bag) in dream life, though he regarded visions of
+water as the most usual indication in such dreams. Vesical dreams may,
+of course, contain other elements; see <em>e.g.</em> an example given by C. J. Jung,
+'L'Analyse des R&ecirc;ves,' <cite>L'Ann&eacute;e Psychologique</cite>, 15th year, 1909, p. 165.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> A typical dream of this kind, of sufficient importance to be embodied
+in history, occurred several thousand years ago to Astyages, King of the
+Medes, and has been recorded by Herodotus (Book 1. ch. 107).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> In the study of Auto-erotism mentioned in a previous note I have
+brought forward dreams illustrating some of the points in the text, and have
+also discussed the analogies and contrasts between vesical and erotic
+dreams. The fact that nocturnal enuresis is associated with vesical dreams,
+though referred to by Buchan in his <cite>Venus sine Concubitu</cite> more than a
+century ago, is still little known, but it is obviously a fact of clinical
+importance.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> So, for instance, the asthmatic patient of Max Simon (<cite>Le Monde des
+R&ecirc;ves</cite>, p. 40) who, during an attack, dreamed of sweating horses attempting
+to draw a heavy waggon uphill.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> Forbes Winslow also recorded cases (<cite>Obscure Diseases</cite>, pp. 611 <em>et seq.</em>),
+and many examples were brought together by Hammond (<cite>Treatise on
+Insanity</cite>, pp. 234 <em>et seq.</em>). Vaschide and Pi&eacute;ron discuss the matter and
+bring forward thirteen cases (<cite>La Psychologie du R&ecirc;ve</cite>, pp. 34 <em>et seq.</em>). F&eacute;r&eacute;
+recorded two cases in which dreams were the precursory symptoms of
+attacks of migraine (<cite>Revue de M&eacute;decine</cite>, 10th February 1903). Various
+cases, chiefly from the literature of the subject, are brought together by
+Paul Meunier and Masselon (<cite>Les R&ecirc;ves et leur Interpretation</cite>, 1910).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> Sante de Sanctis, <cite>I Sogni</cite>, p. 380.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> The dependence of sleeping imagination on emotion of organic origin was
+long ago clearly seen and set forth by the acute introspective psychologist,
+Maine de Biran (<cite>Œuvres In&eacute;dites</cite>, 'Fondements de la Psychologie,' p. 102).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> Jastrow (<cite>The Subconscious</cite>, p. 206) relates a similar case observed in a
+girl student.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> Herbert Wright, who finds that in children night-terrors are apt to be
+associated with somnambulism, points out that when the somnambulism
+replaces the night-terrors it leaves no memory behind (<cite>British Medical
+Journal</cite>, 19th August 1899, p. 465). An interesting study of movement in
+normal and morbid sleep has been contributed by Segre ('Contributo alla
+Conoscenza dei Movimenti del Sonno,' <cite>Archivio di Psichiatria</cite>, 1907,
+fasc. 1.).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> This question is, for instance, asked by F. H. Bradley ('On the Failure
+of Movement in Dreams,' <cite>Mind</cite>, 1894, p. 373). The explanation he prefers
+is that the dream vision is out of relation to the very dimly conscious actual
+position of the body, so that the information necessary to complete the
+idea of the movement is wanting. Only as regards the less complicated
+movements of lips, tongue, or finger, when the motor idea is in harmony
+with the actual position of the body movements, does movement take
+place. We have no means of distinguishing the real world from the world of
+our vision; 'our images thus move naturally to realise themselves in the
+world of our real limbs. But the world and its arrangement is for the
+moment out of connection with our ideas, and hence the attempt at motion
+for the most part must fail.' It is quite true that this conflict is an important
+factor in dreaming, but it fails to apply to the large number of
+movements which we dream of actually doing.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> The action of some drugs produces a state in this respect resembling
+that which prevails in dreams. 'Under the influence of a large dose of
+haschisch,' Professor Stout remarks (<cite>Analytic Psychology</cite>, vol. i. p. 14),
+'I found myself totally unable to distinguish between what I actually did
+and saw, and what I merely thought about.' Not only are the motor and
+sensory activities relatively dormant, but the central activity is perfectly
+able, and content, to dispense with their services. 'Thought,' as Jastrow
+says (<cite>Fact and Fable in Psychology</cite>, p. 386), 'is but more or less successfully
+suppressed action.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> This seems to me to be the answer to the question, asked by Freud,
+(<cite>Die Traumdeutung</cite>, p. 227), why we do not always dream of inhibited
+movement. Freud considers that the idea of inhibited movement, when it
+occurs in dreams, has no relation to the actual condition of the dreamer's
+nervous system, but is simply an ideatory symbol of an erotic wish that is
+no longer capable of fulfilment. But it is certain that sleep is not always
+at the same depth and that the various nervous groups are not always
+equally asleep. A dream arising on the basis of partial and imperfect sleep
+can scarcely fail to lead to the attempt at actual movement and the more
+or less complete inhibition of that movement, presenting a struggle which
+is often visible to the onlooker, and is not purely ideatory.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> This explanation, based on the depth and kind of the sleep, is entirely
+distinct from the theory of Aliotta (<cite>Il Pensiero e la Personalit&agrave; nei Sogni</cite>,
+1905), who believes that dreamers differ according to their nervous type, the
+person of visual type assisting passively at the spectacle of his dreams,
+while the person of motor type takes actual part in them. I have no
+evidence of this, though I believe that dreams differ in accordance with the
+dreamer's personal type.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> Dugald Stewart argued that there is loss of control over the muscular
+system during sleep, and the body, therefore, is not subject to our command;
+volition is present but it cannot influence the limbs. Hammond argued,
+on the contrary, that Stewart was quite wrong; the reason why voluntary
+movements are not performed during sleep is, he said, that volition is
+suspended. 'We do not will our actions when we are asleep. We imagine
+that we do, and that is all' (<cite>Treatise on Insanity</cite>, p. 205). Dugald Stewart
+and Hammond, though their phraseology may have been too metaphysical,
+were, from the standpoint I have adopted, both maintaining tenable
+positions. In one type of dream, we imagine we easily achieve all sorts of
+difficult and complicated actions, but in reality we make no movement;
+the ease and rapidity with which the mental machine moves is due to the
+fact that it is ungeared, and is effecting no work at all. In the other type
+of dream we make violent but inadequate efforts at movement and only
+partially succeed; the machine is partially geared, in a state intermediate
+between deep sleep and the waking condition.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> Jacques le Lorrain, <cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>, July 1895.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> The systematic megalomania of insanity can, however, have its rise in
+dreams; R&eacute;gis and Lalanne (<cite>International Medical Congress</cite>, 1900;
+<cite>Proceedings, Section de Psychiatrie</cite>, p. 227) met within a short period with
+four cases in which this had taken place.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> This indeed seems to have been recognised by Wundt, who regards a
+'functional rest of the sensory centres and of the apperception centre,'
+resulting in heightened latent energy which lends unusual strength to
+excitations, as a secondary condition of the dream state. K&uuml;lpe (<cite>Outline
+of Psychology</cite>, p. 212) argues that the existence of vivid dreams shows that
+fatigue with its diminished associability fails to affect the central sensations
+themselves; this increased excitability resulting from dissociation
+may itself, however, be regarded as a symptom of fatigue; hyperaesthesia
+and anaesthesia are alike signs of exhaustion.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> The exhaustion sometimes felt on awaking from a dream perhaps
+testifies to its emotional potency. Delboeuf states that a friend of his
+experienced a dream so terrible in its emotional strain that on awaking his
+black hair was found to have turned completely white.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> The fundamental character of emotion in dreams has been more or
+less clearly recognised by various investigators. Thus C. L. Herrick, who
+studied his own dreams for many months, found that the essential element
+is the emotional, and not the ideational, and that, indeed, when recalled
+<em>at once</em>, with closed eyes and before moving, they were nearly devoid of
+intellectual content (<cite>Journal of Comparative Neurology</cite>, vol. iii. p. 17, 1893).
+R. MacDougall considers that dreaming is 'a succession of intense states
+of feeling supported by a minimum of ideational content,' or, as he says
+again, more accurately, 'the feeling is primary; the idea-content is the
+inferred thing' (<cite>Psychological Review</cite>, vol. v. p. 2). Grace Andrews, who kept
+a record of her dreams (<cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>, October 1900),
+found that dream emotions are often stronger and more vivid than those
+of waking life; 'the dream emotion seems to me the most real element of
+the dream life.' P. Meunier, again ('Des R&ecirc;ves St&eacute;reotyp&eacute;s,' <cite>Journal de
+Psychologie Normale et Pathologique</cite>, September-October 1905), states that
+'the substratum of a dream consists of a cœn&aelig;sthesia or an emotional state.
+The intellectual operation which translates to the sleeper's consciousness,
+while he is asleep, this cœn&aelig;sthesia or emotional state is what we call a
+dream.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> The night-terrors of children have frequently been found to have their
+origin in gastric or intestinal disturbance. Graham Little brings together
+the opinions of various authorities on this point, though he is himself
+inclined to give chief importance to heart disease producing slight disturbances
+of breathing, since he has found that in nearly two-thirds of his
+cases (17 out of 30) night-terrors were associated with early heart disease
+(Graham Little, 'The Causation of Night-Terrors,' <cite>British Medical Journal</cite>,
+19th August 1899). It should be added that night-terrors are more usually
+divided into two classes: (1) idiopathic (purely cerebral in origin), and
+(2) symptomatic (due to reflex disturbance caused by various local disorders);
+see <em>e.g.</em> Guthrie, 'On Night-Terrors,' <cite>Clinical Journal</cite>, 7th January
+1899. J. A. Symonds has well described his own night-terrors as a child
+(Horatio Brown, <cite>J. A. Symonds</cite>, vol. i.). Lafcadio Hearn (in a paper on
+'Nightmare-Touch' in <cite>Shadowings</cite>) also gives a vivid account of his own
+childish night-terrors.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> It has not, I believe, been pointed out that such dreams might be
+invoked in support of the James-Lange or physiological theory of emotion,
+according to which the element of bodily change in emotion is the cause and
+not the result of the emotion.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> This physiological symbolism was clearly apprehended long ago by
+Hobbes: 'As anger causeth heat in some parts of the body when we are
+awake; so when we sleep the overheating of the same parts causeth
+anger, and raiseth up in the brain the imagination of an enemy. In the
+same manner as natural kindness, when we are awake, causeth desire
+and desire makes heat in certain other parts of the body; so also, too much
+heat in those parts, while we sleep, raiseth in the brain an imagination of
+some kindness shown. In sum, our dreams are the reverse of our waking
+imaginations; the motion, when we are awake, beginning at one end,
+and when we dream at another' (<cite>Leviathan</cite>, Part 1. ch. 2).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> 'The pains of disappointment, of anxiety, of unsuccess, of all displeasing
+emotions,' remarks Mercier (art. 'Consciousness,' Tuke's <cite>Dictionary
+of Psychological Medicine</cite>), 'are attended by a definite feeling of misery
+which is referred in every case to the epigastrium.' He adds that the
+pleasures of success and good repute, aesthetic enjoyment, etc., are also
+attended by a definite feeling in the same region. This fact indicates the
+extreme vagueness of organic sensation. There is in fact much uncertainty
+and great difference of opinion as to the nature, and even the existence,
+of organic sensation; see <em>e.g.</em> a careful summary of the chief views by
+Dr. Elsie Murray, 'Organic Sensation,' <cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>,
+July 1909.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> More than ten years later, the same dreamer, who had entirely forgotten
+the circumstances of this dream, again had a vivid dream of murder
+after eating pheasant at night; this time it was she herself who was to be
+killed, and she awoke imagining that she was struggling with the would-be
+murderer.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> F. Greenwood, <cite>Imagination in Dreams</cite>, p. 31.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> Dreams of railway travelling, and especially of losing trains, are not
+always associated with headache or any other recognisable condition.
+They constitute a very common type of dream not quite easy to explain.
+Dr. Savage mentions, for instance, that in his own case scarcely a week
+passes without such a dream, though in real life he scarcely ever loses a
+train and never worries about it. Wundt considers that the dreams in
+which we seek something we cannot find or have left something behind are
+due to indefinite coenaesthesic disturbances involving feelings of the same
+emotional tone, such as an uncomfortable position or a slight irregularity
+of respiration. I have myself independently observed the same connection,
+though it is not invariably traceable.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> E. H. Clarke, <cite>Visions</cite>, p. 294.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> An amusing, though solemn, interpretation of an ordinary dream of
+murder, railway travelling, and impending death, as experienced by Anna
+Kingsford, is furnished by her friend and biographer, Edward Maitland,
+<cite>Anna Kingsford</cite>, vol. i. p. 117.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> Various opinions in regard to morality in dreams are brought together
+by Freud, <cite>Die Traumdeutung</cite>, pp. 45 <em>et seq.</em></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> Head ('Mental Changes that Accompany Visceral Diseases,' <cite>Brain</cite>,
+1902, p. 802) refers to the association between visceral pain and the anti-social
+impulses, and thinks that the viscera, being part of the oldest and
+most autonomic system of the body, appear in consciousness as 'an
+intrusion from without, an inexplicable obsession.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> 'In my dreams,' W. D. Howells remarks, 'I am always less sorry for
+my misdeeds than for their possible discovery' ('True I talk of Dreams,'
+<cite>Harper's Magazine</cite>, May 1895).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> Bk. IV. 1014-15:</p>
+
+<div class="container">
+<div class="poem">
+ <div class="stanza">
+  <div class="i5">'de montibus altis</div>
+  <div class="i0">Se quasi pr&aelig;cipitent ad terram corpore toto.'</div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> 'It has many times happened to me,' says the innkeeper's daughter in
+<cite>Don Quixote</cite> (Part I. ch. xvi.), 'to dream that I was falling down from a
+tower and never coming to the ground, and when I awoke from the dream
+to find myself as weak and shaken as if I had really fallen.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> Chabaneix, <cite>Le Subconscient</cite>, p. 43.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> Herbert Spencer, <cite>Principles of Sociology</cite>, 3rd ed., vol. i. p. 773.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> <cite>L'Interm&eacute;diaire des Chercheurs et des Curieux</cite>, May 31, 1906.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> De Rochas describes the phenomenon as 'a property of the human
+organism, more or less developed in different individuals, when the soul,
+disengaging itself from the bonds of the body, enters the domain, still so
+mysterious, of dreams' (<cite>L'Interm&eacute;diaire des Chercheurs et des Curieux</cite>,
+May 10, 1906). In subsequent numbers of the <cite>Interm&eacute;diaire</cite> various
+correspondents describe their own experiences of such dreams. In <cite>Luce e
+Ombra</cite> for June 1906, and in the <cite>Echo du Merveilleux</cite> for the same date,
+neither of which I have seen, are given other experiences.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> <cite>Annals of Psychical Research</cite>, November 1896.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> Horace Hutchinson, <cite>Dreams and their Meanings</cite>, p. 76.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> <cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>, July-October 1903, p. 14.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> 'The wish to be able to fly,' he declares (<cite>Eine Kindheitserinnerung des
+Leonardo da Vinci</cite>, p. 59), 'signifies in dreaming nothing else but the desire
+to be capable of sexual activities. It is a wish of early childhood.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> Stanley Hall, <cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>, January 1879, p. 158;
+also F. E. Bolton, 'Hydro-Psychoses,' <em>ib.</em>, January 1899, p. 183; as regards
+rudimentary gill-slits, Bland Sutton, <cite>Evolution and Disease</cite>, pp. 48 <em>et seq.</em>
+Lafcadio Hearn travels still further along this road in search for an explanation
+of dreams of flight, and evokes a 'memory of vanished planets with
+fainter powers of gravitation,' but he fails to state when the ancestors of
+man inhabited these problematical planets.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> I retain this statement of my explanation in almost the same words as
+first written down in 1895. I was not then aware that several psychologists
+had offered very similar explanations. Scherner (<cite>Das Leben des Traumes</cite>,
+1861) seems to have been the first to connect the lungs with dreams of
+flying, though he put forward the explanation in too fanciful a form and
+failed to realise that other factors, notably a change in skin pressure, are
+also involved. Str&uuml;mpell at a later date recognised this explanation, as
+well as Wundt.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> It is the same with chloroform. 'There are marked sensations in the
+vicinity of the heart,' says Elmer Jones ('The Waning of Consciousness
+under Chloroform,' <cite>Psychological Review</cite>, January 1909). 'The musculature
+of that organ seems thoroughly stimulated, and the contractions
+become violent and accelerated. The palpitations are as strong as would
+be experienced at the close of some violent bodily exertion.' It is significant,
+also, as bearing on the interpretation of the dream of flying, that
+under chloroform 'all movements made appeared to be much longer than
+they actually were. A slight movement of the tongue appeared to be
+magnified at least ten times. Clinching the fingers and opening them again
+produced the feeling of their moving through a space of several feet.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> See <em>e.g.</em> Marie de Manac&eacute;&iuml;ne, <cite>Sleep</cite>, p. 7.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> Horace Hutchinson, who in his <cite>Dreams and their Meanings</cite> (1901), has
+independently suggested that 'this flying dream is caused by some action
+of the breathing organs,' mentions the significant fact (p. 128) that the
+idea of filling the lungs as a help in levitation occurs in the flying dreams of
+many persons.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> We have an analogous state of tactile anaesthesia in the early stages of
+chloroform intoxication. Thus Elmer Jones found that this sense is, after
+hearing, the first to disappear. 'With the disappearance of the tactile
+sense and hearing,' he remarks, 'the body has completely lost its orientation.
+It appears to be nowhere, simply floating in space. It is a most
+ecstatic feeling.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> Lafcadio Hearn describes the fall as coming at the beginning of the
+dream. Dr. Guthrie (<cite>Clinical Journal</cite>, June 7, 1899), in his own case,
+describes the flying sensations as coming first and the falling as coming
+afterwards, and apparently due to sudden failure of the power of flight;
+the first part of the dream is agreeable but after the fall the dreamer awakes
+shaken, shocked, and breathless.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> The disagreeable nature of falling in dreams may probably be connected
+with the absence of rhythm usually present in dreams of flying.
+Most of the psychologists who have occupied themselves with rhythm
+have insisted on its pleasurable emotional tone, as leading to a state
+bordering on ecstasy (see <em>e.g.</em> J. B. Miner, 'Motor, Visual, and Applied
+Rhythms,' Monograph Supplement to <cite>Psychological Review</cite>, June 1903).
+The pleasure is especially marked, as MacDougall remarks, when there is
+'a coincidence of subjective and objective change.' In dreams of flying
+we have this coincidence, the real subjective rhythm being transformed
+in consciousness to an objective rhythm.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> F&eacute;r&eacute;, 'Note sur les R&ecirc;ves Epileptiques,' <cite>Revue de M&eacute;decine</cite>, September
+10, 1905.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> Sir W. R. Gowers has on several occasions (<em>e.g.</em> 'The Borderland of
+Epilepsy,' <cite>British Medical Journal</cite>, July 21, 1906) argued that dreams of
+falling have an aural origin, and are caused by contraction of the stapedius
+muscle, leading to a change in the ampullae which might suggest descent;
+he has himself suddenly awakened from such a dream and caught the sound
+of the muscular contraction. The opinion of so acute an investigator deserves
+consideration.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> Such sensations are, indeed, a recognised result of morphia. Morphinomaniacs,
+Goron remarks (<cite>Les Parias de l'Amour</cite>, p. 125), are apt to feel that
+they are flying or floating over the world.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> Jewell states that 'certain observers, peculiarly liable to dreams of
+falling or flying, ascribe these distinctly to faulty circulation, and say their
+physicians, to regulate the heart's action, have given them medicines which
+always relieve them and prevent such dreams' (<cite>American Journal of
+Psychology</cite>, January 1905, p. 8).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> Interesting evidence in favour of the respiratory origin of such visions
+is furnished by Silberer's observations on his own symbolic hypnagogic
+visions which are certainly allied to dream visions. He found (<cite>Jahrbuch
+f&uuml;r Psychoanalytische Forschungen</cite>, Bd. 1., 1909, p. 523) that on drawing a
+deep breath, and so raising the chest wall, the representation came to him
+of attempting with another person to raise a table in the air.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> J. de Goncourt (<cite>Journal des Goncourt</cite>, vol. iii. p. 3) mentions that after
+drinking port wine, to which he was unaccustomed, he had a dream in
+which he observed on his counterpane grotesque images in relief which rose
+and fell.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> Chabaneix, <cite>Le Subconscient</cite>, p. 43.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> May 30, 1906.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> L. Binswanger, 'Versuch einer Hysterieanalyse,' <cite>Jahrbuch f&uuml;r Psychoanalytische
+Forschungen</cite>, Bd. 1. 1909.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> Their word has often been accepted. Levitation as experienced by
+the saints has been studied by Colonel A. de Rochas, <cite>Les Fronti&egrave;res de
+la Science</cite>, 1904; also in <cite>Annales des Sciences Psychiques</cite>, January-February
+1901. 'Levitation is a perfectly real phenomena,' he concludes, 'and
+much more common than we might at first be tempted to believe.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> It seems to become less frequent after middle age. Beaunis states that
+in his case it ceased at the age of fifty. I found it disappear, or become rare,
+at a somewhat earlier age.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> H. Pi&eacute;ron, 'Contribution &agrave; la Psychologie des Mourants,' <cite>Revue
+Philosophique</cite>, December 1902.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> See <em>e.g.</em> Galton, <cite>Inquiries</cite> (Everyman's Library edition), pp. 79-112.
+Among more recent writings on this subject may be mentioned Bleuler,
+art. 'Secondary Sensations,' Tuke's <cite>Dictionary of Psychological Medicine;</cite>
+Suarez de Mendoza, <cite>L'Audition Color&eacute;e;</cite> Jules Millet, <cite>Audition Color&eacute;e;</cite>
+and especially a useful summary by Clavi&egrave;re, 'L'Audition Color&eacute;e,'
+<cite>L'Ann&eacute;e Psychologique</cite>, fifth year, 1899. A case of auditory gustation is
+recorded by A. M. Pierce, <cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>, 1907. It may
+be noted that Boris Sidis has argued (<cite>Psychological Review</cite>, January 1904)
+that all hallucinations are of the nature of secondary sensations.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> Ferrero, in his <cite>Lois Psychologiques du Symbolisme</cite> (1895), deals broadly
+with symbolism in human thought and life.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> <cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>, November 1902.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> 'Richard Wagner et Tannhauser' in <cite>L'Art Romantique</cite>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> The motor imagery suggested by music is in some persons profuse and
+apparently capricious, and may be regarded as an anomaly comparable to a
+synaesthesia. Heine was an example of this, and he has described in
+<cite>Florentine Nights</cite> the visions aroused by the playing of Paganini, and
+elsewhere the visions evoked in him by the music of Berlioz. Though I
+do not myself experience this phenomenon, I have found that there is
+sometimes a tendency for music to arouse ideas of motor imagery; thus
+some melodies of Handel suggest a giant painting frescoes on a vast wall
+space. The most elementary motor relationship of music is seen in the
+tendency of many people to sway portions of their body&mdash;to 'beat time'&mdash;in
+sympathy with the music. (This phenomenon has been experimentally
+studied by J. B. Miner, 'Motor, Visual, and Applied Rhythms,' Monograph
+Supplement to the <cite>Psychological Review</cite>, vol. v., No. 4, June 1903). Music
+is fundamentally an audible dance, and the most primitive music is dance
+music.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> The instinctive nature of this tendency is shown by the fact that it
+persists even in sleep. Thus Weygandt relates that he once fell asleep in
+the theatre during one of the last scenes of <cite>Cavalleria Rusticana</cite>, when the
+tenor was singing in ever higher and higher tones, and dreamed that in
+order to reach the notes the performer was climbing up ladders and stairs
+on the stage.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> See, especially the attractive book of Andr&eacute; Pirro, <cite>L'Esth&eacute;tique de
+J. S. Bach</cite> (1907), and also Albert Schweitzer, <cite>J. S. Bach</cite> (1908), especially
+chapters xix.-xxiii. 'Concrete things,' says Ernest Newman, summarising
+some of these results (<cite>Nation</cite>, December 25, 1909), 'incessantly suggested
+abstract ideas or inward moods to Bach, and <em>vice vers&acirc;</em>. He would time
+after time use the same musical formula for the same word or idea. He
+first suggests the external concepts of "high" and "low," as other composers
+have done, by high or low notes, and motion up or down by ascending
+or descending themes. But Bach correlates with the outward, objective
+thing a whole series of things that are purely subjective. Thus moods of
+elation or of depression are to him the mental equivalents of the physical
+acts of going up or down. So he gives us a whole series of ascending
+themes to words that express "mounting" states of mind, as it were&mdash;such
+as pride, courage, strength, resolution&mdash;and descending themes to
+words that express "declining" states of mind&mdash;such as prostration,
+adoration, depression, discouragement, grief at sin, humility, poverty,
+fatigue, and illness. For the two sets of concepts, internal and external,
+he will use the same musical symbols. To represent the physical concept
+of "surrounding," again, he adopts the device of a circling or undulating
+theme. A crown or a garland suggests the same idea to him, so for this,
+too, he uses the same kind of theme. But the correspondence goes still
+further; for when he comes to the word "considering," he uses the same
+curving musical symbol once more&mdash;his notion of "considering" being
+that of looking round on all sides. Again, a word of purely external
+signification that suggests something twisted will have an appropriately
+twisted theme. Then come the subjective applications of the theme&mdash;the
+same disordered melodic outline is used to express a frame of mind
+like anxiety or confusion, or to depict the wiles of Satan. Careful study
+of the vocal works of Bach, and especially of the cantatas, has revealed a
+host of these curious symbols.' The whole subject, it may be added, has
+been briefly and suggestively discussed by Goblot, 'La Musique Descriptive,'
+<cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>, July 1901.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> T. Piderit, <cite>Mimik und Physiognomik</cite>, 1867, p. 73.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> J. Cleland, <cite>Evolution, Expression and Sensation</cite>, 1881.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> F&eacute;r&eacute;, 'La Physiologie dans les M&eacute;taphores,' <cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>,
+October 1895.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> Maeder discusses symbolism in some of these fields in his 'Die Symbolik
+in den Legenden, M&auml;rchen, Gebr&auml;uchen und Tr&auml;umen,' <cite>Psychiatrisch-Neurologische
+Wochenschrift</cite>, Nos. 6 and 7, May 1908.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> So Philostratus, and Pliny (<cite>Natural History</cite>, Bk. X. ch. CCXI.) puts the
+same point on somewhat more natural grounds.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> It has been translated by F. S. Krauss, <cite>Symbolik der Tr&auml;ume</cite>, 1881.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> A translation of Synesius's 'Treatise on Dreams' is included in
+Druon's <cite>Œuvres de Syn&eacute;sius</cite>, pp. 347 <em>et seq.</em> Synesius is probably best
+known to modern English readers through Charles Kingsley's novel,
+<em>Hypatia</em>. His treatise on dreams has been unduly neglected, though it
+commended itself mightily to the pioneering mind of Lord Monboddo,
+who even says (<cite>Ancient Metaphysics</cite>, vol. ii., 1782, p. 217) in reference
+to this treatise: 'Indeed it appears to me that since the days of Plato
+and Aristotle there has not been a philosopher of greater depth than
+Synesius.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_144_144" id="Footnote_144_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a> K. A. Scherner, <cite>Das Leben des Traumes</cite>, 1861. In France Hervey de
+Saint-Denis, in a remarkable anonymous work which I have not seen
+(<cite>Les R&ecirc;ves et les Moyens de les Diriger</cite>, p. 356, quoted by Vaschide and
+Pi&eacute;ron, <cite>Psychologie du R&ecirc;ve</cite>, p. 26), tentatively put forward a symbolic
+theory of dreams, as a possible rival to the theory that permanent associations
+are set up as the result of a first chance coincidence. 'Do there
+exist,' he asked, 'bizarre analogies of internal sensations in virtue of
+which certain vibrations of the nerves, certain instinctive movements of
+our viscera, correspond to sensations apparently quite different? According
+to this hypothesis experience would bring to light mysterious affinities,
+the knowledge of which might become a genuine science;... and a
+real key to dreams would not be an unrealisable achievement if we could
+bring together and compare a sufficient number of observations.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a> It is interesting to note that hallucinations may also be symbolic.
+Thus the Psychical Research Society's Committee on Hallucinations
+recognised a symbolic group, and recorded, for instance, the case of a man
+who, when his child lies dying, sees a blue flame in the air and hears a voice
+say, 'That's his soul' (<cite>Proceedings Society for Psychical Research</cite>, August
+1894, p. 125).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a> Maeder states that the tendency to symbolism in dreams and similar
+modes of psychic activity is due to 'vague thinking in a condition of
+diminished attention.' This is, however, an inadequate statement and
+misses the central point.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a> In the other spheres in which symbolism most tends to appear, the
+same or allied conditions exist. In hallucinations, which (as Parish and
+others have shown) tend to occur in hypnagogic or sleep-like states, the
+conditions are clearly the same. The symbolism of an art, and notably
+music, is due to the very conditions of the art, which exclude any appeal
+to other senses. The primitive mind reaches symbolism through a similar
+condition of things, coming as the result of ignorance and undeveloped
+powers of apperception. In insanity these powers are morbidly disturbed
+or destroyed, with the same result.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a> The magnification we experience in dreams is manifested in their
+emotional aspects and in the emotional transformation of actual sensory
+stimuli, from without or from within the organism. The size of objects
+recalled by dreaming memory usually remains unchanged, and if changed
+it seems to be more usually diminished. 'Lilliputian hallucinations,'
+as they are termed by Leroy, who has studied them (<cite>Revue de Psychiatrie</cite>,
+1909, No. 8), in which diminutive, and frequently coloured, people are
+observed, may also occasionally occur in alcoholic and chloral intoxication,
+in circular insanity, and in various other morbid mental conditions. They
+are usually agreeable in character.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a> Sollier, 'L'Autoscopie Interne,' <cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>, January 1903.
+Sollier deals with the objections made to the reality of the phenomenon.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a> 'Many people,' writes Dr. Marie de Manac&eacute;&iuml;ne (<cite>Sleep</cite>, 1897, p. 294),
+'when threatened by a gastric or intestinal attack dream of seeing fish.
+The late Professor Sergius Botkine told me that he had found this coincidence
+in his own case, and I have myself several times found it in the
+case of a young girl who is well known to me. Some have supposed that
+the sleeping consciousness receives an impression of the elongated shape
+of the stomach or intestine; but such a supposition is easier to make than
+to prove.' Scherner associated dreams of fish with sensations arising from
+the bladder, and here also it may be said that we are concerned with a
+fish-like viscus. Greenwood (<cite>Imagination in Dreams</cite>, p. 195) stated that
+he had always been subject, at intervals of months or years, to a recurrent
+dream in which he would see a river swarming with fish that were finally
+piled in a horrible sweltering mass; this dream always left a feeling
+of 'squalid horror,' but he was never able to ascertain its cause and significance.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a> Freud states (<cite>Die Traumdeutung</cite>, p. 233) that he knows a case in which
+(as in the <cite>Song of Songs</cite>) columns and pillars appear in dreams as symbols
+of the legs, and doors as symbols of the openings of the body.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a> Freud, <cite>Die Traumdeutung</cite>, p. 66. This work, published in 1900, is
+the chief and most extensive statement of Freud's views. A shorter statement
+is embodied in a little volume of the 'Grenzfr&auml;gen' Series, <cite>Ueber
+den Traum</cite>, 1901. A brief exposition of Freud's position is given by
+Dr. A. Maeder of Zurich in 'Essai d'Interpretation de Quelques R&ecirc;ves,'
+<cite>Archives de Psychologie</cite>, April 1907; as also by Ernest Jones ('Freud's
+Theory of Dreams,' <cite>Review of Neurology and Psychiatry</cite>, March 1910, and
+<cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>, April 1910). For Freud's general psychological
+doctrine, see Brill's translation of 'Freud's Selected Papers on
+Hysteria,' 1909. There have been many serious criticisms of Freud's
+methods. As an example of such criticism, accompanying an exposition
+of the methods, reference may be made to Max Isserlin's 'Die Psychoanalytische
+Methode Freuds,' <cite>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r die Gesamte Neurologie und
+Psychiatrie</cite>, Bd. 1. Heft i. 1910. A judicious and qualified criticism of
+Freud's psychotherapeutic methods is given by L&ouml;wenfeld ('Zum gegenw&auml;rtigen
+Stande der Psychotherapeutie,' <cite>M&uuml;nchener medizinische Wochenschrift</cite>,
+Nos. 3 and 4, 1910).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_153_153" id="Footnote_153_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_153_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a> I have set forth Freud's views of hysteria, now regarded as almost
+epoch-making in character, in <cite>Studies of the Psychology of Sex</cite>, vol. i. 3rd
+ed. pp. 219 <em>et seq.</em></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_154_154" id="Footnote_154_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_154_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a> This is supported by the fact that in waking reverie, or day-dreams,
+wishes are obviously the motor force in building up visionary structures.
+Freud attaches great importance to reverie, for he considers that it furnishes
+the key to the comprehension of dreams (<em>e.g.</em> <cite>Sammlung Kleiner
+Schriften zur Neurosenlehre</cite>, 2nd series, pp. 138 <em>et seq.</em>, 197 <em>et seq.</em>). But
+it must be remembered that day-dreaming is not real dreaming, which
+takes place under altogether different physiological conditions, although
+it may quite fairly be claimed that day-dreaming represents a state intermediate
+between ordinary waking consciousness and consciousness during
+sleep.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_155_155" id="Footnote_155_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_155_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a> The special characteristics of dreaming in the hysterical were studied,
+before Freud turned his attention to the question, by Sante de Sanctis
+(<cite>I Sogni e il Sonno nell' Isterismo</cite>, 1896). See also Havelock Ellis, <cite>Studies
+in the Psychology of Sex</cite>, vol. i. 3rd ed., 1910, 'Auto-erotism.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_156_156" id="Footnote_156_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_156_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a> Gissing, the novelist, an acute observer of psychic states, in the most
+of his books, <cite>The Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft</cite>, has described
+this phenomenon: 'Every one, I suppose, is subject to a trick of mind
+which often puzzles me. I am reading or thinking, and at a moment,
+without any association or suggestion that I can discover, there rises
+before me the vision of a place I know. Impossible to explain why that
+particular spot should show itself to my mind's eye; the cerebral impulse
+is so subtle that no search may trace its origin.' Gissing proceeds to say
+that a thought, a phrase, an odour, a touch, a posture of the body, may
+possibly have furnished the link of association, but he knows no evidence
+for this theory.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_157_157" id="Footnote_157_157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_157_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a> Extrospection has been specially studied by Vaschide and Vurpas in
+<cite>La Logique Morbide</cite>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_158_158" id="Footnote_158_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_158_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a> On the psychic importance of fears, see G. Stanley Hall, 'A Study of
+Fears,' <cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>, 1897, p. 183. Metchnikoff
+(<cite>Essais Optimistes</cite>, pp. 247 <em>et seq.</em>) insists on the mingled fear and strength
+of the anthropoid apes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_159_159" id="Footnote_159_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_159_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a> Foucault has pointed this out, and Morton Prince, and Giessler (who
+admits that the wish-dream is common in children), and Flournoy (who
+remarks that not only a fear but any emotion can be equally effective),
+as well as Clapar&egrave;de. The last remarks that Freud might regard a fear as
+a suppressed desire, but it may equally be said that a desire involves, on
+its reverse side, a fear. Freud has indeed himself pointed out (<em>e.g.</em> <cite>Jahrbuch
+f&uuml;r Psychoanalytische Forschungen</cite>, Bd. 1., 1909, p. 362) that fears
+may be instinctively combined with wishes; he regards the association
+with a wish of an opposing fear as one of the components of some morbid
+psychic states. But he holds that the wish is the positive and fundamental
+element: 'The unconscious can only wish' ('Das Unbewusste kann nichts
+als w&uuml;nschen'), a statement that seems somewhat too metaphysical for
+the psychologist.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_160_160" id="Footnote_160_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a> Thus A. Wiggam ('A Contribution to the Data of Dream Psychology,'
+<cite>Pedagogical Seminary</cite>, June 1909) records a great many wish-dreams,
+mostly in the young.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_161_161" id="Footnote_161_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_161_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a> Laud, <cite>Works</cite>, vol. iii. p. 144.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_162_162" id="Footnote_162_162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_162_162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a> Havelock Ellis, <cite>Studies in the Psychology of Sex</cite>, vol. iii., 'Love and
+Pain.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_163_163" id="Footnote_163_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a> The dramatic element in dreaming was dealt with at length by Carl du
+Prel (<cite>Philosophy of Mysticism</cite>, vol. i. ch. iii.), but he threw little light on it.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_164_164" id="Footnote_164_164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_164_164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a> Thus in the Psychical Research Society's 'Report on the <cite>Census of
+Hallucinations</cite>,' the case is given of an over-worked and worried man who,
+a few moments after leaving a tram car, had the vivid feeling that some
+one touched him on the shoulder, though on turning round he found no
+one near. He then remembered that on the car he had been leaning
+against an iron bolt, and that, therefore, what he had experienced was
+doubtless a spontaneous muscular contraction excited by the pressure
+(<cite>Proceedings, Society for Psychical Research</cite>, August 1894, p. 3). Touches
+felt on awakening, in correspondence with a dream, are not so very uncommon.
+Thus Wagner, when in love with Mathilde Wesendonk, wrote,
+in the private diary he kept for her, how, after a dream, 'as I awoke I
+distinctly felt a kiss on my brow.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_165_165" id="Footnote_165_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_165_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a> Various pressures lead to dreams of blood. Thus a friend with a weak
+heart tells me that when he sleeps on his left side he dreams of blood.
+In some of these cases it is possible that there are retinal sensations of
+red.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_166_166" id="Footnote_166_166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_166_166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a> In the <cite>Census of Hallucinations</cite> (chapter ix.) it was pointed out by
+the Psychical Research Society's Committee that hallucinations are
+specially apt to occur on awakening, or in the state between sleeping
+and waking; and Parish in his very searching study, <cite>Hallucinations and
+Illusions</cite> (Contemporary Science Series), has further developed this fact
+and insisted on its significance.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_167_167" id="Footnote_167_167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167_167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a> Dr. Johnson's remark on this point has often been quoted. He
+dreamed that he had been worsted in a verbal argument, and was thereby
+much mortified. 'Had not my judgment failed me,' he said, 'I should
+have seen that the wit of this supposed antagonist, by whose superiority
+I felt myself depressed, was as much furnished by me as that which I
+thought I had been uttering in my own character' (Boswell's <cite>Johnson</cite>, ed.
+by Hill, vol. iv. p. 5).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_168_168" id="Footnote_168_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a> Maury, <cite>Le Sommeil et les R&ecirc;ves</cite>, 1861, p. 118.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_169_169" id="Footnote_169_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_169_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a> Delbœuf, <cite>Le Sommeil et les R&ecirc;ves</cite>, pp. 24, <em>et seq</em>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_170_170" id="Footnote_170_170"></a><a href="#FNanchor_170_170"><span class="label">[170]</span></a> Foucault, <cite>Le R&ecirc;ve</cite>, p. 137.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_171_171" id="Footnote_171_171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_171_171"><span class="label">[171]</span></a> Giessler, 'Das Ich im Tr&auml;ume,' <cite>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Psychologie und
+Physiologie der Sinnesorgane</cite>, 1905, Heft 4 and 5, pp. 300 <em>et seq.</em></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_172_172" id="Footnote_172_172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_172_172"><span class="label">[172]</span></a> See especially Pierre Janet's works, and also those of Morton Prince,
+Albert Wilson, etc. Flournoy's very elaborate study of Mlle. Hel&egrave;ne Smith
+(<cite>Des Indes &agrave; la Plan&egrave;te Mars</cite>, 1900) is noteworthy. A summary of some
+important cases of multiple personality will be found in Marie de
+Manac&eacute;&iuml;ne's <cite>Sleep</cite>, pp. 127 <em>et seq.</em>, and some bibliographical references,
+<em>ib.</em> p. 151.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_173_173" id="Footnote_173_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173_173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a> J. Milne Bramwell argues ('Secondary and Multiple Personalities,'
+<cite>Brain</cite>, 1900) that such cases are not invariably hysterical.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_174_174" id="Footnote_174_174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_174_174"><span class="label">[174]</span></a> See G. Stanley Hall, 'The Early Sense of Self,' <cite>American Journal of
+Psychology</cite>, April 1898. Cooley ('The Early Use of Self-Words by a Child,'
+<cite>Psychological Review</cite>, 1909, p. 94) finds that the child distinguishes between
+itself as (1) body and as (2) self-assertion united with action; it refers to
+the former as 'Baby,' and to the latter as 'I.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_175_175" id="Footnote_175_175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_175_175"><span class="label">[175]</span></a> See, <em>e.g.</em>, Havelock Ellis, <cite>The Criminal</cite>, 4th ed., 1910, p. 367.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_176_176" id="Footnote_176_176"></a><a href="#FNanchor_176_176"><span class="label">[176]</span></a> In the existing traditions of law and police, it is still possible to find
+many survivals of this tendency to objectify subjective impressions.
+Thus Mr. Theodore Schroeder has shown (<cite>Free Press Anthology</cite>, 1909,
+pp. 171 <em>et seq.</em>) that the prosecutions which have in various so-called
+civilised countries pursued many estimable and even noble works of
+literature, science, and art are based on the primitive notion that 'indecency'
+resides in the object and not in the person who experiences the
+feeling, and who ought, therefore, alone to be suppressed, if suppression
+is called for. This psychological fallacy continues to subsist, though it
+was unmasked in the clearest manner even by St. Paul (<em>e.g.</em> Romans
+xiv. 14). It is somewhat analogous to the medi&aelig;val conception
+of the criminality of animals.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_177_177" id="Footnote_177_177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177_177"><span class="label">[177]</span></a> I may refer to the very interesting discussion by Professor G. F. Stout
+(<cite>Analytic Psychology</cite>, vol. ii. p. 145) of the conflict of systems in apperception,
+and of the suspense and deadlock which occur when two or more
+systems come into conflict in such a way that the success of one is the
+defeat of the other. The discussion is full of interest from its undesigned
+bearing on the phenomena of dreaming.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_178_178" id="Footnote_178_178"></a><a href="#FNanchor_178_178"><span class="label">[178]</span></a> Foucault, for instance (<cite>Le R&ecirc;ve</cite>, p. 25), discusses and illustrates
+dreams of this type. I am not here concerned with the causation of this
+type of dream. Perhaps, as Wundt believes, it is due to some physical
+discomfort of the sleeper, such as a cramped position, expressing itself
+symbolically.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_179_179" id="Footnote_179_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_179_179"><span class="label">[179]</span></a> It may be added that dreams of returning to the school scenes of early
+life are not necessarily always of the type here described, as may be illustrated
+by the dream already brought forward on p. 83, which, it is worth
+while noticing, occurred after a day on which I had been thinking over
+the dreams of this class.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_180_180" id="Footnote_180_180"></a><a href="#FNanchor_180_180"><span class="label">[180]</span></a> I reproduce these two series in the same form as first published (Havelock
+Ellis, 'On Dreaming of the Dead,' <cite>Psychological Review</cite>, September
+1895) since they have formed the starting point of my own and others'
+investigation into this type of dream.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_181_181" id="Footnote_181_181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_181_181"><span class="label">[181]</span></a> It is well known, and has often been pointed out (by Weygandt, Sante
+de Sanctis, Jewell, etc., and perhaps first by T. Beddoes in his <cite>Hygeia</cite>,
+1803, vol. iii. p. 88), that while in childhood all the emotions of the past
+day are at once echoed in dreams, after adolescence, this is not so in the
+case of intense emotions, which do not emerge in dreams until after a more
+or less considerable interval. Marie de Manac&eacute;&iuml;ne and Sante de Sanctis
+attribute this to exhaustion of the emotion which needs a period of repair
+and organic synthesis before it can repeat itself. Vaschide believed that we
+dream of recent events in shallow sleep and of remote events in deep sleep;
+this sounds plausible, but will scarcely account for all the phenomena.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_182_182" id="Footnote_182_182"></a><a href="#FNanchor_182_182"><span class="label">[182]</span></a> Since the publication of my paper 'On Dreaming of the Dead,' several
+psychologists have returned to the subject. Thus Binet (<cite>L'Ann&eacute;e Psychologique</cite>,
+2nd year, issued in 1896, p. 848) gave a dream of his own, very
+similar to mine of the editor, in which a doctor, dead a month previously,
+is talking to him in his room. On Binet expressing surprise at seeing
+him, the doctor explains that he had only sent news of his death in order
+to see how many people would come to his funeral. Binet has also had
+two dreams, similar to that described on p. 200, in which he is walking in
+the country with a dead friend, who seems in good health, though the
+dreamer knows he will soon die. Foucault (<cite>Le R&ecirc;ve</cite>, p. 128), who, in
+accordance with his own theory, regards my dream of the editor as belonging
+to the period of awakening, brings forward a dream of his own in which
+he saw his father, dead six months before, sitting in a chair; at first this
+seems to him a hallucination, but he finally accepts the vision as real. I
+have had a number of letters from people who have had dreams of this type.
+One correspondent, an anthropologist and folk-lorist of note, says that
+his dreams of dead friends are of the type of Mrs. F.'s. Professor N&auml;cke
+writes that he has had such dreams (and see also his articles in the <cite>Archiv
+f&uuml;r Kriminalanthropologie</cite>, 1903, p. 307, and the <cite>Neurologisches Centralblatt</cite>,
+1910, No. 13). One young lady states that, thirteen years after her
+mother's death, she still dreams of her as coming to life again or never
+having really died. I may add that this type of dream is admirably
+illustrated in a series of dreams concerning a dead friend, published in a
+letter from a lady to <cite>Borderland</cite>, January 1896, p. 51.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_183_183" id="Footnote_183_183"></a><a href="#FNanchor_183_183"><span class="label">[183]</span></a> Gassendi, <cite>Syntagma Philosophicum</cite>, 1658, pars. 71, lib. viii. (<cite>Op&eacute;ra
+Omnia</cite>, vol. i.).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_184_184" id="Footnote_184_184"></a><a name="FNanchor_184a_184a" id="FNanchor_184a_184a"></a><a href="#FNanchor_184_184"><span class="label">[184]</span></a> Maury, <cite>Le Sommeil et les R&ecirc;ves</cite>, p. 145.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_185_185" id="Footnote_185_185"></a><a href="#FNanchor_185_185"><span class="label">[185]</span></a> <cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>, July-October, 1903, p. 18.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_186_186" id="Footnote_186_186"></a><a href="#FNanchor_186_186"><span class="label">[186]</span></a> Chabaneix, <cite>Le Subconscient chez les Artistes, les Savants et les Ecrivains</cite>,
+1897, pp. 45-8. Chabaneix was in touch with various persons of distinction,
+and one is inclined to identify the poet-philosopher with Sully-Prudhomme,
+at that time still living. Du Maurier's remarkable novel,
+<cite>Peter Ibbetson</cite>&mdash;which records similar serial dreams of union with a beloved
+woman after death, and seems to be based on real experience&mdash;may also
+be mentioned in this connection.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_187_187" id="Footnote_187_187"></a><a href="#FNanchor_187_187"><span class="label">[187]</span></a> Unconscious dream suggestions of this kind resemble, as R. MacDougall
+has remarked (<cite>Psychological Review</cite>, March 1898, p. 167), post-hypnotic
+suggestions.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_188_188" id="Footnote_188_188"></a><a href="#FNanchor_188_188"><span class="label">[188]</span></a> This type of dream&mdash;in which the emotion of the day is inverted in
+sleep, depressing emotions giving place to exalting emotions, and so on&mdash;is
+by some (Griesinger, Lombroso, Sante de Sanctis, etc.), termed the
+contrast-dream. The dream is in such a case, Sante de Sanctis remarks,
+complementary, having the same significance as a complementary after-image
+and indicating a phase of anabolic repair. Thus A. Wiggam (<cite>Pedagogical
+Seminary</cite>, June 1909), gives the case of a girl of twenty, who when
+tired and restless always has good dreams, while her dreams are bad when
+she is well and free from care. It should be added that, as understood
+by N&auml;cke ('Ueber Kontrast-Tr&auml;ume' <cite>Archiv f&uuml;r Kriminalanthropologie</cite>,
+1907), a contrast-dream is one that is in striking contrast to the dreamer's
+ordinary character. In this type of contrast-dream it is not quite clear
+that the mechanism is the same, and the contrast may sometimes be accidental.
+Thus a dream of being a soldier on a battlefield, with shells
+bursting around me, was merely suggested by a passage of Nietzsche, read
+in the evening, which contained the words 'the thunders of the battle
+of W&ouml;rth,' and the question of contrast or resemblance to my character
+and habits was irrelevant.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_189_189" id="Footnote_189_189"></a><a href="#FNanchor_189_189"><span class="label">[189]</span></a> <cite>Journal of the Anthropological Institute</cite>, July-December 1904, p. 339.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_190_190" id="Footnote_190_190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_190_190"><span class="label">[190]</span></a> See Herbert Spencer, <cite>Principles of Sociology</cite>, 3rd ed., 1885, vol. i.
+ch. x., especially pp. 140, 182, 201, 772. Spencer believed that Lubbock
+was the first to point out this factor in primitive beliefs, which has been
+chiefly developed by Tylor. It is, of course, by no means the only factor.
+See <em>post</em>, p. 266.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_191_191" id="Footnote_191_191"></a><a href="#FNanchor_191_191"><span class="label">[191]</span></a> Thus Professor Beaunis (<em>loc. cit.</em>) considers that dreams furnish the
+only rational explanation of the belief in survival after death. Jewell,
+again (<cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>, January 1905), also considers
+that dreams are responsible for primitive man's inability to conceive
+of death as ending our association with our friends; he brings forward
+evidence, highly significant in this connection, to show that children, on
+dreaming of the dead as alive, are influenced in waking life to doubt the
+reality of their death. Ruths, also writing since the publication of my
+first paper (<cite>Experimental-Untersuchungen &uuml;ber Musikphantome</cite>, 1898,
+pp. 438 <em>et seq.</em>), considers that the conception of an under-world is founded
+on dreams of the dead coming to life.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_192_192" id="Footnote_192_192"></a><a href="#FNanchor_192_192"><span class="label">[192]</span></a> It is as well to bear in mind that this dream occurred when Maury
+was a student, long before he began to study dreaming, and (as Egger has
+pointed out) was probably not written down until thirteen years later.
+On these grounds alone it is not entitled to serious consideration.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_193_193" id="Footnote_193_193"></a><a href="#FNanchor_193_193"><span class="label">[193]</span></a> As Sir Samuel Wilks once remarked ('On the Nature of Dreams,'
+<cite>Medical Magazine</cite>, Feb. 1894), 'The dreamer merely forms a mental
+picture, and the <em>description</em> of it he calls his dream.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_194_194" id="Footnote_194_194"></a><a href="#FNanchor_194_194"><span class="label">[194]</span></a> Egger, 'La Dur&eacute;e apparente des R&ecirc;ves,' <cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>, Jan.
+1895, pp. 41-59; Clavi&egrave;re, 'La Rapidit&eacute; de la Pens&eacute;e dans le R&ecirc;ve,' <em>ib.</em>
+May 1897, p. 509; Pi&eacute;ron, 'La Rapidit&eacute; des Processes Psychiques,' <em>ib.</em>
+Jan. 1903, pp. 89-95; Foucault, <cite>Le R&ecirc;ve</cite>, pp. 158 <em>et seq.;</em> Tobolowska,
+<cite>Etude sur les Illusions du Temps dans les R&ecirc;ves du Sommeil Normal:</cite> Th&egrave;se
+de Paris, 1900.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_195_195" id="Footnote_195_195"></a><a href="#FNanchor_195_195"><span class="label">[195]</span></a> Thus Freud tells (<cite>Jahrbuch f&uuml;r Psychoanalytische Forschungen</cite>, vol. i.
+part ii. p. 387) of a man who was obsessed by the idea that he should
+never pass money until he had carefully cleaned it, for fear he might be
+infecting other people, but was quite unaware that this obsession sprang
+from remorse due to his own sins of sexual impurity. In such a case there
+is, of course, not only a crumpling of consciousness, but a definite dislocation
+and transference of the parts.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_196_196" id="Footnote_196_196"></a><a href="#FNanchor_196_196"><span class="label">[196]</span></a> We also see here an interesting dissociation of the motor (speech)
+centre from the visual centre; it is the latter which is in this instance
+most closely in touch with facts.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_197_197" id="Footnote_197_197"></a><a href="#FNanchor_197_197"><span class="label">[197]</span></a> The 'selvdrolla' dream, recorded in a previous chapter (p. 43), illustrates
+the same point with the difference that the crumpled up portion of
+consciousness never became visible in the dream.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_198_198" id="Footnote_198_198"></a><a href="#FNanchor_198_198"><span class="label">[198]</span></a> R. L. Stevenson, 'A Chapter on Dreams,' in <cite>Across the Plains</cite>, 1892.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_199_199" id="Footnote_199_199"></a><a href="#FNanchor_199_199"><span class="label">[199]</span></a> In most cases the missing memory, after making itself felt outside
+the conscious area, seems to reach that area, not so much by its own
+spontaneous unconscious movement as by a tentative search for clues.
+Thus I read one day the words 'the breaking of a goblet by a little black
+imp,' and immediately became conscious that I was reminded of something
+similar in recent experience, but could not tell what. I asked myself if
+it could have been in a dream. In a few moments, however, the memory
+recurred to me that two hours previously I had noticed a broken vase,
+and casually wondered how it had become broken. Under such circumstances
+we are for a time thinking of something, and yet have no conscious
+knowledge as to what we are thinking of.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_200_200" id="Footnote_200_200"></a><a href="#FNanchor_200_200"><span class="label">[200]</span></a> Jastrow remarks, somewhat in the same way (<cite>The Subconscious</cite>, p. 93),
+that 'a letting down of the effort, a focusing of the mind upon a point
+a little or a good deal to one side of the fixation point, distinctly aids the
+mental vision.' The process seems, however, to be most effective when
+it is automatic, for attention cannot easily relax its own tension. A large
+number of the discoveries and solutions of difficulties effected in dreams
+are due to this dispersal of attention over a wider field, so enabling the
+missing relationship to be detected. See, for instance, some cases recorded
+by Newbold (<cite>Psychological Review</cite>, March 1896, p. 132), as of Dr. Hilprecht,
+the Assyriologist, who discovered in a dream that two fragments
+of tablets he had vainly been endeavouring to decipher, were really parts
+of the same tablet.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_201_201" id="Footnote_201_201"></a><a href="#FNanchor_201_201"><span class="label">[201]</span></a> Hypermnesia, or excessive memory, is found in waking life in various
+abnormal conditions. It is not uncommon in men of genius; Macaulay
+is a well-known example. It scarcely seems, however, an especially
+favourable condition for keen intellectual power; the mental machine
+that is clogged with unnecessary and unimportant facts can scarcely fail
+to work under difficulties. 'Hypermnesia,' remarks Stoddart ('Early
+Symptoms of Mental Disease,' <cite>British Medical Journal</cite>, 11th May 1907),
+'occurs most frequently in certain cases of idiocy, and in some cases of
+chronic mania. One such patient could enumerate all the occasions
+when any given medical officer had played tennis since he entered the
+institution.' Hypermnesia in dreams has been dealt with by Carl du
+Prel, <cite>Philosophy of Mysticism</cite>, vol. ii. ch. i.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_202_202" id="Footnote_202_202"></a><a href="#FNanchor_202_202"><span class="label">[202]</span></a> This delay is worth mentioning, for it is conceivable that, in the case
+of a weak recollection, transference to the subconscious sphere of sleep
+might involve a temporary disappearance from the conscious waking
+sphere.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_203_203" id="Footnote_203_203"></a><a href="#FNanchor_203_203"><span class="label">[203]</span></a> There is a possible interest in the exact length of the interval. Swoboda
+(<cite>Die Perioden des Menschlichen Organismus in ihrer psychologischen
+und biologischen Bedeutung</cite>, 1904) believes that the recurrence of memories
+tends to obey a law of periodicity, so that, for instance, a melody heard
+at a concert may recur at a regular interval. I cannot say that I have
+myself found evidence of such periodicity, though I have made several
+observations on the recurrence of such memories.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_204_204" id="Footnote_204_204"></a><a href="#FNanchor_204_204"><span class="label">[204]</span></a> Similarly, Foucault (<cite>Le R&ecirc;ve</cite>, p. 79) records the dream of a lady concerning
+a place called Br&eacute;tigny, near Dijon, though when awake she was
+not aware there is such a place there. Elsewhere (p. 214) Foucault also
+gives examples of sensations, not consciously perceived in the waking
+state, but revived in dream. Beaunis, in his interesting 'Contribution
+&agrave; la Psychologie du R&ecirc;ve' (<cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>, July-Oct.
+1903) narrates a dream of his own in which a forgotten or unconscious
+memory revived. Many such dreams could easily be brought together.
+An often-quoted dream, apparently of this kind (see <em>e.g.</em>, <cite>British Medical
+Journal</cite>, 7th April 1900, p. 850), is that of Archbishop Benson who, like
+his predecessor, Laud, took an interest in his dreams. He dreamed that
+he was suffering severely in his chest, and that his doctor, on being called
+in, told him that he had angĭna pectoris. The archbishop in his dream
+exclaimed with indignation: 'Angǐna, angǐna!' The dream made
+such an impression on him that he looked the matter up, but only found
+the ordinary pronunciation, angīna, recorded. A week later he was at
+Cambridge, dining in hall at Trinity, and seated next to Munro, the Professor
+of Latin, who happened to ask him about the death of Thomas
+Arnold. 'He died of angĭna pectoris,' said Benson. Munro smiled grimly
+and said softly: 'Of angǐna, as we now call it.' There can be no doubt
+that Benson, who was closely in touch with the academic world, had met
+with this correction, which is accepted by all modern Latinists, and
+'forgotten' it.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_205_205" id="Footnote_205_205"></a><a href="#FNanchor_205_205"><span class="label">[205]</span></a> Xenoglossia, as well as the tendency to utter gibberish, are both
+classed under glossolalia. See <em>e.g.</em> E. Lombard, 'Phenom&egrave;nes de Glossolalie,'
+<cite>Archives de Psychologie</cite>, July 1907.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_206_206" id="Footnote_206_206"></a><a href="#FNanchor_206_206"><span class="label">[206]</span></a> In the eighteenth century Lord Monboddo (<cite>Ancient Metaphysics</cite>,
+vol. iii., 1782, p. 217) referred to a Countess of Laval who, during the
+delirium of illness, spoke the Breton tongue which she had known as a
+child, but long since forgotten.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_207_207" id="Footnote_207_207"></a><a href="#FNanchor_207_207"><span class="label">[207]</span></a> In a somewhat similar manner the muscular contractions of the
+hysterical may disappear during sleep, as may their paralyses and their
+anaesthesias, as well as their losses of memory. (These phenomena have
+been especially observed and studied by Raymond and Janet, <cite>N&eacute;vroses
+et Id&eacute;es Fixes</cite>, vol. ii.) Such characteristics of the sleep of the hysterical
+may well be a manifestation of the same tendency which in the sleep of
+normal people leads to hypermnesia. In this connection reference may
+be made to the interesting opposition between attention and memory
+developed by Dr. Marie de Manac&eacute;&iuml;ne ('De l'antagonisme qui existe entre
+chaque effort de l'attention et des innervations motrices,' <cite>Atti dell' XI.
+Congresso Internazionale Medico</cite>, 1894, Rome, vol. ii., 'Fisiologia,' p. 48).
+Concentrated attention, she argues, paralyses memory, and there is an
+absolute antagonism between motor innervation, or real movement,
+which favours memory, and the concentrated effort which favours attention.
+'In psychological researches we must always separate the phenomena
+of memory from the phenomena of attention, for memory is only
+possible through muscular movement, and attention, on the contrary, is
+only active through the suppression of movement.' In sleep, it is true,
+there may be no actual movement, but there is relaxation of muscular
+tension and freedom of motor ideas. It should be added that not all
+investigators confirm Manac&eacute;&iuml;ne's conclusion as to the antagonism between
+the conditions for memory and attention. Thus R. MacDougall ('The
+Physical Characteristics of Attention,' <cite>Psychological Review</cite>, March 1895),
+while finding that muscular relaxation accompanies the recall of memories,
+finds also, though not so markedly and constantly, a similar relaxation
+accompanying both voluntary and spontaneous attention.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_208_208" id="Footnote_208_208"></a><a href="#FNanchor_208_208"><span class="label">[208]</span></a> The term 'paramnesia' was devised by Kraepelin, who wrote the
+first comprehensive study of the subject, though he offered no explanatory
+theory of it ('Ueber Erinnerungsf&auml;lschungen,' <cite>Archiv f&uuml;r Psychiatrie</cite>,
+Bd. xvii. and xviii.). A very clear and comprehensive account of the
+subject, up to the date of the article, was given by W. H. Burnham
+('Paramnesia,' <cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>, May 1889). In the
+following pages, together with much new matter, I have made use of my
+paper entitled 'A Note on Hypnagogic Paramnesia,' published in <cite>Mind</cite>,
+vol. vi. No. 22, in 1896.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_209_209" id="Footnote_209_209"></a><a href="#FNanchor_209_209"><span class="label">[209]</span></a> It has long been recognised by psychologists that paramnesia occurs
+in dreams. Thus Burnham refers to it as frequent, and Kraepelin mentions
+that he once dreamed of smoking a cigar for the fourth or fifth time,
+though he had never smoked in his life.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_210_210" id="Footnote_210_210"></a><a name="FNanchor_210a_210a" id="FNanchor_210a_210a"></a><a href="#FNanchor_210_210"><span class="label">[210]</span></a> In <ins title="Transcriber's Note: original reads 'alcholic'">alcoholic</ins> insanity, for instance, especially when it leads to the
+occurrence of Korsakoff's syndrome, there is a notable degree of mental
+weakness with a tendency to form false memories, both in the form of
+confabulation (or the filling by imagination of lacunae in memory) and
+pseudo-reminiscence. (See <em>e.g.</em> John Turner, 'Alcoholic Insanity,' <cite>Journal
+of Mental Science</cite>, Jan. 1910, p. 41.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_211_211" id="Footnote_211_211"></a><a href="#FNanchor_211_211"><span class="label">[211]</span></a> Dr. Marie de Manac&eacute;&iuml;ne, who has studied the phenomena of the
+hypnagogic state experimentally in much detail (<cite>Sleep</cite>, pp. 195-220), finds
+that in its deepest stage it is marked by echolalia, or the tendency to repeat
+automatically what is said, and in a less deep stage by abnormal suggestibility
+or the tendency to accept ideas and especially emotions. She
+considers that the hypnagogic state becomes abnormal when it lasts for
+more than fifteen seconds. It may last for more than six minutes, and
+is then of serious import. She shows reason to believe that the hypnagogic
+state is substantially identical with the hypnotic state, and she
+regards it as probably due to cerebral anaemia. She finds it especially
+marked in children under fifteen, the more so if they belong to the working-class,
+and rather common among adolescent girls and young women,
+especially if anaemic, but among adults rarer in women than in men, becoming
+more frequent in both sexes with old age; the phlegmatic are more
+liable to it than the sanguine or the nervous.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_212_212" id="Footnote_212_212"></a><a href="#FNanchor_212_212"><span class="label">[212]</span></a> Sully, <cite>The Human Mind</cite>, vol. ii. p. 317. Foucault (<cite>Le R&ecirc;ve</cite>, p. 300),
+briefly notes that he has often had the illusion of seeming to remember
+a fact which does not exist, and of recollecting a person he has never
+seen.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_213_213" id="Footnote_213_213"></a><a href="#FNanchor_213_213"><span class="label">[213]</span></a> F. W. Colegrove, 'Individual Memories,' <cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>,
+Jan. 1899.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_214_214" id="Footnote_214_214"></a><a href="#FNanchor_214_214"><span class="label">[214]</span></a> See <em>e.g.</em> for such cases in sane persons, Hack Tuke, 'Hallucinations,'
+<cite>Brain</cite>, vol. xi., 1889. A man with chronic systematised delusions writes:
+'I am obsessed at nights; that is, I am made the recipient of projected
+thoughts which become translated into dreams, and on several occasions
+I have found, just after waking, and while still in a very passive state,
+that some one was speaking to me in the ear.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_215_215" id="Footnote_215_215"></a><a href="#FNanchor_215_215"><span class="label">[215]</span></a> Hughlings Jackson (<cite>Practitioner</cite>, May 1874, also <cite>Brain</cite>, July 1888, and
+<cite>Brain</cite>, 1899, p. 534) applied this term to the intellectual aura preceding
+an epileptic attack and considered that 'pseudo-reminiscence' itself might
+indicate a slight epileptic paroxysm in persons who show other symptoms
+of epilepsy. Gowers also (<cite>Epilepsy</cite>, 2nd ed., p. 133) considers 'dreamy
+state' to be closely associated with minor attacks of epilepsy; and
+Crichton-Browne (<cite>Dreamy Mental States</cite>) holds the same view. It should
+be added that 'dreamy state' by no means necessarily involves pseudo-reminiscence;
+see <em>e.g.</em> S. Taylor, 'A Case of Dreamy State,' <cite>Lancet</cite>, 9th Aug.
+1890, p. 276, and W. A. Turner, 'The Problem of Epilepsy,' <cite>British Medical
+Journal</cite>, 2nd April 1910, p. 805. Leroy found that pseudo-reminiscence
+is usually rare in association with epilepsy.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_216_216" id="Footnote_216_216"></a><a href="#FNanchor_216_216"><span class="label">[216]</span></a> 'The feeling of pre-existence,' writes Dr. J. G. Kiernan in a private
+letter, 'frequently occurs as a consequence of delusions of memory in
+epilepsy. The case on which George Sand built her story of <cite>Consuelo</cite>
+was one reported of an epileptic who during the epileptic states had delusions
+of living in a distant historic past of which he retained the memory
+as facts during the normal state. I know of two epileptic theosophists
+who base their belief in transmigration on the memories of their epileptic
+period. In my judgment a large part of Swedenborg's visions were
+instances of delusions of memory.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_217_217" id="Footnote_217_217"></a><a href="#FNanchor_217_217"><span class="label">[217]</span></a> Professor Grasset ('La Sensation du "D&eacute;j&agrave; Vu,"' <cite>Journal de Psychologie
+Normale et Pathologique</cite>, Nov.-Feb. 1904) considers that a feeling
+of anguish is the characteristic accompaniment of a true paramnesic
+manifestation. This statement is too pronounced. There is usually some
+emotional disturbance, but its degree depends on the temperament of the
+person experiencing the phenomenon. Sometimes the sensation of pseudo-reminiscence
+may be accompanied, as a medical man subject to epilepsy
+(mentioned by Hughlings Jackson) found in his own case, by 'a slight sense
+of satisfaction,' as in the finding of something that had been sought for.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_218_218" id="Footnote_218_218"></a><a href="#FNanchor_218_218"><span class="label">[218]</span></a> <cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>, November 1893.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_219_219" id="Footnote_219_219"></a><a href="#FNanchor_219_219"><span class="label">[219]</span></a> <cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>, January 1894.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_220_220" id="Footnote_220_220"></a><a href="#FNanchor_220_220"><span class="label">[220]</span></a> Heymans found that students liable to paramnesia tended to possess
+an aptitude for languages and an inaptitude for mathematics.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_221_221" id="Footnote_221_221"></a><a href="#FNanchor_221_221"><span class="label">[221]</span></a> Paul Bourget, the novelist, in an interesting letter published by
+Grasset (<cite>loc. cit.</cite>) states that this experience has been habitual with him
+from as long back as he can remember, occurring in regard to things
+heard or felt more than to things seen, and accompanied by an emotional
+trouble similar to that experienced in dreams of dead friends who appear
+as living, though even in his dreams the dreamer knows that they are dead.
+Bourget adds that he is of emotional temperament, and that the phenomenon
+was more pronounced in childhood than it is now.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_222_222" id="Footnote_222_222"></a><a href="#FNanchor_222_222"><span class="label">[222]</span></a> Paul Lapie, <cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>, March 1894; Charles <cite>M&eacute;r&eacute;, Mercure
+de France</cite>, July 1903; Sully, Tannery, and Buccola also considered that
+this is a factor in the explanation of the phenomenon. Freud (<cite>Zur Psychopathologie
+des Alltagsleben</cite>, 1907, p. 122) brings forward a modification
+of this theory, and believes that false recognition is a reminiscence of
+unconscious day-dreams.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_223_223" id="Footnote_223_223"></a><a href="#FNanchor_223_223"><span class="label">[223]</span></a> For a minute and searching criticism of the theory of the duplex brain,
+see especially four articles by Bonne in the <cite>Archives de Neurologie</cite>, March-June
+1907.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_224_224" id="Footnote_224_224"></a><a href="#FNanchor_224_224"><span class="label">[224]</span></a> 'Epilepsy' wrote Binns long ago (<cite>Anatomy of Sleep</cite>, 1845, p. 431), 'is a
+disease which in some of its symptoms strongly resembles abnormal sleep.'
+The conditions under which a paramnesic manifestation may really replace
+an epileptic fit are well described by a literary man with hereditary epilepsy
+whose case has been recorded by Haskovec of Prague (<cite>XIIIe. Congr&egrave;s
+International de M&eacute;decine: Comptes Rendus</cite>, vol. viii., 'Psychiatrie'
+p. 125): 'One day at the theatre, under the influence of the heat and
+perhaps the music, I experienced extreme excitement and fatigue. I
+thought I was about to have an attack, and resisted with all my strength,
+and it failed to take place. But I found myself in a strange psychic state.
+On leaving the theatre I seemed to be dreaming. I saw and heard
+everything and talked as usual. But everything seemed strange. Nothing
+seemed to reach directly <em>me</em> or to be a real impression, but merely
+the automatic reproduction of something learnt, only I felt that I had
+lived it all before and felt it; at that moment I simply seemed to be
+observing it.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_225_225" id="Footnote_225_225"></a><a href="#FNanchor_225_225"><span class="label">[225]</span></a> <cite>Centralblatt f&uuml;r Nervenheilkunde</cite>, April 1886. In some forms of insanity
+the false recognition of a person may become a fixed delusion.
+This question has been studied by Alb&egrave;s in his Paris thesis, <cite>De I'Illusion
+de Fausse Reconnaissance</cite>, 1906.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_226_226" id="Footnote_226_226"></a><a href="#FNanchor_226_226"><span class="label">[226]</span></a> E. Maitland, <cite>Anna Kingsford</cite>, vol. i. p. 3. Lalande (<cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>,
+November 1893, p. 487) gives a precisely similar case in a
+child.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_227_227" id="Footnote_227_227"></a><a href="#FNanchor_227_227"><span class="label">[227]</span></a> As quoted by Jastrow, <cite>The Subconscious</cite>, p. 248.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_228_228" id="Footnote_228_228"></a><a href="#FNanchor_228_228"><span class="label">[228]</span></a> Leroy, <cite>Etude sur l'Illusion de Fausse Reconnaissance</cite>, 1898, with
+forty-nine new observations. Leroy states, however (in declared opposition
+to my view), that only a minority of his cases actually mention fatigue.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_229_229" id="Footnote_229_229"></a><a href="#FNanchor_229_229"><span class="label">[229]</span></a> Heymans, 'Eine Enqu&ecirc;te &uuml;ber Depersonnalisation und Fausse Reconnaissance,'
+<cite>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Psychologie und Physiologie der Sinnesorgane</cite>,
+November, 1903; also a further paper in the same journal confirming his
+conclusions, January 1906.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_230_230" id="Footnote_230_230"></a><a href="#FNanchor_230_230"><span class="label">[230]</span></a> F&eacute;r&eacute;, 'Deuxi&egrave;me Note sur la Fausse Reconnaissance,' <cite>Journal de
+Neurologie</cite>, 1905.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_231_231" id="Footnote_231_231"></a><a href="#FNanchor_231_231"><span class="label">[231]</span></a> Dromard et Alb&egrave;s, 'L'Illusion dit de Fausse Reconnaissance,' <cite>Journal
+de Psychologie Normale et Pathologique</cite>, May-June 1905.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_232_232" id="Footnote_232_232"></a><a href="#FNanchor_232_232"><span class="label">[232]</span></a> Dugas, 'Observations sur des Erreurs "Formelles" de la M&eacute;moire,'
+<cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>, July 1908.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_233_233" id="Footnote_233_233"></a><a href="#FNanchor_233_233"><span class="label">[233]</span></a> A friend, liable to this form of paramnesia, wrote to me after the publication
+of my first paper on the subject: 'I find, as you foretold, that it
+is difficult to recall an experience of this kind in all its details. I feel sure,
+however, that it is not necessarily allied with an enfeebled or overwrought
+nervous system. It was commonest with me in my youth, at a time when
+my life was a pleasant one, and my brain not fagged as now. I still
+[aged 43] have it occasionally, but not so frequently as twenty years ago.'
+It may be added that my friend, of Highland family, was a man of keen
+and emotional nervous temperament, a strenuous mental worker&mdash;whence
+at one time a serious breakdown in health&mdash;and had published two volumes
+of poems in early life. The greater liability to paramnesia in early life,
+which is generally recognised, is comparable to the special liability of
+children to hypnagogic visions, both phenomena being probably due to
+the greater excitability and easier exhaustibility of the youthful brain.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_234_234" id="Footnote_234_234"></a><a href="#FNanchor_234_234"><span class="label">[234]</span></a> For instance, by Allin, 'Recognition,' <cite>American Journal of Psychology</cite>,
+January 1896.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_235_235" id="Footnote_235_235"></a><a href="#FNanchor_235_235"><span class="label">[235]</span></a> The explanation of paramnesia here set forth received on its first
+publication the approval of L&eacute;on Marillier, who considered it 'ingenious
+and seductive,' and as adequately accounting for the phenomena, provided
+we bear in mind that the loss of a clear feeling of time is characteristic of
+hypnagogic and allied states, the perception of each moment being immediately
+transferred into an ancient memory, and consequently recognised
+(<cite>L'Ann&eacute;e Biologique</cite>, third year, 1897, p. 772). This necessity for
+taking into account the co-existence of perception and illusory remembrance
+has largely moulded several of the theories of paramnesia. Thus
+Jean de Pury (<cite>Archives de Psychologie</cite>, December 1902), while affirming
+that pseudo-reminiscence is due to an <em>anteriorisation</em> of actual perceptions,
+regards it as of the nature of a double refraction such as that simultaneously
+produced on two faces of a prism by the same image; under the influence
+of conditions he is unable to define, an image appears for the moment
+on the plane both of the past and of the present, and psychically we see
+double just as physically we see double when the parallelism of our visual
+rays is disturbed. Pi&eacute;ron, again, taking up a theory at one time favoured
+by Dugas, and previously suggested in one form or another by Ribot and
+Fouill&eacute;e, assumes the formation of two images: one which, owing to
+distraction or fatigue, reaches consciousness after having traversed subconsciousness,
+and so takes on a dream-like and effaced character, and
+almost simultaneously with this a direct perception which has not thus
+changed its character; the shock of the conflict between these two produces
+the pseudo-reminiscence ('Sur l'Interpretation des Faits de Paramn&eacute;sie,'
+<cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>, August 1902). Alb&egrave;s, in his Paris thesis,
+criticises this explanation, pointing out that a sequence of this kind very
+frequently occurs, but produces no pseudo-reminiscence.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_236_236" id="Footnote_236_236"></a><a href="#FNanchor_236_236"><span class="label">[236]</span></a> Michel L&eacute;on-Kindberg, 'Le Sentiment du D&eacute;j&agrave; Vu,' <cite>Revue de Psychiatrie</cite>,
+April 1903, No. 4.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_237_237" id="Footnote_237_237"></a><a href="#FNanchor_237_237"><span class="label">[237]</span></a> G. Ballet, 'Un Cas de Fausse Reconnaissance,' <cite>Revue Neurologique</cite>,
+1904, p. 1221.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_238_238" id="Footnote_238_238"></a><a href="#FNanchor_238_238"><span class="label">[238]</span></a> Dugas, 'Observations sur des Erreurs "Formelles" de la M&eacute;moire',
+<cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>, July 1908; <em>ib.</em> June 1910. Dugas makes no reference
+to Janet, nor to my paper on Hypnagogic Paramnesia, but his statement
+of the matter to some extent combines and harmonises those of the two
+earlier writers.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_239_239" id="Footnote_239_239"></a><a href="#FNanchor_239_239"><span class="label">[239]</span></a> P. Janet, 'A Propos du D&eacute;j&agrave; Vu,' <cite>Journal de Psychologie Normale et
+Pathologique</cite>, July-August 1905.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_240_240" id="Footnote_240_240"></a><a href="#FNanchor_240_240"><span class="label">[240]</span></a> H. Bergson, 'Le Souvenir du Pr&eacute;sent et la Fausse Reconnaissance,'
+<cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>, December 1908. It should be remarked that, except
+in the attempt to explain why paramnesia is not normally habitual,
+Bergson's paper is based on the ideas or suggestions of previous writers.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_241_241" id="Footnote_241_241"></a><a href="#FNanchor_241_241"><span class="label">[241]</span></a> Before the appearance of my paper, as already mentioned, Anjel had
+emphasised the significance of fatigue in the production of paramnesia
+(<cite>Archiv f&uuml;r Psychiatrie</cite>, Bd. viii. pp. 57 <em>et seq.</em>). His theory, indeed (only
+known to me through brief summaries)&mdash;according to which the pseudo-reminiscence
+is due to the tardy apprehension by the fatigued mind of
+a sensation which is thus degraded to the level of a reproduced impression&mdash;seems
+practically identical with that which I independently reached
+in the light of hypnagogic phenomena.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_242_242" id="Footnote_242_242"></a><a href="#FNanchor_242_242"><span class="label">[242]</span></a> I disregard those theories which invoke histological explanations, as
+by some peculiar disposition of the neurons. Such explanations are as
+much outside the psychologist's sphere as the old-fashioned explanations
+by reference to God and the Devil. A known physiological or pathological
+process may, indeed, quite properly be recognised by the psychologist;
+such, for instance, as the disturbance of the heart associated with
+some dreams. Even minute changes in the brain, when they have been
+properly determined by the histologist, may be effectively invoked by the
+psychologist if they seem to supply an exact physical correlative to his
+own findings. But for the psychologist to go outside his own field, and
+invent a purely fanciful and arbitrary neuronic scheme to suit a psychic
+process, explains nothing. It is merely child's play. The stuff that the
+psychologist works with must be psychical, just as the stuff of the physicist's
+work must be physical.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_243_243" id="Footnote_243_243"></a><a href="#FNanchor_243_243"><span class="label">[243]</span></a> Certain phases of waking psychic life are, however, closely related to
+dreaming. This is obviously the case as regards day-dreaming or reverie.
+(See <em>e.g.</em> Janet, <cite>N&eacute;vroses et Id&eacute;es Fixes</cite>, vol. i. pp. 390-6.) It would also
+appear that wit is the result of a process analogous to that fusion of incompatible
+elements which we have found to prevail in dreams. Our
+dreams are sometimes full of usually ineffective wit; I could easily quote
+dreams in illustration. (Freud has, from his point of view, studied the
+analogy between wit and dreaming in <cite>Der Witz und seine Beziehung zum
+Unbewussten</cite>.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_244_244" id="Footnote_244_244"></a><a href="#FNanchor_244_244"><span class="label">[244]</span></a> In more recent times Moreau of Tours, especially, argued (<cite>Du Haschich
+et de l'Ali&eacute;nation Mentale</cite>, 1845) that <em>haschisch</em>-intoxication is insanity, and
+that insanity is a waking dream.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_245_245" id="Footnote_245_245"></a><a href="#FNanchor_245_245"><span class="label">[245]</span></a> In insane subjects a dream not uncommonly forms the starting point
+of a delusion, and many illustrative examples could be brought forward.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_246_246" id="Footnote_246_246"></a><a href="#FNanchor_246_246"><span class="label">[246]</span></a> Marro, <cite>La Pubert&agrave;</cite>, pp. 286-92.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_247_247" id="Footnote_247_247"></a><a href="#FNanchor_247_247"><span class="label">[247]</span></a> Freud, <cite>Die Traumdeutung</cite>, p. 13. Elsewhere (p. 135) Freud remarks:
+'The deeper we go in the analysis of dreams the more frequently we come
+across traces of childish experience which form a latent source of dreams.'
+The same point had been previously emphasised by Sully, 'The Dream
+as a Revelation,' <cite>Fortnightly Review</cite>, March 1893.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_248_248" id="Footnote_248_248"></a><a href="#FNanchor_248_248"><span class="label">[248]</span></a> C. M. Giessler, <cite>Die Physiologischen Beziehungen der Traumvorg&auml;nge</cite>,
+ch. iv.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_249_249" id="Footnote_249_249"></a><a href="#FNanchor_249_249"><span class="label">[249]</span></a> Jewell, who gives illustrations in evidence, concludes (<cite>American
+Journal of Psychology</cite>, January 1905, pp. 25-8) that 'the confusion of
+dreams with real life is almost universal with children, and quite common
+among adolescents and adults.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_250_250" id="Footnote_250_250"></a><a href="#FNanchor_250_250"><span class="label">[250]</span></a> Hans Gross, the distinguished criminologist, refers (<cite>Kriminalpsychologie</cite>,
+p. 672) to two cases of children who brought criminal charges which
+were apparently based on dreams. Gross mentions that this may often
+be suspected when the child says nothing at the time, and shows no excitement
+or depression until a day or two after the date of the alleged event.
+For confusion of dream with reality, see also Gross, <cite>Gesammelte Kriminalistische
+Aufs&auml;tze</cite>, vol. ii. p. 174.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_251_251" id="Footnote_251_251"></a><a href="#FNanchor_251_251"><span class="label">[251]</span></a> Thus Rachilde (Mme. Vallette) writes that as a young girl her dreams
+were so vivid that 'I would often ask myself if I had not an existence
+in two forms: my waking personality and my dreaming personality.
+Sometimes I was deceived and imagined that my real life was dreams.'
+She instinctively began to write at the age of twelve, and it was by completing
+her dreams that she became a novelist (Chabaneix, <cite>Le Subconscient</cite>,
+p. 49). George Sand's early day-dreams, of which she gives so
+interesting an account (<cite>Histoire de ma Vie</cite>, part III. ch. viii), developed
+around the central figure of Coramb&eacute;, first seen in a real dream.
+Coramb&eacute; was, at the same time, a divine being, to whom she erected an
+altar. So that of the child it may be said, as Lucretius said of primitive
+man, that the gods first appear in dreams.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_252_252" id="Footnote_252_252"></a><a href="#FNanchor_252_252"><span class="label">[252]</span></a> 'In sleep,' says Sully (<cite>Fortnightly Review</cite>, March 1893), 'we have a
+reversion to a more primitive type of experience.' 'Dreaming,' says
+Jastrow (<cite>The Subconscious</cite>, p. 219), 'may be viewed as a reversion to a
+more primitive type of thought.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_253_253" id="Footnote_253_253"></a><a href="#FNanchor_253_253"><span class="label">[253]</span></a> This tendency is notably represented by Durkheim ('Origines de la
+Pens&eacute;e Religieuse,' <cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>, January 1909) and Crawley
+(<cite>The Idea of the Soul</cite>, 1909).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_254_254" id="Footnote_254_254"></a><a href="#FNanchor_254_254"><span class="label">[254]</span></a> Hill Tout, <cite>Journal</cite>, Anthropological Institute, January-June 1905,
+p. 143; Sidney Hartland, in his presidential address to the Anthropological
+Section of the British Association, in 1906, emphasised the significance
+of dreams in Shamanism, and Sir Everard im Thurn, in his <cite>Among
+the Indians of Guiana</cite>, shows how practically real are dreams to the savage
+mind.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_255_255" id="Footnote_255_255"></a><a href="#FNanchor_255_255"><span class="label">[255]</span></a> See, <em>e.g</em>., as regards the American Indians, Thornton Parker in the
+<cite>Open Court</cite>, May 1901.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_256_256" id="Footnote_256_256"></a><a href="#FNanchor_256_256"><span class="label">[256]</span></a> <cite>Leviathan</cite>, part I. ch. ii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_257_257" id="Footnote_257_257"></a><a href="#FNanchor_257_257"><span class="label">[257]</span></a> Laistner, <cite>Das R&auml;tsel der Sphinx</cite>, 1889, vol. 1. p. xiii. While Laistner
+was chiefly concerned with the exploration of the religious myths, he
+pointed out that epics and fairy-tales (Amor and Psyche, the stories of the
+Nibelung and Baldur, etc.) may be similarly explained. It seems probable
+that his investigations received a stimulus in the earlier experiments
+of J. Boerner (<cite>Das Alpdr&uuml;cken</cite>, 1855) on the production of nightmare.
+Laistner has had many followers, notable C. Ruths (<cite>Experimental-Untersuchungen
+&uuml;ber Musikphantome</cite>, 1898), who argues (pp. 415-46) that the
+old Greek myths had their chief root in dream phenomena, in delirium,
+and in the visions aroused in some persons by hearing music, while he
+considers that many fabulous monsters and dragons have arisen from the
+combinations seen in dreams. We know that the Greeks, who were such
+great myth-makers, much occupied themselves in lying in wait for dreams,
+and in oneiromancy and necromancy (<em>e.g.</em>, Bouch&eacute;-Leclercq, <cite>Histoire de la
+Divination dans l'Antiquit&eacute;</cite>, vol. 1. Bk. ii. ch. i. pp. 277-329). In this way
+alone it is doubtless true that, as Jewell says, 'dreams have had a great
+effect upon the history of the world.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_258_258" id="Footnote_258_258"></a><a href="#FNanchor_258_258"><span class="label">[258]</span></a> For evidence regarding the high esteem in which many of the greatest
+Greek and Latin Fathers held dreams as divine revelations, see <em>e.g.</em>, Sully,
+Art. 'Dreams,' <cite>Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica</cite>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_259_259" id="Footnote_259_259"></a><a href="#FNanchor_259_259"><span class="label">[259]</span></a> There is still a natural tendency in the uninstructed mind to identify
+spontaneous visual phenomena with Heaven. 'When I gets to bed,' said
+an aged and superannuated dustman to Vanderkiste (<cite>The Dens of London</cite>,
+p. 14), 'I says my prayers, and I puts my hands afore my eyes&mdash;so [covering
+his face with his hands]; well, I sees such beautiful things, sparkles
+like, all afloating about, and I wished to ax yer, sir, if that ain't a something
+of Heaven, sir.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_260_260" id="Footnote_260_260"></a><a href="#FNanchor_260_260"><span class="label">[260]</span></a> This was the only traceable element in the dream. The dreamer
+was accustomed to look at her watch on awaking in the morning, and, if
+it was seven or later, not to go to sleep again.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_261_261" id="Footnote_261_261"></a><a href="#FNanchor_261_261"><span class="label">[261]</span></a> Freud, 'Der Dichter und das Phantasieren' (1908), in second series
+of his <cite>Sammlung Kleiner Schriften zur Neurosenlehre;</cite> K. Abraham,
+<cite>Traum und Mythus</cite> (1909); and O. Rank, <cite>Der Mythus von der Geburt des
+Helden</cite> (1909), both published in the <cite>Schriften zur angewandten Seelenkunde</cite>,
+edited by Freud.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_262_262" id="Footnote_262_262"></a><a href="#FNanchor_262_262"><span class="label">[262]</span></a> Synesius refers to conversations with sheep in dreams, and he was
+probably the first to suggest that such dream phenomena may be the
+origin of fables in which animals speak. The dog and the cat, as we
+should expect, seem most frequently to speak in the dreams of civilised
+people. Thus I dreamed that I had a conversation with a cat who spoke
+with fair clearness and sense, though the whole of her sentences were not
+intelligible. I was not surprised at this relative lack of intelligibility, but
+neither was I surprised at her speaking at all. I have also encountered
+a talking parrot whose speech was more relevant than that of most talking
+parrots; this somewhat surprised me. In legends a wider range of
+animals are able to speak, no doubt because the primitive legend-makers
+were familiar with a wider range of animal life. How natural it is to the
+uninstructed mind to treat animals like human beings is well shown by
+the experiences of Helen Keller, the blind deaf-mute, who writes (<cite>The
+World I Live in</cite>, p. 147): 'After my education began, the world which
+came within my reach was all alive.... It was two years before I could
+be made to believe that my dogs did not understand what I said, and I
+always apologised to them when I ran into or stepped on them.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_263_263" id="Footnote_263_263"></a><a href="#FNanchor_263_263"><span class="label">[263]</span></a> <cite>Journal of Mental Science</cite>, January 1909, p. 16.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_264_264" id="Footnote_264_264"></a><a href="#FNanchor_264_264"><span class="label">[264]</span></a> 'Images and thoughts,' he said, 'possess a power in and of themselves
+independent of that act of the judgment or understanding by which we
+affirm or deny the existence of a reality correspondent to them. Such is
+the ordinary state of the mind in dreams.... Add to this a voluntary
+lending of the will to this suspension of one of its own operations, and
+you have the true theory of stage illusion.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_265_265" id="Footnote_265_265"></a><a href="#FNanchor_265_265"><span class="label">[265]</span></a> Quoted by Paul Delior, <cite>Remy de Gourmont et son Œuvre</cite>, p. 14.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_266_266" id="Footnote_266_266"></a><a href="#FNanchor_266_266"><span class="label">[266]</span></a> Thus even Leonardo da Vinci (Solmi, <cite>Frammenti</cite>, p. 285) acknowledged
+the benefit which he had gained by gazing at clouds or at mud-bespattered
+walls; and recommended the practice to other artists, for
+thereby, he says, they will receive suggestions for landscapes, battlepieces,
+'and infinite things,' which they may bring to perfection. He
+compared this to the possibility of hearing words in the sounds of bells.
+Some other distinguished artists have adopted somewhat similar practices
+which are fundamentally the child's habit of seeing pictures in the fire.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_267_267" id="Footnote_267_267"></a><a href="#FNanchor_267_267"><span class="label">[267]</span></a> Thus Tennyson (<cite>Memoir</cite>, by his son, vol. i. p. 320) was subject from
+boyhood to a kind of waking trance. 'This has generally come upon
+me,' he wrote, 'through repeating my own name two or three times to
+myself silently.' (It thus seems to have been a sort of auto-hypnotisation.)
+In this state, individuality seemed to dissolve, he said, and he found in
+it a proof that the extinction of personality by death would not involve loss
+of life, but rather a fuller life. We are so easily convinced in these matters!</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_268_268" id="Footnote_268_268"></a><a href="#FNanchor_268_268"><span class="label">[268]</span></a> See <em>e.g.</em>, De Manac&eacute;&iuml;ne, <cite>Sleep</cite>, p. 314; Arturo Morselli, 'Dei Sogni nei
+Genii,' <cite>La Cultura</cite>, 1899.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_269_269" id="Footnote_269_269"></a><a href="#FNanchor_269_269"><span class="label">[269]</span></a> Thus I once planned in a dream a paper on the Progress of Psychology,
+which seemed to me on awakening to present a quite workable though
+not notably brilliant scheme.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_270_270" id="Footnote_270_270"></a><a href="#FNanchor_270_270"><span class="label">[270]</span></a> Sante de Sanctis, however (<cite>I Sogni</cite>, p. 369), reproduces a dream poem
+of twelve lines.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_271_271" id="Footnote_271_271"></a><a href="#FNanchor_271_271"><span class="label">[271]</span></a> See note in J. D. Campbell's edition of Coleridge's <cite>Poetical Works</cite>, p. 592.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_272_272" id="Footnote_272_272"></a><a href="#FNanchor_272_272"><span class="label">[272]</span></a> Tartini composed the sonata&mdash;a noble and beautiful work which
+still survives&mdash;at the age of twenty-one. In old age he told Lalande
+the astronomer (as the latter relates in his <cite>Voyage d'un Fran&ccedil;ais en
+Italie</cite>, 1765, vol. ix. p. 55) that he had had a dream in which he sold his
+soul to the Devil, and it occurred to him in his dream to hand his fiddle
+to the Devil to see what he could do with it. 'But how great was
+my astonishment when I heard him play with consummate skill a
+sonata of such exquisite beauty as surpassed the boldest flights of my
+imagination. I felt enraptured, transported, enchanted; my breath
+was taken away, and I awoke. Seizing my violin I tried to retain the
+sounds I had heard. But it was in vain. The piece I then composed,
+the "Devil's Sonata," was the best I ever wrote, but how far below the one
+I had heard in my dream!' The dream, it will be seen, was of a fairly
+common type, and to Tartini's excitable temperament it served as a
+stimulus to his finest energies. But the real 'Devil's Sonata' was hopelessly
+lost. (See the articles on Tartini in Fetis, <cite>Biographic Universelle
+des Musiciens</cite>, and Grove's <cite>Dictionary of Music and Musicians</cite>.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_273_273" id="Footnote_273_273"></a><a href="#FNanchor_273_273"><span class="label">[273]</span></a> Helen Keller, the blind deaf-mute, has written some interesting
+chapters on her dreams in <cite>The World I Live in</cite>. For the most part it
+would seem that the dream life of the blind (which has been studied
+by, among others, Jastrow, <cite>Fact and Fable in Psychology</cite>, pp. 337 <em>et seq.</em>)
+is not usually rich or vivid.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_274_274" id="Footnote_274_274"></a><a href="#FNanchor_274_274"><span class="label">[274]</span></a> See <em>e.g.</em>, Marie de Manac&eacute;&iuml;ne, <cite>Sleep</cite>, p. 313.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_275_275" id="Footnote_275_275"></a><a href="#FNanchor_275_275"><span class="label">[275]</span></a> This aspect of dreaming has been set forth by Bergson (<cite>Revue Philosophique</cite>,
+December 1908, p. 574). 'The dream state,' he remarks, 'is
+the substratum of our normal state. Nothing is added in waking life; on
+the contrary, waking life is obtained by the limitation, concentration, and
+tension of that diffuse psychological life which is the life of dreaming.
+The perception and the memory which we find in dreaming are, in a sense,
+more natural than those of waking life: consciousness is then amused
+in perceiving for the sake of perceiving, and in remembering for the sake
+of remembering, without care for life, that is to say for the accomplishment
+of actions. To be awake is to eliminate, to choose, to concentrate the
+totality of the diffused life of dreaming to a point, to a practical problem.
+To be awake is to will; cease to will, detach yourself from life, become
+disinterested: in so doing you pass from the waking ego to the dreaming
+ego, which is less <em>tense</em>, but more <em>extended</em> than the other.'</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_276_276" id="Footnote_276_276"></a><a href="#FNanchor_276_276"><span class="label">[276]</span></a> Pepys, <cite>Diary</cite>, 2nd April 1664.</p></div></div>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+
+<div class="transnote">
+<p class="p5">Transcriber notes:</p>
+
+<p>P. <a href="#Page_189">189</a>. 'given him posion', changed 'posion' to 'poison'.<br />
+P. <a href="#Page_203">203</a>. Added footnote [<a href="#FNanchor_184a_184a">184</a>] link.<br />
+P. <a href="#Page_214">214</a>. 'concommitants' changed to 'concomitants'.<br />
+P. <a href="#Page_215">215</a>. 'alarum clock', changed 'alarum' to 'alarm'.<br />
+P. <a href="#Page_215">215</a>. 'hashisch' changed to 'hashish'.<br />
+P. <a href="#Page_231">231</a>. Footnote <a href="#FNanchor_210a_210a">210</a>, 'alcholic' changed to 'alcoholic'.<br />
+P. <a href="#Page_249">249</a>. 'hue to' changed to 'due to'.<br />
+Fixed various punctuation</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The World of Dreams, by Havelock Ellis
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+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
author	nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org>	2025-02-09 13:55:35 -0800
committer	nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org>	2025-02-09 13:55:35 -0800
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