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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Steam Navigation and Its Relation to the
+Commerce of Canada and the United States, by James Croil
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
+other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions 
+whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
+the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at 
+www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
+to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
+
+
+
+
+Title: Steam Navigation and Its Relation to the Commerce of Canada and the United States
+
+
+Author: James Croil
+
+
+
+Release Date: February 10, 2019  [eBook #58849]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STEAM NAVIGATION AND ITS RELATION
+TO THE COMMERCE OF CANADA AND THE UNITED STATES***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Paul Marshall, Donald Cummings, Adrian Mastronardi, the
+Philatelic Digital Library Project
+(https://www.librarything.com/groups/tpdlp), and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made
+available by Internet Archive (https://archive.org)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 58849-h.htm or 58849-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/58849/58849-h/58849-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/58849/58849-h.zip)
+
+
+      Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive. See
+      https://archive.org/details/steamnavigation00croiuoft
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
+
+      Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=).
+
+      A caret character is used to denote superscription. A
+      single character following the caret is superscripted
+      (example: M^cLENNAN).
+
+      Small capitals have been converted to all capitals.
+
+
+
+
+
+STEAM NAVIGATION.
+
+
+[Illustration:
+
+LORD MOUNTSTEPHEN. LORD STRATHCONA. SIR SANDFORD FLEMING.]
+
+
+STEAM NAVIGATION
+AND
+ITS RELATION TO THE COMMERCE OF
+CANADA AND THE UNITED
+STATES.
+
+by
+
+JAMES CROIL,
+
+Montreal.
+
+Author of “Dundas: A Sketch of Canadian History.”
+
+With Illustrations and Portraits.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Toronto:
+William Briggs.
+Montreal: The Montreal News Company, Limited
+1898.
+
+Entered according to Act of the Parliament of Canada,
+in the year one thousand eight hundred and ninety-eight,
+by William Briggs, at the Department of Agriculture.
+
+
+
+                              _This Volume
+                     is dedicated by permission to
+
+                 His Excellency the Earl of Aberdeen,
+                         K.T., G.C.M.G., etc.,
+                      Governor-General of Canada
+                          from 1893 to 1898,
+           a nobleman who will long be gratefully remembered
+                     as the benefactor and friend
+                 of all classes of the community, and
+                        who, with his Consort,
+
+                    The Countess of Aberdeen, LL.D.
+
+                   will always be associated by the
+           Canadian people with a period in their history of
+                      great national prosperity,
+            their joint efforts in furthering lofty ideals
+                          having done much to
+            advance the highest interests of the Dominion._
+
+[Illustration]
+
+                         IN HONOUR OF THE MEN
+                by whose enterprise, courage, and skill
+                                  THE
+
+                             ROYAL WILLIAM
+
+               The First Vessel to Cross the Atlantic by
+                 Steam Power was wholly constructed in
+               Canada and navigated to England in 1833.
+              The Pioneer of Those Mighty Fleets of Ocean
+             Steamers by which Passengers and Merchandise
+             of all Nations are now conveyed on every sea
+                         throughout the World.
+
+                              ORDERED BY
+              THE PARLIAMENT OF CANADA, JUNE 13-15, 1804.
+                  DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC WORKS, OTTAWA
+
+                   FACSIMILE OF THE MEMORIAL BRASS.
+                           “ROYAL WILLIAM.”
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+When the history of the nineteenth century comes to be written, not
+the least interesting chapter of it will be that which treats of the
+origin, the development, and the triumphs of Steam Navigation—that
+mighty combination of inventive genius and mechanical force that has
+bridged the oceans and brought the ends of the earth together.
+
+During the past few years several important contributions to this
+class of literature have issued from the metropolitan press. Three of
+these deserve special mention: (1) “The Atlantic Ferry; its Ships,
+Men, and Working,” by Arthur J. Maginnis, gold medallist and member of
+the Institution of Naval Architects, 1892; (2) “Our Ocean Railways,
+or the Rise, Progress, and Development of Ocean Steam Navigation,” by
+A. Fraser-Macdonald, 1893; (3) “The History of North Atlantic Steam
+Navigation, with Some Account of Early Ships and Shipowners,” by Henry
+Fry, ex-President of Dominion Board of Trade of Canada and Lloyd’s
+Agent at Quebec, 1896. Each of these writers, in his own way, has
+treated the subject so thoroughly and satisfactorily, the author feels
+as though the wind had been taken out of his sails somewhat, and it is
+not without hesitation that he has yielded to the advice of friends in
+whose judgment he has implicit confidence, and ventured to follow in
+the wake of such accomplished writers.
+
+If I am questioned as to _motif_ I cannot better justify the rash deed
+than by endorsing the sentiment in Byron’s apostrophe:
+
+   “And I have loved thee, Ocean! and my joy
+    Of youthful sports was on thy breast to be
+    Borne, like thy bubbles, onward; from a boy
+    I wantoned with thy breakers—they to me
+    Were a delight.”
+
+These pages are of a much less pretentious character than the
+above-named books. They are but a compilation of materials more or
+less intimately connected with Steam Navigation, gathered from many
+sources, during many years, and now woven into homely narrative. They
+necessarily contain much in common with these other writings on this
+subject, but they are projected from a different standpoint and embrace
+a wider field, supplying information not easily obtained, respecting
+the far-reaching waterways of Canada, her magnificent ship canals, and
+the vast steam commerce of the Great Lakes.
+
+So numerous are the sources of information drawn upon, it is impossible
+to make adequate acknowledgment of them all. The agents of Atlantic
+lines of steamships were particularly obliging in their replies to
+inquiries made of them. Without in any way making them responsible for
+the use made of their communications, upon these my remarks on that
+branch of the subject are chiefly based. Among other publications I
+have consulted the “Transactions of the Imperial Institute,” London,
+and of the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec; Government
+reports emanating from Ottawa and Washington; also many pamphlets,
+magazine and newspaper articles bearing on the subject, not to speak of
+my capacious scrap-book and some well-thumbed note-books.
+
+Additional authorities will be indicated as the narrative proceeds.
+Besides these, grateful acknowledgments for valuable assistance are
+due to Sir Sandford Fleming and Mr. George Johnson, F.S.S., of Ottawa;
+to Messrs. Douglas Battersby, R. W. Shepherd, and the late Captain
+Thomas Howard, of Montreal; to Mr. Archibald Campbell, of Quebec;
+Captain Clarke Hamilton, of Kingston; Mrs. Holden, of Port Dover, Ont.,
+and Mr. T. M. Henderson, of Victoria, B.C.; to members of the Boards
+of Trade in Montreal, Minneapolis and Duluth; and to the following
+clergymen: Rev. Dr. Bruce, of St. John, N.B.; Rev. T. F. Fullerton, of
+Charlottetown. P.E.I.; Rev. James Bennett, of L’Orignal, Ont., and Rev.
+W. H. L. Howard, of Fort William, Ont.
+
+The illustrations have nearly all been made for this work: the
+wood-cuts by Mr. J. H. Walker, and the half-tones by the Standard
+Photo-Engraving Company, Montreal.
+
+                                                         J. C.
+
+   MONTREAL, _October_, 1898.
+
+
+
+
+                CONTENTS.
+
+                CHAPTER I.                   PAGE
+    THE DAWN OF STEAM NAVIGATION              17
+
+                CHAPTER II.
+    EARLY YEARS OF STEAM NAVIGATION           50
+
+                CHAPTER III.
+    THE CUNARD STEAMSHIP COMPANY              71
+
+                CHAPTER IV.
+    NORTH ATLANTIC STEAMSHIP COMPANIES       103
+
+                CHAPTER V.
+    STEAM TO INDIA AND THE EAST              142
+
+                CHAPTER VI.
+    STEAM IN THE BRITISH NAVY                166
+
+                CHAPTER VII.
+    THE ST. LAWRENCE ROUTE                   192
+
+                CHAPTER VIII.
+    STEAM ON THE GREAT LAKES                 244
+
+                CHAPTER IX.
+    STEAM COMMERCE OF THE GREAT LAKES        268
+
+                CHAPTER X.
+    STEAM NAVIGATION IN ALL THE PROVINCES
+      OF THE DOMINION AND IN NEWFOUNDLAND    307
+
+
+
+
+            ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+            STEAM VESSELS.
+                                   PAGE
+    ALBERTA                        285
+    ATLANTIC                       105
+    AUGUSTA VICTORIA               133
+    BEAVER                         335
+    BRITANNIA                       72
+    CALEDONIA                      146
+    CAMPANIA                        78
+    CANADA                         226
+    CHARLOTTE DUNDAS                32
+    CLERMONT                        42
+    COLUMBA                         38
+    COMET                           35
+    CORONA                         329
+    CRESCENT                       191
+    DUKE OF WELLINGTON             167
+    EMPIRE                         255
+    EMPRESS OF JAPAN               162
+    GREAT BRITAIN                   62
+    GREAT EASTERN                   63
+    HORNET                         169
+    JEANIE DEANS                    51
+    JOHN S. COLBY                  363
+    KAISER W. DER GROSSE           137
+    LAKE ONTARIO                   230
+    MAJESTIC                       119
+    MANITOU                        271
+    MILLER’S TWIN BOAT              31
+    MISSISSIPPI STEAMER             43
+    NELSON                         337
+    NEW YORK                        47
+    NIAGARA                         74
+    NORMANNIA                      131
+    NORTH-WEST                     273
+    OCEANIC                        117
+    OHIO STEAMER                    45
+    PARIS                          107
+    PARIS DINING-ROOM              109
+    PARIS (_Stern View_)           108
+    PARISIAN                       204
+    PASSPORT                       327
+    PENNSYLVANIA                   135
+    PILGRIM                         16
+    PRINCETON                      253
+    PRISCILLA                       46
+    QUEBEC                         311
+    QUEEN CHARLOTTE                249
+    QUETTA                         150
+    RENOWN                         172
+    RHINE STEAMER                   39
+    ROBERT GARRETT                  49
+    ROYAL WILLIAM                    8
+    ST. LOUIS                      111
+    SAVANNAH                        53
+    SCOTIA                          77
+    SIRIUS                          59
+    SOVEREIGN                      317
+    STANLEY                        352
+    TEUTONIC                       174
+    VANDALIA                       251
+    VICTORIA AND ALBERT            184
+    WALK-IN-THE-WATER              250
+    WILLIAM IV.                    325
+
+          PORTRAITS.
+                               PAGE
+    AIRD, CAPTAIN              215
+    ALLAN, SIR HUGH            208
+    ALLAN, ANDREW              296
+    BURNS, SIR GEORGE           93
+    CAMPBELL, CAPTAIN          233
+    CUNARD, SIR SAMUEL          93
+    DUTTON, CAPTAIN            218
+    FLEMING, SIR SANDFORD        4
+    GRAHAM, CAPTAIN            211
+    HAMILTON, HON. JOHN        331
+    LINDALL, CAPTAIN           223
+    MACAULAY, CAPTAIN          227
+    MACIVER, DAVID              93
+    MCMASTER, CAPTAIN          197
+    MCLENNAN, HUGH             296
+    MOUNTSTEPHEN, LORD           4
+    NAPIER, ROBERT              97
+    NAPIER, MRS.                97
+    OGILVIE, W. W.             296
+    RITCHIE, CAPTAIN           216
+    SHEPHERD, R. W.            322
+    SMITH, CAPTAIN W. H.       194
+    STRATHCONA, LORD             4
+    TORRANCE, JOHN             308
+    WYLIE, CAPTAIN             212
+
+        MISCELLANEOUS.
+                              PAGE
+    CANAL LOCK, CANADIAN       264
+    CANAL LOCK, U. STATES      278
+    CUNARD TRACK CHART          90
+    GRAIN ELEVATOR             289
+    GREAT REPUBLIC, SHIP        26
+    HORSE-BOAT                  29
+    MAP GULF PORTS, ETC.       241
+    ROYAL WILLIAM—MODEL        55
+    SHIP OF THE DESERT         143
+    WIND-BOAT                   70
+
+[Illustration: “PILGRIM,”
+
+Sister to _Priscilla_ of the Fall River Line, 1890.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE DAWN OF STEAM NAVIGATION.
+
+
+    _Ah! what pleasant visions haunt me
+       As I gaze upon the sea!
+     All the old romantic legends.
+       All my dreams come back to me._
+                             —LONGFELLOW.
+
+    The up-to-date standard—Old-time sailing
+        ships—The clipper packet-ship—Dawn of steam
+        navigation—Denis Papin on the Fulda—Bell’s
+        _Comet_—Fulton’s _Clermont_—American
+        river steamers and ferry-boats.
+
+Travel increases in faster ratio than do facilities for
+inter-communication. The prophecy surely is being fulfilled in these
+latter days, “Many shall run to and fro, and knowledge shall be
+increased.” It is estimated that at least 750,000 persons travel
+yearly between Europe and America; 99,223 cabin passengers and 252,350
+steerage passengers landed at New York from Europe in 1896. The
+Cunard Line brought the largest number of cabin passengers, 17,999,
+from Liverpool, and the North German Lloyd Line the largest number of
+steerage, namely, 38,034, from Bremen.
+
+Notwithstanding the wonderful development of railway and steamship
+systems, means of conveyance during the summer months often fall short
+of the demand. Passages by the more popular lines of steamships must
+be engaged months ahead; in many cases the ships are uncomfortably
+crowded. At such times sofas take the place of berths, and all the
+officers’ rooms, from the coveted Captain’s cabin to the second and
+third stewards’ bunks, are called into requisition and held at a round
+premium. On Saturday, the 8th of May, 1897, no less than 1,500 saloon
+passengers left New York for Liverpool on the great ocean greyhounds.
+The travelling season is comparatively short, the competition is keen,
+and the enormous expense of building, furnishing and running up-to-date
+steamships renders it difficult to provide the requisite accommodation
+on a paying basis. The up-to-date steamship must be built of steel, to
+combine light weight with strength. It must have triple or quadruple
+expansion engines to economize fuel. It must be propelled by twin or
+triple screws, as well for the easier handling of the vessel as for
+safety in case of a breakdown of machinery, and for attaining the
+highest possible speed. Our ideal steamship must be able to turn quite
+round in its own length, and to go through the water at an average
+speed of at least twenty knots an hour. To attain these results, ships
+of a very large class are called for—nothing short of from eight to
+ten thousand tons burthen will come up to the mark. There are many
+magnificent steamships in the North Atlantic trade and elsewhere but
+as yet few have in all respects reached the up-to-date standard, and
+even those that are such this year, a few years hence are certain to be
+regarded as quite behind the times. There is no valid reason to suppose
+that the process of development which has been going on during the last
+fifty years in this direction is to be arrested at the close of the
+century. The indications, so far as they can be interpreted, are all
+in the opposite direction. The paddle-wheel ocean steamer reached its
+zenith with the launch of the _Scotia_ of the Cunard Line in 1862. She
+was the last of the race.
+
+The wooden steamship, “copper-fastened and copper-bottomed,” etc.,
+etc., is long since a thing of the past. The iron age, which succeeded
+the wooden, has been changed to steel, and steel may change to
+something else, and steam to electricity. Who knows? Mr. Maginnis,
+who is himself an engineer and an architect, speaks with authority
+when he says that, “Whether the improvements be in the ship or in
+the machinery, gradual advances will be made in the near future.”
+The thirst of competing steamship companies for conquest on the high
+seas—at any cost—and the ambition of ship-builders to improve upon the
+latest improvements, will not be satisfied with present attainments,
+even if it can be proved to a demonstration that thousands of
+additional horse-power and hundreds of additional tons of coal per day
+would be required to increase to any appreciable extent the maximum
+rate of speed that has already been reached. In the meantime some
+idea may be formed of the possible saving in the consumption of fuel
+when it is stated that, by a system of induced draught, discovered
+since the last two Cunarders were designed, the number of boilers
+necessary to generate steam enough for 30,000 indicated horse-power
+may be reduced to little more than one-half, which, to put it briefly,
+means a corresponding saving in space, weight and first cost.[1] In
+fact, well-informed marine engineers do not hesitate to express their
+opinion that the day is not far distant when Atlantic greyhounds may be
+coursing across the ocean at the rate of thirty knots an hour, bringing
+Queenstown and Sandy Hook within ninety-three hours of each other.
+
+It is difficult to form a correct idea, from any verbal or pictorial
+representation, of the elegance, the convenience and the comfort
+attaching to the “Express Steamship.” Nothing short of a voyage or
+voyages in one of these floating palaces would suffice to give an
+adequate conception of their excellence. And yet, when all is said
+that can be said in praise of the steamship, some of us “old stagers”
+can look back, if not with lingering regret, at least with pleasant
+recollection, to the days of the packet-ship, and even of the sailing
+vessel of humbler pretensions.
+
+Some of the early emigrant ships were certainly of a mean order, and
+many emigrants suffered cruel hardships before they reached their
+destination. It was not an uncommon thing for five or six hundred men,
+women and children to be huddled together indiscriminately in the hold
+of a vessel of from 250 to 300 tons, doomed to subsist on coarsest
+food, and liable to be immured beneath hatches for days or weeks at a
+time, without medical attendance, obliged to cook their own food, and
+scantily supplied with water; and all this for eight or ten weeks at a
+stretch!
+
+In one of his autobiographic sketches the late Bishop Strachan says
+that he sailed from Greenock in the end of August, 1799, “under
+convoy,” and such was then the wretched state of navigation, he did
+not reach Kingston, by way of New York and Montreal, till the 31st of
+December. In a letter before me an aged friend recites the story of
+his adventurous voyage from Liverpool to Quebec, some fifty years ago.
+The ship was a superannuated bluff-bowed East Indiaman, but counted
+good enough in those days to carry five hundred emigrants across the
+stormy Atlantic. When ten days out they encountered a hurricane which
+drove the vessel out of her course. Her three masts fell overboard.
+The cook’s galley and the long boat, the water casks, and everything
+else on deck, vanished in the gale. The huge hulk rolled like a log
+in the Bay of Biscay for several days, the passengers meanwhile being
+confined between decks in horrible confusion. A passing steamer towed
+them back to Plymouth, where six weeks were spent in refitting the
+ship, each adult receiving ten shillings and sixpence per week for
+board and lodging until the repairs were completed. After seven weeks
+more of great discomfort “and tyrannical treatment on the part of the
+captain,” they finally reached Quebec in 107 days after first embarking
+at Liverpool.
+
+My own experience of sailing ships, though fifty-seven years have
+elapsed, is still fresh in mind and recalls some pleasant memories. My
+first voyage to New York was from the Clyde in a new American ship,
+commanded by one Captain Theobald, a typical New Englander, as fine
+a man as one could desire to meet. The voyage was uneventful in the
+ordinary sense of the term, but one’s first voyage in a sailing ship
+is an event never to be forgotten. It was anticipated with peculiar
+interest, and regarded with far greater importance than attaches to
+crossing the Atlantic nowadays. So far from being monotonous, there
+were incessant changes in sea and sky, in the dress of the ship, and
+the occupations and songs of the sailors. One day the ship might be
+bowling along beautifully, decked out in her royals and sky-sails, her
+studding-sails and stay sails; next day, perhaps, she might be scudding
+under reefed topsails before an easterly gale, pooping seas that washed
+the quarterdeck and tumbled like a waterfall into the waist of the
+ship. Occasionally, a “white squall” coming up would make things lively
+on deck while it lasted. If becalmed in the right place we caught
+codfish. For the most part, however, the familiar refrain of “tacks and
+sheets” would be heard many times a day and in the night watches, as we
+tacked this way and that way against westerly breezes, thankful if the
+log showed that we had advanced on our course forty or fifty miles in
+twenty-four hours.
+
+My second voyage westward in a sailing ship was also a memorable one.
+The Scotch captain of the good ship _Perthshire_, in which we sailed
+from the Tail of the Bank, off Greenock, on June 19th, 1844, was very
+unlike the Yankee skipper of the previous voyage. Captain S—— was
+kind and attentive to his passengers, but not at all popular with his
+crew. As I watched him taking the sun, the first day out, he said,
+“Young man, you are going to be some weeks on board this ship, with
+nothing to do but to eat and drink and sleep. Suppose you take a few
+lessons in navigation? Here is a spare quadrant which you can use.”
+I jumped at the offer, and very soon mastered at least the outlines
+of the business. Much was learned in these six weeks—how to find the
+latitude and longitude at sea; to ascertain the precise deviation of
+the chronometer from Greenwich time, and of the compass from its true
+bearing; to measure the trend and velocity of ocean currents, and,
+failing solar observations, how to consult the moon and the stars. This
+was not only interesting; it was a fascinating pastime. The captain of
+a twenty-knot steamship has seldom need to “resolve a traverse;” he
+steers a straight course for his destination, and can usually estimate
+within a few hours, or even minutes, when he will reach it. It is quite
+different with the master of a sailing vessel; after contending with
+contrary winds and being driven out of his course for weeks at a time,
+he must often wrack his brains before he can locate his exact position
+on the chart. To be enveloped in dense fog in the near neighbourhood
+of Sable Island for several days at a time, as happened to us on this
+voyage, is a very perplexing position to be in.
+
+For a slight offence Captain S—— would send a man aloft to scrape
+masts in a gale of wind; for a graver misdemeanour he would clap him
+in irons; had the lash been permitted, he would probably not have
+hesitated to use it. As might be supposed, things did not go very well
+in the fo’castle. At length a climax was reached, when the starboard
+watch came aft one day and lodged a complaint. Getting little or no
+satisfaction, they retired sullenly, went below, and refused to work
+for a whole week. The working of the ship then devolved on the first
+and second mates, the carpenter and the cook, with such of the cabin
+passengers as could give them assistance. The steerage passengers,
+siding with the sailors, would not touch a rope, and things even went
+so far that one of them was placed in confinement for insolence. Some
+of us were rather glad of the opportunity thus afforded of running
+up the rigging and creeping through the lubbers’ hole without being
+“salted.” When orders were given to shorten sail or shake out a reef,
+we “lay out” on the yard in sailor fashion; but how much good we did on
+such occasions will never be known.[2] At any rate, we counted it fine
+fun, and it gave the _fiasco_ a touch of romance that we slept with
+loaded pistols under our pillows. But the mutiny ended harmlessly when
+the pilot came on board. One may cross the Atlantic nowadays without
+any kind of “adventure” like that to adorn a tale, even without so much
+as once speaking to the captain.
+
+Not every one has the chance of seeing Jack in his citadel. I was
+deputed by the captain to interview the strikers and endeavour to
+pacify them. Armed with a copy of the shipping articles which the men
+had all signed, and another formidable document printed in very large
+type, I went down into the dingy cabin at the dinner hour. Such a
+place as it was! I shall never forget it. It corresponded in minute
+detail to Dana’s description of his fo’castle in “Two Years Before
+the Mast.” It was devoid of furniture. There was not even a table to
+place their food on. In the centre of the floor stood a dirty-looking
+wooden tub containing a junk of boiled salt beef; near it was a pail
+full of boiled rice and some hard-tack. The men, about a dozen of them,
+sat each man on his sea-chest, using his jack-knife to cut and carve
+with. There were no plates. Imagine the rest. The only grievance they
+would mention to me was that they had been refused molasses with their
+rice! Their mind was made up to stay under hatches till the pilot came
+aboard. They would work for him, but not for the captain; and they
+kept their word. As I was about leaving, the spokesman of the party,
+pointing to the mess on the middle of the floor, said with a look
+that constrained pity, “Mister, how would you like that for your own
+dinner?” He had the best of the argument. It may be added here that
+this voyage to New York lasted forty-two days, and the last entry in
+my log is to the effect that we made as good a passage as any ship
+from England, “beating the _Columbus_ packet-ship by two days!”
+
+[Illustration: “GREAT REPUBLIC.”
+
+Last of the Clipper Passenger Packets, 1854.]
+
+The clipper “packet ship” was a vast improvement on the ordinary
+sailing ship. It had just reached its highest point of development when
+the ocean steamship first made its appearance. It was to the upper
+strata of the travelling community, sixty years ago, the counterpart
+of the express steamer of to-day. The packet-ship was built for fast
+sailing, with very fine lines, was handsomely fitted up and furnished,
+was exceedingly well found in eatables and drinkables, and carried a
+great spread of canvas. To see one of these ships under full sail was
+a sight to be remembered—a rare sight, inasmuch as all the conditions
+of wind and water necessary for the display of every stitch of canvas
+are seldom met with in the North Atlantic. They not unfrequently
+crossed in fourteen or fifteen days. In winter they might be three
+months on a single voyage, but their average would be from twenty-five
+to thirty days.
+
+There were many separate lines of packet-ships sailing at regular
+intervals from London and Liverpool, and from Hamburg and Havre, to New
+York, Boston, Philadelphia, and other American ports. Among these were
+the famous Black Ball Line, the White Star Line, the Old and the New
+Line of Liverpool packets, etc. The New Line was American, and of it E.
+K. Collins, the promoter of the Collins’ Line of steamers, was the New
+York agent. The ships were named _Shakespeare_, _Siddons_, _Sheridan_,
+_Garrick_, and so forth, hence this was called the “Dramatic Line.”
+It is refreshing to read one of their advertisements in the Montreal
+_Gazette_, as old as November 20th, 1838:
+
+         “These ships are of the first-class, upwards of 800
+        tons burthen, built in the city of New York, with
+        such improvements as to combine great speed with
+        unusual comfort to passengers. Every care has been
+        taken in the arrangement of their accommodation.
+        The price of passage hence is $140, for which ample
+        stores, including wines, etc., will be provided;
+        without wines, etc., $120. These ships will be
+        commanded by experienced masters, who will make
+        every exertion to give general satisfaction. Letters
+        charged at the rate or 25 cents per single sheet.
+
+          ☛The ships of this line will hereafter go armed,
+       and their peculiar construction gives them security not
+       possessed by any other but vessels of war.”
+
+                            E. K. COLLINS, NEW YORK.
+                            WM. & JAS. BROWN & CO., LIVERPOOL.
+
+The _Great Republic_, one of the last of the clipper packet-ships, was
+built in the United States in 1854. She was a four-master of 3,400
+tons, 305 feet long, 53 feet beam, and 30 feet in depth. She made the
+run from New York to the Scilly Islands in thirteen days. She ended her
+sailing career as a French transport ship, and finally was degraded to
+a coal hulk. The largest sailing vessel afloat at the present time is
+the five-masted steel ship _La France_, built on the Clyde by D. & W.
+Henderson for French owners. She is 6,100 tons burthen, 375 feet long,
+49 feet wide and 33¾ feet depth. Her fore mainmast is 166 feet high. On
+her first trip from Cardiff to Rio Janeiro she carried 6,000 tons of
+coal, and attained a speed of twelve and a half knots.
+
+
+THE DAWN OF STEAMSHIP NAVIGATION.
+
+Paddle-wheels for driving boats through the water were used long
+before steam-engines were thought of. They were worked by hand and
+foot-power without, however, any advantage over the old-fashioned oar.
+The horse-boat, in a variety of forms, has been in use for many years,
+and is not yet quite obsolete. In its earlier form two horses, one on
+each side of a decked scow, were hitched to firmly braced upright posts
+at which they tugged for all they were worth without ever advancing
+beyond their noses, but communicating motion to the paddle-wheels by
+the movable platform on which they trod. For larger boats four or five
+horses were harnessed to horizontal bars converging towards the centre,
+and moved around the deck in a circle, the paddles receiving their
+impulse through a set of cog-wheels. The “latest improvement” was on
+the direct self-acting treadmill principle, the power being regulated
+by the weight of the horses and the pitch of elevation given to the
+revolving platform on which the unfortunate animals were perched.
+Newcomen’s steam-engine had been invented and used for other purposes
+eighty years at least, before it was applied to the propelling of
+vessels. The modern steamboat is not an _invention_, but rather the
+embodiment of many inventions and experiments, extending over a long
+series of years by different men and in different countries.
+
+[Illustration: HORSE-BOAT AT EMPY’S FERRY, OSNABRUCK, ONT.]
+
+One of the first actual steamboats of which there is authentic record
+sailed down the River Fulda, in Prussia, in the year 1707. It was
+built, engined and navigated by a clever Frenchman, Denis Papin,[3] who
+was born in 1647, was educated as a physician, and became assistant
+to the celebrated philosopher, Huygens, in Paris, where he published
+a small volume on the mechanical effects to be obtained by means of
+a vacuum. While this attracted the attention of _savants_, it had
+little or no interest for practical men, and yet in it lay the germ
+of the power that was to revolutionize the world. He went to London
+with letters to the Royal Society, and was employed by that society
+several years, during which he continued his experiments on atmospheric
+pressure and the vacuum, and the power of steam. He was next appointed
+Professor of Mathematics in the University of Marburg, from which he
+removed to Cassel. He had seen the horse-boat in England, and the idea
+of employing steam to turn the paddles took strong hold of him. He
+had a boat built and fitted with a steam-engine, in which he embarked
+with his family and all his belongings, with a view to making his
+experiment known in Britain and exhibiting his steamboat. All went well
+until he reached the junction of the rivers Fulda and Weser, where the
+boatmen got up a hue-and-cry that their craft was endangered by this
+innovation. In vain Papin protested that he merely wanted to leave the
+country. On the plea that their rights of navigating these waters had
+been infringed upon, they rose up _en masse_, seized the steamboat,
+dragged out the machinery and smashed it to atoms. Poor Papin found his
+way back to London a broken-hearted man, never to see the day when his
+great discovery was to enrich the world.
+
+[Illustration: MILLER’S TWIN BOAT ON LOCH DALSWINTON, 1788.
+
+From “Chambers’ Book of Days.”]
+
+Fifty years later another experiment was made by Patrick Miller, a
+banker in Edinburgh, aided by Mr. Taylor, tutor in his family, and
+Alexander Symington, a practical engineer. Mr. Miller had a boat built
+and fitted with a small steam-engine, for his amusement, on Dalswinton
+Loch, Dumfriesshire. It was a twin-boat, the engine being placed on
+one side, the boiler on the other, and the paddle-wheel in the centre.
+It was launched in October, 1788, and attained a speed of five miles
+an hour. The engine, of one horse-power, is still to be seen in the
+Andersonian Museum, in Glasgow. Encouraged by his experiment, Mr.
+Miller bought one of the boats used on the Forth and Clyde Canal, and
+had a steam-engine constructed for it by the Carron Ironworks Company,
+under Symington’s superintendence. On December 26th, 1789, this
+steamboat towed a heavy load on the canal, at a speed of seven miles an
+hour; but, strange to say, the experiment was dropped as soon as it was
+tried.
+
+[Illustration: SYMINGTON’S “CHARLOTTE DUNDAS,” 1802.
+
+From “Our Ocean Railways.”]
+
+In 1801 the London newspapers contained the announcement that an
+experiment had taken place on the Thames, on July 1st, for the purpose
+of propelling a laden barge, or other craft, against the tide, by
+means of a steam-engine of a very simple construction. “The moment the
+engine was set to work the barge was brought about, answering her helm
+quickly, and she made way against a strong current, at the rate of two
+and a half miles an hour.” In 1802 a new vessel was built expressly
+for steam navigation, on the Forth and Clyde Canal, under Symington’s
+supervision, the _Charlotte Dundas_, which was minutely inspected on
+the same day by Robert Fulton, of New York, and Henry Bell, of Glasgow,
+both of whom took sketches of the machinery to good purpose.[4] This
+boat drew a load of seventy tons, at a speed of three and a half miles
+an hour, against a strong gale of wind. Under ordinary conditions she
+made six miles an hour, but her admitted success was cut short by the
+Canal Trust, who alleged that the wash of the steamer would destroy the
+embankment.
+
+
+BELL’S “COMET.”[5]
+
+Nothing more was heard of the steamboat in Britain until 1812, when
+Henry Bell surprised the natives of Strathclyde by the following
+advertisement in the Greenock _Advertiser_:
+
+                       STEAM PASSAGE BOAT,
+
+                          “THE COMET,”
+
+            BETWEEN GLASGOW, GREENOCK AND HELENSBURGH,
+                       FOR PASSENGERS ONLY.
+
+       The subscriber having, at much expense, fitted up a handsome
+     vessel, to ply upon the River Clyde, between Glasgow and Greenock,
+     to sail by the power of wind, air and steam, he intends that the
+     vessel shall leave the Broomielaw on Tuesdays, Thursdays and
+     Saturdays, about mid-day, or at such hour thereafter as may
+     answer from the state of the tide; and to leave Greenock on
+     Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays, in the morning, to suit the tide.
+
+      The elegance, comfort, safety and speed of this vessel requires
+    only to be proved to meet the approbation of the public; and the
+    proprietor is determined to do everything in his power to merit
+    public encouragement.
+
+      The terms are, for the present, fixed at 4s. for the best cabin,
+    and 3s. for the second; but beyond these rates nothing is to be
+    allowed to servants, or any other person employed about the vessel.
+
+      The subscriber continues his establishment at HELENSBURGH
+    BATHS, the same as for years past, and a vessel will be in
+    readiness to convey passengers to the _Comet_ from Greenock
+    to Helensburgh.
+                                               HENRY BELL.
+      HELENSBURGH BATHS, _5th August, 1812_.
+
+Bell’s _Comet_ was a quaint-looking craft, with a tall, slender funnel,
+that served the double purpose of mast and chimney. Her length was 42
+feet, breadth 11 feet, draught of water 5½ feet. She had originally two
+small paddle-wheels on each side with four arms to each. The engine was
+about three horse-power, and seems to have been the joint production of
+Bell and the village blacksmith. The boiler was made by David Napier,
+at a cost of £52. The engine is still preserved in the patent office of
+the South Kensington Museum. The _Comet_ was lengthened at Helensburgh,
+in 1818, to 60 feet, and received a new engine of six horse-power,
+by means of which her speed was increased to six miles an hour. This
+engine was made by John Robertson, of Glasgow.
+
+[Illustration: BELL’S “COMET,” OFF DUMBARTON ON THE CLYDE, 1812.
+
+From “Chambers’ Book of Days.”]
+
+The _Comet_ did not pay as a passenger boat on the Clyde, and was soon
+after her launch put on the route to Fort William, and continued on
+that stormy route till December 15th, 1820, when she was wrecked at
+Craignish, on the West Highland coast. She had left Oban that morning
+against the advice of her captain, who deemed the boat unseaworthy and
+quite unfit to encounter the blinding snow storm, in the midst of which
+she went ashore. But Bell had over-ruled the captain. Fortunately there
+was no loss of life. She was replaced in the following year by a larger
+and improved style of vessel, called by the same name and sailed by the
+same master, Robert Bain, who was the first to take a steamer through
+the Crinan Canal, and the first to traverse the Caledonian Canal from
+sea to sea by steam, in 1822. The second _Comet_ came into collision
+with the steamer _Ayr_ off Gourock in October, 1825, and sank with
+the loss of seventy lives. She was raised, however, was rigged as a
+schooner, renamed the _Anne_, and sailed for many years as a coaster.
+
+Mr. Bell was born in Linlithgow in 1767. The son of a mechanic, he
+worked for some time as a stone-mason, afterwards as a carpenter, and
+gained some experience in ship-building at Bo’ness under Mr. Rennie.
+He removed to Helensburgh in 1808, where his wife kept the Baths Inn
+while he was experimenting in mechanical projects. He was a man of
+energy and enterprise, but like most inventors was always scant of
+cash. Had it not been for the generosity of his friends, and an annuity
+of £100 which he received from the Clyde Trust, he would have come
+to want in his old age. He seems to have had steam navigation on the
+brain as early as 1786, and had communicated his ideas on the subject
+to most of the crowned heads of Europe, as well as to the President of
+the United States, before he built the _Comet_. Mr. Bell’s memory is
+perpetuated in an obelisk erected by the city of Glasgow corporation
+on a picturesque promontory on the banks of the Clyde at Bowling, “in
+acknowledgment of a debt which it can never repay.” There is also a
+handsome granite obelisk to his memory on the esplanade at Helensburgh,
+the inscription on which testifies that “Henry Bell was the first in
+Great Britain who was successful in practically applying steam power
+for the purpose of navigation.” The stone effigy of the man adjoining
+his grave in Row churchyard was placed there by his friend Robert
+Napier, whose fame and fortune were largely the result of Bell’s
+enterprise. Mr. Bell died at his inn in Helensburgh, November 14th,
+1830.
+
+Fifty years later witnessed the full development of Mr. Bell’s ideal
+in the _Columba_, then as now the largest river steamer ever seen on
+the Clyde, and the swiftest. The _Columba_ is built of steel, is 316
+feet long and 50 feet wide. She has two oscillating engines of 220
+horse-power, and attains a speed of twenty-two miles an hour. Her
+route is from Glasgow to Ardrishaig and back, daily in summer, when
+she carries from 2,000 to 3,000 persons through some of the finest
+scenery in Scotland. She is provided with steam machinery for steering
+and warping her into the piers, and with other modern appliances that
+make her as handy as a steam yacht. She resembles a little floating
+town, with shops and post-office where you can procure money orders and
+despatch telegrams And what is the _Columba_ after all but an enlarged
+and perfected reproduction of Bell’s _Comet_!
+
+[Illustration: “COLUMBA,” FAMOUS CLYDE RIVER STEAMER, 1875.]
+
+[Illustration: “WILHELM KAISER” ON THE RHINE, 1886.]
+
+The reputation of the Clyde in respect of ocean steamships and
+“ironclads” has become world-wide. Some of the best specimens of marine
+architecture are Clyde-built. Her own river steamers are the finest
+and fleetest in the United Kingdom. The Thames river steamers, though
+far inferior to the Clyde boats, answer their purpose by conveying
+vast numbers of people short distances at a cheap rate. The Victoria
+Steamboat Association, with its fleet of forty-five river steamers, can
+carry 200,000 people daily for a penny a mile. The Rhine steamers and
+those plying on the Swiss lakes are in keeping with the picturesque
+scenery through which they run. Painted in bright colours, they present
+a very attractive and smart appearance. They are kept scrupulously
+clean and are admirably managed. Many of them are large, with saloon
+cabins the whole length of the vessel, over which is the promenade deck
+covered with gay awnings. They run fast. The captain sits in state in
+his easy chair under a canopy on the bridge—smoking his cigar. The
+chief steward, next to the captain by far the most important personage
+on board, moves about all day long in full evening dress—his main
+concern being to know what wine you will have for lunch or dinner
+that he may put it on ice for you. The _table d’hote_ is the crowning
+event of the day on board a Rhine steamer, _i.e._, for the misguided
+majority of tourists to whom a swell dinner offers greater attractions
+than the finest scenery imaginable.
+
+The success of the first _Comet_ induced others to follow the example.
+The year 1814 saw two other small steamboats on the Clyde. Next year
+the _Marjery_, built by Denny of Dumbarton, made a voyage to Dublin
+and thence to the Thames, where she plied between London and Margate
+for some time, to the consternation of the Thames watermen. In 1818
+David Napier of Glasgow went into the business, and equipped a number
+of coasting steamers with improved machinery. At this time the _Rob
+Roy_, claimed to be the pioneer of sea-going steamers, began to run
+to Belfast, but being found too small for the traffic she was put on
+the Dover and Calais route. In 1819 the Admiralty of the day had a
+steamboat built for towing men of-war, called the _Comet_, 115 feet by
+21 feet, with two of Boulton & Watt’s engines of 40 horse-power each.
+This vessel was followed by the _Lightning_, _Echo_, _Confiance_,
+_Columbia_ and _Dee_—the latter vessel having side-lever engines of
+240 horse-power, with flue boilers carrying a pressure of six pounds
+to the square inch, which developed a speed of seven knots an hour. In
+1822 a large number of steam vessels fitted with condensing engines
+were afloat. The _James Watt_ was built in that year to ply between
+Leith and London. The largest steamer at that time was the _United
+Kingdom_, built by Steele of Greenock, 160 feet long by 26½ feet wide,
+having engines of 200 horse-power—as much an object of wonder in those
+days for her “gigantic proportions” as was the _Great Eastern_ thirty
+years later. In 1825 there were 168 steam vessels in Britain; in 1835
+there were 538; in 1855 there were 2,310, including war vessels afloat
+and building; in 1895 the number of steam vessels built in the United
+Kingdom was 638, of which number 90 per cent. were built of steel.
+In 1897 the number of steamers over 100 tons in the United Kingdom,
+including the colonies, was computed to be 8,500, with a net tonnage of
+6,500,000 tons.
+
+
+THE “CLERMONT.”
+
+Three years before Bell’s achievement on the Clyde, a clever American,
+profiting by the experiments of Symington, applied his inventive
+genius to perfecting the application of steam as a motive power for
+vessels, and gained for himself the honour of being the first to make
+it available for practical use on a paying basis. This was Robert
+Fulton, a native of Pennsylvania, born in 1765, who commenced business
+as a portrait painter and followed that profession for some years in
+France and England. He invented a number of “notions,” among the rest
+a submarine torpedo-boat, in which he claimed that he could remain
+under water for an hour and a half at a time; but failing to receive
+the patronage of any naval authorities, he returned to New York, and,
+with the assistance of Mr. John Livingstone, had a steamboat built and
+fitted with an English engine by Boulton & Watt, of Birmingham. The
+_Clermont_ (after being lengthened) was 133 feet long, 18 feet beam,
+and 7½ feet deep. Her wheels were uncovered, 15 feet in diameter, with
+eight buckets, 4 feet long, to each wheel, and dipping 2 feet. The
+cylinder was 24 inches in diameter, with 4 feet stroke of piston. The
+boiler was of copper, 20 feet long, 7 feet wide and 8 feet high.
+
+[Illustration: FULTON’S “CLERMONT” ON THE HUDSON, 1807.]
+
+The _Clermont_ made her first voyage from New York to Albany, August
+7th, 1807. Her speed was about five miles an hour. During the winter of
+1807-8 she was enlarged, her name being then changed to _North River_.
+She continued to ply successfully on the Hudson as a passenger boat
+for a number of years, her owners having acquired the exclusive right
+to navigate the waters of the State of New York by steam. The _Car of
+Neptune_ and the _Paragon_, of 300 and 350 tons, respectively, were
+soon added to the Fulton & Livingstone Line. Both of these vessels
+were fitted with English engines. The _Paragon_ continued to ply on
+the Hudson for about ten years, earning a good deal of money for the
+owners. About 1820, while ascending the river, she ran upon a rock and
+became a total wreck. Other steamboats were built for other waters, and
+very soon there were steamers plying on all the navigable rivers of the
+United States available for commerce. Mr. Fulton married a daughter of
+Mr. Livingstone. He died in New York in 1815, at the height of his fame
+and prosperity.
+
+[Illustration: MISSISSIPPI STEAMBOAT “J. M. WHITE,” 1878.]
+
+[Illustration: OHIO STEAMBOAT “IRON QUEEN,” 1882.]
+
+The contrast between Fulton’s _Clermont_, or Bell’s _Comet_ and the
+Atlantic Liner coursing over the sea at railway speed is very striking,
+and scarcely less remarkable the comparison of the river steamboat
+of to-day with these early experiments. America has developed a type
+of steamboat, or rather types of steamboats, peculiarly its own. The
+light-draught Mississippi steamers[6] bear little resemblance to the
+Hudson River and Long Island Sound boats while the American steam
+ferry-boat is a thing certainly not of beauty, but unique. Dickens
+in his American Notes speaks of the _Burlington_, the crack steamer
+on Lake Champlain in the early forties, as “a perfectly exquisite
+achievement of neatness, elegance and order—a model of graceful comfort
+and beautiful contrivance.” But Dickens never saw the _Priscilla_.
+She was only launched in 1894, and is claimed to be “pre-eminently
+the world’s greatest inland steamer—the largest, finest and most
+elaborately furnished steamboat of her class to be found anywhere.”
+The _Priscilla_ is 440½ feet long, 52½ feet wide, or 95 feet over the
+paddle-boxes. The paddle-wheels are of the feathering type, 35 feet
+in diameter and 14 feet face. Her light draught is 12½ feet, and her
+speed easily 22 miles an hour, though the ordinary service of the line
+does not demand such fast running. Her night’s work is 181 miles,
+which she covers leisurely in ten hours. She cost $1,500,000. All the
+interior decorations are very elaborate and handsome. In her triple
+row of staterooms there is luxurious sleeping accommodation for 1,500
+passengers. In the spacious dining-room 325 persons may be seated
+at one time. The grand saloon is a magnificent spectacle, large and
+lofty, superbly decorated and lighted by electricity. The _Priscilla_
+has cargo capacity for 800 tons of freight. “Her machinery is not only
+a marvel of design and workmanship, but it fascinates all persons
+interested in mechanical devices.” It consists of a double inclined
+compound engine, with two high-pressure cylinders, each fifty-one
+inches in diameter, and two low pressure, each ninety-five inches in
+diameter, all with a stroke of eleven feet. There are ten return
+tubular boilers of the Scotch type, each fourteen feet in diameter and
+fourteen feet long, constructed for a working pressure of 150 lbs. to
+the square inch. The indicated horse-power is 8,500. The machinery is
+principally below the main deck, leaving all the space on and above
+this deck available for general purposes.
+
+[Illustration: “PRISCILLA.”
+
+Fall River and Long Island Sound Line, 1894.]
+
+This floating palace was built at Chester, Pa., by the Delaware Iron
+Ship-building and Engine Works Company. She is built of steel. Her
+registered tonnage is 5,398 tons. Although so vast in her proportions,
+the _Priscilla_ sits on the water as lightly and gracefully as a swan.
+Painted white as snow outside, as nearly all American river steamers
+are, she presents a beautiful, you might say a dazzling, appearance;
+and she is only one of five magnificent steamers of the Fall River
+Line, all substantially alike in design and equipment, running
+regularly all the year round between Fall River and New York, with a
+perfection of service that cannot be surpassed.
+
+[Illustration: “NEW YORK.”
+
+The latest Hudson River Day Steamer, 1897.]
+
+This cut, kindly furnished by the owners, gives a faithful
+representation of the exterior of a very beautiful Hudson River day
+steamboat. The _New York_ is built of steel, 311 feet over all, breadth
+of beam 40 feet, and over the guards 74 feet; average draught of water
+6 feet. She combines speed, luxuriousness of furnishing and a beauty
+of finish in all parts that has not been surpassed on vessels of this
+class. She is capable of running 24 miles an hour. This boat and her
+consort, the _Albany_, are claimed to be the finest day passenger river
+steamers in the world. She is not crowded with 2,500 passengers, of
+whom 120 may sit down together to an exquisite dinner in the richly
+decorated dining-room.
+
+A distinct class of steamboats peculiar to America is the ferry-boat.
+In one of its forms it is to be found fully developed in New York
+harbour, and serves to convey daily countless thousands of people whose
+business lies in New York City, but whose homes are on Brooklyn Heights
+or elsewhere on Long Island, or the New Jersey coast. The boats are
+very large and very ugly, but do their work admirably, being adapted
+for the transport of wheeled carriages of every description as well as
+for foot-passengers. One of the sights of New York worth seeing is a
+visit to the Fulton Ferry in the morning or in the evening, when the
+crowds are the greatest. The _Robert Garrett_, which runs down the bay
+to Staten Island, carries from 4,000 to 5,000 passengers at a trip, and
+is said to be the largest steam-ferry passenger boat in existence. She
+is owned by the Staten Island Rapid Transit Co., and cost $225,000.
+
+Another type of ferry-boat is that which, in addition to carrying
+passengers, is specially adapted for railway purposes. The best
+specimen of this kind of steamboat is probably to be found on Lake
+Erie, where a pair of boats, precisely alike, keep up regular
+communication twice a day, summer and winter, between Coneant, Ohio,
+and Port Dover, Ontario. They are named _Shenango_, 1st and 2nd. They
+are each 300 feet long and 53 feet in width. On the main deck are four
+railway tracks, sufficient for twenty-six loaded cars each containing
+60,000 lbs. of coal. On the upper deck are handsomely fitted cabins for
+1,000 passengers The ferry is sixty-five miles wide. Sometimes it is
+pretty rough sailing, but these steamers never fail to make the round
+trip in thirteen hours. They are fitted with compound engines, Scotch
+boilers, and twin screws; they draw 12½ feet of water when loaded and
+run twelve miles an hour; they are prodigiously strong, and can plough
+their way through fields of ice with marvellous facility.
+
+[Illustration: “ROBERT GARRETT,” FERRY STEAMBOAT, NEW YORK.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] “The Atlantic Ferry,” p. 175.
+
+[2] If my recollection serves me aright, there were not more than a
+dozen cabin passengers, and the only one of them who ventured aloft
+with me was my now venerable friend, Mr. Robert W. Graham, of the
+Montreal _Star_.
+
+[3] “Denis Papin,” by Henry C. Ewart, in _Sunday Magazine_, 1880, p.
+316.
+
+[4] Mr. Symington’s account of his interview with Mr. Fulton, as given
+in the “Encyclopædia Britannica,” is as follows: “When engaged in these
+experiments, I was called upon by Mr. Fulton, who told me he was lately
+from North America, and intended returning thither in a few months,
+but could not think of leaving this country without first waiting upon
+me in expectation of seeing the boat, and procuring such information
+regarding it as I might be pleased to communicate.... In compliance
+with his earnest request, I caused the engine fire to be lighted up,
+and in a short time thereafter put the steamboat in motion, and carried
+him four miles west on the canal, returning to the point from which
+we started in one hour and twenty minutes (being at the rate of six
+miles an hour), to the great astonishment of Mr. Fulton and several
+gentlemen, who at our outset chanced to come on board. During the trip
+Mr. Fulton asked if I had any objection to his taking notes regarding
+the steamboat, to which I made no objection, as I considered the more
+publicity that was given to any discovery intended for the general
+good, so much the better.... In consequence he pulled out a memorandum
+book, and, after putting several pointed questions respecting the
+general construction and effect of the machine, which I answered in
+a most explicit manner, he jotted down particularly everything then
+described, with his own observations upon the boat during the trip.”
+
+[5] “The Story of Helensburgh,” 1894, p. 92.
+
+[6] These cuts, copied from Stanton’s “American Steam Vessels,”
+represent first class Mississippi and Ohio light-draught, high-pressure
+river steamers. The _J. M. White_, of 1878, was deemed “a crowning
+effort in steamboat architecture in the West.” She was 320 feet long
+and 91 feet in width, over the guards. Her saloons were magnificently
+furnished, and all her internal fittings of the most elaborate
+description. She carried 7,000 bales of cotton and had accommodation
+for 350 cabin passengers. Her cost was $300,000. She was totally
+destroyed by fire in 1886.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+EARLY YEARS OF STEAM NAVIGATION.
+
+
+    The _Accommodation_—The _Savannah_—_Enterprise_
+        —_Royal William_—_Liverpool_—_Sirius_ and
+        _Great Western_—_Great Britain_ and _Great
+        Eastern_—The Brunels—The screw propeller.
+
+Two years after the _Clermont_ had commenced to ply on the Hudson, and
+three years before the _Comet_ had disturbed the waters of the Clyde,
+the first steamboat appeared on the St. Lawrence. The _Accommodation_,
+built by the Hon. John Molson, of Montreal, made her maiden trip to
+Quebec on November 3rd, 1809, carrying ten passengers, in thirty-six
+hours’ running time. In accordance with the usual custom, which
+continued for many years, she anchored at night, so that the whole time
+occupied in the voyage was sixty-six hours. If she ascended the St.
+Mary’s current, she was towed up by oxen. The length of this vessel was
+eighty-five feet over all, her breadth sixteen feet, her engine was of
+six horse-power, and her speed five miles an hour. The _Accommodation_
+was built at the back of the Molson’s Brewery, and was launched
+broadside on. Her engine was made by Boulton & Watt, of Birmingham,
+England. The fare from Montreal to Quebec by this vessel was £2 10s.;
+children, half price; “servants with _birth_ (_sic_), £1 13s. 4d.;
+without _birth_, £1 5s.” The Quebec _Mercury_, announcing her arrival,
+remarked: “She is incessantly crowded with visitors. This steamboat
+receives her impulse from an open-spoked perpendicular wheel on each
+side, without any circular band or rim. To the end of each double spoke
+is fixed a square board which enters the water, and by the rotatory
+motion of the wheels acts like a paddle. No wind or tide can stop her.”
+
+[Illustration: “JEANIE DEANS,” CLYDE STEAMBOAT.
+
+From “Mountain, Moor and Loch,” London, 1894.]
+
+_The Savannah._—In the year 1818 there was built in New York, by
+Messrs. Crocker and Pickett, a full-rigged sailing ship of about 350
+tons, named the _Savannah_. She was intended to be used as a sailing
+packet between New York and Havre, but before she was completed she was
+purchased by William Scarborough & Co., a shipping firm in Savannah,
+who fitted her up with a steam-engine of 90 horse-power, placed on
+deck, and a pair of paddle-wheels enclosed with canvas coverings, so
+constructed that they could be folded up and taken on deck in stormy
+weather, and that tedious operation seems to have been gone through
+pretty frequently in the course of her first voyages. Her maiden trip
+from New York to Savannah occupied 8 days, 15 hours. She left Savannah
+for Liverpool under steam, May 22nd, 1819, and arrived in the Mersey,
+“with all sail set,” on June 20th, making the run in twenty-nine and
+a half days. The whole time that the engine was at work during the
+voyage is said to have been only eighty hours. “She hove to off the
+bar, waiting for the tide to rise, at 5 p.m. shipped her wheels”—so the
+record of the period runs—“furled her sails and steamed up the river,
+with American banners flying, the docks being lined with thousands
+of people, who greeted her arrival with cheers.” From Liverpool, the
+_Savannah_ sailed up the Baltic to Stockholm and St. Petersburg. On her
+return voyage, on account of stormy weather, the engine was scarcely
+used at all until the pilot came aboard off Savannah, when the sails
+were furled, and with the flood-tide she steamed into port. After
+several voyages of a similar kind, the machinery was removed and she
+plied for some time as a sailing packet between New York and Savannah,
+and was eventually wrecked on Long Island in 1822.
+
+Shortly after this the British Government offered a prize of £10,000
+to the party who should first make a successful voyage by steam power
+to India. The prize was won by Captain Johnston, who sailed from
+England on August 16th, 1825, in the _Enterprise_, of 500 tons and
+240 horse-power,[7] and reached Calcutta on the 7th of December. The
+distance run was 13,700 miles, and the time occupied 113 days, during
+ten of which the ship was at anchor. She ran under steam sixty-four
+days and consumed 580 chaldrons of coal, the rest of the voyage being
+under sail.
+
+[Illustration: THE “SAVANNAH,” 1819.]
+
+Eight years followed without any further attempts in the direction of
+ocean steam navigation. There seemed to be nothing in these costly
+experiments that would induce capitalists to invest their money in
+steamships. Sailing vessels had crossed the Atlantic in much less than
+thirty days, and had made the voyage to India in less time than the
+_Enterprise_ took to do it. It would not pay! and had not scientific
+men and practical engineers pronounced the idea of transatlantic
+steamships as Utopian and utterly impracticable? “No vessel could be
+constructed,” they said, “that could carry enough coal to take her
+across the Atlantic by steam power alone.” Some of these unbelievers
+lived to see the day when large ocean steamers not only carry enough
+coal to take them from Liverpool to New York, but actually enough for
+the return voyage also.
+
+
+THE “ROYAL WILLIAM.”
+
+The _Savannah_ and _Enterprise_ were admittedly nothing more than
+sailing ships with auxiliary steam power. In the archives of the
+National Museum at Washington there is to be found the full history
+and log of the _Savannah_, which proves conclusively that she was not
+entitled to be called the pioneer of transatlantic steam navigation.
+That the honour belongs to the _Royal William_, built at Quebec and
+engined at Montreal, has been clearly proven. The evidence in support
+of this claim is embodied in a report of the Secretary of State of
+Canada for the year ended December 31st, 1894. From this it appears
+that the _Royal William_ was designed by Mr. James Goudie, Marine
+Architect of Quebec, and that she was launched from the shipyard of
+Messrs. Campbell and Black at Cape Cove, Quebec, April 29th, 1831, in
+presence of Lord Aylmer, the Governor-General, and a vast concourse
+of people, Lady Aylmer naming the vessel with the usual ceremonies
+after the reigning monarch, William IV. She was towed to Montreal,
+where her engines of 200 horse-power were fitted by Messrs. Bennett
+and Henderson. She steamed back to Quebec in the beginning of August.
+She was built for the Quebec and Halifax Steam Navigation Company,
+incorporated by Act of Parliament, March 31st, 1831. This company
+comprised 235 persons whose names appear in the Act, among them
+being the three brothers, Samuel, Henry and Joseph Cunard. Samuel,
+the founder of the Cunard Line, was a frequent visitor at the Quebec
+shipyard, and carefully noted down all the information he could get
+from the builders.
+
+[Illustration: MODEL OF STEAMSHIP “ROYAL WILLIAM.”
+
+THIS INTERESTING RELIC HAS AN HONOURED RESTING-PLACE IN THE LIBRARY
+OF THE LITERARY AND HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF QUEBEC. IT WAS SENT, AT
+THE REQUEST OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE ROYAL NAVAL EXHIBITION, TO THAT
+EXHIBITION, HELD IN LONDON IN 1891, AND NUMBERED 4,736, WHERE IT
+ATTRACTED CONSIDERABLE ATTENTION, AND THE SOCIETY RECEIVED FROM THE
+COMMITTEE A HANDSOME DIPLOMA BY WAY OF A SOUVENIR.
+
+THE IMPORTANCE OF THIS MODEL WAS RECOGNIZED BY THE DOMINION GOVERNMENT.
+BY ORDERING A FACSIMILE OF IT TO BE MADE, AND SENDING IT TO THE
+COLUMBIAN EXHIBITION, OR WORLD’S FAIR, AT CHICAGO, IN 1893. IT IS NOW
+TO BE SEEN IN THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AT OTTAWA.]
+
+This historic vessel was registered No. 2 in the port of Quebec. She
+was rigged as a three-masted schooner, of 363-60/94 tons burthen, with
+a standing bowsprit and square stern. Her length was 160 feet; breadth,
+taken above the main wales, 44 feet; depth of hold, 17 feet 9 inches;
+and width, between the paddle-boxes, 28 feet. She cost about £16,000.
+The _Royal William_, commanded by Captain J. Jones, R.N., sailed from
+Quebec for Halifax, August 24th, 1831, with twenty cabin passengers,
+seventy steerage, and a good freight. She arrived on the 31st—six and a
+half days from Quebec. Several voyages were made that year to Halifax
+and the Gulf ports. Next year, owing to the prevalence of cholera,
+trade was at a standstill, and there was nothing for the new steamship
+to do. She was accordingly sold by Sheriff Gugy, at the church door,
+in the parish of Sorel, for £5,000. In April, 1833, she was placed
+under the command of Captain John Macdougall, a native of Oban,
+Scotland. During May she towed vessels from Grosse Isle, and in June
+sailed for the lower ports, Halifax and Boston, reaching the latter
+place on the 17th—the first British steamer to enter that port. On her
+return to Quebec, her owners decided to send her to London to be sold.
+She sailed August 5th, arrived at Pictou on the 8th, and sailed thence
+on the 18th, with seven passengers, a box of stuffed birds, one box
+and one trunk, some household furniture, 254 chaldrons of coal, and a
+crew of thirty-six men. The voyage to Cowes, Isle of Wight, was made in
+nineteen and a half days. She was deeply laden with her coal, had very
+rough weather, and had to run with one engine for ten days. A short
+time having been spent at Cowes, painting the ship, etc., “she steamed
+up to Gravesend in fine style—the first vessel to cross the Atlantic
+propelled by the motive power of steam alone.”
+
+The _Royal William_ was sold in London for £10,000, and was chartered
+to the Portuguese Government as a transport. In 1834 she was sold to
+the Spanish Government, and named the _Isabel Segunda_, and while in
+this service was the first war-steamer to fire a hostile shot. In
+1837 she was sent to Bordeaux, France, for repairs, but, her timbers
+being badly decayed, her machinery was transferred to a new vessel of
+the same name, while she herself terminated her brilliant career as a
+hulk.[8]
+
+Another steamer bearing the name _Royal William_ was despatched from
+Liverpool to New York, by the Transatlantic Steamship Company, in
+1838. This was a vessel of 617 tons, and 276 horse-power—the first
+to make the westward voyage from Liverpool, and the first passenger
+steamer to cross the sea. After a few voyages of doubtful success,
+this steamer was degraded into a coal-hulk, and a much larger and
+faster vessel took her place. This was the _Liverpool_—built expressly
+for the Atlantic trade, with luxurious fittings for seventy or eighty
+first-class passengers. She was a fine ship, of 1,150 tons burthen,
+and 468 horse-power. She sailed from Liverpool, October 20th, 1838,
+but had to put back to Queenstown on the 30th; sailing thence on
+November 6th, she reached New York on the 23rd. After several voyages,
+averaging seventeen days out and fifteen days home, she was sold to
+the Peninsular and Oriental Company, and was finally wrecked off Cape
+Finisterre in 1846.
+
+In 1839 the late Sir Hugh Allan and several other Canadians made an
+adventurous voyage in the _Liverpool_. Sailing from New York, December
+4th, they had a succession of gales up to the 28th, when they were
+scarcely half-way across the Atlantic. The chief engineer then reported
+that unless things mended they would run short of coal. The chief
+steward at the same time expressed grave doubts as to his provisions
+holding out. A consultation having been held, it was resolved to change
+their course for the Azores. They reached Fayal just as the last
+shovelful of coal was thrown on the fires. Four days were spent on the
+Island, during which time the passengers were treated to a round of
+festivities. On arriving at Liverpool, they learned that the ship had
+been given up as lost—not having been heard of since she sailed from
+New York thirty-nine days before.
+
+[Illustration: THE “SIRIUS,” 1838.]
+
+
+THE “SIRIUS” AND “GREAT WESTERN.”
+
+The departure of these steamships from England to America in 1838
+marks an important epoch in the history of steam navigation, inasmuch
+as the practicability of establishing a regular transatlantic steam
+service was now for the first time to be clearly demonstrated. As
+the _Sirius_ made only one round voyage, there is little to be said
+about her beyond admiring the pluck of her owners. She was a small
+vessel of about 700 tons and 320 horse-power, built at Leith for the
+St. George Steam-packet Company, and had plied successfully for some
+time between London and Cork. She was chartered by the then newly
+formed “British and American Steam Navigation Company,” of which the
+famous ship-builder, Laird, of Birkenhead, was the leading spirit. The
+_Sirius_ was despatched from London for New York, _via_ Cork, whence
+she sailed on April 4th, with ninety-four passengers. She arrived in
+New York on the 22nd, after a successful voyage of seventeen clear
+days, being commanded by Lieut. Roberts, R.N., who was afterwards lost
+at sea with the ill-fated SS. _President_, in 1841. The return voyage
+was made in about the same number of days as the outward trip.
+
+The _Great Western_, designed and built by Mr. William Patterson at
+Bristol, for the Great Western Steamship Company, sailed from Bristol,
+April 8th, 1838, in command of Lieut. James Hoskin, R.N., and reached
+New York on the 23rd, making the run in fifteen days with a consumption
+of 655 tons of coal and realizing an average speed of a little over
+eight knots an hour. She returned to Bristol in somewhat less than
+fifteen days. A fine ship she was, of 1,340 tons and 440 horse-power,
+212 feet long, and 35½ feet beam. Her best run between New York and
+Bristol was made in 12½ days,[9] a remarkable record for that time.
+Altogether she was admitted to be a distinct success. She was sold in
+1847 for £25,000, after which she sailed regularly for ten years to
+the West Indies. In the meantime the owners of the _Sirius_ had built
+a much larger boat, the _British Queen_, which made her maiden voyage
+from Portsmouth in 1839. After making a number of voyages to New York
+this fine ship was sold to the Belgians in 1841, chiefly owing to the
+collapse of the company occasioned by the loss of a sister-ship, the
+_President_, which sailed from New York, March 11th of that year, and
+was never afterwards heard of.
+
+
+THE “GREAT BRITAIN” AND “GREAT EASTERN.”
+
+The _Great Britain_, designed by Brunel, and built at Bristol by
+Mr. Patterson, was the first iron steamship of large dimensions.
+She was very large for her time, being 322 feet long, 48 feet wide,
+and 31½ feet deep; her tonnage was 3,270 tons, and her engines
+1,500 horse-power. As originally rigged she had six masts; she had
+a six-bladed screw-propeller, 15½ feet in diameter, which made 18
+revolutions per minute, giving her a maximum speed of twelve knots
+an hour. A very handsome model, of prodigious strength, and a fine
+sea-boat was the _Great Britain_. She commenced plying to New York,
+July 26th, 1845, and was a pronounced success. On the 22nd of
+September, 1846, on her outward voyage, she was stranded on the Irish
+coast, and became deeply embedded in the sands of Dundrum Bay, where
+she lay all winter, exposed to violent storms; but she withstood the
+strain, was raised from her watery grave, was refitted and placed on
+the Australian route, where she sailed successfully until 1882, when
+her machinery was taken out and she closed her remarkable career as a
+full-rigged sailing ship, when nearly fifty years old! and was finally
+used as a coal-hulk at the Falkland Islands, where her remains are
+still to be seen.
+
+[Illustration: THE “GREAT BRITAIN,” 1845.]
+
+[Illustration: THE “GREAT EASTERN,” 1857.]
+
+_The Great Eastern._—The British Government having in 1853 advertised
+for tenders to carry the mails to India and Australia, a number of
+wealthy and scientific men formed themselves into a company called the
+Eastern Steam Navigation Company, with a capital of £1,200,000, and
+sent in a tender, but it was not accepted.[10] The company, however,
+resolved to build a fleet of steamers, of which the _Great Eastern_ was
+to be the first. Mr. Brunel, who had designed the _Great Britain_, was
+selected as the architect, and Mr. Scott Russell, as the builder of the
+pioneer ship. The proposal suited Mr. Brunel’s sanguine temperament,
+and he recommended the building of a monster iron steamship, that
+should eclipse all previous efforts in marine architecture, a vessel
+that should run, say, to Ceylon at an average speed of fifteen knots,
+and carry coal enough to take her out and home again. From Ceylon
+smaller boats would continue the service to India and Australia. The
+embodiment of Mr. Brunel’s magnificent conception was the _Great
+Eastern_, skilfully wrought out, but destined to prove a gigantic
+failure.
+
+This extraordinary ship was commenced at Millwall on the Thames, in
+May, 1854, and was completed in 1857, at a cost of nearly £5,000,000.
+When ready for launching, her estimated weight was some 12,000 tons. As
+no such load had ever before slid down the ways of a shipyard, every
+precaution and appliance that skill could suggest were brought into
+requisition. She was to be hauled down, broadside on, by an elaborate
+arrangement of chains and stationary engines; but when the critical
+moment arrived the ponderous mammoth would not budge, and it cost
+something like £600,000 and constant labour for three months before
+she reached her destined element. The _Great Eastern_ was 692 feet
+long, 83 feet in width, and 58½ feet deep. She was reckoned at 22,500
+tons burthen. Her four engines were collectively of 11,000 indicated
+horse-power. She was fitted up in grand style to accommodate 4,800
+passengers. As a troop-ship she could carry comfortably an army of
+10,000 men in addition to her own crew of 400. She was provided with
+both paddle-wheels and a screw-propeller. The wheels were fifty feet in
+diameter, making twelve revolutions per minute; the four-bladed screw
+was twenty-four feet in diameter, adapted for forty-five revolutions
+per minute. Her estimated speed was fifteen knots, but her best average
+never exceeded twelve knots. Her first voyage from Southampton to New
+York was made in 10 days and 21 hours; the highest speed by the log was
+fourteen and a half knots, and the greatest day’s run three hundred and
+thirty-three knots. Her arrival in New York, June 27th, 1860, created a
+great sensation. Fort Hamilton saluted her with a discharge of fourteen
+guns—the first instance of a merchant vessel being thus honoured in
+America. She returned home _via_ Halifax, making the run thence to
+Milford Haven in 10 days and 4 hours. In May, 1861, she made another
+voyage to New York, carrying one hundred passengers, but with no
+improvement in her speed. On her return to Liverpool she was chartered
+by the British Government to bring out troops to Canada. She arrived at
+Quebec, July 6th, 1861, with 2,528 soldiers and forty civilians, and
+during her stay there was visited by large crowds of people. Leaving
+Quebec, August 6th, she reached Liverpool on the 15th. A couple more
+voyages to New York, and her career as a passenger ship was ended. She
+had been singularly unfortunate. Her first commander, Captain Harrison,
+was drowned in the Solent by the upsetting of a small boat. On her
+trial trip, by the bursting of a steam jacket, six of her crew were
+killed and the ship was badly damaged. She had broken her rudder in
+mid-ocean, and lay for days a helpless mass in the trough of the sea
+during a gale of wind, rolling frightfully. Worse than all, she had
+got on the rocks entering New York harbour, with serious damage to her
+hull. The momentous question arose, What was to be done with her?
+
+This leviathan of the deep was finally fitted up as a “cable ship,”
+and for a short time did good service in that line. In 1865 she
+had laid the second Atlantic cable to within a few hundred miles of
+Newfoundland, when it snapped and disappeared in 1,950 fathoms of
+water. Next year the _Great Eastern_ not only was the means of laying
+a new cable successfully, but was the means of picking up the lost
+one—a remarkable feat of seamanship and electrical skill. After laying
+several other cables the big ship was tied up, never to go again. She
+was eventually sold for £16,000 and broken up, a somewhat tragic ending
+for such a triumph of engineering skill. But who can tell how much
+the successful “liner” of to-day owes to the failure of the _Great
+Eastern_? She came out ahead of time, and when the intricate art of
+managing successfully the details of an ocean steamship had yet to be
+learned.
+
+Isambard Kingdom Brunel, born at Portsmouth in 1806, was the son
+of Sir Mark I. Brunel, a French engineer, who attained celebrity
+as the architect of the Thames Tunnel, and other important works,
+in which he was assisted by his son, who also became famous as the
+Engineer-in-Chief of the Great Western Railroad, in the construction of
+which he adopted the broad gauge (7 feet), against the remonstrances
+of Stephenson and other railway authorities, and which was eventually
+changed to what has become the national gauge (4 feet, 8½ inches), at
+enormous expense. Mr. Brunel died in 1859. It was his misfortune to
+have landed on this planet about fifty years too soon.
+
+
+THE SCREW-PROPELLER.
+
+Most people fail to find much resemblance, if any at all, between that
+comparatively small-looking two or three-bladed thing that drives the
+steamship through the water at the rate of twenty miles an hour, and
+what is commonly known as a screw; but the discrepancy is easy of
+explanation. Archimedes, who is credited with the invention of the
+screw as a mechanical lever, little dreamed of the uses to which it
+was to be turned two thousand years later. He is said to have employed
+the screw in launching a large ship, pushing it into the water as is
+now done by hydraulic appliances. By changing his fulcrum and making
+the screw a part of the ship, the modern engineer has only reversed
+the mode of applying propelling power; the principle is the same.
+The effect produced by the screw in propelling a ship will be best
+understood by supposing an ordinary screw of large dimensions to be
+revolving rapidly in a trough full of water. It would then send the
+water away from it with great force; but as action and reaction are
+equal it would be itself, at the same time, urged in the opposite
+direction with exactly the same degree of force. If we suppose it,
+then, to be fixed in a ship, the ship will be pushed forward with the
+same force that is exerted by the screw in pushing back against the
+water. If the screw is made to revolve in the opposite direction, the
+converse of this takes place, and the ship is pushed backwards by the
+reaction of the screw.[11] The idea has long occupied the attention
+of inventive genius. As far back as 1746, at least, the capabilities
+of the screw as a motive power for ships have been tested by
+experiments. In 1770 James Watt, who had so much to do with perfecting
+the steam-engine, suggested the use of screw-propellers. In 1815
+Trevethick took out a patent for one. Woodcroft did the same in 1826;
+but it was not until ten years later that its utility was successfully
+demonstrated.
+
+In 1836 Captain John Ericsson, a Swede, then residing in London, and
+Mr. T. P. Smith, of the same place, almost simultaneously had each
+small boats built for the purpose of testing the screw. Ericsson’s
+boat, named the _Francis B. Ogden_, was 45 feet long and 8 feet beam,
+and was fitted with two screw-propellers attached to the same shaft.
+The first experiment made on the Thames was successful beyond all
+expectation, for he towed the Admiralty barge, with a number of their
+Lordships on board, from Somerset House to Blackwall and back, at the
+rate of ten miles an hour. Smith’s boat was equally successful, the
+immediate result being the formation of a joint stock company, called
+the Screwship Propeller Company, who bought out Mr. Smith’s patent
+and proceeded to build the _Archimedes_, a vessel of 237 tons, and 80
+horse-power. Smith’s original propeller was a genuine screw, with two
+whole turns of the thread, made to revolve rapidly under water in the
+dead-wood of the vessel’s run. In the meantime, about 1838, Mr. James
+Lowe obtained a patent for an important modification of the elongated
+screw-propeller. This consisted in making use of curved blades, each
+a portion of a curve, which, if continued, would form a complete
+screw. The “pitch of the screw ” being the whole length along the
+spindle shaft of one complete turn of the screw, if fully developed,
+it was found that by reducing the pitch to a segment of the screw
+and increasing the diameter, the propeller could be reduced to more
+convenient dimensions.
+
+The success of the _Archimedes_ at length induced the Admiralty to
+make trial of the screw in the Royal Navy. The first _Rattler_ was
+built in 1841, and fitted with a screw-propeller. In 1842 the United
+States Government made a similar experiment with the _Princeton_,
+and in the following year the French Government built the screw
+war-ship, _Pomone_.[12] In each case the verdict was favourable to the
+introduction of the screw in preference to the paddle-wheel. The second
+_Rattler_, of 880 tons and 496 horse-power, was built and fitted with
+a screw-propeller, and attained a speed of 9¼ knots on her trial trip,
+September 5th, 1851. That settled the question in so far as the Royal
+Navy was concerned. In the mercantile marine the _Great Britain_ was
+the first ship of large dimensions in which the screw was adopted. For
+many years there continued to be a strong prejudice against it, though
+it was destined eventually to entirely supersede the paddle on the
+ocean.
+
+In order to prevent the screw “racing,” which often occurs in heavy
+weather, to the discomfort of passengers and the annoyance of
+engineers, a system of raising and lowering the propeller has been
+tried somewhat extensively in the navy and also in the mercantile
+service, but it has been practically abandoned since the twin screws
+have come into general use, by which the difficulty alluded to has been
+largely overcome.
+
+[Illustration: A MYTHICAL WIND-BOAT, FROM AN OLD ENGRAVING (1805).]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[7] “Our Ocean Railways,” p. 69.
+
+[8] Sufficient importance was attached to this matter to cause
+the two Houses of Parliament, in Ottawa, to order a brass tablet,
+commemorative of the event, to be placed in the corridor of the Library
+of Parliament. The tablet, of which a facsimile is presented in our
+frontispiece, was unveiled with fitting ceremony by His Excellency
+the Governor-General, on the occasion of the opening of the Colonial
+Conference, June 28th, 1894.—_Vide_: “The Journals of the Colonial
+Conference” (_Appendix_); “Journal of the House of Commons,” 1894;
+“Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada.”
+
+[9] Others say 10½ days.
+
+[10] Fry’s “History of Steam Navigation,” p. 182.
+
+[11] Encyclopedia Britannica, 8th Ed., Vol. xx, p. 657.
+
+[12] “Our Ocean Railways,” p. 75.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE CUNARD LINE AND ITS FOUNDERS.
+
+
+This well-known line takes its name from Samuel Cunard (afterwards
+Sir Samuel), a native of Halifax, Nova Scotia, who had for some time
+been conducting the mail service between Halifax, Boston, Newfoundland
+and Bermuda, and who had long been revolving in his mind the idea of
+establishing a regular line of ocean mail steamers, but could not find
+the necessary financial backing in his native country. Proceeding
+to Britain, Mr. Cunard fortunately fell in with Robert Napier, the
+famous Clyde ship-builder and engineer, who entered heartily into his
+proposals and introduced him to George Burns (afterwards Sir George),
+one of the foremost men in shipping circles at that time, and a man of
+large means. Through him Mr. Cunard was introduced to David MacIver,
+of Liverpool, who was of a kindred spirit. The result before long was
+a partnership of these three with a subscribed capital of £270,000
+sterling, and the obtaining of a contract with the British Government
+for seven years to institute and maintain a steam service from
+Liverpool to Halifax and Boston, twice a month during eight months of
+the year and once a month in winter, for an annual subsidy of £60,000.
+Subsequent stipulations made by the Admiralty were accompanied by an
+increase of the subsidy to £80,000. At the end of seven years the
+contract was renewed, but for a weekly service in summer, and twice a
+month in winter. Saturday then became the regular day of sailing from
+Liverpool, and New York was adopted as one of the American termini.
+In 1848, when it was found that a weekly service was required, the
+subsidy was increased to £156,000 per annum. In 1860, to facilitate
+the despatch of the mails, the boats began to call at Queenstown both
+going out and returning home, as they still continue to do. In January,
+1868, a new mail contract came into operation, under which the Cunard
+Line received £70,000 a year for a direct weekly service to New York.
+In the following year Halifax was left out of the programme, although a
+separate branch line continued to run to Boston as it still does.
+
+[Illustration: “BRITANNIA,” FIRST OF THE CUNARD LINE, 1840.]
+
+The original name of the company was “The British and North
+American Royal Mail Steam-Packet Company,” but it soon took the
+less cumbrous title of “The Cunard Steamship Company, Limited.” The
+Cunard Line commenced its service from Liverpool to North America
+on the anniversary of American Independence, the 4th of July, 1840,
+superseding as mail-carriers the ten-gun sailing brigs of earlier
+days.[13]
+
+[Illustration: THE “NIAGARA,” AS A TRANSPORT IN 1855.]
+
+The first fleet consisted of four side-wheel steamers, each 207
+feet long, 34⅓ feet beam and 22½ feet deep. Their wooden hulls were
+constructed by four different builders on the Clyde—the _Acadia_ by
+John Wood, the _Britannia_ by Robert Duncan & Co.; the _Caledonia_
+by Charles Wood, and the _Columbia_ by Robert Steele. All four were
+built after the same model, closely resembling that of the _Great
+Western_. They were all supplied with engines of the side-lever type,
+by Robert Napier & Sons, 403 horse-power, nominal, with cylinders of
+72½ inches diameter and 82 inches stroke. They burned about forty-four
+tons of coal per day, and carried a steam pressure of 9 pounds to the
+square inch. The _Britannia_, commanded by Captain Woodruff, R.N.,
+sailed on her first westward voyage on July 4th, and after calling
+at Halifax, reached Boston on the 19th, having made the passage in
+14 days, 8 hours, including detention at Halifax. So great was the
+enthusiasm in Boston, it is said that Mr. Cunard, who had come out in
+the _Britannia_, received eighteen hundred invitations to dinner during
+the first twenty-four hours of his stay in the city! From that time
+until now the service has been maintained with marvellous regularity,
+and the line has an unrivalled reputation for safety. During all
+these intervening years the ships of the Cunard Line have crossed and
+recrossed the stormy Atlantic without the loss of a single life. In the
+early days of the service, the _Unicorn_, formerly of the Glasgow and
+Liverpool Line, plied between Quebec and Pictou, N.S., in connection
+with the Atlantic steamers, and is said to have been the first
+transatlantic steamer to reach Boston, on June 2nd, 1840. The _Unicorn_
+was commanded by Captain Walter Douglas—a great favourite with his
+passengers—and the boat was a very fine one indeed.
+
+The second contract, calling for weekly sailings, necessitated a larger
+fleet of steamers. To meet this demand four new ships were built,
+and took their places on the line in 1848, namely, the _America_,
+_Niagara_, _Canada_ and _Europa_. Each of these was 251 feet long,
+of 1,800 tons burthen and 750 horse-power. They had an average speed
+of 10½ knots an hour. And so, from time to time, as the exigencies
+of trade and the need for enlarged passenger accommodation demanded,
+fresh additions were made to the fleet, each succeeding ship surpassing
+its predecessors in size, equipment and speed. The _Persia_, built in
+1856, was the first of the iron boats: the _Scotia_, in 1862, was the
+last of the paddle-wheel steamers. They were both very fine ships of
+3,300 and 3,871 tons, respectively, accounted the best specimens of
+marine architecture then afloat. The _China_, launched in 1862, was the
+first Cunard single-screw steamer. She was followed, in 1867, by the
+_Russia_, the queen of ocean steamers in her day. Passing a number of
+intervening ships, we come, in 1881, to the _Servia_, the first of the
+line built of steel—a magnificent vessel, 515 feet long, 7,392 tons,
+9,900 horse-power, and attaining a speed of 16.7 knots.
+
+In the meantime important changes had been transpiring in the
+constitution of the Cunard Company and its environment. The original
+shareholders had been by degrees bought out by the founders, so
+that the whole concern was vested in the three families of Cunard,
+Burns, and MacIver. Sir Samuel attended to the business in London,
+Mr. Burns in Glasgow, and Mr. MacIver in Liverpool, and never was
+any business better managed than by these men and their successors.
+In 1878 it was deemed expedient to consolidate the interests of the
+partners by the formation of a joint stock company with a capital of
+£2,000,000 sterling. The three families interested in the concern took
+up £1,200,000 in paid-up shares. No shares, however, were offered to
+the public until 1880, when a prospectus was issued, setting forth
+the necessity for additional steamships of the most improved type,
+involving a large outlay of money. The shares were readily bought up
+and measures were taken to increase the efficiency of the fleet, which
+had become at length imperative owing to the keen competition of rival
+lines. This was inevitable.
+
+[Illustration: THE “SCOTIA,” LAST OF CUNARD PADDLE-STEAMSHIPS, 1862.]
+
+The manifest success of the Cunard Company could not long continue
+without exciting competition, and this followed in due course from
+a variety of quarters; nor was it to be expected that they should
+easily hold the supremacy of the sea against all new-comers. They had,
+in fact, to contend vigorously for their laurels, and at successive
+intervals had to retire into the second rank, but their determination
+to regain and hold, at whatever cost, the championship has been well
+illustrated in the newer ships of the line. The _Umbria_ and _Etruria_,
+steel ships launched in 1884, having cost nearly two millions of
+dollars each, were a decided advance upon any steamers then afloat.
+They are 500 feet long, 57 feet 3 inches wide, and 40 feet in depth;
+they are of 8,127 tons, 14,500 horse-power and are equal to a speed of
+19½ knots an hour. They have ample accommodation for 550 first-class
+passengers and 800 steerage. Each of them has made the run from
+Queenstown to New York (2,782 knots) in less than six days. In nine
+consecutive voyages the _Etruria_ (in 1885) maintained an average
+speed of 18 knots. Her fastest voyage, however, from Queenstown to New
+York, was made in August, 1897, when she was thirteen years old—namely,
+5 days, 21 hours and 10 minutes actual time, the average speed during
+the voyage being about 20 knots.
+
+[Illustration: THE “CAMPANIA,” AT LIVERPOOL LANDING-STAGE.]
+
+It helps one to understand the enormous cost of such vessels when it
+is stated that the single screw-propeller weighs about thirty-nine
+tons and costs $25,000! Splendid as was the record of these crack
+Cunarders, they were surpassed by ships of the White Star and Inman
+Lines. Something had to be done. An order was given to the Fairfield
+Ship-building and Engineering Company on the Clyde to build two steel
+twin-screw express steamships that should surpass all previous efforts.
+The result was the _Campania_ and _Lucania_, launched at Govan in
+September, 1892, and February, 1893, respectively. These sister ships
+are splendid specimens of marine architecture. They are each 620 feet
+long, 65¼ feet beam, and 43 feet in depth. Their gross tonnage is
+12,950 tons; their twin screws are driven by triple expansion engines
+of 30,000 indicated horse-power. Each engine has five cylinders and
+three cranks. The low-pressure cylinders have the enormous diameter
+of 8 feet 2 inches; the two high-pressure cylinders are 37 inches in
+diameter, and the intermediate are 79 inches, with a stroke of 5 feet 9
+inches. They are arranged tandem fashion, with a high-pressure cylinder
+over a low-pressure cylinder, one at each end, and the intermediate in
+the centre. At eighty revolutions (their normal speed) this enormous
+weight is moved about 2,000 feet per minute. The crank shaft is
+twenty-six inches in diameter, and each of the three interchangeable
+parts weighs twenty-seven tons. The propeller shaft is twenty-four
+inches in diameter, fitted in lengths of twenty-four feet, each length
+having two bearings. The bossing out of the stern, as in the _Teutonic_
+and _Majestic_, permits the screws to work without any exterior
+overhanging bracket, as in other screw steamers. The central boss
+of the propeller is made of steel; the three blades, weighing eight
+tons each, are of manganese bronze. A new feature in the machinery is
+what is called an “emergency governor,” which, in case of the shaft
+breaking, or the screw racing from any other cause beyond a certain
+speed, is designed to act automatically on the reversing gear and stop
+the engines. These gigantic engines are started and reversed by steam.
+Their height from the base to the top of the cylinders is no less than
+forty-seven feet. There are twelve large boilers, with four furnaces at
+each end, and made to stand a pressure of 165 lbs. to the square inch.
+The two funnels are each twenty feet in diameter, and rise to a height
+of 130 feet above the floor of the ship. The rudder is one large plate
+of steel, 22 x 11½ feet in area and 1½ inches thick. With the steering
+gear it weighs forty-five tons! On her maiden voyage from New York to
+Liverpool the _Campania_ eclipsed all previous records, making the run
+to Queenstown, by the long route (2,896 knots), in 5 days, 17 hours,
+27 minutes. Her fastest eastern passage has been 5 days, 9 hours, 18
+minutes, and westward, 5 days, 9 hours, 6 minutes. She has run 548
+knots in twenty-four hours, and maintained an average speed of 21.82
+knots an hour throughout an entire voyage.
+
+Wonderful as the performances of the _Campania_ have been, they are
+surpassed by her sister ship. The _Lucania_ made the western voyage,
+from Queenstown to New York, arriving October 27th, 1894, in 5 days, 7
+hours, 23 minutes, the fastest voyage between these points yet made.
+Her daily runs on that occasion were, 529, 534, 533, 549, 544, 90—total
+knots, 2,779. Her fastest eastward voyage (up to July, 1897) has been 5
+days, 8 hours, 38 minutes; her best average speed throughout a voyage
+was 22.1 knots an hour, and her highest day’s running is 560 knots. The
+arrival and departure of these steamers at the Liverpool landing-stage
+has come to be anticipated with almost as much exactitude as that of
+our best regulated railways. The mails which they carry from New York
+on Saturday morning are usually delivered in Liverpool on the following
+Friday afternoon, and letters from London are delivered in Montreal in
+seven days. By arrangement with the Admiralty, and in consideration
+of an annual subvention of £19,000, the _Lucania_ and _Campania_ are
+held at the disposal of the Government whenever their services may be
+required as armed cruisers. Other ships of this line are also at the
+disposal of the Admiralty without any specified subsidy.
+
+Changes and improvements of very great importance to the travelling
+community have taken place within the last few years, not only in
+regard to the ocean steamships, but also in regard to facilities for
+embarkation and landing, and this very largely owing to the lively
+competition of Southampton and the inducements which it has to offer as
+a shipping port. The dredging of the bar at the mouth of the Mersey,
+so as to admit of sea-going vessels entering the port at any state of
+the tide, is not the least important of the changes referred to. Until
+quite recently ocean steamers had frequently to come to anchor six or
+eight miles from the mouth of the river, and wait outside for hours
+till the tide would rise. That obstruction has been removed, and now
+the largest steamers can cross the bar at almost any state of the tide.
+But that is not all. The tedious and discomfortable method of being
+conveyed from ship to shore in a “tender” has also been done away with.
+The wonder is that it was submitted to so long. The ocean steamship on
+her arrival at Liverpool is now brought alongside the landing-stage,
+and instead of being obliged to drive in a cab or omnibus across the
+city a mile or more to the railway station for London or elsewhere,
+the railway and the station have come down to the water’s edge, and
+you pass at once from the ship to the railway train, and immediately
+proceed on your journey. Passengers for New York may leave Euston
+Station, London, at noon by a special train of the London and North
+Western Railway, and find themselves on the landing-stage at Liverpool
+at 4.15 p.m., the run of over two hundred miles being made, perhaps,
+without a stoppage—looking for their luggage, as Englishmen are
+accustomed to do, and astonished to learn that, by some occult system
+of handling, and, most strange of all, without a “tip,” it is already
+on board the ship!
+
+Each of these ships is designed to carry six hundred first-class and
+over one thousand second and third-class passengers. The accommodation
+provided for them are of the most elaborate description. No expense
+has been spared in the internal fittings of the ships. Everything that
+science and skill and refined taste could suggest has been brought into
+requisition. A more facile pen than ours describes the public rooms, as
+we call them, as follows, in terms by no means too appreciative: “The
+dining saloon is a vast, lofty apartment near the middle of the ship,
+one hundred feet long, sixty-two feet broad, and ten feet high, capable
+of seating at dinner 430 passengers in their revolving armchairs. The
+decorations are highly artistic. The ceiling is panelled in white and
+gold, the sides in Spanish mahogany, and the upholstering is in a dark,
+rich red, figured frieze velvet, with curtains to match. There are
+nooks and corners where small parties may dine in complete seclusion.
+The forty side-lights are of unusual size. Fresh air is admitted by
+patent ventilators in the roughest weather. For lighting, as well as
+ventilation, there is an opening in the ceiling in the centre of the
+room, 24 x 16 feet, surmounted by a dome of stained glass reaching a
+height of thirty-three feet above the floor. The drawing-room is a
+splendid apartment, 60 x 30 feet. The walls are ornamented with satin
+wood, richly carved. The furniture is upholstered in rich velvets and
+brocades. In the cosy fireplace there is a brass grate and a hearth
+laid with Persian tiles. The ceiling is in pine, decorated in light
+tones, old ivory prevailing, with not too much gilding. A Grand piano
+and an American organ are also provided. The library, 29 x 24 feet, is
+very ornate. It is suitably furnished with writing tables and writing
+materials, and a handsome book-case filled with a choice selection of
+books. The smoking-room, 40 x 32 feet, is decorated in the Scottish
+baronial style. The whole tone of the room is suggestive of _otium cum
+dignitate_. The ordinary staterooms are lofty and well ventilated, with
+cunning devices for the saving of room and making things look pleasant
+and comfortable. Then there are suites of rooms elaborately furnished
+with tables and bedsteads and bath-rooms, and every conceivable luxury
+of that sort, for those who are able and willing to pay for them.”
+The accommodation for second-class passengers is in keeping with
+that for the first. These, too, have their elegant dining-room, and
+drawing-room, and smoking-room. Even the third-class can rejoice with
+their neighbours in “the comforts of smoke.”
+
+One of these ships, when carrying her full complement of passengers,
+will start on her voyage provisioned somewhat on this scale: 20,000
+lbs. of fresh beef, 1,000 lbs. of corned beef, 10,000 lbs. of mutton,
+1,400 lbs. of lamb, 500 lbs. of veal, 500 lbs. of pork, 3,500 lbs.
+of fresh fish, 1,000 fowls—400 chickens, 250 ducks and geese, 100
+turkeys, 30 tons of potatoes, 30 hampers of vegetables, 18,000 eggs,
+6,000 lbs. of ham, 3,000 lbs. of butter, etc., etc.; 13,650 bottles of
+ale and porter, 6,650 bottles of mineral waters, 1,600 bottles of wines
+and spirits, are frequently consumed on a single voyage.
+
+The various vessels of the Cunard fleet between them carry on an
+average 110,000 passengers per annum, besides 600,000 tons of
+merchandise and 50,000 carcases of dead meat in refrigerators, over a
+distance of one million miles annually. The _Campania_ and _Lucania_,
+owing to the large space occupied by their machinery, only carry about
+1,600 tons of freight each.
+
+The order and discipline on board a Cunard liner is that of a
+man-of-war. The vessels have been built under a special survey, and
+combine in their construction the best known appliances, in cases of
+fire, collision, or any other marine contingency, for the safety of the
+ship and its living freight. The watertight bulkheads are sixteen in
+number, and will enable the ship to float with any two or even three
+of the compartments filled with water. The life-boat equipment and
+service is ample and thoroughly organized. In short, everything is made
+subservient to safety.
+
+Some idea of the cost of running vessels of this size and speed may be
+formed when it is stated that the daily average consumption of coal
+is nearly four hundred tons, but when urged to utmost speed it would
+be nearer five hundred tons. The crew, all told, number about 424, of
+whom 195 are required to attend to the engines and boilers alone. In
+the sailing department, from the captain to the lamplighter, about
+sixty-five; in the steward’s department, including 8 stewardesses,
+about 120, and in the cook’s department, about 45. These 424 persons
+must be paid and fed at a cost of from $12,000 to $15,000 a month.
+Each of the ships must have cost over $3,000,000, the interest upon
+which, at four per cent., is $120,000 per annum; add the enormous cost
+of provisioning the ship for perhaps six hundred cabin passengers,
+who, for the most part, expect to fare more sumptuously every day
+they are on board than they do at home; and one thousand intermediate
+and steerage passengers, who must live like fighting-cocks; then
+estimate, if you can, the cost of insurances, agencies, advertising,
+port charges, pilotage; write off a reasonable percentage for wear and
+tear; these put together represent an amount so formidable as to leave
+a very slender margin for profits. At the last annual meeting of the
+shareholders a dividend of 2½ per cent. for the year 1897 was declared,
+which was considered a good showing.
+
+Since 1840 the Cunard Company have employed no less than fifty-six
+first-class passenger steamships in the Atlantic service alone. The
+entire fleet at present consists of thirty-three ships, with a total
+tonnage of 124,124, and 153,732 horse-power, and maintains regular
+communication from Liverpool to New York, Boston, France and almost
+every country in the Mediterranean. Excepting some of the ships
+acquired by purchase, all the others were built to order on the Clyde.
+In all these fifty-eight years the Cunard Company has only lost three
+ships. Through the mistake of her pilot, the _Columbia_, one of the
+first Atlantic fleet, ran ashore during a fog near Cape Sable, N.S.,
+in July, 1843, and became a total wreck, but her mails and passengers
+were safely landed. In 1872 the _Tripoli_, of the Mediterranean Line,
+was wrecked on the Tuskar Rocks in St. George’s Channel, half-way
+between Cork and Dublin, but no lives were lost. In 1886 the company
+met with its severest loss by the sinking of the magnificent steamship
+_Oregon_, recently purchased from the Guion Company. Early in the
+morning of the 4th of March she was run into by an unknown sailing
+vessel when about fifty miles from New York, and such were the injuries
+she sustained she gradually filled with water and went to the bottom,
+not, however, before the whole ship’s company, numbering 995 souls
+were safely transferred to the _Fulda_ of the North German Lloyd Line,
+which fortunately came up to the scene of the disaster in the nick of
+time. Her bulkheads should have saved her from going under, and would
+have done so, but for some unexplained obstruction to the closing of a
+watertight door. As it was, the bulkheads kept her afloat long enough
+to save the lives of all on board.
+
+Among the famous captains in the forties were C. H. E. Judkins, James
+Stone, William Harrison, Ed. G. Lott, Theodore Cook, Captain Moodie,
+and James (afterwards Sir James) Anderson who commanded the _Great
+Eastern_ on some of her cable-laying expeditions. Captain Harrison was
+the first commander of the _Great Eastern_, and was drowned in the
+Solent when going ashore from his ship in a dingy. Captain Judkins was
+born at Chester in 1811; he entered the Cunard service in 1840 as chief
+officer of the SS. _Acadia_: was appointed commander of the _Britannia_
+that same year, and was successively master of the _Hibernia_,
+_Canada_, _Persia_ and _Scotia_. He lived to be Commodore of the fleet
+and retired from the sea in 1871, after having made more than five
+hundred voyages across the Atlantic without any serious accident, and
+being able to say that the Cunard Company at that date had lost neither
+a life nor a letter. Captain Judkins died in 1876. He was a typical
+British sailor. He could be exceedingly gracious, and when the mood
+struck him he could be gruff. I remember making a voyage with him on
+the _Hibernia_ in 1843, on which occasion he ran across from Halifax
+to Liverpool under a cloud of canvas, with studding sails set low and
+aloft most of the time, a dense fog all the way, but he picked up his
+pilot off Cape Clear, just where he expected to find him, and went
+snoring up the Channel, growling like a bear at the captain of a Dublin
+steamer who would not get out of his way, and whom in his wrath he
+threatened to send to “Davie Jones’ locker.” The voyage was made in
+nine days and a half, I think, which was accounted a marvellous run in
+those days. Captain Lott was one of the most genial of men and very
+popular. He, too, was banqueted on the completion of his five hundredth
+trip. It has been said of him that his good nature was occasionally
+ruffled when liberties, unconsciously or otherwise, were taken with his
+name; as, for example, when a worthy minister officiating on board took
+for his text, “Remember Lot’s wife”; and again, when a rough sailor
+complained in his hearing that his pork was “as salt as Lot’s wife.”
+
+Sailors, as a rule, are not given to talk shop, and are quick to resent
+idle talk in others. The story is told of Captain Theodore Cook that
+one day when taking his noon observation, a cloud interrupted his
+vision. Just then a passenger coming along said with a patronizing air,
+“Captain Cook, I’m afraid that cloud prevented you from making your
+observation.” “Yes, sir,” replied the potentate of the sea, “but it did
+not prevent you making yours.”[14]
+
+At the time of the “_Trent_ Difficulty,” as it was called, in 1861,
+the _Australasian_ and the _Persia_ of the Cunard Line were chartered
+by the British Government to bring out troops to Canada. On the 4th
+of December orders were received to prepare the _Australasian_ with
+all speed for this service; her fittings were completed on the 10th,
+she took in her coal on the 11th, and sailed on the 13th with the 60th
+Rifles. On the 5th of the same month similar orders were received for
+the _Persia_, which sailed on the 16th with 1,180 troops, consisting
+of 1st Battalion of the 16th Regiment and a detachment of sappers.
+Captain Cook, of the _Australasian_, having encountered much ice in the
+entrance to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, had to turn back, and took his
+ship to Halifax and thence to St. John, New Brunswick, where he landed
+his contingent. Judkins, on the other hand, brought the _Persia_ right
+up to Bic and landed his men, but, the ice threatening to keep him
+there, he quickly bolted for the open sea, leaving his boats behind him!
+
+Of the more recent commanders, Captain W. H. P. Haines, late of the
+_Campania_ and Commodore of the Cunard fleet, may be instanced as a
+good specimen. A born sailor he may be called, inasmuch as he is a
+native of Plymouth, whose father and grandfather before him followed
+the sea and who himself has been sailing for nearly fifty years and
+counts 592 voyages across the Atlantic. Captain Haines has always been
+as noted for caution as for skill. It is said of him that “whatever
+temptation there might be to make a fast passage, he would never
+neglect to take soundings, nor rely on any patent apparatus, without
+repeatedly fortifying its results by stopping his ship to get up and
+down casts with the ordinary lead.”
+
+To guard against the risks of collision with other vessels, the Cunard
+steamers follow prescribed routes laid out for them, by which the
+ships, both outward and homeward bound, are kept at a respectable
+distance. In estimating the runs of the Atlantic liners from Liverpool
+to New York and return, Daunt’s Rock, off Queenstown, and the Sandy
+Hook lightship, twenty-six knots from New York, are regarded as the
+points of departure and arrival; but as Daunt’s Rock is about 244 knots
+from Liverpool, it follows that, to complete the voyage, a full half
+day’s run must be added to the record as usually announced. It is also
+to be remembered that the day at sea is longer or shorter according to
+the speed of the ship. On a twenty-knot vessel going east the average
+length of day is about 23 hours and 10 minutes; going westward it is
+about 24 hours and 50 minutes. The difference of time between Greenwich
+and New York is about five hours.
+
+[Illustration: CUNARD TRACK CHART.]
+
+The “express steamers,” as the fast ships are now called, of the Cunard
+Line at present are the _Campania_, _Lucania_, _Etruria_ and _Umbria_.
+These four constitute the weekly mail service, sailing every Saturday
+from Liverpool and New York. The _Aurania_, _Servia_ and other vessels
+perform a fortnightly service from the same ports, sailing on Tuesdays.
+Five steamers are employed in maintaining a weekly service between
+Liverpool and Boston, and about a dozen more are required for the
+service between Liverpool, France and the Mediterranean.
+
+The story of the Cunard Company would be incomplete without at least
+a brief reference to its three founders, Messrs. Cunard, Burns and
+MacIver, and Mr. Napier, the engineer, who was so closely identified
+with them.
+
+[Illustration: SIR SAMUEL CUNARD. SIR GEORGE BURNS. DAVID MACIVER.
+
+THE FOUNDERS OF THE CUNARD LINE.]
+
+The late Sir Samuel Cunard was a son of Abraham Cunard, a merchant in
+Philadelphia, and a Quaker, whose ancestors had come to America from
+Wales in the seventeenth century, and who removed to Halifax, Nova
+Scotia. There Sir Samuel was born, November 21st, 1787. His parents
+were not in affluent circumstances; indeed he has been heard to tell
+that, when a boy, he often went about the streets with a basket on
+his arm selling herbs that were grown in his mother’s garden, to earn
+“an honest penny.” In course of time, however, he became a prosperous
+merchant and the owner of whaling-ships that sailed from Halifax to the
+Pacific Ocean. How he came to identify himself with the Atlantic mail
+service has already been mentioned, and little else remains to be said
+about him. He was small of stature, but a man of rare intelligence;
+a keen observer of men and things, and who had the faculty, largely
+developed, of influencing other men. In private life he was one of the
+most gentle and lovable of men. He married, in 1815, a daughter of Mr.
+W. Duffus, of Halifax, by whom he had nine children. On March 9th,
+1859, Her Majesty, on the recommendation of Lord Palmerston, made him
+a Baronet, in recognition of his services to the realm and to other
+countries in promoting the means of inter-communication. He was elected
+a Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society in 1846. He died in London,
+April 28th, 1865, leaving, it is said, a fortune of £350,000. His title
+and his interest in the business were inherited by his eldest son, Sir
+Edward Cunard, at whose decease, in 1869, the reins of administration
+fell into the hands of his brother William, who married a daughter
+of the late celebrated Judge Haliburton, of Nova Scotia, and who now
+represents the company in London.
+
+Sir George Burns was, in many respects, a remarkable man. He was born
+in the Holy Land, a name popularly given to a “land” of houses in
+Glasgow, in which five ministers resided, one of them being his father,
+the Rev. John Burns, D.D., of the old Barony parish, who ministered
+in that place for seventy-two years, and who died at the patriarchal
+age of ninety-six. George was born in 1795. He commenced business in
+Glasgow with his brother James, under the firm of G. & J. Burns & Co.,
+a name that has ever since been famous in shipping circles. They began
+steam navigation to Liverpool and Belfast over seventy years since,
+and gradually built up a large and lucrative business. Many years ago
+Mr. Burns retired and took up his residence at Wemyss Bay, on the
+estuary of the Clyde, where he spent the evening of his days, and was
+frequently seen sitting among his rhododendrons and laurels, watching
+his steamers as they coursed up and down the Firth. He was created a
+Baronet in his old age, May 24th, 1889. He died on the 2nd of June in
+the following year, being succeeded by his son, Sir John Burns, of
+Castle Wemyss, who is chairman of the Board of Directors of the Cunard
+Steamship Company. Sir John’s elevation to the peerage, at the time
+of Her Majesty’s Diamond Jubilee, when he assumed the name of Lord
+Inverclyde, was regarded as a well-merited honour by his countrymen,
+and in shipping circles generally.
+
+Although he was a son of the “Father of the Church of Scotland,” Sir
+George early in life contracted a liking for the liturgical service
+of the Church of England, and eventually became an Episcopalian. “Sir
+George Burns, Bart.: His Times and Friends, by Edwin Hodder; Hodder and
+Stoughton, London,” is the title of an admirable biography in which is
+to be found a fine portraiture of a man “diligent in business, fervent
+in spirit, serving the Lord.” As a business man he is described as
+“honourable in the minutest particulars, accurate in all his dealings,
+faithful to every trust, tenacious of every promise, disdaining to take
+the least advantage of the weakness or incapacity of any man.” There
+is also much information in this volume, bearing on the history of the
+Cunard Line, that is valuable and interesting, and of which we have
+freely availed ourselves in compiling these pages.
+
+David MacIver, a Scotchman, as his name implies, had lived a good many
+years in Liverpool before his connection with the Cunard Company, and
+had acquired a great deal of valuable experience in shipping affairs.
+His first intercourse with Burns was somewhat singular in the light of
+their future alliance. It was as the agent of an opposition line of
+steamers, plying between Liverpool and Glasgow, that their friendship
+began. A Manchester firm had started an opposition line, but they were
+no match for G. and J. Burns, who eventually bought them out, and
+secured a monopoly of the trade, except the small steamer _Enterprise_,
+for which David MacIver was agent, and which the same firm cleverly
+bought also. Not to be outdone, MacIver succeeded in organizing the
+“New City of Glasgow Steam-Packet Company,” of which he became the
+Liverpool agent. Determined, if possible, to drive his rivals from the
+seas, it is said that he used to sail in the vessels himself, urging
+his officers to increased speed. But it was of no use; the new company
+were soon glad to accept offers for amalgamation, and from that time
+MacIver and Burns became fast friends. Mr. MacIver had first-rate
+executive ability, and as most of the working details devolved upon
+him, he had a controlling influence in the Cunard Line while he lived.
+The well-known firm of D. & C. MacIver were the managers of the line at
+Liverpool, from its formation until the year 1883, when they resigned,
+a Board of Directors assuming the entire control of affairs. David
+MacIver, however, had died in 1845, when the Liverpool agency fell into
+the hands of his brother and partner, Charles, whose able supervision
+continued for thirty-five years.
+
+Robert Napier was born at Dumbarton in 1791. After serving his
+apprenticeship as millwright and smith, he went to Edinburgh, where
+he wrought at his trade for some time, earning ten shillings a week.
+Inspired by the old Scotch motto, “He that tholes overcomes,” he
+stuck to it. Later, he entered the service of Robert Stephenson, the
+celebrated engineer, and made his mark as a mechanical genius. At
+twenty-four years of age he commenced business on his own account,
+in Glasgow, where he gradually built up the large engineering and
+ship-building business subsequently carried on under the name of Robert
+Napier & Sons. The “Lancefield Works” and his Govan shipyards attained
+world-wide celebrity. He constructed the machinery for the SS. _British
+Queen_, and for the first four Cunard steamers, and for many others in
+later years. He also received large orders for warships and transports
+from the British Admiralty and from foreign governments. He built
+several large ironclads for the Royal Navy. He made the engines for
+the great three-decker, _Duke of Wellington_—all but the last of the
+“wooden walls.” He built and engined the famous Cunarders _Persia_ and
+_Scotia_.
+
+[Illustration: ROBERT NAPIER AND MRS. NAPIER.]
+
+Mr. Napier erected a princely mansion on the Gareloch, named Shandon
+House, where his declining years were spent in retirement, but in the
+exercise of unbounded hospitality, as the writer can testify from his
+personal experience. Shandon House came to be like a museum containing
+a rare collection of pictures and antiquities from almost all parts
+of the world. Among his curios none was more highly prized than his
+mother’s spinning-wheel, and the painting that he valued the most was
+the portrait of his wife plying the same old-fashioned spinning-wheel,
+with which she had been familiar from girlhood. Does it not seem like
+the “irony of fate,” and a melancholy commentary on the transitory
+nature of everything mundane, that this marvellous accumulation of
+articles of _virtu_ was, shortly after Mr. Napier’s death, sold by
+public auction to the highest bidder, and that his palatial residence
+passed into the hands of a hydropathic company?
+
+Having said so much about the Cunard Line, there is no need to dwell at
+similar length upon any of the other transatlantic lines of steamers.
+The history of the Cunard Line is the history of Atlantic steam
+navigation. It commenced at a time when steam power had only been used
+as an auxiliary to sails, but when that order of affairs was soon to
+be reversed. The intervening years have witnessed the transition from
+wooden ships to iron, and from iron to steel; from the paddle-wheel
+to the single screw-propeller, and then to the twin-screw; from the
+simple side-lever engines to the compound, and from the compound to
+the triple and quadruple expansion engines of the present time. These
+successive changes, common to all the other important lines of ocean
+steamers, have resulted in greatly increased speed with economy of
+fuel. But no one at all conversant with the subject supposes that the
+limit in either of these directions has been reached. Her Majesty’s
+torpedo boats can easily reel off their thirty knots an hour; why not
+an express steamer?
+
+The competition for the supremacy of the sea in these latitudes has
+been both keen and costly, but greatly to the benefit of the travelling
+community; and it has all along been conducted in an excellent spirit.
+Circumstances have frequently arisen when it might have been easy to
+take advantage of a rival, but when it resulted in acts of chivalry.
+Sir John Burns has mentioned one instance out of many such that have
+transpired: On a certain occasion the Cunard steamer _Alps_ was seized
+in New York for an alleged infraction of the Customs laws on the part
+of some of the crew, and before she could be released, security had
+to be given to the extent of £30,000 sterling; when, “who should come
+forward and stand security for the Cunard Company but the great firm
+of Brown, Shipley & Co., the agents of the Collins Line!” Another case
+in point is connected with the foundering of the Cunard SS. _Oregon_.
+When the whole of the passengers and crew, to the number of nearly
+a thousand, had been taken off the sinking ship, and landed in New
+York by the North German Lloyd SS. _Fulda_, the question having been
+asked what compensation was demanded, the courteous reply was speedily
+received: “Highly gratified at having been instrumental in saving so
+many lives. No claim!”[15]
+
+The Fairfield Ship-building and Engineering Company is one of the
+most famous of the many eminent ship-building firms in Britain.
+The yards at Govan on the Clyde occupy an area of sixty acres of
+ground, and employ from 6,000 to 7,000 men. The shops are fitted with
+machinery of the most approved description, in which every requisite
+of marine architecture has a place, where massive plates of steel
+and iron are clipped, shaped and pierced with rivet holes as if they
+were only sheets of wax or paper. Here have been built many of the
+record-breaking ocean greyhounds, as well as armour-plated cruisers
+for the Royal Navy. The _Arizona_, the _Alaska_ and the _Oregon_ were
+built here, and were accounted marvels in their day. The _Umbria_ and
+_Etruria_, the _Campania_ and the _Lucania_ have secured for Fairfield
+a world-wide reputation. Ships for Sir Donald Currie’s Castle Line, for
+the Orient and the Hamburg-American lines, not to speak of the Isle
+of Man steamers, the swiftest coasting steamers of the day, have been
+built at Govan. Under the name of Randolph, Elder & Company the firm
+was founded, or rather reconstructed, by the late Mr. John Elder, a man
+of consummate ability in his profession, who died in 1869 at the early
+age of forty-five years.
+
+The compound engine, by which steam is made to do double duty, is one
+of the most important of recent improvements in marine engineering,
+being the means of largely increasing the motive power and decreasing
+the consumption of fuel. The successful application of this system
+to ocean steam navigation is usually attributed to Mr. John Elder,
+of the above-named firm, who introduced it in some of the steamers
+of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company as early as 1856.[16] But it
+did not come into general use until some years later. The Admiralty,
+recognizing the importance claimed for the discovery, resolved to
+test its value, in 1863, by sending three ships of similar size on
+a voyage from Plymouth to Madeira, two of them being fitted with
+the ordinary engines of the day, and the third, the _Constance_,
+with Elder’s compound engine. The result placed the superiority of
+the compound engine beyond question, and led up to the triple and
+quadruple expansion engine which has revolutionized the ship-building
+and shipping interests; hence the enormous cargoes carried by ships of
+the _Pennsylvania_ type, with a moderate consumption of fuel and the
+lowering of ocean freight rates.
+
+Before taking leave of the Cunard Line, it may not be out of place to
+mention that an employee of that line has the distinction of having
+crossed the Atlantic more frequently than any other man. One is apt
+to think of his own voyages—thirty-five or forty—as a tolerably fair
+showing, but that is as nothing compared with other landsmen. On one
+occasion the writer sat next to a fine old French gentleman from Quebec
+who was then making his hundredth voyage; he was an octogenarian.
+Some years later a Montreal merchant, nearly a quarter of a century
+younger, informed me that he had crossed the ocean _one hundred
+and eighty_ times! Taking his years into account, surely he must be
+entitled to wear the blue ribbon. As to sailors, an English newspaper
+recently offered a prize of £10 to the man who could prove that he had
+crossed the Atlantic oftenest. The prize was awarded to Captain Brooks,
+of Alaska, who had made seven hundred trips. In the meantime, however,
+it transpired that the distinction was due to another “old salt,” whose
+record far outran that of Captain Brooks, but whose modesty prevented
+him from applying for the prize. The real champion is George Paynter,
+well known throughout England and America as “the Old Man of the Sea,”
+who recently completed his _eight hundred and fourth voyage_ across the
+Atlantic. Paynter is the officer in charge of the wines and liquors on
+board the SS. _Etruria_. He is one of the most remarkable men afloat
+to-day. He has been forty-eight years at sea, of which forty-five have
+been spent continuously in the service of the Cunard Company, and in
+all that time he has never encountered either a shipwreck or a cyclone.
+He is now seventy-five years old, hale and hearty as ever, and this he
+attributes to his having given up smoking and drinking thirty-one years
+ago, not having once indulged in either from that time until now.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[13] For at least a hundred and fifty years the Post Office Department
+had maintained a fleet of armed mail “packets.” They had stations
+at Dover, Harwich, Holyhead, Milford, Yarmouth and Falmouth, the
+last-named being the headquarters of the fleet. During the time of the
+American war, 1812-15, no fewer than thirty-two sanguinary battles were
+fought with American privateers by the Falmouth packets, which, in a
+majority of instances, successfully resisted their assailants.
+
+[14] Sir John Burns in _Good Words_ for 1887, p. 261.
+
+[15] Fry’s “History,” p. 240.
+
+[16] The invention is claimed for Canada in Chapter X., under the
+heading of “New Brunswick.”
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+NORTH ATLANTIC STEAMSHIP COMPANIES.
+
+
+THE COLLINS LINE.
+
+The earliest formidable rival to the Cunard Line was the famous
+Collins Line, founded in New York in 1848, and which derived its name
+from Mr. E. K. Collins, its chief promoter, who had previously been
+largely interested in sailing ships, and more particularly in the
+splendid line of New York and Liverpool packets, popularly known as the
+Dramatic Line. The Collins Line started with a fair wind, so to speak.
+It was launched by a wealthy company, amid an outburst of national
+applause, and was liberally backed by the Federal Government, with an
+ill-concealed determination to drive the Cunarders from the seas. But
+the illusion was destined to be soon dispelled, for, as Charles MacIver
+put it in writing to Mr. Cunard, “The Collins Line are beginning to
+find that breaking our windows with sovereigns, though very fine
+fun, is too costly to keep up.” Disasters ensued. In ten years the
+losses had become stupendous, and the enterprise culminated in a total
+collapse.
+
+The Line began with a fleet of four magnificent wooden paddle-wheel
+steamships, the _Atlantic_, _Arctic_, _Baltic_ and _Pacific_, each
+282 feet in length, and of 2,680 tons burthen. They were built by
+W. H. Brown, of New York, and combined in their construction and
+machinery the then latest improvements. The passenger accommodation
+was far superior to that of the Cunard steamers of the period. Each
+of them cost $700,000, an amount so far exceeding the original
+estimate that the Government had to make the company an advance. The
+credit of the country being in a sense at stake, provision was made
+for a liberal subsidy. $19,250 per annum had been the original sum
+specified for a service of twenty round voyages, but that was found
+to be totally inadequate, and the Government eventually agreed to
+increase the subsidy to $33,000 per voyage, or $858,000 per annum for
+only twenty-six voyages, which was more than double what had been paid
+to the Cunard Company for a like service. The Collins Line, however,
+promised greater speed than their rivals, and that counts for much in
+popular estimation.
+
+[Illustration: THE “ATLANTIC,” OF THE COLLINS LINE, 1849.]
+
+The Line soon came into favour, and its success seemed to be assured.
+The first voyage was commenced from New York by the _Atlantic_, April
+27th, 1849. The _Arctic_ followed, making the eastward voyage in 9
+days, 13 hours and 30 minutes; and the westward, in 9 days and 13 hours
+from Liverpool. Thus they had broken all previous records for speed
+which, added to their luxurious appointments, caused them to be loyally
+patronized by the Americans. For a time they carried 50 per cent. more
+passengers from Liverpool to New York than their opponents. The last
+addition to the fleet was the _Adriatic_, in 1857, by far the finest
+and fastest vessel afloat at that time. She was built by Steers, at New
+York: was 355 feet long, and 50 feet broad; her gross tonnage being
+3,670. Her machinery, which was constructed at the Novelty Iron-Works,
+New York, consisted of two oscillating cylinders, each 100 inches in
+diameter, working up to 3,600 indicated horse-power, with a steam
+pressure of 20 lbs. to the square inch. Her paddles were 40 feet in
+diameter, and, at seventeen revolutions per minute, gave her a speed of
+thirteen knots on a daily consumption of eighty-five to ninety tons of
+coal.
+
+Owing to financial embarrassments, resulting from losses by shipwreck,
+the company soon after broke up, and the richly-endowed fast line, that
+was to drive the Cunarders off the ocean, itself came to grief. The
+_Adriatic_ was laid up after making a few fine voyages, and finally
+came to an ignominious end as a coal-hulk in West Africa. In September,
+1854, the _Arctic_ collided with a small steamer, the _Vesta_, off
+Cape Race, in a dense fog, and sank, with the loss of 323 lives.
+Captain Luce went down with his ship, but rose again to the surface,
+was picked up by one of the boats and landed in safety. Among those
+who were drowned were the wife, the only son, and a daughter of Mr.
+Collins, and many other prominent Americans. The loss of the _Pacific_,
+which followed two years later, proved the death-knell of the Collins
+Line. She sailed from Liverpool on June 26th, 1856, in command of
+Captain Eldridge, with forty-five passengers and a crew of 141, and was
+never afterwards heard of. The _Atlantic_ and _Baltic_ were sold and
+converted into sailing ships.
+
+Mr. E. K. Collins was a native of Massachusetts, where he was born in
+1802. When a youth he went to sea as supercargo. Some years later he
+joined his father in the general shipping business, and eventually
+became head of the New York firm, celebrated for its magnificent line
+of sailing packets. He died in 1878.
+
+[Illustration: “CITY OF PARIS,” 1889.
+
+Now (1898) a U. S. armed cruiser and renamed _Harvard_.]
+
+
+THE INMAN AND INTERNATIONAL LINE.
+
+This famous Line took its name from William Inman, a partner in the
+firm of Richardson Bros., Liverpool, in connection with whom he founded
+this steamship service in 1850, under the title of the Liverpool, New
+York and Philadelphia Steamship Company. The line began with only two
+steamers—the _City of Glasgow_ and _City of Manchester_—both screw
+steamships, built by Messrs. Tod and McGregor, of Glasgow. These boats
+having proved successful and profitable, and especially popular with
+emigrants, their shipping port was changed from Philadelphia to New
+York in 1857. In the meantime a number of high-class steamers had been
+added to the fleet, each improving upon its predecessor, until the line
+became famous for speed and comfort. The _City of Brussels_, launched
+in 1869, was the first on the Atlantic to reduce the voyage to less
+than eight days. This fine ship came to grief through collision with
+another vessel off the mouth of the Mersey during a dense fog, January
+7th, 1883. The Inman Line met with a number of other heavy losses. The
+_City of Glasgow_, with 480 persons on board, and the _City of Boston_
+both disappeared mysteriously in mid-ocean; the _City of Montreal_ was
+burned at sea, but all hands were saved; the _City of Washington_ and
+_City of Philadelphia_ were wrecked on the coast of Nova Scotia; the
+first _City of New York_ and the _City of Chicago_ became total wrecks
+on the Irish coast, the one on Daunt’s Rock near Queenstown, the other
+on the Old Head of Kinsale in the same neighbourhood.
+
+The _City of Berlin_, which came out in 1875, proved a great success,
+but later additions, culminating in the new _City of New York_ and
+_City of Paris_, gained this line for a time undisputed supremacy.
+These twin-screw ships, built by J. & G. Thomson, of Glasgow, are
+over 500 feet in length, rated at 10,500 tons, and 18,000 indicated
+horse-power, and have developed a high rate of speed. The _Paris_,
+as she is now called, made her maiden trip in May, 1889, in 5 days,
+22 hours, 50 minutes. Her fastest westward trip was made in October,
+1892, viz., 5 days, 14 hours, 24 minutes—the fastest ever made up to
+that time. The _New York_ for some time held the record for the fastest
+voyage from Southampton to Sandy Hook, made in September, 1894—6
+days, 7 hours, 14 minutes. Both ships have met with mishaps: the _New
+York_, going east, had one of her engines disabled, but completed the
+voyage with the other, actually running 382 knots in one day with only
+one engine at work. The _Paris_ had a much more alarming accident.
+The breaking of one of her main shafts set the engine a-racing, and
+before it could be stopped a rent was made in the ship’s hull, the
+longitudinal bulkhead separating the engine-rooms was broken and both
+engine-rooms were flooded. The other bulkheads, however, did their duty
+and kept her afloat until a passing steamer towed her into Queenstown,
+where the water was pumped out and she proceeded to Liverpool
+unassisted. Her escape from destruction was marvellous: as it was, the
+damage to the ship and machinery was enormous. On another occasion the
+same ship’s rudder became disabled in mid-ocean, but by means of her
+twin screws she was kept on her course and brought safely to port.
+Since then she has limped across the Atlantic with one engine, owing to
+a broken shaft.
+
+[Illustration: “CITY OF PARIS”—HER TWIN SCREWS.
+
+From “Our Ocean Railways.”]
+
+[Illustration: “CITY OF PARIS”—DINING ROOM UNDER THE DOME.]
+
+The Inman Line was the first to introduce the twin-screw in the
+Atlantic service. It was also the first to place the comforts and
+conveniences of steam navigation within the reach of emigrant steerage
+passengers, and by so doing made a distinct advance in the cause of
+humanity. In 1856-57 they carried no less than 85,000 emigrants.
+
+The Inman Line passed from its founders in 1875, and became a private
+limited company, which, in 1886, entered into negotiations with the
+American International Navigation Company, better known as the Red
+Star Line. At that time the fleet consisted of the _City of Berlin_,
+_City of Chester_, _City of Chicago_, _City of Richmond_ and _City of
+Montreal_. The _New York_ and _Paris_ hoisted the American flag in
+1893, but the change consequent on their new registration and their
+re-christening made no change in the name of the company.
+
+In 1892 the company secured a contract for carrying the United States
+mails, weekly, from New York to Southampton, in consideration of a
+subsidy, amounting to about $750,000 a year. Southampton was preferred
+to Liverpool as being much nearer London and as having exceptionally
+good harbour facilities. The sea voyage, however, is about 200 miles
+longer than from New York to Queenstown. In terms of their contract,
+two magnificent twin-screw steamers have recently been added to the
+fleet,—the _St. Louis_ and _St. Paul_, built on the Delaware by
+Messrs. Cramp and Sons, of Philadelphia. They are claimed to be the
+embodiment of the finest American skill and workmanship. Over 6,000
+tons of steel were used in the construction of the hull of each ship;
+their length over all is 554 feet, breadth 63 feet, depth 42 feet;
+their gross tonnage is 11,000 tons and their engines are of 20,000
+horse-power. They are designed to carry 320 first-class, 200 second,
+and 800 steerage passengers, and the arrangements for each class are
+unsurpassed. The main saloon is 110 feet long by 50 feet wide, with
+seats for all her cabin passengers at one sitting. It is handsomely
+decorated and finished in white mahogany, and is well lighted from the
+sides and a lofty dome overhead. The drawing-room is in white and gold
+and luxuriously furnished. The staterooms are roomy, well ventilated
+and fitted up with every convenience necessary to comfort; there are
+also suites of rooms, comprising bedroom, bath-room and sitting-room,
+all elegantly furnished. These ships can carry enough coal, cargo being
+excluded, to cross the Atlantic and return at their highest speed; and
+at the ordinary cruiser’s speed of 10 to 12 knots, they can steam for
+66 days without recoaling a distance of 19,000 knots.
+
+[Illustration: “ST LOUIS.”
+
+Now (1898) a U. S. armed cruiser.]
+
+Although these fine ships have already suffered several vexatious
+accidents, none of them have been attended with serious results. They
+have not yet taken the laurels from the _Campania_ and _Lucania_, and
+are not likely to do so, but they have made very good time on the
+Atlantic. The _St. Louis_ made the voyage from New York to Southampton
+in August, 1895, in 6 days, 13 hours, 12 minutes. The _St. Paul_[17]
+made the run from Southampton to Sandy Hook, in August, 1896, in 6
+days, 57 minutes. Their estimated speed in ordinary weather is 21 knots
+an hour.
+
+The entire Inman fleet consists of twenty-two ships—all of a high
+class. They retained the graceful overhanging bow and ship-shape
+bowsprit with its belongings to the last, but the new steamers of
+the American Line conform in this respect to the prevailing fashion
+of the straight stem, first introduced by the Collins Line as being
+economical of space and every way handier in port. The use of sails
+in full-powered steamships has been gradually declining for years,
+and they will soon be a thing of the past. Heavy masts and yard-arms
+seriously interfere with the motion of a twenty knot steamship, and
+except in the case of a breakdown of machinery are seldom of any use,
+and that contingency has been reduced to a minimum by the introduction
+of the twin-screw.
+
+
+THE RED STAR LINE,
+
+originally owned by a Belgian company, is now incorporated with the
+American and International Navigation Company, and maintains a weekly
+service between New York and Antwerp and a fortnightly line from
+Philadelphia to Antwerp. The fleet consists of nine steamships of from
+3,000 to 7,000 tons each—the largest being the _Friesland_, built by
+Thomsons, Glasgow, and rated at fifteen knots’ speed.
+
+
+THE ANCHOR LINE.
+
+This was the first successful line of steamers running from Glasgow to
+New York, established by Messrs. Handyside and Henderson, of Glasgow,
+in 1856, though it was not until 1863 that this branch of their
+business assumed much importance. Since then the trade has developed
+rapidly, giving employment to a weekly line of steamers, and in summer
+twice a week. The ships have large carrying capacity, from 3,000 to
+5,000 tons and upwards, with good accommodation for passengers at
+very moderate rates. Among these are the _Furnessia_ and _Belgravia_,
+of over five thousand tons; the _Devonia_, _Anchoria_, _Bolivia_ and
+_Circassia_, upwards of four thousand tons each, not to speak of the
+_City of Rome_, a host in herself. This is one of the handsomest
+ships afloat, and of large dimensions, being 546 feet long between
+perpendiculars, and 600 feet over all; her width is 52 feet 4 inches,
+and her displacement at 25 feet draft of water, 13,500 tons. She is
+driven by three sets of inverted tandem engines of 10,000 horse-power;
+her single screw is 24 feet diameter, and the screw shaft 25 inches.
+She has ample accommodation for 270 cabin passengers and 1,500
+steerage: was built in 1881 for the Inman Line at Barrow-in-Furness,
+Lancashire, where all the above-named ships were also built, but as she
+did not come up to the requisite speed she was left in the builders’
+hands, and was taken over by the Anchor Line. She is not a slow ship,
+having made 18½ knots on her trial trip, and has crossed the Atlantic
+in 6 days, 20 hours, 35 minutes. From whatever cause, outsiders look
+upon her as a sort of “white elephant,” unable to compete successfully
+with the more thorough-paced ocean greyhounds. The entire Anchor Line
+fleet consists of some thirty-five steamers. The company has had its
+own share of losses by shipwreck, and more than its share of lives
+lost. One of the most appalling marine disasters was the sinking of the
+_Eutopia_ of this line in the Bay of Gibraltar, in 1891, from collision
+with a man-of-war lying at anchor, resulting in the loss of 526 lives.
+
+
+THE NATIONAL STEAM NAVIGATION COMPANY.
+
+Although the National Line has not entered into competition with the
+“greyhounds,” it is deserving of notice. It has been in existence since
+1863, and has owned some fine ships, and at least one of high speed—the
+_America_, built on the Clyde in 1883—a ship of 5,500 tons and 7,350
+horse-power. She broke the record in June, 1884, making the run home
+from New York in 6 days, 14 hours, 18 minutes.[18] She was soon after
+sold to the Italian Government for a transport. The ships of this line
+were among the first to have compound engines, and the first to have
+refrigerators for the reception of dead meat, and among the first to
+carry large shipments of live cattle. Years ago they brought out more
+emigrants than any other line, but they seem to have gone out of that
+business now, and the ships are run as freighters to London. Four of
+the company’s ships have been lost—one lies submerged near Sandy Hook,
+one foundered off Cape Finisterre, one was burned at sea, and the
+fourth, the _Erin_, disappeared without anything having been heard of
+her. The present fleet consists of eight ships, ranging from 3,750 to
+5,300 tons.
+
+
+THE GUION LINE.
+
+As when a meteor shoots athwart the skies, emitting a blaze of light,
+and quickly disappears, so was it with the Guion Line at the zenith
+of its brief and brilliant career. It began in a modest way in 1866,
+its promoters being Messrs. Williams and Guion, of New York—with a
+branch firm in Liverpool—these being the owners of the famous Black
+Ball Line of ships, built especially for carrying emigrants. They had
+steamers built for themselves with marvellous rapidity, beginning with
+the _Manhattan_ of 3,000 tons—an iron screw steamer built on the Tyne.
+In 1872 there was added to the then existing fleet of eight powerful
+ships, each having accommodation for 1,000 steerage passengers, a
+pair of larger vessels, the _Montana_ and _Dakota_. Neither of them,
+however, proved to be “record-breakers,” and both of them were
+eventually wrecked on the Welsh coast, near the same place, in 1877 and
+1880 respectively. The next additions to the fleet were the celebrated
+_Arizona_ and _Alaska_, that for a time took the shine out of
+everything else afloat. These marvellous ships were built by John Elder
+& Co., of Glasgow. The former was over 5,000 tons and the latter nearly
+7,000. Their engines, respectively 6,000 and 10,000 horse-power, are
+said to have been the finest ever constructed up to that time; their
+speed was then accounted quite phenomenal—seventeen and eighteen knots
+an hour—reducing the time from Queenstown to New York to 6 days, 21
+hours, 40 minutes. That was in 1883. The last ship built for the Guion
+Line was still larger and faster than these. The _Oregon_ was 500 feet
+long, of 7,375 tons, and 13,300 horse-power. In 1883 she still further
+reduced the record to 6 days, 10 hours, 10 minutes. Soon after this the
+company became involved in financial difficulties. “Record-breaking”
+had not proved to be a paying business. The _Oregon_ passed into the
+hands of the Cunard Company, and went to the bottom of the sea as
+already stated; the _Alaska_ and _Arizona_ have lain rusting at their
+moorings in the Gareloch for years past.
+
+
+THE WHITE STAR LINE.
+
+The Oceanic Steam Navigation Company, Limited—better known as the
+White Star Line—commenced in 1869, and now occupies a position in
+the front rank of the great steamship enterprises of the world.
+It originated with Mr. Thomas Henry Ismay, of Liverpool, who had
+previously been manager of the White Star Line of sailing clipper ships
+in the Australian trade. In 1870 Mr. William Imrie, of the late firm
+of Imrie, Tomlinson & Co., became associated with Mr. Ismay in the
+management, when the firm took its present name, Ismay, Imrie & Co.
+Mr. Ismay retired from the firm in 1891, after forty years of active
+business life, but is still chairman of the White Star Line. Having
+the financial support of a number of influential shipping men, plans
+that had been long maturing took effect in 1869, when negotiations were
+entered into with Messrs. Harland and Wolff, of Belfast, to build a
+fleet of steamships which should combine the latest improvements, the
+best possible accommodation for passengers, with a speed that would
+assure fast and regular voyages. How well those conditions have been
+secured all who have travelled by the White Star Line can testify.
+
+[Illustration: “OCEANIC,” FIRST OF THE WHITE STAR LINE, 1871.]
+
+The first ship of this line to appear in the Mersey was the _Oceanic_,
+in February, 1871. It was at once seen by her graceful lines that she
+was “a clipper.” Her machinery was the best known up to that time.
+A new feature was that the main saloon and passengers’ berths were
+placed as near midships as possible, and separate revolving chairs were
+introduced in the dining-room (a great boon to passengers); a number
+of other innovations served to attract the notice of the travelling
+community, while admirable management on shipboard and ashore inspired
+confidence in the line.
+
+The original fleet consisted of six ships—the _Oceanic_, _Baltic_,
+_Atlantic_, _Republic_, _Celtic_ and _Adriatic_—all about the same
+size, close upon 4,000 tons each. In 1874 and 1875, two remarkable
+vessels, as then accounted, were added to the fleet—the _Britannic_
+and _Germanic_—by the same builders, with engines from Maudslay,
+Son & Field. These boats are 468 feet long, of 5,000 tons and 5,000
+horse-power. They easily made sixteen knots an hour, burning only 110
+tons of coal per day, and were in every way so satisfactory they became
+very popular. No higher compliment can be paid them than the statement
+made in 1894 that “they had now been running regularly for twenty
+years, giving complete satisfaction to the owners and to the public,
+having still the same engines and boilers with which they started.”[19]
+In those twenty years these two ships carried 100,000 cabin and 260,000
+steerage passengers.
+
+[Illustration: “MAJESTIC,” WHITE STAR LINER, LAUNCHED IN 1889.]
+
+In the meantime the new Cunard steamers, _Umbria_ and _Etruria_, had
+outrun the White Star clippers. Again an order was given to Harland
+& Wolff for a pair of larger, finer and faster boats than they had
+yet built. The magnificent twin screw steel ships, _Teutonic_ and
+_Majestic_, filled the bill. The _Teutonic_ was launched in January,
+1889. On the 7th of August she left Liverpool on her maiden voyage to
+New York, having in the meantime taken part in the naval review at
+Spithead, where she was inspected and admired by the German Emperor and
+H. R. H. the Prince of Wales. She crossed from Queenstown to Sandy Hook
+in 6 days, 14 hours, 20 minutes, then the quickest maiden passage on
+record. The _Majestic_ was launched in June, 1889, and made her first
+voyage to New York in April following, lowering the record to 6 days,
+10 hours, 30 minutes.
+
+These fine ships are each 582 feet in length over all, 57 feet 8
+inches in width, and 39 feet moulded depth. Their gross tonnage is
+10,000 tons, all to a fraction. They are twin-screw ships, each having
+two sets of triple cylinders, 43 inches, 68 inches, and 110 inches
+diameter, respectively, together working up to 18,000 horse-power. The
+screw-propellers are 19 feet 6 inches diameter, and so fitted that they
+overlap 5 feet 6 inches, the starboard propeller being six feet astern
+of the other. They have each twelve double-ended and four single-ended
+boilers, containing in all seventy-six furnaces. The steam pressure
+is 180 pounds to the square inch. The piston stroke is five feet, and
+the average revolutions seventy-eight per minute. About four thousand
+tons of coal are consumed on the round voyage. Not only do these ships
+combine in their construction and equipment all that is best in modern
+improvements, but some of the most valuable of these improvements
+originated with their builders, and have been largely imitated by
+others.
+
+The whole service, food and attendance included, is unexceptionable.
+There is ample accommodation for about 300 saloon, 170 intermediate
+and 1,000 steerage passengers. As to speed, they “must have swift
+steeds that follow” them. The _Teutonic_ has made the western voyage
+in 5 days, 16 hours, 31 minutes. The _Majestic_ has done it in 5 days,
+17 hours, 56 minutes. In ordinary circumstances the passenger who
+embarks at Queenstown may safely calculate that six days will land
+him in New York by either of these ships. They are not quite so fast
+as the _Lucania_, but to gain the difference, say, of ten hours in
+crossing the Atlantic, the Cunarder requires an enormous increase of
+driving power—no less than 12,000 horse-power over and above that of
+the other. The _Teutonic_ and _Majestic_ are under contract with the
+British Government to be used as armed cruisers whenever their services
+may be required, the company receiving an annual sum of £14,659 10s.
+as a retainer.[20] Each of these steamers has accommodation for one
+thousand cavalry and their horses, or for 2,000 infantry. They could
+easily reach Halifax from Queenstown in five days, Cape Town in
+twelve and a half, and Bombay, _via_ the canal, in fourteen days from
+Portsmouth. They could even steam to Bombay, _via_ the Cape, 10,733
+knots, in twenty-three days without stopping to coal.
+
+The White Star fleet at present consists of nineteen ocean steamers,
+ranging in size from 3,807 to 10,000 tons and upwards. Five of these
+steamers are employed in the Atlantic weekly mail service, three keep
+up a monthly line to New Zealand, four ply monthly from San Francisco
+to Japan and China, the remainder are cargo boats of large carrying
+capacity. A number of vessels built for this company have been sold to
+other lines and are still running. The _Oceanic_, pioneer ship of the
+line, after a few years in the Atlantic service, was transferred to the
+company’s trans-Pacific line. On her sixty-second voyage in October,
+1889, she crossed from Yokohama to San Francisco in 13 days, 14 hours,
+4 minutes, the fastest voyage then on record across the Pacific. Having
+completed twenty-five years of successful work she was sold and broken
+up in 1896. But the name is to be perpetuated by the magnificent new
+steamer now building at Belfast, which in point of size and speed is
+designed to surpass any vessel at present afloat. The new _Oceanic_ is
+longer than the _Great Eastern_.
+
+Only two ships of this line have been lost. The _Atlantic_ was wrecked
+on the coast of Nova Scotia, April 1st, 1873. She had left the Mersey
+on March 20th, with 32 saloon, 615 steerage passengers, and a crew of
+143—790 in all—of whom about 560 perished, including all the women
+and children. What made the disaster even more deplorable, it was not
+satisfactorily accounted for. The morning was dark and boisterous, but
+not particularly foggy. Captain Williams had mistaken his reckoning,
+and was rushing his ship incautiously too near the land.[21] The
+_Naronic_ was a fine new cargo ship of 6,594 tons. She left Liverpool,
+February 11th, 1893, bound for New York; but she never arrived there.
+Two of her boats were picked up on March 4th, but no clue was ever
+found to the mysterious disappearance of the ship.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Thomas H. Ismay, recently retired from business, has all along been
+recognized as the manager-in-chief and moving spirit of the White Star
+Line, and a man of exceptional gifts and graces. Conspicuous alike by
+his enterprise and culture, Mr. Ismay has given proof of true greatness
+in declining honours that were easily within his reach. He might have
+been chairman of the London and North Western Railway Company—the
+greatest railway company in the world—but he would not. Several times
+he might have been returned to Parliament, but he declined. His name
+was confidently mentioned in connection with the Diamond Jubilee
+honours. Sir Thomas Ismay would have sounded well, but he begged to be
+excused, choosing to remain plain Thomas Ismay, of Liverpool, where
+his beneficent character is known and appreciated at its full value.
+The same may be said of the genial ex-captain of the _Majestic_, and
+commodore of the fleet, Captain Parsell, in whose personality were
+combined the culture of a gentleman and all the qualifications of
+a good sailor. Captain Cameron, of the _Teutonic_, has been in the
+service of the White Star Company nearly thirty years, having commenced
+his career in the sailing ships. He is one of the most popular
+commanders on the route.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Messrs. Harland and Wolff, of Belfast, the builders of all the steamers
+of the White Star Line, are one of the largest ship-building firms in
+the world. They employ between seven thousand and eight thousand men
+in their establishment. Sir Edward J. Harland, late head of the firm,
+was a Yorkshireman by birth. He served an apprenticeship to engineering
+at Newcastle, and studied the art of ship-building in the drawing
+office of Messrs. J. & G. Thomson, Glasgow. He was a man of noble
+presence, fine ability, and great enterprise. He had been Chairman of
+the Harbour Board, Mayor of Belfast, High Sheriff of County Down, a
+Justice of the Peace, and a member of Parliament. He was made a Baronet
+by the Queen, in 1885, on the occasion of the visit of the Prince and
+Princess of Wales to Belfast. Sir Edward died at his home, Glenfarne
+Hall, County Leitrim, December 23rd, 1895, aged sixty-four years.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The rates of passage by the Cunard, the White Star and the American
+Line are nearly identical, and, all things considered, they are not
+unreasonable. They are cheaper than the fares by the sailing packets
+of sixty years ago. The ordinary rates for first-class passengers,
+in summer, vary from $75 to $150, according to the location of the
+stateroom, and the number of berths in it; from $40 to $50 for the
+second-class cabin, and from $20 to $27 in the steerage. The winter
+rates are somewhat less, say, from $75 to $150 in the steamers
+_Lucania_ and _Campania_, and from $60 to $150 in other fast boats.
+When the rush of travel is in full swing, say, from May to October,
+rooms must be secured months in advance. Tickets may then be held at
+a fictitious value, and those who will have _special_ accommodation
+(suites of rooms, etc., etc.) must pay for it. A fellow-passenger with
+me, in one of the New York liners, not long since paid—so, at least,
+I was credibly informed—$3,000 for the single voyage for himself,
+his wife, two daughters, and two servants. The difference between an
+outside and an inside stateroom, in the busy season, may be $135 and
+upwards. At such times a room to yourself is a luxury that means money.
+
+What about ocean steamers racing? The question was raised in the
+British House of Commons a few years ago, and elicited the answer that
+there is no law in the statute book forbidding it. Are not these ocean
+greyhounds built and subsidized with a special view to speed? Other
+things being equal, the fastest boat draws most passengers. A competing
+ship may be in sight or out of sight; it makes little difference.
+There is a race going on all the same, and the palm is awarded to the
+one that lands the mails in London or New York, as the case may be,
+in the fewest number of hours and minutes. Probably ninety-nine out
+of every hundred passengers on board the _Majestic_ on a certain day
+in May, 1894, if placed in the witness-box, would swear that on that
+day an exciting race took place on the high seas, which ended in the
+SS. _Paris_ outrunning the _Majestic_, and dashing across her bows in
+dangerous proximity! It was an optical delusion. Both ships, no doubt,
+were doing their level best, and had they continued their respective
+courses much longer, there is no saying what might have happened,
+but, at the proper time, Captain Parsell blew off steam, slowed his
+ship, put his helm down, and crossed the stern of the _Paris_. It was
+beautifully done.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+And how about these so-called lifeboats, hanging in the davits, so
+prettily painted, so neatly encased in canvas, and so firmly secured
+in their places? That they are useful sometimes, the writer knows
+from personal observation. On a recent voyage from Liverpool to New
+York we ran into a dense fog off the Banks of Newfoundland. The steam
+whistle gave forth its dolorous sounds all hours of the night, but
+the ship rushed on at her accustomed pace. At 4.20 a.m. most of us
+were awakened out of our slumbers by a violent shaking of the vessel.
+Had we been near land we might have fancied that the ship was grating
+along a pebbly bottom, but that could not be. Presently the engine
+stopped, and a loud roar of steam from the funnels brought most of the
+passengers on deck. It was a raw, damp morning, about daybreak, with
+fog as thick as burgoo all around. You couldn’t see half the length of
+the ship. Everything on deck appeared to be at sixes and sevens. Where
+the after-boats had been ropes and tackles were swinging to the roll of
+the ship; orders were being given from the bridge in peremptory tones,
+a few sailors were hurrying here and there, yelling out their ready
+“Aye, aye, sir!” Down goes another boat. Three or four had already
+left the ship and disappeared in the mist. What is it all about? “Oh!
+we have run down a fishing schooner and smashed it to smithereens.”
+Listen! voices of men in distress are heard; they shout louder and
+louder, and are answered, call for call, by the steam whistle. The
+ship had overshot the scene of the disaster, but was brought back to
+the spot by the instant reversal of her twin-screws—it was that that
+shook the ship as if it would have shaken her to pieces. The boats came
+in sight one by one, each to be greeted with a hearty cheer. Seven of
+the eight fishermen have been rescued! One had left the spar to which
+he had been clinging, thinking to swim for the ship, but he quickly
+went under and was seen no more. The longboat came first with two of
+the survivors; the life-boat came last, strange to say, full of water.
+She had struck a piece of wreckage and stove in her bow, but the men
+sat up to their waists in water—every sea washing over them—and plied
+their oars as merrily as though nothing had happened. They brought two
+of the fishermen, one of whom was too weak to grasp the rope ladder
+hanging over the ship’s side, and was hoisted up by a cord passed
+round his body, a pitiful object. Reaching the deck they took him up
+tenderly and carried him below—to die in a few minutes. The remaining
+six, some of them badly bruised, were well cared for. A subscription on
+their behalf, added to the proceeds of a concert in the second cabin,
+realized about £380 sterling, which would cover the loss of their
+vessel and its cargo. The whole time occupied in the rescue was one
+hour and three-quarters. It was cleverly done: and the ship sailed on.
+
+A fine instance of coolness and sound judgment in a sudden emergency
+has been related of Captain E. R. McKinstry, Lieut. R.N.R., of the
+SS. _Germanic_, which collided with the steamer _Cambrae_ entering
+the Mersey in a dense fog. The _Germanic_ had cut deeply into the
+broadside of the other ship, and filled the opening she had made like
+a wedge. Had the order been given to reverse the engine the result
+would have been disastrous, for the damaged ship must have filled
+and sank immediately, but with rare presence of mind the engines of
+the _Germanic_ were kept moving slowly ahead, effectually preventing
+the rush of water until every soul on board was rescued. Captain
+McKinstry is a young man to have reached the top of his profession, and
+has already given many proofs of his gallantry and pluck. On several
+occasions he has risked his life to save that of others, notably during
+the naval review at Spithead, in 1887, when he jumped from the deck of
+the _Teutonic_ to rescue a drowning sailor. Another instance of fine
+seamanship occurred recently on board the _City of Rome_, Atlantic
+liner, which had a narrow escape from destruction by fire on her voyage
+to New York with a large number of passengers on board. The coolness
+and skill of Captain Young on that occasion merited the highest praise.
+Mr. Wonham, of Montreal, one of the passengers, after describing the
+steps taken to subdue the flames, and to provide for the safety of the
+passengers and crew, concluded his narrative by saying, “I’m like the
+American who came to Montreal to enjoy a toboggan slide. He would not
+have missed the experience for a thousand dollars, but he wouldn’t go
+through it again for ten thousand.”
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Leaving out of the count innumerable “tramps,” there are many lines
+of steamships besides those already mentioned, keeping up regular
+sailings between Britain and United States ports. The Wilson Line, of
+Hull, has a fleet of about eighty steamers trading to all parts of the
+world, with weekly services from Hull and London to New York, and
+fortnightly from Newcastle and Antwerp. They also have a fortnightly
+service from Hull to Boston. The State Line, now incorporated with
+the Allan Line, has a weekly service from Glasgow to New York. The
+_State of Nebraska_ and _State of California_ are large and fine
+ships with excellent accommodation for passengers at low rates. The
+Atlantic Transport Line, with its fine fleet of twin-screw steamers,
+connects New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore with London every week.
+The North American Transport Company has also a numerous fleet plying
+between Norfolk, Va., and New York to Liverpool, Glasgow, Leith,
+Rotterdam and Hamburg. The Arrow Line runs from New York to Leith; the
+Manhanset Line, to Bristol and Swansea from New York. The Hill Line
+plies between London and New York, and the Lord Line between Baltimore
+and Belfast. The Chesapeake and Ohio Steamship Company sail their
+ships from Newport News and New York to London and Liverpool. The
+Blue Flag Line has regular communication with Baltimore and Glasgow,
+Liverpool, Dublin, Belfast and Rotterdam. The Lamport and Holt Line
+plies between New York, Liverpool and Manchester; the Bristol City
+Line weekly between New York and Bristol, while another line makes its
+terminus at Avonmouth. Barber & Co.’s steamers run regularly from New
+York to Leith, and from Norfolk, Va., and Newport News to Liverpool
+and Antwerp. The United States Shipping Company send their ships from
+Norfolk to Glasgow, Liverpool, Manchester, Leith and Hamburg.
+
+Besides these there are many lines of steamships leaving New York at
+regular intervals for Bermuda, West Indies, Trinidad, New Orleans,
+South American ports, Mexico, Central America and San Francisco, via
+the Isthmus of Panama.
+
+
+CONTINENTAL LINES.
+
+The great volume of emigration from the continent of Europe, and
+especially from Germany, has developed a correspondingly large
+steamship passenger traffic. France and Germany have, for many years,
+vied with each other as well as with the British shipping companies, in
+providing accommodation suitable to the demand. The result is several
+fleets of magnificent steamships little inferior in speed and luxurious
+appointments to the British and American lines.
+
+
+THE HAMBURG-AMERICAN PACKET COMPANY,
+
+established in 1847, is the oldest of the German lines, and has now
+attained large dimensions. It began with a small capital and a fleet of
+three sailing ships. The average of their westward voyages from Hamburg
+to New York was about forty days, and eastward about thirty days; and
+they were accounted among the fast ships of their day. In 1867 the
+company owned a fleet of ten large transatlantic steamers, several
+smaller craft, a considerable amount of real estate and a commodious
+dry-dock. In 1872 the fleet had increased to twenty-five steamers, and
+a regular weekly service was maintained between Hamburg and New York.
+The operations of the company at this time also extended to the West
+Indies, South America and Mexico: but 1888 was the _annus mirabilis_ in
+the company’s history, for it was then that a new departure was made,
+by the construction of twin-screw steamers destined to rival in speed
+and elegance the finest steamships afloat. In 1895 the company owned a
+fleet of seventy ocean steamers and fifty-one river steamers, having
+a combined tonnage of 339,161 tons. Among its steamers there are no
+less than eighteen twin-screw passenger ships, all employed in the New
+York service. The four express boats of the line at present are the
+_Fürst Bismarck_, _Normannia_, _Augusta Victoria_ and _Columbia_, all
+twin-screw ships of from 7,578 tons and 13,000 horse-power, to 8,874
+tons and 16,000 horse-power.[22] Two of these were built at Stettin,
+Prussia, one at Birkenhead, and one, the _Normannia_, by John Elder
+& Co., on the Clyde. They have also a fleet of five large twin-screw
+steamers, especially adapted for live stock and fresh meat. In ten
+years, from 1881 to 1891, the Hamburg-American Line conveyed 525,900
+passengers to New York, which was 50 per cent. more than either the
+Cunard or White Star Lines during the same period. The capital of the
+company is about $7,000,000, and its affairs are said to be exceedingly
+well managed. It has paddled its own canoe without State aid from the
+commencement, the only addition to its freight and passenger revenues
+being a moderate compensation from the American Government for carrying
+the mails from New York to Hamburg. The amount received for that
+service in 1896 was $30,030.75. being at the rate of about 44 cents
+per pound for letters and post cards, and 4½ cents per pound for other
+postal matter.[23] The company is said to have in its employment a
+permanent staff of six thousand employees.
+
+[Illustration: THE “NORMANNIA,” 1890.]
+
+The _Augusta Victoria_, on her first voyage, made the fastest maiden
+trip then on record between Southampton and New York—7 days, 2
+hours, 30 minutes. She has since made the run in 6 days, 19 hours,
+19 minutes. The _Normannia_ has done it in 6 days, 10 hours, 45
+minutes, and the _Fürst Bismarck_ in a few minutes’ less time. The
+_Normannia_, built in 1890, was at that time claimed to be one of the
+finest steamships afloat. She is 520 feet long and 59 feet wide. On her
+trial trip she showed a speed of twenty-one knots. In addition to her
+main triple expansion engines, she makes use of fifty-six auxiliary
+ones, and is provided with a deck boiler, by which steam is secured
+for her pumps in case of the main boilers being rendered useless by
+such an accident as befell the _Paris_ a few years ago. Her passenger
+accommodation is unsurpassed. The music room is described as a “marvel
+of elegance.” The decorations throughout are by the best European
+artists.
+
+[Illustration: “AUGUSTA VICTORIA.”]
+
+The line has not been exempt from marine disasters and loss of lives.
+The _Austria_ was burned in 1858, when only sixty-seven were saved of
+the whole ship’s company of 538. By the wreck of the _Schiller_ on the
+Scilly Islands, in 1875, 331 persons perished. In 1883 the _Cimbria_
+was sunk off the coast of Holland, with the loss of 389 persons. The
+_Normannia_, on a recent trip, narrowly escaped collision with a huge
+iceberg, but thanks to her good “lookout” and her twin screws, she
+sheered off from the towering monarch just in time.
+
+This company has recently added to its fleet one of the largest
+freight-carrying steamers afloat. The _Pennsylvania_, built and engined
+by Harland & Wolff, Belfast, has a carrying capacity of 21,762 tons,
+with accommodation for 200 first-class and 1,500 steerage passengers.
+Her length is 585 feet; breadth, 62 feet; draught of water when fully
+loaded, 30 feet. She has two balanced quadruple expansion engines,
+with five boilers, and carries a working pressure of 210 pounds of
+steam. Her three-bladed twin screws, each weighing 9½ tons, make 76
+revolutions per minute, developing a speed of fifteen knots an hour.
+The _Pennsylvania_ left New York on her first voyage with a cargo of
+18,500 tons measurement, said to be the largest cargo ever taken out of
+New York in one ship, if not the greatest that any ship in any part of
+the world has ever carried.
+
+
+THE NORTH GERMAN LLOYD COMPANY.
+
+This company, founded in 1857, has its headquarters at Bremen, and
+is also a very large concern, owning a fleet of eighty steamships,
+with a total tonnage of over 225,000 and 200,000 indicated
+horse-power. Among these are a number of very fine express steamers,
+mostly Clyde-built and fitted up with all the latest improvements
+in machinery and decoration. The _Kaiser Wilhelm II._, the _Havel_,
+_Spree_, _Lahn_, _Trave_ and _Fulda_ are all well-known and favourite
+ships on the Atlantic route. Besides maintaining a weekly service
+between Southampton and New York, this company has a regular line
+running direct from New York to Genoa, Naples, Alexandria and other
+Mediterranean ports, and also lines running to India, China, Japan
+and Australia. A sad disaster was that which overtook the _Elbe_ of
+this line in January, 1895, when she was struck amidships by a trading
+steamer, the _Crathie_, and sank in a few minutes, with the loss of 332
+lives, only twenty-seven of the whole ship’s company being saved. In
+December, 1896, the _Salier_, of this line, while on her voyage from
+Bremen to Buenos Ayres, foundered off the coast of Spain, when every
+soul on board perished, numbering about three hundred persons.
+
+[Illustration: “PENNSYLVANIA,” HAMBURG-AMERICAN LINE.
+
+The largest cargo steamer afloat.]
+
+[Illustration: “KAISER WILHELM DER GROSSE,” NORTH GERMAN LLOYD LINE.
+
+The largest passenger steamer afloat; holds the Blue Ribbon for the
+fastest voyage from Southampton to New York, the highest average speed,
+and the greatest day’s run.]
+
+Eight gigantic steamships are being added to the already numerous
+fleet. Some of these have already been launched at Stettin, Germany.
+The largest of these leviathans is the _Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse_,
+which arrived in New York on September 26th, 1897, having made her
+maiden voyage from Southampton in 5 days, 22 hours, 45 minutes, the
+fastest on record. Her average speed was over twenty-one knots an
+hour, and her daily runs as follows: 208, 531, 495, 512, 554, 564,
+186; the total distance run was 3,050 knots. Not only has the biggest
+ship beaten the Southampton record, but on her maiden trip she has
+made the fastest single day’s run. This she did on the nautical day
+ending at noon on the 26th, when she reeled off 564 knots. At times she
+developed twenty-two knots. Her coal consumption, however, was heavy,
+being nearly five hundred tons a day. She was commanded by Captain H.
+Englebart. Her return voyage to Plymouth was made in 5 days, 15 hours,
+10 minutes; her average speed was about 21.40 knots, and her daily runs
+were 367, 504, 500, 507, 510, 519, 55; total, 2,962 knots.[24]
+
+The _Kaiser der Grosse_ is 649 feet in length, 66 feet in width, and
+43 feet in depth. She is rated at 14,000 tons burthen and 30,000
+horse-power. She has quadruple expansion engines, working at a steam
+pressure of 213 lbs., and turning her mammoth twin screws at the rate
+of seventy-seven revolutions per minute, and is otherwise conspicuous
+by her four funnels. Even the _Pennsylvania_ is thrown into the shade
+by this new-comer. She is designed to carry 20,000 tons of cargo, and
+from 1,500 to 2,300 passengers. She is the largest steamship afloat
+at the present time, having larger carrying capacity than the famous
+_Great Eastern_; but her supremacy will be short-lived, for the new
+_Oceanic_, of the White Star Line, is still larger, and may prove
+faster. To load this great ship entirely with wheat would require the
+produce of a field of 40,000 acres, at sixteen bushels to the acre;
+and to supply her full complement of passengers would depopulate a
+good-sized town. The _Kaiser_ is essentially a new type of ocean
+steamship—a magnificent experiment, which will be watched with great
+interest in shipping circles everywhere, and one that is not unlikely
+to set the fashion for ships of the next decade.
+
+
+THE COMPAGNIE GÉNÉRALE TRANSATLANTIQUE,
+
+commonly known as the French Line, entered the lists of competition
+in 1862, and has developed into a first-class marine service. The
+early ships of this company were iron paddle-wheel steamers, which
+were built by Scott & Company, of Greenock, but, owing to the
+prohibitory duty imposed on foreign-built vessels, it was found to be
+more advantageous to have them built in France, the more so as the
+Government had introduced the system of giving large “construction
+bounties.” This French company has now a magnificent fleet, comprising
+upwards of sixty steamships. The Atlantic service employs six very fine
+express steamers, _La Touraine_, _La Bourgogne_,[25] _La Bretagne_,
+_La Champagne_, _La Gascogne_, _La Normandie_, all of them built in
+France except the last named, which was built at Barrow-in-Furness,
+in 1882. The _Touraine_ was built at the company’s building yard, at
+St. Nazaire, in 1890. She is a steel twin-screw ship of 10,000 tons
+net, and 14,000 horse-power. Her length is 520 feet, breadth 56 feet,
+and depth 34½ feet. She has triple expansion engines, and is classed
+as a nineteen-knot boat. She has made the voyage from Havre to Sandy
+Hook (in July, 1892) in 6 days, 17 hours, 30 minutes, the fastest on
+record between these ports, the average speed being 19.63 knots, and
+the best day’s run, 501 knots. The company’s capital is said to be
+$8,000,000, and its credit is good. The line is largely subsidized
+by the French Government, and receives compensation from the United
+States for carrying the mails from New York to Havre, the amount thus
+received in 1896 being $32,806.86. Until the loss of the _Bourgogne_,
+the most serious disaster that had overtaken the line was the wreck of
+the _Ville de Havre_, in November, 1873, from collision with an iron
+sailing ship, the _Lochearn_, which involved the loss of 226 lives,
+eighty-seven being rescued. Besides the American business, which is
+very large, the company has extensive trade connections with the
+Mediterranean and the West Indies.
+
+
+THE NETHERLANDS LINE,
+
+officially styled the “Nederlandsch-Amerikaansche Stoomvart
+Maatschappig,” of Rotterdam, has a fleet of thirteen steamers, most of
+them from the shipyard of Harland & Wolff, Belfast, and ranging from
+3,000 to 4,000 tons each. They are very fine boats of their class, and
+have attracted a fair share of the passenger traffic between New York
+and Amsterdam and Rotterdam, sailing alternately for these ports every
+week, calling at Boulogne-sur-mere. They carry the United States mails,
+which do not seem to be very weighty, as the _pay_ only amounted to
+$165.03 in 1896. The latest addition to the fleet is the _Spaarndam_,
+formerly of the White Star Line (the _Arabic_), a fifteen-knot ship,
+of 4,368 tons and 3,000 horse-power. The company, which commenced this
+business in 1872, has a capital of $1,680,000.
+
+
+THE THINGVALLA LINE,
+
+dating from 1879, is a Danish enterprise, with a regular service
+between Copenhagen and New York, consisting of five ships, the largest
+of which is the _Amerika_, of 3,867 tons, formerly the _Celtic_,
+purchased from the White Star Line in 1893. This line came into
+notoriety in 1889 through the foundering of one of their vessels, the
+_Danmark_, in mid-ocean. She had on board 735 souls. On April 5th she
+was sighted by the British steamship _Missouri_, Captain Hamilton
+Murrell. On April 6th, though a heavy sea was running, by an act of
+heroism almost unparalleled, Captain Murrell threw some of his cargo
+overboard, and in four and a half hours saved every soul by means of
+boats and lines, landing some at St. Michael’s, Azores, and the rest at
+Philadelphia. The gallant rescue was suitably acknowledged by public
+testimonials from Britain and America to the captain, his officers and
+crew.[26]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[17] The _St. Paul_, _St. Louis_, _Paris_ and _New York_ have all been
+taken over by the United States Government and fitted up as armed
+cruisers, the names of the last two being changed to _Harvard_ and
+_Yale_.
+
+[18] Fry’s “History,” p. 193.
+
+[19] The _Germanic_ has since been overhauled and has now a set of
+triple expansion engines, making her a seventeen-knot boat. In July,
+1895, she crossed from Queenstown to New York in 6 days, 23 hours, 45
+minutes.
+
+[20] Fry’s “History,” p. 180.
+
+[21] A missionary of the Church of England, who ministered to a few
+poor fishermen at Terence Bay, at the imminent risk of his life put off
+to the wreck in a small boat and succeeded in saving the life of the
+first officer of the ship after all hope of further rescue had been
+abandoned, and when even the hardy fishermen forbade the rash attempt.
+Mr. Ancient had formerly been attached to the British navy, and during
+this heartrending scene acted the part of a hero in his efforts to save
+life and to relieve the sufferings of the survivors. Captain Williams
+was severely censured, and had his certificate suspended for two years.
+
+[22] This was written before the Hispano-American war began; since
+then several of these vessels have been employed by the United States
+Government with a change of nomenclature.
+
+[23] “U. S. A. Report on Navigation for 1896,” p. 104.
+
+[24] Last April the great _Kaiser_ surpassed her previous record,
+making the voyage from New York to Southampton (3,065 knots) in 5 days,
+17 hours, 8 minutes, showing an average speed of 22.35 knots per hour.
+
+[25] THE “BOURGOGNE” DISASTER.—Since the sinking of the _Eutopia_ in
+Gibraltar Bay in 1891, no such marine disaster has occurred as that
+which recently befell the SS. _Bourgogne_—a, tragedy in some respects
+the most appalling that has ever been recorded. This vessel of 7,795
+tons—one of the finest of the French line of steamers—sailed from
+New York for Havre on the 2nd of July, 1898, with a ship’s company,
+including passengers and crew, of 726 souls. Early on the morning of
+the 4th, when about sixty miles south of Sable Island, during a dense
+fog, and while running at the rate of some eighteen knots an hour, she
+came into collision with the British sailing ship _Cromartyshire_, of
+1,554 tons, and in a very short time foundered, carrying down with
+her about 520 persons. Had it not been for her collision bulkhead the
+_Cromartyshire_ must have sunk, too. As it was, she was badly damaged,
+but hove to all day in the hope of picking up survivors. In the
+meantime the Allan SS. _Grecian_ came up to the scene of the disaster,
+the rescued passengers were taken on board, and the disabled ship
+was towed into Halifax harbour. The survivors were the purser of the
+steamship, three engineers, thirty of the crew, and 170 passengers—204
+in all. Of the seventy-two ladies in the first cabin only one was
+saved. Captain Deloncle, commander of the _Bourgogne_, was a lieutenant
+in the navy, and a knight of the Legion of Honour, having under him a
+competent staff of officers who appear to have done what they could
+to save the lives of others. All of them went down with their ship
+into the sailor’s grave. The loss of life was appalling, but even more
+heartrending were the accounts given of the barbarous conduct of some
+of the steerage passengers and sailors in the terrible struggle for
+self-preservation.
+
+[26] Fry’s “History,” p. 309.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+STEAM TO INDIA AND THE EAST.
+
+
+During the earlier years of commerce with India, the route from Britain
+was by the Mediterranean, the Black Sea, and the Caspian, through
+Persia, reaching India at its northern extremity. The sea route, _via_
+the Cape of Good Hope, was discovered by the Portuguese in 1497, and
+continued to be the great highway of commerce to the East until our own
+times. Although circuitous, the Cape route was infinitely preferable
+to that of inland seas and deserts infested by hostile tribes, to say
+nothing of the advantage of reaching destinations without transhipment.
+
+The importance of India as a field of British enterprise began with
+the incorporation of the East India Company in the year 1600. From a
+small trading company it gradually became a vast aggressive monopoly,
+with a large standing army at its back, and a numerous fleet of ships
+that served the double purpose of carrying merchandise and fighting
+the French, or any other covetous enemy. In 1811, when the company
+had reached the zenith of its power, it owned sixty-seven ships, each
+armed with from 30 to 38 guns; thirty-one ships of from 20 to 28 guns,
+and fifty-two ships of from 10 to 19 guns. The sea route to Calcutta
+was over 13,000 miles, and not unfrequently a whole year was occupied
+in making the round trip. In the days of clipper ships, however, the
+single voyage was sometimes accomplished inside of one hundred days.
+
+[Illustration: THE CAMEL-POST—“SHIP OF THE DESERT.”]
+
+Lieutenant Thomas Waghorn, R. N., an English naval officer, applied
+to the British Government for assistance in carrying out a project
+he had conceived of opening communication by steam between Britain
+and her great East Indian Empire. The result of his labours was the
+opening up of the overland mail route, as it was called, consisting
+at first of a steam service from Marseilles to Alexandria, thence
+by camel and Nile steamer to Cairo, a caravan across the desert to
+Suez, and steamers _via_ the Red Sea to Bombay and Calcutta. The next
+improvement was the substitution of a railway for “The Ship of the
+Desert,” in 1858, and the transmission of the English mails to Brindisi
+instead of Marseilles, and finally, the construction of the Suez Canal
+by Ferdinand Lesseps, the French engineer, at a cost of sixty million
+dollars. The canal is ninety-nine miles long with a width of 327 feet
+for 77 miles and 196 feet for the remaining 22 miles; the depth was
+originally twenty-six feet throughout, but the canal is undergoing
+progressive enlargement and deepening. The British Government in
+1875 acquired by purchase shares in the enterprise to the value of
+£4,000,000 sterling. By a convention signed in 1888, the canal was
+exempted from blockade, and vessels of all nations, whether armed or
+not, may pass through it in peace or in war.[27] The North German
+Lloyd SS. _Frederick the Great_, of 10,500 tons register, which passed
+through the canal a few months ago _en route_ for Australia, is the
+largest vessel that has passed through it. The canal was first opened
+for traffic in 1869.
+
+By the overland route the distance from London to Bombay has been
+reduced to 5,221 miles, and to Calcutta, 6,471 miles. The contract time
+for the transmission of mails is 16½ and 18½ days respectively. Sir
+Douglas Fox, engineer of the railway from Acre to Damascus, speaking
+of the proposal to extend that road to the mouth of the Persian Gulf,
+prophesied that in a few years the journey from Charing Cross to
+India will be covered in eight days! It will be accomplished in about
+the same length of time, _via_ Russia, when the great trans-Siberian
+railway is completed. When that is accomplished, the actual running
+time of an excursion around the world may possibly be reduced to thirty
+days or even less.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In preceding pages reference has been almost exclusively made to the
+development of steam navigation on the North Atlantic; a brief allusion
+must now be made to the effects produced on the commerce of other parts
+of the world by the introduction of steam power. The Atlantic steamers
+were probably the first to bridge the ocean; they are, perhaps, the
+most numerous to-day; certainly they include some of the largest and
+most magnificent specimens of marine architecture in existence, but
+they are only a wing of the world’s fleet of steamships. There are
+other great lines of ocean steamers performing services of equal
+importance elsewhere, though with their history and their “records” we
+are less familiar. An excellent summary of the lines of communication
+with India, and the East generally, is given in “Whitaker’s Almanacks”
+for 1896 and 1897, under the caption of “Our Ocean Mail.” Mr.
+Macdonald, in “Our Ocean Railways,” devotes a couple of chapters to an
+interesting survey of this branch of our subject.
+
+
+THE PENINSULAR AND ORIENTAL COMPANY,
+
+commonly known as the “P. & O.” Co., is the second oldest steam-packet
+company in existence. It had its origin in a small steamship
+undertaking, started in 1836 under the name of the “Peninsular
+Company,” to trade between Falmouth and Lisbon. Their first vessel was
+the _William Fawcett_, a paddle-steamer of 206 tons, built in 1829. The
+first steamer despatched for India by this company was the _Hindostan_
+of 1,800 tons and 250 horse-power, about the year 1842. From that time
+until now the history of the company has been a continuous record of
+progress and prosperity They now carry the mails not only to India,
+but to China and Australia, having in their service a magnificent
+fleet of over sixty steamers, ranging from 2,500 tons to 7,560 tons,
+and aggregating some 220,000 tons. The SS. _Caledonia_ is at present
+the largest and fastest vessel employed in the Indian trade, and has
+succeeded in landing her mails in Bombay within 12½ days of their
+despatch from London. Their contract time for the delivery of mails
+in Shanghai is 37½ days, and 35½ days to Melbourne, Australia. Over
+$35,000,000 have been expended on the fleet of the P. & O. Company
+in the last twenty years, and they are now building several steamers
+of 8,000 tons for the mail service. Among the larger boats of the
+fleet at present are the _Arcadia_, 6,670 tons; _Australia_, 6,901;
+_Himalaya_, 6,898; _Oceanea_, 6,670, and the _Victoria_, 6,527 tons.
+During the Crimean war, and at the time of the Indian mutiny, this
+company rendered important services to the Government in the rapid
+conveyance of troops and stores. The regularity with which the mail
+service has been conducted is remarkable when the length of the routes
+is considered. It is seldom that the mails are even an hour late in
+being delivered. The ships combine all the latest improvements in their
+construction, machinery and internal fittings.
+
+[Illustration: P. & O. STEAMSHIP “CALEDONIA.”]
+
+The P. & O. steamers leave London every Saturday for India, and
+fortnightly for Australia and China. The first-class ordinary fare to
+Bombay, Madras, or Calcutta by this line is £55 sterling; second-class,
+from £35 to £37 10s. To Adelaide, Melbourne or Sydney, Australia,
+first-class, £60 to £70; second-class, £35 to £40. To China and Japan,
+first-class, £73 10s.; second-class, £42. The rates for special
+accommodation are, of course, considerably higher.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The Orient Steam Navigation Company was formed in 1877 by two
+well-known shipping firms—Anderson, Anderson & Co. and F. Green &
+Co. The first steamer to leave London under the flag of the Orient
+Line was the _Garonne_, acquired by purchase, and followed by the
+_Chimborazo_, _Lusitania_ and _Cuzco_. Two of these are now used
+on exclusively pleasure cruising voyages in the Mediterranean and
+elsewhere, while a number of large and powerful ships have been built
+for the mail line. The _Orient_, built by Robert Napier & Sons,
+Glasgow, in 1879, was the largest steamer constructed on the Clyde up
+to that time. She was 400 feet long, 5,365 tons register, and with
+engines of 6,000 indicated horse-power. Her speed was seventeen knots
+on her trial trip. The latest additions to the fleet are the _Ophir_,
+6,057 tons; _Orizaba_, 6,077; _Oroya_, 6,057, and the _Ormuz_, 6,031
+tons. The _Ophir_ is 482 feet long, 53 feet beam, and 37 feet moulded
+depth. She is fitted with triple expansion engines and twin screws,
+and all the other modern improvements which go to make up a “floating
+palace.” The company receives a subsidy from the Imperial Government of
+£85,000 sterling per annum for carrying the mails, which are despatched
+fortnightly from London calling at Plymouth, Gibraltar, Naples, Port
+Said, Suez, Colombo, Albany, Adelaide, Melbourne, and Sydney, Australia.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The British India Steam Navigation Company dates from 1855, when the
+East India Company first took steps to establish a mail service between
+Calcutta and Burmah. In 1862 the name was changed from the Calcutta and
+Burmah Steam Navigation Company to that which it now bears. Since then
+the business has greatly increased, and it now boasts of having more
+steamers than any company trading to the East. Its fleet consists of
+106 vessels with a total tonnage of about 270,000. They are nearly all
+called by Eastern names, such as the _Golconda_, 6,036 tons; _Matiana_,
+5,000 tons; _Okhla_, 5,283 tons; _Onda_, 5,272 tons, and _Obra_, 5,456
+tons. The distance annually travelled by ships of this line counts up
+to 5,000,000 miles. The sailings are about fortnightly from London to
+Colombo, Madras and Calcutta. The fares to Madras and Calcutta are from
+£47 10s. to £52 10s., according to accommodation. The first steamers
+of the line—the _Cape of Good Hope_ and the _Baltic_—were despatched
+to India _via_ the Cape. The _India_ of this line is said to have been
+the first steamer to pass through the Suez Canal. In 1872 a contract
+was entered into with the East India Company for a monthly service from
+Aden to Zanzibar. Then a coast line was established from Bombay to
+Calcutta, calling at eighteen intermediate ports, with a branch line
+running up the Persian Gulf. In 1880 arrangements were made with the
+Government of Queensland for a mail service that soon developed into a
+large trade. At the breaking out of the mutiny in 1857, a detachment of
+the 35th Regiment was brought up from Ceylon to Calcutta by one of the
+ships of this line most opportunely. Again, in 1863, thirteen steamers
+of this fleet were taken up by the Government in connection with the
+Abyssinian expedition.
+
+Some years ago the _Quetta_, of this line, on her voyage from
+Queensland, struck a rock in Torres Straits and sank in a few minutes
+with the loss of 133 lives. Among the survivors was a plucky young
+lady, a Miss Lacy, who, after having spent twelve hours upon a raft,
+attempted to swim ashore, and kept afloat in the water for twenty-four
+hours without a life-belt or support of any kind, until she was picked
+up by a boat from a passing steamer.
+
+[Illustration: THE “QUETTA” GOING UNDER, 1890.]
+
+The Clan Line, established in 1878, has a fleet of some thirty-five
+ships, all rejoicing in the prefix of “Clan” to their names. They
+are comparatively small vessels, the largest of them being the _Clan
+Grant_, 3,545 tons; _Clan MacArthur_, 3,934; _Clan MacIntosh_, 3,985;
+_Clan MacPherson_, 3,921, and _Clan Matheson_, 3,917 tons. They run
+from Glasgow and Liverpool to Bombay; from the same ports to Colombo,
+Madras and Calcutta; also to Cape Colony and Natal, Delagoa Bay, Beira
+and Mauritius. The saloon fare by this line from Liverpool to Madras or
+Calcutta is £45; second class, £30.
+
+The Bibby Line has long been famous on the Mediterranean. It is
+now the direct route to Burmah, and controls a large share of the
+trade with Ceylon and southern India. It employs five of Harland &
+Wolff’s first-class steamships—the _Staffordshire_, _Shropshire_ and
+_Cheshire_, twin screw ships of 6,000 tons; and the _Lancashire_ and
+_Yorkshire_ of 4,260 tons each. This line is the recognized route for
+officers returning from India at the expiry of furlough. The sailings
+are from Liverpool to Egypt, Colombo, southern India and Rangoon. Only
+first-class passengers are carried. Fare to Rangoon, £50.
+
+The Shaw, Savill & Albion Company, formed some thirteen years ago,
+has been very successful. It has five fast mail steamers—the _Arawa_,
+5,026 tons; _Doric_, 4,786; _Ionic_, 4,753; _Tainui_, 5,031, and the
+_Gothic_, 7,730. Besides these they have a large number of cargo
+steamers and sailing ships. The _Gothic_ is said to be the largest
+steamship employed in the Australian trade, and the _Arawa_ the
+fastest, having made the run from Plymouth to New Zealand in 38 days,
+30 minutes; and from New Zealand to Plymouth in 35 days, 3 hours, 40
+minutes—the fastest on record.
+
+The Union Steamship Company of New Zealand advertises to take
+passengers from Auckland to England, _via_ San Francisco, in
+_thirty-one_ days! Saloon fare, £66; steerage, £32 11s. 7d.
+
+The Anchor Line has two services to India: (1) from Liverpool to Bombay
+and Kurrachee; (2) from Liverpool to Calcutta. The sailings in each
+case are about once a fortnight. Though chiefly adapted for freight,
+they carry a considerable number of passengers at low rates, say, to
+Bombay or Calcutta, first-class, £45, and second-class, £30. The City
+Line has also two distinct services, the same as the Anchor Line, to
+Bombay and Kurrachee and to Calcutta. The fares are the same. This line
+has a fleet of fourteen steamers, among the largest of which are the
+_City of Bombay_, 4,548 tons; _City of Vienna_, 4,672 tons; _City of
+Oxford_, 4,019 tons; _City of Calcutta_, 3,906 tons.
+
+The Hall Line, from Liverpool to Kurrachee and to Bombay, calling
+at Marseilles, sails about once in three weeks. The ships are all
+about four thousand tons. The fare from Liverpool to Bombay is, for
+first-class, £47 10s., and for second-class, £30. The Henderson
+Line has sailings from Liverpool to Rangoon every three weeks, with
+accommodation for second-class passengers. The New Zealand Shipping
+Company has a fine fleet of steamers, from four thousand to six
+thousand tons, sailing once in three weeks from London to New Zealand
+ports, Tasmania and Australia. Fare to Auckland, £68, and to Melbourne
+or Sydney, £72. The North German Lloyd Line has a monthly service from
+Southampton to China and Japan, and also to Australia. Holt’s Line has
+sailings once a fortnight to China, Japan and Australia from Liverpool.
+
+There are various other lines of steamers in the Eastern trade, but the
+above-named are the most important, unless we include the _Messageries
+Maritime_ and the _Rubattino_ Lines, both of which are formidable
+competitors for the freight and passenger traffic. The former is a
+French line, which has been in existence since 1852, and has attained
+a high rank. The fleet numbers about sixty vessels, many of them very
+large, handsomely fitted and fast. They are noted for their elaborate
+_cuisine_, which attracts a certain class of travellers, and though
+their rates are somewhat higher than the other first-class lines,
+they have long been very popular. The line to India has sailings from
+Marseilles and Trieste once a fortnight. The Messageries Company
+receives a very large subsidy from the French Government. The _Ville
+de la Ciotat_, built for the Australian trade, is a magnificent ship
+of 6,500 tons and 7,000 horse-power. The _Rubattino_ is an Italian
+line, which has a numerous fleet of steamers, chiefly adapted for the
+Mediterranean trade; but they have also a number of large vessels
+sailing at regular intervals from Genoa and Naples to Bombay.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The Eastern trade is enormous. The total exports from and to India,
+Ceylon, the Straits, Labuan and Hong Kong amounted in 1889 to
+$1,031,000,000. The exports and imports to and from Australia amounted
+in the same year to nearly $526,000,000.[28] The net tonnage which
+passed through the Suez Canal in 1894 was 8,039,105 tons.
+
+
+STEAMSHIP LINES TO AFRICA.
+
+The African Steamship Company is one of the oldest and largest shipping
+concerns in the African trade. It originated in 1832 as a private
+expedition by MacGregor Laird, of Liverpool, for the purpose of
+exploring the Niger River. In 1852 the company received its charter,
+and agreed to perform a monthly mail and passenger service to West
+Africa in consideration of an annual subsidy of £30,000. The pioneer
+ships were the _Forerunner_, _Faith_, _Hope_ and _Charity_. Year after
+year numerous fine vessels were added to the fleet, among which are the
+_Leopoldville_, 3,500 tons; _Assaye_, 4,296 tons; _Mohawk_, 5,658 tons,
+and the _Mobile_, 5,780 tons. In 1891 this company amalgamated with the
+Elder, Dempster Company of Liverpool, and now have regular services
+from Liverpool to South-West Africa; from Hamburg and Rotterdam to West
+and South-West Africa; and from Antwerp to South-West Africa.
+
+The Union Steamship Company was first formed in 1853, with a fleet of
+five small collier steamers. In 1857 a contract was obtained for a
+mail service to the Cape for five years at £30,000 a year. The service
+proved so satisfactory that the contract was renewed and extended.
+The Union Line now carries the English mail to the Cape and Natal,
+and also from Hamburg, Rotterdam, Antwerp and Southampton to Cape
+Town, Port Elizabeth, East London and Natal, making calls at Madeira
+and Teneriffe. The _Scot_, built for this company by the Dennys of
+Dumbarton, is a fine ship of 6,850 tons, and has made the shortest
+voyage on record from Southampton to Cape Town, viz., 14 days, 11
+hours. The _Norman_, of 7,537 tons, one of Harland & Wolff’s steel
+twin-screw ships, is the largest vessel employed in the South African
+trade. The _Guelph_, _Greek_, _Gaul_ and _Goth_ are also twin-screw
+ships, close upon 5,000 tons each.
+
+The Castle Line, founded by Sir Donald Currie in 1872, has attained a
+front rank in shipping circles. Since 1876 this line has carried the
+Royal mails between England and South Africa. The fleet numbers some
+fourteen or fifteen powerful steamers, of from 3,600 to 5,636 tons,
+such as the _Tantallon Castle_, _Dunottar Castle_, _Roslin Castle_,
+_Doune Castle_, etc. The voyage to the Cape of Good Hope, which used
+to occupy from thirty to thirty-four days, is now accomplished by the
+Castle Line in half that time. Until recently this company enjoyed an
+enviable immunity from marine disasters, not having lost a single life
+through mishap of any kind; but one dark and hazy night in June, 1896,
+one of the best-known ships of the line—the _Drummond Castle_—while
+attempting to sail through the perilous channel between the Island of
+Ushant and the mainland, struck a sunken rock, and almost immediately
+went to pieces, only three persons out of a ship’s company of 250
+having survived to tell the tale.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The British and African Steam Navigation Company, established in
+1868, conveys passengers and mails from Liverpool to the west coast
+of Africa. It has a fleet of twenty-four steamers, and maintains seven
+distinct services. It is under the management of Elder, Dempster & Co.
+The ships are from 2,000 to 3,000 tons register, and derive their names
+from the rivers and ports which they frequent, _e.g._, the _Bakana_,
+_Batanga_, _Loanda_, _Boma_, _Calabar_, etc.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The Natal Line, from London to Natal, Delagoa Bay, and other East
+African ports, was founded by Messrs. Ballard, King & Co. in 1879.
+They employ a fleet of ten steamers, ranging from 1,600 to 2,750
+tons—larger vessels being unable to cross the bar at Natal. They have
+also a colonial service under contract with the Government of Natal,
+from Cape Colony and Natal to Madras and Calcutta. There is also the
+Aberdeen Line from London to Natal direct; the British and Colonial
+Steam Navigation Company from London to South and East Africa; the East
+African mail service of the British India Line, and the German East
+African Line. The fares from London to Delagoa Bay vary according to
+the class of ships, from 35 guineas by the Natal Line, to £67 10s. by
+the British India Line.
+
+
+WEST INDIES AND PACIFIC LINES.
+
+The Royal Mail Steam Packet Company, the ships of which line sail
+from Southampton to the West Indies, Central America, North and South
+Pacific, Brazil and River Plate, was founded in 1839, and has a large
+fleet of powerful steamers. The _Danube_, _Nile_, _Clyde_, _Thames_,
+_Magdalena_ and _Atrato_ are all over 5,000 tons, with engines of
+from 6,773 to 7,500 indicated horse-power. Among the smaller ships is
+the _Trent_, a namesake of the historic vessel which was boarded by
+the United States cruiser, _San Jacinto_, in 1861, when the seizure
+of Slidell and Mason nearly provoked a war with Great Britain. The
+West India and Pacific Steamship Company, with a fleet of seventeen
+steamers, keeps up a good line of communication between Liverpool, the
+West Indies, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean seas. The _American_
+and _European_ are each 7,730 tons; the _Barbadian_, _Cuban_,
+_Jamaican_, _Mexican_ and _Tampican_ are from 4,020 to 4,500 tons.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The Pacific Steam Navigation Company, incorporated in 1840, conducts
+a line of mail steamers from Liverpool to Brazil and River Plate,
+continuing the voyage to the west coast of America _via_ the Straits of
+Magellan. This company are the pioneers of steam navigation along the
+southern shores of the Pacific, and between Europe and the West Coast.
+They have also running in the Orient Line, from London to Australia,
+four of their largest steamers, viz., _Orizaba_, _Oroya_, _Oruba_ and
+_Orotava_, all over 6,000 tons. They have a large fleet of other ships,
+such as the _Orissa_, _Orcana_, _Potosi_, _Liguria_, _Iberia_, ranging
+from 4,000 to 5,000 tons each, and they are building others of large
+dimensions.
+
+Messrs. Lamport and Holt have a fine fleet, consisting of over sixty
+steamers, running from Glasgow, Liverpool, Manchester, London, Antwerp
+and New York, to Brazil, River Plate, and the west coast of South
+America. A large percentage of their steamers are capable of carrying
+between 5,000 and 6,000 tons of cargo, and have a speed of from 10½ to
+12 knots at sea. They also carry a limited number of passengers. The
+largest of their steamers are the _Canova_, 5,000 tons; _Cavour_, 5,500
+tons; _Cervantes_, 5,000 tons, and the _Horace_, 4,000 tons. The Wilson
+Line—Thomas Wilson, Sons & Co. (Limited), Hull—in addition to their
+North American lines of steamers, have a fortnightly service to Bombay
+and Kurrachee, a monthly service to Australia, and a line of steamers
+running to River Plate ports, to suit the trade.
+
+The fare from Southampton to the West India Islands runs from £25 to
+£35; from New York, by the Atlas Line, $50; and to Bermuda, by the
+Quebec Steamship Company, sailing from New York every Thursday, $25.
+
+
+THE CANADIAN TRANS-PACIFIC STEAMSHIPS.
+
+The idea of connecting the Atlantic with the Pacific Ocean by a railway
+through British territory had long been a cherished vision of British
+and Canadian statesmen, railway engineers, and travellers in the far
+West; but owing to the vastness of such an enterprise for a people
+of four millions, a “baseless vision” it continued to be until after
+the confederation of the provinces in 1867. Twenty years before that
+time, Major Carmichael Smyth, writing to “Sam Slick,” advocated the
+construction, by convict labour, of a trans-continental railway through
+British territory, and prepared a map on which the possible route of
+such a railway was marked—almost identical with that of the Canadian
+Pacific Railway.[29] Hon. Joseph Howe, in course of a speech made at
+Halifax in 1851, said he believed that many of his auditors would
+live to hear the whistle of the steam-engine in the passes of the
+Rockies, and to make the journey from Halifax to the Pacific in five
+or six days. Hon. Alexander Morris, in his lecture, “Nova Britannia,”
+delivered in 1855, predicted the accomplishment of such an enterprise
+in the near future. Judge Haliburton, Sir Edward Bulwer, Sir George
+Simpson and other _savans_ had all prophesied after the same manner.
+Sure enough, it was one of the earliest measures that came to be
+discussed in the first Parliament of the new Dominion. Preliminary
+surveys were commenced in 1871 by Sandford Fleming, chief engineer, and
+the work of construction by the Government followed soon after. But it
+early became apparent that Government machinery was ill adapted for
+successfully dealing with a work of such magnitude, and one unavoidably
+leading to political complications. It was therefore resolved to have
+the road built by contract. Finally, in 1881, the Canadian Pacific
+Railway Company was organized, the prime movers of the enterprise
+being Messrs. George Stephen and Donald A. Smith, of Montreal. At
+this time the Government had under construction 425 miles between
+Lake Superior and Winnipeg, and 213 miles in British Columbia. This
+company undertook to complete the railway from Quebec to Vancouver,
+a distance of 3,078 miles, within ten years, for which they were to
+receive $25,000,000 in money, and twenty-five million acres of land,
+together with the sections of railway already under construction by the
+Government, the entire railway when completed to remain the property
+of the company. Such was the energy of the contractors and the skill
+of their engineers, the railway was completed in one-half of the time
+stipulated; for on the 7th of November, 1885, the last rail was laid
+on the main line, and by next midsummer the whole of the vast system
+was fully equipped and in running order. The opening of the Canadian
+Pacific Railway was followed by an immense development of traffic.
+
+The natural outcome of this was the inauguration of a line of
+steamships from the western terminus of the road to Japan and China,
+as well as to Australia. Sooner than might have been expected, three
+very fine twin-screw steel ships were built at Barrow-on-Furness for
+the Canadian Pacific Railway Company, under contract with the Imperial
+and Dominion Governments for carrying the mails to Japan and China. The
+ships are named the _Empress of India_, _Empress of China_ and _Empress
+of Japan_.
+
+The inauguration of the “Empress Line” was of the nature of a
+magnificent ovation. The maiden trips of the three sisters were
+largely advertised in connection with an all-the-way-around-the-world
+trip, _via_ Gibraltar, Suez, Colombo, Hong Kong, Yokohama and
+Vancouver, and thence by the Canadian Pacific Railway across the
+continent and home again by any of the Atlantic liners, all for the
+modest sum of $600. The proposal took readily, with the result that
+the three ships had a full complement of cabin passengers, all of whom
+expressed themselves as delighted with the arrangements which had been
+made for their comfort. The first steamer, the _Empress of India_, with
+141 saloon passengers, reached Hong Kong on the 23rd of March, 1891,
+under easy steam, in forty-three days from Liverpool; leaving Hong Kong
+on April 7th, she reached Yokohama on the 16th. She left on the 17th,
+and, although encountering a very heavy gale, reached Victoria, B. C.,
+in 10 days, 14 hours, 34 minutes, an average speed of 406 miles a day,
+or just 17 knots an hour. The regular monthly service from Vancouver
+to Japan and China commenced in the autumn of the same year. For this
+service the company receives an annual subsidy of $300,000, and an
+additional subvention of about $35,585 to secure their services to the
+British Government whenever the vessels may be required as transports
+or cruisers. The three ships are all just alike. They are painted white
+and are beautiful models, with raking masts and funnels, and graceful
+overhanging bows. They are each 485 feet in length, 51 feet moulded
+breadth, and 36 feet in depth; gross tonnage about 6,000 tons each.
+They have triple expansion engines of 10,000 indicated horse-power,
+which with 89 revolutions per minute, and a consumption of only 170
+tons of coal a day, drive the ships at an average speed of 17 knots
+an hour. The arrangements and fittings for passengers are of the most
+complete and even luxurious description. The saloons and staterooms are
+tastefully decorated, handsomely furnished, and brilliantly lighted
+by electricity. They have ample accommodation for 180 first-class, 32
+second-class, and 600 steerage passengers, with capacity for about
+4,000 tons of cargo. They cost about $1,000,000 each.
+
+[Illustration: C. P. R. STEAMSHIP “EMPRESS OF JAPAN.”]
+
+The distance from Vancouver to Hong Kong is 6,140 nautical miles; the
+average passage is about twenty-two days. Yokohama is 4,300 knots from
+Vancouver, and the average passage is from eleven to eleven and a half
+days; but in August, 1891, the _Empress of Japan_ made the voyage in
+9 days, 9 hours, 39 minutes, the shortest time on record, being at
+the rate of eighteen and a half knots an hour. After a fairly quick
+railway run across the continent to New York, and close connection with
+a swift Atlantic greyhound, her mails were delivered in London in the
+unprecedentedly short time of 20 days, 9 hours from Yokohama. This feat
+astonished London, and gave rise to speculations of rapid communication
+with the East hitherto undreamed of. Even with existing facilities, it
+is now not only possible, but it is easy to go round the world by this
+route in less than seventy-five days, and to do it in palatial style
+for less than $1,000!
+
+In connection with the Canadian Pacific Railway a line of steamers
+commenced a monthly service in 1893 between Vancouver and Australia,
+calling at Shanghai, Sandwich Islands, Brisbane, Queensland and
+Sydney, N. S. W. The pioneer ships are the _Warrimoo_ and _Miowera_,
+of about 5,000 tons each, which have so far given a very satisfactory
+service. They receive a small subsidy from the Canadian and Australian
+Governments as a means of developing trade and commerce between the
+two countries, and as forging another link in the chain that binds
+the colonies to the Mother Country. A third steamer, the _Aorangi_,
+has recently been added to this line. The distance from Vancouver to
+Sydney, direct, is 6,832 knots, and the voyage has been made by the
+_Miowera_ in 19½ days, showing that with a fast Atlantic service and
+close connections the quickest route from England to Australia will be
+_via_ Canada.
+
+Still more recently, the unprecedented rush of adventurous gold-seekers
+to the Klondike has induced the Canadian Pacific Railway Company to
+inaugurate another line of steamships to ply between Victoria and
+Vancouver and ports on the northern Pacific coast. Two very fine
+Clyde-built steamers have been placed on this route, the _Tartar_ and
+the _Athenian_, of 4,425 and 3,882 tons, respectively. These vessels
+are fitted up in first-class style, with excellent accommodation for
+large numbers of passengers. With the exception of the Empress Line
+of steamships to Japan and China, they are said to be much the finest
+steamers on the North Pacific coast.
+
+George Stephen, now Lord MountStephen, was born at Dufftown,
+Banffshire, Scotland, June 5th, 1829: came to this country in 1850,
+when he entered into business in Montreal, and was the pioneer of the
+woollen manufacturers in Canada. He became President of the Bank of
+Montreal and also of the Canadian Pacific Railway, which was completed
+mainly through his Lordship’s energy. Sir George Stephen, Baronet—so
+created in January, 1886—was elevated to the British peerage in May,
+1891.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Donald A. Smith, now Lord Strathcona and Mount Royal, who was
+associated with Lord MountStephen in the construction of the Canadian
+Pacific Railway, was born at Archieston, Morayshire, August 6th, 1820.
+He came to Canada in 1839 on the Hudson’s Bay Company’s staff, and
+eventually became Governor of that corporation. He has represented the
+city of Montreal in the Dominion Parliament, is President of the Bank
+of Montreal, and Chancellor of McGill University. He succeeded Sir
+Charles Tupper as High Commissioner for Canada in London in August,
+1896. He received the honour of knighthood from Her Majesty the Queen
+in May, 1886, and was raised to the peerage on the occasion of Her
+Majesty’s Diamond Jubilee, in 1897. The gifts of both these gentlemen
+for educational and philanthropic purposes have been upon a princely
+scale, running up into millions of dollars.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[27] “Whitaker’s Almanack,” 1897, p. 543.
+
+[28] “Our Ocean Railways,” p. 119.
+
+[29] “Statistical Year-Book, 1896,” under Railways, p. 20.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+STEAM IN THE BRITISH NAVY.
+
+
+The British Navy—Marine Distances—Sunday at Sea—Icebergs and Tidal
+Waves.
+
+Great as have been the changes brought about by steam navigation
+applied to commercial uses, the transformations of the navies of the
+world have been even more remarkable. It seems almost incredible that
+at the commencement of Her Majesty’s reign there were less than twenty
+steamships in the British navy, and none of them over 1,000 tons
+burthen. Of the 560 “sail” comprising the navy of 1836, ninety-five
+were “ships of the line.” The largest of these were styled “first-rate
+ships;” all of them wooden three-deckers, carrying 100 guns each, or
+more. One of the most difficult problems the Admiralty of that time
+had to solve was how to ensure a sufficient supply of oak timber for
+ship-building purposes. Forty full-grown trees to an acre of ground was
+accounted a good average; at that rate it required the growth of fifty
+acres to produce enough timber to build one seventy-four-gun ship; and
+as the oak required at least a hundred years to reach maturity, and
+the average life of a ship was not much over twenty-five years, the
+acreage required to produce the entire quantity was enormous. But the
+prospect of an oak famine was speedily dispelled by the substitution of
+iron and steel for wood in naval architecture.
+
+[Illustration: “DUKE OF WELLINGTON” BATTLE-SHIP, 1850.]
+
+Of the 689 vessels of all kinds constituting the British navy in 1897,
+there are only about twenty-two wooden ones, and these are nearly all
+used either as store ships or training ships, seldom, if ever, to leave
+their anchorage. And so entirely has the paddle-wheel been superseded
+by the screw-propeller, there are not left a dozen paddle-steamers in
+the entire fleet, including the Queen’s yachts and a few light-draught
+river boats. As already mentioned the compound engine was introduced
+into the navy in 1863. The twin screw was first applied to the
+_Penelope_ in 1868, and has since become universal in vessels of war,
+the result of these improvements being a marvellous increase of power
+and speed, with a great saving of fuel. Roughly speaking, a pound of
+coal is to-day made to produce four or five times the amount of power
+that it did in 1837.
+
+Experiments had been made with steam power in the navy as early as
+1841. In 1845 as many as nineteen sets of screw engines had been
+ordered for the Admiralty, but it was not until some years later that
+it came into general use. About 1851 the _Duke of Wellington_,[30] the
+_Duke of Marlborough_, the _Prince of Wales_, etc., all full-rigged
+ships, each armed with 131 “great guns,” were fitted with auxiliary
+steam-engines of from 450 to 2,500 horse-power. The introduction of
+iron armour-plating—first practised by the French towards the close of
+the Crimean war—presaged the beginning of the end of “the wooden walls
+of Old England,” and the disappearance forever of the beautiful white
+wings that had spread themselves out over every sea.
+
+[Illustration: TORPEDO DESTROYER “HORNET,” 1896.]
+
+The _Warrior_, completed in 1861, was built entirely of iron, protected
+at vital points by armour-plating four and a half inches in thickness,
+which, at the time, was supposed to render her invulnerable. She was
+the precursor of a class of enormous fighting machines, which, however
+ungainly in appearance, have increased the sea-power of Britain to
+an incalculable extent. But, alas, for the four and a half inches of
+armour-plating! Developments in gunnery called for increased thickness
+of protective armour. The rivalry betwixt gun and armour-plate, keenly
+contested for years, has not yet been definitely settled; but when
+ships’ guns are actually in use weighing 110 tons and over, capable
+of throwing a shot of 1,800 lbs. with crushing effect a distance of
+twelve miles, and, on the other hand, when ships are to be found
+carrying twenty-four inches of protective iron and steel plating, it
+seems as if the climax had been nearly reached. In the meantime the
+insignificant-looking “torpedo destroyer” is coming to the front as one
+of the most formidable instruments of marine warfare. Although only
+about 200 feet long, with a displacement of perhaps 250 tons, they
+have yet a motive power of 5,000 to 6,000 horse-power, and a speed of
+from 25 to 35 knots an hour. Some of these destroyers are supposed to
+be strong enough to deal a death-blow to a first-class battle-ship,
+and all of them are swift enough to overhaul the fastest cruiser on
+the ocean. The estimation in which they are held by the Admiralty is
+apparent from the fact that already upwards of one hundred of them are
+in commission, and many more are being built. Twenty-five destroyers,
+it is said, can be built for the cost price of one battle-ship, and
+in actual warfare there would be exposed the same number of lives in
+fifteen destroyers as in one battle-ship.
+
+Although no great naval battles have taken place to test the power
+of the steam navy of Britain, it has been occasionally demonstrated
+in the form of object lessons. The great Jubilee review of 1887 was
+a magnificent spectacle, when there were assembled at Spithead 135
+ships of war, fully armed and manned, and ready to assert Britain’s
+sovereignty on the high seas. Two years later the exhibition was
+repeated in the presence of admiring Royalty. In January, 1896, shortly
+after President Cleveland’s threatening message to Congress, and while
+strained relations with Germany had arisen out of complications in
+South Africa, in an incredibly short space of time the famous “flying
+squadron” was mobilized and made ready for sea and any emergency
+that might transpire, without at all encroaching on the strength of
+the ordinary Channel fleet. The recent naval review in connection
+with Her Majesty’s Diamond Jubilee, however, surpassed any previous
+display of the kind, not alone as a spectacular event, but as a telling
+demonstration of sea-power, such as no other nation possesses. On this
+occasion 166 British steamships of war were ranged in line extending to
+thirty miles in length, and this without withdrawing a single ship from
+a foreign station; the only regret expressed on this occasion being
+that not one of the old “wooden walls” was there with towering masts
+and billowy clouds of canvas to bring to mind the days and deeds of
+yore, and to emphasize the remarkable changes introduced by steam.
+
+The following table published by the London _Graphic_ exhibits in
+convenient form the numerical strength of the British navy at the
+beginning of 1897:
+
+    ═══════════════════════╤═════╤══════════╤══════════╤════════╤══════
+                           │     │          │          │Officers│
+        Classification.    │ No. │   Tons.  │  Horse-  │   and  │ Guns.
+                           │     │          │  Power.  │   Men. │
+    ───────────────────────┼─────┼──────────┼──────────┼────────┼──────
+    Battleships,  1st class│  29 │  377,176 │  355,000 │ 19,291 │ 1,301
+        "         2nd class│  12 │  114,030 │   75,000 │  5,672 │   346
+        "         3rd class│  11 │   77,820 │   57,600 │  5,487 │   365
+        "         armoured │  18 │  136,960 │  116,000 │ 10,386 │   604
+    Coast Defence,         │     │          │          │        │
+        Iron-clads         │  16 │   61,410 │   30,460 │  3,211 │   209
+                           ├─────┼──────────┼──────────┼────────┼──────
+    Total armored          │  86 │  767,390 │  634,060 │ 44,047 │ 2,825
+    Cruisers, 1st class    │  17 │  157,950 │  278,000 │ 10,514 │   688
+       "      2nd class    │  57 │  243,820 │  461,100 │ 19,346 │ 1,359
+       "      3rd class    │  52 │  110,685 │  220,340 │ 10,994 │   927
+    Gunboats, Catchers     │  33 │   25,940 │  113,300 │  2,935 │   203
+        "     Coast Defence│  42 │   11,828 │    5,860 │  1,527 │   106
+    Sloops                 │  22 │   23,305 │   28,000 │  2,764 │   318
+    Gunboats,              │     │          │          │        │
+        1st class (police) │  20 │   15,810 │   23,400 │  1,670 │   202
+    Miscellaneous Vessels  │  24 │  112,712 │  202,300 │  4,998 │   318
+    Torpedo Boats          │     │          │          │        │
+        and Destroyers     │ 250 │   25,000 │  300,000 │  5,860 │   690
+                           ├─────┼──────────┼──────────┼────────┼──────
+            Grand Total    │ 689 │1,494,440 │2,266,360 │104,855 │ 7,638
+    ───────────────────────┴─────┴──────────┴──────────┴────────┴──────
+
+
+First-class battle-ships are vessels of from 10,000 to 15,000 tons
+displacement, with steam-engines of 10,000 to 12,000 horse-power and
+attaining a speed of from seventeen to eighteen knots. To this belong
+the _Magnificent_, the _Majestic_, the _Renown_, the _Benbow_, etc.
+The first three carry each four 12-inch guns, twelve 6-inch, sixteen
+12-pounders, twelve 3-pounders, eight machine guns, and five torpedo
+tubes. The _Benbow_ carries two 16.25-inch guns, each weighing 110
+tons, in addition to her armament of smaller pieces. Second-class
+battle-ships, such as the _Edinburgh_ and _Colossus_, are under 10,000
+tons, and with 5,500 horse-power develop a speed of about fourteen
+knots. Third-class battle-ships are represented by the _Hero_ and
+_Bellerophon_, vessels of 6,200 and 7,550 tons respectively.
+
+First-class cruisers include such well-known ships as the _Blake_ and
+the _Blenheim_, each about 9,000 tons with 20,000 horse-power and
+twenty-two knots speed. The _Powerful_ and _Terrible_, also belonging
+to this class, are among the finest ships in the navy, each 14,200
+tons, 25,000 horse-power, twenty-two knots speed, and having crews of
+894 men. Additions to the British navy are not made arbitrarily, but
+with due regard to the enlarged and improved naval armaments of other
+countries, and with the determination to keep well ahead of all foreign
+rivals. Accordingly we find that an order was given by the Admiralty
+in 1897 for the construction of four additional battle-ships and four
+large cruisers of great speed, the former to be of the _Majestic_
+type, but with heavier guns, more efficient armour and higher speed,
+at the same time of slightly less draft, so that if necessary they can
+pass through the Suez Canal. The cost of a first-class battle-ship,
+including armament, is about £700,000 sterling or about $3,500,000.
+A first-class cruiser of the ordinary type costs £450,000, but the
+_Powerful_ and _Terrible_, when ready for sea, are said to have cost
+£740,000 each. The latest type of torpedo destroyer costs £60,000.
+The largest projectiles used in the service (as in the _Benbow_) are
+16¼ inches diameter, weigh 1,820 lbs., and are fired with a charge of
+960 lbs. of powder. The average annual expenditure for construction
+and repairs is between four and five millions, but in 1896 it reached
+£7,500,000 sterling.
+
+[Illustration: THE “RENOWN,” FIRST-CLASS BATTLE-SHIP, 1895.
+
+Flag-ship of Vice-Admiral Sir John A. Fisher, K. O. R., in Command of
+the British North Atlantic Squadron, 1898.]
+
+An interesting feature of the Diamond Jubilee review at Spithead, as on
+former occasions, was the presence of representatives of the mercantile
+marine in the garb of armed cruisers. By arrangements between the
+Admiralty and the Cunard, the P. & O., the White Star, and the Canadian
+Pacific Steamship companies, £48,620 were paid last year in the form
+of subventions, the vessels so held at the disposal of the Government
+being the _Campania_, _Lucania_, _Teutonic_, _Majestic_, _Himalaya_,
+_Australia_, _Victoria_, _Arcadia_, _Empress of India_, _Empress of
+Japan_, and _Empress of China_.
+
+[Illustration: “TEUTONIC,” ARMED CRUISER, IN 1897.]
+
+Many other mercantile steamers besides these are also at the disposal
+of the Government, being subsidized, and the facilities for converting
+them into armed cruisers at short notice are most complete, a reserve
+stock of breech-loading and machine guns being kept in readiness
+at convenient stations where the transformation can be effected in
+a few hours. The armament of the _Teutonic_ when she appeared at
+Her Majesty’s Diamond Jubilee review consisted of eight 4.7-inch
+quick-firing guns, and eight Nordenfeldt guns. As an example of how
+quickly a large auxiliary fleet might at any time be equipped, the case
+of the _Teutonic_ is in point. Leaving New York on Monday, June 14th,
+with her usual mails and passengers, she reached Liverpool on the 21st.
+Between that and the 24th she discharged her cargo, was thoroughly
+cleaned, took on her armour and full complement of naval officers and
+men, and having on board a host of distinguished guests, was at her
+appointed place in the review on Saturday, the 26th. Returning to
+Liverpool, she laid aside her guns, and on the 30th sailed for New
+York, as if nothing had happened. The _Campania_, which left New York
+two days later than the _Teutonic_, also appeared at the review in
+holiday dress, her only armament, however, on this occasion consisting
+of a large detachment of members of the Houses of Lords and Commons,
+among whom doubtless were many “great guns.”
+
+
+MARINE DISTANCES.
+
+A nautical mile, or “knot,” is about 6,082.66 feet; a statute, or
+land mile, 5,280 feet; the knot is, therefore, equal to 1.1515 mile.
+The circumference of the earth being divided geographically into 360
+degrees, and each degree into 60 nautical miles, the circumference
+measures 21,600 knots, equal to about 25,000 statute miles. Knots can
+be readily reduced to statute miles by means of the following table:
+
+    ───────┬──────┬──────┬──────┬──────┬──────┬───────┬───────┬────────
+    Knots  │   1  │   2  │   3  │   4  │   5  │   10  │   25  │   100
+           │      │      │      │      │      │       │       │
+    Miles  │ 1.151│ 2.303│ 3.454│ 4.606│ 5.757│ 11.515│ 28.787│ 115.148
+    ───────┴──────┴──────┴──────┴──────┴──────┴───────┴───────┴────────
+
+When the _Lucania_ averaged 22 knots, she was running at the rate of
+25⅓ statute miles an hour; her longest day’s run (560 knots) was equal
+to 644¾ miles, about the distance covered by an ordinary fast express
+train on the Canadian Pacific Railway.
+
+The old-fashioned ship’s “log” is a piece of wood in the form of a
+quadrant, loaded with lead at the circumference, to which is attached
+a line of 120 fathoms or more. Allowance being made for “stray line,”
+the balance is divided into equal distances by knots and small bits
+of coloured cloth. The distance between each knot is the same part of
+a mile that 30 seconds is of an hour (the 120th); the length between
+knots should thus be a trifle over 50 feet. The number of knots run out
+in half a minute (as measured by the sand-glass) indicate the number of
+nautical miles the ship is running per hour.
+
+Even express steamships do not always sail between given points exactly
+as the crow flies. Various reasons lead to the selection of different
+routes, and even when following the same route, the actual distance run
+varies a little on each voyage. The Cunard Line, as a precautionary
+measure, has four sharply defined “tracks” across the Atlantic—two for
+the westward and two for the eastward voyages—one pair being used in
+summer and the other in winter, or the ice season.[31] The northern
+route, used from July 15th to January 14th, is considerably shorter
+than the southern route, which is followed from January 15th to July
+14th. The distances by these routes are given by the company as follows:
+
+    Queenstown to Sandy Hook,  by  northern track  2,782 knots.
+         "          "    "      "  southern   "    2,861   "
+    Sandy Hook to Queenstown,   "  northern   "    2,809   "
+         "          "    "      "  southern   "    2,896   "
+
+Daunt’s Rock, Queenstown, being about 244 knots from Liverpool,
+and Sandy Hook lightship 26 knots from New York, the distance from
+Liverpool landing-stage to the dock in New York by the Cunard’s
+northern track is about 3,052 knots, and by the southern track, 3,131
+knots; from New York to Liverpool, 3,079 and 3,166 knots, respectively.
+Captain W. H. Smith says that the shortest distance that can be made
+between Liverpool and New York is 3,034 knots.
+
+
+                     TABLE OF DISTANCES.[32]
+
+  Sandy Hook to Antwerp                                     3,336 knots.
+       "        Bremen                                      3,484  "
+       "        Copenhagen                                  3,800  "
+       "        Genoa                                       4,060  "
+       "        Gibraltar                                   3,200  "
+       "        Glasgow, _via_ North of Ireland             2,941  "
+       "        Hamburg                                     3,510  "
+       "        Havre                                       3,094  "
+       "        London                                      3,222  "
+       "        Naples                                      4,140  "
+       "        Southampton                                 3,100  "
+       "        Queenstown                                  2,809  "
+       "        Liverpool, _via_ northern route             3,088  "
+  Quebec to Montreal, by the river                            160 miles.
+     "         "      by the Canadian Pacific Railroad        172  "
+     "      Rimouski                                          180  "
+     "      Belle Isle                                        747  "
+     "      St. John’s, Newfoundland                          896  "
+     "      Moville, _via_ Belle Isle and North of Ireland  2,460 knots.
+     "      Liverpool, "      "           "         "       2,633  "
+     "          "      " Cape Race        "         "       2,801  "
+     "          "      "      "     and South       "       2,826  "
+     "      Glasgow    " Belle Isle and North       "       2,564  "
+     "          "      " Cape Race        "         "       2,732  "
+     "      Queenstown, _via_ Belle Isle                    2,473  "
+  Moville to Liverpool                                        190  "
+  Halifax to New York                                         538  "
+     "       Quebec                                           680  "
+     "       St. John’s, Newfoundland                         520  "
+     "       Liverpool, _via_ North of Ireland              2,450  "
+     "           "       "  South        "                  2,475  "
+     "       London                                         2,723  "
+     "       Glasgow                                        2,381  "
+     "       St. John, N. B.                                  277  "
+     "       Portland, Me.                                    336  "
+     "       Sable Island                                     169  "
+     "       Boston, Mass                                     420  "
+  St. John’s, Newfoundland, to Galway, Ireland, which
+    is the shortest land-to-land voyage                     1,655  "
+  Liverpool to St. John, N. B., _via_ North of Ireland      2,700  "
+      "        Portland, Me.,    "    "         "           2,765  "
+      "        Boston, Mass.,    "    "         "           2,807  "
+      "        Queenstown                                     244  "
+  Montreal to Halifax, _via_ Intercolonial Railroad           845 miles.
+      "          "      "  Canadian Pacific Railroad          756  "
+      "       Boston,   "  Central Vermont Railroad           334  "
+      "       Portland, Me., _via_ Grand Trunk Railroad       297  "
+      "       New York, _via_ Central Vermont Railroad        403  "
+      "       Toronto,   "  Grand Trunk Railroad              333  "
+      "          "       "  Canadian Pacific Railroad         338  "
+      "          "      by water                              376  "
+      "   Winnipeg, Man., _via_ Canadian Pacific Railroad   1,424  "
+      "     Vancouver, B.C., "      "       "        "      2,906  "
+  Vancouver to Yokohama, Japan                              4,283 knots.
+      "        Shanghai, China                              5,330  "
+      "        Hong Kong   "                                5,936  "
+      "        Honolulu, Hawaii                             2,410  "
+      "        Sydney, N. S. W.                             6,824  "
+  Lech Ryan to Quebec, _via_ Belle Isle                     2,513  "
+      "        North Sydney, C. B.                          2,161  "
+      "        Halifax, N. S.                               2,330  "
+      "        St. John, N. B.                              2,580  "
+  Milford Haven to Quebec, _via_ Belle Isle                 2,587  "
+      "        Halifax                                      2,353  "
+      "        North Sydney, C. B.                          2,186  "
+
+
+SUNDAY AT SEA.
+
+As far as circumstances permit, Sunday is observed with as much decorum
+on shipboard as it is on shore; that is, on the British and American
+lines. As for the continental steamers, the traveller may expect to
+become acquainted with a continental Sabbath, which, in most cases,
+means the ignoring of the day of rest altogether. On our Canadian
+steamships, weather permitting, public worship is usually held in
+the saloon, at 10.30 a. m. Sometimes there is an evening service as
+well, but more frequently an impromptu service of song, much enjoyed
+by the musical portion of the company, and that is frequently a large
+proportion of the passengers—ladies especially. The order of service
+is entirely at the discretion of the captain. In the absence of a
+clergyman, the captain reads the morning service and the Scripture
+lessons for the day from the Book of Common Prayer. If there is a
+Protestant minister on board it is customary to invite him to take the
+whole service; if there be more than one minister available, each of
+them may be asked to take part in the service. On the New York liners,
+as a rule, there is no sermonizing, no matter how many ministers may be
+on board. The captain and purser read the morning service, or portions
+of it; a couple of hymns are sung; a collection is taken up for the
+benefit of the Seamen’s Home, or kindred object, and that is all. There
+are, however, exceptions to this rule. When the captain is prevented by
+his duties on deck from conducting the service, a clergyman, if there
+be one among the passengers, is usually asked to assist. A deviation
+from the rule is often made when a minister of outstanding celebrity
+happens to be on board. Ministers like the late Dr. Norman Macleod,
+or Dr. William M. Taylor, would invariably be asked to preach, no
+matter what line they travelled by. The service-book of the Cunard
+Company consists of selections from the Book of Common Prayer, with
+the addition of a form of prayer prepared by the General Assembly of
+the Church of Scotland, for the use of sailors and persons at sea. A
+singularly beautiful prayer it is:
+
+      “Almighty God, who art the confidence of all the
+    ends of the earth, and of them that are afar off upon
+    the sea; under whose protection we are alike secure
+    in every place, and without whose providence we can
+    nowhere be in safety; look down in mercy on us, thine
+    unworthy servants, who are called to see thy wonders
+    on the deep, and to perform the duties of our vocation
+    in the great waters. Let thine everlasting arm be
+    underneath and round about us. Preserve us in all
+    dangers; support us in all trials: conduct us speedily
+    and safely on our voyage, and bring us in peace and
+    comfort to our desired haven.
+
+      “Be pleased to watch over the members of our families,
+    and all the beloved friends whom we have left behind.
+    Relieve our minds from all anxiety on their account
+    by the blessed persuasion that thou carest for them.
+    Above all, grant that our souls may be defended
+    from whatsoever evils or perils may encompass them;
+    and that, abiding steadfast in the faith, we may be
+    enabled so to pass through the waves and storms of this
+    uncertain world, that finally we may come to the land
+    of everlasting rest, through Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen.”
+
+The service-book also contains the Psalms of David in prose, and a
+collection of 107 hymns, including four of the Scotch paraphrases. The
+hymn most frequently sung at sea is the one beginning with “Eternal
+Father, strong to save,” and next to it, “O God, our help in ages
+past.” Evangelistic services of a less stately kind than in the saloon
+are often held in the afternoon in the second cabin or steerage, and
+are usually much appreciated; while in the evening the deck hands will
+join with groups of emigrants in singing Moody and Sankey hymns, such
+as “Revive us Again,” “Rescue the Perishing,” “Whiter than Snow,” etc.
+It is often remarkable to notice how familiar people of diverse creeds
+and nationalities are with these hymns, and how heartily they unite in
+singing them.
+
+A favourite text with preachers on shipboard is Rev. xxi. 1: “And there
+was no more sea.” The theme, associated, as it is, with so many fathoms
+of profundity, has yielded to many forms of treatment. I remember that
+a young minister, my room-mate, by the way, on his first voyage out
+from Quebec, chose this for his text, and that he launched out, as well
+he might, on the charms of the sea in poetical flights of fancy. But
+the while we were sailing in smooth water. When outside the Straits
+he laid his head on the pillow and underwent a change of environment,
+recovering from which, after many days, he vowed that should he ever
+preach from that text again, he would have something more to say
+about it. I remember, too, that an elderly gentleman—a Presbyterian
+of the Presbyterians—was asked by the captain to preach one Sunday
+morning. He readily complied, taking it for granted that he was to
+conduct the whole service. Imagine his chagrin when an Anglican brother
+unexpectedly appeared on the scene and went through the whole of the
+long service of the Church of England. With the utmost composure,
+_Πρεσβύτερος_ simply ignored the beautiful liturgical service,
+commenced _de novo_, and went through the whole service afresh, in
+orthodox Presbyterian fashion, to the surprise of the congregation and
+the discomfiture of the waiters, whose time for setting the lunch-table
+was long past.
+
+A distinctive and pleasing feature of these Sunday services at sea,
+especially in the larger steamships, which often carry more passengers
+than would fill an ordinary church, is the heartiness with which
+the representatives of various religious denominations unite in the
+services. The lines of demarcation that separate them when ashore seem
+to be lost sight of at sea. Casual acquaintanceship here frequently
+ripens into closer friendship; people begin to see eye to eye, and
+soon the conviction grows stronger that the doctrinal points on which
+all professing Christians are agreed are much more important than the
+things about which they differ. It would do some narrow-minded souls a
+world of good to spend a few Sundays at sea.
+
+The office for the burial of the dead at sea is very solemn and
+affecting. In the days of sailing ships, when voyages lasted so much
+longer, deaths from natural causes at sea were more frequent than now.
+But the order of service is the same. The body of the deceased person
+might be sewed up in a hammock—indeed, it usually was—or the carpenter
+may have made a rough coffin for it. In either case it was heavily
+loaded with iron at the foot. A stout plank with one end resting on the
+bulwark forms the bier on which is laid the corpse, covered with an
+ensign. The captain, the chief engineer, the ship’s doctor and purser,
+with a detachment of the crew, and a few of the passengers, make up the
+funeral party. Portions of the Church of England’s beautiful service
+for the burial of the dead are read: “I am the Resurrection and the
+life.” ... “I know that my Redeemer liveth.” ... “We brought nothing
+into this world and it is certain we can carry nothing out.” ... “Man
+that is born of a woman hath but a short time to live,” etc. The
+ship’s engines are then stopped for a few seconds while the service
+proceeds—“We therefore commit his body to the deep, looking for the
+resurrection of the body when the sea shall give up her dead.”
+
+The ensign is removed. The inward end of the plank is raised, and
+the mortal remains are plunged into the greatest of all cemeteries;
+sometimes with scant ceremony, perhaps, but always impressing on the
+mind of the spectator a deeply pathetic incident that will never be
+forgotten.
+
+    “And the stately ships go on
+      To their haven under the hill;
+    But O for the touch of a vanished hand,
+      And the sound of a voice that is still.”
+
+
+ICEBERGS AND TIDAL WAVES.
+
+Icebergs and bewildering fogs, as has been already said, are a large
+element of danger in the St. Lawrence route. The passengers who sailed
+with me on the _Lake Superior_, from Montreal on July 1st, 1896,
+will not soon forget the magnificent display of icebergs which they
+witnessed on the Sunday following. From early morning until midnight,
+for a distance of more than 250 miles, the ship’s course lay through an
+uninterrupted succession of icebergs—a procession, it might be called,
+on a grand scale of masses of ice in all manner of fantastic shapes
+and of dazzling whiteness—travelling to their watery graves in the
+great Gulf Stream of the south. Mountains of ice, some of them might
+be called. On one of them a grisly bear was alleged to have been seen
+sulkily moving to and fro, as if meditating how, when and where his
+romantic voyage was to come to an end. The day was calm and cloudless—a
+perfect day for such a marvellous exhibition. It might have been
+otherwise, and how different may be imagined from reading what appeared
+in the English papers a few weeks later—the account of a ship’s narrow
+escape from destruction in this identical locality:
+
+[Illustration: H. M. YACHT “VICTORIA AND ALBERT,” 1855.
+
+2,470 tons; 2,980 h. p.: speed. 16.8 knots; armament, 2 six-pounders;
+crew, 151 men.]
+
+      “STRUCK AN ICEBERG.—The SS. _Etolia_
+    on her voyage from Montreal to Bristol narrowly escaped
+    destruction from collision with an iceberg twenty-four
+    hours after leaving the eastern end of Belle Isle
+    straits. A dense fog had set in, the lookout was
+    doubled, and the engines slowed; presently the fog
+    lifted, but only to come down again thicker than
+    ever. In a very short time the lookout called out,
+    ‘Ice ahead!’ The engines were promptly stopped, then
+    reversed at full speed. Meanwhile the towering monster
+    bears down on the ship and in a few seconds is on top
+    of it. It was a huge berg, rising high above the masts
+    of the steamer, which it struck with such a crash that
+    some three hundred tons of ice in huge pieces came down
+    on the forecastle. Fortunately most of it rebounded
+    into the sea, but some forty or fifty tons remained
+    on the ship’s deck. The ship trembled under the blow
+    from stem to stern; her bows were smashed in, but the
+    leakage was confined to the fore-peak. In this battered
+    condition the _Etolia_ lay without a movement of the
+    engines for thirty-six hours until the fog cleared,
+    when Captain Evans had the satisfaction of proceeding
+    on his course and bringing his passengers and crew
+    safely into Bristol harbour.”
+
+A still more serious disaster was reported on August 25th of the same
+year (1896):
+
+      “The captain of the steamer _Circassia_, of the Anchor
+    Line, had a story to tell, on her arrival at quarantine
+    early this morning, of picking up a captain and his
+    twenty-two men on the high seas from three open boats.
+    It was Captain Burnside and the entire crew of the
+    British tramp steamer _Moldavia_, bound from Cardiff
+    to Halifax with coal, who were rescued by the timely
+    approach of the _Circassia_. During the dense fog over
+    the sea on last Wednesday, the _Moldavia_ ran into a
+    huge iceberg and stove her bows so badly that she began
+    to fill rapidly. It was 5.30 o’clock in the afternoon.
+    As soon as a hasty examination showed that it would be
+    impossible to save his ship, Captain Burnside ordered
+    the lifeboats provisioned and cleared away, and as
+    soon as it could be done the steamer was abandoned and
+    shortly afterwards sank. The lifeboats kept together
+    and watched for a passing vessel, and thirty-five hours
+    later the _Circassia’s_ lights were seen approaching.
+    Blue lights were at once shown by the occupants of the
+    lifeboats, and the _Circassia_ altered her course.
+    When near enough, Captain Boothby, of the _Circassia_,
+    hailed the lifeboats and told the men that he would
+    pick up the boats and their occupants. Accordingly
+    the davits’ tackle were lowered, and as each life-boat
+    approached she was hooked on and raised bodily,
+    occupants and all, to the deck of the _Circassia_.”
+
+The icebergs of the North Atlantic are natives of Greenland or other
+Arctic regions where glaciers abound. They carry with them evidence
+of their terrestrial birth in the rocks and debris with which they
+are frequently ballasted. The glacier, slowly moving over the beds of
+rivers and ravines, ultimately reaches the seaboard, to be gradually
+undermined by the action of the waves, and, finally, to fall over into
+deep water and be carried by winds and currents into the open ocean. In
+their earlier stages icebergs are constantly being augmented in size by
+storms of snow and rain, and by the freezing of the water washed over
+them by the waves. They are of all sizes, from a mere hummock to vast
+piles of ice half a mile in diameter, and showing an altitude above the
+sea of two or three hundred feet, sometimes rising to a height of five
+and even six hundred feet, and that is scarcely more than one-eighth
+of the whole mass, for a comparatively small portion only of the bulk
+projects above the surface, as may be plainly seen by dropping a
+piece of ice in a tumbler full of water. In proof of this, it is by
+no means uncommon to find icebergs of ordinary dimensions stranded in
+the straits of Belle Isle in seventy or eighty fathoms of water. Being
+frequently accompanied by fog—of which they may be the chief cause—they
+are often met with unawares, though their nearer approach is usually
+discovered by the effect which they produce on the air and the water
+surrounding them, suggesting to the careful navigator the frequent
+use of the thermometer to test the temperature of the water where ice
+is likely to be encountered. They are seldom met with below the 40th
+parallel.
+
+Field-ice, covering a surface of many square miles, with a thickness of
+from ten to twenty feet, is frequently fallen in with off the coasts of
+Labrador and Newfoundland. Though less dangerous to navigation than the
+iceberg, it is often a serious obstruction. Vessels that incautiously
+run into a pack of ice of this kind, or have drifted into it, have
+often found themselves in a _maze_, and have been detained for weeks at
+a time, and not without some risk to their safety in heavy weather.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+TIDAL WAVES.—Notwithstanding elaborate treatment of the subject by
+hydrographers, stories about ocean tidal waves are most frequently
+relegated by landsmen into the same category with tales of the great
+sea-serpent. Sailors, however, have no manner of doubt as to their
+existence and their force. During violent storms it has been noticed
+that ocean waves of more than average height succeed each other at
+intervals—some allege that every seventh wave towers above the rest.
+Be that as it may, there is no doubt that a sudden change of wind
+when the sea is strongly agitated frequently produces a wave of
+surpassing magnitude. Other causes, not so obvious, may bring about
+the same result, producing what in common parlance is called a “tidal
+wave.” This is quite different from the tidal wave proper, which
+periodically rushes up the estuaries of rivers like the Severn, the
+Solway, the Garonne, the Hoogly and the Amazon. In the upper inlets
+of the Bay of Fundy, where the spring-tides rise as high as seventy
+feet, the incoming tide rushes up over naked sands in the form of a
+perpendicular white-crested wave with great velocity. The tidal wave
+of the Severn comes up from the Bristol Channel in a “bore” nine feet
+high and with the speed of a race-horse, while the great bore of the
+Tsien-Tang-Kiang in China is said to advance up that river like a wall
+of water thirty feet in height, at the rate of twenty-five miles an
+hour, sweeping all before it.[33] The ocean tidal wave dwarfs these and
+all other waves by its huge size and tremendous energy. The effective
+pressure of such a wave being estimated at 6,000 pounds to the square
+foot, it is easy to understand how completely it becomes master of the
+situation when it topples over on the deck of a ship. Only once in the
+course of a good many voyages has the writer been an eye-witness of its
+tremendous force. The occasion was thus noticed in the New York papers
+of the 2nd and 3rd of August, 1896:
+
+      “The American liner _Paris_ and the Cunarder _Etruria_,
+    which arrived on Saturday, had a rough-and-tumble
+    battle before daylight on Tuesday morning with a summer
+    gale that had an autumn chill and a winter force in
+    it. The wind blew a whole gale and combed the seas as
+    high as they are usually seen in the cyclonic season.
+    The crest of a huge wave tumbled over the port bow of
+    the _Etruria_ with a crash that shook the ship from
+    stem to stern, and momentarily checked her speed; a
+    rent was made in the forward hatch through which the
+    water poured into the hold, flooding the lower tier of
+    staterooms ankle-deep. The ship’s bell was unshipped,
+    and it carried away the iron railing in front of it,
+    snapping iron stanchions two inches in diameter as if
+    they had been pipe-stems. The _Paris_, about the same
+    hour and in the same locality, shipped just such a sea
+    as that which hit the _Etruria_, but received less
+    damage. It fared much worse, however, with the sailing
+    ship _Ernest_, from Havre, which was fallen in with on
+    the morning of the gale showing signals of distress.
+    The French liner _La Bourgogne_, came to her rescue and
+    gallantly took off the captain and his crew of eleven
+    men, abandoning the shattered ship to her fate with ten
+    feet of water in her hold.”
+
+It is not often that a tidal wave visits the St. Lawrence, but in
+October, 1896, the SS. _Durham City_, of the Furness Line, when off
+Anticosti, was struck by a big wave which carried away her deck-load,
+including sixty eight head of cattle and everything movable. It was
+only one sea that did the damage, but it made a clean sweep.
+
+By a figure of speech, ocean waves are frequently spoken of as running
+“mountains high,” and the popular tendency is doubtless towards
+exaggeration. The estimate of experts is that storm waves frequently
+rise to forty feet, and sometimes even to sixty or seventy feet in
+height from the wave’s base to crest.
+
+[Illustration: H. M. SS. “CRESCENT.”
+
+Presented by publishers of the “Star Almanac,” Montreal, 1896.
+
+This outline represents one of the smaller types of British warships,
+known as first-class cruisers. The _Crescent_ was launched at
+Portsmouth in 1892, and cost £383,068. She is 360 feet long and 60 feet
+beam. Her tonnage is 7,700 tons; her indicated horse-power 12,000, and
+her speed 19.7 knots an hour. Her armament consists of one 22-ton gun,
+twelve 6-inch quick-firing, twelve 6-pounder _do._, five 3-pounder
+_do._, seven machine guns and two light guns. The _Crescent_ was for
+several years the flagship of Vice-Admiral James Elphinstone Erskine,
+on the North American and West Indies Station, and is consequently well
+known in Canadian waters. She visited Quebec several times.]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[30] The _Duke of Wellington_ was 240.6 feet long, 60 feet beam, 3,826
+tons burthen, and 2,500 horse-power. She was engined by Robert Napier &
+Sons, Glasgow, with geared engines and wooden cogs, and made 10.2 knots
+an hour on her trial trip in 1853. The _Rattler_, of 1851, was 179½
+feet long, 32¾ feet beam, had geared engines of 436 horse-power, and
+attained a speed of 10 knots.
+
+[31] See also p. 90.
+
+[32] Based on a compilation by Captain W. H. Smith.
+
+[33] “Encyclopedia Brit.,” Vol. xvii., p. 581, 8th Ed.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE ST. LAWRENCE ROUTE.
+
+
+    The Allan, Dominion, Beaver, and other Canadian Lines
+        of Ocean Steamships—Sir Hugh Allan—A Fast Line
+        Service, etc., etc.
+
+Were it not that the St. Lawrence is hermetically sealed for five
+months of the year, it would undoubtedly be a more formidable rival
+to the Hudson than it now is. That great drawback, however, is not
+the only one. The navigation of the St. Lawrence has always been
+somewhat difficult and hazardous. The seven hundred and fifty miles
+of land-locked water from Quebec to Belle Isle is notorious for swift
+and uncertain tides and currents, for treacherous submerged reefs
+and rocks, and shoals in long stretches of the river, for blinding
+snow-storms and fields of floating ice in the lower reaches at
+certain seasons of the year, for icebergs which abound on the coasts
+of Labrador and Newfoundland, and for bewildering fogs. With such a
+combination of difficulties it is not to be wondered at that shipwrecks
+have been frequent; that they have not been more numerous must be
+mainly attributed to good seamanship and an intimate knowledge of
+the route. Nautical appliances and charts are very much better than
+they were thirty or forty years ago. The efficiency of the lighthouse
+system has been greatly increased, and, what is vastly important, the
+masters of mail steamers are no longer restricted to time, but on the
+contrary are instructed that whenever the risk of life or of the ship
+is involved, speed must be sacrificed to safety.
+
+The St. Lawrence route has some advantages over the other. It is nearly
+five hundred miles shorter from Quebec to Liverpool than from New York.
+Other things being equal, passengers by this route have the advantage
+of 750 miles of smooth water at the beginning or end of their voyage,
+as the case may be. For these and other reasons many prefer the St.
+Lawrence route. It has become popular even with a good many Americans,
+especially from the Western States, and will certainly become more so
+if the contemplated “fast service” is realized, by which the ocean
+voyage—from land to land—would be curtailed to three days and a half!
+
+In the discussions that have arisen on the subject, the danger of
+running fast steamers on this route has, in many instances, been unduly
+magnified. Past experience tends to show that the actual risk is not
+necessarily increased by fast steaming. Shipwrecks in the Gulf of St.
+Lawrence during later years have been confined to cargo and cattle
+steamers. Not one of the faster mail boats has been lost during the
+last sixteen years. The chief difficulty in the way of establishing
+a twenty-knot service for the St. Lawrence is that of the ways and
+means. Would it pay? Certainly not by private enterprise alone, but the
+favour with which the project is regarded by the Imperial and Dominion
+Governments leaves little doubt that it will be accomplished in the
+near future.
+
+[Illustration: CAPTAIN W. H. SMITH, R.N.R.]
+
+Captain W. H. Smith, formerly Commodore of the Allan Line, in command
+of the _Parisian_, and who, from long service on this route, is
+well qualified to express an opinion, states in his report to the
+Government that he sees no reason why there should not be a fast line
+of steamers to the St. Lawrence. “If,” he says, “the St. Lawrence
+route is selected for the proposed fast line, there should be no
+racing in competition with other large steamers, and the same amount of
+caution must be taken which has been exercised of late years by senior
+officers of the Allan and other lines trading to Canada; and it will be
+absolutely necessary for the safety of navigation that the commanders
+and officers of any new company should be selected from the most
+experienced officers of existing lines.”
+
+In 1853 a Liverpool firm, Messrs. McKean, McLarty and Lamont,
+contracted with the Canadian Government to run a line of screw
+steamers, to carry Her Majesty’s mails, twice a month to Quebec in
+summer, and once a month to Portland during the winter, for which
+the company was to receive £1,238 currency per trip, under certain
+conditions, one of which was that the ships should average not more
+than fourteen days on the outward, nor more than thirteen days on the
+voyage eastward. The ships of the first year were the _Genova_, 350
+tons; _Lady Eglinton_, 335 tons; and Sarah Sands, 931 tons. Their
+average passages were wide of the mark. Next year the _Cleopatra_,
+_Ottawa_ and _Charity_ were added to the line. The _Cleopatra_ made her
+first trip to Quebec in _forty-three days_; the _Ottawa_ never reached
+Quebec at all, but after dodging about some time among the ice at the
+mouth of the St. Lawrence, made for Portland. The _Charity_ reached
+Quebec in twenty-seven days. As a matter of course the contract was
+cancelled.
+
+
+THE ALLAN LINE.
+
+The failure of the Liverpool firm to fulfil their contract opened the
+way for Canadian enterprise, and the man who was destined to see it
+carried out to a successful issue was already awaiting his opportunity.
+That man was Hugh Allan (the late Sir Hugh), a man of intense energy
+and force of character. The Allans came honestly by their liking for
+the sea and ships. Their father, Alexander, was a ship-owner, and
+himself the well-known captain of the _Favourite_, one of the most
+popular vessels then sailing from the Clyde to the St. Lawrence. The
+five sons were born at Saltcoats, in sight of the sea. Two of them,
+James and Bryce, followed the sea for a number of years and reached
+the top of their profession. Alexander took up the shipping business
+established by his father in Glasgow, where he was afterwards joined by
+his eldest brother, James, under the firm name of James and Alexander
+Allan. Bryce, on retiring from the sea, became head of the shipping
+house in Liverpool. Hugh, the second son, became a partner in the
+well-known firm of Miller, Edmonstone & Co., afterwards changed to
+Edmonstone, Allan & Co., Montreal. His brother Andrew joined the firm
+some years later, when its name was changed to that of Hugh and Andrew
+Allan. The three firms, in Glasgow, Liverpool and Montreal, had become
+the owners and agents of a large fleet of sailing ships; but the time
+came when it was evident that mails and passengers must be carried to
+Canada, as elsewhere, by steam power.
+
+[Illustration: CAPTAIN McMASTER.]
+
+The opening of the St. Lawrence and Atlantic Railway between Montreal
+and Portland in 1852 was one of the most important events in the
+commercial history of Canada. It gave Montreal a winter port; for as
+yet neither Halifax nor St. John had any railway communication with
+the western provinces. Given a good winter port, there seemed to be
+no reason why a line of steamships should not be established to
+ply between Liverpool and Montreal in summer, with Portland for the
+winter terminus. The Allans, seeing that the time had come for a new
+departure, succeeded in forming a joint stock company, under the name
+of the Montreal Ocean Steamship Company. As its name implied, it was
+virtually a Canadian enterprise. The principal shareholders, besides
+the Allans, were Messrs. William Dow, John G. Mackenzie and Robert
+Anderson, of Montreal; George Burns Symes, of Quebec, and John Watkins,
+of Kingston. A few years later the Allans became sole owners of the
+concern, which then became known as the ALLAN LINE.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The first two steamers of the Montreal Ocean Steamship Company were the
+_Canadian_ and _Indian_, built by the famous Dennys, of Dumbarton. They
+were pretty little iron screw steamers, of about 270 feet in length,
+34 feet wide, and of 1,700 tons burthen each. The _Canadian_ made her
+first voyage to Quebec in September, 1854, but the Crimean war having
+commenced, steamers of this class were in demand, and these two were
+taken into the service and profitably employed as government transports
+as long as the war lasted. In 1874 the _Sarmatian_ and the _Manitoban_
+of this line were similarly employed to convey troops to the west coast
+of Africa, to take part in the Ashantee campaign. On both occasions
+they did excellent service.
+
+When the Canadian Government next advertised for tenders for carrying
+the mails, an agreement was made with the Allans by which they were
+to receive £25,000 a year for a fortnightly service in summer and a
+monthly one in winter. Two other boats, similar to the _Canadian_
+and _Indian_, were built by the Dennys—the _North American_ and
+_Anglo-Saxon_. The new service was commenced in April, 1856, by the
+SS. _North American_, which arrived in the port of Montreal on the
+9th of May. Two years later it was decided to establish a weekly
+service, the Government promising an increased subsidy of $208,000
+per annum. This implied double the number of ships; accordingly, four
+others were built, the _North Briton_, _Nova Scotian_, _Bohemian_ and
+_Hungarian_, all after the same model as the pioneer ships, but 300
+feet long and 2,200 tons register. Their speed was from 11 to 13 knots
+in smooth water, and even in heavy weather they seldom fell short of
+8 knots an hour. Their average passages westward from Liverpool to
+Quebec were 11 days, 5 hours; eastward, 10 days, 10 hours. The quickest
+passage eastward was made by the _Anglo-Saxon_, in 9 days, 5 hours,
+and westward, by the _Hungarian_, in 9 days, 14 hours. In the same
+year (1859) the Cunard Line to Boston averaged 12 days, 19 hours going
+west, and 10 days, 15 hours eastward. The average speed of the Canadian
+steamers during the entire season of the St. Lawrence navigation
+in that year was 9½ knots. At this time there were already twelve
+different lines of steamships plying across the Atlantic, affording
+almost daily communication between England and America by steam.
+
+In 1859 the company represented that, owing to the depression in trade,
+they were unable to continue the service, without further assistance.
+The Canadian Government stood by this Canadian enterprise, and doubled
+the subsidy in consideration of the increased service, which was
+admitted on all hands to be a complete success. The new ships were
+beautiful models and well adapted to the trade; but the company had
+to learn from bitter experience how hazardous that trade was. To say
+nothing of minor accidents, up to the year 1885 no less than fourteen
+of their steamers had come to grief. Since that time, singularly
+enough, none of this line has been lost, though many belonging to other
+lines have been wrecked.
+
+The _Canadian_, Captain Ballantine, on her first trip to Quebec, in
+June, 1857, through the negligence of her pilot, was stranded on
+South Rock, off the Pillar Lighthouse, forty-five miles below Quebec.
+No lives were lost, but the ship defied every effort to float her.
+The _Indian_, Captain Smith, bound for Portland, in December, 1859,
+struck a rock off Marie Joseph Harbour, seventy-five miles east of
+Halifax, and went to pieces. Every effort was made to save the lives
+of the 447 persons that sailed in her, but twenty-three perished.
+The _Hungarian_, Captain Jones, on the night of February 20th, 1860,
+during a blinding snow-storm, struck on the South-West Ledge near Cape
+Sable Island, 130 miles east of Halifax. Every soul on board, to the
+number of 237, perished with the ship. The cause of this sad disaster
+is not correctly known. The captain was one of the best seamen in
+the Allan Line, but it has been stated that the light upon Cape Sable
+was not exhibited that night, in consequence of the sickness of the
+lightkeeper, who is said to have confessed this on his death-bed.
+
+The second _Canadian_, Captain Graham, came in contact with a piece
+of submerged ice, outside the Straits of Belle Isle, in July, 1861.
+The ship was proceeding cautiously, but so hard and sharp was the ice,
+a rent was made in the ship’s side below the water-line, and it was
+soon seen that she was done for. This is how she went down, as told by
+Captain Graham: “The wind had increased to a gale. About 9.30 a. m. we
+came up to heavy field ice closely packed. We had been going half-speed
+till we saw the ice, when we stopped altogether, then turned her head
+to the west, steaming slowly through a narrow passage between heavy
+ice on the starboard side and what appeared to be a light patch of ice
+on the port side, which scratched along the bow for sixty feet. The
+concussion was very slight, and I had no apprehension of any damage;
+went below to see what was wrong, and found the water rushing along
+the main deck and up the hatchway. The boats were ordered out, and the
+ship headed for land full speed. She soon began to settle down forward,
+taking a list to starboard, when the engines were stopped and the boats
+lowered. Immediately after leaving her, the ship with a plunge dropped
+five or six feet by the head, and then directly afterwards her stern
+flew up in the air, and she went down head foremost.” The mail-master,
+nine of the crew and twenty-six passengers went down with the ship.
+
+The _North Briton_, Captain Grange, was wrecked in November, 1861, on
+one of the Mingan Islands, north of Anticosti (the usual track for
+steamers at that time). There was no loss of life. The _Anglo-Saxon_,
+Captain Burgess, in April, 1863, was stranded in Clam Cove, three
+miles from Cape Race, during a dense fog. A heavy sea rolling in drove
+her farther on the rocks, from which she eventually slid off and sank
+in deep water. The captain, some of the officers, and many of the
+passengers and crew were carried down into the vortex of the ship, and
+were drowned to the number of 238 souls.
+
+The _Norwegian_, Captain McMaster, in June, 1863, was totally wrecked
+on St. Paul’s Island, at the entrance of the Gulf. A dense fog was
+prevailing. The passengers and crew, numbering about 420, were all
+saved. The _Bohemian_, Captain Borland, struck on the Alden Ledges,
+off Cape Elizabeth, near Portland, in February, 1864, when twenty
+passengers were drowned. The _Dacian_ was wrecked near Halifax, April
+7th, 1872. In the same year the _Germany_ went ashore at the mouth of
+the Garonne River, near Bordeaux, France, and was totally wrecked, with
+the loss of thirty lives. The _St. George_, Captain Jones, was lost
+on the Blonde Rock, south of Seal Island, N.S. The _Jura_ stranded on
+Formby Bank, at the entrance to the Mersey, in 1864. The _Moravian_,
+Captain Archer, was wrecked on Mud Islands, near Yarmouth, N.S., in
+December, 1881. The _Hanoverian_, Captain Thompson, struck a rock at
+the entrance of Nepassey Bay, Newfoundland, and was totally lost, but
+all hands were saved.
+
+The _Pomeranian_, Captain Dalziel, a fine ship of 4,364 tons, in 1893
+survived one of the stormiest Atlantic voyages on record. She sailed
+from Greenock for New York, March 27th. After eight days battling
+with a furious gale, when about twelve hundred miles west of Ireland,
+she was well-nigh overwhelmed by a tremendous wave, which made a
+clean sweep of the deck. The bridge, the chart-house, the saloon, the
+steam-winch, the ventilators, everything between the foremast and
+the funnel, were hurled overboard, a mass of wreckage. The captain
+and a saloon passenger were so severely injured that both died in a
+few hours. The second and fourth officers, who were on the bridge,
+were swept into the sea and drowned, as were the rest of the cabin
+passengers, one intermediate, and four of the crew—twelve persons in
+all. Three of the lifeboats were carried away and two were smashed,
+leaving only one available for service. The whole of the nautical
+instruments, books and charts had gone overboard, the steering gear was
+badly wrecked, and the only compass left was that in the steering-house
+aft. The first officer, Mr. McCulloch, on whom the command now
+devolved, seeing the crippled condition of the ship, turned her head
+homewards, a thing not easily done in such a sea, and eventually
+returned to the Clyde in a gale of wind.
+
+[Illustration: “THE PARISIAN,” 1881.]
+
+It is doubtful if there is another shipping company in existence
+that would have withstood the strain put on the Allan line by such a
+succession of disasters; but so far as outsiders are aware the Allans
+never lost courage. They were bound to succeed in the long-run, and
+they did. When ships could not be built quickly enough to take the
+places of those that had been lost at sea, they bought of others ships
+ready-made, meanwhile resolving to reinforce their fleet with larger
+and in every way better boats than heretofore. The _Norwegian_ and
+_Hibernian_, of 2,400 tons each, were launched from Denny’s yard in
+1861. In 1863 Steeles of Greenock built for them the _Peruvian_ and the
+_Moravian_, both very fine ships. The _Nestorian_ and the _Austrian_,
+of 2,700 tons each, built by Barclay & Curle, Glasgow, are both good
+ships now after thirty years’ service. The _Sarmatian_ and _Polynesian_
+(now _Laurentian_), about 4,000 tons each, came out in 1871 and 1872,
+and proved excellent boats. The _Circassian_, 3,724 tons, was launched
+in 1873, and the _Sardinian_ in 1875. The _Parisian_, the finest of the
+fleet, was built by Robert Napier & Sons, Glasgow, in 1881, and took
+her place on the line the following year. She is built of steel, the
+bottom being constructed of an inner and outer skin five feet apart,
+the space thus enclosed being available for water ballast and also a
+protection from the perils of collision. The Allans were the first
+to apply this kind of build to Atlantic steamers, and were also the
+first to build such steamers of steel. The general dimensions of the
+_Parisian_ are: length over all, 440 feet; breadth, 46 feet; moulded
+depth, 36 feet; with a gross tonnage of 5,365 tons. Her machinery is
+capable of developing 6,000 indicated horse-power. Although she has
+neither twin screws nor triple expansion engines, she has done her work
+remarkably well, maintaining an average speed of about fourteen knots.
+Her fastest voyage from Moville to Rimouski was made in 1896, viz., 6
+days, 13 hours, 10 minutes, corrected time. Her best day’s run on that
+voyage was 359 knots. Her career has been a remarkable one: in these
+seventeen years she has not met with an accident, and is consequently
+a very popular ship. She is fitted for 160 saloon passengers in the
+most complete and comfortable manner, and there seems to be always room
+for one more. On a recent occasion the _Parisian_ brought over 255
+cabin passengers. She can easily accommodate 120 second-class and 1,000
+steerage passengers. She carries a large cargo and is a very fine sea
+boat.
+
+The fleet of the Allan Line consists at present of thirty-four
+steamers, aggregating 134,937 tons. In addition to the weekly line
+between Liverpool and Montreal, regular weekly services are maintained
+from Montreal, and also from New York, to Glasgow; the London,
+Quebec and Montreal service is fortnightly in summer; there is also
+a direct service between Glasgow and Boston fortnightly, and regular
+communication between Liverpool, Glasgow and Philadelphia, as well as
+with River Plate and other ports.
+
+Some of the freight and cattle-ships of the Allan Line are large
+and fine vessels, such as the _Buenos Ayrean_, 4,005 tons, built at
+Dumbarton in 1879—one of the first ships ever constructed of steel.
+The _Carthaginian_ and _Siberian_ are both 4,000-ton ships, specially
+adapted for the cattle trade. The _Mongolian_ and _Numidian_, of 4,750
+tons each, are model ships in the class to which they belong. A few
+years ago the Allans acquired the State Line, plying between Glasgow
+and New York. Two of these, the _State of California_ (5,500 tons) and
+the _State of Nebraska_ (4,000 tons), are excellent ships with good
+accommodation for large numbers of passengers. The two oldest ships of
+the line in commission are the _Waldensian_ (formerly _St. Andrew_),
+built in 1861, and the _Phœnician_ (formerly the _St. David_), built in
+1864, both of which are still doing service in the South American trade.
+
+The last of the sailing ships owned by the Allans was wrecked in a
+dense fog near Astoria, at the mouth of the Columbia River, Washington,
+U. S., on the 19th of March, 1896. The _Glenmorag_ was a fine iron
+clipper ship of 1,756 tons register, built at Glasgow in 1876, and up
+to the time of her final disaster had been exceptionally fortunate and
+successful. Captain Currie, who commanded her, was widely known and has
+a first-rate reputation as a sailor, but in an evil hour of a dark,
+dirty night, when making for Portland, Oregon, he was startled by the
+sudden cry from the man on the lookout, “Breakers on the port bow,”
+and while in the act of wearing the ship around she went broadside on
+the rocks. Two of the crew were killed and four injured severely while
+attempting to get ashore.
+
+It has been announced that the Allans have at present under
+construction on the Clyde four magnificent steel steamships for the
+Canadian freight and passenger trade. Three of these are vessels of
+10,000 tons, and the fourth of 8,800 tons. All of them are to be fitted
+with triple expansion engines and twin screws. The three larger ones
+are each over 500 feet in length, with 60 feet breadth of beam, and
+are designed to develop an average speed of sixteen knots, which means
+that they are expected to make the voyage from Liverpool to Montreal
+in about 7¼ days mean time—actually a quicker service for Canada than
+obtains at present with 20-knot steamers _via_ New York. With ample
+accommodation for a large number of passengers, these ships will
+have room for 8,000 to 9,000 tons of freight and the most approved
+appliances for the rapid handling of cargo.
+
+Sir Hugh Allan of Ravenscrag, to whom Canada is chiefly indebted for
+the magnificent Allan Line of steamships, was born at Saltcoats,
+Ayrshire, Scotland, September 29th, 1810. He came to Canada in 1826
+and entered into business as already stated. His whole life was one of
+incessant activity. He was founder of the Merchants’ Bank of Canada and
+its president, and the President of the Montreal Telegraph Co., and
+many other important commercial institutions. Sir Hugh was knighted by
+Her Majesty the Queen, in person, in July, 1871, in recognition of his
+valuable services to the commerce of Canada and the Empire. He died
+in Edinburgh, suddenly, December 9th, 1882, and was buried in Mount
+Royal cemetery, Montreal. Sir Hugh was a man, very emphatically, _sui
+generis_. Quick to arrive at his conclusions, he was slow to abandon
+them; where he planted his foot there he meant it to stay. A keen and
+enterprising man of business, he accumulated a princely fortune. To
+those who knew him only on the street or in the Board-room he might,
+perhaps, seem curt and brusque. His conscious power of influencing
+others made him almost necessarily dogmatic and dictatorial, but in
+private life he was one of the most amiable, kind-hearted and genial
+of men. He was a staunch Presbyterian, a liberal supporter of the Auld
+Kirk of Scotland in Canada, and in his younger days devoted much time
+in promoting its interests.
+
+[Illustration: _Sir Hugh Allan_.]
+
+The brothers Bryce and James died several years before Sir Hugh.
+Alexander died in Glasgow in 1892. Mr. Andrew Allan, now the senior
+partner of the Montreal firm, was the youngest of the five brothers,
+and is the only survivor of them. Mr. Allan was born at Saltcoats,
+December 1st, 1822, and came out to Canada in 1839. He married a
+daughter of the late John Smith, of Montreal (a sister of Lady Hugh
+Allan). Mrs. Allan died in 1881, leaving a large family. Two of the
+sons, Messrs. Hugh H. and Andrew H., are associated with their father
+and with Messrs. Hugh Montagu and Bryce J. Allan, sons of the late Sir
+Hugh, in managing the extensive business of the Canadian branch of
+the Allan Line. Mr. Allan has filled many of the posts of honour and
+responsibility formerly occupied by Sir Hugh, and earned for himself
+the golden opinions of his fellow citizens.
+
+The first four captains of the Allan Line were Andrew McMaster, of the
+_Anglo-Saxon_, Thomas Jones, of the _Indian_, William Ballantine, of
+the _Canadian_, and William Grange, of the _North American_. Captain
+McMaster was born at Stranraer, Wigtonshire, in 1808. After serving
+a five years’ apprenticeship on board the East Indiaman, _Duke of
+Lancaster_, at the modest rate of £2 for the first year, and £20
+for the full term of his indentures, he got command of the brig
+_Sir Watkin_, sailing from Islay with 240 of the clan Campbell as
+passengers. One-half of these were landed at Sydney, Cape Breton, and
+the other half at Quebec. The hardships of the emigrants in those days
+were excessive, as they had to provide their own food and bedding, and
+were allotted places on the stone ballast to do the best they could
+for themselves. In 1845 Captain McMaster was placed in command of the
+clipper barque, _Rory O’More_, for which Edmonstone & Allan were the
+agents. Leaving Montreal in the summer of 1846, owing to the lowness
+of water the yards and topmasts were sent down and floated alongside,
+while cables, chains and other rigging were put into lighters to enable
+the vessel to traverse Lake St. Peter, drawing nine feet of water! His
+next command was the ship _Montreal_ of 464 tons, at that time the
+largest of the Montreal traders. In 1856 he was placed in command of
+the first SS. _Canadian_, and successively of each new ship as she was
+launched. In 1864 he retired from the sea, and entered the shipwright
+business in Liverpool. He died in the Isle of Man in 1884.
+
+[Illustration: CAPTAIN JOHN GRAHAM.]
+
+Of the subsequent captains of this line I can only mention the names of
+those with whom I remember having sailed and made their acquaintance.
+None of them left a more lasting impression on my memory than John
+Graham, the genial captain of the second _Canadian_, and of the
+_Sarmatian_ when he retired from the service and the sea in 1885. It
+was he who so often and so strenuously discussed the desirability of
+throwing a dam across the Straits of Belle Isle that he actually came
+to believe in it himself as a possibility in the near future, by which
+in his estimation the climate of Canada was to be assimilated to that
+of the south of France. That was his fad. But take him all in all, he
+was as fine a man as one could desire to meet. He was a grand sailor.
+When his examination before the Nautical Board was concluded _in re_
+the loss of the _Canadian_, his certificate was handed back to him with
+the remark, “Sir, you did your duty like a noble British seaman.” The
+dangers incident to a seafaring life never disturbed his equanimity,
+for he had long been ready to “go aloft” at a moment’s notice.
+
+[Illustration: CAPTAIN JAMES WYLIE.]
+
+James and Hugh Wylie were both quiet, unassuming men who understood
+their business thoroughly. The former rose to be the commodore of the
+fleet. On retiring from the command of the _Parisian_, the citizens of
+Montreal honoured him with a banquet and an address, congratulating
+him on his remarkably successful career. Hugh retired from the command
+of the _Polynesian_ shortly after a serious accident that befell his
+ship on the river, through the carelessness of his pilot. James was
+noted for his caution, of which a somewhat humorous illustration was
+given one dark night when the _Parisian_ was speeding down the Gulf
+of St. Lawrence. Some of us were still pacing the deck, though it was
+near midnight, when suddenly the engine stopped. To the uninitiated
+there is nothing more alarming than that; but at this hour most of the
+passengers were fast asleep. There followed a few minutes of profound
+silence. The sea, until now as black as ink, had all at once become
+white and glistering. Had we run into a field of ice? To the captain,
+who was at his post on the bridge, and to the double lookout on the
+forecastle it must have had that appearance; but it proved to be only
+schools of herring or mackerel disporting themselves on the surface of
+the water, causing a brilliant phosphorescent illumination of the sea.
+It spread over a large surface and had all the appearance of field ice,
+precisely where such danger is to be apprehended. The ship sailed on:
+but none of us dared to ask then, nor next morning, why she had stopped.
+
+Frederick Archer, Lieut. R.N.R., successively in command of the _St.
+Andrew_, the _Manitoban_, and the _Moravian_, was made of sterner stuff
+than the average sea-captain. It required more than one voyage to
+become acquainted with him, but once in his good graces the passenger
+was all right. He was the strictest disciplinarian of the whole staff.
+Regularly as on a man-of-war, his sailors marched into the saloon
+on Sunday mornings in their best rigs to attend divine service. In
+the absence of a clergyman none could use the Book of Prayer more
+effectively than Capt. Archer. He died at sea in the prime of life.
+
+William H. Smith, Lieut. R.N.R., son of late Commander John S. Smith,
+R.N.—one of the last surviving officers of the battle of Trafalgar—was
+born at Prospect House, Broadstairs, Kent, England, in 1838. He served
+as midshipman on board the _Calcutta_ in the Australian trade: entered
+the Allan service during the progress of the Crimean war, and was
+present at several of the engagements between the Russians and the
+allied forces: went to Odessa with the allied fleets, and was serving
+on board the _Indian_ when she received sealed orders to proceed to
+Kinburn and lay buoys for the ironclads which bombarded and destroyed
+the forts. Captain Smith’s first command in the Allan service was the
+steamer _St. George_; subsequently he was master of the _Hibernian_,
+_Circassian_, _Peruvian_, _Sardinian_ and the _Parisian_. He succeeded
+Captain James Wylie as Commodore of the fleet, and held that position
+for several years, until he resigned to accept the office of Chairman
+of the Board of Examiners of Masters and Mates, Commissioner for
+enquiring into wrecks, and one of the nautical advisers of the
+Government. This office he still holds with headquarters in Halifax, N.
+S. Capt. Smith was always very popular with the travelling community.
+On leaving the service he was presented with a valuable set of plate.
+
+[Illustration: CAPTAIN ALEX. AIRD.]
+
+Alexander Aird, previous to joining the Allan Line, had been in command
+of the _John Bell_ and _United Kingdom_ of the Anchor Line. His first
+command in the Allan Line was the _St. George_ in 1864. Subsequently,
+he was captain of the _St. David_, _Nova Scotian_, _Nestorian_,
+_Scandinavian_, and, finally, of the _Sarmatian_. Of the last-named
+ship he was very proud, and it was a feather in his cap that he brought
+out the Marquis of Lorne and Princess Louise in 1878, receiving from
+them a handsome recognition of his efforts to secure their comfort.
+Owing to impaired health he retired from the sea some years previous to
+his death, which took place in 1892.
+
+[Illustration: CAPTAIN RITCHIE.]
+
+Robert Brown, of the _Polynesian_, “the rolling Polly,” as she used to
+be called, was the _beau ideal_ of a fine old English gentleman, than
+whom none could more gracefully discharge the honours of the table. He
+had many encounters with field ice off the coast of Newfoundland, but
+by dint of his caution, skill and patience, he invariably came out
+scatheless, though not unfrequently locked up in the ice for weeks at a
+time.
+
+William Richardson, of the _Nova Scotian_ and the _Sardinian_, who died
+not long ago, was an easy-going, kindly-disposed man, and a general
+favourite. Neil Maclean, of the third _Canadian_, was a man of fine
+presence and good address. Captain Joseph Ritchie who retired from the
+command of the _Parisian_ in 1895, though not to be called an old man,
+had spent forty-four years at sea. He was captain of the _Peruvian_
+in 1882, when the twenty-five-foot channel through Lake St. Peter was
+inaugurated; and again in 1888, in the _Sardinian_, he was the first
+to test the increased depth to twenty-seven and a half feet. Ritchie’s
+whole career was a most successful one. On retiring from the service he
+was presented with a very handsomely engrossed address and a valuable
+service of silver plate by his Montreal friends.
+
+[Illustration: CAPTAIN JOSEPH E. DUTTON.]
+
+Joseph E. Dutton, best known as the captain of the _Sardinian_, was a
+remarkable man, and frequent voyages with him led me to know him better
+than some of the others. “Holy Joe,” as he was familiarly called, was
+an excellent sailor, but had to contend with a good many difficulties.
+At one time his ship lost her rudder in mid-ocean; at another time she
+lost her screw. Once she caught fire in Loch Foyle from an explosion
+of coal gas, and had to be scuttled. Dutton was a clever, well-read
+man, and a born preacher. When he had on board some eighteen clergymen
+going to the meeting of the Presbyterian Council at Belfast, he came
+into the saloon on a Saturday evening, and coolly announced that if
+they had no objections he would conduct the Sunday service himself. And
+preach he did. He had the whole Bible at his finger-ends. I recall at
+least one voyage when he personally conducted three religious services
+daily—one at 10 o’clock a. m., for the steerage passengers; one at 4
+p. m., in the chart-room, and one at 7 p. m., in the forecastle, for
+his sailors. As to creed, he had drifted away from his early moorings,
+and admittedly had difficulty in finding secure anchorage. He had, so
+to speak, boxed the ecclesiastical compass. He had been a Methodist,
+a Baptist, a Plymouth Brother, but with none of them did he long
+remain in fellowship. Finally, he pinned his faith to the tenets of
+“conditional immortality,” arguing with great ingenuity and earnestness
+that eternal life is the exclusive portion of the righteous, and
+annihilation that of the wicked. One of Captain Dutton’s last public
+appearances in Montreal was on a Sabbath evening, in the Olivet Baptist
+church, when he baptized seven of his sailors by immersion in the
+presence of a crowded assemblage. He was a square-built, powerful
+Christian. The way he collared these men and submerged them was a
+caution. He gave each of them in turn such a drenching as they will
+remember for a long time, and all with the greatest reverence; nor did
+he let them go until he received from each a solemn assurance that he
+would be a faithful follower of Christ to his life’s end. Not long
+after this, Captain Dutton had an attack of Bright’s disease, which
+brought him to an early grave. He was buried in Mount Royal cemetery,
+where the monument, “erected by a few of his friends,” bears the
+inscription:
+
+      “Commodore Allan Line. Lieut. R. N. Reserve. In memory
+    of Captain Joseph E. Dutton, late of the R. M. SS.
+    _Sardinian_. Born at Harrington, England, February 8th,
+    1828. Died at Montreal, July 6th, 1884, aged 56 years.
+
+      “‘Now are we the sons of God, and it doth not yet
+    appear what we shall be; but we know that when he shall
+    appear we shall be like him.’—1 John iii. 2.”
+
+There was a time when profane swearing used to be indulged in freely by
+sea-captains and their subordinates. Happily the custom is going out of
+fashion, though now and then a representative from the old school may
+still be found. Captain Dutton was never addicted to swearing, though
+his temper was tried often enough. On arriving at Rimouski in 1879,
+after making the fastest voyage to the St. Lawrence then on record,
+the _Sardinian_ had to lie at anchor for two mortal hours before he
+could get his mails landed. One hour it took the tender to get up
+steam, and another hour to get alongside the ship, owing to a strong
+easterly breeze, which brought up a lop of a sea. All this lost time
+Dutton rapidly paced the bridge to and fro with evident impatience. At
+length, when the tender was made fast, he came down and mingled with
+the crowd on deck, on the keen lookout for letters and newspapers,
+when one said to him, jokingly, “Why did you not swear at the captain
+of that tender?” “Oh,” said he, with a pleasant smile, “he is only a
+farmer.” The provocation had been great, but the controlling principle
+was greater and highly creditable to Dutton.
+
+_Apropos_ to the subject of swearing was the story told by a
+fellow-passenger—a deacon in the late Prof. Swing’s congregation in
+Chicago. Dr. Swing had withdrawn from the Presbyterian Church, but
+continued to preach in a public hall or theatre, drawing immense
+crowds to hear him. Swing was a sensational preacher, who could extort
+tears or smiles from his hearers at will, and not unfrequently his
+random shots hit the mark. On one occasion, the deacon informed us,
+he overheard the remark made by one of Chicago’s fastest young men to
+a comrade as they were leaving the place of worship after listening
+to a scathing discourse on the besetting sins of young men, swearing
+included: “Say, Jim, I’ll be d——d if that is not the kind of preaching
+that suits me.” This is a hard story, scarcely credible, but it
+was told in sober earnest and in a tone that indicated that in the
+speaker’s judgment an arrow had pierced the young man’s heart, and
+that the shocking expression just quoted was, after all, neither more
+nor less than his peculiar way of emphasizing the fact that he was
+_stricken_.
+
+
+THE DOMINION LINE.
+
+This line began in 1870 when a number of merchants, engaged in the New
+Orleans and Liverpool trade, formed what they styled the “Mississippi
+and Dominion Steamship Company, Limited,” under the management of
+Messrs. Flinn, Main and Montgomery, of Liverpool, the agents in
+Montreal being Messrs. D. Torrance & Co., of which Mr. John Torrance
+has been for a number of years the senior partner. Their boats were to
+run to New Orleans in the winter and to Montreal in summer. Their first
+ships were the _St. Louis_, _Vicksburg_ and _Memphis_. In 1871 they
+added the _Mississippi_ and _Texas_ of 2,822 tons. The Orleans route
+was soon abandoned and the Dominion Line, then so called, confined
+its trade to Canada, having Portland for its terminal winter port.
+Gradually increasing the size and speed of their steamers they entered
+into a lively competition for a share of the passenger traffic, and
+soon became formidable rivals of the Allan Line, and for a number of
+years shared with them in the Government allowance for carrying the
+Royal mails.
+
+In 1874 they had built for them at Dumbarton the _Dominion_ and
+_Ontario_, each 3,000 tons; in 1879 the _Montreal_, _Toronto_ and
+_Ottawa_, of still larger dimensions, were added. They next bought
+the _City of Dublin_ and _City of Brooklyn_ from the Inman Line, and
+renamed them the _Quebec_ and _Brooklyn_. In 1882 and 1883 they built
+the _Sarnia_ and the _Oregon_, fine boats of about 3,700 tons each,
+with increased power and midship saloons. In 1884 Messrs. Connal & Co.,
+Glasgow, built for them the _Vancouver_, a very fine ship of 5,149
+tons, having a speed of fourteen knots and excellent accommodation
+for passengers. Although she has had several minor accidents she has
+been, on the whole, a successful and popular ship. The most serious
+misfortune that befell her was in November, 1890, on her voyage to
+Quebec, when she encountered a furious hurricane in mid-ocean. Captain
+Lindall, who had been constantly on the bridge for a long time, went
+to his chart-room to snatch a few minutes rest, leaving the first
+officer on the bridge. All of a sudden the ship was thrown on her
+beam ends by a tremendous wave which completely wrecked the bridge
+and swept the chart-room, with the captain in it, into the sea. The
+quarter-master at the wheel was also washed overboard, and both he and
+Captain Lindall were drowned. The first officer, Mr. Walsh, who had a
+miraculous escape, took charge of the battered ship and brought her to
+Quebec, where deep regret was expressed for the sad death of Lindall,
+who was a general favourite and as good a sailor as ever stood on the
+bridge.
+
+[Illustration: CAPTAIN LINDALL.]
+
+The _Labrador_, 4,737 tons, launched from the famous shipyard of
+Harland & Wolff, Belfast, in 1891, has also been a successful and
+popular ship. She combines in her construction a number of the latest
+improvements, and has attained a high rate of speed, with large cargo
+capacity and a moderate consumption of fuel. Until the arrival of the
+_Canada_, in October, 1896, the _Labrador_ held the record for the
+fastest voyage from Moville to Rimouski—6 days, 8 hours. In August,
+1895, she made the voyage from land to land in 4 days, 16 hours. In
+May, 1894, she averaged 365 knots a day, equal to fifteen knots an
+hour, her best day’s run being 375 knots, which was regarded as great
+work considering the small amount of fuel consumed. In December of that
+year she made the run from Moville to Halifax in 6 days, 12 hours.
+
+Up to this point, however, the business ability and enterprise of the
+Dominion Company had not been rewarded with financial success. For
+years they had to contend with the general depression of trade, the
+keen competition of other lines, and ruinous rates of freight. In the
+autumn of 1894 the managers resigned, and the entire fleet of vessels
+was sold to Messrs. Richards, Mills & Co., of Liverpool, at a great
+sacrifice. The Montreal agency remains as heretofore with Messrs. D.
+Torrance & Co., and under the new management the line seems to have
+entered upon a career of prosperity.
+
+The casualties on the St. Lawrence route to steamers of this line
+have been numerous, but with a comparatively small loss of life. The
+foundering of the _Vicksburg_, from collision with ice, in 1875, was
+the most disastrous, involving the loss of forty-seven lives of
+passengers and crew—including the captain—and a large number of cattle.
+The _Ottawa_ went ashore about fifty miles below Quebec in 1889 and
+became a total wreck. The _Idaho_ was wrecked on Anticosti in 1890;
+the _Montreal_, on the island of Belle Isle in 1889. The _Texas_ went
+ashore on Cape Race in a fog and became a total wreck. In September,
+1895, the _Mariposa_, a beautiful twin-screw chartered steamer of 5,000
+tons, was stranded at Point Amour in the Straits of Belle Isle and
+became a total wreck, but the passengers and crew were all saved.
+
+[Illustration: DOMINION LINE SS. “CANADA.”]
+
+It very soon became apparent that the new management of the Dominion
+Line was bent on a new departure. They lost no time in discarding
+the smaller boats and replacing them with large and powerful freight
+steamers having also limited accommodation for passengers. Of this
+type were the _Angloman_[34] and the _Scotsman_. The latter is a fine
+twin-screw ship of colossal strength, 6,040 tons register, with a
+carrying capacity of from 9,000 to 10,000 tons of cargo, and an average
+speed at sea of twelve to thirteen knots. In September, 1895, in
+addition to a large general cargo, the _Scotsman_ left Montreal with
+the largest shipment of live stock that ever left this port, consisting
+of 1,050 head of cattle, 2,000 sheep, and 47 horses, all of which were
+landed safely in Liverpool. But the latest addition to the fleet is
+in advance of the _Scotsman_. The _Canada_, which sailed on her first
+voyage from Liverpool on October 1st, 1896, is a type of ocean steamer
+new to the St. Lawrence, and is designed to meet present requirements
+by combining in one vessel the essential features of a first-class
+passenger ship with so large a freight-carrying capacity as to make her
+practically independent of subsidies. The _Canada_ is a twin-screw
+steamer 515 feet long, 58 feet beam, and 35 feet 6 inches moulded
+depth. Her gross tonnage is about 9,000 tons. Her triple expansion
+engines are calculated to develop 7,000 horse-power with a steam boiler
+pressure of 175 pounds. Her staterooms are perhaps the finest feature
+of the ship—equal to any on the ocean ferry. Her maiden voyage was a
+stormy one, but it easily surpassed all previous records from Liverpool
+to Quebec. On her second trip she left Liverpool at 5 p. m. on October
+29th, and reached Rimouski on November 4th, at 11.40 p. m., thus making
+the voyage in 6 days, 11 hours and 40 minutes, and to Quebec in 6 days,
+23 hours, 30 minutes. Her average speed on this voyage was about 16
+knots an hour, and her best day’s run, 416 knots, equal to 17⅓ knots an
+hour.
+
+[Illustration: CAPTAIN MACAULAY, OF SS. “CANADA.”]
+
+At a luncheon given on board the _Canada_ to leading members of the
+Dominion Government, Mr. Torrance said that the Dominion Line had
+been sold out to a company composed of men of tremendous energy and
+enterprise, with any amount of money at their backs, and, after looking
+at the matter in all its bearings, they decided that the time had come
+for a forward movement. They determined to build the largest steamer
+they could for the St. Lawrence trade. The _Canada_ was contracted for
+by Messrs. Harland and Wolff, Belfast, as a sixteen-knot ship, and
+on her trial trip made seventeen and a half knots. He believed that
+she would average sixteen knots at sea, that she would reach Rimouski
+in six and a half days from Liverpool, and deliver her mails at the
+Montreal post-office within seven days. If that expectation comes to
+be realized, as it is most likely to be, the arguments in favour of
+a fast mail service between Canada and Britain will be materially
+strengthened. Mr. Torrance added that the _Canada_ was built to carry
+7,000 tons of cargo, that if she had a speed of seventeen knots she
+would only carry 4,000 tons of cargo; if eighteen knots, she would
+carry but 3,000 tons, and that with a speed of twenty knots it would
+not be safe to calculate on her capacity for more than 1,000 tons of
+freight: “in short, that the twenty-knot ship must be, virtually, a
+passenger ship, and well subsidized.” The Canadian Government has not
+been slow to back up private enterprise of this nature in the past,
+and will doubtless continue to do so in the future. For reasons not
+made public the _Canada_ was withdrawn from the St. Lawrence service
+and placed on the route from Boston and Liverpool, where she has been
+so successful that another vessel of the same class is being built for
+that route. In the meantime other large vessels have been put on the
+St. Lawrence route, the latest addition to the fleet being the _New
+England_, having a tonnage of nearly 11,600 tons, fine accommodation
+for a large number of passengers, and room for an enormous cargo.
+
+
+THE BEAVER LINE.
+
+This is an out-and-out Canadian enterprise, dating from 1867, under
+the name of the “Canada Shipping Company, Limited,” when several
+Montreal capitalists, among whom were the late William Murray and
+Alexander Buntin, Messrs. Alexander Urquhart, John and Hugh Maclennan
+and others, combined to originate a line of iron fast-sailing ships
+to trade between Montreal and Liverpool. Having adopted for its
+distinguishing flag the emblem of the Canadian beaver, the company soon
+came to be popularly known as the Beaver Line, a line which, though
+not remunerative to its originators and stockholders, is worthy of
+honourable mention as having contributed in many ways to the interests
+of Canadian trade and commerce. The company commenced with a very fine
+fleet of five Clyde-built iron ships of from 900 to 1,274 tons each.
+These were the _Lake Ontario_, the _Lake Erie_, the _Lake Michigan_,
+the _Lake Huron_ and the _Lake Superior_. The ships were in themselves
+all that could be desired. They were beautiful to look at, and made
+swift voyages, but there was a necessary element of success wanting.
+They did not pay. In fact, they began their short-lived career at the
+time when the days of sailing ships were rapidly drawing to a close.
+The important question of steam _versus_ sails had been settled.
+The Canada Shipping Company must therefore retire from the business
+altogether or avail themselves of the advantages of steam power. They
+decided upon making the experiment, and gave orders for the building
+of steam vessels to supersede the sailing ships. In the meantime the
+_Lake Michigan_ was lost at sea with all on board, adding another to
+those mysterious disappearances, of which there have been so many
+instances—gallant ships and noble sailors setting out on their voyage
+buoyant with hope, reporting themselves at the last signal station as
+“all well,” but never to be heard of any more.
+
+[Illustration: ROYAL MAIL SS. “LAKE ONTARIO,” BEAVER LINE.]
+
+[Illustration: CAPTAIN HOWARD CAMPBELL.]
+
+The _Lake Huron_ was wrecked on Anticosti. The year 1875 saw the first
+steamers of the Beaver Line afloat. They were the _Lake Champlain_,
+_Lake Megantic_ and _Lake Nepigon_, snug little ships of about 2,200
+tons each, such as would pass nowadays for cruising steam yachts, but
+much too small for cargo ships on the Atlantic, to say nothing of the
+passenger business. The _Lake Manitoba_ and _Lake Winnipeg_, of larger
+size and higher speed, were added in 1879, followed by the _Lake Huron_
+and the _Lake Superior_. The last-named is a fine ship of 4,562 tons,
+and credited with thirteen knots an hour. It was not long before three
+of the steamers came to grief. The _Lake Megantic_ was wrecked on
+Anticosti in July, 1878; the _Lake Manitoba_, on St. Pierre Island, in
+the Gulf of St. Lawrence, in June, 1885; the _Lake Champlain_, stranded
+on the north coast of Ireland in June, 1886. To keep up the weekly
+line, the _Lake Ontario_, built at Sunderland in 1887, was purchased
+at a cost of nearly $300,000. She is a vessel of about 4,500 tons,
+with midship saloon, triple expansion engines, and a maximum speed of
+thirteen knots. She is an excellent sea boat, with good accommodation
+for one hundred cabin passengers. The ships of this line all carry
+live cattle, sheep and horses, for which they are well adapted. The
+Beaver Line led the way towards the reduction of transatlantic cabin
+passage rates on the St. Lawrence route. It also introduced the custom
+of embarking and landing passengers at Montreal instead of Quebec as
+formerly. Unfortunately the line had not been a success financially. In
+the winter of 1895 the boats were all tied up, the company went into
+liquidation, and the entire fleet was sold at a nominal price to the
+bondholders. During the following winter, however, the ships of this
+line maintained a weekly service from Liverpool to St. John, N. B.,
+receiving from the Canadian Government a subsidy of $25,000, and in
+1897 the Beaver Line was awarded the contract for carrying the Canadian
+mails, to be landed at Halifax in the winter months. The annual subsidy
+for this service is understood to be $146,000. This arrangement,
+however, is necessarily of a temporary nature, pending the development
+of the long-expected “fast service.” In the meantime the Beaver Line
+has added to its fleet the fine SS. _Gallia_, of the Cunard Line, and
+the _Tongariro_, of 4,163 tons, formerly belonging to the New Zealand
+Shipping Company. The service has thus far been satisfactory.
+
+Captain Howard Campbell, of the SS. _Lake Ontario_, died very suddenly
+on Sunday morning, April 3rd, 1898. The second day out from Halifax
+towards Liverpool, he went on the bridge, sextant in hand, intending
+to take an observation. While in the act of doing so he fell into the
+arms of a quarter-master and died instantly. Captain Campbell had been
+long connected with the Beaver Line. He was widely known as a skilful
+mariner and a genial and accomplished man. He was born at St. Andrews,
+N. B., and was fifty-four years of age.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+There are a number of other lines of steamships plying regularly
+from Montreal in summer and from different Atlantic ports in winter.
+They are chiefly cargo and cattle ships, with limited accommodation
+for passengers. Among these are the Donaldson Line, with five ships
+of from 2,000 to 4,272 tons, giving a weekly service to Glasgow and
+Bristol; the Thomson Line, with seven ships to London, Newcastle and
+Antwerp. The Johnston Line has regular sailings to Liverpool. The
+Ulster Steamship Company, or “Head Line,” has five ships running to
+Belfast and Dublin fortnightly. The Elder, Dempster Line has a fleet of
+sixteen large freight steamers, ranging from 4,500 to 12,000 tons each.
+Some of them are fitted with cold storage, and all of them have the
+modern improvements for carrying live stock and grain; they maintain
+a regular weekly service to London and to Bristol.[35] The Hansa St.
+Lawrence Line plies to Hamburg and Antwerp; the Furness Line to Antwerp
+and Dunkirk, and also to Manchester.[36] The Quebec Steamship Company
+has regular communication with Pictou, N. S., by the fine upper saloon
+steamship _Campana_, of 1,700 tons. The Black Diamond Line has five
+ships of from 1,500 to 2,500 tons each, plying regularly in the coal
+trade from Montreal to Sydney, Cape Breton, Charlottetown, P. E. I.,
+and Newfoundland.
+
+The export trade in live stock, which commenced here in 1874 with only
+455 head of cattle, has now assumed large proportions. In 1897 there
+were shipped from Montreal 119,188 head of cattle, 12,179 horses and
+66,319 sheep, valued in all at about $8,700,750. The cattle were valued
+at $60 a head, the horses at $100, and the sheep at $5.00 each. The
+ocean freight on cattle was $10 per head, and on sheep $1.00 each.[37]
+
+
+CANADIAN FAST ATLANTIC SERVICE.
+
+Ever since the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway in 1885, the
+idea of instituting a fast service between Great Britain and the St.
+Lawrence has been regarded with yearly increasing favour. Now it is
+regarded as a necessary link in the chain that binds the colony to the
+Mother Land, and indispensable if this route is to become Britain’s
+highway to the East.
+
+As early as 1887 the Canadian Government advertised for tenders for a
+line of Atlantic mail steamers to have an average speed of 20 knots an
+hour, coupled with the condition that they should touch at some French
+port. The Allans, who at that time deemed a 20-knot service unsuited
+to the St. Lawrence route, offered to supply a weekly service with a
+guaranteed average speed of 17 knots, for an annual subsidy of $500,000
+on a ten years’ contract. That offer was declined. About the same time
+the English firm of Anderson, Anderson & Co. offered to provide a line
+of vessels “capable of running 20 knots” for the same subsidy. This
+dubious offer was accepted provisionally by the Canadian Government,
+but it was eventually fallen from. Two years later another abortive
+attempt was made, when the Government of the day voted $750,000 as
+an annual subsidy for a 20-knot service; but nothing resulted. In
+1894 Mr. James Huddart, of Sydney, N. S. W. (the contractor for the
+Vancouver-Australian Line of steamers), entered into an agreement
+with the Dominion Government for a weekly 20-knot service for said
+amount of $750,000 per annum. For reasons that need not be explained,
+this proposal also fell through. In 1896 the Allans were said to have
+tendered for a 20-knot service on the basis of a subsidy of $1,125,000,
+but the offer was declined owing to some informalities.
+
+In view of so many failures it is scarcely safe to affirm that the
+fast service is now assured. In May, 1897, however, it was officially
+announced by the Canadian Government that a contract had been entered
+into, with the approval of the British Government, whereby Messrs.
+Peterson, Tate & Co., of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, agreed to furnish a
+weekly service with a guaranteed speed of at least 500 knots a day. The
+contractors are to provide four steamers of not less than 520 feet in
+length, with a draft of water not exceeding 25 feet 6 inches. The ships
+are to be not less than 10,000 tons register, fitted to carry from
+1,500 to 2,000 tons of cargo, with suitable cold storage accommodation
+for at least 500 tons. They are to be equal in all respects to the best
+Atlantic steamships afloat, such as the _Campania_ and _Lucania_, with
+accommodation for not less than 300 first-class, 200 second-class and
+800 steerage passengers. The annual subsidy is to be $750,000, whereof
+the Canadian Government is to pay $500,000 and the British Government
+$250,000. The steamers are not to call at any foreign port, and the
+company is forbidden to accept a subsidy from any foreign country. The
+mails are to be carried free. The termini of the line will be Liverpool
+and Quebec during summer, the ships proceeding to Montreal if and
+when the navigation permits. In winter the Canadian terminus will be
+Halifax or St. John, N. B., at the option of the contractors, who are
+to provide a 22-knot tender of the torpedo type to meet each steamer
+on her approach to the Canadian coast when required, and pilot her to
+her destination. The contractors must deposit £10,000 in cash, and a
+guarantee of £10,000 additional, with the Minister of Finance of Canada
+as security that the contract will be faithfully carried into effect.
+
+Twelve months having passed since the signing of the contract, without
+any substantial progress having been made towards its fulfilment, a
+new agreement was entered into in April last whereby the Government
+granted Messrs. Peterson and Tate an extension of time, and introduced
+several important changes into the contract. Under the new arrangement
+the contractors were required to have a steamship company incorporated
+by May 30th, 1898, with a substantial capital of $6,250,000, to have
+contracts signed with ship-builders at that date for four steamships,
+and to have two of them actually under construction. The 1st of May,
+1900, was named as the time when the four steamers are to be ready to
+go on the route and commence a regular weekly service. The preliminary
+conditions attached to the contract appear to have been complied with,
+and a company has been incorporated under the name of the “Canadian
+Royal Mail Steamship Company, Limited;” but grave fears are entertained
+that the necessary funds may not be forthcoming, and that the
+long-expected fast service may be indefinitely delayed.
+
+Sir Sandford Fleming, who has made a study of this subject, and
+published his opinions respecting it in a series of pamphlets, is
+not sanguine as to the success of the undertaking. “The conditions
+imposed by nature,” he says, “are unfavourable for rapid transit by
+the St. Lawrence route, and any attempts to establish on this route a
+line of fast transatlantic steamships to rival those running to and
+from New York would result in disappointment.” In the event of such a
+service being instituted, Sir Sandford assumes that it would be almost
+exclusively for the use of passengers, and suggests that the route
+should be from Loch Ryan, on the Wigtonshire coast of Scotland, to
+North Sydney, in Cape Breton. The distance between these points being
+only 2,160 knots, the voyage might be made in 4½ days, while 30 hours
+more would land mails and passengers in Montreal by railway. In this
+way the average time from London to Montreal would be reduced to 6
+days and 6 hours—36 hours less than the time usually occupied between
+Montreal and London _via_ New York and Queenstown.
+
+“In connection with the ocean service there might also be a line of
+fast light-draught steamers to run to and from Montreal to Sydney and
+the Gulf ports. In this way the people of the Maritime Provinces,
+including Newfoundland, would share in the benefits to be derived from
+the fast ocean service equally with those of Quebec and Ontario.” Sir
+Sandford’s idea is to have the fastest ocean ship on the shortest ocean
+passage, and by all means to avoid the Straits of Belle Isle, “the
+saving of a few hours being insufficient to counterpoise the tremendous
+risks to which fast passenger steamships, in navigating the Belle Isle
+route, would so seriously and frequently be exposed.” It is claimed
+that if this plan were adopted three ocean steamers would suffice
+instead of four. Reference to the accompanying sketch-map, showing
+the relative positions of Sydney, Newfoundland, and the Straits of
+Belle Isle, with the existing lines of railway, will help to make Sir
+Sandford’s proposal clear.
+
+Among other proposals, an English syndicate recently offered to furnish
+a 24-knot service between Milford-Haven, on the coast of Wales, and a
+port in Nova Scotia, representing to the British Government that they
+would be able to carry troops across the Atlantic in four days, and
+land them in Victoria in six days more. But the 24-knot steamship has
+not yet been launched.
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF THE GULF OF ST. LAWRENCE AND NORTH ATLANTIC PORTS.
+
+(Kindly furnished by Sir Sandford Fleming.)]
+
+Sir Sandford Fleming, K. C. M. G., LL. D., C. E., is one of Canada’s
+most eminent civil engineers. He was born at Kirkcaldy, Fifeshire,
+Scotland, January 7th, 1827, came to Canada at the age of eighteen, and
+has ever since been identified with the progress and development of the
+country. He was on the engineering staff of the Northern Railway from
+1852 to 1863, and for the latter half of that time was chief engineer
+of the work. He was chief engineer of the Intercolonial Railway, and
+carried it through to a successful completion in 1876. In 1871 he was
+appointed engineer-in-chief of the Canadian Pacific Railway; he retired
+from that position in 1880 and was subsequently elected a director of
+the company. He received the freedom of the Royal Burgh of Kirkcaldy
+and the degree of LL. D. from the University of St. Andrews in 1884:
+was appointed to represent Canada at the International Prime Meridian
+Conference in Washington in 1884: at the Colonial Conference, London,
+in 1887, at the Colonial Conference in Ottawa, in 1894, and at the
+Imperial Cable Conference in London, in 1896. Sir Sandford has been
+Chancellor of Queen’s University at Kingston since 1880. He is the
+author of numerous scientific and other publications, is an active
+member of the Royal Colonial Institute of London, and on the occasion
+of Her Majesty’s Diamond Jubilee was accorded the honour of knighthood.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The conflicting rumours, which for many months have been in
+circulation as to the inability of Messrs. Peterson, Tate & Company to
+fulfil the terms of their agreement, have finally been set at rest by
+the cancelling of the contract, and the Canadian Government calling for
+tenders for a weekly steamship service for carrying Her Majesty’s mails
+for a period of two years from the 1st of May, 1899, from Montreal and
+Quebec to Liverpool, during the summer months, and from St. John, N.
+B., and Halifax in winter. The time occupied in making the voyage from
+Rimouski to Moville and _vice versa_, is not to exceed an average of
+seven days. This is clearly a temporary arrangement and not an implied
+abandonment of a faster service than already exists. The opinion,
+however, in business circles seems to be gaining ground that something
+much less costly than a twenty-knot service might for some years to
+come meet the requirements of the country.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[34] The _Angloman_ was wrecked on the Skerries, in the Irish Sea, in
+February, 1897. The crew were rescued, but the ship, with her valuable
+cargo and a large number of cattle, became a total loss, though fully
+covered by insurance.
+
+[35] The SS. _Memphis_, of the African Steamship Company, but employed
+by the Elder, Dempster Line, went ashore on the west coast of Ireland
+in a fog in November, 1896, and became a total wreck. Ten of the crew
+were drowned and 350 head of cattle.
+
+[36] The Manchester ship canal is 35 miles long, 120 feet bottom width,
+and 26 feet in depth. The docks at Manchester cover 104 acres and have
+five miles of quays. It was estimated to cost £10,000,000 sterling,
+but cost over £15,000,000 before it was completed. Arrangements are in
+progress by a Manchester syndicate for the establishment of a weekly
+line of steamships of 8,500 tons capacity, to be provided with cold
+storage and the most approved equipments for carrying live stock.
+The best modern appliances for loading and discharging cargo, grain
+elevators being included, are among the attractions which enterprising
+Manchester presents to the shipping trade of Canada.
+
+[37] “Montreal Board of Trade Report, 1897,” pp. 52, 88.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+STEAM ON THE GREAT LAKES.
+
+
+    The History of Steam Navigation on the Great Lakes—The
+        Construction of the St. Lawrence, the Welland, and
+        the Rideau Canals—The Port of Montreal.
+
+The waterways of Canada available for steam navigation are on a
+magnificent scale. The main system extends from the mouth of the
+St. Lawrence at Belle Isle to Fort William and the head of Lake
+Superior—a distance of nearly 2,384 miles, and rendered navigable
+without interruption by a series of ship canals. Proceeding four
+hundred miles farther west, another long stretch of inland navigation
+begins with Lake Winnipeg, 240 miles long, into which, at its northern
+extremity, flows the mighty Saskatchewan, navigable for steamers one
+thousand miles! Not to mention smaller streams, the rivers St. John
+and Miramichi, in the Province of New Brunswick, afford 300 miles of
+navigable water and float a large amount of shipping. Ships of the
+largest size can ascend the Saguenay seventy-five miles. The Ottawa in
+its several reaches is navigable by steam for three or four hundred
+miles. Steamers ply on the Assiniboine, 250 or 300 miles westward
+from Winnipeg. The Mackenzie River is navigable for a thousand miles.
+The Fraser, the Thompson, and the Columbia rivers in British Columbia
+contribute largely to the steam tonnage of the Dominion. The Great
+Lakes,[38] commonly so called, are in reality great inland fresh water
+seas, often swept by gales of wind and combing billows, and sometimes,
+alas, strewed with wrecks. They have their breakwaters, lighthouses and
+steam fog-signals as fully equipped as similar oceanic structures and
+appliances. The Lake of the Woods and Lake Manitoba are each 100 miles
+long.
+
+As early as the year 1641 a few Jesuit missionaries and fur-traders
+had reached the rock-bound shores of Lake Superior in their canoes,
+but it is not until some years later that history makes us acquainted
+with the first sailing vessels that appeared on the lakes. One of the
+earliest of these was a schooner of ten tons, built near where Kingston
+now is by the enterprising French adventurer, La Salle, who had been
+appointed Governor of Fort Frontenac, and had a roving commission to
+explore the western wilds of North America. Accompanied by the famous
+Recollet Father, Hennepin, and some thirty others, La Salle set sail
+on the 10th of November, 1678, for the head of Lake Ontario. Finding
+his further passage barred by the Falls of Niagara, he wintered in that
+neighbourhood and had another vessel built at Cayuga Creek, a few miles
+above the Falls. This vessel, which he named the _Griffin_, of about
+sixty tons burthen, was launched in May, 1679, and was probably the
+first to navigate the upper lakes. On the 7th of August the _Griffin_,
+equipped with seven guns and a diversity of small arms and freighted
+with a load of goods, sailed away for Detroit and parts unknown. The
+Detroit River was reached in a few days, and Green Bay—at the head of
+Lake Huron—some time in September, when she was loaded with furs and
+despatched on her return voyage to Niagara, which, however, she never
+reached, the vessel and cargo having been totally lost on the way. For
+many years after the loss of the _Griffin_ the navigation of the lakes
+seems to have been chiefly confined to bateaux, and up to 1756 the
+construction and use of sailing vessels was largely, if not entirely,
+confined to Lake Ontario. The first American vessel built on Lake Erie
+was the schooner _Washington_, built near Erie, Pa., in 1797. After
+plying on Lake Erie one season, she was sold to a Canadian and carried
+on wheels around the Falls to Lake Ontario, where she sailed from
+Queenston for Kingston in 1798 as a British vessel, under the name of
+_Lady Washington_. In 1816 the whole sailing tonnage on Lake Erie was
+only 2,067 tons. In 1818 the fleet on Lake Ontario numbered about sixty
+vessels.
+
+It is not necessary to enlarge on the growth and decadence of sailing
+vessels on the Great Lakes. Suffice it to say that the sailing vessel
+had reached its palmiest days between the years 1845 and 1862. In
+the latter year the gross tonnage of the lakes had risen to 383,309
+tons, valued at $11,865,550, and was divided as follows: 320 steamers,
+aggregating 125,620 tons; and 1,152 sailing vessels, aggregating
+257,689 tons. Side-wheel steamers numbered 117, and propellers, 203.
+In 1896 the entire number of sailing vessels on the Northern Lakes
+(including Lake Champlain) was 1,044, and of steam vessels, 1,792.
+Many in both of these classes were small vessels, including yachts and
+barges: the number actually engaged in the transportation business
+would be about 774 sailing vessels and 1,031 steamers over fifty tons
+burthen—a large proportion of the steamers being from 1,500 to 2,500
+tons burthen.[39]
+
+Coming back now to the beginning of steam navigation on the Great
+Lakes, we find that the first Canadian steamer to navigate any of these
+waters was the _Frontenac_, built at Finkle’s Point, eighteen miles
+above Kingston, by Teabout & Chapman, of Sackett’s Harbour, for a
+company of shareholders belonging to Kingston, Niagara, Queenston, York
+and Prescott. The _Frontenac_ was launched on September 7th, 1816. Her
+length over all was 170 feet, and her registered tonnage, 700 tons. She
+cost nearly £20,000 currency. The engines were made by Watt & Boulton,
+of Birmingham, England, and cost about £7,000. The _Frontenac_ was
+said to be the best piece of naval architecture then in America, and
+her departure on her first voyage was considered a great event—“she
+moved off from her berth with majestic grandeur, the admiration of a
+great number of spectators.” Her maiden trip for the head of the lake
+was commenced on June 5th, 1817. Her regular route was from Prescott
+to York (Toronto) and back, once a week. She was commanded as long as
+she was afloat by Captain James Mackenzie, a gallant sailor who had
+previously served in the Royal navy. The _Frontenac_ eventually became
+the property of the Messrs. Hamilton, of Queenston. She was maliciously
+set on fire by some miscreants while lying at her wharf at Niagara in
+1827, and was totally destroyed.
+
+[Illustration: “QUEEN CHARLOTTE.”
+
+Second steamer on Lake Ontario, 1818.]
+
+About the same time the Americans had built a steamboat at Sackett’s
+Harbour, N. Y., named the _Ontario_, a vessel 110 feet long, 24 feet
+wide, and 8½ feet in depth, measuring 240 tons. The _Ontario_ made her
+first trip in April, 1817, thus establishing her claim of precedence
+in sailing on the lakes. She was built under a grant from the heirs of
+Robert Fulton. On her first trip she encountered considerable sea,
+which lifted the paddle-wheels, throwing the shaft from its bearings
+and destroying the paddle-boxes. This defect in her construction
+having been remedied, she was afterwards successful, it is said, but
+her career is not recorded.[40] The Americans built another steamer
+at Sackett’s Harbour in 1818, the _Sophia_, of 70 tons, to run as a
+packet between that port and Kingston. In that year also the Canadians
+built their second lake steamer, the _Queen Charlotte_. She was built
+at the same place as the _Frontenac_, and largely from material which
+had not been used in the construction of that vessel. She was launched
+on the 22nd of April, 1818, and was soon ready to take her place as
+the pioneer steamer on the Bay of Quinte.[41] The _Queen Charlotte_
+was a much smaller boat than the _Frontenac_. Her machinery was made
+by the brothers Ward, of Montreal, and she seems to have plied very
+successfully for twenty years from Prescott to the “Carrying Place” at
+the head of the Bay of Quinte, where passengers took stage to Cobourg
+and thence proceeded to York by steamer. She was commanded at first by
+old Captain Richardson, then for a short time by young Captain Mosier,
+and afterwards, to the end of her career, by Captain Gildersleeve,
+of Kingston. She was finally broken up in Cataraqui Bay; but in the
+meantime upwards of thirty steamers were plying on Lake Ontario and the
+Upper St. Lawrence, to some of which particular reference will be made
+later on.
+
+[Illustration: “WALK-IN-THE-WATER.”
+
+First steamer on Lake Erie, 1818.]
+
+[Illustration: THE “VANDALIA.”
+
+From _Scriber’s Magazine_ for March, 1890.]
+
+The first steamer on Lake Erie was the _Walk-in-the-Water_, built at
+Black Rock, near Buffalo, by one Noah Brown, and launched May 28th,
+1818. She was schooner-rigged, 135 feet in length, 32 feet beam and 13
+feet 3 inches deep: her tonnage was 383-60/95 tons. Her machinery was
+brought from Albany, a distance of three hundred miles, in wagons drawn
+by five to eight horses each. She left Black Rock on her first voyage
+August 25th, and reached Detroit, 290 miles, in 44 hours 10 minutes.
+“While she could navigate down stream, her power was not sufficient to
+make headway against the strong current of the Niagara River. Resort
+was therefore made to what was known in the early days as a “horned
+breeze.” The _Walk-in the-Water_ was regularly towed up the Niagara
+River by a number of yokes of oxen, but once above the swift current
+she went very well.” She made regular trips between Black Rock and
+Detroit, occasionally going as far as Mackinac and Green Bay on Lake
+Huron, until November, 1821, when she was driven ashore near Buffalo
+in a gale of wind and became a total wreck. Her engines, however, were
+recovered and put in a new boat named the _Superior_, in 1822. Soon
+after this the first high-pressure steamer on the lakes was built at
+Buffalo. She was named the _Pioneer_. In 1841 the first lake propeller
+was launched at Oswego. This was the _Vandalia_, of 160 tons, said to
+be the first freight boat in America to make use of Ericsson’s screw
+propeller. She made her first trip in November, 1841, and proved
+entirely successful. In the spring of 1842 she passed through the
+Welland Canal, and was visited by large numbers of people in Buffalo,
+who were curious to see this new departure in steam navigation, and the
+result was that two new propellers were built in that year at Buffalo,
+the _Sampson_ and the _Hercules_.
+
+Soon after the introduction of steamboats, and because of them, when
+as yet railroads were not in this part of the world, Lake Erie became
+the great highway of travel to the western States, and it was not
+long until magnificent upper cabin steamers, carrying from 1,000 to
+1,500 passengers, were plying between Buffalo and Chicago. The writer
+well remembers making the voyage in one of these steamers late in
+the autumn of 1844, and that, owing to the tempestuous state of the
+weather, we had to tie up most every night, so that the voyage lasted
+nearly a whole week. The crowd of passengers was great, but it was a
+good-natured crowd, bent on having a “good time.” Dancing was kept up
+in the main saloon every evening till midnight, after which many of us
+were glad to get a shake-down on the cabin floor.
+
+[Illustration: THE “PRINCETON.”
+
+First propeller on the lakes that had an upper cabin—one of a fleet
+of fourteen passenger steamers plying between Buffalo and Chicago in
+1845—had twin screws, and a speed of eleven miles an hour.]
+
+The year 1836 marks an important era in the navigation of the Great
+Lakes, for in that year the first cargo of grain from Lake Michigan
+arrived at Buffalo, brought by the brig _John Kenzie_ from Grand River.
+It consisted of three thousand bushels of wheat. Previous to that date
+the commerce of the lakes had been all westward, and, curiously enough,
+the cargoes carried west consisted for the most part of flour, grain
+and other supplies for the new western settlements. In 1840 a regular
+movement of grain from west to east had been established.
+
+In the early years of the grain trade the loading and unloading of
+vessels was a very slow and irksome business. As much as two or three
+days might be required to unload a cargo of 5,000 bushels. In the
+winter of 1842-43 the first grain elevator was built at Buffalo,
+and a new system of handling grain introduced which was to prove of
+incalculable benefit to the trade. The schooner _Philadelphia_, of 123
+tons, was the first to be unloaded by the elevator.
+
+The Canadian steam traffic on Lake Erie commenced with the steamers
+_Chippewa_ and _Emerald_, plying between Chippewa and Buffalo; the
+_Kent_, which foundered in 1845; the _Ploughboy_, owned by a company
+in Chatham, and the _Clinton_, owned by Robert Hamilton, of Queenston.
+A much larger Canadian steam traffic developed on Lake Huron. One
+of the earliest passenger steamers on the Georgian Bay was the
+_Gore_, of 200 tons, built at Niagara in 1838, and called after the
+Lieutenant-Governor of that name. That boat, which had plied for some
+years between Niagara and Toronto, was placed on the route between
+Sturgeon Bay and Sault Ste. Marie. On Lake Huron proper, the _Bruce
+Mines_ was probably the earliest Canadian steamer. She was employed in
+carrying copper ore from the Bruce mines to Montreal, and was wrecked
+in 1854. Shortly after, on the completion of the Northern Railway,
+in 1854, the company, with a view to developing their interests,
+entered into a contract with an American line of steamers to run from
+Collingwood to Lake Michigan ports tri-weekly and once a week to Green
+Bay. In 1862 six large propellers were put on the route. Later, a
+line of first-class passenger steamers began to ply twice a week from
+Collingwood and Owen Sound to Duluth at the head of Lake Superior.
+Among the steamers of that line, which became very popular, were the
+_Chicora_, _Francis Smith_, _Cumberland_, and _Algoma_. These in turn
+were superseded by the magnificent steamers of the Canadian Pacific and
+other lines elsewhere referred to.
+
+[Illustration: THE “EMPIRE.”
+
+Built at Cleveland in 1844; a notable steamer in her day, being the
+largest, the fastest, and the most handsomely fitted-up vessel on the
+Upper Lakes at that time; ran many years between Buffalo and Chicago.]
+
+The commerce of Lake Superior developed long after that of the lower
+lakes had been established. In the earliest records of the navigation
+of this lake, a brigantine named the _Recovery_, of about 150 tons,
+owned by the North-West Fur Company, is mentioned as being one of
+the first to sail on Lake Superior, about the year 1800. It is said
+that during the war of 1812, fearing that she might be seized by the
+Americans, her spars were taken out and her hull was covered up by
+branches and brushwood in a sequestered bay till peace was proclaimed.
+She was then taken from her hiding-place and resumed her beat on the
+lake until about 1830, when she was run over the Sault Ste. Marie
+rapids and placed in the lumber trade on Lake Erie, under the command
+of Captain John Fallows, of Fort Erie, Canada West. Another vessel,
+the _Mink_, is mentioned as having been brought down the rapids at
+an earlier period. In 1835 the _John Jacob Astor_, accounted a large
+vessel in her time, was built on Lake Superior for the American Fur
+Company, and placed in command of Captain Charles C. Stanard, who
+sailed her until 1842, when Captain J. B. Angus became master and
+remained in charge of her until she was wrecked at Copper Harbour in
+September, 1844. Passing by a number of other sailing vessels we come
+now to the introduction of steam on Lake Superior, and this, according
+to the statement of an old resident at Fort William, is how it began.
+
+The twin-screw propeller _Independence_, Captain A. J. Averill, of
+Chicago, was the first steamer seen on Lake Superior. This vessel,
+rigged as a fore-and-aft schooner, was about 260 tons burthen, and was
+hauled over the Sault Ste. Marie rapids in 1844. Her route of sailing
+was on the south shore of the lake. Another propeller, the _Julia
+Palmer_, was in like manner dragged up the Ste. Marie rapids in 1846,
+and was the first steamer to sail on the north shore. At intervals,
+prior to the opening of the ship canal, several other steamers were
+taken up the rapids, among which were the propellers _Manhattan_,
+_Monticello_, and _Peninsular_, and the side-wheel steamers _Baltimore_
+and _Sam Ward_.
+
+Previous to the completion of the Welland Canal the transportation of
+freight over the portage from Queenston to Chippewa had come to be
+quite a large business, giving employment to many “teamsters,” for the
+entire traffic between Lake Erie and Ontario at this point was by means
+of the old-fashioned lumber-wagon. At the Sault Ste. Marie portage, Mr.
+Keep informs us that “one old grey horse and cart” did the business
+for a time, but as the volume of trade increased two-horse wagons were
+employed until 1850, when a light tram-road was built by the Chippewa
+Portage Company, operated by horses, which with a capacity for moving
+three or four hundred tons of freight in twenty-four hours, answered
+the purpose up to the time of the opening of the canal in 1855.
+
+
+THE CANADIAN CANALS.
+
+Before the construction of canals these great inland waters were of
+but little value to commerce, the only means of reaching them being by
+the bark canoe or bateau of the voyageur. The United Empire Loyalists
+who came to Canada at the close of the American war were conveyed to
+their settlements on the St. Lawrence and Bay of Quinte in the long
+sharp-pointed, flat-bottomed boats of the period, called “bateaux,” by
+a very slow, laborious and uncomfortable process. General Simcoe, the
+first Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada (1791-96), is said to have
+sailed from Kingston to Detroit in his bark canoe, rowed by twelve
+chasseurs of his own regiment and followed by another canoe carrying
+his tents and provisions. Many still living recollect how Sir George
+Simpson, Governor of the Hudson’s Bay Company, made his annual canoe
+journeys from Montreal to the Red River country. Having “sung at
+St. Ann’s their parting hymn,” his flotilla of canoes ascended the
+Ottawa, breasted the rapids, and by river, lake and portage, after
+many weary days, reached Lake Huron and the Sault Ste. Marie, thence
+along the north shore of Lake Superior to Fort William and the Grand
+Portage and by Rainy Lake and Lake of the Woods to Fort Garry. “With
+the self-possession of an emperor he was borne through the wilderness.
+He is said to have made the canoe journey to the Red River _forty
+times_. For his distinguished management of the Hudson’s Bay Company’s
+affairs and for his services to the trade of Canada, Governor Simpson
+was knighted. He died in 1860, a man who would have been of mark
+anywhere.”[42]
+
+As early as A. D. 1700 a boat canal was constructed by the Sulpicians
+to connect Lachine with Montreal _via_ the Little St. Pierre River.
+The depth of water was only two and a half feet. About the year 1780
+certain short cuttings with locks available for canoes and bateaux
+were made at a few points on the St. Lawrence where the rapids were
+wholly impassable. About the beginning of the century the Government
+of Lower Canada, appreciating the advantages of improved navigation,
+made liberal appropriations to that end, resulting in the completion,
+in 1804, of a channel three feet in depth along the shore line of the
+Lachine Rapids connected with short canals at the Cascades, Split
+Rock, and Coteau du Lac, which were provided with locks eighty-eight
+feet long and sixteen feet wide—small dimensions, perhaps, but at
+the time regarded as a vast improvement, admitting of the passage of
+“Durham boats,” which then took the place of bateaux, with ten times
+their capacity. Two small locks had also been built at the Long Sault
+rapids, above Cornwall. But at many points the aid of oxen and horses
+was required, and for many years, up to the opening of the St. Lawrence
+canals, indeed, the chief cash revenues of the farmers along the river
+front were derived from the towage of barges up the swift water, in
+many cases to the serious neglect of their farms. In the spirit of
+the religion of the early voyageurs and boatmen, crosses were erected
+at the head of the rapids, suggesting to those who had successfully
+surmounted them to rest and be thankful; hence the name, still applied
+to the district immediately above the Long Sault rapids, “Santa Cruz.”
+Here, no doubt, stood for many years one of the holy crosses before
+which, on bended knee, thanks would often be given for a safe ascent of
+the rapids.
+
+The mail service in these days between Montreal and Kingston was in
+keeping with the times. It was undertaken by a walking contractor, who
+with the mail on his back took up his line of march from Montreal,
+gauging his speed to accomplish the walk to Kingston and return in
+fourteen days.[43]
+
+A good many years later it was a four days’ journey from Montreal to
+New York by the most expeditious route then existing. Thus it was
+advertised in the Montreal _Gazette_, November 25th, 1827:
+
+      =DAILY STAGES=. ALBANY AND MONTREAL LINE. SEASON
+    OF 1826 AND 1827. The only full and perfect
+    line running between Montreal and Albany leaves B.
+    Thatcher’s office, No. 87 St. Paul Street, Montreal,
+    every day, passing through Laprairie, Burlington,
+    Middlebury, Poultney and Salem to Albany, through an
+    old-settled, rich and populous country, and mostly on
+    a smooth gravelly turnpike. Through in three days,
+    and fare very reasonable. Extras and expresses at a
+    moment’s notice. Young, Swain, Esinhart and others,
+    proprietors.
+
+The voyage of the Durham boat was a very tedious one, depending as it
+did largely on a favouring easterly breeze in traversing the lakes and
+quieter portions of the river, and on the dexterity of the boatmen who
+wielded the “setting-poles”[44] in swifter water, as well as their
+_luck_ in surmounting the rapids, where they were liable to be detained
+for hours, sometimes for days, contending against the swift currents,
+subject to the mishaps of grounding or being damaged by big boulders,
+or, worse still, of being caught by an eddy or an out-current and swept
+down the rapids, sometimes with the loss of the oxen or horses which
+had them in tow, and in some instances with the loss of the boat and
+cargo. Woe to the teamster who was not provided with a knife to cut the
+rope in such an emergency!
+
+The first Lachine Canal proper, for barges, was commenced July 17th,
+1821, and was completed in 1825, at a cost of $438,404. Of this amount
+$50,000 was contributed by the Imperial Government on condition that
+all military stores should be free from toll. It had 7 locks, each 100
+feet long, 20 feet wide, and with 4½ feet depth of water on the sills.
+In 1843-49 it became a “ship canal” with 5 locks, each 200 feet long,
+45 feet wide, and 9 feet depth of water, costing $2,149,128. The
+recent enlargement, commenced in 1875, cost $6,500,000. By this the
+locks were increased to 270 feet in length and 14 feet depth of water
+throughout the canal.
+
+
+THE WELLAND CANAL.
+
+The necessity of devising means to overcome the stupendous obstacle
+to navigation caused by the Falls of Niagara had long been apparent,
+but it was not until 1824 that work was commenced on the Welland
+Canal which was to connect Lake Ontario with Lake Erie and the west.
+This important work was completed in 1829, chiefly through the energy
+and perseverance of the Hon. William Hamilton Merritt, son of a U.
+E. Loyalist family, born in New York State in 1793. A man of great
+enterprise; he had this project on the brain for years, but like Cunard
+and his steamships, had difficulty in “raising the wind”—the people
+and the Government of Upper Canada being at that time both alike poor.
+He crossed the Atlantic, and, on the ground of military expediency,
+was said to have secured a subscription of £1,000 from the Duke of
+Wellington, which greatly aided him in the formation of a joint stock
+company who carried the work to its successful completion. The original
+locks were constructed of wood, 120 feet in length, 20 feet wide, with
+7½ feet of water on the sills. The entire length of the canal was
+twenty-six miles. This accommodated vessels carrying 5,000 bushels
+of wheat. Half a million of pounds were spent upon it up to the year
+1841, when it was assumed by the United Canadas[45] and immediate steps
+taken for its enlargement. With locks 145 x 26 x 9, vessels loaded
+with 20,000 to 23,000 bushels could pass from lake to lake. A second
+enlargement (1873-83) increased the depth of water to twelve feet; and
+a third, in 1887, gave the canal a uniform depth of fourteen feet,
+admitting the passage of vessels with a carrying capacity of 75,000 to
+80,000 bushels. When this depth shall prevail throughout the entire
+system of the St. Lawrence canals, vessels of 1,600 to 1,800 tons
+register will be able to bring full cargoes from the Upper Lakes to
+Montreal, and to cross the ocean if their owners see fit.[46] In the
+meantime the Montreal Board of Trade are memorializing the Government
+to have the Welland enlarged so that the largest vessels navigating the
+lakes may be able to tranship their cargoes at Kingston or Prescott
+as they now do at Buffalo; in other words, to locate the ship canal
+projected by the Deep Waterways Commission on Canadian territory
+instead of on the American side of the Niagara River.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The Rideau Canal, connecting Kingston with Ottawa, was undertaken as
+a military work by the Imperial Government at the instigation and
+under the personal superintendence of Colonel John By, of the Royal
+Engineers, from whom the obsolete Bytown derived its name. A stupendous
+undertaking it was considered at the time—126¾ miles long, with
+forty-seven locks, 134 feet by 32 feet each. It was begun in September,
+1826, and on the 29th of May, 1832, the works being completed, the
+steamer _Pumper_ passed through from Bytown to Kingston. The limit of
+this canal is a draught of five feet. Its cost is said to have been
+about one million pounds sterling. It was transferred by the Imperial
+authorities to the Provincial Executive in 1856.
+
+[Illustration: CANADIAN SHIP CANAL AT SAULT STE. MARIE, 1895.]
+
+The St. Lawrence Canal System, with a uniform depth of nine feet of
+water, was completed in 1848. The canals are eight in number, viz.: the
+Lachine Canal, 8½ miles; the Beauharnois, 11¼ miles; the Cornwall, 11½
+miles; Farren’s Point, ¾ of a mile; Rapid du Plat, 4 miles; Galops, 7⅝
+miles; the Welland, 26¾ miles, and the Sault Ste. Marie, ¾ of a mile—in
+all 71⅛ miles, with 53 locks, and 551¼ feet lockage. In 1871 the
+Government decided to enlarge the locks of the whole system to 270 feet
+by 45 feet, and to deepen the canals to fourteen feet. These dimensions
+were decided upon after consultation with the Boards of Trade of
+Oswego, Toledo, Detroit, Milwaukee and Chicago; but so great has been
+the increase of commerce on the lakes since then, so much larger are
+the vessels now employed in the trade, and so keen has the competition
+become in the transportation business, it is already apparent that the
+limiting of the locks to 270 feet has been a mistake, and that before
+the work in hand is finished there will be a call for locks of at least
+double that capacity.
+
+Under the new arrangement the Lachine Canal has two distinct systems of
+locks, giving two entrances at each end. The Cornwall Canal has in the
+same manner two sets of locks at its lower entrance, and has in other
+respects been greatly improved. The Beauharnois Canal was not enlarged,
+but, instead, an entirely new canal on the north shore of the river is
+being constructed, fourteen miles in length, of the same dimensions as
+the other enlarged canals, at a cost of $5,000,000. The total cost of
+the St. Lawrence canals and river improvements west of Montreal has
+been $29,000,000; of the Welland Canal, $24,000,000; the Sault Ste.
+Marie, $3,258,025; of the Ottawa and Rideau canals, about $10,000,000;
+and of the whole canal system of the Dominion about $75,000,000. The
+total revenue derived from tolls and hydraulic and other rents for the
+year 1895 was $339,890.49; 2,412 vessels passed through the Welland
+during the season of 1894, carrying 1,008,221 tons of freight. The
+quantity of freight moved on the St. Lawrence and Ottawa canals was
+1,448,788 tons, and on all the canals over 3,000,000 tons, whereof the
+products of the forest, 1,077,683 tons; agricultural products, 993,348
+tons—the remainder being general merchandise and manufactures.[47]
+
+The deepening of Lake St. Peter and other shallow reaches of the St.
+Lawrence between Montreal and Quebec has created what may be called
+a submerged canal, fifty miles long, three hundred feet wide, with a
+minimum depth of 27½ feet, permitting ocean steamers of the largest
+class now in the trade to discharge their cargoes in the port of
+Montreal, which is undergoing enlargement at the present time at a cost
+of many millions of dollars.
+
+During the season of 1897 the number of sea-going vessels that arrived
+at Montreal was 796, with a total tonnage of 1,379,002; 752 of these
+were steamers, aggregating 1,368,395 tons. The inland vessels numbered
+6,384, with a tonnage of 1,134,346. The sea-going steamers were
+eighty-three in excess of the previous year, with a marked increase of
+tonnage.[48] During that summer steamships of 10,000 and even 12,000
+tons burthen were to be found loading and discharging cargo alongside
+the wharves of Montreal.
+
+The total value of merchandise exported from this port during the year
+1897 was $55,156,956. The chief articles of export were as follows:
+
+                                             _Quantity_.    _Value_.
+    Produce of the mines                         ...      $  188,127
+       "       "   fisheries                     ...         120,242
+       "       "   forest                        ...       5,731,583
+    Horses                        (Number)       12,179    1,205,941
+    Horned Cattle                    "          119,188    7,151,280
+    Sheep                            "           66,319      340,060
+    Butter                        (Pounds)   10,594,824    1,878,515
+    Cheese                           "      162,322,426   14,325,176
+    Eggs                          (Dozen)     4,806,011      575,782
+    Meat of all kinds             (Pounds)   16,377,806    1,345,894
+    Wheat                         (Bushels)   9,900,308    8,415,261
+    Indian Corn                       "       9,172 676    3,121,753
+    Other grains
+     (barley, oats, peas, etc.)       "      10,298,444    3,904,128
+    Flour                         (Barrels)     891,501    3,120,253
+    Apples                            "          175,194      350,000
+    Manufactured and
+         miscellaneous articles                ...         3,954,919
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[38]
+
+                    DIMENSIONS OF THE GREAT LAKES.
+  ───────────┬──────────┬──────────┬────────┬───────────┬────────────
+             │          │ Greatest │        │           │
+     LAKES.  │  Length. │   Width. │ Depth. │ Above Sea.│   Area.
+             │ (Miles.) │ (Miles.) │ (Feet.)│  (Feet.)  │(Sq. Miles.)
+  ───────────┼──────────┼──────────┼────────┼───────────┼────────────
+  Ontario    │    180   │    65    │   500  │    247    │    7,300
+  Erie       │    240   │    80    │   210  │    573    │   10,000
+  Huron      │    280   │   190    │   802  │    581    │   24,000
+  Michigan ‡ │    335   │    88    │   868  │    581    │   25,600
+  Superior   │    420   │   160    │  1,008 │    601    │   32,000
+  ───────────┴──────────┴──────────┴────────┴───────────┴────────────
+    ‡ Lake Michigan lies wholly within the United States.
+
+
+[39] These figures refer exclusively to vessels belonging to the
+merchant marine of the United States on the Great Lakes and are taken
+from official reports.
+
+[40] Mr. C. H. Keep, in his report on the “Internal Commerce of the
+United States for 1891,” has given a graphic History of Navigation on
+the Great Lakes, and is our chief authority for these notes on the
+early American lake steamers.
+
+[41] Robertson’s “Landmarks of Toronto,” p. 847.
+
+[42] Bryce’s “Short History of the Canadian People,” p. 333.
+
+[43] Hugh McLennan’s “Lecture on Canadian Waterways, 1885.”
+
+[44] The setting-pole might be twenty-five feet long, heavily shod with
+iron at one end and at the other fitted with a rounded knob. This pole
+was dropped into the water at the bow of the boat, and the boatman
+having put his shoulder to the other end of it, facing the stern, and
+pushing with all his might, walked to the farther end, cleats being
+fastened to the deck to give him foothold. By the time he reached the
+stern the barge had advanced exactly its own length, when he withdrew
+the pole, dragged it to the bow and repeated the process. Two or three
+men on each side of the boat would be similarly employed, and so the
+barge dragged its slow length along, much after the fashion of the
+horse-boat, only that the horse tugged at a stationary post while the
+men pushed from it.
+
+[45] Kingsford’s “Canadian Canals” (Toronto, 1865) contains an
+elaborate history of the Welland and the financial difficulties that
+attended its construction. The Imperial Government seem to have
+contributed some £55,555 towards it, while stock was taken in the
+enterprise by individuals in the United States for £69,625, and by
+English capitalists, £30,137. The first vessels to pass through the
+canal are said to have been the schooners _Ann and Jane_ and _R.
+H. Boughton_, in November, 1829. On the 5th of July, 1841, during
+the first session of the United Parliament of Canada, Lord Sydenham
+announced that Her Majesty had confirmed the bill for transferring the
+Welland to the Provincial Government.
+
+Mr. McLennan states that the first Canadian vessel to pass through the
+Welland was the propeller _Ireland_, Captain Patterson.
+
+[46] The schooner _Niagara_, built by Muirs, of Port Dalhousie, was
+sent to Liverpool with 20,000 bushels of wheat about the year 1860.
+Captain Gaskin, of Kingston, built several sea-going vessels, one
+of which he took over to Liverpool himself and sold her there. But
+experience has proved that vessels suited to the navigation of the
+lakes will never be able to compete successfully with ocean steamships
+of 10,000 tons.
+
+[47] “Report of Dominion Railways and Canals, 1895,” p. 256.
+
+[48] “Montreal Board of Trade Report, 1897,” p. 70.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+STEAM COMMERCE OF THE GREAT LAKES.
+
+
+    United States and Canadian Commerce of the Great
+        Lakes—The Sault Ste. Marie Ship Canals—The
+        Erie Canal—Transportation Business—The
+        Elevator—Deeper Waterways Commissions—The Ottawa
+        and Georgian Bay Canal.
+
+During the last quarter of a century the commerce of the Great
+Lakes—the United States commerce especially—has grown with a rapidity
+almost exceeding belief. It has become enormous! At the present time
+it is stated on competent authority that the steam tonnage of these
+inland seas largely exceeds the combined tonnage of this character
+in all other parts of the United States put together. Not to speak
+of the vast amount of shipping employed in the iron, the coal, and
+the lumber trade, the Lake Superior grain and flour shipments for
+1896 were 121,750,000 bushels. The Lake Michigan grain and flour
+shipments for the same year were 273,820,000 bushels, together making
+395,570,000 bushels of grain and flour shipped in one year from these
+two quarters! It is difficult to realize the magnitude of such a
+statement. Mr. Keep, already quoted, in his report for 1890 puts it
+strikingly when he says: “If the freight carried on the Great Lakes
+in the United States coastwise and foreign trade during the year 1890
+were loaded into railway cars of average size and capacity, the cars so
+loaded would cover 13,466 miles of railroad track.” The Commissioners
+appointed by the Canadian Government to meet with a similar Committee
+appointed by the United States Government to consider the subject
+of international and deeper waterways, preface their report by
+alluding to the commerce of the Great Lakes in these terms: “It is
+impossible to convey, within reasonable space, an adequate idea of the
+extraordinary[49] development of inland water transportation on the
+Upper Lakes—which for rapidity, extent, economy and efficiency has no
+counterpart even on the ocean. More than half of the best steamships
+of the United States are imprisoned above Niagara Falls, and more than
+half of the tonnage built in the United States in 1896 was launched
+upon the lakes.” This inland water commerce has built up twelve cities
+on the southern shores above Niagara, five of which have over 200,000
+population, and one of them over a million. Within these limits there
+are twenty-seven dry docks, the largest of which is on Lake Superior
+and is 560 feet long, 50 feet wide, and 18 feet depth of water. There
+are sixty-three life-saving stations upon these lakes, ten of which
+are Canadian. “Unusual prosperity has stimulated ship-building to
+such an extent that there are now in course of construction at the
+various lake shipyards, sixty-five vessels, thirty of which are steel
+freight steamers which will average 400 feet in length and 4,000 tons
+capacity—costing in all $9,000,000.”[50]
+
+Up to a comparatively recent date the bulk of the lakes commerce was
+done by sailing vessels. Every town of any importance had its little
+fleet of schooners. As time went on, the vessels increased in size,
+and eventually a very fine class of three-masted schooners, with some
+brigs, barquentines, and even full-rigged barques, were employed in the
+carrying trade. One of the largest of these was the barque _Utica_,
+of 550 tons, which sailed on the Buffalo and Chicago route in the
+forties. A few of these clipper schooners may still be met with, but
+they are rapidly being supplanted by iron and steel steamships of great
+size, such as the _Maryland_, the _Owego_, the _E. C. Pope_, and the
+_Manitou_, representatives of fleets of first-class steamships, ranging
+from 300 to 350 feet in length, over 1,900 tons register, with triple
+expansion engines, a speed of from fourteen to sixteen miles an hour,
+and a carrying capacity of 120,000 to 125,000 bushels of grain. These,
+and many others like them, were accounted “queens” a few years ago;
+they are fine ships still, but there are much larger and finer than
+they now.
+
+The _Manitou_ here represented is one of the finest ships of her class
+on the lakes, built in 1893 by the Chicago Ship-building Company. Her
+hull is of steel, length over all 295 feet, breadth of beam 42 feet,
+and depth of hold 22 feet. Her average draught of water is 15 feet.
+She has triple expansion engines, a single four-bladed screw propeller
+13 feet in diameter. Her gross tonnage is 2,944 tons. She is handsomely
+fitted up with sleeping accommodations for four hundred passengers,
+has a freight capacity of 1,500 tons, and develops a speed of eighteen
+miles an hour. Her route is between Chicago and Sault Ste. Marie, where
+she connects with the Lake Superior lines. She cost $300,000.
+
+[Illustration: THE “MANITOU,” 1893.]
+
+The _James Watt_, the first of the Rockefeller fleet and the largest
+steamship on the lakes, is 426 feet long, 48 feet beam, and 29 feet
+deep. She cost $260,000, and will carry from 4,000 to 6,000 tons of
+ore, according as she is trimmed to draw 14 or 18 feet of water. The
+_Empire City_, owned by the Zenith Transportation Company, is of
+the same dimensions, less one foot in depth. She is now the largest
+grain carrier on the lakes, having capacity for 213,000 bushels. The
+Minnesota Iron Company have a fleet of fourteen steamships, each
+carrying from 100,000 to 180,000 bushels of grain. The Lehigh Valley
+Transportation Company own a fleet of large and powerful steel freight
+steamers which ply between Buffalo and Chicago. These are but a few of
+the many transportation companies that do business on the Great Lakes.
+As to the vessels at present employed in the trade, it is safe to say
+that they are to be regarded only as the precursors of a still larger
+class of freight steamers that will navigate these waters when the
+contemplated twenty-one foot channel shall have been established from
+Lake Superior to Buffalo. At present there is a navigable channel of
+17½ feet all the way.
+
+Many of the large steamers take a number of barges in tow, and in
+this way enormous quantities of grain are sometimes moved by a single
+shipment. The _Appomattox_, for example, with three consorts in tow,
+recently left Duluth with a combined cargo of 482,000 bushels, or
+14,460 tons of wheat. Assuming the average yield of that cereal to
+be twenty bushels to the acre, this single shipment represented the
+produce of 24,100 acres!
+
+[Illustration: SS. “NORTH-WEST,” 1894.]
+
+The Northern Steamship Company of Buffalo has perhaps the finest fleet
+of steamers on the Great Lakes, consisting of eight steamships. Six of
+these are steel freight and emigrant ships of 2,500 tons each. They
+are named the _Northern Light_, _Northern Wave_, _Northern King_,
+_Northern Queen_, the _North Star_, and the _North Wind_. The other
+two, the _North-West_ and the _North-Land_, are exclusively passenger
+ships, up-to-date in every respect. They are identical in size, being
+each 386 feet long, 44 moulded breadth, and 26 feet in depth. Their
+gross tonnage is 5,000 tons apiece. They have quadruple expansion
+engines of 7,000 indicated horse-power. The boilers are worked at a
+pressure of 275 pounds to the square inch, and use up 70 tons of water
+per hour. The twin screws are 13 feet in diameter and 18 feet pitch,
+make 120 revolutions per minute, and drive the ships at a speed of
+from 22 to 25 statute miles an hour, as may be required. The bunkers
+hold 1,000 tons of coal. A double bottom, 42 inches deep, extends the
+whole length of the ship, and is utilized for adjustable water ballast.
+Luxurious accommodation is provided for five hundred first-class and
+forty second-class passengers. Nearly twenty-six miles of electric wire
+are used in conducting the subtle fluid for 1,200 lights. The electric
+search-light has one hundred thousand candle-power. The refrigerating
+plant, besides creating ample cold storage, makes one thousand pounds
+of ice per day for the ship’s use. The grand saloon is, in American
+parlance, “a magnificent achievement.” The routes of these twin ships
+is from Buffalo to Duluth, at the head of Lake Superior, a distance of
+1,065 miles, each of them making the round trip in a week. The fare for
+the round trip is $30 for transportation, meals and staterooms being
+charged extra.
+
+For many years two causes prevented the building of vessels of such
+large dimensions as those just described for lake navigation. One of
+these was the insufficient size of the lock at Sault Ste. Marie, and
+the other was the shallowness of the water on the St. Clair flats
+and at other points. The former difficulty disappeared in 1881 when
+the first of the large locks was opened at the Sault; the second
+difficulty was overcome by the Northern Steamship Company in the
+peculiar construction of their vessels with a water ballasting system
+that permits of sinking the ship to the depth required for navigating
+the deep waters of the lakes and of floating them over the shoals and
+bars that obstruct the navigation. This ingenious device, however,
+can only be regarded as a temporary expedient, pending the action
+of the United States Government, which contemplates the making of a
+twenty-one foot channel at all points where the shallows occur. This
+is a measure felt to be due to the lakes’ marine, which has already
+done so much to develop the resources of the North-West, especially
+the mineral resources, which would otherwise have lain comparatively
+dormant. “The United States have expended some $12,000,000 in widening
+and deepening channels, which has already been more than repaid by the
+rapid development of commerce. The largest item in the lakes’ traffic
+is the transportation of iron—the richest ores are now being mined
+along a line of coast of one thousand miles, dotted with manufacturing
+towns.”[51]
+
+It helps one to realize the immensity of the lakes’ traffic to learn
+that the number of vessels that cleared from the district of Chicago
+in 1893 was 8,789, with a gross tonnage of 5,449,470 tons—actually a
+larger tonnage than cleared from the port of Liverpool in 1892.[52]
+The tonnage passing down the Detroit River from lakes Superior,
+Michigan and Huron, during the seven or eight months of navigation,
+is, by official statements, greater than the entire foreign and
+coastwise trade of London and Liverpool combined in twelve months. It
+is estimated by competent experts to be three times greater than the
+foreign trade of the port of New York, and to exceed the aggregate
+foreign trade of all the seaports of the United States by 10,000,000
+tons!
+
+
+SAULT STE. MARIE SHIP CANALS.
+
+To accommodate the vast volume of traffic emanating from Lake Superior
+ports, magnificent canals have been constructed on either side of the
+St. Mary River, which connects Lake Superior with Lake Huron. These
+works, the most remarkable of their kind in existence, have reached
+their present dimension by a succession of enlargements and a large
+outlay of money. The first canal on the western or American side of
+the river was constructed by a joint stock company formed in 1853, who
+undertook to construct it for the State of Michigan upon receiving
+therefore a grant of 750,000 acres of land. The work was completed in
+1855, and from that date the commerce of Lake Superior may be said to
+have had any appreciable existence. The opening of the canal was, as it
+were, the opening of a sluice-gate through which a flood of commerce
+was soon to roll.
+
+The first canal cost about $1,000,000. It was a little over a mile in
+length. Its width at the water line was 100 feet, and its depth 12
+feet. There were two locks, each 350 feet long and 70 feet wide. The
+growth of traffic and the increase in the size of the lake vessels
+soon rendered it apparent that the canal must be enlarged. In 1870 the
+United States Government made its first appropriation for deepening
+the canal to 16 feet and increasing its lockage. A new lock was built,
+550 feet in length by 80 feet in width, and 18 feet lift, at a cost
+of $2,404,124.33. The work was completed in 1881. Its opening was
+followed by an enormous increase of commerce—so much so that it soon
+became quite inadequate to the traffic. A still further enlargement was
+decided upon, and was completed in 1896, at a cost of about $5,000,000.
+The new lock occupies the site of the two old locks of 1855, and is 800
+feet long, 100 feet wide, and has 21 feet depth of water on the sill.
+It is officially known as the St. Mary’s Falls Canal.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+So long ago as the close of last century the North-West Fur Company
+had constructed a rude canal on the Canadian side, with locks, adapted
+for the passage of loaded canoes without breaking bulk. Though late
+of construction, a ship canal had long been in contemplation by the
+Canadian Government, and the time came when, owing to the increase of
+traffic, it could no longer be delayed. This great work was completed
+and opened for traffic on September 9th, 1895, at a cost of some
+$3,500,000. The Canadian lock is 900 feet long, 60 feet wide, 20 feet
+3 inches depth of water on the sill, and 18 feet lift, affording room
+for three large vessels at one time. The length of the canal proper,
+between the extreme ends of the entrance piers, is only 5,967 feet,
+but including the excavated channels of approach it is about 18,100
+feet. The American canal is a little over a mile in length. The locks
+of both are unsurpassed for their size and solidity, as well as for the
+completeness of their mechanical appliances.
+
+An official report, compiled by the Chief Engineer of the St. Mary’s
+Falls Canal (United States), contains a detailed statement of the
+commerce of that canal for each year, from 1855 to 1895, and goes
+far to substantiate what has already been said as to the magnitude
+of the lakes’ commerce. The number of vessels that passed through
+in 1895 was 17,956, with a registered tonnage of 16,806,781 tons.
+The number of sailing vessels was 4,790; of steamers, 12,495; and of
+unregistered craft, 671. The number of passengers conveyed from lake
+to lake was 31,656. As to the cargoes of the vessels, these are a few
+of the chief items: 2,574,362 net tons of coal; 8,902,302 barrels of
+flour; 46,218,250 bushels of wheat; 8,328,694 bushels of other grain;
+107,452 tons of copper; 8,062,209 tons of iron ore; 740,700,000 feet
+of sawed lumber; 100,337 tons of manufactured and pig iron; 269,919
+barrels of salt—in all, 15,062,580 net tons of freight. The freight
+traffic of the St. Mary’s Canal, in seven months of 1895, was more than
+twice that of the Suez Canal, which is open all the year. During the
+year 1897 it was much greater than in any previous year, the registered
+tonnage being 17,619,933, the tons of freight 18,218,411, and the
+number of passengers 40,213.
+
+[Illustration: ST. MARY’S FALLS SHIP CANAL OF 1881, STATE OF MICHIGAN,
+U. S. A.]
+
+The gradual development of steam navigation on Lake Superior is shown
+in a table of parallel columns, extending over thirty years. In 1864
+the sailing vessels that used the canal were three times as numerous
+as the steamers; but in 1895 the steamers were three times as numerous
+as the sailing vessels, and they had increased enormously in tonnage.
+The number of sailing vessels built on the Great Lakes in 1896 was
+nineteen; in that year there were built _seventy-five_ steamers,
+aggregating 75,743 tons register, and of these thirty-five were built
+of steel, with a combined tonnage of 63,589 tons. The principal
+ship-building yards on the Upper Lakes are at Buffalo, Cleveland,
+Detroit, Bay City, Milwaukee, Chicago and Superior. At most of these
+points there are plants for the construction of iron and steel vessels.
+It is said that Cleveland is the largest ship-building port, and also
+the largest iron ore market in the United States.
+
+The transportation of iron ore, it will be noticed, forms a large
+element in the commerce of Lake Superior. Not only is the ore found
+in great abundance in that region, but it is the best in quality and
+the most in demand of any in the United States. Over 100,000,000 tons
+of this ore have been mined in the lake region within the last forty
+years. Owing to its great bulk and weight it is nearly all carried by
+water; the estimated capital engaged in mining and transporting the
+ore to the 120 furnaces in Ohio, Pennsylvania, Buffalo and Chicago
+is about $234,000,000.[53] But for the number and the size of the
+steamers thus employed, and the facilities now in use for loading and
+unloading them, the trade could not exist. The largest vessels in the
+iron ore trade are regularly loaded in three or four hours; 2,500 tons
+of ore have been loaded into a vessel of that capacity in an hour and
+three-quarters.[54]
+
+
+THE ERIE CANAL.
+
+This great artificial waterway, lying wholly in the State of New York,
+and under State management, connects Buffalo with the Hudson River at
+Albany. Although of comparatively limited capacity, it is to-day the
+most formidable rival the St. Lawrence route has to compete with in the
+transportation of freight from the west to the seaboard. The Erie was
+first opened for traffic in the same year as the first Lachine Canal
+(1825). It was originally 363 miles long, with eighty-three locks, each
+90 feet by 15 feet, and 4 feet depth of water.
+
+The first enlargement of this canal was commenced in 1836 and completed
+in 1862, at a cost of $44,465,414, making the entire cost up to the
+last-named date over $50,000,000. It is now 351¾ miles in length, 70
+feet wide on the surface and 56 feet wide at the bottom having 72
+locks, each 110 feet by 18 feet, and 7 feet deep. The limit of the
+canal for navigation, however, is only 6 feet of water, restricting its
+use to vessels of 240 tons capacity, say, 8,000 bushels of wheat.
+
+Navigation has hitherto been carried on by horse traction—the boats
+running in pairs—and by small steam tugs towing three or four boats,
+after them. The tug often pushes one boat ahead and tows the others
+behind. In this latter way a load of 900 tons will be moved at an
+average pace of about 2½ miles per hour while in motion. Including
+lockages, the distance from Buffalo to New York may be covered in nine
+or ten days. The boats are about 98 feet long and 17 feet 5 inches
+wide. They make on the average about seven round trips in the season.
+The average price received for the transportation of wheat in this
+manner from Buffalo to New York is about 3½ cents per bushel, which
+allows a fair margin of profit to the boatman.
+
+Experiments have been made for the application of electricity to the
+traction of the boats, with promise of further development. In the
+meantime considerable importance is attached to the installation of
+electric telephone communication from one end of the line to the
+other, whereby instant communication can be had with the section
+superintendents, the lock tenders and other officials. The system
+is devised solely for the use of the canal officials, and will be
+invaluable in sudden emergencies caused by accidents to the boats,
+leaks, breaks, or other disasters that may occur and interfere with the
+navigation of the canal.
+
+For some time past western shippers have been testing the feasibility
+of establishing a through line of transportation from the Great Lakes
+to New York by way of the Erie Canal without the delay and expense
+of transhipment at Buffalo. In 1895 this idea was worked out by the
+construction of a fleet of steel canal boats, consisting of one steamer
+and five consorts, by the Cleveland Steel Canal Boat Company of Ohio.
+Several fleets of this kind have since been put in operation, and the
+projectors believe that they have demonstrated the practicability of
+thus carrying freight to the seaboard from any of the western lakes
+at a fair margin of profit and in successful competition with the
+railways. These steel barges have encountered severe storms on the
+lakes without any serious damage to the boats or their cargoes. The
+cost of the tug boat is about $15,000, and of each consort about
+$6,000. The time occupied by the steel fleet from Cleveland to New York
+has been from ten to twelve days.
+
+The second enlargement of the Erie Canal, now in progress and
+nearing completion, will afford greatly increased facilities for
+transportation, by increasing the depth from 7 to 9 feet and doubling
+and lengthening all the locks. There will be no increase in the width
+of the locks nor in the length of the boats navigating the canal, but
+two boats (which form a horse-tow) will be locked through at once, and
+by the locks being doubled, side by side, no boats will have to wait
+for others coming in an opposite direction. The cargo will be increased
+by the greater depth of water in boats of the same size, more deeply
+loaded, and the traction will be so improved that boats will run easier
+and faster. The amount of freight carried on the Erie Canal—east and
+west—in the year 1896 was 2,742,438 tons.[55] The amount transported on
+the Welland Canal for that year was 1,279,987 tons.
+
+
+CANADIAN COMMERCE ON THE GREAT LAKES.
+
+Notwithstanding the large amount of money expended by the Canadian
+Government upon its unrivalled St. Lawrence canals and the deepening
+of its waterways, the volume of western traffic that comes this way is
+as yet disappointingly small. The great bulk of the trade in western
+produce, Canadian and American, finds its way to the seaboard in
+American vessels by way of Buffalo, Oswego and Ogdensburg to New York
+and Boston. What effect the deepening of the canals to fourteen feet
+will have on this deviation from the “natural outlet” remains to be
+seen.
+
+From a statement kindly furnished by Mr. T. F. Taylor, Marine Inspector
+at Kingston, it appears that the number of companies in Canada having
+steamers and other craft engaged in the commerce of the Great Lakes
+is twenty-four. Three of these go no farther than the head of Lake
+Ontario, three extend their operations to Lake Erie, five to Lake
+Huron, and thirteen to Lake Superior. Five steamers are employed on
+Lake Erie, thirteen on Lake Huron, twenty-six navigate the waters
+of Lake Superior. About one-half of these steamers are first-class
+steel freight and passenger vessels of from 1,200 to 2,600 tons each.
+A few of them pass through the Welland Canal and have their cargoes
+transhipped into barges at Kingston or Prescott. Others connect with
+lines of railway at Sault Ste. Marie, Owen Sound, Collingwood, Windsor
+and Sarnia. Occasionally one or two of the smaller ones run through to
+Montreal. Besides the steamers, there are employed in the lakes’ grain
+trade twenty-one lake barges, each of 50,000 bushels capacity, and
+fourteen tug steamers. There is also a fleet of about sixty-two sailing
+vessels trading between the Upper Lakes and Kingston, and some sixty
+or seventy barges employed in transporting grain from that port to
+Montreal.
+
+[Illustration: C. P. R. SS. “ALBERTA,” 1883.]
+
+On the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway the company formed
+a line of freight and passenger steamers of their own, consisting of
+the _Algoma_, the _Alberta_ and the _Athabasca_. The _Algoma_ had
+sailed the lakes previous to this under different names. The other two
+are fine steel ships, built by Aitken & Co. of Glasgow, in 1883. They
+are each 270 feet long and 2,300 tons burthen, fitted with all modern
+improvements in their machinery and with excellent accommodation for
+a large number of passengers. They commenced their work in 1884 and
+have been very successful and popular. The _Algoma_ was unfortunately
+wrecked off Isle Royale in Lake Superior in November, 1885, during a
+fearful snow-storm that swept over the lake, when many lives were lost.
+She was replaced by the _Manitoba_, a very fine vessel built of steel
+at Owen Sound by the Polson Ship-building Company. The _Manitoba_ is
+the largest Canadian steamer on the lakes, being 300 feet long and
+2,600 tons burthen. By means of these steamers a regular and most
+satisfactory summer service is maintained once a week from Windsor
+and Sarnia, and twice a week from Owen Sound and Sault Ste. Marie to
+Fort William. Their capacity for the transportation of grain is about
+400,000 bushels a month.
+
+The Montreal Transportation Company, founded in 1868, is the oldest
+of the existing forwarding companies, and does the largest amount
+of business. Their fleet consists at present of three steamers, six
+tug-boats, six lake barges and thirty-two river barges. Two of the
+steamers, the _Bannockburn_ and the _Rosemount_, are first-class steel
+ships, built at Newcastle-on-Tyne, about 250 feet in length, 40 feet
+beam, with a carrying capacity of 75,000 bushels of wheat. The lake
+barges play an important part as “consorts” to the steamers. They
+resemble in appearance so many large dismasted schooners, and serve
+their purpose economically and well so long as they keep in tow, but
+when they break loose, as they occasionally do when overtaken by a gale
+of wind, they become unmanageable and are apt to come to grief. This
+company with its present equipment handles about 250,000 bushels of
+grain per month.
+
+The North-West Transportation Company, dating from 1871, and otherwise
+known as the “Beatty Line,” has two fine passenger and freight
+steamers, the _Monarch_ and the _United Empire_, of 1,600 tons and
+1,400 tons respectively, forming a weekly line from Windsor and Sarnia
+to Fort William and Duluth, in connection with the Grand Trunk Railway;
+they forward about 200,000 bushels of grain per month.
+
+The Hagarty and Crangle Line, running between ports at the head of
+lakes Superior and Michigan to ports on the River St. Lawrence, has
+two large steel steamers, the _Algonquin_ and the _Rosedale_, on the
+Upper Lakes, and the steamer _Persia_ which plies between the head of
+Lake Ontario and Montreal. Hamilton has three “Merchants Lines” in the
+Upper Lakes’ shipping business—Mackay’s, Fairgreaves’, and Thomas Myles
+& Sons, owning in addition to other lake craft such fine steel and
+composite steamers as the _Sir L. Tilley_, _Lake Michigan_, _Arabian_
+and the _Myles_.
+
+The Calvin Company’s Line, of Garden Island, Kingston, has four
+steamers, four lake barges, and four tug steamers running between Lake
+Superior ports, Kingston and Montreal. The Collins Bay Rafting Company
+has on the same route three steamers, three lake barges, and two tug
+steamers. The Jacques & Co.’s Line has two steamers running from the
+head of Lake Erie and one from the head of Lake Ontario to Montreal.
+
+The Great Northern Transit Company, with headquarters at Collingwood,
+has four freight and passenger steamers—the _Majestic_, _Pacific_,
+_Atlantic_, and _Northern Belle_—keeping up a well-appointed service
+twice a week from Collingwood to Sault Ste. Marie, and having
+connection with the Northern Railway to Toronto. The _Majestic_, built
+at Collingwood, is a steel screw steamer, 230 feet long, 36 feet wide,
+1,600 tons register, and cost $125,000. She has compound condensing
+engines of 1,200 horse-power, and is fitted up internally with great
+elegance. The North Shore Navigation Company has five excellent
+steamers plying on the Georgian Bay and northern shores of Lake Huron
+from Collingwood and Owen Sound to Sault Ste. Marie and Mackinac
+Island, where connections are made with American lines of steamers to
+Chicago and other ports on Lake Michigan. The steamers are the _City
+of Collingwood_, 1,400 tons; _City of Midland_, 1,300 tons; _City of
+Toronto_, 800 tons; _City of Parry Sound_ and _City of London_, each
+600 tons.
+
+Reference will be made hereafter to steamers plying on Lake Ontario and
+the River St. Lawrence.
+
+
+THE TRANSPORTATION BUSINESS.
+
+In the matter of transportation it may be interesting to learn how a
+consignment of wheat is “handled” from the time it leaves the field
+in Manitoba, where it is grown, until it reaches its destination in
+Liverpool or London. When there were only a few hundred thousand
+bushels to be sent to the seaboard, the means of transport were very
+simple and primitive. It was carried on men’s backs from one conveyance
+to another, and floated down rivers or shallow canals in small boats or
+on rafts of timber. But when the thousands became millions the problem
+of cheap transportation became a serious one. American ingenuity rose
+to the occasion and invented the most marvellous of labour-saving
+appliances—THE GRAIN ELEVATOR.
+
+[Illustration: C. P. R. GRAIN ELEVATOR AT FORT WILLIAM, ONT.]
+
+The farmer sells his crop of wheat to the grain-dealer, and carts
+it, say, to Brandon, where the purchaser takes delivery of it at his
+elevator. Let us examine this thing somewhat minutely, taking by
+way of illustration one of the elevators belonging to the Canadian
+Pacific Railway Company at Montreal. It is a medium-sized one, having
+capacity for storing about 600,000 bushels of grain. The same company’s
+elevators at Fort William and Port Arthur are much larger, having
+capacity for 1,500,000 bushels. In Chicago and Buffalo there are
+elevators of three millions of bushels capacity; but, whether larger or
+smaller, in their main features they are all alike.
+
+The elevator is a wooden structure of great strength. Its massive stone
+foundations rest on piles imbedded in concrete. The framework is so
+thoroughly braced and bolted together as to give it the rigidity of a
+solid cube, enabling it to resist the enormous pressure to which it
+is subjected when filled with 18,000 tons of wheat. The building is
+210 feet long, 80 feet wide, and 142 feet in height from basement to
+the peak of the roof. Including the steam-engine (built at the C. P.
+R. works) of 240 horse-power, the entire cost of this elevator was
+$150,000. It consists of three distinct compartments—for receiving,
+storing, and delivering grain. On the ground floor are two lines of
+rails by which the cars have ingress and egress. The general appearance
+of this flat is that of a bewildering array of ponderous posts and
+beams, shafting, cog-wheels, pulleys and belts, blocks and tackle,
+chutes, and the windlasses for hauling in and out the cars, for a
+locomotive with its dangerous sparks may not cross the threshold.
+Beneath this, in the basement, are the receiving tanks, thirty-five
+feet apart from centre to centre, corresponding to the length of the
+cars. Of these there are nine, enabling that number of cars to be
+simultaneously unloaded. This is quickly done by a shovel worked by
+machinery, with the aid of two men, the grain falling through an iron
+grating in the floor into the tank. The elevator has nine “legs.”
+The leg is an upright box, 12 inches by 24 inches, extending from
+the bottom of the tank to the top of the building; inside of it is a
+revolving belt with buckets attached 15½ inches apart. The belt is
+256 feet long, and as it makes 36 revolutions per minute, each bucket
+containing one-third of a bushel, each leg is able to raise 5,250
+bushels per hour.[56] A car is unloaded and its contents hoisted into
+the upper regions in fifteen minutes. When all the legs are at work
+30,000 bushels are handled in an hour.
+
+The four-story house on top of the granary contains a number of
+different mechanisms. In the uppermost flat the leg’s revolving
+belt turns round a pulley and discharges the grain into a receiving
+hopper on the next floor. From this it is withdrawn to the weighing
+hopper, nicely balanced on a Fairbanks beam-scale, having a capacity
+for 30,000 pounds or 500 bushels of wheat, which is weighed with as
+much exactitude as is a pound of tea by the grocer. At either end of
+this room there is a separating machine in which the grain can be
+thoroughly cleansed by the removal of smut and dust. Underneath is the
+distributing room, with jointed pipes leading to the storage bins, of
+which there are one hundred, each 50 feet deep and 12 feet square,
+calculated to hold 6,000 bushels each. The process of withdrawing the
+grain from the bins, strange to say, is a repetition of that just
+described. It must go down into the cellar, and up again to the attic,
+and pass through the weighing machine and thence to the car, the barge,
+or the ship. A car of 600 bushels can be loaded in three minutes. The
+most singular part of the whole apparatus is the “carrier” by which the
+grain is conveyed from the elevator to the vessel lying at the wharf,
+260 feet off. The carrier is an endless four-ply rubber belt, 515 feet
+long and 36 inches wide, upon which the grain is dropped and carried
+to its destination. The difficulty of comprehending why the grain is
+not shaken off that flat, rapidly revolving belt is not lessened by
+the explanation given, that it is held in place by the concentrative
+attraction of the particles in motion. But from whatever cause, the
+grain clings to the belt, and may be carried in this way any distance,
+and in all manner of directions, turning sharp corners and even going
+over the roofs of houses if they stand in the way. The elevator in
+question delivers by “carrier” from 8,000 to 10,000 bushels an hour.
+There are over 50 such elevators in New York, only of much larger
+capacity; Buffalo has 52, with a storage capacity of over 15,000,000
+bushels; Chicago, 21; Duluth and Superior, 9 each. There are elevators
+in Buffalo that can take grain out of a vessel at the rate of 25,000
+bushels an hour.
+
+A Duluth paper of May 21st, 1898, says: “Globe elevator No. 1 carries
+the broom for rapid loading this year, and the record made yesterday
+has probably never been equalled. The steamer _Queen City_ loaded there
+yesterday morning, taking 185,000 bushels in 180 minutes.”
+
+Now, suppose that an order has reached Brandon for a shipment of
+220,000 bushels of wheat,[57] to be forwarded to Montreal _via_ the St.
+Lawrence route. The initial cost of receiving, storing for a given time
+and delivery from the Brandon elevator is three cents per bushel. It
+must be hauled from Brandon to Fort William, a distance of 559 miles
+by railway. The consignment is the produce of 11,000 acres and weighs
+6,600 tons. It will load 330 box-cars, each containing 40,000 pounds.
+As each car weighs about 25,000 pounds, the entire weight to be moved
+by rail will be 10,725 tons. Until quite recently, twenty cars of wheat
+made up an average train load, but with the powerful locomotives now in
+use twice that number may be taken at a load. A safe estimate for this
+particular shipment will be ten trains of thirty-three cars each, the
+gross weight of engine, tender and train being about 1,100 tons.[58]
+The cost of transport from Brandon to Fort William, at the summer rate
+of 19 cents per 100 pounds, will be 11.40 cents per bushel. By means
+of the elevator at Fort William it is transhipped to lake vessels. A
+large propeller takes on board 70,000 bushels; the balance is stored
+away in three barges containing 50,000 bushels each. The propeller
+takes the trio in tow and proceeds on its long voyage of 1,200 miles
+through Lake Superior, the “Soo” Canal, lakes Huron and Erie, the
+Welland Canal and Lake Ontario to Kingston, in seven days. The cost
+of transportation from Fort William to Kingston is from three to four
+cents per bushel, and to Montreal two cents more. At Kingston floating
+elevators come alongside the propeller and her consorts, and quickly
+transfer their cargoes into lighters carrying from 20,000 to 30,000
+bushels each.[59] The fleet of nine or ten river barges is towed down
+the St. Lawrence, passing through the Cornwall, Beauharnois and Lachine
+canals to Montreal, 1,940 miles from Brandon by this route. They are
+laid alongside the ocean steamers in pairs, one opposite the forehatch
+and the other at the afterhatch, and their contents are poured into the
+big ship at the rate of 8,000 to 10,000 bushels per hour. The average
+rate to Liverpool is about 5¼ cents per bushel, bringing up the total
+cost of transportation from Brandon to Britain to, say, 22¼ cents per
+bushel. The first shipment of wheat from Manitoba to Britain was made
+in October, 1877.
+
+Mr. Hugh McLennan, the president of the Montreal Transportation
+Company, is also one of the most extensive shippers of grain in Canada.
+No better illustration can be found anywhere of the man who is the
+architect of his own fortune. Mr. McLennan was born in the County of
+Glengarry in 1825. His father’s family came from Ross-shire, Scotland,
+in 1802, and his mother’s family were United Empire Loyalists, who
+settled in Glengarry at the close of the American War of Independence.
+
+After serving some years in the hardware business in Montreal, Mr.
+McLennan joined the mail steamer Canada, as purser, under Captain
+Lawless. In 1850 he started business on his own account in Kingston,
+as wharfinger and shipping agent. During that season he united with
+some others in organizing a steamboat line to run between Kingston
+and Montreal, in the furtherance of which enterprise he removed to
+Montreal in 1851, adding the business of general shipping agent. In the
+year 1854 he was joined by his elder brother John, when they entered
+extensively into the grain trade, Mr. McLennan going to Chicago in
+connection with that business. In 1867 he returned to Montreal, and
+organized the Montreal Transportation Company, of which he has been
+president to the present time.
+
+[Illustration: ANDREW ALLAN. W. W. OGILVIE. HUGH M^cLENNAN.]
+
+Mr. McLennan’s name soon became identified with many of the leading
+enterprises of the city, as well as in its educational and benevolent
+institutions. He still continues his active connection with the
+transportation and grain export business, and by reason of his
+long connection has become an acknowledged authority in everything
+pertaining to the past history of these important branches of Canadian
+trade. He is an ex-president of the Board of Trade, and represented
+that organization upon the Harbour Board for a quarter of a century,
+resigning the position during the present season. He is a director
+of the Bank of Montreal, a governor of McGill University, and of the
+Montreal General Hospital, and is treasurer of the Sailors’ Institute.
+He is also an active member of the American Presbyterian Church.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+A large proportion of the wheat grown in the Western States and in
+Canada is made into flour and transported in that form to eastern and
+foreign markets. Minneapolis, in the State of Minnesota, claims to
+be the greatest flour manufacturing centre in the world. Its milling
+capacity is said to be 54,800 barrels daily. Its actual output in
+1895 was 10,581,633 barrels. Although Canada may not compare with
+Minneapolis in its annual output of flour, she claims to have the
+largest individual miller in the world, in the person of W. W. Ogilvie,
+of Montreal. Mr. William Watson Ogilvie was born at St. Michel, near
+Montreal, April 14th, 1836, being descended from a younger brother
+of the Earl of Angus, who, some centuries ago, was rewarded with the
+lands of Ogilvie, in Banffshire, and assumed the name of the estate.
+His immediate ancestors belonged to Stirlingshire, Scotland, his
+grandfather having come to this country in the year 1800.
+
+The milling business now represented by Mr. Ogilvie was begun by
+his grandfather, who, in 1801, erected a mill at Jacques Cartier,
+near Quebec, and also one at the Lachine Rapids, in 1808. In 1860
+he became a member of the firm of A. W. Ogilvie & Co., then formed,
+whose transactions in grain soon became very extensive, resulting in
+the building of the “Glenora Mills,” at Montreal, and others of large
+capacity at Goderich, Seaforth and Winnipeg. On the death of Mr. John
+Ogilvie, in 1888, Senator A. W. Ogilvie, having retired in 1874, Mr.
+W. W. became the sole member of the firm, and has since proved himself
+a man of marvellous executive ability. He went to Hungary to see
+the roller process at work, where it came into use in 1868, and was
+one of the first to introduce it into this country. He acquired by
+purchase the famous Gould Mills in Montreal, at a cost of $250,000,
+thus adding 1,100 barrels to his daily milling capacity, which, at the
+present time, is about 9,000 barrels a day. The annual output of Mr.
+Ogilvie’s mills is about 2,500,000 barrels. About 30 per cent. of that
+amount is exported to different European countries; and, recently, a
+demand has arisen in Japan, Australia, and even in the Fiji Islands,
+for “Ogilvie’s Hungarian flour.” The balance is sold in all parts of
+the Dominion. Mr. Ogilvie purchases between four and five millions of
+bushels of wheat annually, and is rich in elevators, having as many
+as sixty-nine of these for his own special use in various parts of
+the country. In carrying on his extensive business he occasionally
+charters whole fleets of lake steamers and barges, and it is said
+of him that he is as fair in his business methods as he is generous
+in his charities. Mr. Ogilvie is a director of the Bank of Montreal,
+ex-President of the Montreal Board of Trade, and largely interested in
+several of the leading commercial interests of Canada.
+
+
+DEEPER WATERWAYS.
+
+The enlargement of the St. Lawrence and Erie canals cannot fail to
+prove advantageous to the inland shipping trade; but, so far from
+solving the question of “cheapest transportation,” it seems rather to
+have accentuated the demand for greater facilities of a like kind. The
+cry for “deeper waterways” has been in the air for many years, but
+never has it been louder than just now. The first enlargement of the
+St. Mary’s Falls Canal in 1881, and the subsequent deepening of the
+channels connecting the Upper Lakes had the effect, almost immediately,
+of doubling the tonnage of vessels plying the lakes and of producing a
+corresponding reduction in the rates of freight. The increase of the
+commerce of the lakes, incredible to those who are not engaged in it,
+and what appears to be its limitless future, have been keenly discussed
+in conventions as well as on the floors of Parliament and Congress
+for a number of years past, but it was only in 1894 that the movement
+assumed an organized form.
+
+At a meeting held in Toronto in September, 1894, there was formed
+“The International Deep Waterways Association,” the declared object
+of which was “to promote the union of the lakes and the high seas by
+waterways of the greatest practicable capacity and usefulness; and
+recognizing the supreme utility of such waterways’ development.” At
+that meeting it was resolved: “That the depth of all channels through
+the lakes and their seaboard connections be not less than twenty-one
+feet, and that all permanent structures be designed on a basis not less
+than twenty-six feet, in order that the greater depth may be quickly
+and cheaply obtained whenever demanded by the future necessities of
+commerce.”
+
+On the 8th of February, 1895, it was resolved by the Senate and
+House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress
+assembled, “That the President is authorized to appoint three persons
+who shall have power to meet and confer with any similar committee
+which may be appointed by the Government of Great Britain or the
+Dominion of Canada, and who shall make inquiry and report whether it is
+feasible to build such canals as shall enable vessels engaged in ocean
+commerce to pass to and fro between the Great Lakes and the Atlantic
+Ocean, where such canals can be most conveniently located, and the
+probable cost of the same, with estimates in detail; and if any part of
+the same should be built on the territory of Canada, what regulations
+or treaty arrangements will be necessary between the United States and
+Great Britain to preserve the free use of such canals to the people of
+this country at all times.”
+
+By an order of Council dated at Ottawa, 14th December, 1895, Messrs.
+O. A. Howland, M.P.P., of Toronto, Thomas C. Keefer, C.E., and Thomas
+Munro, C.E., of Ottawa, were appointed Commissioners on behalf of the
+Canadian Government to meet and confer with the Commissioners appointed
+by the President of the United States on this important subject.
+
+Several meetings of this International Waterways Commission have
+been held, a good deal of money has been spent in preliminary
+surveys, and reports favourable to the proposal, embodying much
+exceedingly interesting information as to the amount and rapid growth
+of the commerce of the lakes, have been submitted to the respective
+Governments. The American Commissioners favour the construction of
+a series of ship canals connecting Lake Erie with the seaboard,
+suggesting that the minimum depth of navigable water should be 28 feet,
+with canal locks 560 feet long and 64 feet wide. They present a choice
+of routes: (1) “The natural route” _via_ the St. Lawrence to Montreal,
+and _via_ Lake Champlain to the Hudson River. (2) _Via_ Lake Ontario to
+Oswego and thence through the Mohawk Valley to Troy on the Hudson. The
+latter would be entirely through United States territory; the former
+would necessarily be of an international character, and preferable,
+provided that satisfactory treaty arrangements could be effected for
+the settlement of any differences that might arise between the two
+Governments interested. In either case the construction of a ship canal
+at Niagara Falls on the American side of the river is judged to be
+necessary. The international route would involve a ship canal from some
+point below Ogdensburg to near the boundary line on Lake St. Francis,
+and thence through Canadian territory to Lake Champlain.
+
+The Canadian Commissioners in general terms endorse the international
+proposal as the one “which would give an opportunity of doing what our
+canals were intended to do, but have failed to do, that is, to obtain
+the maximum amount of the western trade for the St. Lawrence route.”
+It is agreed that the class of vessels adapted to the Welland and St.
+Lawrence canals, limited to a draft of fourteen feet, can never compete
+successfully with the large United States vessels plying on the Upper
+Lakes; and the fact that these large United States vessels are unable
+to leave the Upper Lakes, “seems to embrace the whole ‘Deep Waterways’
+question in a nutshell.”[60]
+
+Regarding Montreal as a seaport and the natural outlet for the
+commerce of the West, it is conceded that its harbour accommodation
+must be largely increased, that it should be furnished with the best
+known appliances for the storage and shipment of grain, and that the
+navigable channel to Quebec be deepened to at least thirty feet and the
+Welland Canal to at least twenty feet.
+
+The project of enlarged ship canals to connect the Great Lakes with the
+Atlantic Ocean is a magnificent one. Its advantages have been skilfully
+set forth. There are no insurmountable engineering difficulties in
+the way of its accomplishment, but it is still in nubibus. Apart from
+the complications necessarily attending an international work of this
+magnitude, it is not likely that it will be entered upon until the
+results to commerce of the enlargement of existing canals in both
+countries have been fairly tested.
+
+In estimating the comparative merits of Montreal and New York, or any
+other American port on the North Atlantic coast, it may be assumed
+that the average summer rate of freight upon a bushel of wheat by
+either route from the head of the Upper Lakes to Liverpool is almost
+identical.[61] But it must be borne in mind that grain shipped _via_
+Buffalo, whether by rail or canal, may be stored at the American
+seaboard, to be shipped at any time during the winter that may be
+desirable, thus placing the Montreal route at a disadvantage. The rates
+of marine insurance are also said to be in favour of New York. Another
+argument in favour of the route to New York _via_ Buffalo is that the
+Erie Canal is open for navigation from three to four weeks later in the
+autumn than the St. Lawrence canals, a fact of great importance to the
+Western farmer who wishes to dispose of as much of his crop as possible
+before the close of navigation.
+
+
+MONTREAL, OTTAWA AND GEORGIAN BAY CANAL.
+
+This latest canal project is the revival of a proposal that was
+entertained by the Canadian Government many years ago, and upon which
+there was spent a good deal of money, but which was subsequently
+abandoned in favour of the St. Lawrence route. Mr. Macleod Stewart,
+ex-Mayor of Ottawa, and a man of great energy as well as of influence,
+is the chief promoter of the present enterprise. At his instance a
+company of British capitalists has been formed for the purpose of
+constructing and operating a system of canals to complete a through
+waterway from Montreal to the Great Lakes along the course of the
+Ottawa and Mattawa rivers, Lake Nipissing and French River to the
+Georgian Bay, Lake Huron—following precisely the track of the early
+voyageurs. The chief advantage claimed for this route, from a
+commercial point of view, is that it is by far the shortest that can be
+devised from the Upper Lakes to the seaboard. Owing to the directness
+of the route it would effect a saving in distance of 450 miles over the
+Erie Canal route, and of 375 over the Welland and St. Lawrence route.
+
+The total distance by the proposed route from Montreal to the waters
+of Lake Huron is 430 miles, requiring, it is said, the construction of
+only twenty-nine miles of canal, in addition to the existing canals,
+to complete a through waterway adapted to the navigation of vessels
+of 1,000 tons burthen and drawing ten feet of water. Assuming the
+estimated cost not to exceed $25,000,000, it is represented in the
+company’s prospectus as an investment holding out the prospect of
+becoming a fairly remunerative commercial enterprise. It is further
+advanced in favour of the immediate prosecution of the work, that
+this route, being cooler and more sheltered than the lakes’ route,
+would enable grain and cattle to be taken through in better condition;
+that the rate of insurance would be less; that it would render
+available immense natural forces in the waters of the Ottawa and its
+tributaries; and, especially, that owing to its distance from the
+international boundary it would, in case of war, be of the highest
+military importance, and prove of great value as a means of defence
+and of protection to our commerce. Provided that the necessary funds
+are forthcoming, there are said to be no engineering difficulties to
+prevent the work being completed in three years’ time. On the other
+hand, it is alleged that a canal system limited to a draft of ten feet
+would not meet the present-day requirements, and could not be expected
+to compete successfully with one offering fourteen feet, even if the
+distance to be traversed would be shorter. Grain merchants, East and
+West, hold strongly to the opinion that the route which will bring the
+largest class of vessels navigating the Great Lakes to the seaboard at
+least expense is the route that will capture the trade. A ship canal
+for the Ottawa route, having twenty-five to thirty feet depth of water,
+with locks of 500 to 600 feet in length, would seem to offer many
+advantages, though in the estimation of the Deep Waterways Commission
+“its consideration is not now justified.”
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[49] _Vide_ page 26 of said Report.
+
+[50] “Buffalo Board of Trade Report, 1895,” p. 98.
+
+[51] “United States Deep Waterways Commission Report, 1896.”
+
+[52] “Chicago Board of Trade Report, 1895.”
+
+[53] “United States Deep Waterways Commission Report, 1896.”
+
+[54] “United States International Commerce Report, 1892,” p. 52.
+
+[55] For these notes on the Erie Canal the author is chiefly indebted
+to Kingsford’s “Canadian Canals,” Mr. Thomas C. Keefer, C. E., Ottawa,
+and the Superintendent’s “Report on Canals in the State of New York,
+1896.”
+
+[56] The latest improvement in this direction is what is called the
+“Grain Sucker,” by which the process of loading and unloading cargoes
+of grain is accomplished with astonishing speed. The new appliance
+combines in its construction the main features of the ordinary
+elevator, and causes the grain to go through all the different
+movements above described, with this difference, that instead of the
+leg with the belt and bucket, the grain is elevated to the top of the
+structure on the principle of suction through a flexible pipe. The
+air being drawn off by pumps from the vacuum chamber, the grain is
+sucked up like water from a well. Machines of this kind, fitted with
+any number of these pipes that may be required, are used at the London
+docks, and are said to be capable of transferring wheat at the rate of
+a hundred and fifty tons an hour—_Vide Strand Magazine_ for May, 1898.
+
+[57] “The steamship _Bannockburn_ and consorts left Fort William on the
+3rd instant loaded with 220,000 bushels of No. 1 hard wheat for Mr. W.
+W. Ogilvie’s mills. This is the largest shipment that ever left the
+port.”—_Montreal Gazette, June 5th, 1896._
+
+[58] The weight that can be hauled by a locomotive depends largely on
+the gradients of the road traversed. Winnipeg and Fort William are
+nearly on the same sea level, but between them the line of railway
+ascends and descends some 800 feet, limiting the drawing power of
+a sixty-ton locomotive in certain sections to, say, 900 tons. On a
+level road a large American locomotive will easily draw sixty cars
+containing 1,000 bushels of wheat each, or a total weight of 3,000
+tons. As with steamships, the tendency is to increase the size of the
+locomotive. There is this difference, however: the weight and power of
+the locomotive are limited by the strength of the rail upon which it
+travels.
+
+[59] Since these lines were written, three stationary elevators have
+been erected at Kingston—one by the Montreal Transportation Company,
+with a capacity of 800,000 bushels; one by the Moore Company, for
+500,000 bushels, and one by James Richardson & Sons, for 250,000
+bushels. The Prescott Elevator Company has erected one at Prescott
+of 1,000,000 capacity, and still another has been built at Coteau
+Landing in connection with the Canada Atlantic Railway system, with
+500,000 capacity. All indications are that the enlargement of the St.
+Lawrence canals is confidently expected to result in a large increase
+in the Canadian grain trade and forwarding business. There are sixteen
+floating elevators in Montreal harbour, capable of handling from 4,000
+to 8,000 bushels of grain each per hour.
+
+[60] The following paragraph, taken from the _North-Western Miller_ for
+November 12th, 1897, doubtless reflects the opinion of the majority
+of Western grain dealers in the United States, with whom the feeling
+of sentiment for the “natural route” is of small account: “The steel
+barge _Amazon_ left Fort William recently loaded with 205,000 bushels
+of Manitoba hard wheat for Buffalo, indicating that the Buffalo route
+is still at its best, and that the monster craft is cutting off the
+Montreal route as effectively as could be desired by any rival.”
+
+[61] We have good authority for quoting the rates of the summer of
+1897 as follows: Duluth to Buffalo, 1½ cents per bushel; Buffalo to
+New York, by the Erie Canal, 3½ cents; New York to Liverpool, 5 cents;
+elevator charges, ⅞ of 1 cent; total, 10⅞ cents per bushel. Fort
+William to Kingston, 3½ cents; Kingston to Montreal, 2 cents; Montreal
+to Liverpool, 5¼ cents, including port charges; total, 10¾ cents per
+bushel. In 1857 the average rate by lake and canal on a bushel of wheat
+from Chicago to New York was 25.29 cents per bushel; now it is less
+than 6 cents. The reduction in cost of transmission is due to improved
+methods of handling freight, deeper channels, larger vessels and more
+rapid conveyance.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+IN THE PROVINCES OF THE DOMINION.
+
+
+    The History of Steam Navigation in the several Provinces
+        of the Dominion and Newfoundland.
+
+
+IN THE PROVINCE OF QUEBEC.
+
+Among the names of those who were chiefly connected with the
+introduction and development of steam navigation in this province may
+be mentioned the Hon. John Molson, Messrs. John and David Torrance, and
+George Brush.
+
+The founder of the Molson family and father of the steamboat enterprise
+in Canada came to this country from Lincolnshire, England, in 1782. Two
+years later he returned to Britain and raised money on his paternal
+estate to erect a brewery in Montreal. Subsequently he sold his English
+property, which enabled him to complete the Canadian enterprise that
+eventually grew into an extensive and lucrative business. Mr. Molson
+was an excellent business man and did much to advance the commercial
+and educational interests of his adopted country. He was President of
+the Bank of Montreal from June, 1826, till his death, which occurred
+in Montreal in 1836, in his seventy-second year. He was also an
+influential member of the Executive Council of Lower Canada. His son,
+the late Hon. John Molson, who inherited his father’s enthusiasm in
+regard to steamboats and shipping, also took a prominent part in the
+introduction of railways in Canada. The Molsons Bank and the William
+Molson Hall of McGill University are fitting memorials of the family in
+Montreal.
+
+[Illustration: JOHN TORRANCE.]
+
+The Torrances are a “Border” family. The late Mr. John Torrance was
+born at Gatehouse, in the Shire of Galloway, Scotland, June 8th, 1786.
+Early in the century he came to Canada, and before long established a
+wholesale business in Montreal and founded the eminent firm of John
+Torrance & Co. His elder brother Thomas had preceded him in Montreal,
+and was at the head of a large and lucrative business, residing at
+Belmont Hall, which he built, and which was at that time considered
+a palatial mansion. On his removal to Quebec this fine property was
+acquired by a member of the Molson family. Mr. David Torrance, a
+nephew of Mr. John Torrance, was born in New York in 1805. He came to
+reside in Montreal about the year 1821, and became a partner in his
+uncle’s firm. He was a man of exceptional business capacity, energy
+and enterprise, and did much to advance the commercial interests
+of Montreal and Canada. In 1826 this firm purchased the steamboat
+_Hercules_ and placed her on the Montreal and Quebec route, in the
+double capacity of a tow-boat and passenger steamer—this being the
+first step towards the vigorous opposition to the Molson line of
+steamers that ensued. They were also the first in Canada to branch
+out into direct trade with the East Indies and China. Mr. David
+Torrance died in Montreal, January 29th, 1876. His son, Mr. John
+Torrance, now the senior member of the firm of David Torrance & Co.,
+was born in Montreal in August, 1835. He has had the Montreal agency
+of the Dominion Line of steamships for many years, and is otherwise
+extensively occupied in the shipping business. It may be added that
+after the death of Mr. John Torrance, _primus_, in 1870, the name of
+the firm was changed to David Torrance & Co., which it still retains.
+
+Mr. Brush was a native of Vermont, born at Vergennes, in 1793. After
+some time spent in mercantile pursuits, he engaged in boat-building
+and navigation on Lake Champlain, and became captain of a steamer
+plying between St. John’s and Whitehall. He afterwards had command of
+some of Mr. Torrance’s steamers on the St. Lawrence. In 1834 he became
+manager of the Ottawa and Rideau Forwarding Company, and resided in
+Kingston until 1838, when he joined the Wards in the Eagle Foundry,
+Montreal, of which he became the sole proprietor in 1840. Mr. Brush
+died in Montreal, at the advanced age of ninety years and two months.
+The following extracts from memoranda left by him are interesting and
+valuable:
+
+“The steam-engines for the _Swiftsure_ (1813), the _Malsham_ (1814),
+the _Car of Commerce_ (1816), and the _Lady Sherbrooke_ (1817), were
+all made by Bolton & Watt, of Soho, England, who would not allow
+more than _four pounds_ pressure of steam; and a hand-pipe was used
+to feed the boilers by gravitation. The first steam-engine built in
+Canada was in 1819, for the _Montreal_, a small ferry-boat, of about
+fourteen horse-power, built by John D. Ward, at the Eagle Foundry. In
+1823 the merchants of Montreal formed a stock company for the purpose
+of building tow-boats. I was employed by that company to build their
+boats. The first (the _Hercules_) we built in Munn’s shipyard, about
+where H. & A. Allan’s office now stands. The _Hercules_ was fitted with
+an engine of one hundred horse-power, built by J. D. Ward & Co., at the
+Eagle Foundry, on the Bolton & Watt low-pressure principle. Under my
+command the _Hercules_ commenced towing vessels in May, 1824, when she
+towed up the ship _Margaret_ of Liverpool from Quebec to Montreal and
+up the current of St. Mary’s—the first ship so towed up. Our company
+also built the steamers _British America_, _St. George_ and _Canada_,
+of about 150 horse-power each.”
+
+[Illustration: STEAMER “QUEBEC” AND CITADEL.]
+
+“In 1838-39 the Imperial Government built a steam frigate here, called
+the _Sydenham_. It was engined by Ward, Brush & Co., with a pair of
+side-lever engines, and proved to be one of the fastest vessels in the
+Royal navy of that time.”
+
+Connected with Mr. Brush there is a good fish story, which is better
+authenticated than some of that class that have passed current. A
+pike-headed whale—the only one that is known to have visited these
+waters—followed some vessel up from sea into the harbour of Montreal,
+in September, 1823. Captain Brush rigged a boat and captured him with a
+harpoon. He was a beautiful specimen, measuring 39½ feet in length, and
+23 feet in circumference. His jaw-bones were for many years to be seen
+overarching the entrance to Gilbault’s Gardens, and there are those
+still living who remember having seen the carcase as it lay, far too
+long for sensitive nostrils, on the river bank.
+
+As already stated, Molson’s _Accommodation_ began to ply between
+Montreal and Quebec in 1809—two years later than Fulton’s _Clermont_
+on the Hudson, and three years earlier than Bell’s _Comet_ on the
+Clyde. The _Accommodation_ proved a fairly successful commercial
+venture, although Mr. Molson did not obtain a monopoly of the business
+as Mr. Fulton had done. She was soon followed by the _Swiftsure_,
+the _Malsham_, the _Car of Commerce_, the _John Molson_, the _Lady
+Sherbrooke_, and other steamboats. The last-named was 170 feet long,
+34 feet beam, and 10 feet in depth, with a sixty-three horse-power
+side-lever engine. A much better service had now been instituted, for
+up to about 1818 many preferred to drive all the way from Montreal to
+Quebec in caleches over rough roads. Now, however, that the steamboats
+had comfortable cabins, and canvas awnings over their decks, they
+secured nearly all the through passenger traffic. About the year 1823
+several powerful tow-boats were built, which also carried passengers.
+After these the _Waterloo_ and the _John Molson_ of the Molson Line,
+the _St. George_, the _British America_ and the _Canada_, owned by John
+Torrance & Co., and other boats of larger dimensions, having better
+passenger accommodation and higher speed, followed in rapid succession.
+The _Waterloo_ foundered in Lake St. Peter, and was replaced by the
+_John Bull_, a fine boat of 190 feet in length, but which was burned
+in 1838. The _John Bull_ used too much coal to be profitable, and
+the saying that she made most money when lying at anchor, arose from
+the fact that, anchored off the city, she was repeatedly used as the
+official residence of the Governor-General, Lord Durham. The _Canada_,
+which came out in 1837, was 240 feet long, and was accounted the
+largest and fastest steamer then afloat in the New World. In 1840 the
+_Lord Sydenham_ (the former _Ontario_) and the _Lady Colborne_ ran
+as the mail boats to Quebec. About 1845 several famous boats were
+built—the _Rowland Hill_, Mr. Torrance’s _Montreal_, Wilson Connoly’s
+_Quebec_, the _Queen_ and the _John Munn_—all upper cabin boats of
+high speed. The _John Munn_ was longer than any previous, or, indeed,
+any subsequent, river steamer on the St. Lawrence, being 400 feet in
+length. Her boilers were placed on either guard, as the fashion then
+was, and a huge walking-beam in the centre. She was too large for the
+trade. After running a few years she was broken up, and her magnificent
+engines were sent to New York. The _Montreal_, also a large and fine
+steamer, was lost in a snow-storm near Batiscan, in November, 1853, and
+was replaced by the _Lord Sydenham_, afterwards lengthened to 250 feet,
+and renamed the _Montreal_.
+
+The first iron steamers came into use on the St. Lawrence in 1843,
+namely, the _Prince Albert_ and _Iron Duke_, which at that time began
+to ply as ferry-boats to Laprairie and St. Lambert, in connection
+with the Champlain and St. Lawrence railway service. These boats were
+designed in Scotland, sent out in segments, and were put together by
+Parkins, of the St. Mary Foundry, Montreal.
+
+The Richelieu Steamboat Company, formed in 1845, commenced business by
+running a market boat to Sorel. In 1856 they put two small steamers on
+the through line to Quebec, the _Napoleon_ and the _Victoria_. About
+this time Messrs. Tate Brothers, ship-builders, in Montreal, purchased
+the _Lady Colborne_, renamed her the _Crescent_, and coupling her with
+the _Lady Elgin_, started a fourth line of steamers to ply between
+Montreal and Quebec. The business had already been overdone, and
+this was the last straw that breaks the camel’s back. The opposition
+had gone far enough when it had reduced the cabin fare to $1.00,
+including meals and stateroom, and the steerage passage to 12½ cents!
+The excitement that prevailed at this time was intense. The arrival
+and departure of the boats at either end of the route were scenes
+of indescribable confusion. Vast crowds of people assembled on the
+wharves, while clouds of smoke issuing from the funnels and the roar
+of escaping steam plainly indicated that the stokers were doing their
+level best to burst the boilers. This vicious and ruinous opposition
+was brought to an end by a tragic occurrence, the burning of the
+steamer _Montreal_.
+
+On a fine summer evening in June, 1857, while on her voyage from Quebec
+with a load of over 400 passengers, most of whom were emigrants from
+Scotland, who had just completed a long sea voyage, and were gazing
+with interest on the shores that in anticipation were to offer them
+happy homes, suddenly the cry of “Fire!” was raised. Clouds of smoke
+burst out from between decks. A panic ensued. Groups of men and women
+clung to each other in despair, imploring help that was not to be
+found; then a wild rush, with the terrible alternative of devouring
+flames and the cold water below. Two hundred and fifty-three persons
+perished; and all the more sadly that the calamity was traced by
+public opinion and the press of the day to “culpable recklessness
+and disregard of human life.” A truce to ruinous opposition ensued.
+An amicable arrangement was reached, by which superfluous boats were
+withdrawn. The bulk of the passenger business fell to the Richelieu
+Company, which continued for a number of years to do a lucrative trade,
+paying handsome annual dividends to its shareholders.
+
+In 1875 an amalgamation was effected with the Canadian Steam Navigation
+Company (the old Upper Canada Line), under the name of the Richelieu
+and Ontario Navigation Company, which has become one of the largest
+enterprises of the kind in America, having a paid-up capital of
+$1,350,000, a fleet of twenty-four steamers, and operating a continuous
+line of navigation a thousand miles in length. The _Montreal_ and
+_Quebec_, which ply between the cities from which they are named,
+though more than thirty years old, still have a high reputation for
+speed and comfort. They are each over 300 feet long, and have an
+average speed of about sixteen miles an hour. They have each ample
+sleeping accommodation for some 300 cabin passengers. They make their
+trips during the night. Supper on board either of these steamers is an
+event to be remembered.
+
+The head office of the Richelieu and Ontario Company is in Montreal.
+The General Manager is Mr. C. F. Gildersleeve. Mr. Alexander Milloy,
+the Traffic Manager, who was born in Kintyre, Scotland, in 1822, came
+to Canada in 1840, when he entered the Montreal office of the Upper
+Canada Line of mail steamers, and continued his connection with the
+company, amid all its changes, until May, 1898, when he retired from
+the service.
+
+
+ON THE OTTAWA RIVER.
+
+The navigation of the Ottawa differed from that of the St. Lawrence
+in that its rapids were wholly impassable for boats with cargo. The
+necessity for canals thus became urgent. The original Grenville Canal
+was designed and commenced by the Royal Engineers for the Imperial
+Government, and was completed in 1832, simultaneously with the Rideau
+Canal. It was enlarged by the Dominion Government a few years ago, but
+it is not yet of sufficient capacity to allow the free passage of the
+larger steamers on this route. Travellers are therefore subject to
+transhipment at Carillon, and are conveyed by railway to Grenville, a
+distance of thirteen miles, where another steamer is ready to convey
+them to Ottawa. This little bit of railway is one of the oldest in
+Canada, and is further remarkable as being the only one of 5 feet 6
+inches gauge in the country. It was purchased by the Ottawa River
+Navigation Company in 1859, and is operated only in connection with
+their steamers, not being used in winter.
+
+[Illustration: OTTAWA RIVER STEAMER “SOVEREIGN.”]
+
+The completion of the Grenville Canal in its original form opened up
+a new route to the West, somewhat circuitous, doubtless, but with
+greatly increased facilities for the transportation of merchandise, the
+immediate effect of which was to transfer the great bulk of west-bound
+traffic from the St. Lawrence route to that of the Ottawa and Rideau.
+About this time was formed “The Ottawa and Rideau Forwarding Company,”
+by leading merchants in Montreal, with Mr. Cushing as manager. A few
+years later the forwarding business became a lucrative one, and was
+carried on by a number of prominent firms represented at Montreal,
+Prescott, Brockville and Kingston. Chief among these were the Messrs.
+Macpherson, Crane & Co., Hooker & Jones, Henderson & Hooker (afterwards
+Hooker & Holton), H. & J. Jones of Brockville, and Murray & Sanderson
+of Montreal. Messrs. Macpherson and Crane were easily the foremost in
+the enterprise, for they owned a private lock at Vaudreuil and thus
+held the key to the navigation of the Ottawa, and had complete control
+of the towage until 1841, when Captain R. W. Shepherd, then in command
+of the steamer _St. David_, belonging to a rival company, as the
+result of a clever and hazardous experiment, discovered a safe channel
+through the rapids at St. Ann’s, which put an end to the monopoly.
+
+Up to 1832 the long portage between Carillon and Grenville was a
+serious drawback to traffic, necessitating a double service of steamers
+and barges, one for the upper and one for the lower reach of the
+river. The first steamer on the upper reach seems to have been the
+_Union_, Captain Johnson, built in 1819, and which commenced to ply the
+following year between Grenville and Hull, covering the distance of
+sixty miles in about 24 hours! On the lower reach the _William King_
+began to ply about 1826 or 1827, at first commanded by Captain Johnson,
+afterwards by Captain De Hertel. The _St. Andrew_ followed soon after.
+In 1828 the _Shannon_, then considered a large and powerful steamer,
+was built at Hawkesbury and placed on the upper route, commanded at
+first by Captain Grant and afterwards by Captain Kaines.
+
+At the height of the forwarding business on the Ottawa, Macpherson
+& Crane owned a fleet of thirteen steamers and a large number of
+bateaux and barges, which were towed up the Ottawa and through the
+Rideau Canal to Kingston, the entire distance being 245 miles. The
+flotilla would make the round trip, returning _via_ the St. Lawrence,
+in twelve or fourteen days. The steamers engaged in this service
+were mostly small, high-pressure boats—commonly called “puffers.”
+At the first the noise which they made, especially the unearthly
+shriek of their steam-whistles, scared the natives as well as the
+cattle along the banks of the river. The passengers were usually
+accommodated in the barges in tow of the steamers, but as time went
+on a few of the “puffers” attained the dignity of passenger boats,
+and, when unencumbered with tows, made the round trip in a week. The
+writer well remembers making the trip in the early forties on the
+_Charlotte_, Captain Marshall, and a very pleasant trip it was, the
+chief attractions being the long chain of locks at the small village
+of Bytown—soon to become the beautiful capital of the Dominion; the
+big dam at Jones’ Falls, with its retaining wall three hundred feet in
+thickness at the base and ninety feet high; the marvellous scenery of
+the Lake of the Thousand Islands, and, as the climax, what was then the
+novelty of shooting the rapids on a steamboat. Captain Howard informed
+me that the first steamer to shoot the “lost channel” of the Long Sault
+rapids was the old _Gildersleeve_ of Mr. Hamilton’s line, in command of
+Captain Maxwell and piloted by one Rankin. That was in 1847, and was
+considered a daring feat at the time, but it established the safety of
+the new channel which has ever since been used by the larger passenger
+steamers. No one, however, can form an adequate idea of the grandeur of
+this raging torrent who has not made the descent upon a raft; though,
+speaking from experience, this mode of shooting the “lost channel” is
+not to be recommended to persons of weak nerves.
+
+It is said that in 1836 a steamboat named the _Thomas Mackay_ plied
+between Quebec and Ottawa, but its journeyings seem to have been
+erratic and its subsequent history “lost in obscurity”—a phrase that
+applies in some degree, indeed, to the early history of steam on the
+Ottawa. The _St. David_ was the only steamer that could pass through
+the Grenville Canal in 1841. The first truly passenger service on the
+Ottawa commenced in 1842 with the _Oldfield_ on the lower route and
+the _Porcupine_ on the upper. In 1846 the _Oldfield_ was purchased by
+Captain Shepherd and others who formed a private company named the
+“Ottawa Steamers Company.” The steamer _Ottawa Chief_ was built by that
+company in 1848, but she was found to draw too much water, and in the
+following spring was chartered by Mr. Hamilton and placed on the St.
+Lawrence route. The _Lady Simpson_, built in 1850, was the precursor of
+a number of excellent steamers that have made travelling on the Ottawa
+popular with all classes. Among these were the _Atlas_, _Prince of
+Wales_ (which ran for twenty-four years), _Queen Victoria_, _Dagmar_,
+_Alexandra_, etc. The reputation of the line is well sustained at
+present by the _Empress_, Captain Bowie, and the _Sovereign_, Captain
+Henry W. Shepherd, both very fine and fast steel boats of 400 and 300
+tons, respectively. Other steamers in commission and employed in the
+local trade bear such loyal names as _Maude_, _Princess_ and _Duchess
+of York_.
+
+[Illustration: CAPTAIN R. W. SHEPHERD.]
+
+Captain Robert Ward Shepherd retired from active service in 1853, when
+he was appointed General Manager of the line. In 1864 the Steamers
+Company was incorporated by Act of Parliament under the name it now
+bears, the Ottawa River Navigation Company, of which Mr. Shepherd was
+President as long as he lived. Mr. Shepherd was born at Sherringham,
+County Norfolk, England, in 1819. He died at his country seat at Como,
+Quebec, August 29th, 1895, having been for fifty-five years closely
+identified with the progress of steam navigation on the Ottawa, and
+having earned for himself a high reputation. His brother, Captain H.
+W. Shepherd, who succeeded him in the command of the _Lady Simpson_
+in 1853, is now the commodore of the fleet—the oldest and most
+experienced captain on the Ottawa, who in all these years has not been
+chargeable for any accident to life or limb of the many thousands who
+have been committed to his care. The head office of the company is in
+Montreal, Mr. R. W. Shepherd, a son of the founder, being the Managing
+Director.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+IN THE PROVINCE OF ONTARIO.[62]
+
+As already mentioned in the previous chapter, the _Frontenac_ and the
+_Queen Charlotte_ were the first two steamers in Upper Canada, launched
+respectively in 1816 and 1818. In 1824 another steamer was built for
+Hon. Robert Hamilton—the _Queenston_, of 350 tons—which was at first
+commanded by Captain Joseph Whitney and plied between Prescott, York
+and Niagara. The _Canada_, Captain Hugh Richardson, came out in 1826
+and used to run from York to Niagara (36 miles) in four hours. The
+famous _Alciope_, of 450 tons, Captain Mackenzie, appeared in 1828, and
+plied with great _éclat_ between Niagara, York, and Kingston, under the
+Hamilton flag.
+
+The late Hon. John Hamilton, who for many years may almost be said
+to have controlled the passenger traffic on the Upper Canada route,
+commenced his connection with the steamboat business about the year
+1830, when he built the _Great Britain_, of 700 tons, the largest
+vessel then on the lake. After this there was a rapid succession of
+steamers, and some very fine ones. The _Cobourg_, of 500 tons, Captain
+Macintosh, came out in 1833; the _Commodore Barrie_, 275 tons, Captain
+Patterson, in 1834. The _Sir Robert Peel_, 350 tons, one of the finest
+boats then on the lake, was seized and burned on the night of May
+29th, 1838, by a gang of rebels headed by the notorious Bill Johnson.
+The _Queen Victoria_, Thomas Dick, commander, launched in 1837, was
+advertised to sail daily between Lewiston, Niagara and Toronto,
+connecting at Toronto with the _William IV._ for Kingston and Prescott.
+“This splendid fast sailing steamer is fitted up in elegant style,
+and is offered to the public as a speedy and safe conveyance.” The
+_Sovereign_, 500 tons, Captain Elmsley, R.N., Captain Dick’s _City of
+Toronto_, and the famous _Highlander_, Captain Stearns, began to run
+about 1840. The _Chief Justice Robinson,_ Captain Wilder, the _Princess
+Royal_, Captain Twohey, and Captain Sutherland’s _Eclipse_ were all
+noted steamers in their day. The _Traveller_ and the _William IV._,
+Captain Paynter, both powerful steamers, famous also for many years,
+ended their careers as tow-boats, the latter being conspicuous by her
+four funnels.
+
+“These steamers, and others that could be named,” says one of my
+informants, “bring to mind good seaworthy ships, fit for any weather
+and commanded by able seamen. Nor was the steward’s department
+unworthy of the vessels. As good a breakfast and dinner was served
+on board as could be desired.” Such were some of the early steamboats
+in Upper Canada more than fifty years ago, for which the public are
+indebted to the Hon. John Hamilton, Mr. Alpheus Jones, of Prescott, Mr.
+Donald Bethune, of Cobourg, and Mr. Heron, of Niagara, as well as to
+Captains Dick, Sutherland and Richardson.
+
+[Illustration: OLD “WILLIAM IV.,” 1832.]
+
+Up to 1837 the lake steamers did not venture farther down than
+Kingston, but about that time they commenced running through the Lake
+of the Thousand Islands to Prescott. From that point the small steamer
+_Dolphin_ sailed every morning for the head of the Long Sault rapids,
+enabling passengers to reach Montreal the same evening. The route was
+from Dickenson’s Landing to Cornwall by stage, thence through Lake St.
+Francis by steamer to Coteau du Lac, thence by stage over a plank road
+to the Cascades, where the quaint old steamer _Chieftain_ would be
+waiting to convey passengers to Lachine to be driven thence in a coach
+and six to Montreal. It was not until 1848, when the enlarged Lachine
+Canal was opened, that the Upper Canada steamers began to run all the
+rapids of the St. Lawrence as they now do.
+
+In 1840 Mr. Hamilton had built a powerful steamer, the _Ontario_,
+with the expectation that she might be able to ascend the rapids,
+but failing in this she was sold to a Montreal firm and placed on
+the Quebec route. The _Ontario_ descended all the rapids of the
+St. Lawrence safely on the 19th of October, 1840, being the first
+large steamer to do so. _Facile descensus!_ It is not recorded that
+more than one steamer ever succeeded in ascending those rapids. In
+November, 1838, the little _Dolphin_, after four weeks of incessant
+toil, was towed up the Long Sault rapids with the aid of twenty yoke
+of oxen, besides horses, capstans and men, added to the working of
+her engine—the first and probably the last steamer that will ever
+accomplish the feat. About this time the _Iroquois_, with one large
+stern-wheel, was built for the purpose of stemming the swift currents
+between Prescott and Dickenson’s Landing, but had so much difficulty
+in ascending the river that at Rapide Plat and other points posts were
+sunk at short distances along the shore to each of which she made fast
+in turn until she recovered her breath.
+
+[Illustration: “PASSPORT,” SHOOTING THE RAPIDS IN HER FIFTIETH YEAR.]
+
+The completion of the canals prepared the way for a larger class of
+steamers between Lake Ontario and Montreal, and the “Royal Mail Line”
+was accordingly re-enforced. The _Passport_ was built of iron on the
+Clyde and brought out in sections in 1847, and is still in commission
+and in good running order. The _Magnet_, also built of iron and on the
+Clyde, and in which Captain Sutherland had a large pecuniary interest,
+came out shortly after the _Passport_, and under the name of the
+_Hamilton_, in command of Captain A. J. Baker, is now, in her green
+old age, and with her hull as sound as a bell, performing a weekly
+service between Montreal and Hamilton. The _Kingston_, since named
+the _Algerian_, followed in 1855, and was first commanded by Captain
+Clarke Hamilton, now of H. M. Customs at Kingston. About this time
+the _Brockville_, Captain Day, the _Gildersleeve_, Captain Bowen, the
+_Banshee_, Captain Howard, and the _Lord Elgin_, Captain Farlinger,
+were well-known and favourite boats.
+
+The fifteen years from 1840 to 1855 were the most prosperous in the
+history of steam navigation on Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence. The
+Americans had at that time several lines of steamers plying between
+Ogdensburg, Oswego, Rochester and Lewiston. Some of these were large
+and very fine passenger steamers, such as the _United States_, the
+_Bay State_, the _New York_, the _Rochester_, the _Lady of the Lake_,
+the _Northerner_, the _Cataract_, and the _Niagara_. The Great Western
+Railway Company had also a fleet of splendid steamers—the _Canada_,
+the _America_, the _Europa_ and the _Western World_. At the breaking
+out of the American civil war, most of these vessels and some others
+were purchased by the United States Government and taken round to New
+York. Their places on the lake are now occupied by numerous screw
+propellers, chiefly doing a freight business, but many of them having
+excellent accommodation for passengers also.
+
+The opening of the Grand Trunk Railway in 1855 proved disastrous to the
+steamboat interests. Mr. Hamilton, as well as many others, struggled
+gallantly for a time, endeavouring to stem the tide of competition
+with the new system of transportation, but about the year 1862 he was
+obliged to retire from the business which he had created and carried
+on successfully for thirty years. The steamers in which he had a large
+personal interest were sold to a joint stock company, which was named
+the “Canadian Steam Navigation Company.” Mr. Hamilton was appointed
+General Manager of the new company; Sir Hugh Allan, President, and
+Alexander Milloy. Secretary-Treasurer. A few years later Captain Thomas
+Howard became Superintendent of the line, a position which he held
+until 1881, when he was appointed Harbour-master in Montreal. He died
+in Montreal on Easter Sunday, 1898. In 1875 the company united with the
+Richelieu Company, as already stated.
+
+[Illustration: “CORONA,” ON NIAGARA RIVER, 1896.]
+
+_Lake Ontario._—The volume of steam traffic on Lake Ontario at the
+present time, though not to be compared with that on the Upper Lakes,
+is by no means inconsiderable. From the official “Report of Trade
+and Navigation of the Dominion for 1895,” the arrival and departure
+of steamers at eighteen ports of entry on Lake Ontario, either as
+coasting vessels or as trading with the United States, was 17,558, and
+an aggregate of 6,443,443 registered tonnage; to which must be added
+the large amount of steam shipping that frequents the harbours on the
+American side of the lake, as at Lewiston, Oswego, Sackett’s Harbour,
+Cape Vincent, and that descends the St. Lawrence to Ogdensburg.
+Niagara heads the list on the Canadian side with 3,198 arrivals and
+departures, and 1,581,643 tonnage. Toronto, with 3,844 arrivals and
+departures, counts for 1,569,123 steam tonnage; Kingston stands third,
+with 3,563 vessels, and 882,414 tonnage. Hamilton is represented by
+427,100 tonnage. After these come Belleville, Picton, Cobourg, Port
+Hope, Deseronto and Port Dalhousie, in the order named, and eight other
+smaller ports, each contributing its quota.
+
+Toronto is largely interested in steam navigation. Not to speak of
+numerous steam yachts, ferry steamers and tug-boats, it controls a
+large passenger traffic. The Niagara Navigation Company of Toronto has
+three very fine steamers running to Niagara and Lewiston—the _Chicora_,
+_Chippewa_ and _Corona_. The _Chicora_ was built in England, as a
+“blockade runner,” more than thirty years ago, but the civil war was
+ended before she reached this side of the Atlantic. She is an iron
+side-wheel vessel of 518 tons, with a rakish, Old-Country look about
+her. The _Chippewa_, built at Hamilton, Ont., in 1893, is a very fine
+paddle-wheel steamer of 850 tons, modelled somewhat after the Hudson
+River boats, with a conspicuous walking-beam. The latest addition
+to the fleet is the _Corona_, launched in May, 1896, from the noted
+ship-building yard of the Polsons, Toronto, which takes the place of
+the _Cibola_, a Clyde-built steel steamer, put together by the Rathbun
+Company, Deseronto, in 1887, and which was burned at Lewiston in
+1895. The _Corona_ is claimed by her owners to be “a model of marine
+architecture, and one of the finest day-steamers in the world!” Though
+only 277 feet long, and 32 feet beam (59 feet over the guards), she
+carries nearly two thousand passengers. The hull is constructed of
+open hearth steel. The engine is of the inclined compound condensing
+type, and develops nearly two thousand indicated horse-power. The
+mechanical fittings are all of the most approved kind, and the internal
+arrangements highly artistic.
+
+The Hamilton Steamboat Company has two fine powerful screw steamers,
+the _Macassa_ and _Modjeska_, plying between Hamilton and Toronto. Both
+were built on the Clyde, and have been very successful financially,
+and also as seaworthy, fast sailing vessels. Kingston, which occupies
+an important position at the foot of the lake and head of the river
+navigation, owns a fleet of no less than forty-six steamers, and is the
+headquarters of half a dozen steamboat companies, some of which are
+largely interested in the Lake Superior trade, while others connect
+Kingston with ports on the Bay of Quinte, Rochester and Cape Vincent,
+N. Y., and Gananoque and the Thousand Islands. The _James Swift_ plies
+between Kingston and Ottawa, _via_ the Rideau Canal. The _Passport_,
+the oldest steamer now afloat in Canada, is registered at Kingston, and
+was built, as already stated, in 1847.
+
+[Illustration: HON. JOHN HAMILTON.]
+
+The Hon. John Hamilton, whose name is so intimately associated with
+the rise and progress of steam navigation in Western Canada, was
+born at Queenston, Ontario, in 1802—the seventh and youngest son of
+the Hon. Robert Hamilton, formerly of Edinburgh. One of the sons
+founded the city of Hamilton, another attained distinction in the
+medical profession. John devoted the greater part of his life to the
+development of commerce between Montreal and the cities and towns
+bordering on Lake Ontario, having his headquarters at Kingston. Mr.
+Hamilton was a man of fine presence and highly accomplished; was called
+to the Legislative Council of Upper Canada by Sir John Colborne in
+1831, and to the Senate of the new Dominion, by writ of Her Majesty’s
+sign-manual, in 1867. He was an influential member of the Presbyterian
+Church, and many years chairman of the Board of Trustees of Queen’s
+College, Kingston. He died in 1882.
+
+
+IN MANITOBA.[63]
+
+The first steamer to ply on the Red River was brought in pieces
+across the country from a tributary of the Mississippi, and rebuilt
+at Georgetown, a small place some twenty miles north of the present
+town of Moorhead. The boat was called, before its transportation, the
+_Anson Northrup_, and was afterwards known as the _Pioneer_. She began
+her career on the Red River in 1859, and in that year took a cargo to
+Fort Garry. She was the joint property of the Hudson’s Bay Company and
+Messrs. J. C. and H. C. Burbank & Co., of St. Paul, Minnesota. (A cut
+of this steamer may be seen in a book called “The Winnipeg Country,”
+published by Cupples, Upham & Co., Boston.)
+
+The next steamer was the _International_, built at Georgetown, in
+1861, for the Hudson’s Bay Company, at a cost of about $20,000. Her
+length was 160 feet, breadth 30 feet, depth (from the water-line to the
+ceiling of her upper saloon) 20 feet, and her registered tonnage was
+133⅓ tons. She was found to be too large for the Red River navigation.
+The same company’s steamer, the _Northcote_, commenced to ply on the
+Saskatchewan about 1875. In 1878 there were running on the waters of
+Manitoba seventeen steamers, among which were the _Manitoba_, _Dakota_,
+_Selkirk_, _Swallow_, _Minnesota_, _Prince Rupert_, _Keewatin_, etc.
+
+The Hudson’s Bay Company at that time owned a propeller which ran on
+Lake Winnipeg to the portage at the mouth of the Saskatchewan, where
+connection was made with the _Northcote_ and a steel-built steamer, the
+_Lilly_. This company had also another steamer plying on the Red River,
+named the _Chief Commissioner_.
+
+Since the opening of the country by railways the navigation of the
+Upper Red River and the Assiniboine has been of small account, but
+below Selkirk there is still a considerable trade carried on. There
+are at least half a dozen companies interested in the navigation of
+these waters. The North-West Navigation Company runs three steamers,
+the _Princess_, 350 tons; the _Red River_, 200 tons; the _Marquette_,
+160 tons, and a number of barges. The Selkirk Fish Company owns the
+_Sultana_, of 200 tons; the Manitoba Fish Company has the _City of
+Selkirk_, of 160 tons. Besides these there is a numerous fleet of
+steam-tugs and barges. In all there are some fifty steamers on these
+inland waters. During the palmy days of Red River transportation the
+leading name was that of Norman W. Kittson, at that time of St. Paul,
+Minnesota, but formerly a trader of the old Red River settlement, who
+was often familiarly called “Commodore Kittson.”
+
+
+IN BRITISH COLUMBIA.[64]
+
+The pioneer steamship of the Northern Pacific was the _Beaver_, whose
+history from first to last was a very romantic one. This vessel was
+built at Blackwall, on the Thames, by Messrs. Green, Wigram and Green,
+for the Hudson’s Bay Company, and was launched in 1835 in the presence
+of 150,000 spectators, including William IV. and many of the English
+nobility. Cheers from thousands again greeted her in answer to the
+farewell salute of her guns when she sailed away for the New World.
+The _Beaver_ was a side-wheel steamer, 101.4 feet long, 20 feet beam,
+and 11 feet deep; tonnage, 109. Her machinery, made by Boulton & Watt,
+was placed in position, but the paddle-wheels were not attached.
+She was rigged as a brig, and on August 27th sailed for the Pacific
+under canvas, in command of Captain Home, with the barque _Columbia_
+as her consort. On March 19th, 1836, the _Beaver_ dropped anchor at
+the mouth of the Columbia River, having made the voyage in 204 days.
+In her log-book it is recorded on May 16th: “Carpenters stripping
+paddle-wheels. At 4 p. m. engineers got up steam, tried the engines,
+and found to answer very well; at 5 o’clock, came to anchor, and moored
+in our old berth; at 8 o’clock all hands were mustered to ‘splice the
+main brace’”—a nautical phrase used in reference to the custom, less
+common now than then, of celebrating particular events by serving out
+a liberal supply of rum. The _Beaver_ went into service without delay,
+running up and down the coast, in and out of every bay, river and inlet
+between Puget Sound and Alaska, collecting furs and carrying goods for
+the company’s posts.
+
+[Illustration: THE LAST OF THE OLD “BEAVER.”]
+
+On March 13th, 1843, the _Beaver_ arrived at Camosun with Factor
+Douglas and some of the Hudson’s Bay Company’s people to found the Fort
+Victoria, and the first salute which echoed in what is now Victoria
+harbour, was fired on the 13th of June, when the fort was finished and
+the company’s flag hoisted.[65] “The old steamer _Beaver_,” as she was
+called, continued her rounds under different owners with remarkable
+regularity and success until the fatal trip in July, 1888, when she
+went on the rocks near the entrance to Vancouver harbour, and was
+totally wrecked.
+
+[Illustration: THE STERNWHEELER “NELSON,” AT NELSON, B. C.]
+
+It was fourteen years after the arrival of the _Beaver_ before much
+effort was made at steam-boating in these waters. About that time
+several small steamers were built on the Columbia River. In 1852 the
+Hudson’s Bay Company had another vessel built at Blackwall: this was
+the _Otter_, a screw steamer of 220 tons, with a pair of condensing
+engines by Penn, of Greenwich, which took the first prize at the
+London Exhibition in 1851. The _Otter_ left London in January 1853,
+and arrived at Victoria five months later. The year 1858 witnessed a
+boom in steam navigation, consequent upon the rush and wild excitement
+of gold-seekers to the Fraser River and Cariboo. “The _Surprise_ first
+woke the echoes in the grand mountain gorges in the wild regions of
+Fort Hope with the shrill scream of the steam-whistle, and astonished
+the natives with her wondrous power in breasting successfully the
+fierce current of the now world-renowned Fraser. That wild and
+unearthly yell of the imprisoned steam escaping into the free air of
+heaven must have astonished the denizens of those mountain fastnesses
+and startled man and beast into the belief that some uncanny visitor,
+not of earth, had dropped in upon their solitude.” The _Surprise_ was
+followed by a fleet of small steamboats built in the United States.
+Among those were the _Ranger_ and _Maria_—mere steam launches of about
+40 feet in length. The _Maria_ was brought up from San Francisco in
+a barge. The first boat built in British Columbia was the _Governor
+Douglas_, a good-sized sternwheeler which commenced to ply between
+Victoria and the Fraser River in 1859. Among the other notable boats
+were the Seabird and the _Eliza Anderson_. The former carried immense
+crowds, but drew too much water for the river trade. The latter was
+a side-wheeler, built in Portland, 140 feet long, and of registered
+tonnage, 279. On her arrival at Victoria in 1859 she commenced a career
+of money-making which has seldom been equalled. After these appeared
+the _Umatilla_, _Enterprise_ and _Colonel Moody_, the last-named being
+the fastest yet built for this route. All the light-draught boats
+were then, as they are now, stern-wheelers. About this time another
+and larger vessel arrived from London, the _Labouchere_, a side-wheel
+steamer, of 680 tons register, 202 feet long, 28 feet beam, and 15 feet
+hold. She continued running up north until 1865, when she was granted
+a subsidy of $1,500 a trip to carry mails between Victoria and San
+Francisco, but was lost on her first voyage. In 1861 more steamboats
+were built than in any previous year. Nearly a dozen were added to
+those already plying on the rivers and lakes, and the subsequent
+progress in steam navigation was continuous. The entrance of mining
+prospectors into the Kootenay country in 1886 led to the necessity of
+increased transportation on the Columbia River, which has gone on
+increasing until now on that river and the Kootenay lakes there are
+some of the finest river steamers in the Dominion, fitted with every
+comfort and appliance that experience can suggest. The development of
+the coast wise trade has also led to the building of special steamers
+both in British Columbia and also in England. The coal mines at Nanaimo
+and the Comox district also find employment for a large quantity of
+steam tonnage.[66] The aggregate amount at the four ports of Victoria,
+Vancouver, Nanaimo, and Westminster for 1895 was: Arrivals, 1,496,409
+tons; departures, 1,513,233 tons. There are at present registered in
+British Columbia 161 steamboats with a tonnage of 24,153.
+
+Besides the inland steamers there are coasting lines from Victoria and
+Vancouver to Portland and San Francisco, and to Puget Sound and Alaska.
+There are also four regular lines of steamships to Japan and China,
+namely, the Canadian Pacific Steamship Company, with its beautiful
+fleet of “Empress” steamers; the Northern Pacific Steamship Company;
+the Oregon R. R. and Navigation Company, and the Nipon Yunen Kaisha of
+Japan. There is also the direct line of steamers to Australia elsewhere
+referred to. The number of vessels in the different lines is uncertain,
+as they are increased by chartered boats whenever there is much freight
+moving.
+
+
+IN NOVA SCOTIA.[67]
+
+The harbour of Halifax is one of the finest in the world. It is easy
+of access and open all the year round. It is nearly six hundred miles
+nearer to Liverpool than is New York, and has therefore many advantages
+to offer as a point of arrival and departure for ocean steamers. It is
+the centre of an extensive local and coasting trade, in which a large
+number of both steamers and sailing vessels are employed. The number of
+arrivals of sea-going vessels in 1895 was 978, with a gross tonnage of
+627,572 tons; the number of arrivals of coasting vessels was 3,651, of
+which 496 were steamers, with a tonnage of 153,790 tons. The number of
+steamers registered in the port is 55, with a gross tonnage of 10,912
+tons. The steam tonnage which entered the port in 1896 was 212,085; the
+clearances were 229,653 tons.
+
+The first steamer to enter this renowned harbour was the _Royal
+William_ (Captain John Jones, R. N.), from Quebec, August 24th, 1831,
+which arrived here on the morning of the 31st and was welcomed with
+great _éclat_. The trip was made in six days and a half, including two
+days’ detention at Miramichi. The cabin fare was £6 5s., including
+meals and berths. Having been built for this trade, the _Royal William_
+made a number of successful voyages between Quebec and Halifax,
+calling at intermediate ports previous to her historic voyage across
+the Atlantic, which was to proclaim her the pioneer of ocean steam
+navigation!
+
+The Cunard Line commenced to call at Halifax fortnightly _en route_ to
+Boston, in 1840. The _Britannia_ was the first of that famous fleet
+to enter the harbour of Halifax. This arrangement did not last very
+long, however, for, on making New York their western terminus, the
+Cunarders gave “the finest harbour” the go-by, never to return except
+in cases of emergency. There are, however, some fifteen or sixteen
+lines of steamers plying regularly from Halifax to Britain, the United
+States, the West Indies, South America, Newfoundland, and Canadian
+ports. During the winter months the Beaver Line, carrying the Canadian
+mails, calls here weekly _en route_ from St. John, N. B., to Liverpool.
+The Allan Line from Liverpool to Philadelphia, _via_ Newfoundland,
+touches here once a fortnight going and coming. The Furness Line has
+excellent steamers sailing fortnightly from London to Newfoundland
+and Halifax. The Canada and Newfoundland Line also maintains a good
+service from Halifax to St. John’s, Liverpool and London; the Jones
+Line to Jamaica; the Pickford and Black Line to Bermuda and the West
+Indies; the Musgrave Line to Havana. The Red Cross Line from New York
+to Newfoundland calls here; besides, a number of coasting steamers
+to Cape Breton, Newfoundland, Yarmouth, Bridgewater, St. Pierre and
+other places call at Halifax, while the Canada Atlantic and Plant Line
+supplies a direct route to Boston and all points in the United States.
+
+Many “tramp” steamers call at Halifax with freight or for freight.
+Many call for coal. Many a storm-tossed mariner is glad to make for
+Halifax and to find in it a secure harbour of refuge, with all needful
+appliances for refitting a battered ship. The whole coast of Nova
+Scotia, indeed, is indented with harbours of refuge, which are the
+resorts of large numbers of sailing craft. The graving-dock at Halifax
+is the largest on this continent. It was completed in 1889 by a private
+company, subsidized by the Imperial and Federal Governments and the
+city of Halifax to the extent of about $30,000. It is 585 feet in
+length, 89¼ feet wide at the entrance, and has 30 feet of water on the
+sills. It is adapted for steamships of the _Teutonic_ class, but is 35
+feet too short for the _Lucania_. A few months ago it had the honour
+of accommodating within its walls the _Indiana_, one of the largest
+of the United States ships of war, sent here for repairs. There are
+three other graving-docks, the property of the Dominion Government, as
+follows:[68]
+
+    At Esquimalt, B. C., built in 1886, 430 × 65 × 26½ feet.
+    "  Kingston, Ont.,      "     1871, 280 × 55 × 16½   "
+    "  Levis, Que.,         "     1887, 445 × 62 × 26½   "
+
+
+IN NEW BRUNSWICK.[69]
+
+The first steamboat in New Brunswick, the _General Smyth_, was launched
+from the yard of John Lawton, Portland, St. John, in April, 1816. Her
+owners were John Ward, Hugh Johnson, sen., Lauchlan Donaldson, J. C.
+F. Bremner, of St. John, and Robert Smith, of Fredericton. This vessel
+was run between St. John and Fredericton, making the round trip in a
+week. She started from St. John on her first trip, May 13th, 1816.
+She was a paddle boat. No official description of her is extant, as
+the registry book of that date was burned in the great fire of 1877.
+Later steamboats on this route were the _St. George_, _John Ward_,
+_Fredericton_, _St. John_, _Forest Queen_, _Heather Bell_, _Olive_,
+_Prince Arthur_, _David Weston_, _Rothsay_ (which afterwards ran
+between Montreal and Quebec), the _Fawn_ and _May Queen_.
+
+The second steamer, the _St. George_, was launched on April 23rd, 1895,
+from the yard of John Owens, at Portland, St. John. Her owners were
+John and Charles Ward, of St. John; Jedediah Slason and James Segee,
+of Fredericton—the last-named being the first master of the vessel.
+Her tonnage was 204-17/94; length, 105 feet; greatest breadth, 24
+feet 6½ inches; depth of hold, 8 feet 6 inches. She had one mast, a
+standing bowsprit, square stern, and was carvel built. She had a copper
+boiler, and, like the _General Smyth_, made one trip each way between
+Fredericton and St. John in a week. The _Victoria_, the first steam
+ferry-boat between St. John and Carleton, commenced running September
+5th, 1839.
+
+The pioneer steamboat on the Bay of Fundy was the _St. John_, built at
+Deer Island, N. B., in 1826. In her was placed the machinery of the
+_General Smyth_. Her tonnage was 87-84/94; length, 89 feet; breadth,
+18 feet; depth, 8 feet. Later boats on this route were the _Royal
+Tar_, _Fairy Queen_, _Maid of Erin_, _Pilot_, _Emperor_, _Commodore_,
+_Empress_, _Scud_, _Secret_ and _City of Monticello_. The steamers
+at present running from St. John are: to Digby, the steel paddle SS.
+_Prince Rupert_, 620 tons, having a speed of 18⅞ knots; to Windsor and
+Hantsport, N. S., the _Hiawatha_, 148 tons; to Yarmouth, N. S., the
+_Alpha_, 211 tons; to Grand Manan, the _Flushing_, 174 tons.
+
+The first New Brunswick steamer to ply between St. John and Boston
+was the _Royal Tar_, 256-90/94 tons, Thomas Reed, master, built at
+Carleton in 1835. She was burned in Penobscot Bay, October 25th, 1836,
+on her voyage to Portland, Maine, when thirty-two lives were lost; also
+a whole menagerie with elephants, horses, etc. This service is now
+performed daily by the International Steamship Company of Portland,
+Maine, who have three splendid steamers on the route—the _State of
+Maine_, 818 tons; the _Cumberland_, 896 tons, and the _St. Croix_,
+1,064 tons. On the River St. John there are eight passenger steamers
+and eleven tug-boats. A large number of tugs also ply on the harbour.
+The number of steamers that entered the port during the year ending
+June 30th, 1897, was 823, aggregating 609,319 tons. Of these, 359 were
+ocean and 464 coasting steamers. The lines of ocean steamers plying
+to and from St. John during the winter of 1897-98 were: the Furness
+Line, to London and to the West Indies; the Beaver Line, carrying Her
+Majesty’s mails to Liverpool, _via_ Halifax and Moville; the Allan Line
+and William Thomson & Co.’s boats to London; the Donaldson Line, to
+Glasgow, and the Head Line, to Belfast and Dublin.
+
+Many advantages are claimed for St. John as a winter port for the
+Dominion. In point of distance from Liverpool it has the advantage over
+Portland of 80 miles, and over New York of 450 miles. Halifax is nearer
+England by 200 miles, but the land carriage from the West is much
+greater. St. John is the centre of an extensive lumber business. It is
+connected with Western Canada by both the Intercolonial and Canadian
+Pacific railways. The approach to the harbour is said to be free from
+fogs in the winter months, and ice is altogether unknown in the Bay of
+Fundy. Large sums of money have been expended during the last few years
+in improving the export facilities, and the lieges of St. John see no
+reason why this port should not become the Canadian winter terminus of
+the coming “Fast Line.”
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Captain W. L. Waring, the Inspector of Steamboats in New Brunswick and
+Prince Edward Island, claims that the invention and application of the
+compound steam-engine, which has done so much towards the increase of
+power and lessening the amount of fuel for its production, belongs
+rightfully to Canada. Though experiments had been made in using steam
+twice for the same engine, it was only in 1856 that John Elder, of the
+Fairfield Ship-building Company on the Clyde, reduced it to a practical
+success in Britain, and it was not until 1870 that it came into general
+use. Captain Waring states that the steamer _Reindeer_, 129 feet 9
+inches long, 13 feet 8 inches wide and 8 feet deep, was built by Thomas
+Prichard at Fredericton, N.B., and launched April 20th, 1845, and that
+she was fitted with compound engines, the diameter of the high-pressure
+cylinder being 17 inches, of the low-pressure cylinder 32 inches, and
+the length of stroke 4 feet 9 inches. “This,” says Captain Waring, “was
+the pioneer steamboat with engines using steam the second time. For the
+first four or five years she was not a success. While the principle
+was good, the machinery was defective, and between the incredulity of
+the people and the defects in the machinery she was near being laid up
+as a failure. After a thorough overhaul, it was demonstrated on her
+trial trip—the writer being on board—that she was a success, in proof
+of which the owners of the steamers on the St. John River bought her at
+an advance of four times what they offered for her in the fall.” It is
+added that the _Reindeer’s_ machinery was placed in a new boat called
+the _Antelope_, which proved a great success, being very fast. It was
+next placed in the _Admiral_, where it now is, the original compound
+engine of 1845.
+
+_Honour to whom Honour!_ Mr. Barber states that the first steam
+fog-whistle in the world was started on Partridge Island, at the
+entrance of St. John harbour, in 1860, under the superintendency of Mr.
+T. T. Vernon Smith. “The whistle was made by Mr. James Fleming, of St.
+John, in 1859.”
+
+
+IN PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND.[70]
+
+The smallest of the provinces of the Dominion and the last to enter
+Confederation, in 1873, has long been noted for its marine enterprise,
+its ship-building, and its fisheries. As many as a hundred sea-going
+vessels have been built there in a single year; but iron and steel in
+these days have so largely superseded wood, this branch of industry
+has greatly decreased in Prince Edward Island, which modestly claims
+not much more than 2 per cent. of the registered steam tonnage of the
+Dominion of Canada.
+
+The first steamer to enter any port in Prince Edward Island was a
+tug-boat, built in Pictou for the Albion Mines Coal Company, and
+named after the then manager, _Richard Smith_. She brought over a
+party of excursionists to Charlottetown, on August 5th, 1830, and
+returned the same day. On September 7th, 1831, the famous _Royal
+William_, on her first return voyage from Halifax to Quebec, called at
+Charlottetown, but as the merchants of that place declined to purchase
+the fifty shares of stock in the new enterprise, which they had been
+offered conditionally, she called there no more. On May 11th, 1832,
+a steamer named the _Pocahontas_, built in Pictou, commenced to ply
+between that port and Charlottetown, about fifty miles distant, under
+arrangement with the post-office authorities. This vessel was followed
+at successive intervals by the _Cape Breton_, the _St. George_, the
+_Rose_, and the _Rosebud_, the last three being owned on the Island.
+A fine steamer, the _Lady Marchant_, owned in Richibucto, also made
+Charlottetown a port of call. There were many periods, however, between
+these steamers when communication with the Island had to be kept up
+by sailing schooners, until about 1852, when a regular service was
+commenced by the _Fairy Queen_ and the _Westmoreland_, between Point du
+Chene and Summerside, and thence to Charlottetown and Pictou.
+
+In 1863 the Prince Edward Island Steam Navigation Company was
+organized, and the steamer _Heather Belle_, built in Charlottetown,
+began the service in 1864, followed by the _Princess of Wales_, built
+at St. John, N.B. The _St. Lawrence_ was added in 1868. With these
+three steamers a regular service was maintained between Miramichi,
+Richibucto, Point du Chene, Summerside, Charlottetown, Brulé and
+Pictou, until the railway was opened to Pictou, when the service was
+extended to Port Hood and Hawkesbury, on the Gut of Canso, and to
+Georgetown and Murray Harbour on the Island. Again, on the completion
+of the Cape Breton railway and the extension of the Island railway
+to Georgetown, the service was changed to a daily route between
+Charlottetown and Pictou, and Summerside and Point du Chene, as at
+present. The new steamers, _Northumberland_ and _Princess_, are
+scarcely surpassed for the work they have to do by any steamers in
+Canada, and the company are able to show a record which is probably
+unique—that during thirty-three years not an accident has occurred by
+which a person or a package of freight has been injured.
+
+Some years ago the North Atlantic Steamship Company was organized at
+Charlottetown, with a view of establishing a direct trade with the Old
+Country. The fleet consisted of one steamer only, the _Prince Edward_,
+and as the enterprise did not prove self-sustaining, after having run
+for several seasons the vessel was sold at a considerable loss to the
+shareholders.
+
+
+THE WINTER FERRY.
+
+Prince Edward Island, lying in the southern part of the Gulf of
+St. Lawrence, is separated from the mainland by the Strait of
+Northumberland, which at its narrowest point is about nine miles wide.
+Owing to the accumulation of ice by which this strait is obstructed in
+winter, communication with the Island at that season of the year has
+always been attended with difficulty and not unfrequently with danger.
+For many years the only conveyance for mails and passengers in winter
+was by means of open boats or canoes manned by expert boatmen. Latterly
+these boats, most of which now belong to the Government of Canada, have
+been greatly improved. They now make the passage never less than three
+together, each manned by five able men, and the fleet under the charge
+of an experienced ice-captain. If large ice-fields should be jammed
+between capes Tormentine and Traverse, the crossing may be made without
+putting the boats into the water at all—the men, assisted by the male
+passengers, hauling the boats over the ice by straps fastened to the
+gunwales. When the ice is good the passage may be made in three or four
+hours. At other times lanes of open water occur into which the boats
+are launched and rowed as far as practicable. If there is much “lolly”
+to work through, this entails great loss of time and labour. Or the
+ice may be very rough and hummocky, which makes the crossing difficult
+and tedious. When overtaken by a snow-storm there is danger of losing
+the bearings and of travelling in the wrong direction. There have been
+occasions when parties have been out all night and nearly perished; but
+since the Government has taken charge of the ferry better regulations
+are in force. Each boat carries a fixed number of passengers and a
+limited amount of mail and baggage. This, with carrying compasses,
+provisions, and proper fur wraps, has greatly improved the service.
+
+The ice attached to the shores on either side of the strait extends
+about one mile, leaving seven miles for the ferry, but owing to the
+run of the tide—about four miles an hour—which carries with it, to
+and fro, huge masses of ice, often closely packed, the actual distance
+traversed by the boat is greatly increased. Horses and sleighs await
+the arrival of the boats at the board-ice on either side, when the
+passengers and mails are conveyed to the boat-sheds. For about two
+months every winter this boat service proves the quickest and most
+reliable means of crossing, and it is likely to remain so.
+
+At the time of Confederation the Dominion Government guaranteed to
+provide the Island with a steam ferry service. The first effort to
+carry out the agreement was made by employing an old steamer, the
+_Albert_, to run between Pictou and Georgetown, but she had not
+sufficient power to force her way through the ice. In the meantime the
+_Northern Light_ was being built at Quebec—a vessel of considerable
+power and extraordinary shape. She drew nineteen feet aft, and it was
+intended that her keel, forward, should be above the water-line, but
+owing to a miscalculation as to her displacement, it proved to be some
+two feet below, and this spoiled her for ice-breaking; but on the Whole
+she did good service from 1876 to 1888, although she was often “frozen
+in,” and was for several weeks at a time fast in the ice when full of
+passengers.
+
+The _Stanley_, which succeeded the _Northern Light_, was built in 1888
+at Govan on the Clyde, after the model of similar ice-steamers in
+Norway and Sweden. She has done excellent service, and her powers of
+breaking ice and separating large floes must be seen to be understood
+or believed. That she has not been able to keep up continuous
+communication does not surprise those who know what the Gulf is at
+some seasons of the year. She has made passages when it seemed futile
+to expect it; and while she has been imprisoned in the ice for as
+much as three weeks at a time, she has made the voyage from Pictou to
+Georgetown—40 miles—in two hours and a half. During the season 1894-95
+the _Stanley_ carried 1,600 passengers. Her earnings were $9,266.92;
+the cost of her repairs and maintenance was $28,179.32.
+
+[Illustration: “STANLEY,” WINTER FERRY-BOAT TO PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND,
+1881.]
+
+The _Stanley_ is built throughout of Siemens-Martin steel. Her
+dimensions are: length, 207 feet; breadth, 32 feet; depth, 20 feet 3
+inches. She is a screw boat of 914 tons gross, and 300 horse-power,
+and attains a speed of nearly 15 knots in clear water. She is so
+constructed that she runs up on heavy ice, breaking it with her sheer
+weight. At times she has passed through what is called “shoved ice,”
+eight feet in thickness. She has good state room accommodation for
+about fifty cabin passengers, and is in every way a very efficient,
+powerful and staunch boat.
+
+In the spring and fall of the year the _Stanley_ is employed in the
+Coast Buoy service; in summer she takes her place in the Fisheries’
+Protection fleet, and proves herself a smart and formidable cruiser
+and a terror to evil-doers. She commences the winter mail service
+from Charlottetown to Pictou about the first of December, and about
+Christmas, when the Charlottetown harbour is frozen over, she takes
+up the route from Pictou to Georgetown, at the eastern end of Prince
+Edward Island. When she is imprisoned in the ice, as frequently
+happens, the mails and passengers are taken by the open boats in
+manner above described. From February 8th to April 12th, 1895, when
+the _Stanley_ was laid up for repairs, the ice-boat service carried
+3,497 mail bags, 458 pounds of baggage, 76 pounds of express goods, 9
+passengers, and 77 “strap-passengers.”
+
+
+DOMINION STEAMERS.
+
+In connection with the Lighthouse and Buoy service and the Fisheries’
+Protection the Canadian Government employs fourteen steamers and
+three sailing vessels. The aggregate gross tonnage of the steamers is
+5,589 tons. Of these the _Stanley_ is the largest, after which come
+the _Newfield_, 785 tons; the _Aberdeen_, 674 tons; the _Acadia_, 526
+tons—all of Halifax; the _Lansdowne_, 680 tons, of St. John, N.B.; the
+_Quadra_, 573 tons, of Victoria, B.C.; _La Canadienne_, 372 tons, of
+Quebec, etc., etc.
+
+
+NEWFOUNDLAND.[71]
+
+The history of steam navigation in this province begins with the year
+1840, when Her Majesty’s ship _Spitfire_—a paddle steamer—entered the
+harbour of St. John’s with a detachment of soldiers to strengthen the
+garrison. In 1842 the steamship _John McAdam_ visited St. John’s, and a
+number of ladies and gentlemen made excursions in her to Conception and
+Trinity bays, startling the natives by the sight of a vessel walking
+the waters without the aid of sails or oars. In 1844 the Government
+arranged with the owners of the steamship _North American_ to carry
+mails and passengers regularly between St. John’s and Halifax. When
+this vessel first entered the harbour, with her huge walking-beam and a
+figurehead of an Indian, painted white, half of the population of the
+city crowded the wharves to see her. She had made the run from Halifax
+in sixty hours. Soon after this a contract was made with the Cunard
+Company for a mail service between St. John’s and Halifax, fortnightly
+in summer and monthly during the winter months. In 1873 direct steam
+communication with England and America was established by arrangement
+with the Allan Line for the conveyance of mails, passengers and goods,
+fortnightly during nine months of the year and monthly during the
+remaining months, though at a later date fortnightly trips were made
+all the year round.
+
+At the present time there are five regular lines of steamships sailing
+from St. John’s—the Allan Line, the Canadian and Newfoundland Steamship
+Company, the Red Cross Line, the Black Diamond and the Ross Lines.
+Besides these, a steamer plies regularly between Halifax and the
+western ports of Newfoundland; and two local steamers ply between St.
+John’s and the principal ports north, south and west.
+
+The total number of steamers registered in St. John’s is thirty-two,
+with a gross tonnage of 9,272 tons. About 1,500 vessels arrive and
+depart annually from the several ports of Newfoundland. The sealing
+fleet comprises some twenty steamers, with a united tonnage of 6,230
+tons, and crews numbering 4,680 men. The first steamers to engage
+in the seal fishing were the _Bloodhound_ and the _Wolf_ in 1862.
+The former arrived with 3,000 seals, and the latter with only 1,300.
+The largest catch of seals recorded was in 1844, when 685,530 were
+captured. The cod-fishing industry is carried on by sailing schooners.
+The annual catch in the Newfoundland waters is about 1,350,000 quintals
+of 112 pounds. But the total amount of cod caught in North American
+waters is estimated at 3,700,000 quintals annually. Allowing fifty
+fish to a quintal, we have the enormous number of 185,000,000 fish
+caught every year. And still they continue to multiply and replenish
+the sea!
+
+As yet no steamers have been built in Newfoundland.
+
+
+GENERAL SUMMARY.
+
+The total number of vessels on the registry books of the Dominion
+on December 31st, 1896, was 7,279, with a gross tonnage of 789,299
+tons. Of that number 1,762 were steamboats, with a gross tonnage of
+251,176 tons.[72] The steam tonnage of the Dominion is divided about
+as follows: Ontario, 41.1 per cent.; Quebec, 32.3 per cent.; British
+Columbia, 10 per cent.; Nova Scotia, 7.9 per cent.; New Brunswick, 3.8
+per cent.; Manitoba, 2.6 per cent.; Prince Edward Island 2 per cent.
+
+The total number of steamers registered and enrolled in the United
+States in 1896 (including steam yachts, barges, etc.), was 6,595
+vessels, with a tonnage of 2,307,208 gross tons.[73]
+
+The total number of steam vessels in the United Kingdom of Great
+Britain and Ireland, over 100 tons gross, recorded in Lloyds Register
+for 1896-97, was 6,508; their gross tonnage was 9,968,573 and their
+net tonnage, 6,143,282. Including the British Colonies, the number of
+steam vessels is 7,373 and their gross tonnage, 10,508,443 tons.[74]
+Of these only about 420 are built of wood, 3,883 are built of iron and
+the rest of steel.
+
+
+THE WORLD’S STEAMERS.
+
+According to Lloyds Register above quoted, the total number of steam
+vessels, over 100 tons, in the world in 1897 was 13,652, and their
+gross tonnage, 17,737,825 tons. The number of wooden steamers was
+1,163; of iron, 7,099, and 5,390 of steel.
+
+The British Empire owns 54 per cent. of the entire merchant marine
+tonnage of the world, estimated by Lloyds at 25,614,089 tons gross; she
+owns 62 per cent. of the entire merchant marine steam tonnage.
+
+If to these figures were added the number of steam vessels in the
+navies of the world, the grand total would be very largely increased.
+The British navy alone would increase the number of vessels by 700 at
+least, and the tonnage by more than 1,500,000 tons.
+
+
+CONCLUSION.
+
+Reliable statistics are not easily found and are often accounted dry
+reading. From a variety of causes, figures are peculiarly prone to err.
+But whatever may be thought of the merely numerical argument which has
+almost unavoidably been introduced in these pages, the indisputable
+fact remains, that of all the triumphs of mind over matter in this
+nineteenth century nothing has contributed more to the advancement of
+civilization and the spread of Christianity, to the wealth of nations
+and the convenience and comfort of the human race, than the marvellous
+development of steam navigation which will ever be identified with the
+history of the illustrious reign of Her Majesty QUEEN VICTORIA.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[62] Mr. John Ross Robertson’s “Landmarks of Toronto” (Toronto: 1896)
+contains an account of nearly all the steamboats that have plied on
+Lake Ontario and the Upper St. Lawrence from 1816 to 1895.
+
+[63] From notes by Rev. Professor Bryce, LL. D., of Winnipeg.
+
+[64] Mr. J. A. Thomson, Inspector of Steamboats for British Columbia,
+furnished the information contained in these notes.
+
+[65] Vancouver Island was at that time a British possession—leased to
+the Hudson’s Bay Company. When the lease expired, in 1859, the Island
+was made a Crown colony, and the old fort, with the large cattle farm
+attached to it, became the site of the beautiful city of Victoria, with
+its fine streets, electric railways, magnificent public buildings,
+palatial residences, a population of 23,000, and real estate valued at
+$20,000,000. The Island and British Columbia were made one Province in
+1866, and entered the Dominion in 1871.
+
+[66] Since these lines were penned the rush to the Klondike has given
+an immense impetus to the steamboat business of British Columbia.
+
+[67] From notes by Rev. Robert Murray, Halifax.
+
+[68] The largest graving-dock in the world is said to be the one built
+for the Clyde Trust at Govan, on the Clyde, and recently opened. It is
+880 feet long, 115 feet wide and has 26½ feet of water on the sill. The
+Clyde Trust are evidently looking ahead. There may be no ships of 850
+feet in sight at the moment, but there is no telling how soon there
+will be. The Govan dock is ready for them. In the meantime it has been
+partitioned off into two parts by still gates, the outer division being
+460 feet in length, and the inner, 420 feet.
+
+[69] Information furnished by Mr. Keith A. Barber, of H. M. Customs,
+St. John, N. B.
+
+[70] Information supplied by Mr. W. F. Hales, of Charlottetown.
+
+[71] By the kindness of Rev. Moses Harvey, D.D., of St. John’s.
+
+[72] “Statistical Year Book of Canada, 1896,” p. 280.
+
+[73] “Report U. S. Commissioner on Navigation, 1896,” p. 201.
+
+[74] “Report U. S. Commissioner on Navigation, 1896,” p. 127.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDICES.
+
+
+I. CAPTAIN JOHN ERICSSON.
+
+
+The name and fame of the inventor of the screw propeller are less
+widely known in Britain than in America, and in neither country,
+perhaps, has full justice been done to his memory. As a mechanical
+genius, he was one of the most remarkable men of his time, and did much
+to promote the development of steam navigation.
+
+Ericsson was born in the Province of Vermeland, in Sweden, in the year
+1803. Coming to England in 1826, he entered into partnership with
+Braithwaite, a noted mechanician, in London, and there and then entered
+upon his remarkable career as an inventor. In 1836 he married Amelia,
+daughter of Mr. John Byam, second son of Sir John Byam. Accompanied by
+his wife, he came to the United States, arriving at New York, in the
+_British Queen_, November 2nd, 1839. His wife, however, soon afterwards
+returned to England, and during the rest of their lives, “by an
+amicable arrangement,” the Atlantic rolled between.
+
+Before leaving England, Ericsson had already patented a number of his
+inventions. One of the first of these was a machine for compressing
+air, a discovery which has since proved valuable in the construction
+of long tunnels and in many other ways. The introduction of his system
+of artificial draught was the key-note of the principle on which
+rapid locomotion chiefly depends. He electrified London with his steam
+fire-engine, but the conservative authorities would not countenance
+“a machine that consumed so much water!” In 1829 he entered into
+competition with Robert Stephenson, when a prize of £500 was offered
+for the best locomotive. He came off second-best, but it was a feather
+in his cap that his locomotive, the _Novelty_, glided smoothly over the
+track at the amazing speed of thirty miles an hour! His experiments
+with hot air occupied much of his time, and not without valuable
+results. His forte, however, was in the construction of steam-engines,
+of which he designed a large number, introducing many new principles,
+some of which were destined to survive.
+
+Ericsson’s first stroke of business in the United States made
+him famous. The _Princeton_ war-ship (see page 69), built at the
+Philadelphia navy-yard under his direction, and fitted with his screw
+propeller, proved a great success, and gained him the favour and
+patronage of the government officials. Soon after the completion of
+the _Princeton,_ he embarked in what he then accounted the greatest
+enterprise of his life—
+
+
+THE CALORIC SHIP “ERICSSON.”
+
+With the financial assistance of several wealthy friends in New York,
+Ericsson proceeded to build a large sea-going vessel, to be propelled
+by means of hot air. It was a costly experiment, involving an outlay
+of $500,000, the engines alone costing $130,000. The cylinders were
+168 inches in diameter, with six-feet stroke. The machinery was in
+motion within seven months of the laying of the vessel’s keel. On her
+trial trip the _Ericsson_ attained a speed of eight miles an hour, and
+subsequently as much as eleven miles an hour. The _Ericsson_ was at
+once a success and a failure. She sustained the inventor’s theory as
+to the power of heated air, _but_ so excessive was the temperature of
+the air required to develop the power, the cylinders were warped out
+of shape and some of the fittings were burned to a crisp. The costly
+experiment was consequently abandoned. The caloric engine was replaced
+by an ordinary steam-engine, and thus transformed the _Ericsson_ earned
+her living for many years.
+
+
+THE “MONITOR.”
+
+This further product of Ericsson’s fertile brain is in the form of an
+armour-protected, semi-submerged steam vessel for war purposes, and
+first came prominently into notice in connection with the memorable
+contest which took place in Hampton Roads on the 9th of March, 1862,
+between the _Merrimac_ and _Monitor_. The former was an old wooden
+vessel refitted by the Confederate Government at Norfolk navy-yard,
+and covered with protective armour to the water-line. The _Monitor_
+was a flat iron boat resembling a scow, with nothing visible above
+water save the flush deck, from the centre of which rose a massive
+iron tower containing two guns of heavy calibre. The “cheese-box,”
+as the _Monitor_ was contemptuously styled, held her own against the
+_Merrimac_, which carried eleven guns. It was a drawn battle, but a
+victory for Ericsson, and resulted in many other steam vessels of
+this description being built for harbour and coast defence under his
+supervision.
+
+John Ericsson died in New York on the 8th of March, 1889. _Vide_
+“Ericsson and His Inventions,” in _Atlantic Monthly_ for July, 1862,
+and “John Ericsson, the Engineer,” in _Scribner’s Magazine_ for March,
+1890.
+
+
+II. THE WHALEBACK
+
+was invented and patented some years ago by Captain McDougall, of
+Duluth, a long-headed and level-headed Scotchman hailing from the
+famed island of Islay. The peculiarity of its construction consists in
+its elliptical form, combining strength of hull, cheapness of first
+cost and working, and large carrying capacity upon a light draught of
+water. Having no masts, the whaleback is entirely dependent on its
+steam-power, which in case of a breakdown or heavy weather renders
+the vessel helpless and unmanageable; but, on the other hand, it is
+contended that so long as she has sufficient water under her she is
+practically unsinkable. She has no deck to speak of, and consequently
+nothing to wash overboard save the waves, which play harmlessly over
+her arched roofing. Her hold is, so to speak, hermetically sealed.
+Though chiefly intended to carry freight, the capabilities of the
+whaleback as a passenger steamer have been satisfactorily tested.
+The _Christopher Columbus_, built on this principle, did duty as an
+excursion steamer at the Chicago World’s Fair, and is now plying
+regularly as a passenger boat between Chicago and Milwaukee—the
+largest excursion steamer, so it is said, in the world, “having a
+carrying capacity of 5,000, which number of persons she has comfortably
+transported on a number of occasions.” The steamer is 362 feet in
+length, has engines of 2,800 horse-power, and runs at the rate of
+twenty miles an hour. A considerable number of “whalebacks” are now
+engaged in the Upper Lakes grain and iron ore trade, all of them having
+been built by the Steel Barge Company at West Superior.
+
+[Illustration: THE “JOHN S. COLBY” WHALEBACK.
+
+From a photo presented by Mr. D. G. Thomson, of Montreal.]
+
+The above cut is a faithful representation of a type of steamer
+peculiar to the Upper Lakes, which, though somewhat odd-looking, is
+said to answer its purpose well as a grain-carrier.
+
+The latest addition to the fleet is the biggest vessel of her class,
+and just now the largest grain-carrier on the lakes. This vessel, named
+after the inventor, _Alexander McDougall_, is 130 feet in length over
+all, 50 feet moulded breadth, and 27 feet in depth. Her double bottom
+is five feet deep, giving her a total water ballast capacity of 2,000
+tons. Her displacement on a draught of 18 feet is about 10,000 tons,
+and she is able to carry the enormous cargo of 7,200 tons, equivalent
+to 240,000 bushels of wheat. She is built of steel, and has quadruple
+expansion engines. The only departure from the original whaleback
+in this instance is the substitution of the perpendicular stem for
+the “swinish snout” or “spoon bow,” which has called forth so many
+uncomplimentary remarks, and which is much in evidence in our cut.
+
+In 1891 the whaleback _Wetmore_ was the first of this class of vessels
+to bring a cargo of grain from the Upper Lakes to Montreal and continue
+the voyage to Liverpool, where she arrived safely on July 21st. From
+Liverpool the _Wetmore_ sailed to the Pacific coast _via_ Cape Horn,
+and while carrying a cargo of coal from Puget Sound to San Francisco
+she was disabled in a violent storm, went ashore, and was wrecked.
+
+
+III. THE TURRET STEAMSHIP.
+
+The hull of the turret ship closely resembles that of the whaleback,
+but instead of the “spoon bow” it has the straight stem, and is further
+distinguished by a “turret deck,” so called, about one-third the width
+of the vessel and extending over its entire length, at a height of
+some five or six feet above the turn of the hull. This forms the
+working deck, and towering above it are the bridge, the cook’s galley,
+the engineers’ quarters, and other two-story erections, forming an
+unship-shapely _tout ensemble_ of a most unprepossessing appearance;
+and yet, this is the type of steamship at one time seriously proposed
+by the contractors for the Canadian fast-line service! There are some
+thirty-five such vessels afloat in different parts of the world, all
+built at Sunderland, and most of them engaged in the coal trade, for
+which they are said to be well adapted.
+
+The _Turret Age_, which plies between Sydney, C.B., and Montreal during
+the season of navigation, was built in 1893, and is owned by Messrs.
+Peterson, Tate & Co., of Newcastle-on-Tyne. She is one of the largest
+of her class, being 311 feet in length, 38.2 feet in width, and 21.6
+feet deep. She is propelled by a single screw, has a speed of eleven
+knots, and carries 3,700 tons of coal. Her capacious, unobstructed hold
+and continuous hatchway permit of loading and discharging cargo with
+marvellous rapidity, and she is said to be a fairly good sea-boat.
+
+
+IV. WATER JET SYSTEM OF PROPULSION.
+
+
+While Ericsson, Smith, Woodcroft and Lowe were busying themselves with
+experiments for perfecting the principle of the submerged screw as a
+means of propelling vessels through the water, another plan was being
+devised which, for a time, excited much interest, and was very nearly
+becoming a success. This was Ruthven’s water-jet propeller. It differed
+from Ericsson’s in the singular fact that the actual propeller was
+placed inside of the ship instead of on the outside. This propeller,
+in the shape of a fan-wheel with curved blades, was made to revolve
+horizontally and rapidly in a tank of water placed in the hold of the
+vessel, fed from the sea through openings in the hull. The power of the
+steam-engine was applied to expelling the water from this tank through
+curved pipes with nozzles, on either side of the ship. In proportion to
+the velocity with which the water was forced through these pipes into
+the sea below the water-line, an impetus in the opposite direction was
+given to the vessel. The nozzles were so constructed that they could
+be turned easily towards the bow or stern, as occasion required, for
+forward or backward motion. The first experiment with this appliance
+was made by Messrs. Ruthven, of Edinburgh, on the Frith of Forth, with
+an iron boat 40 feet in length, in 1843, when a speed of seven miles an
+hour was attained. The _Enterprise_, 90 feet long and 100 tons burthen,
+was built on this principle, and made her trial trip, January 16th,
+1854, when she developed a speed of 9.35 miles an hour. This vessel was
+intended for the deep-sea fishing, and the jet-propeller was suggested
+in this case as being less liable to become entangled with the nets
+than the screw or paddle. The water-jet system was also tried on a
+Rhine passenger steamboat with some measure of success; but while the
+theory was upheld, it seems to have failed in practice, because the
+results in speed and in other respects were not proportioned to the
+working power and the consumption of fuel. See _En. Britannica_, 8th
+ed., vol. xx., p. 661.
+
+
+V. THE CIGAR STEAMBOAT.
+
+Experiments with this style of river craft have been frequent on both
+sides of the Atlantic without, however, being followed by substantial
+success. So long ago as 1835, the _Rapid_, consisting of two hollow
+cylinders, pointed at either end in cigar fashion, placed ten feet
+apart, with a large wheel between them in the centre, appeared on the
+Upper St. Lawrence, fitted with the steam-engine of the superannuated
+_Jack Downing_. Her first trip down the river was also her last, for,
+after many fruitless attempts to return, she was wrecked, and for a
+time abandoned. Eventually, she was towed, by way of the Ottawa and
+Rideau canals, to Ogdensburg, where she was refitted and plied for some
+time as a ferry boat. A very pretty specimen of a cigar-boat built of
+iron, with an elegant superstructure, the writer remembers having seen
+on the Clyde more than half a century ago, but as to its career and
+ultimate fate deponent sayeth not. A twin-boat steamer, reminding us of
+Patrick Miller’s first attempt at steam-boating, propelled, however,
+by side-wheels, may be seen any day during the season of navigation
+dragging its slow length along on the ferry from Laprairie to the
+opposite shore of the St. Lawrence, near Montreal.
+
+
+VI. THE ROLLER STEAMBOAT.
+
+The reader is requested to put on his thinking cap before endeavouring
+to comprehend the brief reference now to be made to Mr. Knapp’s
+“Roller.” On the 8th of September, 1897, there was launched from the
+yard of the well-known Polson’s Iron Works Company in Toronto, an
+enlarged model of the strangest craft ever seen—a huge innovation upon
+all preconceived ideas of marine architecture. The exterior of the boat
+in question, if it can be called a boat, has all the appearance of a
+round boiler 110 feet long and 25 feet in diameter. The outer cylinder
+is built of one-quarter inch steel plates stoutly ribbed and riveted,
+and armed with a number of fins, or small paddles, the ends being
+funnel-shaped, with openings in the centre. This is made to revolve by
+means of two engines of 60 horse-power each, placed one at either end
+of the vessel. An inner cylinder similarly constructed, corresponding
+to the hold of a ship, remains stationary while the other is supposed
+to be rolling over the surface of the water, regardless of wind and
+waves, at railway speed. The modest calculation of the inventor is that
+a steam vessel so constructed of 700 feet in length and 150 feet in
+diameter, _ought_ to cover the distance between New York and Liverpool
+in forty-eight hours! This model was built at a cost of $10,000. The
+results of the trial trip on Toronto Bay have not been made public.
+
+
+VII. THE “TURBINIA.”
+
+In June, 1897, there appeared on the Solent, at the time of the great
+Jubilee Naval Review, a steam vessel furnished with a novel method of
+propulsion, by which a speed far in excess of any previous record was
+attained. In the opinion of competent experts this new application of
+steam-power is likely to bring about in the near future a revolution
+in steam navigation. The following account of this phenomenal craft
+appeared in the Montreal _Star_:
+
+                              “LONDON, July 5th, 1897.
+
+      “The record-breaking 100-foot torpedo boat _Turbinia_
+    has intensely interested the public here generally,
+    and experts in marine engineering in particular.
+    It is admitted that if the principle of the steam
+    turbine invented by Charles Parsons and fitted in the
+    _Turbinia_ can be extended to large ships, it will
+    mark the greatest revolution in mechanics since the
+    invention of the steam-engine itself.
+
+      “Mr. Wolff, M. P. for Belfast, head of the famous
+    firm of Harland & Wolff, of Belfast, and himself the
+    designer of the White Star Liners, says:
+
+      “‘I saw the _Turbinia_ at Spithead going nearly eight
+    miles an hour faster than any vessel had ever gone
+    before, and even then she was not being pushed to her
+    full speed. She passed quite close to the _Teutonic_,
+    on which I was. She dashed along with marvellous speed
+    and smoothness.
+
+      “‘I must say, however, that I felt more secure on the
+    _Teutonic_ than I should have felt on the _Turbinia_,
+    for you know they have not yet surmounted the
+    difficulty of reversing the engine. She can go ahead
+    forty miles an hour but can only reverse at less than
+    four.
+
+      “‘If Parsons can make a similar turbine engine
+    practicable for big craft with proper reversing power,
+    he will open a new era in the history of steam motors.
+    But, although he has carried the economizing of steam
+    to a great pitch for a turbine engine, still from my
+    observation the waste of both steam and fuel under his
+    system, if applied on a large scale, would be almost
+    fatal. That there is a big future before his turbine
+    engine for launches and other small craft I do not
+    doubt, provided that he can get over the reversing
+    difficulty.’”
+
+The _Scientific American_, in its issue of June 26th, 1897, says:
+“Nothing more startling has ever occurred than the wonderful runs which
+have recently been made by a little craft called the _Turbinia_, in
+which the motive power is supplied by a steam turbine of the Parsons
+type.”
+
+Quoting from a paper read at a meeting of the Institution of Civil
+Engineers in London, by the Hon. Charles A. Parsons, the inventor
+of this new system, the advantages of the turbine system are thus
+summarized:
+
+      “(1) Greatly increased speed, owing to diminution of
+    weight and smaller steam consumption; (2) increased
+    carrying power of vessel; (3) increased economy in coal
+    consumption; (4) increased facilities for navigating
+    shallow waters; (5) increased stability of vessel;
+    (6) reduced weight of machinery; (7) reduced cost of
+    attendance on machinery; (8) reduced size and weight
+    of screw propellers and shafting; (9) absence of
+    vibration; (10) lowered centre of gravity of machinery,
+    and reduced risk in time of war.
+
+      “The _Turbinia_ is 100 ft. in length, 9 ft. beam,
+    3 ft. draught amidships, and 44½ tons displacement.
+    She has three screw shafts, each directly driven by
+    a compound steam turbine of the parallel flow type.
+    The three turbines are in series, and the steam is
+    expanded—at full power—from a pressure of 170 pound
+    absolute, at which it reaches the motor, to a pressure
+    of one pound absolute, at which it is condensed. The
+    shafts are slightly inclined, and each carries three
+    crews, making nine in all. The screws have a diameter
+    of 18 in., and when running at full speed they make
+    2,200 revolutions per minute. Steam is supplied from a
+    water tube boiler, and the draught is forced by a fan,
+    mounted on the prolongation of the low pressure motor
+    shaft, the advantage of this arrangement being that the
+    draught is increased as the demand for steam increases,
+    and also that the power to drive the fan is obtained
+    directly from the main engines.
+
+      “Up to the present the maximum mean speed attained
+    has been 32¾ knots, as the mean of two consecutive
+    runs on the measured mile. These runs were made after
+    about four hours’ steaming at other speeds, and the
+    boat on the day of the trials had been fifteen days in
+    the water. It is anticipated that on subsequent trials,
+    after some alterations to the steam pipe, still higher
+    mean speeds will be obtained.
+
+      “It is believed that when boats of 200 feet in length
+    and upward are fitted with compound turbine motors,
+    speeds of 35 to 40 knots may be easily obtained in
+    vessels of the destroyer class, and it is also believed
+    that the turbine will—in a lesser degree—enable
+    higher speeds to be realized in all classes of
+    passenger vessels.”
+
+Referring to the difficulty of reversing the engines of the _Turbinia_,
+the _Scientific American_ adds, that “by using a system of ‘butterfly’
+reversing steam valves, a motor has been constructed in which the
+steam may be made to flow through the blades of the turbine in either
+direction, the whole horse-power of the engines being thus available
+for going astern.” Detailed drawings and descriptions of the _Turbinia_
+and the new motor may be found in the supplements of the _Scientific
+American_ (New York) for June 26th, 1897, and March 12th, 1898.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+_Letter_ =“S”= _indicates Inland Steamer_, =“SS”= _Ocean Steamer._
+
+  Aberdeen Steamship Line, 156.
+  Acadia, SS., 73.
+  Accommodation, S., 50, 312.
+  Adriatic, SS., Collins, 105.
+  Adriatic, SS., White Star, 118.
+  African Steamship Company, 154.
+  Aird, Captain, 215.
+  Aitken & Company, steamship builders, 286.
+  Alaska, SS., 116.
+  Albany to Montreal, 260.
+  Alberta, S., 284.
+  Algoma, S., 255, 284.
+  Allan, Alexander, 196, 209.
+  Allan, Andrew, 196, 296.
+  Allan, Bryce, 196, 209.
+  Allan, James, 196, 209.
+  Allan, Sir Hugh, 196, 208.
+  Allan Steamship Line, 196.
+  Alps, SS., 99.
+  Amazon, steel barge, 302.
+  America, SS., 114.
+  Amerika, SS., 141.
+  American Steamship Line, Lake Ontario, 327.
+  Anchor Steamship Line, 113, 151.
+  Ancient, Rev. W. J., 122.
+  Anderson, Captain, 86.
+  Angloman, SS., 225.
+  Anglo-Saxon, SS., wrecked, 199.
+  Appomattox, S., 272.
+  Archer, Captain, 202, 213.
+  Archimedes, S., 68.
+  Arctic, SS., 104, 106.
+  Arizona, SS., 116.
+  Armed cruisers, 172.
+  Armed mail packets, 73.
+  Arrow Steamship Line, 129.
+  Athabaska, S., 284.
+  Athenian, SS., 164.
+  Atlantic, SS., Collins, 104-106.
+  Atlantic, SS., White Star, 121.
+  Atlantic Transport Steamship Line, 129.
+  Augusta Victoria, SS., 132.
+  Australasian, SS., 88.
+  Australia, SS., P. & 0., 147.
+  Australia and Vancouver Steamship Line, 164.
+  Austria, SS., burned, 134.
+  Aylmer, Lord, 54.
+
+  Bain, Captain Robert, 36.
+  Ballantine, Captain, 200.
+  Baltic, SS., Collins, 104-106.
+  Baltic, SS., White Star, 118.
+  Bannockburn, S., 286, 293.
+  Barbadian, SS., 157.
+  Barber & Company Steamship Line, 129.
+  Barber, Keith A., 343.
+  Barclay & Curie, builders, 205.
+  Battleships, 171.
+  Bay of Fundy, 188.
+  Beauharnois Canal, 265.
+  Beaver Steamship Line, The, 229.
+  Beaver, The old steamer, 334.
+  Belgravia, SS., 113.
+  Bell, Henry, 36.
+  Bibby Steamship Line, 151.
+  Black Ball Steamship Line, 27.
+  Black Diamond Steamship Line, 235.
+  Blue Flag Steamship Line, 129.
+  Bohemian, SS., 199;
+    wrecked, 202.
+  Boothby, Captain, 186.
+  Boulton & Watt, engineers, 334.
+  Brandon to Britain, 295.
+  Bristol City Steamship Line, 129.
+  Britannia, SS., 72, 74.
+  Britannic, SS., 118.
+  British and African Steamship Company, 155.
+  British and Colonial Steam Navigation Company, 156.
+  British Columbia, 334.
+  British India Steam Navigation Company, 148.
+  British and North American Royal Mail Steam-Packet Company, 73.
+  British navy, 166, 175.
+  British Queen, SS., 97.
+  Brooks, Captain, 102.
+  Brown, Captain, 216.
+  Bruce Mines, S., 254.
+  Brunel, Isambard, 66.
+  Brush, George, 307, 310.
+  Buenos Ayrean, SS., 206.
+  Bulwer, Sir Edward, 159.
+  Burial of dead at sea, 183.
+  Burlington, S., 44.
+  Burns, Rev. Dr., 94.
+  Burns, Sir George, 71, 93.
+
+  Calcutta and Burmah Steam Navigation Company, 148.
+  Caledonia, SS., Cunard, 73.
+  Caledonia, SS., P. & O., 146.
+  Calvin Company, 287.
+  Cameron, Captain, 123.
+  Campana, S., 235.
+  Campania, SS., 78, 174.
+  Campbell, Captain Howard, 234.
+  Canada, SS., Cunard Line, 75.
+  Canada, SS., Dominion Line, 226.
+  Canada Shipping Company, 229.
+  Canadian, SS., 198-200.
+  Canadian canals, 258.
+  Canadian commerce on lakes, 283.
+  Canadian Pacific Railway, 158.
+  Canadian Pacific steamers, 160, 164, 284.
+  Canadian Steam Navigation Company, 316.
+  Canal tariffs, 303.
+  Cape of Good Hope, SS., 149.
+  Car of Commerce, S., 310.
+  Carthaginian, SS., 206.
+  Castle Steamship Line, The, 155.
+  Celtic, SS., 118.
+  Charity, SS., 195.
+  Charlotte Dundas, S., 33.
+  Chesapeake and Ohio Steamship Line, 129.
+  Chicora, S., 255.
+  Chieftain, S., 326.
+  Chimborazo, SS., 148.
+  China, SS., 75.
+  Chippewa, S., 254.
+  Cimbria, SS., sunk, 134.
+  Circassia, SS., 186.
+  Circassian, SS., 205.
+  City of Berlin, SS., 108.
+  City of Boston, SS., 107.
+  City of Brussels, SS., 107.
+  City of Chicago, SS., 107.
+  City of Glasgow, SS., 107.
+  City of Manchester, SS., 107.
+  City of Montreal, SS., 107.
+  City of New York, SS., 108.
+  City of Paris, SS., 108.
+  City of Philadelphia, SS., 107.
+  City of Rome, SS., 113, 128.
+  City of Washington, SS., 107.
+  City Steamship Line to India, 152.
+  Clan Steamship Line, The, 150.
+  Cleopatra, SS., 195.
+  Clermont, S., 41.
+  Cleveland, Ohio, 278, 281.
+  Clipper ships, 26.
+  Clyde River steamers, 38.
+  Codfish industry, 355.
+  Collingwood and Owen Sound, 255.
+  Collins, E. K., 106.
+  Collins Steamship Line, 99, 103.
+  Collision at sea, 126.
+  Columba, S., 38.
+  Comet, S., Bell’s, 34, 312.
+  Commerce of Great Lakes, 268.
+  Compagnie Générale Transatlantique, 138.
+  Compound engines, 100, 345.
+  Connal & Co., builders, 222.
+  Continental Steamship Lines, 130.
+  Cook, Captain, 86, 88.
+  Corona, S., 330.
+  Cost of running steamships, 84.
+  Cramp & Sons, builders, 110.
+  Crathie, SS., collision, 136.
+  Crescent, H.M.S., 189.
+  Crimean War, 198, 214.
+  Cruisers, Armed, 172.
+  Cumberland, S., 255.
+  Cunard fleet, 85.
+  Cunard Steamship Line, 73.
+  Cunard, Sir Edward, 93.
+  Cunard, Sir Samuel, 71, 91.
+  Cunard track chart, 96, 176.
+  Currie, Captain, 207.
+  Cushing, Manager, 318.
+  Cuzco, SS., 148.
+
+  Dakota, SS., 115.
+  Dalziel, Captain, 203.
+  Danmark, SS., foundered, 141.
+  Danube, SS., 157.
+  Dawn of steam navigation, 28.
+  Deeper waterways, 299, 302.
+  Dennys, ship-builders, 154, 198, 204.
+  Detroit River tonnage, 276.
+  Devonia, SS., 113.
+  Diamond Jubilee Review, 170.
+  Dick, Captain, 324.
+  Dickens, Charles, 18.
+  Distances, Marine, 177.
+  Dolphin, S., 325, 326.
+  Dominion Steamship Line, 221.
+  Dominion Steamers, 353.
+  Donaldson Steamship Line, 234.
+  Douglas, Captain, 75.
+  Douglas, Governor of British Columbia, 336.
+  Dramatic Line, The, 103.
+  Draught, Induced, 20.
+  Drummond Castle, SS., lost, 155.
+  Dry-docks, 342.
+  Duke of Marlborough, H.M.S., 168.
+  Duke of Wellington, H.M.S., 97, 168.
+  Durham boats, 260.
+  Durham City, SS., 190.
+  Dutton, Captain, 217.
+
+  Early Atlantic steamers, 50.
+  Eastern trade, The, 153.
+  East India Company, 142.
+  Elbe, SS., sunk, 136.
+  Elder, Dempster Steamship Line, 156, 235.
+  Elder, John, & Co., 100, 116, 132.
+  Eldridge, Captain, 106.
+  Elevator, The grain, 290.
+  Emerald, S., 254.
+  Emigrant ships, 20, 210.
+  Empress Steamship Line, 160.
+  Empire, S., 255.
+  Empire City, S., 271.
+  Enterprise, SS., 53.
+  Ericsson, John, inventor, 67.
+  Erie Canal, 280.
+  Erin, SS., lost, 115.
+  Etolia, SS., in the ice, 185.
+  Etruria, SS., 77, 119, 189.
+  Europa, SS., 75.
+  European, SS., 157.
+  Eutopia, SS., sunk, 114.
+  Evans, Captain, 185.
+  Exports from Montreal, 267.
+
+  Fares to India and the East, 147, 153.
+  Fairfield Ship-yard, 78, 100, 346.
+  Farlinger, Captain, 327.
+  Fast Line of Steamships, 236, 242.
+  Fast service to Japan, 156.
+  Favourite, sailing-ship, 196.
+  Fawcett, William, SS., 146.
+  Ferry-boats, American, 48.
+  First compound engine, 345.
+  First live stock shipment, 236.
+  First lake propeller, 252.
+  First steamer in Canada, 50, 312.
+  First steamer on Lake Ontario, 247.
+  First steamer on Lake Erie, 251.
+  First ocean steamship, 54.
+  First steam fog-horn, 347.
+  First steel steamship, 206.
+  First wheat shipment from Manitoba, 295.
+  Fleming, Sir Sandford, 159, 239, 242.
+  Floating elevators, 295.
+  Flying Squadron, The, 170.
+  Fox, Sir Douglas, 144.
+  Francis B. Ogden, S., 68.
+  Francis Smith, S., 255.
+  Frederick the Great, SS., 144.
+  Freight, inland rates, 303.
+  French Steamship Line, 138.
+  Friesland, SS., 113.
+  Frontenac, S., 247.
+  Fulda, SS., 86, 136.
+  Fulton, Robert, 41.
+  Furnessia, SS., 113.
+  Furness Steamship Line, 235.
+  Fürst Bismarck, SS., 131.
+
+  Gallia, SS., 234.
+  Garonne, SS., 148.
+  Gaskin, Captain, 263.
+  General Smyth, S., 343.
+  Genova, SS., 195.
+  German East African Steamship Line, 156.
+  Germanic, SS., 118, 127.
+  Gildersleeve, S., 320.
+  Gildersleeve, Manager, 316.
+  Glenmorag, ship, wrecked, 207.
+  Golconda, SS., 149.
+  Gore, S., 254.
+  Gothic, SS., 151.
+  Graham, Captain John, 210.
+  Grain-sucker, 291.
+  Grain elevator, 290.
+  Grand Trunk Railway opened, 328.
+  Grange, Captain, 209.
+  “Graphic,” The London, 171.
+  Graving-docks, 342.
+  Great Britain, SS., 61.
+  Great Eastern, SS., 62.
+  Great Lakes, The, 244.
+  Great Northern Transit Company, 288.
+  Great Republic, SS., 26.
+  Great Western, SS., 60.
+  Great Western Railroad Line, 327.
+  Grenville Canal, 318.
+  Griffin, schooner, 246.
+  Guion Steamship Line, 115.
+  Gulf ports, Map of, 241.
+
+  Hagart & Crangle Line, 287.
+  Haines, Captain, 89.
+  Haliburton, Judge, 93, 159.
+  Halifax harbour, 340.
+  Hall Steamship Line, 152.
+  Hamburg & American Steamship Packet Company, 130.
+  Hamilton, Captain Clarke, 327.
+  Hamilton, Hon. John, 323, 331.
+  Hamilton, S., 327.
+  Hamilton Steam Navigation Company, 330.
+  Handyside & Henderson, 113.
+  Hansa St. Lawrence Steamship Line, 235.
+  Harland & Wolff, 117, 123, 140, 151, 228.
+  Harrison, Captain, 86.
+  Havel, SS., 137.
+  Head Steamship Line, 235.
+  Henderson Steamship Line, 152.
+  Hennepin, Father, 246.
+  Hercules, S., 252, 309.
+  Hibernia, SS., 87
+  Hibernian, SS., 204.
+  Highlander, S., 324.
+  Hill Steamship Line, 129.
+  Himalaya, SS., 147.
+  Hindostan, SS., 146.
+  Hooker & Jones, forwarders, 318.
+  Hornet, torpedo destroyer, 169.
+  Horse-boat, The, 29.
+  Howard, Captain Thomas, 320, 327, 328.
+  Howe, Hon. Joseph, 159.
+  Howland, O. A., 301.
+  Hudson’s Bay Company, 332, 333.
+  Hungarian, SS., lost, 199, 200.
+
+  Icebergs, 183.
+  Idaho, SS., lost, 225.
+  Imrie, William, 117.
+  Independence, propeller, 257.
+  India, SS., 149.
+  India and the East, 142.
+  Indian, SS., 142, 198, 200.
+  Indiana, SS., U.S., 342.
+  Inman Steamship Line, 107.
+  International Steamship Line, 107, 109.
+  Inverclyde, Lord, 94, 99.
+  Ireland, propeller, 263.
+  Iron steamers, 61, 314.
+  Iron ore transportation, 279.
+  Iroquois, S., 326.
+  Ismay, Thomas, H., 116, 122.
+
+  James Swift, S., 331.
+  James Watt, S., 271.
+  John Jacob Astor, sail vessel, 256.
+  John Kenzie, brig, 254.
+  John Munn, S., 313.
+  Johnston Steamship Line, 235.
+  Jones, Captain J., 66, 202.
+  Jones, Captain Thomas, 209.
+  Jones, J. & J., forwarders, 318.
+  Jubilee Review, 170.
+  Judkins, Captain, 86.
+  Julia Palmer, propeller, 257.
+  Jura, SS., stranded, 202.
+
+  Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse, SS., 136.
+  Kaiser Wilhelm II, 136.
+  Keefer, Thomas, C.E., 283, 301.
+  Kent, S., 254.
+  Kingsford, Historian, 263, 283.
+  Kingston, Ontario, 331.
+  Kingston, S., 327.
+  Klondike, Steam to, 164.
+
+  Labrador, SS., 223.
+  Lachine Canal, 259.
+  Lady Colborne, S., 314.
+  Lady Eglinton, S., 195.
+  Lady Elgin, S., 314.
+  Lady Sherbrooke, S., 310, 312.
+  Lady Washington, schooner, 247.
+  Lahn, SS., 136.
+  Lake Ontario, SS., 231.
+  Lake St. Peter, 266.
+  Lake Superior, SS., 231.
+  Lakes, Navigation Companies, 270.
+  Lakes, The Great, 244.
+  La France, ship, 28.
+  La Salle, explorer, 246.
+  La Bourgogne, SS., lost, 138.
+  La Touraine, SS., 138.
+  Lamport & Holt Steamship Line, 129, 157.
+  Lifeboats at sea, 125.
+  Lindall, Captain, 222.
+  Live stock exportation, 236.
+  Liverpool landing-stage, 81.
+  Liverpool packet-ships, 27.
+  Liverpool, SS., 58.
+  Lochearn, SS., collision, 140.
+  Locomotives, 294.
+  Lord Steamship Line, 129.
+  Lord Sydenham, S., 314.
+  Lott, Captain, 86, 88.
+  Lowe, James, inventor, 68.
+  Lucania, SS., 78.
+  Lusitania, SS., 148.
+
+  Magnet, S., 327.
+  Majestic, SS., 119.
+  Malsham, S., 310.
+  Manchester Ship Canal, 235.
+  Manhanset Steamship Line, 129.
+  Manitoba, S., 286.
+  Manitou, S., 270.
+  Map of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 241.
+  Marjery, S., 40.
+  Marine distances, 175.
+  Mariposa, SS., wrecked, 225.
+  Marshall, Captain, 320.
+  Matiana, SS., 149.
+  Maudsley, Field & Company, engineers, 118.
+  Memphis, SS., lost, 235.
+  Merchant Lines, Hamilton, 287.
+  Merritt, Hon. William, 262.
+  Messageries Maritimes Steamship Company, 153.
+  Miller, Patrick, 31.
+  Milloy, Alexander, 316.
+  Miowera, SS., 164.
+  Missouri, SS., 141.
+  Moldavia, SS., 186.
+  Molson, Hon. John, 307.
+  Monarch, S., 287.
+  Montana, SS., 115.
+  Montreal Ocean Steamship Company, 198.
+  Montreal, Port of, 266.
+  Montreal steamer burned, 315.
+  Montreal Transportation Company, 286.
+  Moodie, Captain, 86.
+  Moravian, SS., wrecked, 202.
+  Morris, Hon. Alex., 159.
+  MountStephen, Lord, 164.
+  Munro, Thomas, C.E., 301.
+  Murrell, Captain, 141.
+  Mutiny at sea, 24.
+  Macaulay, Captain, 227.
+  Macdougall, Captain John, 57.
+  Maclean, Captain N., 217.
+  Macleod, Dr. Norman, 179.
+  Macpherson, Crane & Co., 318.
+  McIver, David, 71, 95.
+  McKean, McLarty & Co., 195.
+  McKenzie, Captain, 248.
+  McKinstry, Captain, 127.
+  McLennan, Hugh, 296.
+  McMaster, Captain, 209.
+  Napier, David, 35.
+  Napier, Robert, 71, 96, 148, 168, 205.
+  Napoleon, S., 314.
+  Naronic, SS., lost at sea, 122.
+  Natal Steamship Line, 156.
+  National Steamship Line, 114.
+  Navy, The Royal, 166, 175.
+  Nestorian, SS., 205.
+  Netherlands Steamship Line, 140.
+  New England, SS., 229.
+  Newfoundland, 354.
+  New York, SS., 108, 111.
+  Niagara Ship Canal, 302.
+  Niagara, SS., 74.
+  Niagara Steam Navigation Company, 329.
+  Nile, SS., 157.
+  Norman, SS., 155.
+  Normannia, SS., 131.
+  North Atlantic Steamship Company, P. E. I., 349.
+  North American, SS., 199.
+  North Briton, SS., lost, 202.
+  North American Transport Company, 129.
+  Northern Light, S., 351.
+  Northern Steamship Company, 272.
+  North German Lloyd Steamship Company, 134.
+  North Shore Navigation Company, 288.
+  North-West Fur Company, 256, 277.
+  North-West Navigation Company, 333.
+  North-West, S., 274.
+  North-West Transportation Company, 287.
+  Norwegian, SS., wrecked, 202, 204.
+  Nova Scotia, 340.
+  Nova Scotian, SS., 199.
+
+  Ogilvie, W. W., 297.
+  Oldfield, S., 321.
+  Old Man of the Sea, 102.
+  Ontario Lake Navigation, 328.
+  Ontario, S., 248, 326.
+  Ontario, SS., 222.
+  Ophir, SS., 148.
+  Oregon, SS., Cunard, sunk, 86, 99.
+  Oregon, SS., Dominion, 222.
+  Orient Steam Navigation Company, 147.
+  Orizaba, SS., 157.
+  Ottawa, SS., 195, 225.
+  Ottawa and Georgian Bay Canal, 304.
+  Ottawa and Rideau Forwarding Company, 310, 318.
+  Ottawa River steamers, 321.
+  Ottawa River Navigation Company, 318.
+  Overland route, The, 143.
+  Owego, S., 270.
+
+  Pacific, SS., 104, 106.
+  Pacific Steamship Navigation Company, 157.
+  Packet-ships, 27.
+  Papin, Denis, 20.
+  Paris, SS., 108, 125, 189.
+  Parisian, SS., 205.
+  Parsell, Captain, 123.
+  Passport, S., 327.
+  Patterson of Bristol, 60.
+  Paynter, George, 102.
+  Penelope, H.M.S., 168.
+  Peninsular and Oriental Steamship Company, 145.
+  Pennsylvania, SS., 101, 134.
+  Persia, SS., 75, 97.
+  Peruvian, SS., 205.
+  Peterson, Tate & Co., 237.
+  Phœnician, SS., 207.
+  Pioneer, S., 252.
+  Ploughboy, S., 254.
+  Polynesian, SS., 205.
+  Pomeranian in a storm, 203.
+  Pomone, French war-ship, 69.
+  Postal compensation, 132.
+  President, SS., lost at sea, 61.
+  Prince Edward Island, 347.
+  Prince of Wales, war-ship, 168.
+  Princeton, war-ship, 69.
+  Priscilla, S., 44.
+  Provisions, Ships’, 83.
+  Puffers, 319.
+  Pumper, S., 264.
+
+  Quebec Province, 307.
+  Quebec and Halifax Steamship Company, 66.
+  Quebec, S., 311.
+  Quebec Steamship Company, 235.
+  Queen Charlotte, S., 249.
+  Queen City, S., 293.
+  Quetta, SS., wrecked, 149.
+
+  Racing at sea, 125.
+  Randolph, Elder & Co., 100.
+  Rates of passage, 124.
+  Rathbun Company, 330.
+  Rattler, H.M.S., 69.
+  Recovery, brigantine, 256.
+  Red Star Steamship Line, 112.
+  Renown, H.M.S., 172.
+  Republic, SS., White Star, 118.
+  Richardson, Captain, 217.
+  Richard Smith, S., 347.
+  Richards, Mills & Co., 224.
+  Richelieu Steamboat Company, 314.
+  Rideau Canal, 264.
+  Ritchie, Captain, 216.
+  Robert Garrett, S., 48.
+  Rob Roy, S., 40.
+  Rockefeller Fleet, 271.
+  Rosemount, S., 286.
+  Royal Mail West Indies Steam-Packet Company, 156.
+  Royal William, S.S., 54, 340, 347.
+  Rubattino Steamship Line, 153.
+  Russell, Scott, 63.
+  Russia, SS., 75.
+
+  Sail _versus_ Steam, 247.
+  Salier, SS., lost at sea. 136.
+  Sampson, propeller, 252.
+  Sam Ward, S., 257.
+  Sarah Sands, SS., 195.
+  Sardinian, SS., 205, 217.
+  Sarmatian, SS., 198.
+  Sarnia, SS., 222.
+  Sault Ste. Marie Canal, 276.
+  Savannah, SS., 51.
+  Scotia, SS., 75, 97.
+  Scotsman, SS., 225.
+  Scott & Company, 138.
+  Schiller, SS., wrecked, 134.
+  Screw propeller, The, 67.
+  Sealing steamers, 355.
+  Servia, SS., 76.
+  Shaw, Savill and Albion Steamship Company, 151.
+  Shenango, ferry steamer, 49.
+  Shepherd, Captain H. W., 322.
+  Shepherd, Captain R. W., 321.
+  Ship-building, 279.
+  Ship canals, 303.
+  Siberian, SS., 206.
+  Simpson, Sir George, 258.
+  Simcoe, General, 258.
+  Sirius, SS., 59.
+  Sir Robert Peel, S., 324.
+  Smith, T. P., inventor, 67.
+  Smith, Captain W. H., 194, 214.
+  Smith, Donald A., 159.
+  Smythe, Major C., 158.
+  Sophia, S., 249.
+  Sovereign, S., 317.
+  Spaarndam, SS., 141.
+  Spitfire, H.M.S., 354.
+  Spithead reviews, 173.
+  Spree, SS., 136.
+  Stanley, S. P. E. I., 351.
+  State Steamship Line, 129.
+  Steam Navigation in British Columbia, 334.
+  Steam Navigation in New Brunswick, 343.
+  Steam Navigation on the Ottawa, 317.
+  Steam Navigation in Newfoundland, 354.
+  Steam Navigation in Nova Scotia, 340.
+  Steam Navigation in Prince Edward Island, 347.
+  Steam Navigation in Quebec, 307.
+  Steam Navigation in Manitoba, 332.
+  Steam Navigation in Ontario, 323.
+  Stearns, Captain, 324.
+  Steel barges, 282.
+  Steel steamships. First, 206.
+  Stephen, George, 159, 164.
+  Stewart, Macleod, 304.
+  Stone, Captain, 86.
+  Strachan, Bishop, 21.
+  St. George, SS., wrecked, 202.
+  St. John harbour, N. B., 345.
+  St. Lawrence canals, 258, 264.
+  St. Lawrence route, 192.
+  St. Mary’s Falls Canal, 276, 278.
+  St. Louis, SS., 110.
+  St. Paul, SS., 110.
+  Strathcona, Lord, 159, 164.
+  Subsidies to steamship companies, 104, 111, 161.
+  Subventions, 120.
+  Suez Canal, 144, 149.
+  Summary of Steam Navigation, 356.
+  Sunday at sea, 178.
+  Sutherland, Captain, 327.
+  Swearing, Profane, 220.
+  Swiftsure, S., 310.
+  Symington, William, 31.
+
+  Tartar, SS., 164.
+  Taylor, T. F., 284.
+  Taylor, Dr. W. M., 179.
+  Tate Brothers, builders, 314.
+  Thingvalla Steamship Line, 141.
+  Thomas MacKay, S., 320.
+  Thomson, J. A., steamboat inspector, 334.
+  Thomson Steamship Line, 235.
+  Thomson, J. and G., steamship builders, 108, 113, 123.
+  Teutonic, SS., 119, 174.
+  Tidal waves, 188.
+  Tod & McGregor, engineers, 107.
+  Tonnage on the Great Lakes, 276.
+  Toronto and Steam Navigation, 329.
+  Torpedo boats, 169.
+  Torrance, John, 228, 308.
+  Torrance, Messrs. David, & Co., 221, 307.
+  Transportation companies, 284.
+  Transportation business, 289.
+  Trave, SS., 136.
+  Trent, SS., 88.
+  Trevethick, Engineer, 67.
+  Tripoli, SS., lost, 86.
+  Twohey, Captain, 324.
+
+  Ulster Steamship Company, 235.
+  Umbria, SS., 77, 119.
+  Unicorn, SS., 75.
+  Union Steamship Company, Africa, 154.
+  Union Steamship Company, New Zealand, 151.
+
+  United Empire, S., 287.
+  United Empire Loyalists, 258, 296.
+  United Kingdom, SS., 40.
+  United States Shipping Company, 129.
+  Up-to-date steamships, 18.
+  Utica, barge, 270.
+
+  Vancouver Island, 336.
+  Vancouver, SS., 222.
+  Vandalia, propeller, 252.
+  Vesta, SS., 106.
+  Vicksburg, SS., lost, 224.
+  Victoria, B. C., founded, 336.
+  Victoria Steamboat Association, 38.
+  Ville de Havre, SS., lost, 140.
+  Ville de Ciotat, SS., 153.
+  Voyageurs, Early, 258.
+
+  Waghorn, Lieut., 143.
+  Waldensian, SS., 207.
+  Walk-in-the-Water, S., 251.
+  Ward & Co., 310, 311.
+  Waring, Captain W. L., 345.
+  Warrimoo, SS., 164.
+  Warrior, H. M. S., 168.
+  Washington, schooner, 246.
+  Waterways of Canada, 244.
+  Watt, James, engineer, 67.
+  Welland Canal, 262.
+  West Indies and Pacific Steamship Lines, 156.
+  Whale captured, 312.
+  White Star Steamship Line, 116.
+  William Fawcett, SS., 146.
+  William IV., S., 324.
+  Williams, Captain, 122.
+  Wilson Connoly Company, 313.
+  Wilson Steamship Line, 128.
+  Winter Ferry, P. E. I., 349.
+  Woodcroft, Engineer, 67.
+  Woodruff, Captain, 74.
+  World’s Steamers, 357.
+  Wylie, Captain, 212.
+
+  Young, Captain, 128.
+
+
+
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+Illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs.
+
+Old or antiquated spellings have been preserved.
+
+Typographical errors have been silently corrected but other variations
+in spelling and punctuation remain unaltered.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STEAM NAVIGATION AND ITS RELATION TO
+THE COMMERCE OF CANADA AND THE UNITED STATES***
+
+
+******* This file should be named 58849-0.txt or 58849-0.zip *******
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+<body>
+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Steam Navigation and Its Relation to the
+Commerce of Canada and the United States, by James Croil</h1>
+<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
+and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
+restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
+under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
+eBook or online at <a
+href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>.  If you are not
+located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the
+country where you are located before using this ebook.</p>
+<p>Title: Steam Navigation and Its Relation to the Commerce of Canada and the United States</p>
+<p>Author: James Croil</p>
+<p>Release Date: February 10, 2019  [eBook #58849]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: UTF-8</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STEAM NAVIGATION AND ITS RELATION TO THE COMMERCE OF CANADA AND THE UNITED STATES***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4>E-text prepared by<br />
+    Paul Marshall, Donald Cummings, Adrian Mastronardi,<br />
+    the Philatelic Digital Library Project<br />
+    (<a href="https://www.librarything.com/groups/tpdlp">https://www.librarything.com/groups/tpdlp</a>)<br />
+    and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+    (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br />
+    from page images generously made available by<br />
+    Internet Archive<br />
+    (<a href="https://archive.org">https://archive.org</a>)</h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10">
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top">
+      Note:
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive. See
+      <a href="https://archive.org/details/steamnavigation00croiuoft">
+      https://archive.org/details/steamnavigation00croiuoft</a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter covernote">
+    <img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Book Cover." width="450" height="726" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"><p class="f200"><b>STEAM NAVIGATION.</b></p>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FRONTIS" id="FRONTIS"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_004.jpg" alt="LORD MOUNTSTEPHEN. LORD STRATHCONA. SIR SANDFORD FLEMING." width="400" height="585" />
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h1><big><i>Steam Navigation</i></big><br />
+<span class="h_subtitle"><small>AND<br /><i>ITS RELATION TO THE COMMERCE<br />
+OF CANADA AND THE UNITED STATES.</i></small></span></h1>
+
+<p class="f90 space-above3">BY</p>
+<p class="f150"><b><i>James Croil</i></b>,</p>
+<p class="center">MONTREAL.</p>
+<p class="f90"><span class="smcap">Author of “Dundas: A Sketch of Canadian History.”</span></p>
+
+<p class="center space-above3 space-below3"><i>With Illustrations and Portraits</i>.</p>
+<p class="center">TORONTO:<br />WILLIAM BRIGGS.<br />
+<small>MONTREAL: THE MONTREAL NEWS COMPANY, <span class="smcap">Limited</span></small><br />1898.</p>
+<hr class="chap" />
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="neg-indent"><span class="smcap">Entered</span> according to Act of the Parliament of Canada,
+in the year one thousand eight hundred and ninety-eight, by <span class="smcap">William Briggs</span>,
+at the Department of Agriculture.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="chapter"><hr class="r5" />
+<p class="center"><b><i>This Volume<br /><small>is dedicated by permission to</small><br />
+<big>His Excellency the Earl of Aberdeen,</big><br />K.T., G.C.M.G., etc.,<br />
+<big>Governor-General of Canada</big><br />from 1893 to 1898,<br />
+a nobleman who will long be gratefully remembered<br />as the benefactor and friend<br />
+of all classes of the community, and<br />who, with his Consort,<br />
+<big>The Countess of Aberdeen, LL.D.</big><br />will always be associated by the<br />
+Canadian people with a period in their history of<br />great national prosperity,<br />
+their joint efforts in furthering lofty ideals<br />having done much to<br />
+advance the highest interests of the Dominion.</i></b></p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<div class="chapter"><div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="WILLIAM" id="WILLIAM"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_008.jpg" alt="Royal William memorial Plate." width="400" height="576" />
+</div></div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p>
+<div class="chapter"><h2>PREFACE.</h2></div>
+
+<div>
+  <img class="drop-cap" src="images/letter_w.jpg" width="40" height="40" alt="W" />
+</div>
+<p class="drop-cap no-indent">
+WHEN the history of the nineteenth century comes to be written, not
+the least interesting chapter of it will be that which treats of the
+origin, the development, and the triumphs of Steam Navigation—that
+mighty combination of inventive genius and mechanical force that has
+bridged the oceans and brought the ends of the earth together.</p>
+
+<p>During the past few years several important contributions to this
+class of literature have issued from the metropolitan press. Three of
+these deserve special mention: (1) “The Atlantic Ferry; its Ships,
+Men, and Working,” by Arthur J. Maginnis, gold medallist and member of
+the Institution of Naval Architects, 1892; (2) “Our Ocean Railways,
+or the Rise, Progress, and Development of Ocean Steam Navigation,” by
+A. Fraser-Macdonald, 1893; (3) “The History of North Atlantic Steam
+Navigation, with Some Account of Early Ships and Shipowners,” by Henry
+Fry, ex-President of Dominion Board of Trade of Canada and Lloyd’s
+Agent at Quebec, 1896. Each of these writers, in his own way, has
+treated the subject so thoroughly and satisfactorily, the author feels
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span>
+as though the wind had been taken out of his sails somewhat, and it is
+not without hesitation that he has yielded to the advice of friends in
+whose judgment he has implicit confidence, and ventured to follow in
+the wake of such accomplished writers.</p>
+
+<p>If I am questioned as to <i>motif</i> I cannot better justify the rash deed
+than by endorsing the sentiment in Byron’s apostrophe:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i3">“And I have loved thee, Ocean! and my joy<br /></span>
+<span class="i4">Of youthful sports was on thy breast to be<br /></span>
+<span class="i4">Borne, like thy bubbles, onward; from a boy<br /></span>
+<span class="i4">I wantoned with thy breakers—they to me<br /></span>
+<span class="i4">Were a delight.”<br /></span>
+</div></div></div>
+
+<p>These pages are of a much less pretentious character than the
+above-named books. They are but a compilation of materials more or
+less intimately connected with Steam Navigation, gathered from many
+sources, during many years, and now woven into homely narrative. They
+necessarily contain much in common with these other writings on this
+subject, but they are projected from a different standpoint and embrace
+a wider field, supplying information not easily obtained, respecting
+the far-reaching waterways of Canada, her magnificent ship canals, and
+the vast steam commerce of the Great Lakes.</p>
+
+<p>So numerous are the sources of information drawn upon, it is impossible
+to make adequate acknowledgment of them all. The agents of Atlantic
+lines of steamships were particularly obliging in their replies to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span>
+inquiries made of them. Without in any way making them responsible for
+the use made of their communications, upon these my remarks on that
+branch of the subject are chiefly based. Among other publications I
+have consulted the “Transactions of the Imperial Institute,” London,
+and of the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec; Government
+reports emanating from Ottawa and Washington; also many pamphlets,
+magazine and newspaper articles bearing on the subject, not to speak of
+my capacious scrap-book and some well-thumbed note-books.</p>
+
+<p>Additional authorities will be indicated as the narrative proceeds.
+Besides these, grateful acknowledgments for valuable assistance are
+due to Sir Sandford Fleming and Mr. George Johnson, F.S.S., of Ottawa;
+to Messrs. Douglas Battersby, R. W. Shepherd, and the late Captain
+Thomas Howard, of Montreal; to Mr. Archibald Campbell, of Quebec;
+Captain Clarke Hamilton, of Kingston; Mrs. Holden, of Port Dover, Ont.,
+and Mr. T. M. Henderson, of Victoria, B.C.; to members of the Boards
+of Trade in Montreal, Minneapolis and Duluth; and to the following
+clergymen: Rev. Dr. Bruce, of St. John, N.B.; Rev. T. F. Fullerton, of
+Charlottetown. P.E.I.; Rev. James Bennett, of L’Orignal, Ont., and Rev.
+W. H. L. Howard, of Fort William, Ont.</p>
+
+<p>The illustrations have nearly all been made for this work: the
+wood-cuts by Mr. J. H. Walker, and the half-tones by the Standard
+Photo-Engraving Company, Montreal.</p>
+
+<p class="author">J. C.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Montreal</span>, <i>October</i>, 1898.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="f150"><b>CONTENTS.</b></p>
+<hr class="r5" />
+
+<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="TOC." cellpadding="0">
+  <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdr" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">page</span>.</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER I.</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Dawn of Steam Navigation</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><br />CHAPTER II.</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Early Years of Steam Navigation</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><br />CHAPTER III.</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The Cunard Steamship Company</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><br />CHAPTER IV.</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">North Atlantic Steamship Companies</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><br />CHAPTER V.</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Steam to India and the East</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><br />CHAPTER VI.</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Steam in the British Navy</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><br />CHAPTER VII.</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">The St. Lawrence Route</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><br />CHAPTER VIII.</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Steam on the Great Lakes</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_244">244</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><br />CHAPTER IX.</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Steam Commerce of the Great Lakes</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_268">268</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><br />CHAPTER X.</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Steam Navigation in all the Provinces</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">of the Dominion and in Newfoundland&emsp;&nbsp;</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_307">307</a></td>
+    </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span></p>
+<p class="f150"><b>ILLUSTRATIONS.</b></p>
+<hr class="r5" />
+
+<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="LOI." cellpadding="0">
+  <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><b>STEAM VESSELS.</b></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdr" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">page</span></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Alberta</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#ALBERTA">285</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Atlantic</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#ATLANTIC">105</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Augusta Victoria</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#AUGUSTA">133</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Beaver</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#BEAVER">335</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Britannia</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#BRITANNIA">72</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Caledonia</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CALEDONIA">146</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Campania</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CAMPANIA">78</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Canada</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CANADA">226</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Charlotte Dundas</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#DUNDAS">32</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl bb"><span class="smcap">Clermont</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr bb"><a href="#CLERMONT">42</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Columba</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#COLUMBA">38</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Comet</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#COMET">35</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Corona</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CORONA">329</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Crescent</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CRESCENT">191</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Duke of Wellington</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#DUKE">167</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Empire</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#EMPIRE">255</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Empress of Japan</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#EMPRESS">162</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Great Britain</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#BRITAIN">62</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Great Eastern</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#EASTERN">63</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl bb"><span class="smcap">Hornet</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr bb"><a href="#HORNET">169</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Jeanie Deans</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#JEANIE">51</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">John S. Colby</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#COLBY">363</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Kaiser W. der Grosse</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#KAISER">137</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Lake Ontario</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#LK_ONT">230</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Majestic</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#MAJESTIC">119</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Manitou</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#MANITOU">271</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Miller’s Twin Boat</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#MILLER">31</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Mississippi Steamer</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#MISSISSIPPI">43</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Nelson</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#NELSON">337</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl bb"><span class="smcap">New York</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr bb"><a href="#NEW_YORK">47</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Niagara</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#NIAGARA">74</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Normannia</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#NORMANNIA">131</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">North-West</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#N_W">273</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Oceanic</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#OCEANIC">117</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Ohio Steamer</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#OHIO">45</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Paris</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PARIS">107</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Paris Dining-Room</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PARIS3">109</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Paris</span> (<i>Stern View</i>)</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PARIS2">108</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Parisian</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PARISIAN">204</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl bb"><span class="smcap">Passport</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr bb"><a href="#PASSPORT">327</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Pennsylvania</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PENN">135</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Pilgrim</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PILGRIM">16</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Princeton</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PRINCETON">253</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Priscilla</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PRISCILLA">46</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Quebec</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#QUEBEC">311</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Queen Charlotte</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHARLOTTE">249</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Quetta</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#QUETTA">150</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Renown</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#RENOWN">172</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Rhine Steamer</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#RHINE">39</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl bb"><span class="smcap">Robert Garrett</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr bb"><a href="#GARRETT">49</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Royal William</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#WILLIAM">&nbsp;8</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">St. Louis</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#LOUIS">111</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Savannah</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SAVANNAH">53</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Scotia</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SCOTIA">77</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Sirius</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SIRIUS">59</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Sovereign</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SOVEREIGN">317</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Stanley</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#STANLEY">352</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Teutonic</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#TEUTONIC">174</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Vandalia</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#VANDALIA">251</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Victoria and Albert</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#VICTORIA">184</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Walk-in-the-Water</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#WALK">250</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">William IV.</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#WILLIAM4">325</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">&nbsp;</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><b>PORTRAITS.</b></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Aird, Captain</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#AIRD">215</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Allan, Sir Hugh</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#H_ALLEN">208</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Allan, Andrew</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#A_ALLEN">296</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Burns, Sir George</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CUNARD">93</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Campbell, Captain</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CAMPBELL">233</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Cunard, Sir Samuel</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CUNARD">93</a></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Dutton, Captain</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#DUTTON">218</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Fleming, Sir Sandford</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#FRONTIS">&nbsp;4</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Graham, Captain</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#GRAHAM">211</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl bb"><span class="smcap">Hamilton, Hon. John</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr bb"><a href="#HAMILTON">331</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Lindall, Captain</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#LINDALL">223</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Macaulay, Captain</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#MACAULEY">227</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">MacIver, David</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CUNARD">93</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">McMaster, Captain</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#MCMASTER">197</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">McLennan, Hugh</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#A_ALLEN">296</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">MountStephen, Lord</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#FRONTIS">&nbsp;4</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Napier, Robert</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#NAPIER">97</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Napier, Mrs.</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#NAPIER">97</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Ogilvie, W. W.</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#A_ALLEN">296</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl bb"><span class="smcap">Ritchie, Captain</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr bb"><a href="#RITCHIE">216</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Shepherd, R. W.</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SHEPHERD">322</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Smith, Captain W. H.</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#W_SMITH">194</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Strathcona, Lord</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#FRONTIS">&nbsp;4</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Torrance, John</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#TORRANCE">308</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Wylie, Captain</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#WYLIE">212</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><br /><b>MISCELLANEOUS.</b></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Canal Lock, Canadian</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#C_LOCK">264</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Canal Lock, U. States</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#U_LOCK">278</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Cunard Track Chart</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#C_CHART">90</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Grain Elevator</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#ELEVATOR">289</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Great Republic, Ship</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#GT_REPUBLIC">26</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Horse-boat</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#HORSE">29</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Map Gulf Ports, etc.</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#GULF_PORTS">241</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Royal William—Model&emsp;&emsp;&nbsp;</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#R_WILLIAM">55</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Ship of the Desert</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#DESERT">143</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Wind-boat</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#WIND">70</a></td>
+    </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+<hr class="chap" />
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="PILGRIM" id="PILGRIM"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_016.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="333" />
+    <p class="center">“PILGRIM,”<br />Sister to <i>Priscilla</i> of the Fall River Line, 1890.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p>
+<div class="chapter"><h2>CHAPTER I.<br /><span class="h_subtitle">THE DAWN OF STEAM NAVIGATION.</span></h2></div>
+
+<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0"><i>Ah! what pleasant visions haunt me</i></span>
+<span class="i2"><i>As I gaze upon the sea!</i></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>All the old romantic legends.</i></span>
+<span class="i2"><i>All my dreams come back to me.</i></span>
+<span class="i18">—<span class="smcap">Longfellow.</span></span>
+</div></div></div>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-below1">The up-to-date standard—Old-time sailing
+ships—The clipper packet-ship—Dawn of steam navigation—Denis Papin on
+the Fulda—Bell’s <i>Comet</i>—Fulton’s <i>Clermont</i>—American river steamers
+and ferry-boats. </p>
+
+<div>
+  <img class="drop-cap" src="images/letter_t.jpg" width="31" height="40" alt="T" />
+</div>
+<p class="drop-cap no-indent">
+TRAVEL increases in faster ratio than do facilities for
+inter-communication. The prophecy surely is being fulfilled in these
+latter days, “Many shall run to and fro, and knowledge shall be
+increased.” It is estimated that at least 750,000 persons travel
+yearly between Europe and America; 99,223 cabin passengers and 252,350
+steerage passengers landed at New York from Europe in 1896. The
+Cunard Line brought the largest number of cabin passengers, 17,999,
+from Liverpool, and the North German Lloyd Line the largest number of
+steerage, namely, 38,034, from Bremen.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the wonderful development of railway and steamship
+systems, means of conveyance during the summer months often fall short
+of the demand. Passages by the more popular lines of steamships must
+be engaged months ahead; in many cases the ships are uncomfortably
+crowded. At such times sofas take the place of berths, and all the
+officers’ rooms, from the coveted Captain’s cabin to the second and
+third stewards’ bunks, are called into requisition and held at a round
+premium. On Saturday, the 8th of May, 1897, no less than 1,500 saloon
+passengers left New York for Liverpool on the great ocean greyhounds.
+The travelling season is comparatively short, the competition is keen,
+and the enormous expense of building, furnishing and running up-to-date
+steamships renders it difficult to provide the requisite accommodation
+on a paying basis. The up-to-date steamship must be built of steel, to
+combine light weight with strength. It must have triple or quadruple
+expansion engines to economize fuel. It must be propelled by twin or
+triple screws, as well for the easier handling of the vessel as for
+safety in case of a breakdown of machinery, and for attaining the
+highest possible speed. Our ideal steamship must be able to turn quite
+round in its own length, and to go through the water at an average
+speed of at least twenty knots an hour. To attain these results, ships
+of a very large class are called for—nothing short of from eight to
+ten thousand tons burthen will come up to the mark. There are many
+magnificent steamships in the North Atlantic trade and elsewhere but as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>
+yet few have in all respects reached the up-to-date standard, and even
+those that are such this year, a few years hence are certain to be
+regarded as quite behind the times. There is no valid reason to suppose
+that the process of development which has been going on during the last
+fifty years in this direction is to be arrested at the close of the
+century. The indications, so far as they can be interpreted, are all
+in the opposite direction. The paddle-wheel ocean steamer reached its
+zenith with the launch of the <i>Scotia</i> of the Cunard Line in 1862. She
+was the last of the race.</p>
+
+<p>The wooden steamship, “copper-fastened and copper-bottomed,” etc.,
+etc., is long since a thing of the past. The iron age, which succeeded
+the wooden, has been changed to steel, and steel may change to
+something else, and steam to electricity. Who knows? Mr. Maginnis,
+who is himself an engineer and an architect, speaks with authority
+when he says that, “Whether the improvements be in the ship or in
+the machinery, gradual advances will be made in the near future.”
+The thirst of competing steamship companies for conquest on the high
+seas—at any cost—and the ambition of ship-builders to improve
+upon the latest improvements, will not be satisfied with present
+attainments, even if it can be proved to a demonstration that thousands
+of additional horse-power and hundreds of additional tons of coal per
+day would be required to increase to any appreciable extent the maximum
+rate of speed that has already been reached. In the meantime some idea
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
+may be formed of the possible saving in the consumption of fuel when
+it is stated that, by a system of induced draught, discovered since
+the last two Cunarders were designed, the number of boilers necessary
+to generate steam enough for 30,000 indicated horse-power may be
+reduced to little more than one-half, which, to put it briefly, means
+a corresponding saving in space, weight and first cost.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>
+In fact, well-informed marine engineers do not hesitate to express
+their opinion that the day is not far distant when Atlantic greyhounds
+may be coursing across the ocean at the rate of thirty knots an hour,
+bringing Queenstown and Sandy Hook within ninety-three hours of each
+other.</p>
+
+<p>It is difficult to form a correct idea, from any verbal or pictorial
+representation, of the elegance, the convenience and the comfort
+attaching to the “Express Steamship.” Nothing short of a voyage or
+voyages in one of these floating palaces would suffice to give an
+adequate conception of their excellence. And yet, when all is said
+that can be said in praise of the steamship, some of us “old stagers”
+can look back, if not with lingering regret, at least with pleasant
+recollection, to the days of the packet-ship, and even of the sailing
+vessel of humbler pretensions.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the early emigrant ships were certainly of a mean order, and
+many emigrants suffered cruel hardships before they reached their
+destination. It was not an uncommon thing for five or six hundred men,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
+women and children to be huddled together indiscriminately in the hold
+of a vessel of from 250 to 300 tons, doomed to subsist on coarsest
+food, and liable to be immured beneath hatches for days or weeks at a
+time, without medical attendance, obliged to cook their own food, and
+scantily supplied with water; and all this for eight or ten weeks at a
+stretch!</p>
+
+<p>In one of his autobiographic sketches the late Bishop Strachan says
+that he sailed from Greenock in the end of August, 1799, “under
+convoy,” and such was then the wretched state of navigation, he did
+not reach Kingston, by way of New York and Montreal, till the 31st of
+December. In a letter before me an aged friend recites the story of
+his adventurous voyage from Liverpool to Quebec, some fifty years ago.
+The ship was a superannuated bluff-bowed East Indiaman, but counted
+good enough in those days to carry five hundred emigrants across the
+stormy Atlantic. When ten days out they encountered a hurricane which
+drove the vessel out of her course. Her three masts fell overboard.
+The cook’s galley and the long boat, the water casks, and everything
+else on deck, vanished in the gale. The huge hulk rolled like a log
+in the Bay of Biscay for several days, the passengers meanwhile being
+confined between decks in horrible confusion. A passing steamer towed
+them back to Plymouth, where six weeks were spent in refitting the
+ship, each adult receiving ten shillings and sixpence per week for
+board and lodging until the repairs were completed. After seven weeks
+more of great discomfort “and tyrannical treatment on the part of the
+captain,” they finally reached Quebec in 107 days after first embarking
+at Liverpool.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
+My own experience of sailing ships, though fifty-seven years have
+elapsed, is still fresh in mind and recalls some pleasant memories. My
+first voyage to New York was from the Clyde in a new American ship,
+commanded by one Captain Theobald, a typical New Englander, as fine
+a man as one could desire to meet. The voyage was uneventful in the
+ordinary sense of the term, but one’s first voyage in a sailing ship
+is an event never to be forgotten. It was anticipated with peculiar
+interest, and regarded with far greater importance than attaches to
+crossing the Atlantic nowadays. So far from being monotonous, there
+were incessant changes in sea and sky, in the dress of the ship, and
+the occupations and songs of the sailors. One day the ship might be
+bowling along beautifully, decked out in her royals and sky-sails, her
+studding-sails and stay sails; next day, perhaps, she might be scudding
+under reefed topsails before an easterly gale, pooping seas that washed
+the quarterdeck and tumbled like a waterfall into the waist of the
+ship. Occasionally, a “white squall” coming up would make things lively
+on deck while it lasted. If becalmed in the right place we caught
+codfish. For the most part, however, the familiar refrain of “tacks
+and sheets” would be heard many times a day and in the night watches,
+as we tacked this way and that way against westerly breezes, thankful
+if the log showed that we had advanced on our course forty or fifty
+miles in twenty-four hours.</p>
+
+<p>My second voyage westward in a sailing ship was also a memorable one.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
+The Scotch captain of the good ship <i>Perthshire</i>, in which we sailed
+from the Tail of the Bank, off Greenock, on June 19th, 1844, was very
+unlike the Yankee skipper of the previous voyage. Captain S—— was
+kind and attentive to his passengers, but not at all popular with his
+crew. As I watched him taking the sun, the first day out, he said,
+“Young man, you are going to be some weeks on board this ship, with
+nothing to do but to eat and drink and sleep. Suppose you take a few
+lessons in navigation? Here is a spare quadrant which you can use.”
+I jumped at the offer, and very soon mastered at least the outlines
+of the business. Much was learned in these six weeks—how to find the
+latitude and longitude at sea; to ascertain the precise deviation of
+the chronometer from Greenwich time, and of the compass from its true
+bearing; to measure the trend and velocity of ocean currents, and,
+failing solar observations, how to consult the moon and the stars. This
+was not only interesting; it was a fascinating pastime. The captain of
+a twenty-knot steamship has seldom need to “resolve a traverse;” he
+steers a straight course for his destination, and can usually estimate
+within a few hours, or even minutes, when he will reach it. It is quite
+different with the master of a sailing vessel; after contending with
+contrary winds and being driven out of his course for weeks at a time,
+he must often wrack his brains before he can locate his exact position
+on the chart. To be enveloped in dense fog in the near neighbourhood
+of Sable Island for several days at a time, as happened to us on this
+voyage, is a very perplexing position to be in.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>For a slight offence Captain S—— would send a man aloft to scrape
+masts in a gale of wind; for a graver misdemeanour he would clap him
+in irons; had the lash been permitted, he would probably not have
+hesitated to use it. As might be supposed, things did not go very well
+in the fo’castle. At length a climax was reached, when the starboard
+watch came aft one day and lodged a complaint. Getting little or no
+satisfaction, they retired sullenly, went below, and refused to work
+for a whole week. The working of the ship then devolved on the first
+and second mates, the carpenter and the cook, with such of the cabin
+passengers as could give them assistance. The steerage passengers,
+siding with the sailors, would not touch a rope, and things even went
+so far that one of them was placed in confinement for insolence. Some
+of us were rather glad of the opportunity thus afforded of running
+up the rigging and creeping through the lubbers’ hole without being
+“salted.” When orders were given to shorten sail or shake out a reef,
+we “lay out” on the yard in sailor fashion; but how much good we did on
+such occasions will never be known.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>
+At any rate, we counted it fine fun, and it gave the <i>fiasco</i> a touch
+of romance that we slept with loaded pistols under our pillows. But the
+mutiny ended harmlessly when the pilot came on board. One may cross the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>
+Atlantic nowadays without any kind of “adventure” like that to adorn a
+tale, even without so much as once speaking to the captain.</p>
+
+<p>Not every one has the chance of seeing Jack in his citadel. I was
+deputed by the captain to interview the strikers and endeavour to
+pacify them. Armed with a copy of the shipping articles which the men
+had all signed, and another formidable document printed in very large
+type, I went down into the dingy cabin at the dinner hour. Such a
+place as it was! I shall never forget it. It corresponded in minute
+detail to Dana’s description of his fo’castle in “Two Years Before
+the Mast.” It was devoid of furniture. There was not even a table to
+place their food on. In the centre of the floor stood a dirty-looking
+wooden tub containing a junk of boiled salt beef; near it was a pail
+full of boiled rice and some hard-tack. The men, about a dozen of them,
+sat each man on his sea-chest, using his jack-knife to cut and carve
+with. There were no plates. Imagine the rest. The only grievance they
+would mention to me was that they had been refused molasses with their
+rice! Their mind was made up to stay under hatches till the pilot came
+aboard. They would work for him, but not for the captain; and they
+kept their word. As I was about leaving, the spokesman of the party,
+pointing to the mess on the middle of the floor, said with a look
+that constrained pity, “Mister, how would you like that for your own
+dinner?” He had the best of the argument. It may be added here that
+this voyage to New York lasted forty-two days, and the last entry in my
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>
+log is to the effect that we made as good a passage as any ship from
+England, “beating the <i>Columbus</i> packet-ship by two days!”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="GT_REPUBLIC" id="GT_REPUBLIC"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_026.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="380" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">“GREAT REPUBLIC.”<br />Last of the Clipper Passenger Packets, 1854.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The clipper “packet ship” was a vast improvement on the ordinary
+sailing ship. It had just reached its highest point of development when
+the ocean steamship first made its appearance. It was to the upper
+strata of the travelling community, sixty years ago, the counterpart
+of the express steamer of to-day. The packet-ship was built for fast
+sailing, with very fine lines, was handsomely fitted up and furnished,
+was exceedingly well found in eatables and drinkables, and carried a
+great spread of canvas. To see one of these ships under full sail was a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>
+sight to be remembered—a rare sight, inasmuch as all the conditions of
+wind and water necessary for the display of every stitch of canvas are
+seldom met with in the North Atlantic. They not unfrequently crossed
+in fourteen or fifteen days. In winter they might be three months on a
+single voyage, but their average would be from twenty-five to thirty days.</p>
+
+<p>There were many separate lines of packet-ships sailing at regular
+intervals from London and Liverpool, and from Hamburg and Havre, to New
+York, Boston, Philadelphia, and other American ports. Among these were
+the famous Black Ball Line, the White Star Line, the Old and the New
+Line of Liverpool packets, etc. The New Line was American, and of it E.
+K. Collins, the promoter of the Collins’ Line of steamers, was the New
+York agent. The ships were named <i>Shakespeare</i>, <i>Siddons</i>, <i>Sheridan</i>,
+<i>Garrick</i>, and so forth, hence this was called the “Dramatic Line.”
+It is refreshing to read one of their advertisements in the Montreal
+<i>Gazette</i>, as old as November 20th, 1838:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot1">
+<p class="space-above1">“These ships are of the first-class, upwards of 800 tons burthen,
+built in the city of New York, with such improvements as to combine
+great speed with unusual comfort to passengers. Every care has been
+taken in the arrangement of their accommodation. The price of passage
+hence is $140, for which ample stores, including wines, etc., will be
+provided; without wines, etc., $120. These ships will be commanded
+by experienced masters, who will make every exertion to give general
+satisfaction. Letters charged at the rate or 25 cents per single
+sheet.</p>
+
+<p>☛The ships of this line will hereafter go armed, and their peculiar
+construction gives them security not possessed by any other but vessels
+of war.”</p>
+
+<p class="author space-below1">E. K. COLLINS, <span class="smcap">New York</span>.<span class="ws5">&nbsp;</span><br />
+WM. &amp; JAS. BROWN &amp; CO., <span class="smcap">Liverpool</span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>
+The <i>Great Republic</i>, one of the last of the clipper packet-ships, was
+built in the United States in 1854. She was a four-master of 3,400
+tons, 305 feet long, 53 feet beam, and 30 feet in depth. She made the
+run from New York to the Scilly Islands in thirteen days. She ended her
+sailing career as a French transport ship, and finally was degraded to
+a coal hulk. The largest sailing vessel afloat at the present time is
+the five-masted steel ship <i>La France</i>, built on the Clyde by D. &amp; W.
+Henderson for French owners. She is 6,100 tons burthen, 375 feet long,
+49 feet wide and 33¾ feet depth. Her fore mainmast is 166 feet high. On
+her first trip from Cardiff to Rio Janeiro she carried 6,000 tons of
+coal, and attained a speed of twelve and a half knots.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Dawn of Steamship Navigation.</span></h3>
+
+<p>Paddle-wheels for driving boats through the water were used long
+before steam-engines were thought of. They were worked by hand and
+foot-power without, however, any advantage over the old-fashioned oar.
+The horse-boat, in a variety of forms, has been in use for many years,
+and is not yet quite obsolete. In its earlier form two horses, one on
+each side of a decked scow, were hitched to firmly braced upright posts
+at which they tugged for all they were worth without ever advancing
+beyond their noses, but communicating motion to the paddle-wheels by
+the movable platform on which they trod. For larger boats four or five
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>
+horses were harnessed to horizontal bars converging towards the centre,
+and moved around the deck in a circle, the paddles receiving their
+impulse through a set of cog-wheels. The “latest improvement” was on
+the direct self-acting treadmill principle, the power being regulated
+by the weight of the horses and the pitch of elevation given to the
+revolving platform on which the unfortunate animals were perched.
+Newcomen’s steam-engine had been invented and used for other purposes
+eighty years at least, before it was applied to the propelling of
+vessels. The modern steamboat is not an <i>invention</i>, but rather the
+embodiment of many inventions and experiments, extending over a long
+series of years by different men and in different countries.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="HORSE" id="HORSE"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_029.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="318" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">HORSE-BOAT AT EMPY’S FERRY, OSNABRUCK, ONT.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>One of the first actual steamboats of which there is authentic record
+sailed down the River Fulda, in Prussia, in the year 1707. It was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
+built, engined and navigated by a clever Frenchman, Denis Papin,<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>
+who was born in 1647, was educated as a physician, and became assistant
+to the celebrated philosopher, Huygens, in Paris, where he published
+a small volume on the mechanical effects to be obtained by means of
+a vacuum. While this attracted the attention of <i>savants</i>, it had
+little or no interest for practical men, and yet in it lay the germ
+of the power that was to revolutionize the world. He went to London
+with letters to the Royal Society, and was employed by that society
+several years, during which he continued his experiments on atmospheric
+pressure and the vacuum, and the power of steam. He was next appointed
+Professor of Mathematics in the University of Marburg, from which he
+removed to Cassel. He had seen the horse-boat in England, and the idea
+of employing steam to turn the paddles took strong hold of him. He had
+a boat built and fitted with a steam-engine, in which he embarked
+with his family and all his belongings, with a view to making his
+experiment known in Britain and exhibiting his steamboat. All went well
+until he reached the junction of the rivers Fulda and Weser, where the
+boatmen got up a hue-and-cry that their craft was endangered by this
+innovation. In vain Papin protested that he merely wanted to leave the
+country. On the plea that their rights of navigating these waters had
+been infringed upon, they rose up <i>en masse</i>, seized the steamboat,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>
+dragged out the machinery and smashed it to atoms. Poor Papin found his
+way back to London a broken-hearted man, never to see the day when his
+great discovery was to enrich the world.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="MILLER" id="MILLER"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_031.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="675" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">MILLER’S TWIN BOAT ON LOCH DALSWINTON, 1788.<br />From “Chambers’ Book of Days.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Fifty years later another experiment was made by Patrick Miller, a
+banker in Edinburgh, aided by Mr. Taylor, tutor in his family, and
+Alexander Symington, a practical engineer. Mr. Miller had a boat built
+and fitted with a small steam-engine, for his amusement, on Dalswinton
+Loch, Dumfriesshire. It was a twin-boat, the engine being placed on one
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
+side, the boiler on the other, and the paddle-wheel in the centre.
+It was launched in October, 1788, and attained a speed of five miles
+an hour. The engine, of one horse-power, is still to be seen in the
+Andersonian Museum, in Glasgow. Encouraged by his experiment, Mr.
+Miller bought one of the boats used on the Forth and Clyde Canal, and
+had a steam-engine constructed for it by the Carron Ironworks Company,
+under Symington’s superintendence. On December 26th, 1789, this
+steamboat towed a heavy load on the canal, at a speed of seven miles an
+hour; but, strange to say, the experiment was dropped as soon as it was
+tried.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="DUNDAS" id="DUNDAS"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_032.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="352" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">SYMINGTON’S “CHARLOTTE DUNDAS,” 1802.<br />From “Our Ocean Railways.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1801 the London newspapers contained the announcement that an
+experiment had taken place on the Thames, on July 1st, for the purpose
+of propelling a laden barge, or other craft, against the tide, by means
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
+of a steam-engine of a very simple construction. “The moment the
+engine was set to work the barge was brought about, answering her helm
+quickly, and she made way against a strong current, at the rate of two
+and a half miles an hour.” In 1802 a new vessel was built expressly
+for steam navigation, on the Forth and Clyde Canal, under Symington’s
+supervision, the <i>Charlotte Dundas</i>, which was minutely inspected on
+the same day by Robert Fulton, of New York, and Henry Bell, of Glasgow,
+both of whom took sketches of the machinery to good purpose.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>
+This boat drew a load of seventy tons, at a speed of three and a half miles
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>
+an hour, against a strong gale of wind. Under ordinary conditions she
+made six miles an hour, but her admitted success was cut short by the
+Canal Trust, who alleged that the wash of the steamer would destroy the
+embankment.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Bell’s</span> “<span class="smcap">Comet.</span>”<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></h3>
+
+<p>Nothing more was heard of the steamboat in Britain until 1812, when
+Henry Bell surprised the natives of Strathclyde by the following
+advertisement in the Greenock <i>Advertiser</i>:</p>
+
+<p class="center space-above2">STEAM PASSAGE BOAT,</p>
+<p class="center space-above1"><big>“THE COMET,”</big></p>
+<p class="center space-above1 space-below1"><span class="smcap">Between Glasgow, Greenock and Helensburgh,<br />
+for Passengers Only.</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot2">
+<p>The subscriber having, at much expense, fitted up a handsome
+vessel, to ply upon the River Clyde, between Glasgow and Greenock,
+to sail by the power of wind, air and steam, he intends that the
+vessel shall leave the Broomielaw on Tuesdays, Thursdays and
+Saturdays, about mid-day, or at such hour thereafter as may
+answer from the state of the tide; and to leave Greenock on
+Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays, in the morning, to suit the tide.</p>
+
+<p>The elegance, comfort, safety and speed of this vessel requires
+only to be proved to meet the approbation of the public; and the
+proprietor is determined to do everything in his power to merit
+public encouragement.</p>
+
+<p>The terms are, for the present, fixed at 4s. for the best cabin,
+and 3s. for the second; but beyond these rates nothing is to be
+allowed to servants, or any other person employed about the vessel.</p>
+
+<p>The subscriber continues his establishment at <span class="smcap">Helensburgh
+Baths</span>, the same as for years past, and a vessel will be in
+readiness to convey passengers to the <i>Comet</i> from Greenock
+to Helensburgh.</p>
+
+<p class="author"><span class="smcap">Henry Bell.</span></p>
+<p class="space-below2"><span class="smcap">Helensburgh Baths</span>,
+<i>5th August, 1812</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Bell’s <i>Comet</i> was a quaint-looking craft, with a tall, slender funnel,
+that served the double purpose of mast and chimney. Her length was 42
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>
+feet, breadth 11 feet, draught of water 5½ feet. She had originally two
+small paddle-wheels on each side with four arms to each. The engine was
+about three horse-power, and seems to have been the joint production of
+Bell and the village blacksmith. The boiler was made by David Napier,
+at a cost of £52. The engine is still preserved in the patent office of
+the South Kensington Museum. The <i>Comet</i> was lengthened at Helensburgh,
+in 1818, to 60 feet, and received a new engine of six horse-power,
+by means of which her speed was increased to six miles an hour. This
+engine was made by John Robertson, of Glasgow.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="COMET" id="COMET"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_035.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="397" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">BELL’S “COMET,” OFF DUMBARTON ON THE CLYDE, 1812.<br />From “Chambers’ Book of Days.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>
+The <i>Comet</i> did not pay as a passenger boat on the Clyde, and was soon
+after her launch put on the route to Fort William, and continued on
+that stormy route till December 15th, 1820, when she was wrecked at
+Craignish, on the West Highland coast. She had left Oban that morning
+against the advice of her captain, who deemed the boat unseaworthy and
+quite unfit to encounter the blinding snow storm, in the midst of which
+she went ashore. But Bell had over-ruled the captain. Fortunately there
+was no loss of life. She was replaced in the following year by a larger
+and improved style of vessel, called by the same name and sailed by the
+same master, Robert Bain, who was the first to take a steamer through
+the Crinan Canal, and the first to traverse the Caledonian Canal from
+sea to sea by steam, in 1822. The second <i>Comet</i> came into collision
+with the steamer <i>Ayr</i> off Gourock in October, 1825, and sank with
+the loss of seventy lives. She was raised, however, was rigged as a
+schooner, renamed the <i>Anne</i>, and sailed for many years as a coaster.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Bell was born in Linlithgow in 1767. The son of a mechanic, he
+worked for some time as a stone-mason, afterwards as a carpenter, and
+gained some experience in ship-building at Bo’ness under Mr. Rennie. He
+removed to Helensburgh in 1808, where his wife kept the Baths Inn while
+he was experimenting in mechanical projects. He was a man of energy
+and enterprise, but like most inventors was always scant of cash. Had
+it not been for the generosity of his friends, and an annuity of £100
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>
+which he received from the Clyde Trust, he would have come to want
+in his old age. He seems to have had steam navigation on the brain
+as early as 1786, and had communicated his ideas on the subject to
+most of the crowned heads of Europe, as well as to the President of
+the United States, before he built the <i>Comet</i>. Mr. Bell’s memory is
+perpetuated in an obelisk erected by the city of Glasgow corporation
+on a picturesque promontory on the banks of the Clyde at Bowling, “in
+acknowledgment of a debt which it can never repay.” There is also a
+handsome granite obelisk to his memory on the esplanade at Helensburgh,
+the inscription on which testifies that “Henry Bell was the first in
+Great Britain who was successful in practically applying steam power
+for the purpose of navigation.” The stone effigy of the man adjoining
+his grave in Row churchyard was placed there by his friend Robert
+Napier, whose fame and fortune were largely the result of Bell’s
+enterprise. Mr. Bell died at his inn in Helensburgh, November 14th, 1830.</p>
+
+<p>Fifty years later witnessed the full development of Mr. Bell’s ideal
+in the <i>Columba</i>, then as now the largest river steamer ever seen on
+the Clyde, and the swiftest. The <i>Columba</i> is built of steel, is 316
+feet long and 50 feet wide. She has two oscillating engines of 220
+horse-power, and attains a speed of twenty-two miles an hour. Her route
+is from Glasgow to Ardrishaig and back, daily in summer, when she
+carries from 2,000 to 3,000 persons through some of the finest scenery
+in Scotland. She is provided with steam machinery for steering and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
+warping her into the piers, and with other modern appliances that make
+her as handy as a steam yacht. She resembles a little floating town,
+with shops and post-office where you can procure money orders and
+despatch telegrams And what is the <i>Columba</i> after all but an enlarged
+and perfected reproduction of Bell’s <i>Comet</i>!</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="COLUMBA" id="COLUMBA"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_038.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="263" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">“COLUMBA,” FAMOUS CLYDE RIVER STEAMER, 1875.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="RHINE" id="RHINE"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_039.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="417" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">“WILHELM KAISER” ON THE RHINE, 1886.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The reputation of the Clyde in respect of ocean steamships and
+“ironclads” has become world-wide. Some of the best specimens of marine
+architecture are Clyde-built. Her own river steamers are the finest
+and fleetest in the United Kingdom. The Thames river steamers, though
+far inferior to the Clyde boats, answer their purpose by conveying
+vast numbers of people short distances at a cheap rate. The Victoria
+Steamboat Association, with its fleet of forty-five river steamers, can
+carry 200,000 people daily for a penny a mile. The Rhine steamers and
+those plying on the Swiss lakes are in keeping with the picturesque
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>
+scenery through which they run. Painted in bright colours, they present
+a very attractive and smart appearance. They are kept scrupulously
+clean and are admirably managed. Many of them are large, with saloon
+cabins the whole length of the vessel, over which is the promenade deck
+covered with gay awnings. They run fast. The captain sits in state in
+his easy chair under a canopy on the bridge—smoking his cigar. The
+chief steward, next to the captain by far the most important personage
+on board, moves about all day long in full evening dress—his main
+concern being to know what wine you will have for lunch or dinner that
+he may put it on ice for you. The <i>table d’hote</i> is the crowning event
+of the day on board a Rhine steamer, <i>i.e.</i>, for the misguided majority
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>
+of tourists to whom a swell dinner offers greater attractions than the
+finest scenery imaginable.</p>
+
+<p>The success of the first <i>Comet</i> induced others to follow the example.
+The year 1814 saw two other small steamboats on the Clyde. Next year
+the <i>Marjery</i>, built by Denny of Dumbarton, made a voyage to Dublin
+and thence to the Thames, where she plied between London and Margate
+for some time, to the consternation of the Thames watermen. In 1818
+David Napier of Glasgow went into the business, and equipped a number
+of coasting steamers with improved machinery. At this time the <i>Rob
+Roy</i>, claimed to be the pioneer of sea-going steamers, began to run
+to Belfast, but being found too small for the traffic she was put on
+the Dover and Calais route. In 1819 the Admiralty of the day had a
+steamboat built for towing men of-war, called the <i>Comet</i>, 115 feet by
+21 feet, with two of Boulton &amp; Watt’s engines of 40 horse-power each.
+This vessel was followed by the <i>Lightning</i>, <i>Echo</i>, <i>Confiance</i>,
+<i>Columbia</i> and <i>Dee</i>—the latter vessel having side-lever engines of
+240 horse-power, with flue boilers carrying a pressure of six pounds
+to the square inch, which developed a speed of seven knots an hour. In
+1822 a large number of steam vessels fitted with condensing engines
+were afloat. The <i>James Watt</i> was built in that year to ply between
+Leith and London. The largest steamer at that time was the <i>United
+Kingdom</i>, built by Steele of Greenock, 160 feet long by 26½ feet wide,
+having engines of 200 horse-power—as much an object of wonder in those
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>
+days for her “gigantic proportions” as was the <i>Great Eastern</i> thirty
+years later. In 1825 there were 168 steam vessels in Britain; in 1835
+there were 538; in 1855 there were 2,310, including war vessels afloat
+and building; in 1895 the number of steam vessels built in the United
+Kingdom was 638, of which number 90 per cent. were built of steel.
+In 1897 the number of steamers over 100 tons in the United Kingdom,
+including the colonies, was computed to be 8,500, with a net tonnage of
+6,500,000 tons.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The “Clermont.”</span></h3>
+
+<p>Three years before Bell’s achievement on the Clyde, a clever American,
+profiting by the experiments of Symington, applied his inventive
+genius to perfecting the application of steam as a motive power for
+vessels, and gained for himself the honour of being the first to make
+it available for practical use on a paying basis. This was Robert
+Fulton, a native of Pennsylvania, born in 1765, who commenced business
+as a portrait painter and followed that profession for some years in
+France and England. He invented a number of “notions,” among the rest
+a submarine torpedo-boat, in which he claimed that he could remain
+under water for an hour and a half at a time; but failing to receive
+the patronage of any naval authorities, he returned to New York, and,
+with the assistance of Mr. John Livingstone, had a steamboat built and
+fitted with an English engine by Boulton &amp; Watt, of Birmingham. The
+<i>Clermont</i> (after being lengthened) was 133 feet long, 18 feet beam,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>
+and 7½ feet deep. Her wheels were uncovered, 15 feet in diameter, with
+eight buckets, 4 feet long, to each wheel, and dipping 2 feet. The
+cylinder was 24 inches in diameter, with 4 feet stroke of piston. The
+boiler was of copper, 20 feet long, 7 feet wide and 8 feet high.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="CLERMONT" id="CLERMONT"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_042.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="418" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">FULTON’S “CLERMONT” ON THE HUDSON, 1807.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The <i>Clermont</i> made her first voyage from New York to Albany, August
+7th, 1807. Her speed was about five miles an hour. During the winter of
+1807-8 she was enlarged, her name being then changed to <i>North River</i>.
+She continued to ply successfully on the Hudson as a passenger boat
+for a number of years, her owners having acquired the exclusive right
+to navigate the waters of the State of New York by steam. The <i>Car of
+Neptune</i> and the <i>Paragon</i>, of 300 and 350 tons, respectively, were
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>
+soon added to the Fulton &amp; Livingstone Line. Both of these vessels
+were fitted with English engines. The <i>Paragon</i> continued to ply on
+the Hudson for about ten years, earning a good deal of money for the
+owners. About 1820, while ascending the river, she ran upon a rock and
+became a total wreck. Other steamboats were built for other waters, and
+very soon there were steamers plying on all the navigable rivers of the
+United States available for commerce. Mr. Fulton married a daughter of
+Mr. Livingstone. He died in New York in 1815, at the height of his fame
+and prosperity.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="MISSISSIPPI" id="MISSISSIPPI"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_043.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="328" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">MISSISSIPPI STEAMBOAT “J. M. WHITE,” 1878.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="OHIO" id="OHIO"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_045.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="388" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">OHIO STEAMBOAT “IRON QUEEN,” 1882.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The contrast between Fulton’s <i>Clermont</i>, or Bell’s <i>Comet</i> and the
+Atlantic Liner coursing over the sea at railway speed is very striking,
+and scarcely less remarkable the comparison of the river steamboat of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>
+to-day with these early experiments. America has developed a type
+of steamboat, or rather types of steamboats, peculiarly its own.
+The light-draught Mississippi steamers<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>
+bear little resemblance to the Hudson River and Long Island Sound boats
+while the American steam ferry-boat is a thing certainly not of beauty,
+but unique. Dickens in his American Notes speaks of the <i>Burlington</i>,
+the crack steamer on Lake Champlain in the early forties, as “a
+perfectly exquisite achievement of neatness, elegance and order—a model
+of graceful comfort and beautiful contrivance.” But Dickens never saw
+the <i>Priscilla</i>. She was only launched in 1894, and is claimed to be
+“pre-eminently the world’s greatest inland steamer—the largest, finest
+and most elaborately furnished steamboat of her class to be found
+anywhere.” The <i>Priscilla</i> is 440½ feet long, 52½ feet wide, or 95 feet
+over the paddle-boxes. The paddle-wheels are of the feathering type, 35
+feet in diameter and 14 feet face. Her light draught is 12½ feet, and
+her speed easily 22 miles an hour, though the ordinary service of the
+line does not demand such fast running. Her night’s work is 181 miles,
+which she covers leisurely in ten hours. She cost $1,500,000. All the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>
+interior decorations are very elaborate and handsome. In her triple
+row of staterooms there is luxurious sleeping accommodation for 1,500
+passengers. In the spacious dining-room 325 persons may be seated
+at one time. The grand saloon is a magnificent spectacle, large and
+lofty, superbly decorated and lighted by electricity. The <i>Priscilla</i>
+has cargo capacity for 800 tons of freight. “Her machinery is not only
+a marvel of design and workmanship, but it fascinates all persons
+interested in mechanical devices.” It consists of a double inclined
+compound engine, with two high-pressure cylinders, each fifty-one
+inches in diameter, and two low pressure, each ninety-five inches
+in diameter, all with a stroke of eleven feet. There are ten return
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>
+tubular boilers of the Scotch type, each fourteen feet in diameter and
+fourteen feet long, constructed for a working pressure of 150 lbs. to
+the square inch. The indicated horse-power is 8,500. The machinery is
+principally below the main deck, leaving all the space on and above
+this deck available for general purposes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="PRISCILLA" id="PRISCILLA"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_046.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="599" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">“PRISCILLA.”<br />Fall River and Long Island Sound Line, 1894.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This floating palace was built at Chester, Pa., by the Delaware Iron
+Ship-building and Engine Works Company. She is built of steel. Her
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>
+registered tonnage is 5,398 tons. Although so vast in her proportions,
+the <i>Priscilla</i> sits on the water as lightly and gracefully as a swan.
+Painted white as snow outside, as nearly all American river steamers
+are, she presents a beautiful, you might say a dazzling, appearance;
+and she is only one of five magnificent steamers of the Fall River
+Line, all substantially alike in design and equipment, running
+regularly all the year round between Fall River and New York, with a
+perfection of service that cannot be surpassed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="NEW_YORK" id="NEW_YORK"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_047.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="387" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">“NEW YORK.”<br />The latest Hudson River Day Steamer, 1897.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This cut, kindly furnished by the owners, gives a faithful
+representation of the exterior of a very beautiful Hudson River day
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>
+steamboat. The <i>New York</i> is built of steel, 311 feet over all, breadth
+of beam 40 feet, and over the guards 74 feet; average draught of water
+6 feet. She combines speed, luxuriousness of furnishing and a beauty
+of finish in all parts that has not been surpassed on vessels of this
+class. She is capable of running 24 miles an hour. This boat and her
+consort, the <i>Albany</i>, are claimed to be the finest day passenger river
+steamers in the world. She is not crowded with 2,500 passengers, of
+whom 120 may sit down together to an exquisite dinner in the richly
+decorated dining-room.</p>
+
+<p>A distinct class of steamboats peculiar to America is the ferry-boat.
+In one of its forms it is to be found fully developed in New York
+harbour, and serves to convey daily countless thousands of people whose
+business lies in New York City, but whose homes are on Brooklyn Heights
+or elsewhere on Long Island, or the New Jersey coast. The boats are
+very large and very ugly, but do their work admirably, being adapted
+for the transport of wheeled carriages of every description as well as
+for foot-passengers. One of the sights of New York worth seeing is a
+visit to the Fulton Ferry in the morning or in the evening, when the
+crowds are the greatest. The <i>Robert Garrett</i>, which runs down the bay
+to Staten Island, carries from 4,000 to 5,000 passengers at a trip, and
+is said to be the largest steam-ferry passenger boat in existence. She
+is owned by the Staten Island Rapid Transit Co., and cost $225,000.</p>
+
+<p>Another type of ferry-boat is that which, in addition to carrying
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
+passengers, is specially adapted for railway purposes. The best
+specimen of this kind of steamboat is probably to be found on Lake
+Erie, where a pair of boats, precisely alike, keep up regular
+communication twice a day, summer and winter, between Coneant, Ohio,
+and Port Dover, Ontario. They are named <i>Shenango</i>, 1st and 2nd. They
+are each 300 feet long and 53 feet in width. On the main deck are four
+railway tracks, sufficient for twenty-six loaded cars each containing
+60,000 lbs. of coal. On the upper deck are handsomely fitted cabins for
+1,000 passengers The ferry is sixty-five miles wide. Sometimes it is
+pretty rough sailing, but these steamers never fail to make the round
+trip in thirteen hours. They are fitted with compound engines, Scotch
+boilers, and twin screws; they draw 12½ feet of water when loaded and
+run twelve miles an hour; they are prodigiously strong, and can plough
+their way through fields of ice with marvellous facility.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="GARRETT" id="GARRETT"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_049.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="364" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">“ROBERT GARRETT,” FERRY STEAMBOAT, NEW YORK.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span></p>
+<div class="chapter"><h2>CHAPTER II.<br /><span class="h_subtitle">EARLY YEARS OF STEAM NAVIGATION.</span></h2></div>
+
+<p class="neg-indent"> The <i>Accommodation</i>—The <i>Savannah</i>—<i>Enterprise</i>
+—<i>Royal William</i>—<i>Liverpool</i>—<i>Sirius</i> and <i>Great Western</i>—<i>Great
+Britain</i> and <i>Great Eastern</i>—The Brunels—The screw propeller.</p>
+
+<div>
+  <img class="drop-cap" src="images/letter_t.jpg" width="31" height="40" alt="T" />
+</div>
+<p class="drop-cap no-indent">
+TWO years after the <i>Clermont</i> had commenced to ply on the Hudson, and
+three years before the <i>Comet</i> had disturbed the waters of the Clyde,
+the first steamboat appeared on the St. Lawrence. The <i>Accommodation</i>,
+built by the Hon. John Molson, of Montreal, made her maiden trip to
+Quebec on November 3rd, 1809, carrying ten passengers, in thirty-six
+hours’ running time. In accordance with the usual custom, which
+continued for many years, she anchored at night, so that the whole time
+occupied in the voyage was sixty-six hours. If she ascended the St.
+Mary’s current, she was towed up by oxen. The length of this vessel was
+eighty-five feet over all, her breadth sixteen feet, her engine was of
+six horse-power, and her speed five miles an hour. The <i>Accommodation</i>
+was built at the back of the Molson’s Brewery, and was launched
+broadside on. Her engine was made by Boulton &amp; Watt, of Birmingham,
+England. The fare from Montreal to Quebec by this vessel was £2 10s.;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
+children, half price; “servants with <i>birth</i> (<i>sic</i>), £1 13s. 4d.;
+without <i>birth</i>, £1 5s.” The Quebec <i>Mercury</i>, announcing her arrival,
+remarked: “She is incessantly crowded with visitors. This steamboat
+receives her impulse from an open-spoked perpendicular wheel on each
+side, without any circular band or rim. To the end of each double spoke
+is fixed a square board which enters the water, and by the rotatory
+motion of the wheels acts like a paddle. No wind or tide can stop her.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="JEANIE" id="JEANIE"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_051.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="330" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">“JEANIE DEANS,” CLYDE STEAMBOAT.<br  />From “Mountain, Moor and Loch,” London, 1894.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Savannah.</i>—In the year 1818 there was built in New York, by
+Messrs. Crocker and Pickett, a full-rigged sailing ship of about 350
+tons, named the <i>Savannah</i>. She was intended to be used as a sailing
+packet between New York and Havre, but before she was completed she was
+purchased by William Scarborough &amp; Co., a shipping firm in Savannah, who
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>
+fitted her up with a steam-engine of 90 horse-power, placed on deck,
+and a pair of paddle-wheels enclosed with canvas coverings, so
+constructed that they could be folded up and taken on deck in stormy
+weather, and that tedious operation seems to have been gone through
+pretty frequently in the course of her first voyages. Her maiden trip
+from New York to Savannah occupied 8 days, 15 hours. She left Savannah
+for Liverpool under steam, May 22nd, 1819, and arrived in the Mersey,
+“with all sail set,” on June 20th, making the run in twenty-nine and a
+half days. The whole time that the engine was at work during the voyage
+is said to have been only eighty hours. “She hove to off the bar,
+waiting for the tide to rise, at 5 p.m. shipped her wheels”—so the
+record of the period runs—“furled her sails and steamed up the river,
+with American banners flying, the docks being lined with thousands
+of people, who greeted her arrival with cheers.” From Liverpool, the
+<i>Savannah</i> sailed up the Baltic to Stockholm and St. Petersburg. On her
+return voyage, on account of stormy weather, the engine was scarcely
+used at all until the pilot came aboard off Savannah, when the sails
+were furled, and with the flood-tide she steamed into port. After
+several voyages of a similar kind, the machinery was removed and she
+plied for some time as a sailing packet between New York and Savannah,
+and was eventually wrecked on Long Island in 1822.</p>
+
+<p>Shortly after this the British Government offered a prize of £10,000 to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>
+the party who should first make a successful voyage by steam power
+to India. The prize was won by Captain Johnston, who sailed from
+England on August 16th, 1825, in the <i>Enterprise</i>, of 500 tons and
+240 horse-power,<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>
+and reached Calcutta on the 7th of December. The distance run was
+13,700 miles, and the time occupied 113 days, during ten of which the
+ship was at anchor. She ran under steam sixty-four days and consumed
+580 chaldrons of coal, the rest of the voyage being under sail.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="SAVANNAH" id="SAVANNAH"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_053.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="359" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">THE “SAVANNAH,” 1819.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Eight years followed without any further attempts in the direction of
+ocean steam navigation. There seemed to be nothing in these costly
+experiments that would induce capitalists to invest their money in
+steamships. Sailing vessels had crossed the Atlantic in much less than
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
+thirty days, and had made the voyage to India in less time than the
+<i>Enterprise</i> took to do it. It would not pay! and had not scientific
+men and practical engineers pronounced the idea of transatlantic
+steamships as Utopian and utterly impracticable? “No vessel could be
+constructed,” they said, “that could carry enough coal to take her
+across the Atlantic by steam power alone.” Some of these unbelievers
+lived to see the day when large ocean steamers not only carry enough
+coal to take them from Liverpool to New York, but actually enough for
+the return voyage also.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The “Royal William.”</span></h3>
+
+<p>The <i>Savannah</i> and <i>Enterprise</i> were admittedly nothing more than
+sailing ships with auxiliary steam power. In the archives of the
+National Museum at Washington there is to be found the full history
+and log of the <i>Savannah</i>, which proves conclusively that she was not
+entitled to be called the pioneer of transatlantic steam navigation.
+That the honour belongs to the <i>Royal William</i>, built at Quebec and
+engined at Montreal, has been clearly proven. The evidence in support
+of this claim is embodied in a report of the Secretary of State of
+Canada for the year ended December 31st, 1894. From this it appears
+that the <i>Royal William</i> was designed by Mr. James Goudie, Marine
+Architect of Quebec, and that she was launched from the shipyard of
+Messrs. Campbell and Black at Cape Cove, Quebec, April 29th, 1831, in
+presence of Lord Aylmer, the Governor-General, and a vast concourse
+of people, Lady Aylmer naming the vessel with the usual ceremonies
+after the reigning monarch, William IV. She was towed to Montreal,
+where her engines of 200 horse-power were fitted by Messrs. Bennett
+and Henderson. She steamed back to Quebec in the beginning of August.
+She was built for the Quebec and Halifax Steam Navigation Company,
+incorporated by Act of Parliament, March 31st, 1831. This company
+comprised 235 persons whose names appear in the Act, among them
+being the three brothers, Samuel, Henry and Joseph Cunard. Samuel,
+the founder of the Cunard Line, was a frequent visitor at the Quebec
+shipyard, and carefully noted down all the information he could get
+from the builders.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="R_WILLIAM" id="R_WILLIAM"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_055.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="131" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">MODEL OF STEAMSHIP “ROYAL WILLIAM.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot2">
+<p>THIS INTERESTING RELIC HAS AN HONOURED RESTING-PLACE IN THE LIBRARY
+OF THE LITERARY AND HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF QUEBEC. IT WAS SENT, AT
+THE REQUEST OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE ROYAL NAVAL EXHIBITION, TO THAT
+EXHIBITION, HELD IN LONDON IN 1891, AND NUMBERED 4,736, WHERE IT
+ATTRACTED CONSIDERABLE ATTENTION, AND THE SOCIETY RECEIVED FROM THE
+COMMITTEE A HANDSOME DIPLOMA BY WAY OF A SOUVENIR.</p>
+
+<p>THE IMPORTANCE OF THIS MODEL WAS RECOGNIZED BY THE DOMINION GOVERNMENT.
+BY ORDERING A FACSIMILE OF IT TO BE MADE, AND SENDING IT TO THE
+COLUMBIAN EXHIBITION, OR WORLD’S FAIR, AT CHICAGO, IN 1893. IT IS NOW
+TO BE SEEN IN THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AT OTTAWA.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
+This historic vessel was registered No. 2 in the port of Quebec. She
+was rigged as a three-masted schooner, of 363<small><sup>60</sup>&frasl;<sub>94</sub></small>
+tons burthen, with a standing bowsprit and square stern. Her length was 160 feet; breadth,
+taken above the main wales, 44 feet; depth of hold, 17 feet 9 inches;
+and width, between the paddle-boxes, 28 feet. She cost about £16,000.
+The <i>Royal William</i>, commanded by Captain J. Jones, R.N., sailed from
+Quebec for Halifax, August 24th, 1831, with twenty cabin passengers,
+seventy steerage, and a good freight. She arrived on the 31st—six and
+a half days from Quebec. Several voyages were made that year to Halifax
+and the Gulf ports. Next year, owing to the prevalence of cholera,
+trade was at a standstill, and there was nothing for the new steamship
+to do. She was accordingly sold by Sheriff Gugy, at the church door, in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
+the parish of Sorel, for £5,000. In April, 1833, she was placed under
+the command of Captain John Macdougall, a native of Oban, Scotland.
+During May she towed vessels from Grosse Isle, and in June sailed for
+the lower ports, Halifax and Boston, reaching the latter place on the
+17th—the first British steamer to enter that port. On her return
+to Quebec, her owners decided to send her to London to be sold. She
+sailed August 5th, arrived at Pictou on the 8th, and sailed thence on
+the 18th, with seven passengers, a box of stuffed birds, one box and
+one trunk, some household furniture, 254 chaldrons of coal, and a crew
+of thirty-six men. The voyage to Cowes, Isle of Wight, was made in
+nineteen and a half days. She was deeply laden with her coal, had very
+rough weather, and had to run with one engine for ten days. A short
+time having been spent at Cowes, painting the ship, etc., “she steamed
+up to Gravesend in fine style—the first vessel to cross the Atlantic
+propelled by the motive power of steam alone.”</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Royal William</i> was sold in London for £10,000, and was chartered
+to the Portuguese Government as a transport. In 1834 she was sold to
+the Spanish Government, and named the <i>Isabel Segunda</i>, and while in
+this service was the first war-steamer to fire a hostile shot. In
+1837 she was sent to Bordeaux, France, for repairs, but, her timbers
+being badly decayed, her machinery was transferred to a new vessel of
+the same name, while she herself terminated her brilliant career as a
+hulk.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
+
+<p>Another steamer bearing the name <i>Royal William</i> was despatched from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
+Liverpool to New York, by the Transatlantic Steamship Company, in
+1838. This was a vessel of 617 tons, and 276 horse-power—the first
+to make the westward voyage from Liverpool, and the first passenger
+steamer to cross the sea. After a few voyages of doubtful success, this
+steamer was degraded into a coal-hulk, and a much larger and faster
+vessel took her place. This was the <i>Liverpool</i>—built expressly for
+the Atlantic trade, with luxurious fittings for seventy or eighty
+first-class passengers. She was a fine ship, of 1,150 tons burthen,
+and 468 horse-power. She sailed from Liverpool, October 20th, 1838,
+but had to put back to Queenstown on the 30th; sailing thence on
+November 6th, she reached New York on the 23rd. After several voyages,
+averaging seventeen days out and fifteen days home, she was sold to
+the Peninsular and Oriental Company, and was finally wrecked off Cape
+Finisterre in 1846.</p>
+
+<p>In 1839 the late Sir Hugh Allan and several other Canadians made an
+adventurous voyage in the <i>Liverpool</i>. Sailing from New York, December
+4th, they had a succession of gales up to the 28th, when they were
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>
+scarcely half-way across the Atlantic. The chief engineer then reported
+that unless things mended they would run short of coal. The chief
+steward at the same time expressed grave doubts as to his provisions
+holding out. A consultation having been held, it was resolved to change
+their course for the Azores. They reached Fayal just as the last
+shovelful of coal was thrown on the fires. Four days were spent on the
+Island, during which time the passengers were treated to a round of
+festivities. On arriving at Liverpool, they learned that the ship had
+been given up as lost—not having been heard of since she sailed from
+New York thirty-nine days before.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="SIRIUS" id="SIRIUS"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_059.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="361" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">THE “SIRIUS,” 1838.</p>
+</div>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The “Sirius” and “Great Western.”</span></h3>
+
+<p>The departure of these steamships from England to America in 1838 marks
+an important epoch in the history of steam navigation, inasmuch as the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
+practicability of establishing a regular transatlantic steam service
+was now for the first time to be clearly demonstrated. As the <i>Sirius</i>
+made only one round voyage, there is little to be said about her
+beyond admiring the pluck of her owners. She was a small vessel
+of about 700 tons and 320 horse-power, built at Leith for the St.
+George Steam-packet Company, and had plied successfully for some time
+between London and Cork. She was chartered by the then newly formed
+“British and American Steam Navigation Company,” of which the famous
+ship-builder, Laird, of Birkenhead, was the leading spirit. The
+<i>Sirius</i> was despatched from London for New York, <i>via</i> Cork, whence
+she sailed on April 4th, with ninety-four passengers. She arrived in
+New York on the 22nd, after a successful voyage of seventeen clear
+days, being commanded by Lieut. Roberts, R.N., who was afterwards lost
+at sea with the ill-fated SS. <i>President</i>, in 1841. The return voyage
+was made in about the same number of days as the outward trip.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Great Western</i>, designed and built by Mr. William Patterson at
+Bristol, for the Great Western Steamship Company, sailed from Bristol,
+April 8th, 1838, in command of Lieut. James Hoskin, R.N., and reached
+New York on the 23rd, making the run in fifteen days with a consumption
+of 655 tons of coal and realizing an average speed of a little over
+eight knots an hour. She returned to Bristol in somewhat less than
+fifteen days. A fine ship she was, of 1,340 tons and 440 horse-power,
+212 feet long, and 35½ feet beam. Her best run between New York and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>
+Bristol was made in 12½ days,<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a>
+a remarkable record for that time. Altogether she was admitted to be
+a distinct success. She was sold in 1847 for £25,000, after which she
+sailed regularly for ten years to the West Indies. In the meantime
+the owners of the <i>Sirius</i> had built a much larger boat, the <i>British
+Queen</i>, which made her maiden voyage from Portsmouth in 1839. After
+making a number of voyages to New York this fine ship was sold to
+the Belgians in 1841, chiefly owing to the collapse of the company
+occasioned by the loss of a sister-ship, the <i>President</i>, which sailed
+from New York, March 11th of that year, and was never afterwards heard of.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The “Great Britain” and “Great Eastern.”</span></h3>
+
+<p>The <i>Great Britain</i>, designed by Brunel, and built at Bristol by
+Mr. Patterson, was the first iron steamship of large dimensions.
+She was very large for her time, being 322 feet long, 48 feet wide,
+and 31½ feet deep; her tonnage was 3,270 tons, and her engines
+1,500 horse-power. As originally rigged she had six masts; she had
+a six-bladed screw-propeller, 15½ feet in diameter, which made 18
+revolutions per minute, giving her a maximum speed of twelve knots
+an hour. A very handsome model, of prodigious strength, and a fine
+sea-boat was the <i>Great Britain</i>. She commenced plying to New York,
+July 26th, 1845, and was a pronounced success. On the 22nd of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
+September, 1846, on her outward voyage, she was stranded on the Irish
+coast, and became deeply embedded in the sands of Dundrum Bay, where
+she lay all winter, exposed to violent storms; but she withstood the
+strain, was raised from her watery grave, was refitted and placed on
+the Australian route, where she sailed successfully until 1882, when
+her machinery was taken out and she closed her remarkable career as a
+full-rigged sailing ship, when nearly fifty years old! and was finally
+used as a coal-hulk at the Falkland Islands, where her remains are
+still to be seen.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="BRITAIN" id="BRITAIN"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_062.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="346" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">THE “GREAT BRITAIN,” 1845.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="EASTERN" id="EASTERN"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_063.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="345" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">THE “GREAT EASTERN,” 1857.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Great Eastern.</i>—The British Government having in 1853 advertised
+for tenders to carry the mails to India and Australia, a number of
+wealthy and scientific men formed themselves into a company called the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>
+Eastern Steam Navigation Company, with a capital of £1,200,000, and
+sent in a tender, but it was not accepted.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>
+The company, however, resolved to build a fleet of steamers, of which
+the <i>Great Eastern</i> was to be the first. Mr. Brunel, who had designed
+the <i>Great Britain</i>, was selected as the architect, and Mr. Scott
+Russell, as the builder of the pioneer ship. The proposal suited Mr.
+Brunel’s sanguine temperament, and he recommended the building of a
+monster iron steamship, that should eclipse all previous efforts in
+marine architecture, a vessel that should run, say, to Ceylon at an
+average speed of fifteen knots, and carry coal enough to take her out
+and home again. From Ceylon smaller boats would continue the service to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
+India and Australia. The embodiment of Mr. Brunel’s magnificent
+conception was the <i>Great Eastern</i>, skilfully wrought out,
+but destined to prove a gigantic failure.</p>
+
+<p>This extraordinary ship was commenced at Millwall on the Thames, in
+May, 1854, and was completed in 1857, at a cost of nearly £5,000,000.
+When ready for launching, her estimated weight was some 12,000 tons. As
+no such load had ever before slid down the ways of a shipyard, every
+precaution and appliance that skill could suggest were brought into
+requisition. She was to be hauled down, broadside on, by an elaborate
+arrangement of chains and stationary engines; but when the critical
+moment arrived the ponderous mammoth would not budge, and it cost
+something like £600,000 and constant labour for three months before
+she reached her destined element. The <i>Great Eastern</i> was 692 feet
+long, 83 feet in width, and 58½ feet deep. She was reckoned at 22,500
+tons burthen. Her four engines were collectively of 11,000 indicated
+horse-power. She was fitted up in grand style to accommodate 4,800
+passengers. As a troop-ship she could carry comfortably an army of
+10,000 men in addition to her own crew of 400. She was provided with
+both paddle-wheels and a screw-propeller. The wheels were fifty feet in
+diameter, making twelve revolutions per minute; the four-bladed screw
+was twenty-four feet in diameter, adapted for forty-five revolutions
+per minute. Her estimated speed was fifteen knots, but her best average
+never exceeded twelve knots. Her first voyage from Southampton to New
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
+York was made in 10 days and 21 hours; the highest speed by the log was
+fourteen and a half knots, and the greatest day’s run three hundred and
+thirty-three knots. Her arrival in New York, June 27th, 1860, created a
+great sensation. Fort Hamilton saluted her with a discharge of fourteen
+guns—the first instance of a merchant vessel being thus honoured in
+America. She returned home <i>via</i> Halifax, making the run thence to
+Milford Haven in 10 days and 4 hours. In May, 1861, she made another
+voyage to New York, carrying one hundred passengers, but with no
+improvement in her speed. On her return to Liverpool she was chartered
+by the British Government to bring out troops to Canada. She arrived at
+Quebec, July 6th, 1861, with 2,528 soldiers and forty civilians, and
+during her stay there was visited by large crowds of people. Leaving
+Quebec, August 6th, she reached Liverpool on the 15th. A couple more
+voyages to New York, and her career as a passenger ship was ended. She
+had been singularly unfortunate. Her first commander, Captain Harrison,
+was drowned in the Solent by the upsetting of a small boat. On her
+trial trip, by the bursting of a steam jacket, six of her crew were
+killed and the ship was badly damaged. She had broken her rudder in
+mid-ocean, and lay for days a helpless mass in the trough of the sea
+during a gale of wind, rolling frightfully. Worse than all, she had
+got on the rocks entering New York harbour, with serious damage to her
+hull. The momentous question arose, What was to be done with her?</p>
+
+<p>This leviathan of the deep was finally fitted up as a “cable ship,” and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>
+for a short time did good service in that line. In 1865 she had
+laid the second Atlantic cable to within a few hundred miles of
+Newfoundland, when it snapped and disappeared in 1,950 fathoms of
+water. Next year the <i>Great Eastern</i> not only was the means of laying
+a new cable successfully, but was the means of picking up the lost
+one—a remarkable feat of seamanship and electrical skill. After laying
+several other cables the big ship was tied up, never to go again. She
+was eventually sold for £16,000 and broken up, a somewhat tragic ending
+for such a triumph of engineering skill. But who can tell how much
+the successful “liner” of to-day owes to the failure of the <i>Great
+Eastern</i>? She came out ahead of time, and when the intricate art of
+managing successfully the details of an ocean steamship had yet to be
+learned.</p>
+
+<p>Isambard Kingdom Brunel, born at Portsmouth in 1806, was the son
+of Sir Mark I. Brunel, a French engineer, who attained celebrity
+as the architect of the Thames Tunnel, and other important works,
+in which he was assisted by his son, who also became famous as the
+Engineer-in-Chief of the Great Western Railroad, in the construction of
+which he adopted the broad gauge (7 feet), against the remonstrances
+of Stephenson and other railway authorities, and which was eventually
+changed to what has become the national gauge (4 feet, 8½ inches), at
+enormous expense. Mr. Brunel died in 1859. It was his misfortune to
+have landed on this planet about fifty years too soon.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Screw-Propeller</span>.</h3>
+
+<p>Most people fail to find much resemblance, if any at all, between that
+comparatively small-looking two or three-bladed thing that drives the
+steamship through the water at the rate of twenty miles an hour, and
+what is commonly known as a screw; but the discrepancy is easy of
+explanation. Archimedes, who is credited with the invention of the
+screw as a mechanical lever, little dreamed of the uses to which it
+was to be turned two thousand years later. He is said to have employed
+the screw in launching a large ship, pushing it into the water as is
+now done by hydraulic appliances. By changing his fulcrum and making
+the screw a part of the ship, the modern engineer has only reversed
+the mode of applying propelling power; the principle is the same.
+The effect produced by the screw in propelling a ship will be best
+understood by supposing an ordinary screw of large dimensions to be
+revolving rapidly in a trough full of water. It would then send the
+water away from it with great force; but as action and reaction are
+equal it would be itself, at the same time, urged in the opposite
+direction with exactly the same degree of force. If we suppose it,
+then, to be fixed in a ship, the ship will be pushed forward with the
+same force that is exerted by the screw in pushing back against the
+water. If the screw is made to revolve in the opposite direction, the
+converse of this takes place, and the ship is pushed backwards by the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>
+reaction of the screw.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>
+The idea has long occupied the attention of inventive genius. As far
+back as 1746, at least, the capabilities of the screw as a motive
+power for ships have been tested by experiments. In 1770 James Watt,
+who had so much to do with perfecting the steam-engine, suggested the
+use of screw-propellers. In 1815 Trevethick took out a patent for one.
+Woodcroft did the same in 1826; but it was not until ten years later
+that its utility was successfully demonstrated.</p>
+
+<p>In 1836 Captain John Ericsson, a Swede, then residing in London, and
+Mr. T. P. Smith, of the same place, almost simultaneously had each
+small boats built for the purpose of testing the screw. Ericsson’s
+boat, named the <i>Francis B. Ogden</i>, was 45 feet long and 8 feet beam,
+and was fitted with two screw-propellers attached to the same shaft.
+The first experiment made on the Thames was successful beyond all
+expectation, for he towed the Admiralty barge, with a number of their
+Lordships on board, from Somerset House to Blackwall and back, at the
+rate of ten miles an hour. Smith’s boat was equally successful, the
+immediate result being the formation of a joint stock company, called
+the Screwship Propeller Company, who bought out Mr. Smith’s patent
+and proceeded to build the <i>Archimedes</i>, a vessel of 237 tons, and 80
+horse-power. Smith’s original propeller was a genuine screw, with two
+whole turns of the thread, made to revolve rapidly under water in the
+dead-wood of the vessel’s run. In the meantime, about 1838, Mr. James
+Lowe obtained a patent for an important modification of the elongated
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>
+screw-propeller. This consisted in making use of curved blades, each
+a portion of a curve, which, if continued, would form a complete
+screw. The “pitch of the screw ” being the whole length along the
+spindle shaft of one complete turn of the screw, if fully developed,
+it was found that by reducing the pitch to a segment of the screw
+and increasing the diameter, the propeller could be reduced to more
+convenient dimensions.</p>
+
+<p>The success of the <i>Archimedes</i> at length induced the Admiralty to
+make trial of the screw in the Royal Navy. The first <i>Rattler</i> was
+built in 1841, and fitted with a screw-propeller. In 1842 the United
+States Government made a similar experiment with the <i>Princeton</i>,
+and in the following year the French Government built the screw
+war-ship, <i>Pomone</i>.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>
+In each case the verdict was favourable to the introduction of the
+screw in preference to the paddle-wheel. The second <i>Rattler</i>, of 880
+tons and 496 horse-power, was built and fitted with a screw-propeller,
+and attained a speed of 9¼ knots on her trial trip, September 5th,
+1851. That settled the question in so far as the Royal Navy was
+concerned. In the mercantile marine the <i>Great Britain</i> was the first
+ship of large dimensions in which the screw was adopted. For many years
+there continued to be a strong prejudice against it, though it was
+destined eventually to entirely supersede the paddle on the ocean.</p>
+
+<p>In order to prevent the screw “racing,” which often occurs in heavy
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>
+weather, to the discomfort of passengers and the annoyance of
+engineers, a system of raising and lowering the propeller has been
+tried somewhat extensively in the navy and also in the mercantile
+service, but it has been practically abandoned since the twin screws
+have come into general use, by which the difficulty alluded to has been
+largely overcome.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="WIND" id="WIND"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_070.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="319" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">A MYTHICAL WIND-BOAT, FROM AN OLD ENGRAVING (1805).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="chapter"><h2>CHAPTER III.<br /><span class="h_subtitle">THE CUNARD LINE AND ITS FOUNDERS.</span></h2></div>
+
+<div>
+  <img class="drop-cap" src="images/letter_t.jpg" width="31" height="40" alt="T" />
+</div>
+<p class="drop-cap no-indent">
+THIS well-known line takes its name from Samuel Cunard (afterwards
+Sir Samuel), a native of Halifax, Nova Scotia, who had for some time
+been conducting the mail service between Halifax, Boston, Newfoundland
+and Bermuda, and who had long been revolving in his mind the idea of
+establishing a regular line of ocean mail steamers, but could not find
+the necessary financial backing in his native country. Proceeding
+to Britain, Mr. Cunard fortunately fell in with Robert Napier, the
+famous Clyde ship-builder and engineer, who entered heartily into his
+proposals and introduced him to George Burns (afterwards Sir George),
+one of the foremost men in shipping circles at that time, and a man of
+large means. Through him Mr. Cunard was introduced to David MacIver,
+of Liverpool, who was of a kindred spirit. The result before long was
+a partnership of these three with a subscribed capital of £270,000
+sterling, and the obtaining of a contract with the British Government
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>
+for seven years to institute and maintain a steam service from
+Liverpool to Halifax and Boston, twice a month during eight months of
+the year and once a month in winter, for an annual subsidy of £60,000.
+Subsequent stipulations made by the Admiralty were accompanied by an
+increase of the subsidy to £80,000. At the end of seven years the
+contract was renewed, but for a weekly service in summer, and twice a
+month in winter. Saturday then became the regular day of sailing from
+Liverpool, and New York was adopted as one of the American termini.
+In 1848, when it was found that a weekly service was required, the
+subsidy was increased to £156,000 per annum. In 1860, to facilitate the
+despatch of the mails, the boats began to call at Queenstown both going
+out and returning home, as they still continue to do. In January, 1868,
+a new mail contract came into operation, under which the Cunard Line
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>
+received £70,000 a year for a direct weekly service to New York. In
+the following year Halifax was left out of the programme, although a
+separate branch line continued to run to Boston as it still does.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="BRITANNIA" id="BRITANNIA"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_072.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="354" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">“BRITANNIA,” FIRST OF THE CUNARD LINE, 1840.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The original name of the company was “The British and North
+American Royal Mail Steam-Packet Company,” but it soon took the
+less cumbrous title of “The Cunard Steamship Company, Limited.” The
+Cunard Line commenced its service from Liverpool to North America
+on the anniversary of American Independence, the 4th of July, 1840,
+superseding as mail-carriers the ten-gun sailing brigs of earlier
+days.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="NIAGARA" id="NIAGARA"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_074.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="449" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">THE “NIAGARA,” AS A TRANSPORT IN 1855.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first fleet consisted of four side-wheel steamers, each 207
+feet long, 34⅓ feet beam and 22½ feet deep. Their wooden hulls were
+constructed by four different builders on the Clyde—the <i>Acadia</i> by
+John Wood, the <i>Britannia</i> by Robert Duncan &amp; Co.; the <i>Caledonia</i> by
+Charles Wood, and the <i>Columbia</i> by Robert Steele. All four were built
+after the same model, closely resembling that of the <i>Great Western</i>.
+They were all supplied with engines of the side-lever type, by Robert
+Napier &amp; Sons, 403 horse-power, nominal, with cylinders of 72½ inches
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
+diameter and 82 inches stroke. They burned about forty-four tons of
+coal per day, and carried a steam pressure of 9 pounds to the square
+inch. The <i>Britannia</i>, commanded by Captain Woodruff, R.N., sailed on
+her first westward voyage on July 4th, and after calling at Halifax,
+reached Boston on the 19th, having made the passage in 14 days, 8
+hours, including detention at Halifax. So great was the enthusiasm
+in Boston, it is said that Mr. Cunard, who had come out in the
+<i>Britannia</i>, received eighteen hundred invitations to dinner during the
+first twenty-four hours of his stay in the city! From that time until
+now the service has been maintained with marvellous regularity, and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
+line has an unrivalled reputation for safety. During all these
+intervening years the ships of the Cunard Line have crossed and
+recrossed the stormy Atlantic without the loss of a single life. In the
+early days of the service, the <i>Unicorn</i>, formerly of the Glasgow and
+Liverpool Line, plied between Quebec and Pictou, N.S., in connection
+with the Atlantic steamers, and is said to have been the first
+transatlantic steamer to reach Boston, on June 2nd, 1840. The <i>Unicorn</i>
+was commanded by Captain Walter Douglas—a great favourite with his
+passengers—and the boat was a very fine one indeed.</p>
+
+<p>The second contract, calling for weekly sailings, necessitated a larger
+fleet of steamers. To meet this demand four new ships were built,
+and took their places on the line in 1848, namely, the <i>America</i>,
+<i>Niagara</i>, <i>Canada</i> and <i>Europa</i>. Each of these was 251 feet long,
+of 1,800 tons burthen and 750 horse-power. They had an average speed
+of 10½ knots an hour. And so, from time to time, as the exigencies
+of trade and the need for enlarged passenger accommodation demanded,
+fresh additions were made to the fleet, each succeeding ship surpassing
+its predecessors in size, equipment and speed. The <i>Persia</i>, built in
+1856, was the first of the iron boats: the <i>Scotia</i>, in 1862, was the
+last of the paddle-wheel steamers. They were both very fine ships of
+3,300 and 3,871 tons, respectively, accounted the best specimens of
+marine architecture then afloat. The <i>China</i>, launched in 1862, was the
+first Cunard single-screw steamer. She was followed, in 1867, by the
+<i>Russia</i>, the queen of ocean steamers in her day. Passing a number of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>
+intervening ships, we come, in 1881, to the <i>Servia</i>, the first of the
+line built of steel—a magnificent vessel, 515 feet long, 7,392 tons,
+9,900 horse-power, and attaining a speed of 16.7 knots.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime important changes had been transpiring in the
+constitution of the Cunard Company and its environment. The original
+shareholders had been by degrees bought out by the founders, so
+that the whole concern was vested in the three families of Cunard,
+Burns, and MacIver. Sir Samuel attended to the business in London,
+Mr. Burns in Glasgow, and Mr. MacIver in Liverpool, and never was
+any business better managed than by these men and their successors.
+In 1878 it was deemed expedient to consolidate the interests of the
+partners by the formation of a joint stock company with a capital of
+£2,000,000 sterling. The three families interested in the concern took
+up £1,200,000 in paid-up shares. No shares, however, were offered to
+the public until 1880, when a prospectus was issued, setting forth
+the necessity for additional steamships of the most improved type,
+involving a large outlay of money. The shares were readily bought up
+and measures were taken to increase the efficiency of the fleet, which
+had become at length imperative owing to the keen competition of rival
+lines. This was inevitable.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="SCOTIA" id="SCOTIA"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_077.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="299" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">THE “SCOTIA,” LAST OF CUNARD PADDLE-STEAMSHIPS, 1862.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The manifest success of the Cunard Company could not long continue
+without exciting competition, and this followed in due course from a
+variety of quarters; nor was it to be expected that they should easily
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
+hold the supremacy of the sea against all new-comers. They had, in
+fact, to contend vigorously for their laurels, and at successive
+intervals had to retire into the second rank, but their determination
+to regain and hold, at whatever cost, the championship has been well
+illustrated in the newer ships of the line. The <i>Umbria</i> and <i>Etruria</i>,
+steel ships launched in 1884, having cost nearly two millions of
+dollars each, were a decided advance upon any steamers then afloat.
+They are 500 feet long, 57 feet 3 inches wide, and 40 feet in depth;
+they are of 8,127 tons, 14,500 horse-power and are equal to a speed of
+19½ knots an hour. They have ample accommodation for 550 first-class
+passengers and 800 steerage. Each of them has made the run from
+Queenstown to New York (2,782 knots) in less than six days. In nine
+consecutive voyages the <i>Etruria</i> (in 1885) maintained an average speed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
+of 18 knots. Her fastest voyage, however, from Queenstown to New York,
+was made in August, 1897, when she was thirteen years old—namely, 5
+days, 21 hours and 10 minutes actual time, the average speed during the
+voyage being about 20 knots.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="CAMPANIA" id="CAMPANIA"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_078.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="379" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">THE “CAMPANIA,” AT LIVERPOOL LANDING-STAGE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It helps one to understand the enormous cost of such vessels when it
+is stated that the single screw-propeller weighs about thirty-nine
+tons and costs $25,000! Splendid as was the record of these crack
+Cunarders, they were surpassed by ships of the White Star and Inman
+Lines. Something had to be done. An order was given to the Fairfield
+Ship-building and Engineering Company on the Clyde to build two steel
+twin-screw express steamships that should surpass all previous efforts.
+The result was the <i>Campania</i> and <i>Lucania</i>, launched at Govan in
+September, 1892, and February, 1893, respectively. These sister ships
+are splendid specimens of marine architecture. They are each 620 feet
+long, 65¼ feet beam, and 43 feet in depth. Their gross tonnage is
+12,950 tons; their twin screws are driven by triple expansion engines
+of 30,000 indicated horse-power. Each engine has five cylinders and
+three cranks. The low-pressure cylinders have the enormous diameter
+of 8 feet 2 inches; the two high-pressure cylinders are 37 inches in
+diameter, and the intermediate are 79 inches, with a stroke of 5 feet 9
+inches. They are arranged tandem fashion, with a high-pressure cylinder
+over a low-pressure cylinder, one at each end, and the intermediate in
+the centre. At eighty revolutions (their normal speed) this enormous
+weight is moved about 2,000 feet per minute. The crank shaft is
+twenty-six inches in diameter, and each of the three interchangeable
+parts weighs twenty-seven tons. The propeller shaft is twenty-four
+inches in diameter, fitted in lengths of twenty-four feet, each length
+having two bearings. The bossing out of the stern, as in the <i>Teutonic</i>
+and <i>Majestic</i>, permits the screws to work without any exterior
+overhanging bracket, as in other screw steamers. The central boss
+of the propeller is made of steel; the three blades, weighing eight
+tons each, are of manganese bronze. A new feature in the machinery is
+what is called an “emergency governor,” which, in case of the shaft
+breaking, or the screw racing from any other cause beyond a certain
+speed, is designed to act automatically on the reversing gear and stop
+the engines. These gigantic engines are started and reversed by steam.
+Their height from the base to the top of the cylinders is no less than
+forty-seven feet. There are twelve large boilers, with four furnaces at
+each end, and made to stand a pressure of 165 lbs. to the square inch.
+The two funnels are each twenty feet in diameter, and rise to a height
+of 130 feet above the floor of the ship. The rudder is one large plate
+of steel, 22 x 11½ feet in area and 1½ inches thick. With the steering
+gear it weighs forty-five tons! On her maiden voyage from New York to
+Liverpool the <i>Campania</i> eclipsed all previous records, making the run
+to Queenstown, by the long route (2,896 knots), in 5 days, 17 hours, 27
+minutes. Her fastest eastern passage has been 5 days, 9 hours, 18
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>
+minutes, and westward, 5 days, 9 hours, 6 minutes. She has run 548
+knots in twenty-four hours, and maintained an average speed of 21.82
+knots an hour throughout an entire voyage.</p>
+
+<p>Wonderful as the performances of the <i>Campania</i> have been, they are
+surpassed by her sister ship. The <i>Lucania</i> made the western voyage,
+from Queenstown to New York, arriving October 27th, 1894, in 5 days,
+7 hours, 23 minutes, the fastest voyage between these points yet
+made. Her daily runs on that occasion were, 529, 534, 533, 549, 544,
+90—total knots, 2,779. Her fastest eastward voyage (up to July, 1897)
+has been 5 days, 8 hours, 38 minutes; her best average speed throughout
+a voyage was 22.1 knots an hour, and her highest day’s running is 560
+knots. The arrival and departure of these steamers at the Liverpool
+landing-stage has come to be anticipated with almost as much exactitude
+as that of our best regulated railways. The mails which they carry from
+New York on Saturday morning are usually delivered in Liverpool on
+the following Friday afternoon, and letters from London are delivered
+in Montreal in seven days. By arrangement with the Admiralty, and in
+consideration of an annual subvention of £19,000, the <i>Lucania</i> and
+<i>Campania</i> are held at the disposal of the Government whenever their
+services may be required as armed cruisers. Other ships of this line
+are also at the disposal of the Admiralty without any specified subsidy.</p>
+
+<p>Changes and improvements of very great importance to the travelling
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>
+community have taken place within the last few years, not only in
+regard to the ocean steamships, but also in regard to facilities for
+embarkation and landing, and this very largely owing to the lively
+competition of Southampton and the inducements which it has to offer as
+a shipping port. The dredging of the bar at the mouth of the Mersey,
+so as to admit of sea-going vessels entering the port at any state of
+the tide, is not the least important of the changes referred to. Until
+quite recently ocean steamers had frequently to come to anchor six or
+eight miles from the mouth of the river, and wait outside for hours
+till the tide would rise. That obstruction has been removed, and now
+the largest steamers can cross the bar at almost any state of the tide.
+But that is not all. The tedious and discomfortable method of being
+conveyed from ship to shore in a “tender” has also been done away with.
+The wonder is that it was submitted to so long. The ocean steamship on
+her arrival at Liverpool is now brought alongside the landing-stage,
+and instead of being obliged to drive in a cab or omnibus across the
+city a mile or more to the railway station for London or elsewhere,
+the railway and the station have come down to the water’s edge, and
+you pass at once from the ship to the railway train, and immediately
+proceed on your journey. Passengers for New York may leave Euston
+Station, London, at noon by a special train of the London and North
+Western Railway, and find themselves on the landing-stage at Liverpool
+at 4.15 p.m., the run of over two hundred miles being made, perhaps,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>
+without a stoppage—looking for their luggage, as Englishmen are
+accustomed to do, and astonished to learn that, by some occult system
+of handling, and, most strange of all, without a “tip,” it is already
+on board the ship!</p>
+
+<p>Each of these ships is designed to carry six hundred first-class and
+over one thousand second and third-class passengers. The accommodation
+provided for them are of the most elaborate description. No expense
+has been spared in the internal fittings of the ships. Everything that
+science and skill and refined taste could suggest has been brought into
+requisition. A more facile pen than ours describes the public rooms, as
+we call them, as follows, in terms by no means too appreciative: “The
+dining saloon is a vast, lofty apartment near the middle of the ship,
+one hundred feet long, sixty-two feet broad, and ten feet high, capable
+of seating at dinner 430 passengers in their revolving armchairs. The
+decorations are highly artistic. The ceiling is panelled in white and
+gold, the sides in Spanish mahogany, and the upholstering is in a dark,
+rich red, figured frieze velvet, with curtains to match. There are
+nooks and corners where small parties may dine in complete seclusion.
+The forty side-lights are of unusual size. Fresh air is admitted by
+patent ventilators in the roughest weather. For lighting, as well as
+ventilation, there is an opening in the ceiling in the centre of the
+room, 24 x 16 feet, surmounted by a dome of stained glass reaching a
+height of thirty-three feet above the floor. The drawing-room is a
+splendid apartment, 60 x 30 feet. The walls are ornamented with satin
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>
+wood, richly carved. The furniture is upholstered in rich velvets and
+brocades. In the cosy fireplace there is a brass grate and a hearth
+laid with Persian tiles. The ceiling is in pine, decorated in light
+tones, old ivory prevailing, with not too much gilding. A Grand piano
+and an American organ are also provided. The library, 29 x 24 feet, is
+very ornate. It is suitably furnished with writing tables and writing
+materials, and a handsome book-case filled with a choice selection of
+books. The smoking-room, 40 x 32 feet, is decorated in the Scottish
+baronial style. The whole tone of the room is suggestive of <i>otium cum
+dignitate</i>. The ordinary staterooms are lofty and well ventilated, with
+cunning devices for the saving of room and making things look pleasant
+and comfortable. Then there are suites of rooms elaborately furnished
+with tables and bedsteads and bath-rooms, and every conceivable luxury
+of that sort, for those who are able and willing to pay for them.”
+The accommodation for second-class passengers is in keeping with
+that for the first. These, too, have their elegant dining-room, and
+drawing-room, and smoking-room. Even the third-class can rejoice with
+their neighbours in “the comforts of smoke.”</p>
+
+<p>One of these ships, when carrying her full complement of passengers,
+will start on her voyage provisioned somewhat on this scale: 20,000
+lbs. of fresh beef, 1,000 lbs. of corned beef, 10,000 lbs. of mutton,
+1,400 lbs. of lamb, 500 lbs. of veal, 500 lbs. of pork, 3,500 lbs.
+of fresh fish, 1,000 fowls—400 chickens, 250 ducks and geese, 100
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>
+turkeys, 30 tons of potatoes, 30 hampers of vegetables, 18,000 eggs,
+6,000 lbs. of ham, 3,000 lbs. of butter, etc., etc.; 13,650 bottles of
+ale and porter, 6,650 bottles of mineral waters, 1,600 bottles of wines
+and spirits, are frequently consumed on a single voyage.</p>
+
+<p>The various vessels of the Cunard fleet between them carry on an
+average 110,000 passengers per annum, besides 600,000 tons of
+merchandise and 50,000 carcases of dead meat in refrigerators, over a
+distance of one million miles annually. The <i>Campania</i> and <i>Lucania</i>,
+owing to the large space occupied by their machinery, only carry about
+1,600 tons of freight each.</p>
+
+<p>The order and discipline on board a Cunard liner is that of a
+man-of-war. The vessels have been built under a special survey, and
+combine in their construction the best known appliances, in cases of
+fire, collision, or any other marine contingency, for the safety of the
+ship and its living freight. The watertight bulkheads are sixteen in
+number, and will enable the ship to float with any two or even three
+of the compartments filled with water. The life-boat equipment and
+service is ample and thoroughly organized. In short, everything is made
+subservient to safety.</p>
+
+<p>Some idea of the cost of running vessels of this size and speed may be
+formed when it is stated that the daily average consumption of coal is
+nearly four hundred tons, but when urged to utmost speed it would be
+nearer five hundred tons. The crew, all told, number about 424, of whom
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
+195 are required to attend to the engines and boilers alone. In
+the sailing department, from the captain to the lamplighter, about
+sixty-five; in the steward’s department, including 8 stewardesses,
+about 120, and in the cook’s department, about 45. These 424 persons
+must be paid and fed at a cost of from $12,000 to $15,000 a month.
+Each of the ships must have cost over $3,000,000, the interest upon
+which, at four per cent., is $120,000 per annum; add the enormous cost
+of provisioning the ship for perhaps six hundred cabin passengers,
+who, for the most part, expect to fare more sumptuously every day
+they are on board than they do at home; and one thousand intermediate
+and steerage passengers, who must live like fighting-cocks; then
+estimate, if you can, the cost of insurances, agencies, advertising,
+port charges, pilotage; write off a reasonable percentage for wear and
+tear; these put together represent an amount so formidable as to leave
+a very slender margin for profits. At the last annual meeting of the
+shareholders a dividend of 2½ per cent. for the year 1897 was declared,
+which was considered a good showing.</p>
+
+<p>Since 1840 the Cunard Company have employed no less than fifty-six
+first-class passenger steamships in the Atlantic service alone. The
+entire fleet at present consists of thirty-three ships, with a total
+tonnage of 124,124, and 153,732 horse-power, and maintains regular
+communication from Liverpool to New York, Boston, France and almost
+every country in the Mediterranean. Excepting some of the ships
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>
+acquired by purchase, all the others were built to order on the Clyde.
+In all these fifty-eight years the Cunard Company has only lost three
+ships. Through the mistake of her pilot, the <i>Columbia</i>, one of the
+first Atlantic fleet, ran ashore during a fog near Cape Sable, N.S.,
+in July, 1843, and became a total wreck, but her mails and passengers
+were safely landed. In 1872 the <i>Tripoli</i>, of the Mediterranean Line,
+was wrecked on the Tuskar Rocks in St. George’s Channel, half-way
+between Cork and Dublin, but no lives were lost. In 1886 the company
+met with its severest loss by the sinking of the magnificent steamship
+<i>Oregon</i>, recently purchased from the Guion Company. Early in the
+morning of the 4th of March she was run into by an unknown sailing
+vessel when about fifty miles from New York, and such were the injuries
+she sustained she gradually filled with water and went to the bottom,
+not, however, before the whole ship’s company, numbering 995 souls
+were safely transferred to the <i>Fulda</i> of the North German Lloyd Line,
+which fortunately came up to the scene of the disaster in the nick of
+time. Her bulkheads should have saved her from going under, and would
+have done so, but for some unexplained obstruction to the closing of a
+watertight door. As it was, the bulkheads kept her afloat long enough to
+save the lives of all on board.</p>
+
+<p>Among the famous captains in the forties were C. H. E. Judkins, James
+Stone, William Harrison, Ed. G. Lott, Theodore Cook, Captain Moodie,
+and James (afterwards Sir James) Anderson who commanded the <i>Great
+Eastern</i> on some of her cable-laying expeditions. Captain Harrison was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>
+the first commander of the <i>Great Eastern</i>, and was drowned in the
+Solent when going ashore from his ship in a dingy. Captain Judkins was
+born at Chester in 1811; he entered the Cunard service in 1840 as chief
+officer of the SS. <i>Acadia</i>: was appointed commander of the <i>Britannia</i>
+that same year, and was successively master of the <i>Hibernia</i>,
+<i>Canada</i>, <i>Persia</i> and <i>Scotia</i>. He lived to be Commodore of the fleet
+and retired from the sea in 1871, after having made more than five
+hundred voyages across the Atlantic without any serious accident, and
+being able to say that the Cunard Company at that date had lost neither
+a life nor a letter. Captain Judkins died in 1876. He was a typical
+British sailor. He could be exceedingly gracious, and when the mood
+struck him he could be gruff. I remember making a voyage with him on
+the <i>Hibernia</i> in 1843, on which occasion he ran across from Halifax
+to Liverpool under a cloud of canvas, with studding sails set low and
+aloft most of the time, a dense fog all the way, but he picked up his
+pilot off Cape Clear, just where he expected to find him, and went
+snoring up the Channel, growling like a bear at the captain of a Dublin
+steamer who would not get out of his way, and whom in his wrath he
+threatened to send to “Davie Jones’ locker.” The voyage was made in
+nine days and a half, I think, which was accounted a marvellous run in
+those days. Captain Lott was one of the most genial of men and very
+popular. He, too, was banqueted on the completion of his five hundredth
+trip. It has been said of him that his good nature was occasionally
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>
+ruffled when liberties, unconsciously or otherwise, were taken with his
+name; as, for example, when a worthy minister officiating on board took
+for his text, “Remember Lot’s wife”; and again, when a rough sailor
+complained in his hearing that his pork was “as salt as Lot’s wife.”</p>
+
+<p>Sailors, as a rule, are not given to talk shop, and are quick to resent
+idle talk in others. The story is told of Captain Theodore Cook that
+one day when taking his noon observation, a cloud interrupted his
+vision. Just then a passenger coming along said with a patronizing air,
+“Captain Cook, I’m afraid that cloud prevented you from making your
+observation.” “Yes, sir,” replied the potentate of the sea, “but it did
+not prevent you making yours.”<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p>
+
+<p>At the time of the “<i>Trent</i> Difficulty,” as it was called, in 1861,
+the <i>Australasian</i> and the <i>Persia</i> of the Cunard Line were chartered
+by the British Government to bring out troops to Canada. On the 4th
+of December orders were received to prepare the <i>Australasian</i> with
+all speed for this service; her fittings were completed on the 10th,
+she took in her coal on the 11th, and sailed on the 13th with the 60th
+Rifles. On the 5th of the same month similar orders were received for
+the <i>Persia</i>, which sailed on the 16th with 1,180 troops, consisting
+of 1st Battalion of the 16th Regiment and a detachment of sappers.
+Captain Cook, of the <i>Australasian</i>, having encountered much ice in the
+entrance to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, had to turn back, and took his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
+ship to Halifax and thence to St. John, New Brunswick, where he landed
+his contingent. Judkins, on the other hand, brought the <i>Persia</i> right
+up to Bic and landed his men, but, the ice threatening to keep him
+there, he quickly bolted for the open sea, leaving his boats behind him!</p>
+
+<p>Of the more recent commanders, Captain W. H. P. Haines, late of the
+<i>Campania</i> and Commodore of the Cunard fleet, may be instanced as a
+good specimen. A born sailor he may be called, inasmuch as he is a
+native of Plymouth, whose father and grandfather before him followed
+the sea and who himself has been sailing for nearly fifty years and
+counts 592 voyages across the Atlantic. Captain Haines has always been
+as noted for caution as for skill. It is said of him that “whatever
+temptation there might be to make a fast passage, he would never
+neglect to take soundings, nor rely on any patent apparatus, without
+repeatedly fortifying its results by stopping his ship to get up and
+down casts with the ordinary lead.”</p>
+
+<p class="space-below2">To guard against the risks of collision with
+other vessels, the Cunard steamers follow prescribed routes laid
+out for them, by which the ships, both outward and homeward bound,
+are kept at a respectable distance. In estimating the runs of the
+Atlantic liners from Liverpool to New York and return, Daunt’s Rock,
+off Queenstown, and the Sandy Hook lightship, twenty-six knots from
+New York, are regarded as the points of departure and arrival; but
+as Daunt’s Rock is about 244 knots from Liverpool, it follows that,
+to complete the voyage, a full half day’s run must be added to the
+record as usually announced. It is also to be remembered that the day
+at sea is longer or shorter according to the speed of the ship. On
+a twenty-knot vessel going east the average length of day is about
+23 hours and 10 minutes; going westward it is about 24 hours and 50 minutes.
+The difference of time between Greenwich and New York is about five hours.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="C_CHART" id="C_CHART"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_090.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="356" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">CUNARD TRACK CHART.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
+The “express steamers,” as the fast ships are now called, of the Cunard
+Line at present are the <i>Campania</i>, <i>Lucania</i>, <i>Etruria</i> and <i>Umbria</i>.
+These four constitute the weekly mail service, sailing every Saturday
+from Liverpool and New York. The <i>Aurania</i>, <i>Servia</i> and other vessels
+perform a fortnightly service from the same ports, sailing on Tuesdays.
+Five steamers are employed in maintaining a weekly service between
+Liverpool and Boston, and about a dozen more are required for the
+service between Liverpool, France and the Mediterranean.</p>
+
+<p>The story of the Cunard Company would be incomplete without at least
+a brief reference to its three founders, Messrs. Cunard, Burns and MacIver,
+and Mr. Napier, the engineer, who was so closely identified with them.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="CUNARD" id="CUNARD"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_092.jpg" alt="Sir Samuel Cunard, Sir George Burns, David MacIver"
+              width="500" height="657" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">THE FOUNDERS OF THE CUNARD LINE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
+The late Sir Samuel Cunard was a son of Abraham Cunard, a merchant in
+Philadelphia, and a Quaker, whose ancestors had come to America from
+Wales in the seventeenth century, and who removed to Halifax, Nova
+Scotia. There Sir Samuel was born, November 21st, 1787. His parents
+were not in affluent circumstances; indeed he has been heard to tell
+that, when a boy, he often went about the streets with a basket on
+his arm selling herbs that were grown in his mother’s garden, to earn
+“an honest penny.” In course of time, however, he became a prosperous
+merchant and the owner of whaling-ships that sailed from Halifax to the
+Pacific Ocean. How he came to identify himself with the Atlantic mail
+service has already been mentioned, and little else remains to be said
+about him. He was small of stature, but a man of rare intelligence;
+a keen observer of men and things, and who had the faculty, largely
+developed, of influencing other men. In private life he was one of the
+most gentle and lovable of men. He married, in 1815, a daughter of Mr.
+W. Duffus, of Halifax, by whom he had nine children. On March 9th,
+1859, Her Majesty, on the recommendation of Lord Palmerston, made him
+a Baronet, in recognition of his services to the realm and to other
+countries in promoting the means of inter-communication. He was elected
+a Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society in 1846. He died in London,
+April 28th, 1865, leaving, it is said, a fortune of £350,000. His title
+and his interest in the business were inherited by his eldest son, Sir
+Edward Cunard, at whose decease, in 1869, the reins of administration
+fell into the hands of his brother William, who married a daughter
+of the late celebrated Judge Haliburton, of Nova Scotia, and who now
+represents the company in London.</p>
+
+<p>Sir George Burns was, in many respects, a remarkable man. He was born
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>
+in the Holy Land, a name popularly given to a “land” of houses in
+Glasgow, in which five ministers resided, one of them being his father,
+the Rev. John Burns, D.D., of the old Barony parish, who ministered
+in that place for seventy-two years, and who died at the patriarchal
+age of ninety-six. George was born in 1795. He commenced business in
+Glasgow with his brother James, under the firm of G. &amp; J. Burns &amp; Co.,
+a name that has ever since been famous in shipping circles. They began
+steam navigation to Liverpool and Belfast over seventy years since,
+and gradually built up a large and lucrative business. Many years ago
+Mr. Burns retired and took up his residence at Wemyss Bay, on the
+estuary of the Clyde, where he spent the evening of his days, and was
+frequently seen sitting among his rhododendrons and laurels, watching
+his steamers as they coursed up and down the Firth. He was created a
+Baronet in his old age, May 24th, 1889. He died on the 2nd of June in
+the following year, being succeeded by his son, Sir John Burns, of
+Castle Wemyss, who is chairman of the Board of Directors of the Cunard
+Steamship Company. Sir John’s elevation to the peerage, at the time
+of Her Majesty’s Diamond Jubilee, when he assumed the name of Lord
+Inverclyde, was regarded as a well-merited honour by his countrymen,
+and in shipping circles generally.</p>
+
+<p>Although he was a son of the “Father of the Church of Scotland,” Sir
+George early in life contracted a liking for the liturgical service of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>
+the Church of England, and eventually became an Episcopalian. “Sir
+George Burns, Bart.: His Times and Friends, by Edwin Hodder; Hodder and
+Stoughton, London,” is the title of an admirable biography in which is
+to be found a fine portraiture of a man “diligent in business, fervent
+in spirit, serving the Lord.” As a business man he is described as
+“honourable in the minutest particulars, accurate in all his dealings,
+faithful to every trust, tenacious of every promise, disdaining to take
+the least advantage of the weakness or incapacity of any man.” There
+is also much information in this volume, bearing on the history of the
+Cunard Line, that is valuable and interesting, and of which we have
+freely availed ourselves in compiling these pages.</p>
+
+<p>David MacIver, a Scotchman, as his name implies, had lived a good many
+years in Liverpool before his connection with the Cunard Company, and
+had acquired a great deal of valuable experience in shipping affairs.
+His first intercourse with Burns was somewhat singular in the light of
+their future alliance. It was as the agent of an opposition line of
+steamers, plying between Liverpool and Glasgow, that their friendship
+began. A Manchester firm had started an opposition line, but they were
+no match for G. and J. Burns, who eventually bought them out, and
+secured a monopoly of the trade, except the small steamer <i>Enterprise</i>,
+for which David MacIver was agent, and which the same firm cleverly
+bought also. Not to be outdone, MacIver succeeded in organizing the
+“New City of Glasgow Steam-Packet Company,” of which he became the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
+Liverpool agent. Determined, if possible, to drive his rivals from the
+seas, it is said that he used to sail in the vessels himself, urging
+his officers to increased speed. But it was of no use; the new company
+were soon glad to accept offers for amalgamation, and from that time
+MacIver and Burns became fast friends. Mr. MacIver had first-rate
+executive ability, and as most of the working details devolved upon
+him, he had a controlling influence in the Cunard Line while he lived.
+The well-known firm of D. &amp; C. MacIver were the managers of the line at
+Liverpool, from its formation until the year 1883, when they resigned,
+a Board of Directors assuming the entire control of affairs. David
+MacIver, however, had died in 1845, when the Liverpool agency fell into
+the hands of his brother and partner, Charles, whose able supervision
+continued for thirty-five years.</p>
+
+<p>Robert Napier was born at Dumbarton in 1791. After serving his
+apprenticeship as millwright and smith, he went to Edinburgh, where
+he wrought at his trade for some time, earning ten shillings a week.
+Inspired by the old Scotch motto, “He that tholes overcomes,” he
+stuck to it. Later, he entered the service of Robert Stephenson, the
+celebrated engineer, and made his mark as a mechanical genius. At
+twenty-four years of age he commenced business on his own account,
+in Glasgow, where he gradually built up the large engineering and
+ship-building business subsequently carried on under the name of Robert
+Napier &amp; Sons. The “Lancefield Works” and his Govan shipyards attained
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>
+world-wide celebrity. He constructed the machinery for the SS. <i>British
+Queen</i>, and for the first four Cunard steamers, and for many others in
+later years. He also received large orders for warships and transports
+from the British Admiralty and from foreign governments. He built
+several large ironclads for the Royal Navy. He made the engines for
+the great three-decker, <i>Duke of Wellington</i>—all but the last of the
+“wooden walls.” He built and engined the famous Cunarders <i>Persia</i> and
+<i>Scotia</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="NAPIER" id="NAPIER"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_097.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="406" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">ROBERT NAPIER&emsp;AND&emsp;MRS. NAPIER.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mr. Napier erected a princely mansion on the Gareloch, named Shandon
+House, where his declining years were spent in retirement, but in the
+exercise of unbounded hospitality, as the writer can testify from his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>
+personal experience. Shandon House came to be like a museum containing
+a rare collection of pictures and antiquities from almost all parts
+of the world. Among his curios none was more highly prized than his
+mother’s spinning-wheel, and the painting that he valued the most was
+the portrait of his wife plying the same old-fashioned spinning-wheel,
+with which she had been familiar from girlhood. Does it not seem like
+the “irony of fate,” and a melancholy commentary on the transitory
+nature of everything mundane, that this marvellous accumulation of
+articles of <i>virtu</i> was, shortly after Mr. Napier’s death, sold by
+public auction to the highest bidder, and that his palatial residence
+passed into the hands of a hydropathic company?</p>
+
+<p>Having said so much about the Cunard Line, there is no need to dwell at
+similar length upon any of the other transatlantic lines of steamers.
+The history of the Cunard Line is the history of Atlantic steam
+navigation. It commenced at a time when steam power had only been used
+as an auxiliary to sails, but when that order of affairs was soon to
+be reversed. The intervening years have witnessed the transition from
+wooden ships to iron, and from iron to steel; from the paddle-wheel to
+the single screw-propeller, and then to the twin-screw; from the simple
+side-lever engines to the compound, and from the compound to the triple
+and quadruple expansion engines of the present time. These successive
+changes, common to all the other important lines of ocean steamers,
+have resulted in greatly increased speed with economy of fuel. But no
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
+one at all conversant with the subject supposes that the limit in
+either of these directions has been reached. Her Majesty’s torpedo
+boats can easily reel off their thirty knots an hour; why not an
+express steamer?</p>
+
+<p>The competition for the supremacy of the sea in these latitudes has
+been both keen and costly, but greatly to the benefit of the travelling
+community; and it has all along been conducted in an excellent spirit.
+Circumstances have frequently arisen when it might have been easy to
+take advantage of a rival, but when it resulted in acts of chivalry.
+Sir John Burns has mentioned one instance out of many such that have
+transpired: On a certain occasion the Cunard steamer <i>Alps</i> was seized
+in New York for an alleged infraction of the Customs laws on the part
+of some of the crew, and before she could be released, security had
+to be given to the extent of £30,000 sterling; when, “who should come
+forward and stand security for the Cunard Company but the great firm
+of Brown, Shipley &amp; Co., the agents of the Collins Line!” Another case
+in point is connected with the foundering of the Cunard SS. <i>Oregon</i>.
+When the whole of the passengers and crew, to the number of nearly
+a thousand, had been taken off the sinking ship, and landed in New
+York by the North German Lloyd SS. <i>Fulda</i>, the question having been
+asked what compensation was demanded, the courteous reply was speedily
+received: “Highly gratified at having been instrumental in saving so
+many lives. No claim!”<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>
+The Fairfield Ship-building and Engineering Company is one of the
+most famous of the many eminent ship-building firms in Britain.
+The yards at Govan on the Clyde occupy an area of sixty acres of
+ground, and employ from 6,000 to 7,000 men. The shops are fitted with
+machinery of the most approved description, in which every requisite
+of marine architecture has a place, where massive plates of steel
+and iron are clipped, shaped and pierced with rivet holes as if they
+were only sheets of wax or paper. Here have been built many of the
+record-breaking ocean greyhounds, as well as armour-plated cruisers
+for the Royal Navy. The <i>Arizona</i>, the <i>Alaska</i> and the <i>Oregon</i> were
+built here, and were accounted marvels in their day. The <i>Umbria</i> and
+<i>Etruria</i>, the <i>Campania</i> and the <i>Lucania</i> have secured for Fairfield
+a world-wide reputation. Ships for Sir Donald Currie’s Castle Line, for
+the Orient and the Hamburg-American lines, not to speak of the Isle
+of Man steamers, the swiftest coasting steamers of the day, have been
+built at Govan. Under the name of Randolph, Elder &amp; Company the firm
+was founded, or rather reconstructed, by the late Mr. John Elder, a man
+of consummate ability in his profession, who died in 1869 at the early
+age of forty-five years.</p>
+
+<p>The compound engine, by which steam is made to do double duty, is one
+of the most important of recent improvements in marine engineering,
+being the means of largely increasing the motive power and decreasing
+the consumption of fuel. The successful application of this system to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>
+ocean steam navigation is usually attributed to Mr. John Elder, of
+the above-named firm, who introduced it in some of the steamers of
+the Pacific Steam Navigation Company as early as 1856.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a>
+But it did not come into general use until some years later. The
+Admiralty, recognizing the importance claimed for the discovery,
+resolved to test its value, in 1863, by sending three ships of similar
+size on a voyage from Plymouth to Madeira, two of them being fitted
+with the ordinary engines of the day, and the third, the <i>Constance</i>,
+with Elder’s compound engine. The result placed the superiority of
+the compound engine beyond question, and led up to the triple and
+quadruple expansion engine which has revolutionized the ship-building
+and shipping interests; hence the enormous cargoes carried by ships of
+the <i>Pennsylvania</i> type, with a moderate consumption of fuel and the
+lowering of ocean freight rates.</p>
+
+<p>Before taking leave of the Cunard Line, it may not be out of place to
+mention that an employee of that line has the distinction of having
+crossed the Atlantic more frequently than any other man. One is apt to
+think of his own voyages—thirty-five or forty—as a tolerably fair
+showing, but that is as nothing compared with other landsmen. On one
+occasion the writer sat next to a fine old French gentleman from Quebec
+who was then making his hundredth voyage; he was an octogenarian. Some
+years later a Montreal merchant, nearly a quarter of a century younger,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
+informed me that he had crossed the ocean <i>one hundred and eighty</i>
+times! Taking his years into account, surely he must be entitled to
+wear the blue ribbon. As to sailors, an English newspaper recently
+offered a prize of £10 to the man who could prove that he had crossed
+the Atlantic oftenest. The prize was awarded to Captain Brooks, of
+Alaska, who had made seven hundred trips. In the meantime, however, it
+transpired that the distinction was due to another “old salt,” whose
+record far outran that of Captain Brooks, but whose modesty prevented
+him from applying for the prize. The real champion is George Paynter,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>
+well known throughout England and America as “the Old Man of the Sea,”
+who recently completed his <i>eight hundred and fourth voyage</i> across the
+Atlantic. Paynter is the officer in charge of the wines and liquors on
+board the SS. <i>Etruria</i>. He is one of the most remarkable men afloat
+to-day. He has been forty-eight years at sea, of which forty-five have
+been spent continuously in the service of the Cunard Company, and in
+all that time he has never encountered either a shipwreck or a cyclone.
+He is now seventy-five years old, hale and hearty as ever, and this he
+attributes to his having given up smoking and drinking thirty-one years
+ago, not having once indulged in either from that time until now.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span></p>
+<div class="chapter"><h2>CHAPTER IV.<br /><span class="h_subtitle">NORTH ATLANTIC STEAMSHIP COMPANIES.</span></h2></div>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Collins Line.</span></h3>
+
+<div>
+  <img class="drop-cap" src="images/letter_t.jpg" width="31" height="40" alt="T" />
+</div>
+<p class="drop-cap no-indent">
+THE earliest formidable rival to the Cunard Line was the famous
+Collins Line, founded in New York in 1848, and which derived its name
+from Mr. E. K. Collins, its chief promoter, who had previously been
+largely interested in sailing ships, and more particularly in the
+splendid line of New York and Liverpool packets, popularly known as the
+Dramatic Line. The Collins Line started with a fair wind, so to speak.
+It was launched by a wealthy company, amid an outburst of national
+applause, and was liberally backed by the Federal Government, with an
+ill-concealed determination to drive the Cunarders from the seas. But
+the illusion was destined to be soon dispelled, for, as Charles MacIver
+put it in writing to Mr. Cunard, “The Collins Line are beginning to
+find that breaking our windows with sovereigns, though very fine
+fun, is too costly to keep up.” Disasters ensued. In ten years the losses
+had become stupendous, and the enterprise culminated in a total collapse.</p>
+
+<p>The Line began with a fleet of four magnificent wooden paddle-wheel
+steamships, the <i>Atlantic</i>, <i>Arctic</i>, <i>Baltic</i> and <i>Pacific</i>, each
+282 feet in length, and of 2,680 tons burthen. They were built by
+W. H. Brown, of New York, and combined in their construction and
+machinery the then latest improvements. The passenger accommodation
+was far superior to that of the Cunard steamers of the period. Each
+of them cost $700,000, an amount so far exceeding the original
+estimate that the Government had to make the company an advance. The
+credit of the country being in a sense at stake, provision was made
+for a liberal subsidy. $19,250 per annum had been the original sum
+specified for a service of twenty round voyages, but that was found
+to be totally inadequate, and the Government eventually agreed to
+increase the subsidy to $33,000 per voyage, or $858,000 per annum for
+only twenty-six voyages, which was more than double what had been paid
+to the Cunard Company for a like service. The Collins Line, however,
+promised greater speed than their rivals, and that counts for much in
+popular estimation.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="ATLANTIC" id="ATLANTIC"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_105.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="408" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">THE “ATLANTIC,” OF THE COLLINS LINE, 1849.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Line soon came into favour, and its success seemed to be assured.
+The first voyage was commenced from New York by the <i>Atlantic</i>, April
+27th, 1849. The <i>Arctic</i> followed, making the eastward voyage in 9
+days, 13 hours and 30 minutes; and the westward, in 9 days and 13 hours
+from Liverpool. Thus they had broken all previous records for speed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>
+which, added to their luxurious appointments, caused them to be loyally
+patronized by the Americans. For a time they carried 50 per cent. more
+passengers from Liverpool to New York than their opponents. The last
+addition to the fleet was the <i>Adriatic</i>, in 1857, by far the finest
+and fastest vessel afloat at that time. She was built by Steers, at New
+York: was 355 feet long, and 50 feet broad; her gross tonnage being
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>
+3,670. Her machinery, which was constructed at the Novelty Iron-Works,
+New York, consisted of two oscillating cylinders, each 100 inches in
+diameter, working up to 3,600 indicated horse-power, with a steam
+pressure of 20 lbs. to the square inch. Her paddles were 40 feet in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>
+diameter, and, at seventeen revolutions per minute, gave her a speed of
+thirteen knots on a daily consumption of eighty-five to ninety tons of coal.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to financial embarrassments, resulting from losses by shipwreck,
+the company soon after broke up, and the richly-endowed fast line, that
+was to drive the Cunarders off the ocean, itself came to grief. The
+<i>Adriatic</i> was laid up after making a few fine voyages, and finally
+came to an ignominious end as a coal-hulk in West Africa. In September,
+1854, the <i>Arctic</i> collided with a small steamer, the <i>Vesta</i>, off
+Cape Race, in a dense fog, and sank, with the loss of 323 lives.
+Captain Luce went down with his ship, but rose again to the surface,
+was picked up by one of the boats and landed in safety. Among those
+who were drowned were the wife, the only son, and a daughter of Mr.
+Collins, and many other prominent Americans. The loss of the <i>Pacific</i>,
+which followed two years later, proved the death-knell of the Collins
+Line. She sailed from Liverpool on June 26th, 1856, in command of
+Captain Eldridge, with forty-five passengers and a crew of 141, and was
+never afterwards heard of. The <i>Atlantic</i> and <i>Baltic</i> were sold and
+converted into sailing ships.</p>
+
+<p class="space-below2">Mr. E. K. Collins was a native of Massachusetts,
+where he was born in 1802. When a youth he went to sea as supercargo.
+Some years later he joined his father in the general shipping business,
+and eventually became head of the New York firm, celebrated for its
+magnificent line of sailing packets. He died in 1878.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="PARIS" id="PARIS"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_107.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="415" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">“CITY OF PARIS,” 1889.<br />
+           Now (1898) a U. S. armed cruiser and renamed <i>Harvard</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span></p>
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Inman and International Line.</span></h3>
+
+<p>This famous Line took its name from William Inman, a partner in the
+firm of Richardson Bros., Liverpool, in connection with whom he founded
+this steamship service in 1850, under the title of the Liverpool, New
+York and Philadelphia Steamship Company. The line began with only two
+steamers—the <i>City of Glasgow</i> and <i>City of Manchester</i>—both screw
+steamships, built by Messrs. Tod and McGregor, of Glasgow. These boats
+having proved successful and profitable, and especially popular with
+emigrants, their shipping port was changed from Philadelphia to New
+York in 1857. In the meantime a number of high-class steamers had been
+added to the fleet, each improving upon its predecessor, until the line
+became famous for speed and comfort. The <i>City of Brussels</i>, launched
+in 1869, was the first on the Atlantic to reduce the voyage to less
+than eight days. This fine ship came to grief through collision with
+another vessel off the mouth of the Mersey during a dense fog, January
+7th, 1883. The Inman Line met with a number of other heavy losses. The
+<i>City of Glasgow</i>, with 480 persons on board, and the <i>City of Boston</i>
+both disappeared mysteriously in mid-ocean; the <i>City of Montreal</i> was
+burned at sea, but all hands were saved; the <i>City of Washington</i> and
+<i>City of Philadelphia</i> were wrecked on the coast of Nova Scotia; the
+first <i>City of New York</i> and the <i>City of Chicago</i> became total wrecks
+on the Irish coast, the one on Daunt’s Rock near Queenstown, the other
+on the Old Head of Kinsale in the same neighbourhood.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>
+The <i>City of Berlin</i>, which came out in 1875, proved a great success,
+but later additions, culminating in the new <i>City of New York</i> and
+<i>City of Paris</i>, gained this line for a time undisputed supremacy.
+These twin-screw ships, built by J. &amp; G. Thomson, of Glasgow, are
+over 500 feet in length, rated at 10,500 tons, and 18,000 indicated
+horse-power, and have developed a high rate of speed. The <i>Paris</i>, as
+she is now called, made her maiden trip in May, 1889, in 5 days, 22
+hours, 50 minutes. Her fastest westward trip was made in October, 1892,
+viz., 5 days, 14 hours, 24 minutes—the fastest ever made up to that
+time. The <i>New York</i> for some time held the record for the fastest
+voyage from Southampton to Sandy Hook, made in September, 1894—6
+days, 7 hours, 14 minutes. Both ships have met with mishaps: the <i>New
+York</i>, going east, had one of her engines disabled, but completed the
+voyage with the other, actually running 382 knots in one day with only
+one engine at work. The <i>Paris</i> had a much more alarming accident.
+The breaking of one of her main shafts set the engine a-racing, and
+before it could be stopped a rent was made in the ship’s hull, the
+longitudinal bulkhead separating the engine-rooms was broken and both
+engine-rooms were flooded. The other bulkheads, however, did their duty
+and kept her afloat until a passing steamer towed her into Queenstown,
+where the water was pumped out and she proceeded to Liverpool
+unassisted. Her escape from destruction was marvellous: as it was, the
+damage to the ship and machinery was enormous. On another occasion the
+same ship’s rudder became disabled in mid-ocean, but by means of her
+twin screws she was kept on her course and brought safely to port.
+Since then she has limped across the Atlantic with one engine, owing to
+a broken shaft.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="PARIS2" id="PARIS2"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_108.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="635" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">“CITY OF PARIS”—HER TWIN SCREWS.<br />
+           From “Our Ocean Railways.”</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="PARIS3" id="PARIS3"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_109.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="655" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">“CITY OF PARIS”—DINING ROOM UNDER THE DOME.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>
+The Inman Line was the first to introduce the twin-screw in the
+Atlantic service. It was also the first to place the comforts and
+conveniences of steam navigation within the reach of emigrant steerage
+passengers, and by so doing made a distinct advance in the cause of
+humanity. In 1856-57 they carried no less than 85,000 emigrants.</p>
+
+<p>The Inman Line passed from its founders in 1875, and became a private
+limited company, which, in 1886, entered into negotiations with the
+American International Navigation Company, better known as the Red
+Star Line. At that time the fleet consisted of the <i>City of Berlin</i>,
+<i>City of Chester</i>, <i>City of Chicago</i>, <i>City of Richmond</i> and <i>City of
+Montreal</i>. The <i>New York</i> and <i>Paris</i> hoisted the American flag in
+1893, but the change consequent on their new registration and their
+re-christening made no change in the name of the company.</p>
+
+<p>In 1892 the company secured a contract for carrying the United States
+mails, weekly, from New York to Southampton, in consideration of a
+subsidy, amounting to about $750,000 a year. Southampton was preferred
+to Liverpool as being much nearer London and as having exceptionally
+good harbour facilities. The sea voyage, however, is about 200 miles
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>
+longer than from New York to Queenstown. In terms of their contract,
+two magnificent twin-screw steamers have recently been added to the
+fleet,—the <i>St. Louis</i> and <i>St. Paul</i>, built on the Delaware by
+Messrs. Cramp and Sons, of Philadelphia. They are claimed to be the
+embodiment of the finest American skill and workmanship. Over 6,000
+tons of steel were used in the construction of the hull of each ship;
+their length over all is 554 feet, breadth 63 feet, depth 42 feet;
+their gross tonnage is 11,000 tons and their engines are of 20,000
+horse-power. They are designed to carry 320 first-class, 200 second,
+and 800 steerage passengers, and the arrangements for each class are
+unsurpassed. The main saloon is 110 feet long by 50 feet wide, with
+seats for all her cabin passengers at one sitting. It is handsomely
+decorated and finished in white mahogany, and is well lighted from the
+sides and a lofty dome overhead. The drawing-room is in white and gold
+and luxuriously furnished. The staterooms are roomy, well ventilated
+and fitted up with every convenience necessary to comfort; there are
+also suites of rooms, comprising bedroom, bath-room and sitting-room,
+all elegantly furnished. These ships can carry enough coal, cargo being
+excluded, to cross the Atlantic and return at their highest speed; and
+at the ordinary cruiser’s speed of 10 to 12 knots, they can steam for
+66 days without recoaling a distance of 19,000 knots.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="LOUIS" id="LOUIS"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_111.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="311" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">“ST LOUIS.”<br />Now (1898) a U. S. armed cruiser.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>
+Although these fine ships have already suffered several vexatious
+accidents, none of them have been attended with serious results. They
+have not yet taken the laurels from the <i>Campania</i> and <i>Lucania</i>, and
+are not likely to do so, but they have made very good time on the
+Atlantic. The <i>St. Louis</i> made the voyage from New York to Southampton
+in August, 1895, in 6 days, 13 hours, 12 minutes. The <i>St. Paul</i><a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a>
+made the run from Southampton to Sandy Hook, in August, 1896, in 6 days,
+57 minutes. Their estimated speed in ordinary weather is 21 knots an hour.</p>
+
+<p>The entire Inman fleet consists of twenty-two ships—all of a high
+class. They retained the graceful overhanging bow and ship-shape
+bowsprit with its belongings to the last, but the new steamers of
+the American Line conform in this respect to the prevailing fashion
+of the straight stem, first introduced by the Collins Line as being
+economical of space and every way handier in port. The use of sails
+in full-powered steamships has been gradually declining for years,
+and they will soon be a thing of the past. Heavy masts and yard-arms
+seriously interfere with the motion of a twenty knot steamship, and
+except in the case of a breakdown of machinery are seldom of any use,
+and that contingency has been reduced to a minimum by the introduction
+of the twin-screw.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Red Star Line</span>,</h3>
+
+<p class="no-indent">originally owned by a Belgian company, is now incorporated
+with the American and International Navigation Company, and maintains a weekly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>
+service between New York and Antwerp and a fortnightly line from
+Philadelphia to Antwerp. The fleet consists of nine steamships of from
+3,000 to 7,000 tons each—the largest being the <i>Friesland</i>, built by
+Thomsons, Glasgow, and rated at fifteen knots’ speed.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Anchor Line.</span></h3>
+
+<p>This was the first successful line of steamers running from Glasgow to
+New York, established by Messrs. Handyside and Henderson, of Glasgow,
+in 1856, though it was not until 1863 that this branch of their
+business assumed much importance. Since then the trade has developed
+rapidly, giving employment to a weekly line of steamers, and in summer
+twice a week. The ships have large carrying capacity, from 3,000 to
+5,000 tons and upwards, with good accommodation for passengers at
+very moderate rates. Among these are the <i>Furnessia</i> and <i>Belgravia</i>,
+of over five thousand tons; the <i>Devonia</i>, <i>Anchoria</i>, <i>Bolivia</i> and
+<i>Circassia</i>, upwards of four thousand tons each, not to speak of the
+<i>City of Rome</i>, a host in herself. This is one of the handsomest
+ships afloat, and of large dimensions, being 546 feet long between
+perpendiculars, and 600 feet over all; her width is 52 feet 4 inches,
+and her displacement at 25 feet draft of water, 13,500 tons. She is
+driven by three sets of inverted tandem engines of 10,000 horse-power;
+her single screw is 24 feet diameter, and the screw shaft 25 inches.
+She has ample accommodation for 270 cabin passengers and 1,500
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>
+steerage: was built in 1881 for the Inman Line at Barrow-in-Furness,
+Lancashire, where all the above-named ships were also built, but as she
+did not come up to the requisite speed she was left in the builders’
+hands, and was taken over by the Anchor Line. She is not a slow ship,
+having made 18½ knots on her trial trip, and has crossed the Atlantic
+in 6 days, 20 hours, 35 minutes. From whatever cause, outsiders look
+upon her as a sort of “white elephant,” unable to compete successfully
+with the more thorough-paced ocean greyhounds. The entire Anchor Line
+fleet consists of some thirty-five steamers. The company has had its
+own share of losses by shipwreck, and more than its share of lives
+lost. One of the most appalling marine disasters was the sinking of the
+<i>Eutopia</i> of this line in the Bay of Gibraltar, in 1891, from collision
+with a man-of-war lying at anchor, resulting in the loss of 526 lives.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The National Steam Navigation Company.</span></h3>
+
+<p>Although the National Line has not entered into competition with the
+“greyhounds,” it is deserving of notice. It has been in existence
+since 1863, and has owned some fine ships, and at least one of high
+speed—the <i>America</i>, built on the Clyde in 1883—a ship of 5,500 tons
+and 7,350 horse-power. She broke the record in June, 1884, making the
+run home from New York in 6 days, 14 hours, 18 minutes.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a>
+She was soon after sold to the Italian Government for a transport. The
+ships of this line were among the first to have compound engines, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg
+115]</a></span> the first to have refrigerators for the reception of
+dead meat, and among the first to carry large shipments of live cattle.
+Years ago they brought out more emigrants than any other line, but they
+seem to have gone out of that business now, and the ships are run as
+freighters to London. Four of the company’s ships have been lost—one
+lies submerged near Sandy Hook, one foundered off Cape Finisterre, one
+was burned at sea, and the fourth, the <i>Erin</i>, disappeared without
+anything having been heard of her. The present fleet consists of eight
+ships, ranging from 3,750 to 5,300 tons.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Guion Line.</span></h3>
+
+<p>As when a meteor shoots athwart the skies, emitting a blaze of light,
+and quickly disappears, so was it with the Guion Line at the zenith
+of its brief and brilliant career. It began in a modest way in 1866,
+its promoters being Messrs. Williams and Guion, of New York—with a
+branch firm in Liverpool—these being the owners of the famous Black
+Ball Line of ships, built especially for carrying emigrants. They had
+steamers built for themselves with marvellous rapidity, beginning with
+the <i>Manhattan</i> of 3,000 tons—an iron screw steamer built on the Tyne.
+In 1872 there was added to the then existing fleet of eight powerful
+ships, each having accommodation for 1,000 steerage passengers,
+a pair of larger vessels, the <i>Montana</i> and <i>Dakota</i>. Neither of
+them, however, proved to be “record-breakers,” and both of them were
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>
+eventually wrecked on the Welsh coast, near the same place, in 1877 and
+1880 respectively. The next additions to the fleet were the celebrated
+<i>Arizona</i> and <i>Alaska</i>, that for a time took the shine out of
+everything else afloat. These marvellous ships were built by John Elder
+&amp; Co., of Glasgow. The former was over 5,000 tons and the latter nearly
+7,000. Their engines, respectively 6,000 and 10,000 horse-power, are
+said to have been the finest ever constructed up to that time; their
+speed was then accounted quite phenomenal—seventeen and eighteen knots
+an hour—reducing the time from Queenstown to New York to 6 days, 21
+hours, 40 minutes. That was in 1883. The last ship built for the Guion
+Line was still larger and faster than these. The <i>Oregon</i> was 500 feet
+long, of 7,375 tons, and 13,300 horse-power. In 1883 she still further
+reduced the record to 6 days, 10 hours, 10 minutes. Soon after this the
+company became involved in financial difficulties. “Record-breaking”
+had not proved to be a paying business. The <i>Oregon</i> passed into the
+hands of the Cunard Company, and went to the bottom of the sea as
+already stated; the <i>Alaska</i> and <i>Arizona</i> have lain rusting at their
+moorings in the Gareloch for years past.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The White Star Line.</span></h3>
+
+<p>The Oceanic Steam Navigation Company, Limited—better known as the
+White Star Line—commenced in 1869, and now occupies a position in
+the front rank of the great steamship enterprises of the world. It
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>
+originated with Mr. Thomas Henry Ismay, of Liverpool, who had
+previously been manager of the White Star Line of sailing clipper ships
+in the Australian trade. In 1870 Mr. William Imrie, of the late firm
+of Imrie, Tomlinson &amp; Co., became associated with Mr. Ismay in the
+management, when the firm took its present name, Ismay, Imrie &amp; Co.
+Mr. Ismay retired from the firm in 1891, after forty years of active
+business life, but is still chairman of the White Star Line. Having
+the financial support of a number of influential shipping men, plans
+that had been long maturing took effect in 1869, when negotiations were
+entered into with Messrs. Harland and Wolff, of Belfast, to build a
+fleet of steamships which should combine the latest improvements, the
+best possible accommodation for passengers, with a speed that would
+assure fast and regular voyages. How well those conditions have been
+secured all who have travelled by the White Star Line can testify.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="OCEANIC" id="OCEANIC"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_117.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="273" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">“OCEANIC,” FIRST OF THE WHITE STAR LINE, 1871.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>
+The first ship of this line to appear in the Mersey was the <i>Oceanic</i>,
+in February, 1871. It was at once seen by her graceful lines that she
+was “a clipper.” Her machinery was the best known up to that time.
+A new feature was that the main saloon and passengers’ berths were
+placed as near midships as possible, and separate revolving chairs were
+introduced in the dining-room (a great boon to passengers); a number
+of other innovations served to attract the notice of the travelling
+community, while admirable management on shipboard and ashore inspired
+confidence in the line.</p>
+
+<p>The original fleet consisted of six ships—the <i>Oceanic</i>, <i>Baltic</i>,
+<i>Atlantic</i>, <i>Republic</i>, <i>Celtic</i> and <i>Adriatic</i>—all about
+the same size, close upon 4,000 tons each. In 1874 and 1875, two remarkable
+vessels, as then accounted, were added to the fleet—the <i>Britannic</i>
+and <i>Germanic</i>—by the same builders, with engines from Maudslay,
+Son &amp; Field. These boats are 468 feet long, of 5,000 tons and 5,000
+horse-power. They easily made sixteen knots an hour, burning only 110
+tons of coal per day, and were in every way so satisfactory they became
+very popular. No higher compliment can be paid them than the statement
+made in 1894 that “they had now been running regularly for twenty
+years, giving complete satisfaction to the owners and to the public,
+having still the same engines and boilers with which they started.”<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a>
+In those twenty years these two ships carried 100,000 cabin and 260,000
+steerage passengers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="MAJESTIC" id="MAJESTIC"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_119.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="387" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">“MAJESTIC,” WHITE STAR LINER, LAUNCHED IN 1889.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>
+In the meantime the new Cunard steamers, <i>Umbria</i> and <i>Etruria</i>, had
+outrun the White Star clippers. Again an order was given to Harland
+&amp; Wolff for a pair of larger, finer and faster boats than they had
+yet built. The magnificent twin screw steel ships, <i>Teutonic</i> and
+<i>Majestic</i>, filled the bill. The <i>Teutonic</i> was launched in January,
+1889. On the 7th of August she left Liverpool on her maiden voyage to
+New York, having in the meantime taken part in the naval review at
+Spithead, where she was inspected and admired by the German Emperor and
+H. R. H. the Prince of Wales. She crossed from Queenstown to Sandy Hook
+in 6 days, 14 hours, 20 minutes, then the quickest maiden passage on
+record. The <i>Majestic</i> was launched in June, 1889, and made her first
+voyage to New York in April following, lowering the record to 6 days,
+10 hours, 30 minutes.</p>
+
+<p>These fine ships are each 582 feet in length over all, 57 feet 8
+inches in width, and 39 feet moulded depth. Their gross tonnage is
+10,000 tons, all to a fraction. They are twin-screw ships, each having
+two sets of triple cylinders, 43 inches, 68 inches, and 110 inches
+diameter, respectively, together working up to 18,000 horse-power. The
+screw-propellers are 19 feet 6 inches diameter, and so fitted that they
+overlap 5 feet 6 inches, the starboard propeller being six feet astern
+of the other. They have each twelve double-ended and four single-ended
+boilers, containing in all seventy-six furnaces. The steam pressure is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>
+180 pounds to the square inch. The piston stroke is five feet, and
+the average revolutions seventy-eight per minute. About four thousand
+tons of coal are consumed on the round voyage. Not only do these ships
+combine in their construction and equipment all that is best in modern
+improvements, but some of the most valuable of these improvements
+originated with their builders, and have been largely imitated by others.</p>
+
+<p>The whole service, food and attendance included, is unexceptionable.
+There is ample accommodation for about 300 saloon, 170 intermediate
+and 1,000 steerage passengers. As to speed, they “must have swift
+steeds that follow” them. The <i>Teutonic</i> has made the western voyage
+in 5 days, 16 hours, 31 minutes. The <i>Majestic</i> has done it in 5 days,
+17 hours, 56 minutes. In ordinary circumstances the passenger who
+embarks at Queenstown may safely calculate that six days will land
+him in New York by either of these ships. They are not quite so fast
+as the <i>Lucania</i>, but to gain the difference, say, of ten hours in
+crossing the Atlantic, the Cunarder requires an enormous increase of
+driving power—no less than 12,000 horse-power over and above that of
+the other. The <i>Teutonic</i> and <i>Majestic</i> are under contract with the
+British Government to be used as armed cruisers whenever their services
+may be required, the company receiving an annual sum of £14,659 10s.
+as a retainer.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a>
+Each of these steamers has accommodation for one
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>
+thousand cavalry and their horses, or for 2,000 infantry. They could
+easily reach Halifax from Queenstown in five days, Cape Town in
+twelve and a half, and Bombay, <i>via</i> the canal, in fourteen days from
+Portsmouth. They could even steam to Bombay, <i>via</i> the Cape, 10,733
+knots, in twenty-three days without stopping to coal.</p>
+
+<p>The White Star fleet at present consists of nineteen ocean steamers,
+ranging in size from 3,807 to 10,000 tons and upwards. Five of these
+steamers are employed in the Atlantic weekly mail service, three keep
+up a monthly line to New Zealand, four ply monthly from San Francisco
+to Japan and China, the remainder are cargo boats of large carrying
+capacity. A number of vessels built for this company have been sold to
+other lines and are still running. The <i>Oceanic</i>, pioneer ship of the
+line, after a few years in the Atlantic service, was transferred to the
+company’s trans-Pacific line. On her sixty-second voyage in October,
+1889, she crossed from Yokohama to San Francisco in 13 days, 14 hours,
+4 minutes, the fastest voyage then on record across the Pacific. Having
+completed twenty-five years of successful work she was sold and broken
+up in 1896. But the name is to be perpetuated by the magnificent new
+steamer now building at Belfast, which in point of size and speed is
+designed to surpass any vessel at present afloat. The new <i>Oceanic</i> is
+longer than the <i>Great Eastern</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="space-below3">Only two ships of this line have been lost. The <i>Atlantic</i>
+was wrecked on the coast of Nova Scotia, April 1st, 1873. She had left the Mersey
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>
+on March 20th, with 32 saloon, 615 steerage passengers, and a crew of
+143—790 in all—of whom about 560 perished, including all the women
+and children. What made the disaster even more deplorable, it was not
+satisfactorily accounted for. The morning was dark and boisterous, but
+not particularly foggy. Captain Williams had mistaken his reckoning,
+and was rushing his ship incautiously too near the land.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a>
+The <i>Naronic</i> was a fine new cargo ship of 6,594 tons. She left Liverpool,
+February 11th, 1893, bound for New York; but she never arrived there.
+Two of her boats were picked up on March 4th, but no clue was ever
+found to the mysterious disappearance of the ship.</p>
+
+<p class="space-below3">Thomas H. Ismay, recently retired from business, has all
+along been recognized as the manager-in-chief and moving spirit of the White Star
+Line, and a man of exceptional gifts and graces. Conspicuous alike by
+his enterprise and culture, Mr. Ismay has given proof of true greatness
+in declining honours that were easily within his reach. He might have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>
+been chairman of the London and North Western Railway Company—the
+greatest railway company in the world—but he would not. Several
+times he might have been returned to Parliament, but he declined. His
+name was confidently mentioned in connection with the Diamond Jubilee
+honours. Sir Thomas Ismay would have sounded well, but he begged to be
+excused, choosing to remain plain Thomas Ismay, of Liverpool, where
+his beneficent character is known and appreciated at its full value.
+The same may be said of the genial ex-captain of the <i>Majestic</i>, and
+commodore of the fleet, Captain Parsell, in whose personality were
+combined the culture of a gentleman and all the qualifications of
+a good sailor. Captain Cameron, of the <i>Teutonic</i>, has been in the
+service of the White Star Company nearly thirty years, having commenced
+his career in the sailing ships. He is one of the most popular
+commanders on the route.</p>
+
+<p class="space-below3">Messrs. Harland and Wolff, of Belfast, the builders of all
+the steamers of the White Star Line, are one of the largest ship-building firms in
+the world. They employ between seven thousand and eight thousand men in
+their establishment. Sir Edward J. Harland, late head of the firm, was
+a Yorkshireman by birth. He served an apprenticeship to engineering at
+Newcastle, and studied the art of ship-building in the drawing office
+of Messrs. J. &amp; G. Thomson, Glasgow. He was a man of noble presence,
+fine ability, and great enterprise. He had been Chairman of the Harbour
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
+Board, Mayor of Belfast, High Sheriff of County Down, a Justice of the
+Peace, and a member of Parliament. He was made a Baronet by the Queen,
+in 1885, on the occasion of the visit of the Prince and Princess of
+Wales to Belfast. Sir Edward died at his home, Glenfarne Hall, County
+Leitrim, December 23rd, 1895, aged sixty-four years.</p>
+
+<p>The rates of passage by the Cunard, the White Star and the American
+Line are nearly identical, and, all things considered, they are not
+unreasonable. They are cheaper than the fares by the sailing packets
+of sixty years ago. The ordinary rates for first-class passengers,
+in summer, vary from $75 to $150, according to the location of the
+stateroom, and the number of berths in it; from $40 to $50 for the
+second-class cabin, and from $20 to $27 in the steerage. The winter
+rates are somewhat less, say, from $75 to $150 in the steamers
+<i>Lucania</i> and <i>Campania</i>, and from $60 to $150 in other fast boats.
+When the rush of travel is in full swing, say, from May to October,
+rooms must be secured months in advance. Tickets may then be held at
+a fictitious value, and those who will have <i>special</i> accommodation
+(suites of rooms, etc., etc.) must pay for it. A fellow-passenger with
+me, in one of the New York liners, not long since paid—so, at least,
+I was credibly informed—$3,000 for the single voyage for himself,
+his wife, two daughters, and two servants. The difference between an
+outside and an inside stateroom, in the busy season, may be $135 and
+upwards. At such times a room to yourself is a luxury that means money.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="space-below3">What about ocean steamers racing? The question was raised
+in the British House of Commons a few years ago, and elicited the answer that
+there is no law in the statute book forbidding it. Are not these ocean
+greyhounds built and subsidized with a special view to speed? Other
+things being equal, the fastest boat draws most passengers. A competing
+ship may be in sight or out of sight; it makes little difference.
+There is a race going on all the same, and the palm is awarded to the
+one that lands the mails in London or New York, as the case may be,
+in the fewest number of hours and minutes. Probably ninety-nine out
+of every hundred passengers on board the <i>Majestic</i> on a certain day
+in May, 1894, if placed in the witness-box, would swear that on that
+day an exciting race took place on the high seas, which ended in the
+SS. <i>Paris</i> outrunning the <i>Majestic</i>, and dashing across her bows in
+dangerous proximity! It was an optical delusion. Both ships, no doubt,
+were doing their level best, and had they continued their respective
+courses much longer, there is no saying what might have happened,
+but, at the proper time, Captain Parsell blew off steam, slowed his
+ship, put his helm down, and crossed the stern of the <i>Paris</i>. It was
+beautifully done.</p>
+
+<p>And how about these so-called lifeboats, hanging in the davits, so
+prettily painted, so neatly encased in canvas, and so firmly secured
+in their places? That they are useful sometimes, the writer knows from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>
+personal observation. On a recent voyage from Liverpool to New York we
+ran into a dense fog off the Banks of Newfoundland. The steam whistle
+gave forth its dolorous sounds all hours of the night, but the ship
+rushed on at her accustomed pace. At 4.20 a.m. most of us were awakened
+out of our slumbers by a violent shaking of the vessel. Had we been
+near land we might have fancied that the ship was grating along a
+pebbly bottom, but that could not be. Presently the engine stopped, and
+a loud roar of steam from the funnels brought most of the passengers
+on deck. It was a raw, damp morning, about daybreak, with fog as thick
+as burgoo all around. You couldn’t see half the length of the ship.
+Everything on deck appeared to be at sixes and sevens. Where the
+after-boats had been ropes and tackles were swinging to the roll of the
+ship; orders were being given from the bridge in peremptory tones, a
+few sailors were hurrying here and there, yelling out their ready “Aye,
+aye, sir!” Down goes another boat. Three or four had already left the
+ship and disappeared in the mist. What is it all about? “Oh! we have
+run down a fishing schooner and smashed it to smithereens.” Listen!
+voices of men in distress are heard; they shout louder and louder,
+and are answered, call for call, by the steam whistle. The ship had
+overshot the scene of the disaster, but was brought back to the spot
+by the instant reversal of her twin-screws—it was that that shook the
+ship as if it would have shaken her to pieces. The boats came in sight
+one by one, each to be greeted with a hearty cheer. Seven of the eight
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>
+fishermen have been rescued! One had left the spar to which he had been
+clinging, thinking to swim for the ship, but he quickly went under and
+was seen no more. The longboat came first with two of the survivors;
+the life-boat came last, strange to say, full of water. She had struck
+a piece of wreckage and stove in her bow, but the men sat up to their
+waists in water—every sea washing over them—and plied their oars
+as merrily as though nothing had happened. They brought two of the
+fishermen, one of whom was too weak to grasp the rope ladder hanging
+over the ship’s side, and was hoisted up by a cord passed round his
+body, a pitiful object. Reaching the deck they took him up tenderly
+and carried him below—to die in a few minutes. The remaining six,
+some of them badly bruised, were well cared for. A subscription on
+their behalf, added to the proceeds of a concert in the second cabin,
+realized about £380 sterling, which would cover the loss of their
+vessel and its cargo. The whole time occupied in the rescue was one
+hour and three-quarters. It was cleverly done: and the ship sailed on.</p>
+
+<p class="space-below3">A fine instance of coolness and sound judgment in a sudden
+emergency has been related of Captain E. R. McKinstry, Lieut. R.N.R., of the SS.
+<i>Germanic</i>, which collided with the steamer <i>Cambrae</i> entering the
+Mersey in a dense fog. The <i>Germanic</i> had cut deeply into the broadside
+of the other ship, and filled the opening she had made like a wedge.
+Had the order been given to reverse the engine the result would have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>
+been disastrous, for the damaged ship must have filled and sank
+immediately, but with rare presence of mind the engines of the
+<i>Germanic</i> were kept moving slowly ahead, effectually preventing the
+rush of water until every soul on board was rescued. Captain McKinstry
+is a young man to have reached the top of his profession, and has
+already given many proofs of his gallantry and pluck. On several
+occasions he has risked his life to save that of others, notably during
+the naval review at Spithead, in 1887, when he jumped from the deck of
+the <i>Teutonic</i> to rescue a drowning sailor. Another instance of fine
+seamanship occurred recently on board the <i>City of Rome</i>, Atlantic
+liner, which had a narrow escape from destruction by fire on her voyage
+to New York with a large number of passengers on board. The coolness
+and skill of Captain Young on that occasion merited the highest praise.
+Mr. Wonham, of Montreal, one of the passengers, after describing the
+steps taken to subdue the flames, and to provide for the safety of the
+passengers and crew, concluded his narrative by saying, “I’m like the
+American who came to Montreal to enjoy a toboggan slide. He would not
+have missed the experience for a thousand dollars, but he wouldn’t go
+through it again for ten thousand.”</p>
+
+<p>Leaving out of the count innumerable “tramps,” there are many lines of
+steamships besides those already mentioned, keeping up regular sailings
+between Britain and United States ports. The Wilson Line, of Hull, has
+a fleet of about eighty steamers trading to all parts of the world,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>
+with weekly services from Hull and London to New York, and fortnightly
+from Newcastle and Antwerp. They also have a fortnightly service
+from Hull to Boston. The State Line, now incorporated with the Allan
+Line, has a weekly service from Glasgow to New York. The <i>State of
+Nebraska</i> and <i>State of California</i> are large and fine ships with
+excellent accommodation for passengers at low rates. The Atlantic
+Transport Line, with its fine fleet of twin-screw steamers, connects
+New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore with London every week. The
+North American Transport Company has also a numerous fleet plying
+between Norfolk, Va., and New York to Liverpool, Glasgow, Leith,
+Rotterdam and Hamburg. The Arrow Line runs from New York to Leith; the
+Manhanset Line, to Bristol and Swansea from New York. The Hill Line
+plies between London and New York, and the Lord Line between Baltimore
+and Belfast. The Chesapeake and Ohio Steamship Company sail their
+ships from Newport News and New York to London and Liverpool. The
+Blue Flag Line has regular communication with Baltimore and Glasgow,
+Liverpool, Dublin, Belfast and Rotterdam. The Lamport and Holt Line
+plies between New York, Liverpool and Manchester; the Bristol City
+Line weekly between New York and Bristol, while another line makes its
+terminus at Avonmouth. Barber &amp; Co.’s steamers run regularly from New
+York to Leith, and from Norfolk, Va., and Newport News to Liverpool
+and Antwerp. The United States Shipping Company send their ships from
+Norfolk to Glasgow, Liverpool, Manchester, Leith and Hamburg.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Besides these there are many lines of steamships leaving New York at
+regular intervals for Bermuda, West Indies, Trinidad, New Orleans,
+South American ports, Mexico, Central America and San Francisco, via
+the Isthmus of Panama.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Continental Lines.</span></h3>
+
+<p>The great volume of emigration from the continent of Europe, and
+especially from Germany, has developed a correspondingly large
+steamship passenger traffic. France and Germany have, for many years,
+vied with each other as well as with the British shipping companies, in
+providing accommodation suitable to the demand. The result is several
+fleets of magnificent steamships little inferior in speed and luxurious
+appointments to the British and American lines.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Hamburg-American Packet Company</span>,</h3>
+
+<p class="no-indent">established in 1847, is the oldest of the German lines, and
+has now attained large dimensions. It began with a small capital and a fleet of
+three sailing ships. The average of their westward voyages from Hamburg
+to New York was about forty days, and eastward about thirty days; and
+they were accounted among the fast ships of their day. In 1867 the
+company owned a fleet of ten large transatlantic steamers, several
+smaller craft, a considerable amount of real estate and a commodious
+dry-dock. In 1872 the fleet had increased to twenty-five steamers, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>
+a regular weekly service was maintained between Hamburg and New York.
+The operations of the company at this time also extended to the West
+Indies, South America and Mexico: but 1888 was the <i>annus mirabilis</i> in
+the company’s history, for it was then that a new departure was made,
+by the construction of twin-screw steamers destined to rival in speed
+and elegance the finest steamships afloat. In 1895 the company owned a
+fleet of seventy ocean steamers and fifty-one river steamers, having
+a combined tonnage of 339,161 tons. Among its steamers there are no
+less than eighteen twin-screw passenger ships, all employed in the New
+York service. The four express boats of the line at present are the
+<i>Fürst Bismarck</i>, <i>Normannia</i>, <i>Augusta Victoria</i> and <i>Columbia</i>, all
+twin-screw ships of from 7,578 tons and 13,000 horse-power, to 8,874
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>
+tons and 16,000 horse-power.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a>
+Two of these were built at Stettin, Prussia, one at Birkenhead, and
+one, the <i>Normannia</i>, by John Elder &amp; Co., on the Clyde. They have
+also a fleet of five large twin-screw steamers, especially adapted
+for live stock and fresh meat. In ten years, from 1881 to 1891, the
+Hamburg-American Line conveyed 525,900 passengers to New York, which
+was 50 per cent. more than either the Cunard or White Star Lines during
+the same period. The capital of the company is about $7,000,000, and
+its affairs are said to be exceedingly well managed. It has paddled its
+own canoe without State aid from the commencement, the only addition
+to its freight and passenger revenues being a moderate compensation
+from the American Government for carrying the mails from New York to
+Hamburg. The amount received for that service in 1896 was $30,030.75.
+being at the rate of about 44 cents per pound for letters and post
+cards, and 4½ cents per pound for other postal matter.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a>
+The company is said to have in its employment a permanent staff of
+six thousand employees.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="NORMANNIA" id="NORMANNIA"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_131.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="386" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">THE “NORMANNIA,” 1890.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The <i>Augusta Victoria</i>, on her first voyage, made the fastest maiden
+trip then on record between Southampton and New York—7 days, 2 hours,
+30 minutes. She has since made the run in 6 days, 19 hours, 19 minutes.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>
+The <i>Normannia</i> has done it in 6 days, 10 hours, 45 minutes, and the
+<i>Fürst Bismarck</i> in a few minutes’ less time. The <i>Normannia</i>, built
+in 1890, was at that time claimed to be one of the finest steamships
+afloat. She is 520 feet long and 59 feet wide. On her trial trip she
+showed a speed of twenty-one knots. In addition to her main triple
+expansion engines, she makes use of fifty-six auxiliary ones, and is
+provided with a deck boiler, by which steam is secured for her pumps
+in case of the main boilers being rendered useless by such an accident
+as befell the <i>Paris</i> a few years ago. Her passenger accommodation is
+unsurpassed. The music room is described as a “marvel of elegance.” The
+decorations throughout are by the best European artists.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="AUGUSTA" id="AUGUSTA"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_133.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="385" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">“AUGUSTA VICTORIA.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The line has not been exempt from marine disasters and loss of lives.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>
+The <i>Austria</i> was burned in 1858, when only sixty-seven were saved of
+the whole ship’s company of 538. By the wreck of the <i>Schiller</i> on the
+Scilly Islands, in 1875, 331 persons perished. In 1883 the <i>Cimbria</i>
+was sunk off the coast of Holland, with the loss of 389 persons. The
+<i>Normannia</i>, on a recent trip, narrowly escaped collision with a huge
+iceberg, but thanks to her good “lookout” and her twin screws, she
+sheered off from the towering monarch just in time.</p>
+
+<p>This company has recently added to its fleet one of the largest
+freight-carrying steamers afloat. The <i>Pennsylvania</i>, built and engined
+by Harland &amp; Wolff, Belfast, has a carrying capacity of 21,762 tons,
+with accommodation for 200 first-class and 1,500 steerage passengers.
+Her length is 585 feet; breadth, 62 feet; draught of water when fully
+loaded, 30 feet. She has two balanced quadruple expansion engines,
+with five boilers, and carries a working pressure of 210 pounds of
+steam. Her three-bladed twin screws, each weighing 9½ tons, make 76
+revolutions per minute, developing a speed of fifteen knots an hour.
+The <i>Pennsylvania</i> left New York on her first voyage with a cargo of
+18,500 tons measurement, said to be the largest cargo ever taken out of
+New York in one ship, if not the greatest that any ship in any part of
+the world has ever carried.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The North German Lloyd Company.</span></h3>
+
+<p>This company, founded in 1857, has its headquarters at Bremen, and is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>
+also a very large concern, owning a fleet of eighty steamships, with a
+total tonnage of over 225,000 and 200,000 indicated horse-power.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>
+Among these are a number of very fine express steamers, mostly
+Clyde-built and fitted up with all the latest improvements in
+machinery and decoration. The <i>Kaiser Wilhelm II.</i>, the <i>Havel</i>,
+<i>Spree</i>, <i>Lahn</i>, <i>Trave</i> and <i>Fulda</i> are all well-known and
+favourite ships on the Atlantic route. Besides maintaining a weekly service
+between Southampton and New York, this company has a regular line
+running direct from New York to Genoa, Naples, Alexandria and other
+Mediterranean ports, and also lines running to India, China, Japan
+and Australia. A sad disaster was that which overtook the <i>Elbe</i> of
+this line in January, 1895, when she was struck amidships by a trading
+steamer, the <i>Crathie</i>, and sank in a few minutes, with the loss of 332
+lives, only twenty-seven of the whole ship’s company being saved. In
+December, 1896, the <i>Salier</i>, of this line, while on her voyage from
+Bremen to Buenos Ayres, foundered off the coast of Spain, when every
+soul on board perished, numbering about three hundred persons.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="PENN" id="PENN"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_135.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="373" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">“PENNSYLVANIA,” HAMBURG-AMERICAN LINE.<br />The largest cargo steamer afloat.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="KAISER" id="KAISER"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_137.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="279" />
+    <p class="center">“KAISER WILHELM DER GROSSE,” NORTH GERMAN LLOYD LINE.</p>
+    <p class="center space-below1">The largest passenger steamer afloat; holds the Blue Ribbon for the fastest<br />
+        voyage from Southampton to New York, the highest average speed,<br />
+        and the greatest day’s run.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>
+Eight gigantic steamships are being added to the already numerous
+fleet. Some of these have already been launched at Stettin, Germany.
+The largest of these leviathans is the <i>Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse</i>,
+which arrived in New York on September 26th, 1897, having made her
+maiden voyage from Southampton in 5 days, 22 hours, 45 minutes, the
+fastest on record. Her average speed was over twenty-one knots an
+hour, and her daily runs as follows: 208, 531, 495, 512, 554, 564,
+186; the total distance run was 3,050 knots. Not only has the biggest
+ship beaten the Southampton record, but on her maiden trip she has
+made the fastest single day’s run. This she did on the nautical day
+ending at noon on the 26th, when she reeled off 564 knots. At times she
+developed twenty-two knots. Her coal consumption, however, was heavy,
+being nearly five hundred tons a day. She was commanded by Captain H.
+Englebart. Her return voyage to Plymouth was made in 5 days, 15 hours,
+10 minutes; her average speed was about 21.40 knots, and her daily runs
+were 367, 504, 500, 507, 510, 519, 55; total, 2,962 knots.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p>
+
+<p>The <i>Kaiser der Grosse</i> is 649 feet in length, 66 feet in width, and
+43 feet in depth. She is rated at 14,000 tons burthen and 30,000
+horse-power. She has quadruple expansion engines, working at a steam
+pressure of 213 lbs., and turning her mammoth twin screws at the rate
+of seventy-seven revolutions per minute, and is otherwise conspicuous
+by her four funnels. Even the <i>Pennsylvania</i> is thrown into the shade
+by this new-comer. She is designed to carry 20,000 tons of cargo, and
+from 1,500 to 2,300 passengers. She is the largest steamship afloat
+at the present time, having larger carrying capacity than the famous
+<i>Great Eastern</i>; but her supremacy will be short-lived, for the new
+<i>Oceanic</i>, of the White Star Line, is still larger, and may prove
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>
+faster. To load this great ship entirely with wheat would require the
+produce of a field of 40,000 acres, at sixteen bushels to the acre;
+and to supply her full complement of passengers would depopulate a
+good-sized town. The <i>Kaiser</i> is essentially a new type of ocean
+steamship—a magnificent experiment, which will be watched with great
+interest in shipping circles everywhere, and one that is not unlikely
+to set the fashion for ships of the next decade.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Compagnie Générale Transatlantique</span>,</h3>
+
+<p class="no-indent">commonly known as the French Line, entered the lists of
+competition in 1862, and has developed into a first-class marine service. The
+early ships of this company were iron paddle-wheel steamers, which were built
+by Scott &amp; Company, of Greenock, but, owing to the prohibitory duty
+imposed on foreign-built vessels, it was found to be more advantageous
+to have them built in France, the more so as the Government had
+introduced the system of giving large “construction bounties.” This
+French company has now a magnificent fleet, comprising upwards of
+sixty steamships. The Atlantic service employs six very fine express
+steamers, <i>La Touraine</i>, <i>La Bourgogne</i>,<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a>
+<i>La Bretagne</i>, <i>La Champagne</i>, <i>La Gascogne</i>, <i>La Normandie</i>,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>
+all of them built in France except the last named, which was built at
+Barrow-in-Furness, in 1882. The <i>Touraine</i> was built at the company’s
+building yard, at St. Nazaire, in 1890. She is a steel twin-screw ship
+of 10,000 tons net, and 14,000 horse-power. Her length is 520 feet,
+breadth 56 feet, and depth 34½ feet. She has triple expansion engines,
+and is classed as a nineteen-knot boat. She has made the voyage from
+Havre to Sandy Hook (in July, 1892) in 6 days, 17 hours, 30 minutes,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>
+the fastest on record between these ports, the average speed being
+19.63 knots, and the best day’s run, 501 knots. The company’s capital
+is said to be $8,000,000, and its credit is good. The line is largely
+subsidized by the French Government, and receives compensation from
+the United States for carrying the mails from New York to Havre, the
+amount thus received in 1896 being $32,806.86. Until the loss of the
+<i>Bourgogne</i>, the most serious disaster that had overtaken the line was
+the wreck of the <i>Ville de Havre</i>, in November, 1873, from collision
+with an iron sailing ship, the <i>Lochearn</i>, which involved the loss of
+226 lives, eighty-seven being rescued. Besides the American business,
+which is very large, the company has extensive trade connections with
+the Mediterranean and the West Indies.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Netherlands Line</span>,</h3>
+
+<p class="no-indent">officially styled the “Nederlandsch-Amerikaansche Stoomvart
+Maatschappig,” of Rotterdam, has a fleet of thirteen steamers, most of
+them from the shipyard of Harland &amp; Wolff, Belfast, and ranging from
+3,000 to 4,000 tons each. They are very fine boats of their class, and
+have attracted a fair share of the passenger traffic between New York
+and Amsterdam and Rotterdam, sailing alternately for these ports every
+week, calling at Boulogne-sur-mere. They carry the United States mails,
+which do not seem to be very weighty, as the <i>pay</i> only amounted to
+$165.03 in 1896. The latest addition to the fleet is the <i>Spaarndam</i>,
+formerly of the White Star Line (the <i>Arabic</i>), a fifteen-knot ship, of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>
+4,368 tons and 3,000 horse-power. The company, which commenced this
+business in 1872, has a capital of $1,680,000.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Thingvalla Line</span>,</h3>
+
+<p class="no-indent">dating from 1879, is a Danish enterprise, with a regular service
+between Copenhagen and New York, consisting of five ships, the largest
+of which is the <i>Amerika</i>, of 3,867 tons, formerly the <i>Celtic</i>,
+purchased from the White Star Line in 1893. This line came into
+notoriety in 1889 through the foundering of one of their vessels, the
+<i>Danmark</i>, in mid-ocean. She had on board 735 souls. On April 5th she
+was sighted by the British steamship <i>Missouri</i>, Captain Hamilton
+Murrell. On April 6th, though a heavy sea was running, by an act of
+heroism almost unparalleled, Captain Murrell threw some of his cargo
+overboard, and in four and a half hours saved every soul by means of
+boats and lines, landing some at St. Michael’s, Azores, and the rest at
+Philadelphia. The gallant rescue was suitably acknowledged by public
+testimonials from Britain and America to the captain, his officers and
+crew.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span></p>
+<div class="chapter"><h2>CHAPTER V.<br /><span class="h_subtitle">STEAM TO INDIA AND THE EAST.</span></h2></div>
+
+<div>
+  <img class="drop-cap" src="images/letter_d.jpg" width="30" height="41" alt="D" />
+</div>
+<p class="drop-cap no-indent">
+DURING the earlier years of commerce with India, the route from Britain
+was by the Mediterranean, the Black Sea, and the Caspian, through
+Persia, reaching India at its northern extremity. The sea route, <i>via</i>
+the Cape of Good Hope, was discovered by the Portuguese in 1497, and
+continued to be the great highway of commerce to the East until our own
+times. Although circuitous, the Cape route was infinitely preferable
+to that of inland seas and deserts infested by hostile tribes, to say
+nothing of the advantage of reaching destinations without transhipment.</p>
+
+<p>The importance of India as a field of British enterprise began with
+the incorporation of the East India Company in the year 1600. From a
+small trading company it gradually became a vast aggressive monopoly,
+with a large standing army at its back, and a numerous fleet of ships
+that served the double purpose of carrying merchandise and fighting
+the French, or any other covetous enemy. In 1811, when the company had
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>
+reached the zenith of its power, it owned sixty-seven ships, each
+armed with from 30 to 38 guns; thirty-one ships of from 20 to 28 guns,
+and fifty-two ships of from 10 to 19 guns. The sea route to Calcutta
+was over 13,000 miles, and not unfrequently a whole year was occupied
+in making the round trip. In the days of clipper ships, however, the
+single voyage was sometimes accomplished inside of one hundred days.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="DESERT" id="DESERT"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_143.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="291" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">THE CAMEL-POST—“SHIP OF THE DESERT.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Lieutenant Thomas Waghorn, R. N., an English naval officer, applied to
+the British Government for assistance in carrying out a project he had
+conceived of opening communication by steam between Britain and her
+great East Indian Empire. The result of his labours was the opening up
+of the overland mail route, as it was called, consisting at first of a
+steam service from Marseilles to Alexandria, thence by camel and Nile
+steamer to Cairo, a caravan across the desert to Suez, and steamers
+<i>via</i> the Red Sea to Bombay and Calcutta. The next improvement was the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>
+substitution of a railway for “The Ship of the Desert,” in 1858,
+and the transmission of the English mails to Brindisi instead of
+Marseilles, and finally, the construction of the Suez Canal by
+Ferdinand Lesseps, the French engineer, at a cost of sixty million
+dollars. The canal is ninety-nine miles long with a width of 327 feet
+for 77 miles and 196 feet for the remaining 22 miles; the depth was
+originally twenty-six feet throughout, but the canal is undergoing
+progressive enlargement and deepening. The British Government in
+1875 acquired by purchase shares in the enterprise to the value of
+£4,000,000 sterling. By a convention signed in 1888, the canal was
+exempted from blockade, and vessels of all nations, whether armed
+or not, may pass through it in peace or in war.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a>
+The North German Lloyd SS. <i>Frederick the Great</i>, of 10,500 tons
+register, which passed through the canal a few months ago <i>en route</i>
+for Australia, is the largest vessel that has passed through it. The
+canal was first opened for traffic in 1869.</p>
+
+<p class="space-below3">By the overland route the distance from London
+to Bombay has been reduced to 5,221 miles, and to Calcutta, 6,471
+miles. The contract time for the transmission of mails is 16½ and 18½
+days respectively. Sir Douglas Fox, engineer of the railway from Acre
+to Damascus, speaking of the proposal to extend that road to the mouth
+of the Persian Gulf, prophesied that in a few years the journey from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>
+Charing Cross to India will be covered in eight days! It will be
+accomplished in about the same length of time, <i>via</i> Russia, when the
+great trans-Siberian railway is completed. When that is accomplished,
+the actual running time of an excursion around the world may possibly
+be reduced to thirty days or even less.</p>
+
+<p>In preceding pages reference has been almost exclusively made to the
+development of steam navigation on the North Atlantic; a brief allusion
+must now be made to the effects produced on the commerce of other parts
+of the world by the introduction of steam power. The Atlantic steamers
+were probably the first to bridge the ocean; they are, perhaps, the
+most numerous to-day; certainly they include some of the largest and
+most magnificent specimens of marine architecture in existence, but
+they are only a wing of the world’s fleet of steamships. There are
+other great lines of ocean steamers performing services of equal
+importance elsewhere, though with their history and their “records” we
+are less familiar. An excellent summary of the lines of communication
+with India, and the East generally, is given in “Whitaker’s Almanacks”
+for 1896 and 1897, under the caption of “Our Ocean Mail.” Mr.
+Macdonald, in “Our Ocean Railways,” devotes a couple of chapters to an
+interesting survey of this branch of our subject.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Peninsular and Oriental Company</span>,</h3>
+
+<p class="no-indent">commonly known as the “P. &amp; O.” Co., is the second oldest
+steam-packet company in existence. It had its origin in a small steamship
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>
+undertaking, started in 1836 under the name of the “Peninsular
+Company,” to trade between Falmouth and Lisbon. Their first vessel was
+the <i>William Fawcett</i>, a paddle-steamer of 206 tons, built in 1829. The
+first steamer despatched for India by this company was the <i>Hindostan</i>
+of 1,800 tons and 250 horse-power, about the year 1842. From that time
+until now the history of the company has been a continuous record of
+progress and prosperity They now carry the mails not only to India,
+but to China and Australia, having in their service a magnificent
+fleet of over sixty steamers, ranging from 2,500 tons to 7,560 tons,
+and aggregating some 220,000 tons. The SS. <i>Caledonia</i> is at present
+the largest and fastest vessel employed in the Indian trade, and has
+succeeded in landing her mails in Bombay within 12½ days of their
+despatch from London. Their contract time for the delivery of mails in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>
+Shanghai is 37½ days, and 35½ days to Melbourne, Australia. Over
+$35,000,000 have been expended on the fleet of the P. &amp; O. Company
+in the last twenty years, and they are now building several steamers
+of 8,000 tons for the mail service. Among the larger boats of the
+fleet at present are the <i>Arcadia</i>, 6,670 tons; <i>Australia</i>, 6,901;
+<i>Himalaya</i>, 6,898; <i>Oceanea</i>, 6,670, and the <i>Victoria</i>, 6,527
+tons. During the Crimean war, and at the time of the Indian mutiny, this
+company rendered important services to the Government in the rapid
+conveyance of troops and stores. The regularity with which the mail
+service has been conducted is remarkable when the length of the routes
+is considered. It is seldom that the mails are even an hour late in
+being delivered. The ships combine all the latest improvements in their
+construction, machinery and internal fittings.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="CALEDONIA" id="CALEDONIA"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_146.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="290" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">P. &amp; O. STEAMSHIP “CALEDONIA.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The P. &amp; O. steamers leave London every Saturday for India, and
+fortnightly for Australia and China. The first-class ordinary fare to
+Bombay, Madras, or Calcutta by this line is £55 sterling; second-class,
+from £35 to £37 10s. To Adelaide, Melbourne or Sydney, Australia,
+first-class, £60 to £70; second-class, £35 to £40. To China and Japan,
+first-class, £73 10s.; second-class, £42. The rates for special
+accommodation are, of course, considerably higher.</p>
+
+<p class="space-below3">The Orient Steam Navigation Company was formed in 1877 by
+two well-known shipping firms—Anderson, Anderson &amp; Co. and F. Green &amp; Co.
+The first steamer to leave London under the flag of the Orient Line was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>
+the <i>Garonne</i>, acquired by purchase, and followed by the <i>Chimborazo</i>,
+<i>Lusitania</i> and <i>Cuzco</i>. Two of these are now used on exclusively
+pleasure cruising voyages in the Mediterranean and elsewhere, while a
+number of large and powerful ships have been built for the mail line.
+The <i>Orient</i>, built by Robert Napier &amp; Sons, Glasgow, in 1879, was the
+largest steamer constructed on the Clyde up to that time. She was 400
+feet long, 5,365 tons register, and with engines of 6,000 indicated
+horse-power. Her speed was seventeen knots on her trial trip. The
+latest additions to the fleet are the <i>Ophir</i>, 6,057 tons; <i>Orizaba</i>,
+6,077; <i>Oroya</i>, 6,057, and the <i>Ormuz</i>, 6,031 tons. The <i>Ophir</i> is 482
+feet long, 53 feet beam, and 37 feet moulded depth. She is fitted with
+triple expansion engines and twin screws, and all the other modern
+improvements which go to make up a “floating palace.” The company
+receives a subsidy from the Imperial Government of £85,000 sterling
+per annum for carrying the mails, which are despatched fortnightly
+from London calling at Plymouth, Gibraltar, Naples, Port Said, Suez,
+Colombo, Albany, Adelaide, Melbourne, and Sydney, Australia.</p>
+
+<p>The British India Steam Navigation Company dates from 1855, when the
+East India Company first took steps to establish a mail service between
+Calcutta and Burmah. In 1862 the name was changed from the Calcutta and
+Burmah Steam Navigation Company to that which it now bears. Since then
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>
+the business has greatly increased, and it now boasts of having more
+steamers than any company trading to the East. Its fleet consists of
+106 vessels with a total tonnage of about 270,000. They are nearly all
+called by Eastern names, such as the <i>Golconda</i>, 6,036 tons; <i>Matiana</i>,
+5,000 tons; <i>Okhla</i>, 5,283 tons; <i>Onda</i>, 5,272 tons, and <i>Obra</i>,
+5,456 tons. The distance annually travelled by ships of this line counts up
+to 5,000,000 miles. The sailings are about fortnightly from London to
+Colombo, Madras and Calcutta. The fares to Madras and Calcutta are from
+£47 10s. to £52 10s., according to accommodation. The first steamers
+of the line—the <i>Cape of Good Hope</i> and the <i>Baltic</i>—were despatched
+to India <i>via</i> the Cape. The <i>India</i> of this line is said to have
+been the first steamer to pass through the Suez Canal. In 1872 a contract
+was entered into with the East India Company for a monthly service from
+Aden to Zanzibar. Then a coast line was established from Bombay to
+Calcutta, calling at eighteen intermediate ports, with a branch line
+running up the Persian Gulf. In 1880 arrangements were made with the
+Government of Queensland for a mail service that soon developed into a
+large trade. At the breaking out of the mutiny in 1857, a detachment of
+the 35th Regiment was brought up from Ceylon to Calcutta by one of the
+ships of this line most opportunely. Again, in 1863, thirteen steamers
+of this fleet were taken up by the Government in connection with the
+Abyssinian expedition.</p>
+
+<p>Some years ago the <i>Quetta</i>, of this line, on her voyage from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span>
+Queensland, struck a rock in Torres Straits and sank in a few minutes
+with the loss of 133 lives. Among the survivors was a plucky young
+lady, a Miss Lacy, who, after having spent twelve hours upon a raft,
+attempted to swim ashore, and kept afloat in the water for twenty-four
+hours without a life-belt or support of any kind, until she was picked
+up by a boat from a passing steamer.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="QUETTA" id="QUETTA"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_150.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="335" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">THE “QUETTA” GOING UNDER, 1890.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Clan Line, established in 1878, has a fleet of some thirty-five
+ships, all rejoicing in the prefix of “Clan” to their names. They
+are comparatively small vessels, the largest of them being the <i>Clan
+Grant</i>, 3,545 tons; <i>Clan MacArthur</i>, 3,934; <i>Clan MacIntosh</i>, 3,985;
+<i>Clan MacPherson</i>, 3,921, and <i>Clan Matheson</i>, 3,917 tons. They run
+from Glasgow and Liverpool to Bombay; from the same ports to Colombo,
+Madras and Calcutta; also to Cape Colony and Natal, Delagoa Bay, Beira
+and Mauritius. The saloon fare by this line from Liverpool to Madras or
+Calcutta is £45; second class, £30.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span>
+The Bibby Line has long been famous on the Mediterranean. It is
+now the direct route to Burmah, and controls a large share of the
+trade with Ceylon and southern India. It employs five of Harland &amp;
+Wolff’s first-class steamships—the <i>Staffordshire</i>, <i>Shropshire</i> and
+<i>Cheshire</i>, twin screw ships of 6,000 tons; and the <i>Lancashire</i> and
+<i>Yorkshire</i> of 4,260 tons each. This line is the recognized route for
+officers returning from India at the expiry of furlough. The sailings
+are from Liverpool to Egypt, Colombo, southern India and Rangoon. Only
+first-class passengers are carried. Fare to Rangoon, £50.</p>
+
+<p>The Shaw, Savill &amp; Albion Company, formed some thirteen years ago, has
+been very successful. It has five fast mail steamers—the <i>Arawa</i>,
+5,026 tons; <i>Doric</i>, 4,786; <i>Ionic</i>, 4,753; <i>Tainui</i>, 5,031,
+and the <i>Gothic</i>, 7,730. Besides these they have a large number of cargo
+steamers and sailing ships. The <i>Gothic</i> is said to be the largest
+steamship employed in the Australian trade, and the <i>Arawa</i> the
+fastest, having made the run from Plymouth to New Zealand in 38 days,
+30 minutes; and from New Zealand to Plymouth in 35 days, 3 hours, 40
+minutes—the fastest on record.</p>
+
+<p>The Union Steamship Company of New Zealand advertises to take
+passengers from Auckland to England, <i>via</i> San Francisco, in
+<i>thirty-one</i> days! Saloon fare, £66; steerage, £32 11s. 7d.</p>
+
+<p>The Anchor Line has two services to India: (1) from Liverpool to Bombay
+and Kurrachee; (2) from Liverpool to Calcutta. The sailings in each
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>
+case are about once a fortnight. Though chiefly adapted for freight,
+they carry a considerable number of passengers at low rates, say, to
+Bombay or Calcutta, first-class, £45, and second-class, £30. The City
+Line has also two distinct services, the same as the Anchor Line, to
+Bombay and Kurrachee and to Calcutta. The fares are the same. This line
+has a fleet of fourteen steamers, among the largest of which are the
+<i>City of Bombay</i>, 4,548 tons; <i>City of Vienna</i>, 4,672 tons;
+<i>City of Oxford</i>, 4,019 tons; <i>City of Calcutta</i>, 3,906 tons.</p>
+
+<p>The Hall Line, from Liverpool to Kurrachee and to Bombay, calling
+at Marseilles, sails about once in three weeks. The ships are all
+about four thousand tons. The fare from Liverpool to Bombay is, for
+first-class, £47 10s., and for second-class, £30. The Henderson
+Line has sailings from Liverpool to Rangoon every three weeks, with
+accommodation for second-class passengers. The New Zealand Shipping
+Company has a fine fleet of steamers, from four thousand to six
+thousand tons, sailing once in three weeks from London to New Zealand
+ports, Tasmania and Australia. Fare to Auckland, £68, and to Melbourne
+or Sydney, £72. The North German Lloyd Line has a monthly service from
+Southampton to China and Japan, and also to Australia. Holt’s Line has
+sailings once a fortnight to China, Japan and Australia from Liverpool.</p>
+
+<p class="space-below3">There are various other lines of steamers in
+the Eastern trade, but the above-named are the most important, unless
+we include the <i>Messageries Maritime</i> and the <i>Rubattino</i> Lines,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>
+both of which are formidable competitors for the freight and passenger
+traffic. The former is a French line, which has been in existence since
+1852, and has attained a high rank. The fleet numbers about sixty
+vessels, many of them very large, handsomely fitted and fast. They are
+noted for their elaborate <i>cuisine</i>, which attracts a certain class
+of travellers, and though their rates are somewhat higher than the
+other first-class lines, they have long been very popular. The line
+to India has sailings from Marseilles and Trieste once a fortnight.
+The Messageries Company receives a very large subsidy from the French
+Government. The <i>Ville de la Ciotat</i>, built for the Australian trade,
+is a magnificent ship of 6,500 tons and 7,000 horse-power. The
+<i>Rubattino</i> is an Italian line, which has a numerous fleet of steamers,
+chiefly adapted for the Mediterranean trade; but they have also a
+number of large vessels sailing at regular intervals from Genoa and
+Naples to Bombay.</p>
+
+<p>The Eastern trade is enormous. The total exports from and to India,
+Ceylon, the Straits, Labuan and Hong Kong amounted in 1889 to
+$1,031,000,000. The exports and imports to and from Australia amounted
+in the same year to nearly $526,000,000.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a>
+The net tonnage which passed through the Suez Canal in 1894 was
+8,039,105 tons.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Steamship Lines to Africa.</span></h3>
+
+<p>The African Steamship Company is one of the oldest and largest shipping
+concerns in the African trade. It originated in 1832 as a private
+expedition by MacGregor Laird, of Liverpool, for the purpose of
+exploring the Niger River. In 1852 the company received its charter,
+and agreed to perform a monthly mail and passenger service to West
+Africa in consideration of an annual subsidy of £30,000. The pioneer
+ships were the <i>Forerunner</i>, <i>Faith</i>, <i>Hope</i> and <i>Charity</i>. Year
+after year numerous fine vessels were added to the fleet, among which are the
+<i>Leopoldville</i>, 3,500 tons; <i>Assaye</i>, 4,296 tons; <i>Mohawk</i>, 5,658
+tons, and the <i>Mobile</i>, 5,780 tons. In 1891 this company amalgamated with the
+Elder, Dempster Company of Liverpool, and now have regular services
+from Liverpool to South-West Africa; from Hamburg and Rotterdam to West
+and South-West Africa; and from Antwerp to South-West Africa.</p>
+
+<p>The Union Steamship Company was first formed in 1853, with a fleet of
+five small collier steamers. In 1857 a contract was obtained for a
+mail service to the Cape for five years at £30,000 a year. The service
+proved so satisfactory that the contract was renewed and extended. The
+Union Line now carries the English mail to the Cape and Natal, and
+also from Hamburg, Rotterdam, Antwerp and Southampton to Cape Town,
+Port Elizabeth, East London and Natal, making calls at Madeira and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>
+Teneriffe. The <i>Scot</i>, built for this company by the Dennys of
+Dumbarton, is a fine ship of 6,850 tons, and has made the shortest
+voyage on record from Southampton to Cape Town, viz., 14 days, 11
+hours. The <i>Norman</i>, of 7,537 tons, one of Harland &amp; Wolff’s steel
+twin-screw ships, is the largest vessel employed in the South African
+trade. The <i>Guelph</i>, <i>Greek</i>, <i>Gaul</i> and <i>Goth</i> are also
+twin-screw ships, close upon 5,000 tons each.</p>
+
+<p class="space-below3">The Castle Line, founded by Sir Donald Currie
+in 1872, has attained a front rank in shipping circles. Since 1876 this
+line has carried the Royal mails between England and South Africa.
+The fleet numbers some fourteen or fifteen powerful steamers, of from
+3,600 to 5,636 tons, such as the <i>Tantallon Castle</i>, <i>Dunottar Castle</i>,
+<i>Roslin Castle</i>, <i>Doune Castle</i>, etc. The voyage to the Cape of Good
+Hope, which used to occupy from thirty to thirty-four days, is now
+accomplished by the Castle Line in half that time. Until recently
+this company enjoyed an enviable immunity from marine disasters, not
+having lost a single life through mishap of any kind; but one dark and
+hazy night in June, 1896, one of the best-known ships of the line—the
+<i>Drummond Castle</i>—while attempting to sail through the perilous channel
+between the Island of Ushant and the mainland, struck a sunken rock,
+and almost immediately went to pieces, only three persons out of a
+ship’s company of 250 having survived to tell the tale.</p>
+
+<p class="space-below3">The British and African Steam Navigation Company, established
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span>
+in 1868, conveys passengers and mails from Liverpool to the west coast of
+Africa. It has a fleet of twenty-four steamers, and maintains seven
+distinct services. It is under the management of Elder, Dempster &amp; Co.
+The ships are from 2,000 to 3,000 tons register, and derive their names
+from the rivers and ports which they frequent, <i>e.g.</i>, the <i>Bakana</i>,
+<i>Batanga</i>, <i>Loanda</i>, <i>Boma</i>, <i>Calabar</i>, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The Natal Line, from London to Natal, Delagoa Bay, and other East
+African ports, was founded by Messrs. Ballard, King &amp; Co. in 1879.
+They employ a fleet of ten steamers, ranging from 1,600 to 2,750
+tons—larger vessels being unable to cross the bar at Natal. They have
+also a colonial service under contract with the Government of Natal,
+from Cape Colony and Natal to Madras and Calcutta. There is also the
+Aberdeen Line from London to Natal direct; the British and Colonial
+Steam Navigation Company from London to South and East Africa; the East
+African mail service of the British India Line, and the German East
+African Line. The fares from London to Delagoa Bay vary according to
+the class of ships, from 35 guineas by the Natal Line, to £67 10s. by
+the British India Line.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">West Indies and Pacific Lines.</span></h3>
+
+<p class="space-below3">The Royal Mail Steam Packet Company, the
+ships of which line sail from Southampton to the West Indies, Central
+America, North and South Pacific, Brazil and River Plate, was founded
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>
+in 1839, and has a large fleet of powerful steamers. The <i>Danube</i>,
+<i>Nile</i>, <i>Clyde</i>, <i>Thames</i>, <i>Magdalena</i> and <i>Atrato</i> are all
+over 5,000 tons, with engines of from 6,773 to 7,500 indicated horse-power. Among
+the smaller ships is the <i>Trent</i>, a namesake of the historic vessel
+which was boarded by the United States cruiser, <i>San Jacinto</i>, in 1861,
+when the seizure of Slidell and Mason nearly provoked a war with Great
+Britain. The West India and Pacific Steamship Company, with a fleet
+of seventeen steamers, keeps up a good line of communication between
+Liverpool, the West Indies, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean seas.
+The <i>American</i> and <i>European</i> are each 7,730 tons; the <i>Barbadian</i>,
+<i>Cuban</i>, <i>Jamaican</i>, <i>Mexican</i> and <i>Tampican</i> are from 4,020
+to 4,500 tons.</p>
+
+<p>The Pacific Steam Navigation Company, incorporated in 1840, conducts
+a line of mail steamers from Liverpool to Brazil and River Plate,
+continuing the voyage to the west coast of America <i>via</i> the Straits of
+Magellan. This company are the pioneers of steam navigation along the
+southern shores of the Pacific, and between Europe and the West Coast.
+They have also running in the Orient Line, from London to Australia,
+four of their largest steamers, viz., <i>Orizaba</i>, <i>Oroya</i>, <i>Oruba</i> and
+<i>Orotava</i>, all over 6,000 tons. They have a large fleet of other ships,
+such as the <i>Orissa</i>, <i>Orcana</i>, <i>Potosi</i>, <i>Liguria</i>, <i>Iberia</i>,
+ranging from 4,000 to 5,000 tons each, and they are building others of large
+dimensions.</p>
+
+<p>Messrs. Lamport and Holt have a fine fleet, consisting of over sixty
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span>
+steamers, running from Glasgow, Liverpool, Manchester, London, Antwerp
+and New York, to Brazil, River Plate, and the west coast of South
+America. A large percentage of their steamers are capable of carrying
+between 5,000 and 6,000 tons of cargo, and have a speed of from 10½ to
+12 knots at sea. They also carry a limited number of passengers. The
+largest of their steamers are the <i>Canova</i>, 5,000 tons; <i>Cavour</i>, 5,500
+tons; <i>Cervantes</i>, 5,000 tons, and the <i>Horace</i>, 4,000 tons. The Wilson
+Line—Thomas Wilson, Sons &amp; Co. (Limited), Hull—in addition to their
+North American lines of steamers, have a fortnightly service to Bombay
+and Kurrachee, a monthly service to Australia, and a line of steamers
+running to River Plate ports, to suit the trade.</p>
+
+<p>The fare from Southampton to the West India Islands runs from £25 to
+£35; from New York, by the Atlas Line, $50; and to Bermuda, by the
+Quebec Steamship Company, sailing from New York every Thursday, $25.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Canadian Trans-Pacific Steamships.</span></h3>
+
+<p>The idea of connecting the Atlantic with the Pacific Ocean by a railway
+through British territory had long been a cherished vision of British
+and Canadian statesmen, railway engineers, and travellers in the far
+West; but owing to the vastness of such an enterprise for a people of
+four millions, a “baseless vision” it continued to be until after the
+confederation of the provinces in 1867. Twenty years before that time,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>
+Major Carmichael Smyth, writing to “Sam Slick,” advocated the
+construction, by convict labour, of a trans-continental railway through
+British territory, and prepared a map on which the possible route of
+such a railway was marked—almost identical with that of the Canadian
+Pacific Railway.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a>
+Hon. Joseph Howe, in course of a speech made at Halifax in 1851, said
+he believed that many of his auditors would live to hear the whistle
+of the steam-engine in the passes of the Rockies, and to make the
+journey from Halifax to the Pacific in five or six days. Hon. Alexander
+Morris, in his lecture, “Nova Britannia,” delivered in 1855, predicted
+the accomplishment of such an enterprise in the near future. Judge
+Haliburton, Sir Edward Bulwer, Sir George Simpson and other <i>savans</i>
+had all prophesied after the same manner. Sure enough, it was one of
+the earliest measures that came to be discussed in the first Parliament
+of the new Dominion. Preliminary surveys were commenced in 1871 by
+Sandford Fleming, chief engineer, and the work of construction by the
+Government followed soon after. But it early became apparent that
+Government machinery was ill adapted for successfully dealing with
+a work of such magnitude, and one unavoidably leading to political
+complications. It was therefore resolved to have the road built by
+contract. Finally, in 1881, the Canadian Pacific Railway Company was
+organized, the prime movers of the enterprise being Messrs. George
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>
+Stephen and Donald A. Smith, of Montreal. At this time the Government
+had under construction 425 miles between Lake Superior and Winnipeg,
+and 213 miles in British Columbia. This company undertook to complete
+the railway from Quebec to Vancouver, a distance of 3,078 miles,
+within ten years, for which they were to receive $25,000,000 in money,
+and twenty-five million acres of land, together with the sections
+of railway already under construction by the Government, the entire
+railway when completed to remain the property of the company. Such was
+the energy of the contractors and the skill of their engineers, the
+railway was completed in one-half of the time stipulated; for on the
+7th of November, 1885, the last rail was laid on the main line, and by
+next midsummer the whole of the vast system was fully equipped and in
+running order. The opening of the Canadian Pacific Railway was followed
+by an immense development of traffic.</p>
+
+<p>The natural outcome of this was the inauguration of a line of
+steamships from the western terminus of the road to Japan and China,
+as well as to Australia. Sooner than might have been expected, three
+very fine twin-screw steel ships were built at Barrow-on-Furness for
+the Canadian Pacific Railway Company, under contract with the Imperial
+and Dominion Governments for carrying the mails to Japan and China. The
+ships are named the <i>Empress of India</i>, <i>Empress of China</i> and <i>Empress
+of Japan</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The inauguration of the “Empress Line” was of the nature of a
+magnificent ovation. The maiden trips of the three sisters were largely
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>
+advertised in connection with an all-the-way-around-the-world trip,
+<i>via</i> Gibraltar, Suez, Colombo, Hong Kong, Yokohama and Vancouver, and
+thence by the Canadian Pacific Railway across the continent and home
+again by any of the Atlantic liners, all for the modest sum of $600.
+The proposal took readily, with the result that the three ships had a
+full complement of cabin passengers, all of whom expressed themselves
+as delighted with the arrangements which had been made for their
+comfort. The first steamer, the <i>Empress of India</i>, with 141 saloon
+passengers, reached Hong Kong on the 23rd of March, 1891, under easy
+steam, in forty-three days from Liverpool; leaving Hong Kong on April
+7th, she reached Yokohama on the 16th. She left on the 17th, and,
+although encountering a very heavy gale, reached Victoria, B. C., in
+10 days, 14 hours, 34 minutes, an average speed of 406 miles a day,
+or just 17 knots an hour. The regular monthly service from Vancouver
+to Japan and China commenced in the autumn of the same year. For this
+service the company receives an annual subsidy of $300,000, and an
+additional subvention of about $35,585 to secure their services to the
+British Government whenever the vessels may be required as transports
+or cruisers. The three ships are all just alike. They are painted white
+and are beautiful models, with raking masts and funnels, and graceful
+overhanging bows. They are each 485 feet in length, 51 feet moulded
+breadth, and 36 feet in depth; gross tonnage about 6,000 tons each.
+They have triple expansion engines of 10,000 indicated horse-power,
+which with 89 revolutions per minute, and a consumption of only 170
+tons of coal a day, drive the ships at an average speed of 17 knots
+an hour. The arrangements and fittings for passengers are of the most
+complete and even luxurious description. The saloons and staterooms are
+tastefully decorated, handsomely furnished, and brilliantly lighted
+by electricity. They have ample accommodation for 180 first-class, 32
+second-class, and 600 steerage passengers, with capacity for about
+4,000 tons of cargo. They cost about $1,000,000 each.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="EMPRESS" id="EMPRESS"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_162.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="375" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">C. P. R. STEAMSHIP “EMPRESS OF JAPAN.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span>
+The distance from Vancouver to Hong Kong is 6,140 nautical miles; the
+average passage is about twenty-two days. Yokohama is 4,300 knots from
+Vancouver, and the average passage is from eleven to eleven and a half
+days; but in August, 1891, the <i>Empress of Japan</i> made the voyage in
+9 days, 9 hours, 39 minutes, the shortest time on record, being at
+the rate of eighteen and a half knots an hour. After a fairly quick
+railway run across the continent to New York, and close connection with
+a swift Atlantic greyhound, her mails were delivered in London in the
+unprecedentedly short time of 20 days, 9 hours from Yokohama. This feat
+astonished London, and gave rise to speculations of rapid communication
+with the East hitherto undreamed of. Even with existing facilities, it
+is now not only possible, but it is easy to go round the world by this
+route in less than seventy-five days, and to do it in palatial style
+for less than $1,000!</p>
+
+<p>In connection with the Canadian Pacific Railway a line of steamers
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>
+commenced a monthly service in 1893 between Vancouver and Australia,
+calling at Shanghai, Sandwich Islands, Brisbane, Queensland and
+Sydney, N. S. W. The pioneer ships are the <i>Warrimoo</i> and <i>Miowera</i>,
+of about 5,000 tons each, which have so far given a very satisfactory
+service. They receive a small subsidy from the Canadian and Australian
+Governments as a means of developing trade and commerce between the
+two countries, and as forging another link in the chain that binds
+the colonies to the Mother Country. A third steamer, the <i>Aorangi</i>,
+has recently been added to this line. The distance from Vancouver to
+Sydney, direct, is 6,832 knots, and the voyage has been made by the
+<i>Miowera</i> in 19½ days, showing that with a fast Atlantic service and
+close connections the quickest route from England to Australia will be
+<i>via</i> Canada.</p>
+
+<p>Still more recently, the unprecedented rush of adventurous gold-seekers
+to the Klondike has induced the Canadian Pacific Railway Company to
+inaugurate another line of steamships to ply between Victoria and
+Vancouver and ports on the northern Pacific coast. Two very fine
+Clyde-built steamers have been placed on this route, the <i>Tartar</i> and
+the <i>Athenian</i>, of 4,425 and 3,882 tons, respectively. These vessels
+are fitted up in first-class style, with excellent accommodation for
+large numbers of passengers. With the exception of the Empress Line
+of steamships to Japan and China, they are said to be much the finest
+steamers on the North Pacific coast.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="space-below3">George Stephen, now Lord MountStephen, was born at
+Dufftown, Banffshire, Scotland, June 5th, 1829: came to this country in 1850,
+when he entered into business in Montreal, and was the pioneer of the
+woollen manufacturers in Canada. He became President of the Bank of
+Montreal and also of the Canadian Pacific Railway, which was completed
+mainly through his Lordship’s energy. Sir George Stephen, Baronet—so
+created in January, 1886—was elevated to the British peerage in May, 1891.</p>
+
+<p>Donald A. Smith, now Lord Strathcona and Mount Royal, who was
+associated with Lord MountStephen in the construction of the Canadian
+Pacific Railway, was born at Archieston, Morayshire, August 6th, 1820.
+He came to Canada in 1839 on the Hudson’s Bay Company’s staff, and
+eventually became Governor of that corporation. He has represented the
+city of Montreal in the Dominion Parliament, is President of the Bank
+of Montreal, and Chancellor of McGill University. He succeeded Sir
+Charles Tupper as High Commissioner for Canada in London in August,
+1896. He received the honour of knighthood from Her Majesty the Queen
+in May, 1886, and was raised to the peerage on the occasion of Her
+Majesty’s Diamond Jubilee, in 1897. The gifts of both these gentlemen
+for educational and philanthropic purposes have been upon a princely
+scale, running up into millions of dollars.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span></p>
+<div class="chapter"><h2>CHAPTER VI.<br /><span class="h_subtitle">STEAM IN THE BRITISH NAVY.</span></h2></div>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-below1">The British Navy—Marine Distances—Sunday at
+Sea—Icebergs and Tidal Waves.</p>
+
+<div>
+  <img class="drop-cap" src="images/letter_g.jpg" width="30" height="39" alt="G" />
+</div>
+<p class="drop-cap no-indent">
+GREAT as have been the changes brought about by steam navigation
+applied to commercial uses, the transformations of the navies of the
+world have been even more remarkable. It seems almost incredible that
+at the commencement of Her Majesty’s reign there were less than twenty
+steamships in the British navy, and none of them over 1,000 tons
+burthen. Of the 560 “sail” comprising the navy of 1836, ninety-five
+were “ships of the line.” The largest of these were styled “first-rate
+ships;” all of them wooden three-deckers, carrying 100 guns each, or
+more. One of the most difficult problems the Admiralty of that time
+had to solve was how to ensure a sufficient supply of oak timber for
+ship-building purposes. Forty full-grown trees to an acre of ground
+was accounted a good average; at that rate it required the growth of
+fifty acres to produce enough timber to build one seventy-four-gun
+ship; and as the oak required at least a hundred years to reach
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>
+maturity, and the average life of a ship was not much over twenty-five
+years, the acreage required to produce the entire quantity was
+enormous. But the prospect of an oak famine was speedily dispelled by
+the substitution of iron and steel for wood in naval architecture.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="DUKE" id="DUKE"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_167.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="454" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">“DUKE OF WELLINGTON” BATTLE-SHIP, 1850.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of the 689 vessels of all kinds constituting the British navy in 1897,
+there are only about twenty-two wooden ones, and these are nearly all
+used either as store ships or training ships, seldom, if ever, to leave
+their anchorage. And so entirely has the paddle-wheel been superseded
+by the screw-propeller, there are not left a dozen paddle-steamers in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>
+the entire fleet, including the Queen’s yachts and a few light-draught
+river boats. As already mentioned the compound engine was introduced
+into the navy in 1863. The twin screw was first applied to the
+<i>Penelope</i> in 1868, and has since become universal in vessels of war,
+the result of these improvements being a marvellous increase of power
+and speed, with a great saving of fuel. Roughly speaking, a pound of
+coal is to-day made to produce four or five times the amount of power
+that it did in 1837.</p>
+
+<p>Experiments had been made with steam power in the navy as early as
+1841. In 1845 as many as nineteen sets of screw engines had been
+ordered for the Admiralty, but it was not until some years later that
+it came into general use. About 1851 the <i>Duke of Wellington</i>,<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>
+the <i>Duke of Marlborough</i>, the <i>Prince of Wales</i>, etc., all full-rigged
+ships, each armed with 131 “great guns,” were fitted with auxiliary
+steam-engines of from 450 to 2,500 horse-power. The introduction of
+iron armour-plating—first practised by the French towards the close of
+the Crimean war—presaged the beginning of the end of “the wooden walls
+of Old England,” and the disappearance forever of the beautiful white
+wings that had spread themselves out over every sea.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="HORNET" id="HORNET"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_169.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="346" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">TORPEDO DESTROYER “HORNET,” 1896.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The <i>Warrior</i>, completed in 1861, was built entirely of iron, protected
+at vital points by armour-plating four and a half inches in thickness,
+which, at the time, was supposed to render her invulnerable. She was
+the precursor of a class of enormous fighting machines, which, however
+ungainly in appearance, have increased the sea-power of Britain to
+an incalculable extent. But, alas, for the four and a half inches of
+armour-plating! Developments in gunnery called for increased thickness
+of protective armour. The rivalry betwixt gun and armour-plate, keenly
+contested for years, has not yet been definitely settled; but when
+ships’ guns are actually in use weighing 110 tons and over, capable of
+throwing a shot of 1,800 lbs. with crushing effect a distance of twelve
+miles, and, on the other hand, when ships are to be found carrying
+twenty-four inches of protective iron and steel plating, it seems as if
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span>
+the climax had been nearly reached. In the meantime the
+insignificant-looking “torpedo destroyer” is coming to the front as one
+of the most formidable instruments of marine warfare. Although only
+about 200 feet long, with a displacement of perhaps 250 tons, they
+have yet a motive power of 5,000 to 6,000 horse-power, and a speed of
+from 25 to 35 knots an hour. Some of these destroyers are supposed to
+be strong enough to deal a death-blow to a first-class battle-ship,
+and all of them are swift enough to overhaul the fastest cruiser on
+the ocean. The estimation in which they are held by the Admiralty is
+apparent from the fact that already upwards of one hundred of them are
+in commission, and many more are being built. Twenty-five destroyers,
+it is said, can be built for the cost price of one battle-ship, and
+in actual warfare there would be exposed the same number of lives in
+fifteen destroyers as in one battle-ship.</p>
+
+<p>Although no great naval battles have taken place to test the power
+of the steam navy of Britain, it has been occasionally demonstrated
+in the form of object lessons. The great Jubilee review of 1887 was
+a magnificent spectacle, when there were assembled at Spithead 135
+ships of war, fully armed and manned, and ready to assert Britain’s
+sovereignty on the high seas. Two years later the exhibition was
+repeated in the presence of admiring Royalty. In January, 1896, shortly
+after President Cleveland’s threatening message to Congress, and while
+strained relations with Germany had arisen out of complications in
+South Africa, in an incredibly short space of time the famous “flying
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span>
+squadron” was mobilized and made ready for sea and any emergency
+that might transpire, without at all encroaching on the strength of
+the ordinary Channel fleet. The recent naval review in connection
+with Her Majesty’s Diamond Jubilee, however, surpassed any previous
+display of the kind, not alone as a spectacular event, but as a telling
+demonstration of sea-power, such as no other nation possesses. On this
+occasion 166 British steamships of war were ranged in line extending to
+thirty miles in length, and this without withdrawing a single ship from
+a foreign station; the only regret expressed on this occasion being
+that not one of the old “wooden walls” was there with towering masts
+and billowy clouds of canvas to bring to mind the days and deeds of
+yore, and to emphasize the remarkable changes introduced by steam.</p>
+
+<p>The following table published by the London <i>Graphic</i> exhibits
+in convenient form the numerical strength of the British navy at the
+beginning of 1897:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="British Naval Strength, 1897" cellpadding="0" rules="cols">
+  <thead><tr>
+      <th class="tdc bb" colspan="6">&nbsp;</th>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <th class="tdc bb">Classification.</th>
+      <th class="tdc bb">No.</th>
+      <th class="tdc bb">Tons.</th>
+      <th class="tdc bb">Horse-<br />Power.</th>
+      <th class="tdc bb">Officers<br />and<br />Men.</th>
+      <th class="tdc bb">Guns.</th>
+    </tr>
+  </thead>
+  <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Battleships,&emsp;1st class</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">29</td> <td class="tdr_sp1">377,176</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">355,000</td> <td class="tdr_sp1">19,291</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">1,301</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">"</span><span class="ws3">&nbsp;2nd class</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">12</td> <td class="tdr_sp1">114,030</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">75,000</td> <td class="tdr_sp1">5,672</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">346</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">"</span><span class="ws3">&nbsp;3rd class</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">11</td>  <td class="tdr_sp1">77,820</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">57,600</td>  <td class="tdr_sp1">5,487</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">365</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">"</span><span class="ws3">armoured</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">18</td> <td class="tdr_sp1">136,960</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">116,000</td> <td class="tdr_sp1">10,386</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">604</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Coast Defence, Iron-clads</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1 bb">16</td> <td class="tdr_sp1 bb">61,410</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1 bb">30,460</td> <td class="tdr_sp1 bb">3,211</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1 bb">209</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl bb"><span class="ws3">Total armored</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1 bb">86</td> <td class="tdr_sp1 bb">767,390</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1 bb">634,060</td> <td class="tdr_sp1 bb">44,047</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1 bb">2,825</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Cruisers,<span class="ws2">1st class</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">17</td> <td class="tdr_sp1">157,950</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">278,000</td> <td class="tdr_sp1">10,514</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">688</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">"</span><span class="ws3">&nbsp;2nd class</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">57</td> <td class="tdr_sp1">243,820</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">461,100</td> <td class="tdr_sp1">19,346</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">1,359</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">"</span><span class="ws3">&nbsp;3rd class</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">52</td> <td class="tdr_sp1">110,685</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">220,340</td> <td class="tdr_sp1">10,994</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">927</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Gunboats,&emsp;&nbsp;Catchers</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">33</td> <td class="tdr_sp1">25,940</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">113,300</td> <td class="tdr_sp1">2,935</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">203</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">"</span><span class="ws3">Coast Defence</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">42</td> <td class="tdr_sp1">11,828</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">5,860</td> <td class="tdr_sp1">1,527</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">106</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Sloops</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">22</td> <td class="tdr_sp1">23,305</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">28,000</td> <td class="tdr_sp1">2,764</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">318</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Gunboats, 1st class (police)</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">20</td> <td class="tdr_sp1">15,810</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">23,400</td> <td class="tdr_sp1">1,670</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">202</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Miscellaneous Vessels</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">24</td> <td class="tdr_sp1">112,712</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">202,300</td> <td class="tdr_sp1">4,998</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1">318</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Torpedo Boats and Destroyers&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1 bb">250</td> <td class="tdr_sp1 bb">25,000</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1 bb">300,000</td> <td class="tdr_sp1 bb">5,860</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1 bb">690</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl bb"><span class="ws3">Grand Total</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1 bb">&nbsp;689</td> <td class="tdr_sp1 bb">&nbsp;1,494,440</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1 bb">&nbsp;2,266,360</td> <td class="tdr_sp1 bb">&nbsp;104,855</td>
+      <td class="tdr_sp1 bb">&nbsp;7,638</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc bb" colspan="6">&nbsp;</td>
+    </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span>
+First-class battle-ships are vessels of from 10,000 to 15,000 tons
+displacement, with steam-engines of 10,000 to 12,000 horse-power and
+attaining a speed of from seventeen to eighteen knots. To this belong
+the <i>Magnificent</i>, the <i>Majestic</i>, the <i>Renown</i>, the <i>Benbow</i>, etc.
+The first three carry each four 12-inch guns, twelve 6-inch, sixteen
+12-pounders, twelve 3-pounders, eight machine guns, and five torpedo
+tubes. The <i>Benbow</i> carries two 16.25-inch guns, each weighing 110
+tons, in addition to her armament of smaller pieces. Second-class
+battle-ships, such as the <i>Edinburgh</i> and <i>Colossus</i>, are under 10,000
+tons, and with 5,500 horse-power develop a speed of about fourteen
+knots. Third-class battle-ships are represented by the <i>Hero</i> and
+<i>Bellerophon</i>, vessels of 6,200 and 7,550 tons respectively.</p>
+
+<p>First-class cruisers include such well-known ships as the <i>Blake</i> and
+the <i>Blenheim</i>, each about 9,000 tons with 20,000 horse-power and
+twenty-two knots speed. The <i>Powerful</i> and <i>Terrible</i>, also belonging
+to this class, are among the finest ships in the navy, each 14,200
+tons, 25,000 horse-power, twenty-two knots speed, and having crews of
+894 men. Additions to the British navy are not made arbitrarily, but
+with due regard to the enlarged and improved naval armaments of other
+countries, and with the determination to keep well ahead of all foreign
+rivals. Accordingly we find that an order was given by the Admiralty
+in 1897 for the construction of four additional battle-ships and four
+large cruisers of great speed, the former to be of the <i>Majestic</i> type,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span>
+but with heavier guns, more efficient armour and higher speed, at
+the same time of slightly less draft, so that if necessary they can
+pass through the Suez Canal. The cost of a first-class battle-ship,
+including armament, is about £700,000 sterling or about $3,500,000.
+A first-class cruiser of the ordinary type costs £450,000, but the
+<i>Powerful</i> and <i>Terrible</i>, when ready for sea, are said to have cost
+£740,000 each. The latest type of torpedo destroyer costs £60,000.
+The largest projectiles used in the service (as in the <i>Benbow</i>) are
+16¼ inches diameter, weigh 1,820 lbs., and are fired with a charge of
+960 lbs. of powder. The average annual expenditure for construction
+and repairs is between four and five millions, but in 1896 it reached
+£7,500,000 sterling.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="RENOWN" id="RENOWN"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_172.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="367" />
+    <p class="center">THE “RENOWN,” FIRST-CLASS BATTLE-SHIP, 1895.</p>
+    <p class="center space-below1">Flag-ship of Vice-Admiral Sir John A. Fisher, K. O. R.,<br />
+                                 in Command of the British North Atlantic Squadron, 1898.</p>
+</div>
+<p>An interesting feature of the Diamond Jubilee review at Spithead, as on
+former occasions, was the presence of representatives of the mercantile
+marine in the garb of armed cruisers. By arrangements between the
+Admiralty and the Cunard, the P. &amp; O., the White Star, and the Canadian
+Pacific Steamship companies, £48,620 were paid last year in the form
+of subventions, the vessels so held at the disposal of the Government
+being the <i>Campania</i>, <i>Lucania</i>, <i>Teutonic</i>, <i>Majestic</i>, <i>Himalaya</i>,
+<i>Australia</i>, <i>Victoria</i>, <i>Arcadia</i>, <i>Empress of India</i>, <i>Empress of
+Japan</i>, and <i>Empress of China</i>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="TEUTONIC" id="TEUTONIC"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_174.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="255" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">“TEUTONIC,” ARMED CRUISER, IN 1897.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Many other mercantile steamers besides these are also at the disposal
+of the Government, being subsidized, and the facilities for converting
+them into armed cruisers at short notice are most complete, a reserve
+stock of breech-loading and machine guns being kept in readiness
+at convenient stations where the transformation can be effected in
+a few hours. The armament of the <i>Teutonic</i> when she appeared at
+Her Majesty’s Diamond Jubilee review consisted of eight 4.7-inch
+quick-firing guns, and eight Nordenfeldt guns. As an example of how
+quickly a large auxiliary fleet might at any time be equipped, the case
+of the <i>Teutonic</i> is in point. Leaving New York on Monday, June 14th,
+with her usual mails and passengers, she reached Liverpool on the 21st.
+Between that and the 24th she discharged her cargo, was thoroughly
+cleaned, took on her armour and full complement of naval officers and
+men, and having on board a host of distinguished guests, was at her
+appointed place in the review on Saturday, the 26th. Returning to
+Liverpool, she laid aside her guns, and on the 30th sailed for New
+York, as if nothing had happened. The <i>Campania</i>, which left New York
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span>
+two days later than the <i>Teutonic</i>, also appeared at the review in
+holiday dress, her only armament, however, on this occasion consisting
+of a large detachment of members of the Houses of Lords and Commons,
+among whom doubtless were many “great guns.”</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Marine Distances.</span></h3>
+
+<p>A nautical mile, or “knot,” is about 6,082.66 feet; a statute, or
+land mile, 5,280 feet; the knot is, therefore, equal to 1.1515 mile.
+The circumference of the earth being divided geographically into 360
+degrees, and each degree into 60 nautical miles, the circumference
+measures 21,600 knots, equal to about 25,000 statute miles. Knots can
+be readily reduced to statute miles by means of the following table:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellspacing="4" summary="Knots-MilesConversion Table." cellpadding="4" rules="cols">
+  <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdc bb" colspan="9">&nbsp;</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Knots</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1</td> <td class="tdc">2</td>
+      <td class="tdc">3</td> <td class="tdc">4</td>
+      <td class="tdc">5</td> <td class="tdc">10</td>
+      <td class="tdc">25</td> <td class="tdc">100</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Miles</td>
+      <td class="tdc">1.151</td> <td class="tdc">2.303</td>
+      <td class="tdc">3.454</td> <td class="tdc">4.606</td>
+      <td class="tdc">5.757</td> <td class="tdc">11.515</td>
+      <td class="tdc">28.787</td> <td class="tdc">115.148</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc bt" colspan="9">&nbsp;</td>
+    </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p>When the <i>Lucania</i> averaged 22 knots, she was running at the rate
+of 25⅓ statute miles an hour; her longest day’s run (560 knots) was equal
+to 644¾ miles, about the distance covered by an ordinary fast express
+train on the Canadian Pacific Railway.</p>
+
+<p>The old-fashioned ship’s “log” is a piece of wood in the form of a
+quadrant, loaded with lead at the circumference, to which is attached a
+line of 120 fathoms or more. Allowance being made for “stray line,” the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span>
+balance is divided into equal distances by knots and small bits of
+coloured cloth. The distance between each knot is the same part of a
+mile that 30 seconds is of an hour (the 120th); the length between
+knots should thus be a trifle over 50 feet. The number of knots run out
+in half a minute (as measured by the sand-glass) indicate the number of
+nautical miles the ship is running per hour.</p>
+
+<p>Even express steamships do not always sail between given points exactly
+as the crow flies. Various reasons lead to the selection of different
+routes, and even when following the same route, the actual distance run
+varies a little on each voyage. The Cunard Line, as a precautionary
+measure, has four sharply defined “tracks” across the Atlantic—two
+for the westward and two for the eastward voyages—one pair being used
+in summer and the other in winter, or the ice season.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a>
+The northern route, used from July 15th to January 14th, is
+considerably shorter than the southern route, which is followed from
+January 15th to July 14th. The distances by these routes are given by
+the company as follows:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellspacing="2" summary="Cunard Tracks Table." cellpadding="2">
+    <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Queenstown to Sandy Hook,</td>
+      <td class="tdc">by</td>
+      <td class="tdl">northern track</td>
+      <td class="tdr">2,782 knots.</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="ws3">"</span><span class="ws4">"</span>&emsp;&emsp;"</td>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td>
+      <td class="tdc">southern&emsp;"</td>
+      <td class="tdl">2,861&emsp;"</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Sandy Hook to Queenstown,</td>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td>
+      <td class="tdc">northern&emsp;"</td>
+      <td class="tdl">2,809&emsp;"</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="ws3">"</span><span class="ws4">"</span>&emsp;&emsp;"</td>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td>
+      <td class="tdc">southern&emsp;"</td>
+      <td class="tdl">2,896&emsp;"</td>
+    </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p class="space-below2">Daunt’s Rock, Queenstown, being about 244 knots
+from Liverpool, and Sandy Hook lightship 26 knots from New York, the
+distance from Liverpool landing-stage to the dock in New York by the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>
+Cunard’s northern track is about 3,052 knots, and by the southern
+track, 3,131 knots; from New York to Liverpool, 3,079 and 3,166 knots,
+respectively. Captain W. H. Smith says that the shortest distance that
+can be made between Liverpool and New York is 3,034 knots.</p>
+
+<p class="f150"><b>TABLE OF DISTANCES.</b><a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p>
+<hr class="r5" />
+
+<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Table of Distances." cellpadding="0">
+  <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdr">Sandy Hook to&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Antwerp</td>
+      <td class="tdr">3,336</td> <td class="tdc">&nbsp;knots.&nbsp;</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Bremen</td>
+      <td class="tdr">3,484</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Copenhagen</td>
+      <td class="tdr">3,800</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Genoa</td>
+      <td class="tdr">4,060</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Gibraltar</td>
+      <td class="tdr">3,200</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Glasgow, <i>via</i> North of Ireland</td>
+      <td class="tdr">2,941</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Hamburg</td>
+      <td class="tdr">3,510</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Havre</td>
+      <td class="tdr">3,094</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">London</td>
+      <td class="tdr">3,222</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Naples</td>
+      <td class="tdr">4,140</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Southampton</td>
+      <td class="tdr">3,100</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Queenstown</td>
+      <td class="tdr">2,809</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Liverpool, <i>via</i> northern route</td>
+      <td class="tdr">3,088</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&emsp;&nbsp;Quebec to</td> <td class="tdl">Montreal,&nbsp;&nbsp;by the river</td>
+      <td class="tdr">160</td> <td class="tdc">miles.</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">"</span>
+                               <span class="ws2">by the Canadian Pacific Railroad</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr">172</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Rimouski</td>
+      <td class="tdr">180</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Belle Isle</td>
+      <td class="tdr">747</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">St. John’s, Newfoundland</td>
+      <td class="tdr">896</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Moville, <i>via</i> Belle Isle and North of Ireland</td>
+      <td class="tdr">2,460</td> <td class="tdc">knots.</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Liverpool,<span class="ws2">"</span>
+             <span class="ws3">"</span><span class="ws2">"</span><span class="ws3">"</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr">2,633</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">"</span><span class="ws2">"</span>
+                                  Cape Race<span class="ws3">"</span><span class="ws3">"</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr">2,801</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">"</span><span class="ws2">"</span>
+                                  <span class="ws2">"</span><span class="ws2">and South</span><span class="ws2">&nbsp;"</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr">2,826</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Glasgow&nbsp; &nbsp;" Belle Isle and North &nbsp;<span class="ws2">&nbsp;"</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr">2,564</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">"</span><span class="ws2">"</span>
+                                  Cape Race<span class="ws3">"</span><span class="ws3">"</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr">2,732</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Queenstown, <i>via</i> Belle Isle</td>
+      <td class="tdr">2,473</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&emsp;&nbsp;Moville to</td> <td class="tdl">Liverpool</td>
+      <td class="tdr">190</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&emsp;&nbsp;Halifax to</td> <td class="tdl">New York</td>
+      <td class="tdr">538</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Quebec</td>
+      <td class="tdr">680</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">St. John’s, Newfoundland</td>
+      <td class="tdr">520</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Liverpool, <i>via</i> North of Ireland</td>
+      <td class="tdr">2,450</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl"><span class="ws3">"</span>&emsp;&nbsp;"
+             &nbsp;&nbsp;South<span class="ws2">"</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr">2,475</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">London</td>
+      <td class="tdr">2,723</td> <td class="tdc">"<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span></td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Glasgow</td>
+      <td class="tdr">2,381</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">St. John, N. B.</td>
+      <td class="tdr">277</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Portland, Me.</td>
+      <td class="tdr">336</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Sable Island</td>
+      <td class="tdr">169</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Boston, Mass</td>
+      <td class="tdr">420</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="4">St. John’s, Newfoundland, to Galway, Ireland,</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="ws3">which is the shortest land-to-land voyage</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr">1,655</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Liverpool to</td> <td> St. John, N. B., <i>via</i> North of Ireland</td>
+      <td class="tdr">2,700</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Portland, Me.,&emsp;"&emsp;"<span class="ws4">"</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr">2,765</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Boston, Mass.,&nbsp; &nbsp;"&emsp;"<span class="ws4">"</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr">2,807</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Queenstown</td>
+      <td class="tdr">244</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">Montreal</td> <td class="tdl">to Halifax, <i>via</i>&nbsp; Intercolonial Railroad</td>
+      <td class="tdr">845</td> <td class="tdc">miles.</td>
+  </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">"</span><span class="ws2">&nbsp; "</span>&emsp;Canadian Pacific Railroad</td>
+      <td class="tdr">756</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Boston,&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; "&emsp;Central Vermont Railroad</td>
+      <td class="tdr">334</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+  </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Portland, Me., <i>via</i> Grand Trunk Railroad</td>
+      <td class="tdr">297</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">New York, <i>via</i> Central Vermont Railroad</td>
+      <td class="tdr">403</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+  </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Toronto,&emsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"&emsp;Grand Trunk Railroad</td>
+      <td class="tdr">333</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">"</span><span class="ws2">&nbsp; "</span>&emsp;Canadian Pacific Railroad</td>
+      <td class="tdr">338</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+  </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">"</span><span class="ws2">&nbsp;</span>&nbsp;by water</td>
+      <td class="tdr">376</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Winnipeg, Man., <i>via</i> Canadian Pacific Railroad&emsp;&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdr">1,424</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+  </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Vancouver, B.C.,&nbsp; "<span class="ws3">"</span>
+                                          <span class="ws2">"</span><span class="ws3">"</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr">2,906</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Vancouver to</td> <td class="tdl">Yokohama, Japan</td>
+      <td class="tdr">4,283</td> <td class="tdc">knots.</td>
+  </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Shanghai,&emsp;China</td>
+      <td class="tdr">5,330</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Hong Kong&nbsp;&emsp;"</td>
+      <td class="tdr">5,936</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+  </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Honolulu, Hawaii</td>
+      <td class="tdr">2,410</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Sydney,&emsp;N. S. W.</td>
+      <td class="tdr">6,824</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+  </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">Lech Ryan to</td> <td class="tdl">Quebec, <i>via</i> Belle Isle</td>
+      <td class="tdr">2,513</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">North Sydney, C. B.</td>
+      <td class="tdr">2,161</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+  </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Halifax, N. S.</td>
+      <td class="tdr">2,330</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">St. John, N. B.</td>
+      <td class="tdr">2,580</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+  </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Milford Haven to&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Quebec, <i>via</i> Belle Isle</td>
+      <td class="tdr">2,587</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">Halifax</td>
+      <td class="tdr">2,353</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+   </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl">North Sydney, C. B.</td>
+      <td class="tdr">2,186</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+    </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Sunday at Sea.</span></h3>
+
+<p>As far as circumstances permit, Sunday is observed with as much decorum
+on shipboard as it is on shore; that is, on the British and American
+lines. As for the continental steamers, the traveller may expect to
+become acquainted with a continental Sabbath, which, in most cases,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span>
+means the ignoring of the day of rest altogether. On our Canadian
+steamships, weather permitting, public worship is usually held in
+the saloon, at 10.30 a. m. Sometimes there is an evening service as
+well, but more frequently an impromptu service of song, much enjoyed
+by the musical portion of the company, and that is frequently a large
+proportion of the passengers—ladies especially. The order of service
+is entirely at the discretion of the captain. In the absence of a
+clergyman, the captain reads the morning service and the Scripture
+lessons for the day from the Book of Common Prayer. If there is a
+Protestant minister on board it is customary to invite him to take the
+whole service; if there be more than one minister available, each of
+them may be asked to take part in the service. On the New York liners,
+as a rule, there is no sermonizing, no matter how many ministers may be
+on board. The captain and purser read the morning service, or portions
+of it; a couple of hymns are sung; a collection is taken up for the
+benefit of the Seamen’s Home, or kindred object, and that is all. There
+are, however, exceptions to this rule. When the captain is prevented by
+his duties on deck from conducting the service, a clergyman, if there
+be one among the passengers, is usually asked to assist. A deviation
+from the rule is often made when a minister of outstanding celebrity
+happens to be on board. Ministers like the late Dr. Norman Macleod, or
+Dr. William M. Taylor, would invariably be asked to preach, no matter
+what line they travelled by. The service-book of the Cunard Company
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span>
+consists of selections from the Book of Common Prayer, with the
+addition of a form of prayer prepared by the General Assembly of the
+Church of Scotland, for the use of sailors and persons at sea. A
+singularly beautiful prayer it is:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot1">
+<p>“Almighty God, who art the confidence of all the ends of the earth,
+and of them that are afar off upon the sea; under whose protection
+we are alike secure in every place, and without whose providence we
+can nowhere be in safety; look down in mercy on us, thine unworthy
+servants, who are called to see thy wonders on the deep, and to perform
+the duties of our vocation in the great waters. Let thine everlasting
+arm be underneath and round about us. Preserve us in all dangers;
+support us in all trials: conduct us speedily and safely on our voyage,
+and bring us in peace and comfort to our desired haven.</p>
+
+<p>“Be pleased to watch over the members of our families, and all the
+beloved friends whom we have left behind. Relieve our minds from all
+anxiety on their account by the blessed persuasion that thou carest for
+them. Above all, grant that our souls may be defended from whatsoever
+evils or perils may encompass them; and that, abiding steadfast in
+the faith, we may be enabled so to pass through the waves and storms
+of this uncertain world, that finally we may come to the land of
+everlasting rest, through Jesus Christ our Lord.&emsp;Amen.”</p></div>
+
+<p>The service-book also contains the Psalms of David in prose, and a
+collection of 107 hymns, including four of the Scotch paraphrases. The
+hymn most frequently sung at sea is the one beginning with “Eternal
+Father, strong to save,” and next to it, “O God, our help in ages
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>
+past.” Evangelistic services of a less stately kind than in the saloon
+are often held in the afternoon in the second cabin or steerage, and
+are usually much appreciated; while in the evening the deck hands will
+join with groups of emigrants in singing Moody and Sankey hymns, such
+as “Revive us Again,” “Rescue the Perishing,” “Whiter than Snow,” etc.
+It is often remarkable to notice how familiar people of diverse creeds
+and nationalities are with these hymns, and how heartily they unite in
+singing them.</p>
+
+<p>A favourite text with preachers on shipboard is Rev. xxi. 1: “And there
+was no more sea.” The theme, associated, as it is, with so many fathoms
+of profundity, has yielded to many forms of treatment. I remember that
+a young minister, my room-mate, by the way, on his first voyage out
+from Quebec, chose this for his text, and that he launched out, as well
+he might, on the charms of the sea in poetical flights of fancy. But
+the while we were sailing in smooth water. When outside the Straits
+he laid his head on the pillow and underwent a change of environment,
+recovering from which, after many days, he vowed that should he ever
+preach from that text again, he would have something more to say
+about it. I remember, too, that an elderly gentleman—a Presbyterian
+of the Presbyterians—was asked by the captain to preach one Sunday
+morning. He readily complied, taking it for granted that he was to
+conduct the whole service. Imagine his chagrin when an Anglican brother
+unexpectedly appeared on the scene and went through the whole of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span>
+long service of the Church of England. With the utmost composure,
+<i>Πρεσβύτερος</i> simply ignored the beautiful liturgical service,
+commenced <i>de novo</i>, and went through the whole service afresh, in
+orthodox Presbyterian fashion, to the surprise of the congregation and
+the discomfiture of the waiters, whose time for setting the lunch-table
+was long past.</p>
+
+<p>A distinctive and pleasing feature of these Sunday services at sea,
+especially in the larger steamships, which often carry more passengers
+than would fill an ordinary church, is the heartiness with which
+the representatives of various religious denominations unite in the
+services. The lines of demarcation that separate them when ashore seem
+to be lost sight of at sea. Casual acquaintanceship here frequently
+ripens into closer friendship; people begin to see eye to eye, and
+soon the conviction grows stronger that the doctrinal points on which
+all professing Christians are agreed are much more important than the
+things about which they differ. It would do some narrow-minded souls a
+world of good to spend a few Sundays at sea.</p>
+
+<p>The office for the burial of the dead at sea is very solemn and
+affecting. In the days of sailing ships, when voyages lasted so much
+longer, deaths from natural causes at sea were more frequent than
+now. But the order of service is the same. The body of the deceased
+person might be sewed up in a hammock—indeed, it usually was—or the
+carpenter may have made a rough coffin for it. In either case it was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>
+heavily loaded with iron at the foot. A stout plank with one end
+resting on the bulwark forms the bier on which is laid the corpse,
+covered with an ensign. The captain, the chief engineer, the ship’s
+doctor and purser, with a detachment of the crew, and a few of the
+passengers, make up the funeral party. Portions of the Church of
+England’s beautiful service for the burial of the dead are read: “I am
+the Resurrection and the life.” ... “I know that my Redeemer liveth.”
+... “We brought nothing into this world and it is certain we can carry
+nothing out.” ... “Man that is born of a woman hath but a short time
+to live,” etc. The ship’s engines are then stopped for a few seconds
+while the service proceeds—“We therefore commit his body to the deep,
+looking for the resurrection of the body when the sea shall give up
+her dead.”</p>
+
+<p>The ensign is removed. The inward end of the plank is raised, and
+the mortal remains are plunged into the greatest of all cemeteries;
+sometimes with scant ceremony, perhaps, but always impressing on the
+mind of the spectator a deeply pathetic incident that will never be
+forgotten.</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">“And the stately ships go on</span>
+<span class="i2">To their haven under the hill;</span>
+<span class="i0">But O for the touch of a vanished hand,</span>
+<span class="i2">And the sound of a voice that is still.”</span>
+</div></div></div>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Icebergs and Tidal Waves.</span></h3>
+
+<p>Icebergs and bewildering fogs, as has been already said, are a large
+element of danger in the St. Lawrence route. The passengers who sailed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span>
+with me on the <i>Lake Superior</i>, from Montreal on July 1st, 1896,
+will not soon forget the magnificent display of icebergs which they
+witnessed on the Sunday following. From early morning until midnight,
+for a distance of more than 250 miles, the ship’s course lay through an
+uninterrupted succession of icebergs—a procession, it might be called,
+on a grand scale of masses of ice in all manner of fantastic shapes
+and of dazzling whiteness—travelling to their watery graves in the
+great Gulf Stream of the south. Mountains of ice, some of them might
+be called. On one of them a grisly bear was alleged to have been seen
+sulkily moving to and fro, as if meditating how, when and where his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span>
+romantic voyage was to come to an end. The day was calm and
+cloudless—a perfect day for such a marvellous exhibition. It might
+have been otherwise, and how different may be imagined from reading
+what appeared in the English papers a few weeks later—the account of a
+ship’s narrow escape from destruction in this identical locality:</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="VICTORIA" id="VICTORIA"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_184.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="393" />
+    <p class="center">H. M. YACHT “VICTORIA AND ALBERT,” 1855.</p>
+    <p class="center space-below1">2,470 tons; 2,980 h. p.: speed. 16.8 knots; armament, 2 six-pounders;
+crew, 151 men.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="blockquot1">“<span class="smcap">Struck an Iceberg.</span>—The SS. <i>Etolia</i>
+on her voyage from Montreal to Bristol narrowly escaped destruction
+from collision with an iceberg twenty-four hours after leaving the
+eastern end of Belle Isle straits. A dense fog had set in, the lookout
+was doubled, and the engines slowed; presently the fog lifted, but
+only to come down again thicker than ever. In a very short time the
+lookout called out, ‘Ice ahead!’ The engines were promptly stopped,
+then reversed at full speed. Meanwhile the towering monster bears down
+on the ship and in a few seconds is on top of it. It was a huge berg,
+rising high above the masts of the steamer, which it struck with such
+a crash that some three hundred tons of ice in huge pieces came down
+on the forecastle. Fortunately most of it rebounded into the sea, but
+some forty or fifty tons remained on the ship’s deck. The ship trembled
+under the blow from stem to stern; her bows were smashed in, but the
+leakage was confined to the fore-peak. In this battered condition the
+<i>Etolia</i> lay without a movement of the engines for thirty-six hours
+until the fog cleared, when Captain Evans had the satisfaction of
+proceeding on his course and bringing his passengers and crew safely
+into Bristol harbour.” </p>
+
+<p>A still more serious disaster was reported on August 25th of the same year (1896):
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="blockquot1">“The captain of the steamer <i>Circassia</i>, of the
+Anchor Line, had a story to tell, on her arrival at quarantine early
+this morning, of picking up a captain and his twenty-two men on the
+high seas from three open boats. It was Captain Burnside and the entire
+crew of the British tramp steamer <i>Moldavia</i>, bound from Cardiff to
+Halifax with coal, who were rescued by the timely approach of the
+<i>Circassia</i>. During the dense fog over the sea on last Wednesday, the
+<i>Moldavia</i> ran into a huge iceberg and stove her bows so badly that she
+began to fill rapidly. It was 5.30 o’clock in the afternoon. As soon
+as a hasty examination showed that it would be impossible to save his
+ship, Captain Burnside ordered the lifeboats provisioned and cleared
+away, and as soon as it could be done the steamer was abandoned and
+shortly afterwards sank. The lifeboats kept together and watched for a
+passing vessel, and thirty-five hours later the <i>Circassia’s</i> lights
+were seen approaching. Blue lights were at once shown by the occupants
+of the lifeboats, and the <i>Circassia</i> altered her course. When near
+enough, Captain Boothby, of the <i>Circassia</i>, hailed the lifeboats and
+told the men that he would pick up the boats and their occupants.
+Accordingly the davits’ tackle were lowered, and as each life-boat
+approached she was hooked on and raised bodily, occupants and all, to
+the deck of the <i>Circassia</i>.”</p>
+
+<p>The icebergs of the North Atlantic are natives of Greenland or other
+Arctic regions where glaciers abound. They carry with them evidence
+of their terrestrial birth in the rocks and debris with which they
+are frequently ballasted. The glacier, slowly moving over the beds of
+rivers and ravines, ultimately reaches the seaboard, to be gradually
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span>
+undermined by the action of the waves, and, finally, to fall over into
+deep water and be carried by winds and currents into the open ocean. In
+their earlier stages icebergs are constantly being augmented in size by
+storms of snow and rain, and by the freezing of the water washed over
+them by the waves. They are of all sizes, from a mere hummock to vast
+piles of ice half a mile in diameter, and showing an altitude above the
+sea of two or three hundred feet, sometimes rising to a height of five
+and even six hundred feet, and that is scarcely more than one-eighth
+of the whole mass, for a comparatively small portion only of the bulk
+projects above the surface, as may be plainly seen by dropping a
+piece of ice in a tumbler full of water. In proof of this, it is by
+no means uncommon to find icebergs of ordinary dimensions stranded
+in the straits of Belle Isle in seventy or eighty fathoms of water.
+Being frequently accompanied by fog—of which they may be the chief
+cause—they are often met with unawares, though their nearer approach
+is usually discovered by the effect which they produce on the air and
+the water surrounding them, suggesting to the careful navigator the
+frequent use of the thermometer to test the temperature of the water
+where ice is likely to be encountered. They are seldom met with below
+the 40th parallel.</p>
+
+<p class="space-below3">Field-ice, covering a surface of many square
+miles, with a thickness of from ten to twenty feet, is frequently
+fallen in with off the coasts of Labrador and Newfoundland. Though
+less dangerous to navigation than the iceberg, it is often a serious
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>
+obstruction. Vessels that incautiously run into a pack of ice of this
+kind, or have drifted into it, have often found themselves in a <i>maze</i>,
+and have been detained for weeks at a time, and not without some risk
+to their safety in heavy weather.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tidal Waves.</span>—Notwithstanding elaborate treatment
+of the subject by hydrographers, stories about ocean tidal waves are most
+frequently relegated by landsmen into the same category with tales
+of the great sea-serpent. Sailors, however, have no manner of doubt
+as to their existence and their force. During violent storms it has
+been noticed that ocean waves of more than average height succeed each
+other at intervals—some allege that every seventh wave towers above
+the rest. Be that as it may, there is no doubt that a sudden change of
+wind when the sea is strongly agitated frequently produces a wave of
+surpassing magnitude. Other causes, not so obvious, may bring about
+the same result, producing what in common parlance is called a “tidal
+wave.” This is quite different from the tidal wave proper, which
+periodically rushes up the estuaries of rivers like the Severn, the
+Solway, the Garonne, the Hoogly and the Amazon. In the upper inlets
+of the Bay of Fundy, where the spring-tides rise as high as seventy
+feet, the incoming tide rushes up over naked sands in the form of a
+perpendicular white-crested wave with great velocity. The tidal wave
+of the Severn comes up from the Bristol Channel in a “bore” nine feet
+high and with the speed of a race-horse, while the great bore of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span>
+Tsien-Tang-Kiang in China is said to advance up that river like a wall
+of water thirty feet in height, at the rate of twenty-five miles an
+hour, sweeping all before it.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a>
+The ocean tidal wave dwarfs these and all other waves by its huge size
+and tremendous energy. The effective pressure of such a wave being
+estimated at 6,000 pounds to the square foot, it is easy to understand
+how completely it becomes master of the situation when it topples
+over on the deck of a ship. Only once in the course of a good many
+voyages has the writer been an eye-witness of its tremendous force. The
+occasion was thus noticed in the New York papers of the 2nd and 3rd of
+August, 1896:</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot1">“The American liner <i>Paris</i> and the Cunarder
+<i>Etruria</i>, which arrived on Saturday, had a rough-and-tumble battle
+before daylight on Tuesday morning with a summer gale that had an
+autumn chill and a winter force in it. The wind blew a whole gale
+and combed the seas as high as they are usually seen in the cyclonic
+season. The crest of a huge wave tumbled over the port bow of the
+<i>Etruria</i> with a crash that shook the ship from stem to stern, and
+momentarily checked her speed; a rent was made in the forward hatch
+through which the water poured into the hold, flooding the lower tier
+of staterooms ankle-deep. The ship’s bell was unshipped, and it carried
+away the iron railing in front of it, snapping iron stanchions two
+inches in diameter as if they had been pipe-stems. The <i>Paris</i>, about
+the same hour and in the same locality, shipped just such a sea as that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span>
+which hit the <i>Etruria</i>, but received less damage. It fared much worse,
+however, with the sailing ship <i>Ernest</i>, from Havre, which was fallen
+in with on the morning of the gale showing signals of distress. The
+French liner <i>La Bourgogne</i>, came to her rescue and gallantly took off
+the captain and his crew of eleven men, abandoning the shattered ship
+to her fate with ten feet of water in her hold.” </p>
+
+<p>It is not often that a tidal wave visits the St. Lawrence, but in
+October, 1896, the SS. <i>Durham City</i>, of the Furness Line, when off
+Anticosti, was struck by a big wave which carried away her deck-load,
+including sixty eight head of cattle and everything movable. It was
+only one sea that did the damage, but it made a clean sweep.</p>
+
+<p>By a figure of speech, ocean waves are frequently spoken of as running
+“mountains high,” and the popular tendency is doubtless towards
+exaggeration. The estimate of experts is that storm waves frequently
+rise to forty feet, and sometimes even to sixty or seventy feet in
+height from the wave’s base to crest.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="CRESCENT" id="CRESCENT"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_191.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="228" />
+    <p class="center">H. M. SS. “CRESCENT.”</p>
+    <p class="center space-below1">Presented by publishers of the “Star Almanac,” Montreal, 1896.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="blockquot2">This outline represents one of the smaller types
+of British warships, known as first-class cruisers. The <i>Crescent</i> was
+launched at Portsmouth in 1892, and cost £383,068. She is 360 feet long
+and 60 feet beam. Her tonnage is 7,700 tons; her indicated horse-power
+12,000, and her speed 19.7 knots an hour. Her armament consists of one
+22-ton gun, twelve 6-inch quick-firing, twelve 6-pounder <i>do.</i>, five
+3-pounder <i>do.</i>, seven machine guns and two light guns. The <i>Crescent</i>
+was for several years the flagship of Vice-Admiral James Elphinstone
+Erskine, on the North American and West Indies Station, and is
+consequently well known in Canadian waters. She visited Quebec several
+times.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span></p>
+<div class="chapter"><h2>CHAPTER VII.<br /><span class="h_subtitle">THE ST. LAWRENCE ROUTE.</span></h2></div>
+
+<p class="neg-indent"> The Allan, Dominion, Beaver, and other Canadian
+Lines of Ocean Steamships—Sir Hugh Allan—A Fast Line Service, etc., etc.</p>
+
+<div>
+  <img class="drop-cap" src="images/letter_w.jpg" width="40" height="40" alt="W" />
+</div>
+<p class="drop-cap no-indent">
+WERE it not that the St. Lawrence is hermetically sealed for five
+months of the year, it would undoubtedly be a more formidable rival
+to the Hudson than it now is. That great drawback, however, is not
+the only one. The navigation of the St. Lawrence has always been
+somewhat difficult and hazardous. The seven hundred and fifty miles
+of land-locked water from Quebec to Belle Isle is notorious for swift
+and uncertain tides and currents, for treacherous submerged reefs
+and rocks, and shoals in long stretches of the river, for blinding
+snow-storms and fields of floating ice in the lower reaches at
+certain seasons of the year, for icebergs which abound on the coasts
+of Labrador and Newfoundland, and for bewildering fogs. With such a
+combination of difficulties it is not to be wondered at that shipwrecks
+have been frequent; that they have not been more numerous must be
+mainly attributed to good seamanship and an intimate knowledge of the
+route. Nautical appliances and charts are very much better than they
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span>
+were thirty or forty years ago. The efficiency of the lighthouse
+system has been greatly increased, and, what is vastly important, the
+masters of mail steamers are no longer restricted to time, but on the
+contrary are instructed that whenever the risk of life or of the ship
+is involved, speed must be sacrificed to safety.</p>
+
+<p>The St. Lawrence route has some advantages over the other. It is nearly
+five hundred miles shorter from Quebec to Liverpool than from New York.
+Other things being equal, passengers by this route have the advantage
+of 750 miles of smooth water at the beginning or end of their voyage,
+as the case may be. For these and other reasons many prefer the St.
+Lawrence route. It has become popular even with a good many Americans,
+especially from the Western States, and will certainly become more so
+if the contemplated “fast service” is realized, by which the ocean
+voyage—from land to land—would be curtailed to three days and a half!</p>
+
+<p>In the discussions that have arisen on the subject, the danger of
+running fast steamers on this route has, in many instances, been unduly
+magnified. Past experience tends to show that the actual risk is not
+necessarily increased by fast steaming. Shipwrecks in the Gulf of St.
+Lawrence during later years have been confined to cargo and cattle
+steamers. Not one of the faster mail boats has been lost during the
+last sixteen years. The chief difficulty in the way of establishing a
+twenty-knot service for the St. Lawrence is that of the ways and means.
+Would it pay? Certainly not by private enterprise alone, but the favour
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span>
+with which the project is regarded by the Imperial and Dominion
+Governments leaves little doubt that it will be accomplished in the
+near future.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="W_SMITH" id="W_SMITH"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_194.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="601" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">CAPTAIN W. H. SMITH, R.N.R.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Captain W. H. Smith, formerly Commodore of the Allan Line, in command
+of the <i>Parisian</i>, and who, from long service on this route, is well
+qualified to express an opinion, states in his report to the Government
+that he sees no reason why there should not be a fast line of steamers
+to the St. Lawrence. “If,” he says, “the St. Lawrence route is selected
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span>
+for the proposed fast line, there should be no racing in competition
+with other large steamers, and the same amount of caution must be taken
+which has been exercised of late years by senior officers of the Allan
+and other lines trading to Canada; and it will be absolutely necessary
+for the safety of navigation that the commanders and officers of any
+new company should be selected from the most experienced officers of
+existing lines.”</p>
+
+<p>In 1853 a Liverpool firm, Messrs. McKean, McLarty and Lamont,
+contracted with the Canadian Government to run a line of screw
+steamers, to carry Her Majesty’s mails, twice a month to Quebec in
+summer, and once a month to Portland during the winter, for which
+the company was to receive £1,238 currency per trip, under certain
+conditions, one of which was that the ships should average not more
+than fourteen days on the outward, nor more than thirteen days on the
+voyage eastward. The ships of the first year were the <i>Genova</i>, 350
+tons; <i>Lady Eglinton</i>, 335 tons; and Sarah Sands, 931 tons. Their
+average passages were wide of the mark. Next year the <i>Cleopatra</i>,
+<i>Ottawa</i> and <i>Charity</i> were added to the line. The <i>Cleopatra</i> made her
+first trip to Quebec in <i>forty-three days</i>; the <i>Ottawa</i> never reached
+Quebec at all, but after dodging about some time among the ice at the
+mouth of the St. Lawrence, made for Portland. The <i>Charity</i> reached
+Quebec in twenty-seven days. As a matter of course the contract was cancelled.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Allan Line.</span></h3>
+
+<p>The failure of the Liverpool firm to fulfil their contract opened the
+way for Canadian enterprise, and the man who was destined to see it
+carried out to a successful issue was already awaiting his opportunity.
+That man was Hugh Allan (the late Sir Hugh), a man of intense energy
+and force of character. The Allans came honestly by their liking for
+the sea and ships. Their father, Alexander, was a ship-owner, and
+himself the well-known captain of the <i>Favourite</i>, one of the most
+popular vessels then sailing from the Clyde to the St. Lawrence. The
+five sons were born at Saltcoats, in sight of the sea. Two of them,
+James and Bryce, followed the sea for a number of years and reached
+the top of their profession. Alexander took up the shipping business
+established by his father in Glasgow, where he was afterwards joined by
+his eldest brother, James, under the firm name of James and Alexander
+Allan. Bryce, on retiring from the sea, became head of the shipping
+house in Liverpool. Hugh, the second son, became a partner in the
+well-known firm of Miller, Edmonstone &amp; Co., afterwards changed to
+Edmonstone, Allan &amp; Co., Montreal. His brother Andrew joined the firm
+some years later, when its name was changed to that of Hugh and Andrew
+Allan. The three firms, in Glasgow, Liverpool and Montreal, had become
+the owners and agents of a large fleet of sailing ships; but the time
+came when it was evident that mails and passengers must be carried to
+Canada, as elsewhere, by steam power.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="MCMASTER" id="MCMASTER"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_197.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="638" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">CAPTAIN McMASTER.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="space-below3">The opening of the St. Lawrence and Atlantic
+Railway between Montreal and Portland in 1852 was one of the most
+important events in the commercial history of Canada. It gave Montreal
+a winter port; for as yet neither Halifax nor St. John had any railway
+communication with the western provinces. Given a good winter port,
+there seemed to be no <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198"
+id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> reason why a line of steamships
+should not be established to ply between Liverpool and Montreal in
+summer, with Portland for the winter terminus. The Allans, seeing that
+the time had come for a new departure, succeeded in forming a joint
+stock company, under the name of the Montreal Ocean Steamship Company.
+As its name implied, it was virtually a Canadian enterprise. The
+principal shareholders, besides the Allans, were Messrs. William Dow,
+John G. Mackenzie and Robert Anderson, of Montreal; George Burns Symes,
+of Quebec, and John Watkins, of Kingston. A few years later the Allans
+became sole owners of the concern, which then became known as the <span
+class="smcap">Allan Line</span>.</p>
+
+<p>The first two steamers of the Montreal Ocean Steamship Company were the
+<i>Canadian</i> and <i>Indian</i>, built by the famous Dennys, of Dumbarton.
+They were pretty little iron screw steamers, of about 270 feet in length,
+34 feet wide, and of 1,700 tons burthen each. The <i>Canadian</i> made her
+first voyage to Quebec in September, 1854, but the Crimean war having
+commenced, steamers of this class were in demand, and these two were
+taken into the service and profitably employed as government transports
+as long as the war lasted. In 1874 the <i>Sarmatian</i> and the <i>Manitoban</i>
+of this line were similarly employed to convey troops to the west coast
+of Africa, to take part in the Ashantee campaign. On both occasions
+they did excellent service.</p>
+
+<p>When the Canadian Government next advertised for tenders for carrying
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span>
+the mails, an agreement was made with the Allans by which they were
+to receive £25,000 a year for a fortnightly service in summer and a
+monthly one in winter. Two other boats, similar to the <i>Canadian</i>
+and <i>Indian</i>, were built by the Dennys—the <i>North American</i> and
+<i>Anglo-Saxon</i>. The new service was commenced in April, 1856, by the
+SS. <i>North American</i>, which arrived in the port of Montreal on the
+9th of May. Two years later it was decided to establish a weekly
+service, the Government promising an increased subsidy of $208,000
+per annum. This implied double the number of ships; accordingly, four
+others were built, the <i>North Briton</i>, <i>Nova Scotian</i>, <i>Bohemian</i>
+and <i>Hungarian</i>, all after the same model as the pioneer ships, but 300
+feet long and 2,200 tons register. Their speed was from 11 to 13 knots
+in smooth water, and even in heavy weather they seldom fell short of
+8 knots an hour. Their average passages westward from Liverpool to
+Quebec were 11 days, 5 hours; eastward, 10 days, 10 hours. The quickest
+passage eastward was made by the <i>Anglo-Saxon</i>, in 9 days, 5 hours,
+and westward, by the <i>Hungarian</i>, in 9 days, 14 hours. In the same
+year (1859) the Cunard Line to Boston averaged 12 days, 19 hours going
+west, and 10 days, 15 hours eastward. The average speed of the Canadian
+steamers during the entire season of the St. Lawrence navigation
+in that year was 9½ knots. At this time there were already twelve
+different lines of steamships plying across the Atlantic, affording
+almost daily communication between England and America by steam.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In 1859 the company represented that, owing to the depression in trade,
+they were unable to continue the service, without further assistance.
+The Canadian Government stood by this Canadian enterprise, and doubled
+the subsidy in consideration of the increased service, which was
+admitted on all hands to be a complete success. The new ships were
+beautiful models and well adapted to the trade; but the company had
+to learn from bitter experience how hazardous that trade was. To say
+nothing of minor accidents, up to the year 1885 no less than fourteen
+of their steamers had come to grief. Since that time, singularly
+enough, none of this line has been lost, though many belonging to other
+lines have been wrecked.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Canadian</i>, Captain Ballantine, on her first trip to Quebec, in
+June, 1857, through the negligence of her pilot, was stranded on South
+Rock, off the Pillar Lighthouse, forty-five miles below Quebec. No
+lives were lost, but the ship defied every effort to float her. The
+<i>Indian</i>, Captain Smith, bound for Portland, in December, 1859, struck
+a rock off Marie Joseph Harbour, seventy-five miles east of Halifax,
+and went to pieces. Every effort was made to save the lives of the 447
+persons that sailed in her, but twenty-three perished. The <i>Hungarian</i>,
+Captain Jones, on the night of February 20th, 1860, during a blinding
+snow-storm, struck on the South-West Ledge near Cape Sable Island,
+130 miles east of Halifax. Every soul on board, to the number of 237,
+perished with the ship. The cause of this sad disaster is not correctly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span>
+known. The captain was one of the best seamen in the Allan Line, but it
+has been stated that the light upon Cape Sable was not exhibited that
+night, in consequence of the sickness of the lightkeeper, who is said
+to have confessed this on his death-bed.</p>
+
+<p>The second <i>Canadian</i>, Captain Graham, came in contact with a piece
+of submerged ice, outside the Straits of Belle Isle, in July, 1861.
+The ship was proceeding cautiously, but so hard and sharp was the ice,
+a rent was made in the ship’s side below the water-line, and it was
+soon seen that she was done for. This is how she went down, as told by
+Captain Graham: “The wind had increased to a gale. About 9.30 a. m. we
+came up to heavy field ice closely packed. We had been going half-speed
+till we saw the ice, when we stopped altogether, then turned her head
+to the west, steaming slowly through a narrow passage between heavy
+ice on the starboard side and what appeared to be a light patch of ice
+on the port side, which scratched along the bow for sixty feet. The
+concussion was very slight, and I had no apprehension of any damage;
+went below to see what was wrong, and found the water rushing along
+the main deck and up the hatchway. The boats were ordered out, and the
+ship headed for land full speed. She soon began to settle down forward,
+taking a list to starboard, when the engines were stopped and the boats
+lowered. Immediately after leaving her, the ship with a plunge dropped
+five or six feet by the head, and then directly afterwards her stern
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span>
+flew up in the air, and she went down head foremost.” The mail-master,
+nine of the crew and twenty-six passengers went down with the ship.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>North Briton</i>, Captain Grange, was wrecked in November, 1861, on
+one of the Mingan Islands, north of Anticosti (the usual track for
+steamers at that time). There was no loss of life. The <i>Anglo-Saxon</i>,
+Captain Burgess, in April, 1863, was stranded in Clam Cove, three
+miles from Cape Race, during a dense fog. A heavy sea rolling in drove
+her farther on the rocks, from which she eventually slid off and sank
+in deep water. The captain, some of the officers, and many of the
+passengers and crew were carried down into the vortex of the ship, and
+were drowned to the number of 238 souls.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Norwegian</i>, Captain McMaster, in June, 1863, was totally wrecked
+on St. Paul’s Island, at the entrance of the Gulf. A dense fog was
+prevailing. The passengers and crew, numbering about 420, were all
+saved. The <i>Bohemian</i>, Captain Borland, struck on the Alden Ledges,
+off Cape Elizabeth, near Portland, in February, 1864, when twenty
+passengers were drowned. The <i>Dacian</i> was wrecked near Halifax, April
+7th, 1872. In the same year the <i>Germany</i> went ashore at the mouth of
+the Garonne River, near Bordeaux, France, and was totally wrecked, with
+the loss of thirty lives. The <i>St. George</i>, Captain Jones, was lost
+on the Blonde Rock, south of Seal Island, N.S. The <i>Jura</i> stranded on
+Formby Bank, at the entrance to the Mersey, in 1864. The <i>Moravian</i>,
+Captain Archer, was wrecked on Mud Islands, near Yarmouth, N.S., in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span>
+December, 1881. The <i>Hanoverian</i>, Captain Thompson, struck a rock at
+the entrance of Nepassey Bay, Newfoundland, and was totally lost, but
+all hands were saved.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Pomeranian</i>, Captain Dalziel, a fine ship of 4,364 tons, in 1893
+survived one of the stormiest Atlantic voyages on record. She sailed
+from Greenock for New York, March 27th. After eight days battling
+with a furious gale, when about twelve hundred miles west of Ireland,
+she was well-nigh overwhelmed by a tremendous wave, which made a
+clean sweep of the deck. The bridge, the chart-house, the saloon, the
+steam-winch, the ventilators, everything between the foremast and
+the funnel, were hurled overboard, a mass of wreckage. The captain
+and a saloon passenger were so severely injured that both died in a
+few hours. The second and fourth officers, who were on the bridge,
+were swept into the sea and drowned, as were the rest of the cabin
+passengers, one intermediate, and four of the crew—twelve persons in
+all. Three of the lifeboats were carried away and two were smashed,
+leaving only one available for service. The whole of the nautical
+instruments, books and charts had gone overboard, the steering gear was
+badly wrecked, and the only compass left was that in the steering-house
+aft. The first officer, Mr. McCulloch, on whom the command now
+devolved, seeing the crippled condition of the ship, turned her head
+homewards, a thing not easily done in such a sea, and eventually
+returned to the Clyde in a gale of wind.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="PARISIAN" id="PARISIAN"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_204.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="435" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">“THE PARISIAN,” 1881.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is doubtful if there is another shipping company in existence
+that would have withstood the strain put on the Allan line by such a
+succession of disasters; but so far as outsiders are aware the Allans
+never lost courage. They were bound to succeed in the long-run, and
+they did. When ships could not be built quickly enough to take the
+places of those that had been lost at sea, they bought of others ships
+ready-made, meanwhile resolving to reinforce their fleet with larger
+and in every way better boats than heretofore. The <i>Norwegian</i> and
+<i>Hibernian</i>, of 2,400 tons each, were launched from Denny’s yard in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span>
+1861. In 1863 Steeles of Greenock built for them the <i>Peruvian</i> and the
+<i>Moravian</i>, both very fine ships. The <i>Nestorian</i> and the <i>Austrian</i>,
+of 2,700 tons each, built by Barclay &amp; Curle, Glasgow, are both good
+ships now after thirty years’ service. The <i>Sarmatian</i> and <i>Polynesian</i>
+(now <i>Laurentian</i>), about 4,000 tons each, came out in 1871 and 1872,
+and proved excellent boats. The <i>Circassian</i>, 3,724 tons, was launched
+in 1873, and the <i>Sardinian</i> in 1875. The <i>Parisian</i>, the finest of the
+fleet, was built by Robert Napier &amp; Sons, Glasgow, in 1881, and took
+her place on the line the following year. She is built of steel, the
+bottom being constructed of an inner and outer skin five feet apart,
+the space thus enclosed being available for water ballast and also a
+protection from the perils of collision. The Allans were the first
+to apply this kind of build to Atlantic steamers, and were also the
+first to build such steamers of steel. The general dimensions of the
+<i>Parisian</i> are: length over all, 440 feet; breadth, 46 feet; moulded
+depth, 36 feet; with a gross tonnage of 5,365 tons. Her machinery is
+capable of developing 6,000 indicated horse-power. Although she has
+neither twin screws nor triple expansion engines, she has done her work
+remarkably well, maintaining an average speed of about fourteen knots.
+Her fastest voyage from Moville to Rimouski was made in 1896, viz., 6
+days, 13 hours, 10 minutes, corrected time. Her best day’s run on that
+voyage was 359 knots. Her career has been a remarkable one: in these
+seventeen years she has not met with an accident, and is consequently a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span>
+very popular ship. She is fitted for 160 saloon passengers in the most
+complete and comfortable manner, and there seems to be always room for
+one more. On a recent occasion the <i>Parisian</i> brought over 255 cabin
+passengers. She can easily accommodate 120 second-class and 1,000 steerage
+passengers. She carries a large cargo and is a very fine sea boat.</p>
+
+<p>The fleet of the Allan Line consists at present of thirty-four
+steamers, aggregating 134,937 tons. In addition to the weekly line
+between Liverpool and Montreal, regular weekly services are maintained
+from Montreal, and also from New York, to Glasgow; the London,
+Quebec and Montreal service is fortnightly in summer; there is also
+a direct service between Glasgow and Boston fortnightly, and regular
+communication between Liverpool, Glasgow and Philadelphia, as well as
+with River Plate and other ports.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the freight and cattle-ships of the Allan Line are large
+and fine vessels, such as the <i>Buenos Ayrean</i>, 4,005 tons, built at
+Dumbarton in 1879—one of the first ships ever constructed of steel.
+The <i>Carthaginian</i> and <i>Siberian</i> are both 4,000-ton ships, specially
+adapted for the cattle trade. The <i>Mongolian</i> and <i>Numidian</i>, of 4,750
+tons each, are model ships in the class to which they belong. A few
+years ago the Allans acquired the State Line, plying between Glasgow
+and New York. Two of these, the <i>State of California</i> (5,500 tons) and
+the <i>State of Nebraska</i> (4,000 tons), are excellent ships with good
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span>
+accommodation for large numbers of passengers. The two oldest ships of
+the line in commission are the <i>Waldensian</i> (formerly <i>St. Andrew</i>),
+built in 1861, and the <i>Phœnician</i> (formerly the <i>St. David</i>), built in
+1864, both of which are still doing service in the South American trade.</p>
+
+<p>The last of the sailing ships owned by the Allans was wrecked in a
+dense fog near Astoria, at the mouth of the Columbia River, Washington,
+U. S., on the 19th of March, 1896. The <i>Glenmorag</i> was a fine iron
+clipper ship of 1,756 tons register, built at Glasgow in 1876, and up
+to the time of her final disaster had been exceptionally fortunate and
+successful. Captain Currie, who commanded her, was widely known and has
+a first-rate reputation as a sailor, but in an evil hour of a dark,
+dirty night, when making for Portland, Oregon, he was startled by the
+sudden cry from the man on the lookout, “Breakers on the port bow,”
+and while in the act of wearing the ship around she went broadside on
+the rocks. Two of the crew were killed and four injured severely while
+attempting to get ashore.</p>
+
+<p>It has been announced that the Allans have at present under
+construction on the Clyde four magnificent steel steamships for the
+Canadian freight and passenger trade. Three of these are vessels of
+10,000 tons, and the fourth of 8,800 tons. All of them are to be fitted
+with triple expansion engines and twin screws. The three larger ones
+are each over 500 feet in length, with 60 feet breadth of beam, and are
+designed to develop an average speed of sixteen knots, which means that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span>
+they are expected to make the voyage from Liverpool to Montreal in
+about 7¼ days mean time—actually a quicker service for Canada than
+obtains at present with 20-knot steamers <i>via</i> New York. With ample
+accommodation for a large number of passengers, these ships will
+have room for 8,000 to 9,000 tons of freight and the most approved
+appliances for the rapid handling of cargo.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Hugh Allan of Ravenscrag, to whom Canada is chiefly indebted for
+the magnificent Allan Line of steamships, was born at Saltcoats,
+Ayrshire, Scotland, September 29th, 1810. He came to Canada in 1826
+and entered into business as already stated. His whole life was one of
+incessant activity. He was founder of the Merchants’ Bank of Canada and
+its president, and the President of the Montreal Telegraph Co., and
+many other important commercial institutions. Sir Hugh was knighted by
+Her Majesty the Queen, in person, in July, 1871, in recognition of his
+valuable services to the commerce of Canada and the Empire. He died
+in Edinburgh, suddenly, December 9th, 1882, and was buried in Mount
+Royal cemetery, Montreal. Sir Hugh was a man, very emphatically, <i>sui
+generis</i>. Quick to arrive at his conclusions, he was slow to abandon
+them; where he planted his foot there he meant it to stay. A keen and
+enterprising man of business, he accumulated a princely fortune. To
+those who knew him only on the street or in the Board-room he might,
+perhaps, seem curt and brusque. His conscious power of influencing
+others made him almost necessarily dogmatic and dictatorial, but in
+private life he was one of the most amiable, kind-hearted and genial
+of men. He was a staunch Presbyterian, a liberal supporter of the Auld
+Kirk of Scotland in Canada, and in his younger days devoted much time
+in promoting its interests.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="H_ALLEN" id="H_ALLEN"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_208.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="567" />
+    <p class="center space-below1"><big><i>Sir Hugh Allan</i>.</big></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span>
+The brothers Bryce and James died several years before Sir Hugh.
+Alexander died in Glasgow in 1892. Mr. Andrew Allan, now the senior
+partner of the Montreal firm, was the youngest of the five brothers,
+and is the only survivor of them. Mr. Allan was born at Saltcoats,
+December 1st, 1822, and came out to Canada in 1839. He married a
+daughter of the late John Smith, of Montreal (a sister of Lady Hugh
+Allan). Mrs. Allan died in 1881, leaving a large family. Two of the
+sons, Messrs. Hugh H. and Andrew H., are associated with their father
+and with Messrs. Hugh Montagu and Bryce J. Allan, sons of the late Sir
+Hugh, in managing the extensive business of the Canadian branch of
+the Allan Line. Mr. Allan has filled many of the posts of honour and
+responsibility formerly occupied by Sir Hugh, and earned for himself
+the golden opinions of his fellow citizens.</p>
+
+<p>The first four captains of the Allan Line were Andrew McMaster, of the
+<i>Anglo-Saxon</i>, Thomas Jones, of the <i>Indian</i>, William Ballantine, of
+the <i>Canadian</i>, and William Grange, of the <i>North American</i>. Captain
+McMaster was born at Stranraer, Wigtonshire, in 1808. After serving
+a five years’ apprenticeship on board the East Indiaman, <i>Duke of
+Lancaster</i>, at the modest rate of £2 for the first year, and £20 for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span>
+the full term of his indentures, he got command of the brig <i>Sir
+Watkin</i>, sailing from Islay with 240 of the clan Campbell as
+passengers. One-half of these were landed at Sydney, Cape Breton, and
+the other half at Quebec. The hardships of the emigrants in those days
+were excessive, as they had to provide their own food and bedding, and
+were allotted places on the stone ballast to do the best they could
+for themselves. In 1845 Captain McMaster was placed in command of the
+clipper barque, <i>Rory O’More</i>, for which Edmonstone &amp; Allan were
+the agents. Leaving Montreal in the summer of 1846, owing to the lowness
+of water the yards and topmasts were sent down and floated alongside,
+while cables, chains and other rigging were put into lighters to enable
+the vessel to traverse Lake St. Peter, drawing nine feet of water! His
+next command was the ship <i>Montreal</i> of 464 tons, at that time the
+largest of the Montreal traders. In 1856 he was placed in command of
+the first SS. <i>Canadian</i>, and successively of each new ship as she was
+launched. In 1864 he retired from the sea, and entered the shipwright
+business in Liverpool. He died in the Isle of Man in 1884.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="GRAHAM" id="GRAHAM"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_211.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="568" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">CAPTAIN JOHN GRAHAM.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of the subsequent captains of this line I can only mention the names of
+those with whom I remember having sailed and made their acquaintance.
+None of them left a more lasting impression on my memory than John
+Graham, the genial captain of the second <i>Canadian</i>, and of the
+<i>Sarmatian</i> when he retired from the service and the sea in 1885. It
+was he who so often and so strenuously discussed the desirability of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span>
+throwing a dam across the Straits of Belle Isle that he actually came
+to believe in it himself as a possibility in the near future, by which
+in his estimation the climate of Canada was to be assimilated to that
+of the south of France. That was his fad. But take him all in all, he
+was as fine a man as one could desire to meet. He was a grand sailor.
+When his examination before the Nautical Board was concluded <i>in re</i>
+the loss of the <i>Canadian</i>, his certificate was handed back to him with
+the remark, “Sir, you did your duty like a noble British seaman.” The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span>
+dangers incident to a seafaring life never disturbed his equanimity,
+for he had long been ready to “go aloft” at a moment’s notice.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="WYLIE" id="WYLIE"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_212.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="581" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">CAPTAIN JAMES WYLIE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>James and Hugh Wylie were both quiet, unassuming men who understood
+their business thoroughly. The former rose to be the commodore of the
+fleet. On retiring from the command of the <i>Parisian</i>, the citizens of
+Montreal honoured him with a banquet and an address, congratulating him
+on his remarkably successful career. Hugh retired from the command of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span>
+the <i>Polynesian</i> shortly after a serious accident that befell his
+ship on the river, through the carelessness of his pilot. James was
+noted for his caution, of which a somewhat humorous illustration was
+given one dark night when the <i>Parisian</i> was speeding down the Gulf
+of St. Lawrence. Some of us were still pacing the deck, though it was
+near midnight, when suddenly the engine stopped. To the uninitiated
+there is nothing more alarming than that; but at this hour most of the
+passengers were fast asleep. There followed a few minutes of profound
+silence. The sea, until now as black as ink, had all at once become
+white and glistering. Had we run into a field of ice? To the captain,
+who was at his post on the bridge, and to the double lookout on the
+forecastle it must have had that appearance; but it proved to be only
+schools of herring or mackerel disporting themselves on the surface of
+the water, causing a brilliant phosphorescent illumination of the sea.
+It spread over a large surface and had all the appearance of field ice,
+precisely where such danger is to be apprehended. The ship sailed on:
+but none of us dared to ask then, nor next morning, why she had stopped.</p>
+
+<p>Frederick Archer, Lieut. R.N.R., successively in command of the <i>St.
+Andrew</i>, the <i>Manitoban</i>, and the <i>Moravian</i>, was made of sterner
+stuff than the average sea-captain. It required more than one voyage to
+become acquainted with him, but once in his good graces the passenger
+was all right. He was the strictest disciplinarian of the whole staff.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span>
+Regularly as on a man-of-war, his sailors marched into the saloon
+on Sunday mornings in their best rigs to attend divine service. In
+the absence of a clergyman none could use the Book of Prayer more
+effectively than Capt. Archer. He died at sea in the prime of life.</p>
+
+<p>William H. Smith, Lieut. R.N.R., son of late Commander John S.
+Smith, R.N.—one of the last surviving officers of the battle of
+Trafalgar—was born at Prospect House, Broadstairs, Kent, England,
+in 1838. He served as midshipman on board the <i>Calcutta</i> in the
+Australian trade: entered the Allan service during the progress of the
+Crimean war, and was present at several of the engagements between
+the Russians and the allied forces: went to Odessa with the allied
+fleets, and was serving on board the <i>Indian</i> when she received sealed
+orders to proceed to Kinburn and lay buoys for the ironclads which
+bombarded and destroyed the forts. Captain Smith’s first command in
+the Allan service was the steamer <i>St. George</i>; subsequently he was
+master of the <i>Hibernian</i>, <i>Circassian</i>, <i>Peruvian</i>, <i>Sardinian</i>
+and the <i>Parisian</i>. He succeeded Captain James Wylie as Commodore of the
+fleet, and held that position for several years, until he resigned to
+accept the office of Chairman of the Board of Examiners of Masters
+and Mates, Commissioner for enquiring into wrecks, and one of the
+nautical advisers of the Government. This office he still holds with
+headquarters in Halifax, N. S. Capt. Smith was always very popular with
+the travelling community. On leaving the service he was presented with
+a valuable set of plate.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="AIRD" id="AIRD"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_215.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="575" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">CAPTAIN ALEX. AIRD.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Alexander Aird, previous to joining the Allan Line, had been in command
+of the <i>John Bell</i> and <i>United Kingdom</i> of the Anchor Line. His first
+command in the Allan Line was the <i>St. George</i> in 1864. Subsequently,
+he was captain of the <i>St. David</i>, <i>Nova Scotian</i>, <i>Nestorian</i>,
+<i>Scandinavian</i>, and, finally, of the <i>Sarmatian</i>. Of the last-named
+ship he was very proud, and it was a feather in his cap that he brought
+out the Marquis of Lorne and Princess Louise in 1878, receiving from
+them a handsome recognition of his efforts to secure their comfort.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span>
+Owing to impaired health he retired from the sea some years previous to
+his death, which took place in 1892.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="RITCHIE" id="RITCHIE"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_216.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="581" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">CAPTAIN RITCHIE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Robert Brown, of the <i>Polynesian</i>, “the rolling Polly,” as she used to
+be called, was the <i>beau ideal</i> of a fine old English gentleman, than
+whom none could more gracefully discharge the honours of the table.
+He had many encounters with field ice off the coast of Newfoundland,
+but by dint of his caution, skill and patience, he invariably came out
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span>
+scatheless, though not unfrequently locked up in the ice for weeks at a time.</p>
+
+<p>William Richardson, of the <i>Nova Scotian</i> and the <i>Sardinian</i>, who died
+not long ago, was an easy-going, kindly-disposed man, and a general
+favourite. Neil Maclean, of the third <i>Canadian</i>, was a man of fine
+presence and good address. Captain Joseph Ritchie who retired from the
+command of the <i>Parisian</i> in 1895, though not to be called an old man,
+had spent forty-four years at sea. He was captain of the <i>Peruvian</i>
+in 1882, when the twenty-five-foot channel through Lake St. Peter was
+inaugurated; and again in 1888, in the <i>Sardinian</i>, he was the first
+to test the increased depth to twenty-seven and a half feet. Ritchie’s
+whole career was a most successful one. On retiring from the service he
+was presented with a very handsomely engrossed address and a valuable
+service of silver plate by his Montreal friends.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="DUTTON" id="DUTTON"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_218.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="580" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">CAPTAIN JOSEPH E. DUTTON.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Joseph E. Dutton, best known as the captain of the <i>Sardinian</i>, was a
+remarkable man, and frequent voyages with him led me to know him better
+than some of the others. “Holy Joe,” as he was familiarly called, was
+an excellent sailor, but had to contend with a good many difficulties.
+At one time his ship lost her rudder in mid-ocean; at another time she
+lost her screw. Once she caught fire in Loch Foyle from an explosion of
+coal gas, and had to be scuttled. Dutton was a clever, well-read man,
+and a born preacher. When he had on board some eighteen clergymen going
+to the meeting of the Presbyterian Council at Belfast, he came into the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span>
+saloon on a Saturday evening, and coolly announced that if they had no
+objections he would conduct the Sunday service himself. And preach he
+did. He had the whole Bible at his finger-ends. I recall at least one
+voyage when he personally conducted three religious services daily—one
+at 10 o’clock a. m., for the steerage passengers; one at 4 p. m.,
+in the chart-room, and one at 7 p. m., in the forecastle, for his
+sailors. As to creed, he had drifted away from his early moorings, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span>
+admittedly had difficulty in finding secure anchorage. He had, so to
+speak, boxed the ecclesiastical compass. He had been a Methodist,
+a Baptist, a Plymouth Brother, but with none of them did he long
+remain in fellowship. Finally, he pinned his faith to the tenets of
+“conditional immortality,” arguing with great ingenuity and earnestness
+that eternal life is the exclusive portion of the righteous, and
+annihilation that of the wicked. One of Captain Dutton’s last public
+appearances in Montreal was on a Sabbath evening, in the Olivet Baptist
+church, when he baptized seven of his sailors by immersion in the
+presence of a crowded assemblage. He was a square-built, powerful
+Christian. The way he collared these men and submerged them was a
+caution. He gave each of them in turn such a drenching as they will
+remember for a long time, and all with the greatest reverence; nor did
+he let them go until he received from each a solemn assurance that he
+would be a faithful follower of Christ to his life’s end. Not long
+after this, Captain Dutton had an attack of Bright’s disease, which
+brought him to an early grave. He was buried in Mount Royal cemetery,
+where the monument, “erected by a few of his friends,” bears the
+inscription:</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot1"> “Commodore Allan Line. Lieut. R. N. Reserve. In
+memory of Captain Joseph E. Dutton, late of the R. M. SS. <i>Sardinian</i>.
+Born at Harrington, England, February 8th, 1828. Died at Montreal, July
+6th, 1884, aged 56 years.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot2">“‘Now are we the sons of God, and it doth not yet
+appear what we shall be; but we know that when he shall appear we shall
+be like him.’—1 John iii. 2.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span>
+There was a time when profane swearing used to be indulged in freely by
+sea-captains and their subordinates. Happily the custom is going out of
+fashion, though now and then a representative from the old school may
+still be found. Captain Dutton was never addicted to swearing, though
+his temper was tried often enough. On arriving at Rimouski in 1879,
+after making the fastest voyage to the St. Lawrence then on record,
+the <i>Sardinian</i> had to lie at anchor for two mortal hours before he
+could get his mails landed. One hour it took the tender to get up
+steam, and another hour to get alongside the ship, owing to a strong
+easterly breeze, which brought up a lop of a sea. All this lost time
+Dutton rapidly paced the bridge to and fro with evident impatience. At
+length, when the tender was made fast, he came down and mingled with
+the crowd on deck, on the keen lookout for letters and newspapers,
+when one said to him, jokingly, “Why did you not swear at the captain
+of that tender?” “Oh,” said he, with a pleasant smile, “he is only a
+farmer.” The provocation had been great, but the controlling principle
+was greater and highly creditable to Dutton.</p>
+
+<p><i>Apropos</i> to the subject of swearing was the story told by a
+fellow-passenger—a deacon in the late Prof. Swing’s congregation in
+Chicago. Dr. Swing had withdrawn from the Presbyterian Church, but
+continued to preach in a public hall or theatre, drawing immense crowds
+to hear him. Swing was a sensational preacher, who could extort tears
+or smiles from his hearers at will, and not unfrequently his random
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span>
+shots hit the mark. On one occasion, the deacon informed us, he
+overheard the remark made by one of Chicago’s fastest young men to
+a comrade as they were leaving the place of worship after listening
+to a scathing discourse on the besetting sins of young men, swearing
+included: “Say, Jim, I’ll be d——d if that is not the kind of
+preaching that suits me.” This is a hard story, scarcely credible, but
+it was told in sober earnest and in a tone that indicated that in the
+speaker’s judgment an arrow had pierced the young man’s heart, and
+that the shocking expression just quoted was, after all, neither more
+nor less than his peculiar way of emphasizing the fact that he was
+<i>stricken</i>.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Dominion Line.</span></h3>
+
+<p>This line began in 1870 when a number of merchants, engaged in the New
+Orleans and Liverpool trade, formed what they styled the “Mississippi
+and Dominion Steamship Company, Limited,” under the management of
+Messrs. Flinn, Main and Montgomery, of Liverpool, the agents in
+Montreal being Messrs. D. Torrance &amp; Co., of which Mr. John Torrance
+has been for a number of years the senior partner. Their boats were to
+run to New Orleans in the winter and to Montreal in summer. Their first
+ships were the <i>St. Louis</i>, <i>Vicksburg</i> and <i>Memphis</i>. In 1871 they
+added the <i>Mississippi</i> and <i>Texas</i> of 2,822 tons. The Orleans route
+was soon abandoned and the Dominion Line, then so called, confined its
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span>
+trade to Canada, having Portland for its terminal winter port.
+Gradually increasing the size and speed of their steamers they entered
+into a lively competition for a share of the passenger traffic, and
+soon became formidable rivals of the Allan Line, and for a number of
+years shared with them in the Government allowance for carrying the
+Royal mails.</p>
+
+<p>In 1874 they had built for them at Dumbarton the <i>Dominion</i> and
+<i>Ontario</i>, each 3,000 tons; in 1879 the <i>Montreal</i>, <i>Toronto</i> and
+<i>Ottawa</i>, of still larger dimensions, were added. They next bought
+the <i>City of Dublin</i> and <i>City of Brooklyn</i> from the Inman Line, and
+renamed them the <i>Quebec</i> and <i>Brooklyn</i>. In 1882 and 1883 they built
+the <i>Sarnia</i> and the <i>Oregon</i>, fine boats of about 3,700 tons each,
+with increased power and midship saloons. In 1884 Messrs. Connal &amp; Co.,
+Glasgow, built for them the <i>Vancouver</i>, a very fine ship of 5,149
+tons, having a speed of fourteen knots and excellent accommodation
+for passengers. Although she has had several minor accidents she has
+been, on the whole, a successful and popular ship. The most serious
+misfortune that befell her was in November, 1890, on her voyage to
+Quebec, when she encountered a furious hurricane in mid-ocean. Captain
+Lindall, who had been constantly on the bridge for a long time, went
+to his chart-room to snatch a few minutes rest, leaving the first
+officer on the bridge. All of a sudden the ship was thrown on her
+beam ends by a tremendous wave which completely wrecked the bridge
+and swept the chart-room, with the captain in it, into the sea. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span>
+quarter-master at the wheel was also washed overboard, and both he and
+Captain Lindall were drowned. The first officer, Mr. Walsh, who had a
+miraculous escape, took charge of the battered ship and brought her to
+Quebec, where deep regret was expressed for the sad death of Lindall,
+who was a general favourite and as good a sailor as ever stood on the bridge.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="LINDALL" id="LINDALL"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_223.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="574" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">CAPTAIN LINDALL.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The <i>Labrador</i>, 4,737 tons, launched from the famous shipyard of
+Harland &amp; Wolff, Belfast, in 1891, has also been a successful and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span>
+popular ship. She combines in her construction a number of the latest
+improvements, and has attained a high rate of speed, with large cargo
+capacity and a moderate consumption of fuel. Until the arrival of the
+<i>Canada</i>, in October, 1896, the <i>Labrador</i> held the record for the
+fastest voyage from Moville to Rimouski—6 days, 8 hours. In August,
+1895, she made the voyage from land to land in 4 days, 16 hours. In
+May, 1894, she averaged 365 knots a day, equal to fifteen knots an
+hour, her best day’s run being 375 knots, which was regarded as great
+work considering the small amount of fuel consumed. In December of that
+year she made the run from Moville to Halifax in 6 days, 12 hours.</p>
+
+<p>Up to this point, however, the business ability and enterprise of the
+Dominion Company had not been rewarded with financial success. For
+years they had to contend with the general depression of trade, the
+keen competition of other lines, and ruinous rates of freight. In the
+autumn of 1894 the managers resigned, and the entire fleet of vessels
+was sold to Messrs. Richards, Mills &amp; Co., of Liverpool, at a great
+sacrifice. The Montreal agency remains as heretofore with Messrs. D.
+Torrance &amp; Co., and under the new management the line seems to have
+entered upon a career of prosperity.</p>
+
+<p>The casualties on the St. Lawrence route to steamers of this line
+have been numerous, but with a comparatively small loss of life. The
+foundering of the <i>Vicksburg</i>, from collision with ice, in 1875,
+was the most disastrous, involving the loss of forty-seven lives of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span>
+passengers and crew—including the captain—and a large number of
+cattle. The <i>Ottawa</i> went ashore about fifty miles below Quebec in 1889
+and became a total wreck. The <i>Idaho</i> was wrecked on Anticosti in 1890;
+the <i>Montreal</i>, on the island of Belle Isle in 1889. The <i>Texas</i> went
+ashore on Cape Race in a fog and became a total wreck. In September,
+1895, the <i>Mariposa</i>, a beautiful twin-screw chartered steamer of 5,000
+tons, was stranded at Point Amour in the Straits of Belle Isle and
+became a total wreck, but the passengers and crew were all saved.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="CANADA" id="CANADA"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_226.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="554" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">DOMINION LINE SS. “CANADA.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It very soon became apparent that the new management of the Dominion
+Line was bent on a new departure. They lost no time in discarding
+the smaller boats and replacing them with large and powerful freight
+steamers having also limited accommodation for passengers. Of this
+type were the <i>Angloman</i><a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a>
+and the <i>Scotsman</i>. The latter is a fine twin-screw ship of colossal
+strength, 6,040 tons register, with a carrying capacity of from 9,000
+to 10,000 tons of cargo, and an average speed at sea of twelve to
+thirteen knots. In September, 1895, in addition to a large general
+cargo, the <i>Scotsman</i> left Montreal with the largest shipment of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span>
+live stock that ever left this port, consisting of 1,050 head of
+cattle, 2,000 sheep, and 47 horses, all of which were landed safely in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span>
+Liverpool. But the latest addition to the fleet is in advance of
+the <i>Scotsman</i>. The <i>Canada</i>, which sailed on her first voyage from
+Liverpool on October 1st, 1896, is a type of ocean steamer new to the
+St. Lawrence, and is designed to meet present requirements by combining
+in one vessel the essential features of a first-class passenger ship
+with so large a freight-carrying capacity as to make her practically
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span>
+independent of subsidies. The <i>Canada</i> is a twin-screw
+steamer 515 feet long, 58 feet beam, and 35 feet 6 inches moulded
+depth. Her gross tonnage is about 9,000 tons. Her triple expansion
+engines are calculated to develop 7,000 horse-power with a steam boiler
+pressure of 175 pounds. Her staterooms are perhaps the finest feature
+of the ship—equal to any on the ocean ferry. Her maiden voyage was a
+stormy one, but it easily surpassed all previous records from Liverpool
+to Quebec. On her second trip she left Liverpool at 5 p. m. on October
+29th, and reached Rimouski on November 4th, at 11.40 p. m., thus making
+the voyage in 6 days, 11 hours and 40 minutes, and to Quebec in 6 days,
+23 hours, 30 minutes. Her average speed on this voyage was about 16 knots
+an hour, and her best day’s run, 416 knots, equal to 17⅓ knots an hour.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="MACAULEY" id="MACAULEY"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_227.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="625" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">CAPTAIN MACAULAY, OF SS. “CANADA.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>At a luncheon given on board the <i>Canada</i> to leading members of
+the Dominion Government, Mr. Torrance said that the Dominion Line had
+been sold out to a company composed of men of tremendous energy and
+enterprise, with any amount of money at their backs, and, after looking
+at the matter in all its bearings, they decided that the time had come
+for a forward movement. They determined to build the largest steamer
+they could for the St. Lawrence trade. The <i>Canada</i> was contracted for
+by Messrs. Harland and Wolff, Belfast, as a sixteen-knot ship, and
+on her trial trip made seventeen and a half knots. He believed that
+she would average sixteen knots at sea, that she would reach Rimouski
+in six and a half days from Liverpool, and deliver her mails at the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span>
+Montreal post-office within seven days. If that expectation comes to
+be realized, as it is most likely to be, the arguments in favour of
+a fast mail service between Canada and Britain will be materially
+strengthened. Mr. Torrance added that the <i>Canada</i> was built to carry
+7,000 tons of cargo, that if she had a speed of seventeen knots she
+would only carry 4,000 tons of cargo; if eighteen knots, she would
+carry but 3,000 tons, and that with a speed of twenty knots it would
+not be safe to calculate on her capacity for more than 1,000 tons of
+freight: “in short, that the twenty-knot ship must be, virtually, a
+passenger ship, and well subsidized.” The Canadian Government has not
+been slow to back up private enterprise of this nature in the past,
+and will doubtless continue to do so in the future. For reasons not
+made public the <i>Canada</i> was withdrawn from the St. Lawrence service
+and placed on the route from Boston and Liverpool, where she has been
+so successful that another vessel of the same class is being built for
+that route. In the meantime other large vessels have been put on the
+St. Lawrence route, the latest addition to the fleet being the <i>New
+England</i>, having a tonnage of nearly 11,600 tons, fine accommodation
+for a large number of passengers, and room for an enormous cargo.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Beaver Line.</span></h3>
+
+<p>This is an out-and-out Canadian enterprise, dating from 1867, under the
+name of the “Canada Shipping Company, Limited,” when several Montreal
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span>
+capitalists, among whom were the late William Murray and
+Alexander Buntin, Messrs. Alexander Urquhart, John and Hugh Maclennan
+and others, combined to originate a line of iron fast-sailing ships
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span>
+to trade between Montreal and Liverpool. Having adopted for its
+distinguishing flag the emblem of the Canadian beaver, the company soon
+came to be popularly known as the Beaver Line, a line which, though
+not remunerative to its originators and stockholders, is worthy of
+honourable mention as having contributed in many ways to the interests
+of Canadian trade and commerce. The company commenced with a very fine
+fleet of five Clyde-built iron ships of from 900 to 1,274 tons each.
+These were the <i>Lake Ontario</i>, the <i>Lake Erie</i>, the <i>Lake Michigan</i>,
+the <i>Lake Huron</i> and the <i>Lake Superior</i>. The ships were in themselves
+all that could be desired. They were beautiful to look at, and made
+swift voyages, but there was a necessary element of success wanting.
+They did not pay. In fact, they began their short-lived career at the
+time when the days of sailing ships were rapidly drawing to a close.
+The important question of steam <i>versus</i> sails had been settled.
+The Canada Shipping Company must therefore retire from the business
+altogether or avail themselves of the advantages of steam power. They
+decided upon making the experiment, and gave orders for the building
+of steam vessels to supersede the sailing ships. In the meantime the
+<i>Lake Michigan</i> was lost at sea with all on board, adding another to
+those mysterious disappearances, of which there have been so many
+instances—gallant ships and noble sailors setting out on their voyage
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span>
+buoyant with hope, reporting themselves at the last signal station as
+“all well,” but never to be heard of any more.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="LK_ONT" id="LK_ONT"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_230.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="565" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">ROYAL MAIL SS. “LAKE ONTARIO,” BEAVER LINE.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="CAMPBELL" id="CAMPBELL"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_233.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="580" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">CAPTAIN HOWARD CAMPBELL.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The <i>Lake Huron</i> was wrecked on Anticosti. The year 1875 saw the first
+steamers of the Beaver Line afloat. They were the <i>Lake Champlain</i>,
+<i>Lake Megantic</i> and <i>Lake Nepigon</i>, snug little ships of about 2,200
+tons each, such as would pass nowadays for cruising steam yachts, but
+much too small for cargo ships on the Atlantic, to say nothing of the
+passenger business. The <i>Lake Manitoba</i> and <i>Lake Winnipeg</i>, of larger
+size and higher speed, were added in 1879, followed by the <i>Lake Huron</i>
+and the <i>Lake Superior</i>. The last-named is a fine ship of 4,562 tons,
+and credited with thirteen knots an hour. It was not long before three
+of the steamers came to grief. The <i>Lake Megantic</i> was wrecked on
+Anticosti in July, 1878; the <i>Lake Manitoba</i>, on St. Pierre Island, in
+the Gulf of St. Lawrence, in June, 1885; the <i>Lake Champlain</i>, stranded
+on the north coast of Ireland in June, 1886. To keep up the weekly
+line, the <i>Lake Ontario</i>, built at Sunderland in 1887, was purchased
+at a cost of nearly $300,000. She is a vessel of about 4,500 tons,
+with midship saloon, triple expansion engines, and a maximum speed of
+thirteen knots. She is an excellent sea boat, with good accommodation
+for one hundred cabin passengers. The ships of this line all carry live
+cattle, sheep and horses, for which they are well adapted. The Beaver
+Line led the way towards the reduction of transatlantic cabin passage
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span>
+rates on the St. Lawrence route. It also introduced the custom of
+embarking and landing passengers at Montreal instead of Quebec as
+formerly. Unfortunately the line had not been a success financially. In
+the winter of 1895 the boats were all tied up, the company went into
+liquidation, and the entire fleet was sold at a nominal price to the
+bondholders. During the following winter, however, the ships of this
+line maintained a weekly service from Liverpool to St. John, N. B.,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span>
+receiving from the Canadian Government a subsidy of $25,000, and in
+1897 the Beaver Line was awarded the contract for carrying the Canadian
+mails, to be landed at Halifax in the winter months. The annual subsidy
+for this service is understood to be $146,000. This arrangement,
+however, is necessarily of a temporary nature, pending the development
+of the long-expected “fast service.” In the meantime the Beaver Line
+has added to its fleet the fine SS. <i>Gallia</i>, of the Cunard Line, and
+the <i>Tongariro</i>, of 4,163 tons, formerly belonging to the New Zealand
+Shipping Company. The service has thus far been satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p class="space-below3">Captain Howard Campbell, of the SS. <i>Lake
+Ontario</i>, died very suddenly on Sunday morning, April 3rd, 1898. The
+second day out from Halifax towards Liverpool, he went on the bridge,
+sextant in hand, intending to take an observation. While in the act of
+doing so he fell into the arms of a quarter-master and died instantly.
+Captain Campbell had been long connected with the Beaver Line. He was
+widely known as a skilful mariner and a genial and accomplished man. He
+was born at St. Andrews, N. B., and was fifty-four years of age.</p>
+
+<p>There are a number of other lines of steamships plying regularly from
+Montreal in summer and from different Atlantic ports in winter. They
+are chiefly cargo and cattle ships, with limited accommodation for
+passengers. Among these are the Donaldson Line, with five ships of from
+2,000 to 4,272 tons, giving a weekly service to Glasgow and Bristol; the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span>
+Thomson Line, with seven ships to London, Newcastle and Antwerp. The
+Johnston Line has regular sailings to Liverpool. The Ulster Steamship
+Company, or “Head Line,” has five ships running to Belfast and Dublin
+fortnightly. The Elder, Dempster Line has a fleet of sixteen large
+freight steamers, ranging from 4,500 to 12,000 tons each. Some of
+them are fitted with cold storage, and all of them have the modern
+improvements for carrying live stock and grain; they maintain a regular
+weekly service to London and to Bristol.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a>
+The Hansa St. Lawrence Line plies to Hamburg and Antwerp; the Furness Line to
+ Antwerp and Dunkirk, and also to Manchester.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a>
+The Quebec Steamship Company has regular communication with Pictou,
+N. S., by the fine upper saloon steamship <i>Campana</i>, of 1,700 tons.
+The Black Diamond Line has five ships of from 1,500 to 2,500 tons
+each, plying regularly in the coal trade from Montreal to Sydney, Cape
+Breton, Charlottetown, P. E. I., and Newfoundland.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The export trade in live stock, which commenced here in 1874 with only
+455 head of cattle, has now assumed large proportions. In 1897 there
+were shipped from Montreal 119,188 head of cattle, 12,179 horses and
+66,319 sheep, valued in all at about $8,700,750. The cattle were valued
+at $60 a head, the horses at $100, and the sheep at $5.00 each. The
+ocean freight on cattle was $10 per head, and on sheep $1.00 each.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Canadian Fast Atlantic Service</span>.</h3>
+
+<p>Ever since the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway in 1885, the
+idea of instituting a fast service between Great Britain and the St.
+Lawrence has been regarded with yearly increasing favour. Now it is
+regarded as a necessary link in the chain that binds the colony to the
+Mother Land, and indispensable if this route is to become Britain’s
+highway to the East.</p>
+
+<p>As early as 1887 the Canadian Government advertised for tenders for a
+line of Atlantic mail steamers to have an average speed of 20 knots an
+hour, coupled with the condition that they should touch at some French
+port. The Allans, who at that time deemed a 20-knot service unsuited
+to the St. Lawrence route, offered to supply a weekly service with a
+guaranteed average speed of 17 knots, for an annual subsidy of $500,000
+on a ten years’ contract. That offer was declined. About the same time
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span>
+the English firm of Anderson, Anderson &amp; Co. offered to provide a line
+of vessels “capable of running 20 knots” for the same subsidy. This
+dubious offer was accepted provisionally by the Canadian Government,
+but it was eventually fallen from. Two years later another abortive
+attempt was made, when the Government of the day voted $750,000 as
+an annual subsidy for a 20-knot service; but nothing resulted. In
+1894 Mr. James Huddart, of Sydney, N. S. W. (the contractor for the
+Vancouver-Australian Line of steamers), entered into an agreement
+with the Dominion Government for a weekly 20-knot service for said
+amount of $750,000 per annum. For reasons that need not be explained,
+this proposal also fell through. In 1896 the Allans were said to have
+tendered for a 20-knot service on the basis of a subsidy of $1,125,000,
+but the offer was declined owing to some informalities.</p>
+
+<p>In view of so many failures it is scarcely safe to affirm that the
+fast service is now assured. In May, 1897, however, it was officially
+announced by the Canadian Government that a contract had been entered
+into, with the approval of the British Government, whereby Messrs.
+Peterson, Tate &amp; Co., of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, agreed to furnish a
+weekly service with a guaranteed speed of at least 500 knots a day. The
+contractors are to provide four steamers of not less than 520 feet in
+length, with a draft of water not exceeding 25 feet 6 inches. The ships
+are to be not less than 10,000 tons register, fitted to carry from
+1,500 to 2,000 tons of cargo, with suitable cold storage accommodation
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span>
+for at least 500 tons. They are to be equal in all respects to the best
+Atlantic steamships afloat, such as the <i>Campania</i> and <i>Lucania</i>, with
+accommodation for not less than 300 first-class, 200 second-class and
+800 steerage passengers. The annual subsidy is to be $750,000, whereof
+the Canadian Government is to pay $500,000 and the British Government
+$250,000. The steamers are not to call at any foreign port, and the
+company is forbidden to accept a subsidy from any foreign country. The
+mails are to be carried free. The termini of the line will be Liverpool
+and Quebec during summer, the ships proceeding to Montreal if and
+when the navigation permits. In winter the Canadian terminus will be
+Halifax or St. John, N. B., at the option of the contractors, who are
+to provide a 22-knot tender of the torpedo type to meet each steamer
+on her approach to the Canadian coast when required, and pilot her to
+her destination. The contractors must deposit £10,000 in cash, and a
+guarantee of £10,000 additional, with the Minister of Finance of Canada
+as security that the contract will be faithfully carried into effect.</p>
+
+<p>Twelve months having passed since the signing of the contract, without
+any substantial progress having been made towards its fulfilment, a new
+agreement was entered into in April last whereby the Government granted
+Messrs. Peterson and Tate an extension of time, and introduced several
+important changes into the contract. Under the new arrangement the
+contractors were required to have a steamship company incorporated by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span>
+May 30th, 1898, with a substantial capital of $6,250,000, to have
+contracts signed with ship-builders at that date for four steamships,
+and to have two of them actually under construction. The 1st of May,
+1900, was named as the time when the four steamers are to be ready to
+go on the route and commence a regular weekly service. The preliminary
+conditions attached to the contract appear to have been complied with,
+and a company has been incorporated under the name of the “Canadian
+Royal Mail Steamship Company, Limited;” but grave fears are entertained
+that the necessary funds may not be forthcoming, and that the
+long-expected fast service may be indefinitely delayed.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Sandford Fleming, who has made a study of this subject, and
+published his opinions respecting it in a series of pamphlets, is
+not sanguine as to the success of the undertaking. “The conditions
+imposed by nature,” he says, “are unfavourable for rapid transit by
+the St. Lawrence route, and any attempts to establish on this route a
+line of fast transatlantic steamships to rival those running to and
+from New York would result in disappointment.” In the event of such a
+service being instituted, Sir Sandford assumes that it would be almost
+exclusively for the use of passengers, and suggests that the route
+should be from Loch Ryan, on the Wigtonshire coast of Scotland, to
+North Sydney, in Cape Breton. The distance between these points being
+only 2,160 knots, the voyage might be made in 4½ days, while 30 hours
+more would land mails and passengers in Montreal by railway. In this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span>
+way the average time from London to Montreal would be reduced to 6
+days and 6 hours—36 hours less than the time usually occupied between
+Montreal and London <i>via</i> New York and Queenstown.</p>
+
+<p>“In connection with the ocean service there might also be a line of
+fast light-draught steamers to run to and from Montreal to Sydney and
+the Gulf ports. In this way the people of the Maritime Provinces,
+including Newfoundland, would share in the benefits to be derived from
+the fast ocean service equally with those of Quebec and Ontario.” Sir
+Sandford’s idea is to have the fastest ocean ship on the shortest ocean
+passage, and by all means to avoid the Straits of Belle Isle, “the
+saving of a few hours being insufficient to counterpoise the tremendous
+risks to which fast passenger steamships, in navigating the Belle Isle
+route, would so seriously and frequently be exposed.” It is claimed
+that if this plan were adopted three ocean steamers would suffice
+instead of four. Reference to the accompanying sketch-map, showing
+the relative positions of Sydney, Newfoundland, and the Straits of
+Belle Isle, with the existing lines of railway, will help to make Sir
+Sandford’s proposal clear.</p>
+
+<p>Among other proposals, an English syndicate recently offered to furnish
+a 24-knot service between Milford-Haven, on the coast of Wales, and a
+port in Nova Scotia, representing to the British Government that they
+would be able to carry troops across the Atlantic in four days, and
+land them in Victoria in six days more. But the 24-knot steamship has
+not yet been launched.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="GULF_PORTS" id="GULF_PORTS"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_241.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="295" />
+    <p class="center">MAP OF THE GULF OF ST. LAWRENCE AND NORTH ATLANTIC PORTS.</p>
+    <p class="center space-below1">(Kindly furnished by Sir Sandford Fleming.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span>
+Sir Sandford Fleming, K. C. M. G., LL. D., C. E., is one of Canada’s
+most eminent civil engineers. He was born at Kirkcaldy, Fifeshire,
+Scotland, January 7th, 1827, came to Canada at the age of eighteen, and
+has ever since been identified with the progress and development of the
+country. He was on the engineering staff of the Northern Railway from
+1852 to 1863, and for the latter half of that time was chief engineer
+of the work. He was chief engineer of the Intercolonial Railway, and
+carried it through to a successful completion in 1876. In 1871 he was
+appointed engineer-in-chief of the Canadian Pacific Railway; he retired
+from that position in 1880 and was subsequently elected a director of
+the company. He received the freedom of the Royal Burgh of Kirkcaldy
+and the degree of LL. D. from the University of St. Andrews in 1884:
+was appointed to represent Canada at the International Prime Meridian
+Conference in Washington in 1884: at the Colonial Conference, London,
+in 1887, at the Colonial Conference in Ottawa, in 1894, and at the
+Imperial Cable Conference in London, in 1896. Sir Sandford has been
+Chancellor of Queen’s University at Kingston since 1880. He is the
+author of numerous scientific and other publications, is an active
+member of the Royal Colonial Institute of London, and on the occasion
+of Her Majesty’s Diamond Jubilee was accorded the honour of knighthood.</p>
+
+<p class="space-above3">The conflicting rumours, which for many months have been in circulation
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span>
+as to the inability of Messrs. Peterson, Tate &amp; Company to fulfil
+the terms of their agreement, have finally been set at rest by the
+cancelling of the contract, and the Canadian Government calling for
+tenders for a weekly steamship service for carrying Her Majesty’s mails
+for a period of two years from the 1st of May, 1899, from Montreal and
+Quebec to Liverpool, during the summer months, and from St. John, N.
+B., and Halifax in winter. The time occupied in making the voyage from
+Rimouski to Moville and <i>vice versa</i>, is not to exceed an average of
+seven days. This is clearly a temporary arrangement and not an implied
+abandonment of a faster service than already exists. The opinion,
+however, in business circles seems to be gaining ground that something
+much less costly than a twenty-knot service might for some years to
+come meet the requirements of the country.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span></p>
+<div class="chapter"><h2>CHAPTER VIII.<br /><span class="h_subtitle">STEAM ON THE GREAT LAKES.</span></h2></div>
+
+<p class="neg-indent">The History of Steam Navigation on the Great
+Lakes—The Construction of the St. Lawrence, the Welland, and the Rideau
+Canals—The Port of Montreal. </p>
+
+<div>
+  <img class="drop-cap" src="images/letter_t.jpg" width="31" height="40" alt="T" />
+</div>
+<p class="drop-cap no-indent">
+THE waterways of Canada available for steam navigation are on a
+magnificent scale. The main system extends from the mouth of the
+St. Lawrence at Belle Isle to Fort William and the head of Lake
+Superior—a distance of nearly 2,384 miles, and rendered navigable
+without interruption by a series of ship canals. Proceeding four
+hundred miles farther west, another long stretch of inland navigation
+begins with Lake Winnipeg, 240 miles long, into which, at its northern
+extremity, flows the mighty Saskatchewan, navigable for steamers one
+thousand miles! Not to mention smaller streams, the rivers St. John
+and Miramichi, in the Province of New Brunswick, afford 300 miles of
+navigable water and float a large amount of shipping. Ships of the
+largest size can ascend the Saguenay seventy-five miles. The Ottawa in
+its several reaches is navigable by steam for three or four hundred
+miles. Steamers ply on the Assiniboine, 250 or 300 miles westward from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span>
+Winnipeg. The Mackenzie River is navigable for a thousand miles. The
+Fraser, the Thompson, and the Columbia rivers in British Columbia
+contribute largely to the steam tonnage of the Dominion. The Great
+Lakes,<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a>
+commonly so called, are in reality great inland fresh water seas,
+often swept by gales of wind and combing billows, and sometimes, alas,
+strewed with wrecks. They have their breakwaters, lighthouses and
+steam fog-signals as fully equipped as similar oceanic structures and
+appliances. The Lake of the Woods and Lake Manitoba are each 100 miles long.</p>
+
+<p>As early as the year 1641 a few Jesuit missionaries and fur-traders had
+reached the rock-bound shores of Lake Superior in their canoes, but it
+is not until some years later that history makes us acquainted with the
+first sailing vessels that appeared on the lakes. One of the earliest
+of these was a schooner of ten tons, built near where Kingston now is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span>
+by the enterprising French adventurer, La Salle, who had been appointed
+Governor of Fort Frontenac, and had a roving commission to explore the
+western wilds of North America. Accompanied by the famous Recollet
+Father, Hennepin, and some thirty others, La Salle set sail on the
+10th of November, 1678, for the head of Lake Ontario. Finding his
+further passage barred by the Falls of Niagara, he wintered in that
+neighbourhood and had another vessel built at Cayuga Creek, a few miles
+above the Falls. This vessel, which he named the <i>Griffin</i>, of about
+sixty tons burthen, was launched in May, 1679, and was probably the
+first to navigate the upper lakes. On the 7th of August the <i>Griffin</i>,
+equipped with seven guns and a diversity of small arms and freighted
+with a load of goods, sailed away for Detroit and parts unknown. The
+Detroit River was reached in a few days, and Green Bay—at the head of
+Lake Huron—some time in September, when she was loaded with furs and
+despatched on her return voyage to Niagara, which, however, she never
+reached, the vessel and cargo having been totally lost on the way. For
+many years after the loss of the <i>Griffin</i> the navigation of the lakes
+seems to have been chiefly confined to bateaux, and up to 1756 the
+construction and use of sailing vessels was largely, if not entirely,
+confined to Lake Ontario. The first American vessel built on Lake Erie
+was the schooner <i>Washington</i>, built near Erie, Pa., in 1797. After
+plying on Lake Erie one season, she was sold to a Canadian and carried
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span>
+on wheels around the Falls to Lake Ontario, where she sailed from
+Queenston for Kingston in 1798 as a British vessel, under the name of
+<i>Lady Washington</i>. In 1816 the whole sailing tonnage on Lake Erie was
+only 2,067 tons. In 1818 the fleet on Lake Ontario numbered about sixty
+vessels.</p>
+
+<p>It is not necessary to enlarge on the growth and decadence of sailing
+vessels on the Great Lakes. Suffice it to say that the sailing vessel
+had reached its palmiest days between the years 1845 and 1862. In
+the latter year the gross tonnage of the lakes had risen to 383,309
+tons, valued at $11,865,550, and was divided as follows: 320 steamers,
+aggregating 125,620 tons; and 1,152 sailing vessels, aggregating
+257,689 tons. Side-wheel steamers numbered 117, and propellers, 203.
+In 1896 the entire number of sailing vessels on the Northern Lakes
+(including Lake Champlain) was 1,044, and of steam vessels, 1,792.
+Many in both of these classes were small vessels, including yachts and
+barges: the number actually engaged in the transportation business
+would be about 774 sailing vessels and 1,031 steamers over fifty tons
+burthen—a large proportion of the steamers being from 1,500 to 2,500
+tons burthen.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p>
+
+<p>Coming back now to the beginning of steam navigation on the Great
+Lakes, we find that the first Canadian steamer to navigate any of these
+waters was the <i>Frontenac</i>, built at Finkle’s Point, eighteen miles
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span>
+above Kingston, by Teabout &amp; Chapman, of Sackett’s Harbour, for a
+company of shareholders belonging to Kingston, Niagara, Queenston, York
+and Prescott. The <i>Frontenac</i> was launched on September 7th, 1816. Her
+length over all was 170 feet, and her registered tonnage, 700 tons. She
+cost nearly £20,000 currency. The engines were made by Watt &amp; Boulton,
+of Birmingham, England, and cost about £7,000. The <i>Frontenac</i> was
+said to be the best piece of naval architecture then in America, and
+her departure on her first voyage was considered a great event—“she
+moved off from her berth with majestic grandeur, the admiration of a
+great number of spectators.” Her maiden trip for the head of the lake
+was commenced on June 5th, 1817. Her regular route was from Prescott
+to York (Toronto) and back, once a week. She was commanded as long as
+she was afloat by Captain James Mackenzie, a gallant sailor who had
+previously served in the Royal navy. The <i>Frontenac</i> eventually became
+the property of the Messrs. Hamilton, of Queenston. She was maliciously
+set on fire by some miscreants while lying at her wharf at Niagara in
+1827, and was totally destroyed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="CHARLOTTE" id="CHARLOTTE"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_249.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="328" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">“QUEEN CHARLOTTE.”<br />Second steamer on Lake Ontario, 1818.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>About the same time the Americans had built a steamboat at Sackett’s
+Harbour, N. Y., named the <i>Ontario</i>, a vessel 110 feet long, 24 feet
+wide, and 8½ feet in depth, measuring 240 tons. The <i>Ontario</i> made her
+first trip in April, 1817, thus establishing her claim of precedence
+in sailing on the lakes. She was built under a grant from the heirs
+of Robert Fulton. On her first trip she encountered considerable sea,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span>
+which lifted the paddle-wheels, throwing the shaft from its bearings
+and destroying the paddle-boxes. This defect in her construction
+having been remedied, she was afterwards successful, it is said, but
+her career is not recorded.<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a>
+The Americans built another steamer at Sackett’s Harbour in 1818,
+the <i>Sophia</i>, of 70 tons, to run as a packet between that port and
+Kingston. In that year also the Canadians built their second lake
+steamer, the <i>Queen Charlotte</i>. She was built at the same place as the
+<i>Frontenac</i>, and largely from material which had not been used in the
+construction of that vessel. She was launched on the 22nd of April,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span>
+1818, and was soon ready to take her place as the pioneer steamer on the
+Bay of Quinte.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a>
+The <i>Queen Charlotte</i> was a much smaller boat than the <i>Frontenac</i>.
+Her machinery was made by the brothers Ward, of Montreal, and she seems
+to have plied very successfully for twenty years from Prescott to the
+“Carrying Place” at the head of the Bay of Quinte, where passengers
+took stage to Cobourg and thence proceeded to York by steamer. She was
+commanded at first by old Captain Richardson, then for a short time
+by young Captain Mosier, and afterwards, to the end of her career,
+by Captain Gildersleeve, of Kingston. She was finally broken up in
+Cataraqui Bay; but in the meantime upwards of thirty steamers were
+plying on Lake Ontario and the Upper St. Lawrence, to some of which
+particular reference will be made later on.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="WALK" id="WALK"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_250.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="399" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">“WALK-IN-THE-WATER.”<br />First steamer on Lake Erie, 1818.</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="VANDALIA" id="VANDALIA"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_251.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="424" />
+    <p class="center">THE “VANDALIA.”</p>
+    <p class="center space-below1">From <i>Scriber’s Magazine</i> for March, 1890.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first steamer on Lake Erie was the <i>Walk-in-the-Water</i>, built at
+Black Rock, near Buffalo, by one Noah Brown, and launched May 28th,
+1818. She was schooner-rigged, 135 feet in length, 32 feet beam and 13
+feet 3 inches deep: her tonnage was 383<small><sup>60</sup>&frasl;<sub>95</sub></small>
+tons. Her machinery was brought from Albany, a distance of three hundred miles,
+in wagons drawn by five to eight horses each. She left Black Rock on her first
+voyage August 25th, and reached Detroit, 290 miles, in 44 hours 10 minutes.
+“While she could navigate down stream, her power was not sufficient to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span>
+make headway against the strong current of the Niagara River. Resort
+was therefore made to what was known in the early days as a “horned
+breeze.” The <i>Walk-in the-Water</i> was regularly towed up the Niagara
+River by a number of yokes of oxen, but once above the swift current
+she went very well.” She made regular trips between Black Rock and
+Detroit, occasionally going as far as Mackinac and Green Bay on Lake
+Huron, until November, 1821, when she was driven ashore near Buffalo
+in a gale of wind and became a total wreck. Her engines, however, were
+recovered and put in a new boat named the <i>Superior</i>, in 1822. Soon
+after this the first high-pressure steamer on the lakes was built at
+Buffalo. She was named the <i>Pioneer</i>. In 1841 the first lake propeller
+was launched at Oswego. This was the <i>Vandalia</i>, of 160 tons, said to
+be the first freight boat in America to make use of Ericsson’s screw
+propeller. She made her first trip in November, 1841, and proved
+entirely successful. In the spring of 1842 she passed through the
+Welland Canal, and was visited by large numbers of people in Buffalo,
+who were curious to see this new departure in steam navigation, and the
+result was that two new propellers were built in that year at Buffalo,
+the <i>Sampson</i> and the <i>Hercules</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after the introduction of steamboats, and because of them, when
+as yet railroads were not in this part of the world, Lake Erie became
+the great highway of travel to the western States, and it was not long
+until magnificent upper cabin steamers, carrying from 1,000 to 1,500
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span>
+passengers, were plying between Buffalo and Chicago. The writer
+well remembers making the voyage in one of these steamers late in
+the autumn of 1844, and that, owing to the tempestuous state of the
+weather, we had to tie up most every night, so that the voyage lasted
+nearly a whole week. The crowd of passengers was great, but it was a
+good-natured crowd, bent on having a “good time.” Dancing was kept up
+in the main saloon every evening till midnight, after which many of us
+were glad to get a shake-down on the cabin floor.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="PRINCETON" id="PRINCETON"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_253.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="374" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">THE “PRINCETON.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>First propeller on the lakes that had an upper cabin—one of a fleet
+of fourteen passenger steamers plying between Buffalo and Chicago in
+1845—had twin screws, and a speed of eleven miles an hour.</p>
+
+<p>The year 1836 marks an important era in the navigation of the Great
+Lakes, for in that year the first cargo of grain from Lake Michigan
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span>
+arrived at Buffalo, brought by the brig <i>John Kenzie</i> from Grand River.
+It consisted of three thousand bushels of wheat. Previous to that date
+the commerce of the lakes had been all westward, and, curiously enough,
+the cargoes carried west consisted for the most part of flour, grain
+and other supplies for the new western settlements. In 1840 a regular
+movement of grain from west to east had been established.</p>
+
+<p>In the early years of the grain trade the loading and unloading of
+vessels was a very slow and irksome business. As much as two or three
+days might be required to unload a cargo of 5,000 bushels. In the
+winter of 1842-43 the first grain elevator was built at Buffalo,
+and a new system of handling grain introduced which was to prove of
+incalculable benefit to the trade. The schooner <i>Philadelphia</i>,
+of 123 tons, was the first to be unloaded by the elevator.</p>
+
+<p>The Canadian steam traffic on Lake Erie commenced with the steamers
+<i>Chippewa</i> and <i>Emerald</i>, plying between Chippewa and Buffalo; the
+<i>Kent</i>, which foundered in 1845; the <i>Ploughboy</i>, owned by a company
+in Chatham, and the <i>Clinton</i>, owned by Robert Hamilton, of Queenston.
+A much larger Canadian steam traffic developed on Lake Huron. One
+of the earliest passenger steamers on the Georgian Bay was the
+<i>Gore</i>, of 200 tons, built at Niagara in 1838, and called after the
+Lieutenant-Governor of that name. That boat, which had plied for some
+years between Niagara and Toronto, was placed on the route between
+Sturgeon Bay and Sault Ste. Marie. On Lake Huron proper, the <i>Bruce Mines</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span>
+was probably the earliest Canadian steamer. She was employed in
+carrying copper ore from the Bruce mines to Montreal, and was wrecked
+in 1854. Shortly after, on the completion of the Northern Railway,
+in 1854, the company, with a view to developing their interests,
+entered into a contract with an American line of steamers to run from
+Collingwood to Lake Michigan ports tri-weekly and once a week to Green
+Bay. In 1862 six large propellers were put on the route. Later, a
+line of first-class passenger steamers began to ply twice a week from
+Collingwood and Owen Sound to Duluth at the head of Lake Superior.
+Among the steamers of that line, which became very popular, were the
+<i>Chicora</i>, <i>Francis Smith</i>, <i>Cumberland</i>, and <i>Algoma</i>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span>
+These in turn were superseded by the magnificent steamers of the
+Canadian Pacific and other lines elsewhere referred to.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="EMPIRE" id="EMPIRE"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_255.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="304" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">THE “EMPIRE.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Built at Cleveland in 1844; a notable steamer in her day, being the
+largest, the fastest, and the most handsomely fitted-up vessel on the
+Upper Lakes at that time; ran many years between Buffalo and Chicago.</p>
+
+<p>The commerce of Lake Superior developed long after that of the lower
+lakes had been established. In the earliest records of the navigation
+of this lake, a brigantine named the <i>Recovery</i>, of about 150 tons,
+owned by the North-West Fur Company, is mentioned as being one of
+the first to sail on Lake Superior, about the year 1800. It is said
+that during the war of 1812, fearing that she might be seized by the
+Americans, her spars were taken out and her hull was covered up by
+branches and brushwood in a sequestered bay till peace was proclaimed.
+She was then taken from her hiding-place and resumed her beat on the
+lake until about 1830, when she was run over the Sault Ste. Marie
+rapids and placed in the lumber trade on Lake Erie, under the command
+of Captain John Fallows, of Fort Erie, Canada West. Another vessel,
+the <i>Mink</i>, is mentioned as having been brought down the rapids at
+an earlier period. In 1835 the <i>John Jacob Astor</i>, accounted a large
+vessel in her time, was built on Lake Superior for the American Fur
+Company, and placed in command of Captain Charles C. Stanard, who
+sailed her until 1842, when Captain J. B. Angus became master and
+remained in charge of her until she was wrecked at Copper Harbour in
+September, 1844. Passing by a number of other sailing vessels we come
+now to the introduction of steam on Lake Superior, and this, according
+to the statement of an old resident at Fort William, is how it began.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The twin-screw propeller <i>Independence</i>, Captain A. J. Averill, of
+Chicago, was the first steamer seen on Lake Superior. This vessel,
+rigged as a fore-and-aft schooner, was about 260 tons burthen, and was
+hauled over the Sault Ste. Marie rapids in 1844. Her route of sailing
+was on the south shore of the lake. Another propeller, the <i>Julia
+Palmer</i>, was in like manner dragged up the Ste. Marie rapids in 1846,
+and was the first steamer to sail on the north shore. At intervals,
+prior to the opening of the ship canal, several other steamers were
+taken up the rapids, among which were the propellers <i>Manhattan</i>,
+<i>Monticello</i>, and <i>Peninsular</i>, and the side-wheel steamers
+<i>Baltimore</i> and <i>Sam Ward</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Previous to the completion of the Welland Canal the transportation of
+freight over the portage from Queenston to Chippewa had come to be
+quite a large business, giving employment to many “teamsters,” for the
+entire traffic between Lake Erie and Ontario at this point was by means
+of the old-fashioned lumber-wagon. At the Sault Ste. Marie portage, Mr.
+Keep informs us that “one old grey horse and cart” did the business
+for a time, but as the volume of trade increased two-horse wagons were
+employed until 1850, when a light tram-road was built by the Chippewa
+Portage Company, operated by horses, which with a capacity for moving
+three or four hundred tons of freight in twenty-four hours, answered
+the purpose up to the time of the opening of the canal in 1855.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Canadian Canals</span>.</h3>
+
+<p>Before the construction of canals these great inland waters were of
+but little value to commerce, the only means of reaching them being by
+the bark canoe or bateau of the voyageur. The United Empire Loyalists
+who came to Canada at the close of the American war were conveyed to
+their settlements on the St. Lawrence and Bay of Quinte in the long
+sharp-pointed, flat-bottomed boats of the period, called “bateaux,” by
+a very slow, laborious and uncomfortable process. General Simcoe, the
+first Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada (1791-96), is said to have
+sailed from Kingston to Detroit in his bark canoe, rowed by twelve
+chasseurs of his own regiment and followed by another canoe carrying
+his tents and provisions. Many still living recollect how Sir George
+Simpson, Governor of the Hudson’s Bay Company, made his annual canoe
+journeys from Montreal to the Red River country. Having “sung at St.
+Ann’s their parting hymn,” his flotilla of canoes ascended the Ottawa,
+breasted the rapids, and by river, lake and portage, after many weary
+days, reached Lake Huron and the Sault Ste. Marie, thence along the
+north shore of Lake Superior to Fort William and the Grand Portage
+and by Rainy Lake and Lake of the Woods to Fort Garry. “With the
+self-possession of an emperor he was borne through the wilderness. He
+is said to have made the canoe journey to the Red River <i>forty times</i>.
+For his distinguished management of the Hudson’s Bay Company’s affairs
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span>
+and for his services to the trade of Canada, Governor Simpson
+was knighted. He died in 1860, a man who would have been of mark
+anywhere.”<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a></p>
+
+<p>As early as A. D. 1700 a boat canal was constructed by the Sulpicians
+to connect Lachine with Montreal <i>via</i> the Little St. Pierre River.
+The depth of water was only two and a half feet. About the year 1780
+certain short cuttings with locks available for canoes and bateaux
+were made at a few points on the St. Lawrence where the rapids were
+wholly impassable. About the beginning of the century the Government
+of Lower Canada, appreciating the advantages of improved navigation,
+made liberal appropriations to that end, resulting in the completion,
+in 1804, of a channel three feet in depth along the shore line of the
+Lachine Rapids connected with short canals at the Cascades, Split
+Rock, and Coteau du Lac, which were provided with locks eighty-eight
+feet long and sixteen feet wide—small dimensions, perhaps, but at
+the time regarded as a vast improvement, admitting of the passage of
+“Durham boats,” which then took the place of bateaux, with ten times
+their capacity. Two small locks had also been built at the Long Sault
+rapids, above Cornwall. But at many points the aid of oxen and horses
+was required, and for many years, up to the opening of the St. Lawrence
+canals, indeed, the chief cash revenues of the farmers along the river
+front were derived from the towage of barges up the swift water, in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span>
+many cases to the serious neglect of their farms. In the spirit of
+the religion of the early voyageurs and boatmen, crosses were erected
+at the head of the rapids, suggesting to those who had successfully
+surmounted them to rest and be thankful; hence the name, still applied
+to the district immediately above the Long Sault rapids, “Santa Cruz.”
+Here, no doubt, stood for many years one of the holy crosses before
+which, on bended knee, thanks would often be given for a safe ascent of
+the rapids.</p>
+
+<p>The mail service in these days between Montreal and Kingston was in
+keeping with the times. It was undertaken by a walking contractor, who
+with the mail on his back took up his line of march from Montreal,
+gauging his speed to accomplish the walk to Kingston and return in
+fourteen days.<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p>
+
+<p>A good many years later it was a four days’ journey from Montreal to
+New York by the most expeditious route then existing. Thus it was
+advertised in the Montreal <i>Gazette</i>, November 25th, 1827:</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot2"> <b>DAILY STAGES</b>. <span class="smcap">Albany
+and Montreal Line. Season of 1826 and 1827.</span> The only full and
+perfect line running between Montreal and Albany leaves B. Thatcher’s
+office, No. 87 St. Paul Street, Montreal, every day, passing through
+Laprairie, Burlington, Middlebury, Poultney and Salem to Albany,
+through an old-settled, rich and populous country, and mostly on
+a smooth gravelly turnpike. Through in three days, and fare very
+reasonable. Extras and expresses at a moment’s notice. Young, Swain,
+Esinhart and others, proprietors. </p>
+
+<p>The voyage of the Durham boat was a very tedious one, depending as it
+did largely on a favouring easterly breeze in traversing the lakes and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span>
+quieter portions of the river, and on the dexterity of the boatmen
+who wielded the “setting-poles”<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a>
+in swifter water, as well as their <i>luck</i> in surmounting the rapids,
+where they were liable to be detained for hours, sometimes for days,
+contending against the swift currents, subject to the mishaps of
+grounding or being damaged by big boulders, or, worse still, of
+being caught by an eddy or an out-current and swept down the rapids,
+sometimes with the loss of the oxen or horses which had them in tow,
+and in some instances with the loss of the boat and cargo. Woe to the
+teamster who was not provided with a knife to cut the rope in such an
+emergency!</p>
+
+<p>The first Lachine Canal proper, for barges, was commenced July 17th,
+1821, and was completed in 1825, at a cost of $438,404. Of this amount
+$50,000 was contributed by the Imperial Government on condition that
+all military stores should be free from toll. It had 7 locks, each 100
+feet long, 20 feet wide, and with 4½ feet depth of water on the sills.
+In 1843-49 it became a “ship canal” with 5 locks, each 200 feet long, 45
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span>
+feet wide, and 9 feet depth of water, costing $2,149,128. The recent
+enlargement, commenced in 1875, cost $6,500,000. By this the locks were
+increased to 270 feet in length and 14 feet depth of water throughout
+the canal.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Welland Canal.</span></h3>
+
+<p class="space-below3">The necessity of devising means to overcome the stupendous
+obstacle to navigation caused by the Falls of Niagara had long been apparent,
+but it was not until 1824 that work was commenced on the Welland
+Canal which was to connect Lake Ontario with Lake Erie and the west.
+This important work was completed in 1829, chiefly through the energy
+and perseverance of the Hon. William Hamilton Merritt, son of a U.
+E. Loyalist family, born in New York State in 1793. A man of great
+enterprise; he had this project on the brain for years, but like Cunard
+and his steamships, had difficulty in “raising the wind”—the people
+and the Government of Upper Canada being at that time both alike poor.
+He crossed the Atlantic, and, on the ground of military expediency,
+was said to have secured a subscription of £1,000 from the Duke of
+Wellington, which greatly aided him in the formation of a joint stock
+company who carried the work to its successful completion. The original
+locks were constructed of wood, 120 feet in length, 20 feet wide, with
+7½ feet of water on the sills. The entire length of the canal was
+twenty-six miles. This accommodated vessels carrying 5,000 bushels of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span>
+wheat. Half a million of pounds were spent upon it up to the year
+1841, when it was assumed by the United Canadas<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a>
+and immediate steps taken for its enlargement. With locks 145 x 26 x
+9, vessels loaded with 20,000 to 23,000 bushels could pass from lake
+to lake. A second enlargement (1873-83) increased the depth of water
+to twelve feet; and a third, in 1887, gave the canal a uniform depth
+of fourteen feet, admitting the passage of vessels with a carrying
+capacity of 75,000 to 80,000 bushels. When this depth shall prevail
+throughout the entire system of the St. Lawrence canals, vessels of
+1,600 to 1,800 tons register will be able to bring full cargoes from
+the Upper Lakes to Montreal, and to cross the ocean if their owners see
+fit.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a>
+In the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span>
+meantime the Montreal Board of Trade are memorializing the Government
+to have the Welland enlarged so that the largest vessels navigating the
+lakes may be able to tranship their cargoes at Kingston or Prescott
+as they now do at Buffalo; in other words, to locate the ship canal
+projected by the Deep Waterways Commission on Canadian territory
+instead of on the American side of the Niagara River.</p>
+
+<p>The Rideau Canal, connecting Kingston with Ottawa, was undertaken as
+a military work by the Imperial Government at the instigation and
+under the personal superintendence of Colonel John By, of the Royal
+Engineers, from whom the obsolete Bytown derived its name. A stupendous
+undertaking it was considered at the time—126¾ miles long, with
+forty-seven locks, 134 feet by 32 feet each. It was begun in September,
+1826, and on the 29th of May, 1832, the works being completed, the
+steamer <i>Pumper</i> passed through from Bytown to Kingston. The limit of
+this canal is a draught of five feet. Its cost is said to have been
+about one million pounds sterling. It was transferred by the Imperial
+authorities to the Provincial Executive in 1856.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="C_LOCK" id="C_LOCK"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_264.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="388" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">CANADIAN SHIP CANAL AT SAULT STE. MARIE, 1895.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span>
+The St. Lawrence Canal System, with a uniform depth of nine feet of
+water, was completed in 1848. The canals are eight in number, viz.: the
+Lachine Canal, 8½ miles; the Beauharnois, 11¼ miles; the Cornwall, 11½
+miles; Farren’s Point, ¾ of a mile; Rapid du Plat, 4 miles; Galops,
+7⅝ miles; the Welland, 26¾ miles, and the Sault Ste. Marie, ¾ of a
+mile—in all 71⅛ miles, with 53 locks, and 551¼ feet lockage. In 1871
+the Government decided to enlarge the locks of the whole system to
+270 feet by 45 feet, and to deepen the canals to fourteen feet. These
+dimensions were decided upon after consultation with the Boards of
+Trade of Oswego, Toledo, Detroit, Milwaukee and Chicago; but so great
+has been the increase of commerce on the lakes since then, so much
+larger are the vessels now employed in the trade, and so keen has
+the competition become in the transportation business, it is already
+apparent that the limiting of the locks to 270 feet has been a mistake,
+and that before the work in hand is finished there will be a call for
+locks of at least double that capacity.</p>
+
+<p>Under the new arrangement the Lachine Canal has two distinct systems of
+locks, giving two entrances at each end. The Cornwall Canal has in the
+same manner two sets of locks at its lower entrance, and has in other
+respects been greatly improved. The Beauharnois Canal was not enlarged,
+but, instead, an entirely new canal on the north shore of the river is
+being constructed, fourteen miles in length, of the same dimensions as
+the other enlarged canals, at a cost of $5,000,000. The total cost of
+the St. Lawrence canals and river improvements west of Montreal has
+been $29,000,000; of the Welland Canal, $24,000,000; the Sault Ste.
+Marie, $3,258,025; of the Ottawa and Rideau canals, about $10,000,000;
+and of the whole canal system of the Dominion about $75,000,000. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span>
+total revenue derived from tolls and hydraulic and other rents for the
+year 1895 was $339,890.49; 2,412 vessels passed through the Welland
+during the season of 1894, carrying 1,008,221 tons of freight. The
+quantity of freight moved on the St. Lawrence and Ottawa canals was
+1,448,788 tons, and on all the canals over 3,000,000 tons, whereof the
+products of the forest, 1,077,683 tons; agricultural products, 993,348
+tons—the remainder being general merchandise and manufactures.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p>
+
+<p>The deepening of Lake St. Peter and other shallow reaches of the St.
+Lawrence between Montreal and Quebec has created what may be called
+a submerged canal, fifty miles long, three hundred feet wide, with a
+minimum depth of 27½ feet, permitting ocean steamers of the largest
+class now in the trade to discharge their cargoes in the port of
+Montreal, which is undergoing enlargement at the present time at a cost
+of many millions of dollars.</p>
+
+<p>During the season of 1897 the number of sea-going vessels that arrived
+at Montreal was 796, with a total tonnage of 1,379,002; 752 of these
+were steamers, aggregating 1,368,395 tons. The inland vessels numbered
+6,384, with a tonnage of 1,134,346. The sea-going steamers were
+eighty-three in excess of the previous year, with a marked increase of
+tonnage.<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a>
+During that summer steamships of 10,000 and even 12,000 tons burthen were
+to be found loading and discharging cargo alongside the wharves of Montreal.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The total value of merchandise exported from this port during the year
+1897 was $55,156,956. The chief articles of export were as follows:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Montreal Exports." cellpadding="0" >
+  <thead><tr>
+      <th class="tdc" colspan="2">&nbsp;</th>
+      <th class="tdc"><i>Quantity</i>.</th>
+      <th class="tdc"><i>Value</i>.</th>
+    </tr>
+  </thead>
+  <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Produce of the mines</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">...</td>
+      <td class="tdr">$&emsp;188,127</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">"</span><span class="ws2">"</span>&emsp;fisheries</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">...</td>
+      <td class="tdr">120,242</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="ws2">"</span><span class="ws2">"</span>&emsp;forest</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdc">...</td>
+      <td class="tdr">5,731,583</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Horses</td>
+      <td class="tdc">(Number)</td>
+      <td class="tdr">12,179</td>
+      <td class="tdr">1,205,941</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Horned Cattle</td>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td>
+      <td class="tdr">119,188</td>
+      <td class="tdr">7,151,280</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Sheep</td>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td>
+      <td class="tdr">66,319</td>
+      <td class="tdr">340,060</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Butter</td>
+      <td class="tdc">(Pounds)</td>
+      <td class="tdr">10,594,824</td>
+      <td class="tdr">1,878,515</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Cheese</td>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td>
+      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;&emsp;162,322,426</td>
+      <td class="tdr">&nbsp;&emsp;14,325,176</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Eggs</td>
+      <td class="tdc">(Dozen)</td>
+      <td class="tdr">4,806,011</td>
+      <td class="tdr">575,782</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Meat of all kinds</td>
+      <td class="tdc">(Pounds)</td>
+      <td class="tdr">16,377,806</td>
+      <td class="tdr">1,345,894</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Wheat</td>
+      <td class="tdc">(Bushels)</td>
+      <td class="tdr">9,900,308</td>
+      <td class="tdr">8,415,261</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Indian Corn</td>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td>
+      <td class="tdr">9,172 676</td>
+      <td class="tdr">3,121,753</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Other grains (barley, oats, peas, etc.)</td>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td>
+      <td class="tdr">10,298,444</td>
+      <td class="tdr">3,904,128</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Flour</td>
+      <td class="tdc">(Barrels)</td>
+      <td class="tdr">891,501</td>
+      <td class="tdr">3,120,253</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Apples</td>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td>
+      <td class="tdr">175,194</td>
+      <td class="tdr">350,000</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Manufactured and miscellaneous articles</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdr">...</td>
+      <td class="tdr">3,954,919</td>
+    </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span></p>
+<div class="chapter"><h2>CHAPTER IX.<br /><span class="h_subtitle">STEAM COMMERCE OF THE GREAT LAKES.</span></h2></div>
+
+<p class="neg-indent"> United States and Canadian Commerce of the Great
+Lakes—The Sault Ste. Marie Ship Canals—The Erie Canal—Transportation
+Business—The Elevator—Deeper Waterways Commissions—The Ottawa and
+Georgian Bay Canal. </p>
+
+<div>
+  <img class="drop-cap" src="images/letter_d.jpg" width="30" height="41" alt="D" />
+</div>
+<p class="drop-cap no-indent">
+DURING the last quarter of a century the commerce of the Great
+Lakes—the United States commerce especially—has grown with a rapidity
+almost exceeding belief. It has become enormous! At the present time
+it is stated on competent authority that the steam tonnage of these
+inland seas largely exceeds the combined tonnage of this character in
+all other parts of the United States put together. Not to speak of
+the vast amount of shipping employed in the iron, the coal, and the
+lumber trade, the Lake Superior grain and flour shipments for 1896 were
+121,750,000 bushels. The Lake Michigan grain and flour shipments for
+the same year were 273,820,000 bushels, together making 395,570,000
+bushels of grain and flour shipped in one year from these two quarters!
+It is difficult to realize the magnitude of such a statement. Mr. Keep,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span>
+already quoted, in his report for 1890 puts it strikingly when he
+says: “If the freight carried on the Great Lakes in the United States
+coastwise and foreign trade during the year 1890 were loaded into
+railway cars of average size and capacity, the cars so loaded would
+cover 13,466 miles of railroad track.” The Commissioners appointed by
+the Canadian Government to meet with a similar Committee appointed by
+the United States Government to consider the subject of international
+and deeper waterways, preface their report by alluding to the commerce
+of the Great Lakes in these terms: “It is impossible to convey, within
+reasonable space, an adequate idea of the extraordinary<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a>
+development of inland water transportation on the Upper Lakes—which for
+rapidity, extent, economy and efficiency has no counterpart even on the
+ocean. More than half of the best steamships of the United States are
+imprisoned above Niagara Falls, and more than half of the tonnage built
+in the United States in 1896 was launched upon the lakes.” This inland
+water commerce has built up twelve cities on the southern shores above
+Niagara, five of which have over 200,000 population, and one of them
+over a million. Within these limits there are twenty-seven dry docks,
+the largest of which is on Lake Superior and is 560 feet long, 50 feet
+wide, and 18 feet depth of water. There are sixty-three life-saving
+stations upon these lakes, ten of which are Canadian. “Unusual
+prosperity has stimulated ship-building to such an extent that there
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span>
+are now in course of construction at the various lake shipyards,
+sixty-five vessels, thirty of which are steel freight steamers which
+will average 400 feet in length and 4,000 tons capacity—costing in all
+$9,000,000.”<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p>
+
+<p>Up to a comparatively recent date the bulk of the lakes commerce was
+done by sailing vessels. Every town of any importance had its little
+fleet of schooners. As time went on, the vessels increased in size,
+and eventually a very fine class of three-masted schooners, with some
+brigs, barquentines, and even full-rigged barques, were employed in the
+carrying trade. One of the largest of these was the barque <i>Utica</i>,
+of 550 tons, which sailed on the Buffalo and Chicago route in the
+forties. A few of these clipper schooners may still be met with, but
+they are rapidly being supplanted by iron and steel steamships of great
+size, such as the <i>Maryland</i>, the <i>Owego</i>, the <i>E. C. Pope</i>,
+and the <i>Manitou</i>, representatives of fleets of first-class steamships,
+ranging from 300 to 350 feet in length, over 1,900 tons register, with triple
+expansion engines, a speed of from fourteen to sixteen miles an hour,
+and a carrying capacity of 120,000 to 125,000 bushels of grain. These,
+and many others like them, were accounted “queens” a few years ago;
+they are fine ships still, but there are much larger and finer than
+they now.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Manitou</i> here represented is one of the finest ships of her class
+on the lakes, built in 1893 by the Chicago Ship-building Company. Her
+hull is of steel, length over all 295 feet, breadth of beam 42 feet, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span>
+depth of hold 22 feet. Her average draught of water is 15 feet. She has
+triple expansion engines, a single four-bladed screw propeller 13 feet
+in diameter. Her gross tonnage is 2,944 tons. She is handsomely fitted
+up with sleeping accommodations for four hundred passengers, has a
+freight capacity of 1,500 tons, and develops a speed of eighteen miles
+an hour. Her route is between Chicago and Sault Ste. Marie, where she
+connects with the Lake Superior lines. She cost $300,000.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="MANITOU" id="MANITOU"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_271.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="335" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">THE “MANITOU,” 1893.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The <i>James Watt</i>, the first of the Rockefeller fleet and the largest
+steamship on the lakes, is 426 feet long, 48 feet beam, and 29 feet
+deep. She cost $260,000, and will carry from 4,000 to 6,000 tons of
+ore, according as she is trimmed to draw 14 or 18 feet of water. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span>
+<i>Empire City</i>, owned by the Zenith Transportation Company, is of
+the same dimensions, less one foot in depth. She is now the largest
+grain carrier on the lakes, having capacity for 213,000 bushels. The
+Minnesota Iron Company have a fleet of fourteen steamships, each
+carrying from 100,000 to 180,000 bushels of grain. The Lehigh Valley
+Transportation Company own a fleet of large and powerful steel freight
+steamers which ply between Buffalo and Chicago. These are but a few of
+the many transportation companies that do business on the Great Lakes.
+As to the vessels at present employed in the trade, it is safe to say
+that they are to be regarded only as the precursors of a still larger
+class of freight steamers that will navigate these waters when the
+contemplated twenty-one foot channel shall have been established from
+Lake Superior to Buffalo. At present there is a navigable channel of
+17½ feet all the way.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the large steamers take a number of barges in tow, and in
+this way enormous quantities of grain are sometimes moved by a single
+shipment. The <i>Appomattox</i>, for example, with three consorts in tow,
+recently left Duluth with a combined cargo of 482,000 bushels, or
+14,460 tons of wheat. Assuming the average yield of that cereal to
+be twenty bushels to the acre, this single shipment represented the
+produce of 24,100 acres!
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="N_W" id="N_W"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_273.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="601" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">SS. “NORTH-WEST,” 1894.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span>
+The Northern Steamship Company of Buffalo has perhaps the finest fleet
+of steamers on the Great Lakes, consisting of eight steamships. Six of
+these are steel freight and emigrant ships of 2,500 tons each. They
+are named the <i>Northern Light</i>, <i>Northern Wave</i>, <i>Northern King</i>,
+<i>Northern Queen</i>, the <i>North Star</i>, and the <i>North Wind</i>. The other
+two, the <i>North-West</i> and the <i>North-Land</i>, are exclusively passenger
+ships, up-to-date in every respect. They are identical in size, being
+each 386 feet long, 44 moulded breadth, and 26 feet in depth. Their
+gross tonnage is 5,000 tons apiece. They have quadruple expansion
+engines of 7,000 indicated horse-power. The boilers are worked at a
+pressure of 275 pounds to the square inch, and use up 70 tons of water
+per hour. The twin screws are 13 feet in diameter and 18 feet pitch,
+make 120 revolutions per minute, and drive the ships at a speed of
+from 22 to 25 statute miles an hour, as may be required. The bunkers
+hold 1,000 tons of coal. A double bottom, 42 inches deep, extends the
+whole length of the ship, and is utilized for adjustable water ballast.
+Luxurious accommodation is provided for five hundred first-class and
+forty second-class passengers. Nearly twenty-six miles of electric wire
+are used in conducting the subtle fluid for 1,200 lights. The electric
+search-light has one hundred thousand candle-power. The refrigerating
+plant, besides creating ample cold storage, makes one thousand pounds
+of ice per day for the ship’s use. The grand saloon is, in American
+parlance, “a magnificent achievement.” The routes of these twin ships
+is from Buffalo to Duluth, at the head of Lake Superior, a distance of
+1,065 miles, each of them making the round trip in a week. The fare for
+the round trip is $30 for transportation, meals and staterooms being charged extra.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>For many years two causes prevented the building of vessels of such
+large dimensions as those just described for lake navigation. One of
+these was the insufficient size of the lock at Sault Ste. Marie, and
+the other was the shallowness of the water on the St. Clair flats
+and at other points. The former difficulty disappeared in 1881 when
+the first of the large locks was opened at the Sault; the second
+difficulty was overcome by the Northern Steamship Company in the
+peculiar construction of their vessels with a water ballasting system
+that permits of sinking the ship to the depth required for navigating
+the deep waters of the lakes and of floating them over the shoals and
+bars that obstruct the navigation. This ingenious device, however,
+can only be regarded as a temporary expedient, pending the action
+of the United States Government, which contemplates the making of a
+twenty-one foot channel at all points where the shallows occur. This
+is a measure felt to be due to the lakes’ marine, which has already
+done so much to develop the resources of the North-West, especially
+the mineral resources, which would otherwise have lain comparatively
+dormant. “The United States have expended some $12,000,000 in widening
+and deepening channels, which has already been more than repaid by the
+rapid development of commerce. The largest item in the lakes’ traffic
+is the transportation of iron—the richest ores are now being mined
+along a line of coast of one thousand miles, dotted with manufacturing
+towns.”<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span>
+It helps one to realize the immensity of the lakes’ traffic to learn
+that the number of vessels that cleared from the district of Chicago
+in 1893 was 8,789, with a gross tonnage of 5,449,470 tons—actually
+a larger tonnage than cleared from the port of Liverpool in 1892.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a>
+The tonnage passing down the Detroit River from lakes Superior,
+Michigan and Huron, during the seven or eight months of navigation,
+is, by official statements, greater than the entire foreign and
+coastwise trade of London and Liverpool combined in twelve months. It
+is estimated by competent experts to be three times greater than the
+foreign trade of the port of New York, and to exceed the aggregate
+foreign trade of all the seaports of the United States by 10,000,000 tons!</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Sault Ste. Marie Ship Canals.</span></h3>
+
+<p>To accommodate the vast volume of traffic emanating from Lake Superior
+ports, magnificent canals have been constructed on either side of the
+St. Mary River, which connects Lake Superior with Lake Huron. These
+works, the most remarkable of their kind in existence, have reached
+their present dimension by a succession of enlargements and a large
+outlay of money. The first canal on the western or American side of
+the river was constructed by a joint stock company formed in 1853, who
+undertook to construct it for the State of Michigan upon receiving
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span>
+therefore a grant of 750,000 acres of land. The work was completed in
+1855, and from that date the commerce of Lake Superior may be said to
+have had any appreciable existence. The opening of the canal was, as it
+were, the opening of a sluice-gate through which a flood of commerce
+was soon to roll.</p>
+
+<p class="space-below3">The first canal cost about $1,000,000. It was a
+little over a mile in length. Its width at the water line was 100 feet,
+and its depth 12 feet. There were two locks, each 350 feet long and 70
+feet wide. The growth of traffic and the increase in the size of the
+lake vessels soon rendered it apparent that the canal must be enlarged.
+In 1870 the United States Government made its first appropriation
+for deepening the canal to 16 feet and increasing its lockage. A new
+lock was built, 550 feet in length by 80 feet in width, and 18 feet
+lift, at a cost of $2,404,124.33. The work was completed in 1881. Its
+opening was followed by an enormous increase of commerce—so much so
+that it soon became quite inadequate to the traffic. A still further
+enlargement was decided upon, and was completed in 1896, at a cost of
+about $5,000,000. The new lock occupies the site of the two old locks
+of 1855, and is 800 feet long, 100 feet wide, and has 21 feet depth
+of water on the sill. It is officially known as the St. Mary’s Falls Canal.</p>
+
+<p>So long ago as the close of last century the North-West Fur Company
+had constructed a rude canal on the Canadian side, with locks, adapted
+for the passage of loaded canoes without breaking bulk. Though late of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span>
+construction, a ship canal had long been in contemplation by the
+Canadian Government, and the time came when, owing to the increase of
+traffic, it could no longer be delayed. This great work was completed
+and opened for traffic on September 9th, 1895, at a cost of some
+$3,500,000. The Canadian lock is 900 feet long, 60 feet wide, 20 feet
+3 inches depth of water on the sill, and 18 feet lift, affording room
+for three large vessels at one time. The length of the canal proper,
+between the extreme ends of the entrance piers, is only 5,967 feet,
+but including the excavated channels of approach it is about 18,100
+feet. The American canal is a little over a mile in length. The locks
+of both are unsurpassed for their size and solidity, as well as for the
+completeness of their mechanical appliances.</p>
+
+<p>An official report, compiled by the Chief Engineer of the St. Mary’s
+Falls Canal (United States), contains a detailed statement of the
+commerce of that canal for each year, from 1855 to 1895, and goes far
+to substantiate what has already been said as to the magnitude of the
+lakes’ commerce. The number of vessels that passed through in 1895 was
+17,956, with a registered tonnage of 16,806,781 tons. The number of
+sailing vessels was 4,790; of steamers, 12,495; and of unregistered
+craft, 671. The number of passengers conveyed from lake to lake was
+31,656. As to the cargoes of the vessels, these are a few of the
+chief items: 2,574,362 net tons of coal; 8,902,302 barrels of flour;
+46,218,250 bushels of wheat; 8,328,694 bushels of other grain; 107,452
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span>
+tons of copper; 8,062,209 tons of iron ore; 740,700,000 feet of sawed
+lumber; 100,337 tons of manufactured and pig iron; 269,919 barrels of
+salt—in all, 15,062,580 net tons of freight. The freight traffic of
+the St. Mary’s Canal, in seven months of 1895, was more than twice that
+of the Suez Canal, which is open all the year. During the year 1897
+it was much greater than in any previous year, the registered tonnage
+being 17,619,933, the tons of freight 18,218,411, and the number of
+passengers 40,213.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="U_LOCK" id="U_LOCK"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_278.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="336" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">ST. MARY’S FALLS SHIP CANAL OF 1881,<br /> STATE OF MICHIGAN, U. S. A.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The gradual development of steam navigation on Lake Superior is shown
+in a table of parallel columns, extending over thirty years. In 1864
+the sailing vessels that used the canal were three times as numerous
+as the steamers; but in 1895 the steamers were three times as numerous
+as the sailing vessels, and they had increased enormously in tonnage.
+The number of sailing vessels built on the Great Lakes in 1896 was
+nineteen; in that year there were built <i>seventy-five</i> steamers,
+aggregating 75,743 tons register, and of these thirty-five were built
+of steel, with a combined tonnage of 63,589 tons. The principal
+ship-building yards on the Upper Lakes are at Buffalo, Cleveland,
+Detroit, Bay City, Milwaukee, Chicago and Superior. At most of these
+points there are plants for the construction of iron and steel vessels.
+It is said that Cleveland is the largest ship-building port, and also
+the largest iron ore market in the United States.</p>
+
+<p>The transportation of iron ore, it will be noticed, forms a large
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span>
+element in the commerce of Lake Superior. Not only is the ore found
+in great abundance in that region, but it is the best in quality and
+the most in demand of any in the United States. Over 100,000,000 tons
+of this ore have been mined in the lake region within the last forty
+years. Owing to its great bulk and weight it is nearly all carried by
+water; the estimated capital engaged in mining and transporting the
+ore to the 120 furnaces in Ohio, Pennsylvania, Buffalo and Chicago
+is about $234,000,000.<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a>
+But for the number and the size of the steamers thus employed, and the
+facilities now in use for loading and unloading them, the trade could
+not exist. The largest vessels in the iron ore trade are regularly
+loaded in three or four hours; 2,500 tons of ore have been loaded into
+a vessel of that capacity in an hour and three-quarters.<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Erie Canal.</span></h3>
+
+<p>This great artificial waterway, lying wholly in the State of New York,
+and under State management, connects Buffalo with the Hudson River at
+Albany. Although of comparatively limited capacity, it is to-day the
+most formidable rival the St. Lawrence route has to compete with in the
+transportation of freight from the west to the seaboard. The Erie was
+first opened for traffic in the same year as the first Lachine Canal
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span>
+(1825). It was originally 363 miles long, with eighty-three locks, each
+90 feet by 15 feet, and 4 feet depth of water.</p>
+
+<p>The first enlargement of this canal was commenced in 1836 and completed
+in 1862, at a cost of $44,465,414, making the entire cost up to the
+last-named date over $50,000,000. It is now 351¾ miles in length, 70
+feet wide on the surface and 56 feet wide at the bottom having 72
+locks, each 110 feet by 18 feet, and 7 feet deep. The limit of the
+canal for navigation, however, is only 6 feet of water, restricting its
+use to vessels of 240 tons capacity, say, 8,000 bushels of wheat.</p>
+
+<p>Navigation has hitherto been carried on by horse traction—the boats
+running in pairs—and by small steam tugs towing three or four boats,
+after them. The tug often pushes one boat ahead and tows the others
+behind. In this latter way a load of 900 tons will be moved at an
+average pace of about 2½ miles per hour while in motion. Including
+lockages, the distance from Buffalo to New York may be covered in nine
+or ten days. The boats are about 98 feet long and 17 feet 5 inches
+wide. They make on the average about seven round trips in the season.
+The average price received for the transportation of wheat in this
+manner from Buffalo to New York is about 3½ cents per bushel, which
+allows a fair margin of profit to the boatman.</p>
+
+<p>Experiments have been made for the application of electricity to the
+traction of the boats, with promise of further development. In the
+meantime considerable importance is attached to the installation of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span>
+electric telephone communication from one end of the line to the
+other, whereby instant communication can be had with the section
+superintendents, the lock tenders and other officials. The system
+is devised solely for the use of the canal officials, and will be
+invaluable in sudden emergencies caused by accidents to the boats,
+leaks, breaks, or other disasters that may occur and interfere with the
+navigation of the canal.</p>
+
+<p>For some time past western shippers have been testing the feasibility
+of establishing a through line of transportation from the Great Lakes
+to New York by way of the Erie Canal without the delay and expense
+of transhipment at Buffalo. In 1895 this idea was worked out by the
+construction of a fleet of steel canal boats, consisting of one steamer
+and five consorts, by the Cleveland Steel Canal Boat Company of Ohio.
+Several fleets of this kind have since been put in operation, and the
+projectors believe that they have demonstrated the practicability of
+thus carrying freight to the seaboard from any of the western lakes
+at a fair margin of profit and in successful competition with the
+railways. These steel barges have encountered severe storms on the
+lakes without any serious damage to the boats or their cargoes. The
+cost of the tug boat is about $15,000, and of each consort about
+$6,000. The time occupied by the steel fleet from Cleveland to New York
+has been from ten to twelve days.</p>
+
+<p>The second enlargement of the Erie Canal, now in progress and nearing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span>
+completion, will afford greatly increased facilities for
+transportation, by increasing the depth from 7 to 9 feet and doubling
+and lengthening all the locks. There will be no increase in the width
+of the locks nor in the length of the boats navigating the canal, but
+two boats (which form a horse-tow) will be locked through at once, and
+by the locks being doubled, side by side, no boats will have to wait
+for others coming in an opposite direction. The cargo will be increased
+by the greater depth of water in boats of the same size, more deeply
+loaded, and the traction will be so improved that boats will run easier
+and faster. The amount of freight carried on the Erie Canal—east and
+west—in the year 1896 was 2,742,438 tons.<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a>
+The amount transported on the Welland Canal for that year was 1,279,987 tons.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Canadian Commerce on the Great Lakes.</span></h3>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the large amount of money expended by the Canadian
+Government upon its unrivalled St. Lawrence canals and the deepening
+of its waterways, the volume of western traffic that comes this way is
+as yet disappointingly small. The great bulk of the trade in western
+produce, Canadian and American, finds its way to the seaboard in
+American vessels by way of Buffalo, Oswego and Ogdensburg to New York
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span>
+and Boston. What effect the deepening of the canals to fourteen feet
+will have on this deviation from the “natural outlet” remains to be seen.</p>
+
+<p>From a statement kindly furnished by Mr. T. F. Taylor, Marine Inspector
+at Kingston, it appears that the number of companies in Canada having
+steamers and other craft engaged in the commerce of the Great Lakes
+is twenty-four. Three of these go no farther than the head of Lake
+Ontario, three extend their operations to Lake Erie, five to Lake
+Huron, and thirteen to Lake Superior. Five steamers are employed on
+Lake Erie, thirteen on Lake Huron, twenty-six navigate the waters
+of Lake Superior. About one-half of these steamers are first-class
+steel freight and passenger vessels of from 1,200 to 2,600 tons each.
+A few of them pass through the Welland Canal and have their cargoes
+transhipped into barges at Kingston or Prescott. Others connect with
+lines of railway at Sault Ste. Marie, Owen Sound, Collingwood, Windsor
+and Sarnia. Occasionally one or two of the smaller ones run through to
+Montreal. Besides the steamers, there are employed in the lakes’ grain
+trade twenty-one lake barges, each of 50,000 bushels capacity, and
+fourteen tug steamers. There is also a fleet of about sixty-two sailing
+vessels trading between the Upper Lakes and Kingston, and some sixty
+or seventy barges employed in transporting grain from that port to Montreal.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="ALBERTA" id="ALBERTA"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_285.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="376" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">C. P. R. SS. “ALBERTA,” 1883.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span>
+On the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway the company formed
+a line of freight and passenger steamers of their own, consisting of
+the <i>Algoma</i>, the <i>Alberta</i> and the <i>Athabasca</i>. The <i>Algoma</i>
+had sailed the lakes previous to this under different names. The other two
+are fine steel ships, built by Aitken &amp; Co. of Glasgow, in 1883. They
+are each 270 feet long and 2,300 tons burthen, fitted with all modern
+improvements in their machinery and with excellent accommodation for
+a large number of passengers. They commenced their work in 1884 and
+have been very successful and popular. The <i>Algoma</i> was unfortunately
+wrecked off Isle Royale in Lake Superior in November, 1885, during a
+fearful snow-storm that swept over the lake, when many lives were lost.
+She was replaced by the <i>Manitoba</i>, a very fine vessel built of steel
+at Owen Sound by the Polson Ship-building Company. The <i>Manitoba</i> is
+the largest Canadian steamer on the lakes, being 300 feet long and
+2,600 tons burthen. By means of these steamers a regular and most
+satisfactory summer service is maintained once a week from Windsor
+and Sarnia, and twice a week from Owen Sound and Sault Ste. Marie to
+Fort William. Their capacity for the transportation of grain is about
+400,000 bushels a month.</p>
+
+<p>The Montreal Transportation Company, founded in 1868, is the oldest
+of the existing forwarding companies, and does the largest amount
+of business. Their fleet consists at present of three steamers, six
+tug-boats, six lake barges and thirty-two river barges. Two of the
+steamers, the <i>Bannockburn</i> and the <i>Rosemount</i>, are first-class steel
+ships, built at Newcastle-on-Tyne, about 250 feet in length, 40 feet
+beam, with a carrying capacity of 75,000 bushels of wheat. The lake
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span>
+barges play an important part as “consorts” to the steamers. They
+resemble in appearance so many large dismasted schooners, and serve
+their purpose economically and well so long as they keep in tow, but
+when they break loose, as they occasionally do when overtaken by a gale
+of wind, they become unmanageable and are apt to come to grief. This
+company with its present equipment handles about 250,000 bushels of
+grain per month.</p>
+
+<p>The North-West Transportation Company, dating from 1871, and otherwise
+known as the “Beatty Line,” has two fine passenger and freight
+steamers, the <i>Monarch</i> and the <i>United Empire</i>, of 1,600 tons and
+1,400 tons respectively, forming a weekly line from Windsor and Sarnia
+to Fort William and Duluth, in connection with the Grand Trunk Railway;
+they forward about 200,000 bushels of grain per month.</p>
+
+<p>The Hagarty and Crangle Line, running between ports at the head of
+lakes Superior and Michigan to ports on the River St. Lawrence, has two
+large steel steamers, the <i>Algonquin</i> and the <i>Rosedale</i>, on the Upper
+Lakes, and the steamer <i>Persia</i> which plies between the head of Lake
+Ontario and Montreal. Hamilton has three “Merchants Lines” in the Upper
+Lakes’ shipping business—Mackay’s, Fairgreaves’, and Thomas Myles
+&amp; Sons, owning in addition to other lake craft such fine steel and
+composite steamers as the <i>Sir L. Tilley</i>, <i>Lake Michigan</i>,
+<i>Arabian</i> and the <i>Myles</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The Calvin Company’s Line, of Garden Island, Kingston, has four
+steamers, four lake barges, and four tug steamers running between Lake
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span>
+Superior ports, Kingston and Montreal. The Collins Bay Rafting Company
+has on the same route three steamers, three lake barges, and two tug
+steamers. The Jacques &amp; Co.’s Line has two steamers running from the
+head of Lake Erie and one from the head of Lake Ontario to Montreal.</p>
+
+<p>The Great Northern Transit Company, with headquarters at Collingwood,
+has four freight and passenger steamers—the <i>Majestic</i>, <i>Pacific</i>,
+<i>Atlantic</i>, and <i>Northern Belle</i>—keeping up a well-appointed service
+twice a week from Collingwood to Sault Ste. Marie, and having
+connection with the Northern Railway to Toronto. The <i>Majestic</i>, built
+at Collingwood, is a steel screw steamer, 230 feet long, 36 feet wide,
+1,600 tons register, and cost $125,000. She has compound condensing
+engines of 1,200 horse-power, and is fitted up internally with great
+elegance. The North Shore Navigation Company has five excellent
+steamers plying on the Georgian Bay and northern shores of Lake Huron
+from Collingwood and Owen Sound to Sault Ste. Marie and Mackinac
+Island, where connections are made with American lines of steamers to
+Chicago and other ports on Lake Michigan. The steamers are the <i>City
+of Collingwood</i>, 1,400 tons; <i>City of Midland</i>, 1,300 tons; <i>City of
+Toronto</i>, 800 tons; <i>City of Parry Sound</i> and <i>City of London</i>,
+each 600 tons.</p>
+
+<p>Reference will be made hereafter to steamers plying on Lake Ontario and
+the River St. Lawrence.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The Transportation Business.</span></h3>
+
+<p>In the matter of transportation it may be interesting to learn how a
+consignment of wheat is “handled” from the time it leaves the field
+in Manitoba, where it is grown, until it reaches its destination in
+Liverpool or London. When there were only a few hundred thousand
+bushels to be sent to the seaboard, the means of transport were very
+simple and primitive. It was carried on men’s backs from one conveyance
+to another, and floated down rivers or shallow canals in small boats or
+on rafts of timber. But when the thousands became millions the problem
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span>
+of cheap transportation became a serious one. American ingenuity rose
+to the occasion and invented the most marvellous of labour-saving
+appliances—<span class="smcap">THE GRAIN ELEVATOR</span>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="ELEVATOR" id="ELEVATOR"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_289.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="444" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">C. P. R. GRAIN ELEVATOR AT FORT WILLIAM, ONT.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The farmer sells his crop of wheat to the grain-dealer, and carts
+it, say, to Brandon, where the purchaser takes delivery of it at his
+elevator. Let us examine this thing somewhat minutely, taking by
+way of illustration one of the elevators belonging to the Canadian
+Pacific Railway Company at Montreal. It is a medium-sized one, having
+capacity for storing about 600,000 bushels of grain. The same company’s
+elevators at Fort William and Port Arthur are much larger, having
+capacity for 1,500,000 bushels. In Chicago and Buffalo there are
+elevators of three millions of bushels capacity; but, whether larger or
+smaller, in their main features they are all alike.</p>
+
+<p>The elevator is a wooden structure of great strength. Its massive stone
+foundations rest on piles imbedded in concrete. The framework is so
+thoroughly braced and bolted together as to give it the rigidity of a
+solid cube, enabling it to resist the enormous pressure to which it
+is subjected when filled with 18,000 tons of wheat. The building is
+210 feet long, 80 feet wide, and 142 feet in height from basement to
+the peak of the roof. Including the steam-engine (built at the C. P. R.
+works) of 240 horse-power, the entire cost of this elevator was
+$150,000. It consists of three distinct compartments—for receiving,
+storing, and delivering grain. On the ground floor are two lines of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span>
+rails by which the cars have ingress and egress. The general appearance
+of this flat is that of a bewildering array of ponderous posts and
+beams, shafting, cog-wheels, pulleys and belts, blocks and tackle,
+chutes, and the windlasses for hauling in and out the cars, for a
+locomotive with its dangerous sparks may not cross the threshold.
+Beneath this, in the basement, are the receiving tanks, thirty-five
+feet apart from centre to centre, corresponding to the length of the
+cars. Of these there are nine, enabling that number of cars to be
+simultaneously unloaded. This is quickly done by a shovel worked by
+machinery, with the aid of two men, the grain falling through an iron
+grating in the floor into the tank. The elevator has nine “legs.”
+The leg is an upright box, 12 inches by 24 inches, extending from
+the bottom of the tank to the top of the building; inside of it is a
+revolving belt with buckets attached 15½ inches apart. The belt is
+256 feet long, and as it makes 36 revolutions per minute, each bucket
+containing one-third of a bushel, each leg is able to raise 5,250
+bushels per hour.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a>
+A car is unloaded and its contents hoisted into the upper regions in
+fifteen minutes. When all the legs are at work 30,000 bushels are
+handled in an hour.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The four-story house on top of the granary contains a number of
+different mechanisms. In the uppermost flat the leg’s revolving
+belt turns round a pulley and discharges the grain into a receiving
+hopper on the next floor. From this it is withdrawn to the weighing
+hopper, nicely balanced on a Fairbanks beam-scale, having a capacity
+for 30,000 pounds or 500 bushels of wheat, which is weighed with as
+much exactitude as is a pound of tea by the grocer. At either end of
+this room there is a separating machine in which the grain can be
+thoroughly cleansed by the removal of smut and dust. Underneath is the
+distributing room, with jointed pipes leading to the storage bins, of
+which there are one hundred, each 50 feet deep and 12 feet square,
+calculated to hold 6,000 bushels each. The process of withdrawing the
+grain from the bins, strange to say, is a repetition of that just
+described. It must go down into the cellar, and up again to the attic,
+and pass through the weighing machine and thence to the car, the barge,
+or the ship. A car of 600 bushels can be loaded in three minutes. The
+most singular part of the whole apparatus is the “carrier” by which the
+grain is conveyed from the elevator to the vessel lying at the wharf,
+260 feet off. The carrier is an endless four-ply rubber belt, 515 feet
+long and 36 inches wide, upon which the grain is dropped and carried to
+its destination. The difficulty of comprehending why the grain is not
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span>
+shaken off that flat, rapidly revolving belt is not lessened by the
+explanation given, that it is held in place by the concentrative
+attraction of the particles in motion. But from whatever cause, the
+grain clings to the belt, and may be carried in this way any distance,
+and in all manner of directions, turning sharp corners and even going
+over the roofs of houses if they stand in the way. The elevator in
+question delivers by “carrier” from 8,000 to 10,000 bushels an hour.
+There are over 50 such elevators in New York, only of much larger
+capacity; Buffalo has 52, with a storage capacity of over 15,000,000
+bushels; Chicago, 21; Duluth and Superior, 9 each. There are elevators
+in Buffalo that can take grain out of a vessel at the rate of 25,000
+bushels an hour.</p>
+
+<p>A Duluth paper of May 21st, 1898, says: “Globe elevator No. 1 carries
+the broom for rapid loading this year, and the record made yesterday
+has probably never been equalled. The steamer <i>Queen City</i> loaded there
+yesterday morning, taking 185,000 bushels in 180 minutes.”</p>
+
+<p>Now, suppose that an order has reached Brandon for a shipment of
+220,000 bushels of wheat,<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a>
+to be forwarded to Montreal <i>via</i> the St. Lawrence route. The initial
+cost of receiving, storing for a given time and delivery from the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span>
+Brandon elevator is three cents per bushel. It must be hauled from
+Brandon to Fort William, a distance of 559 miles by railway. The
+consignment is the produce of 11,000 acres and weighs 6,600 tons. It
+will load 330 box-cars, each containing 40,000 pounds. As each car
+weighs about 25,000 pounds, the entire weight to be moved by rail will
+be 10,725 tons. Until quite recently, twenty cars of wheat made up an
+average train load, but with the powerful locomotives now in use twice
+that number may be taken at a load. A safe estimate for this particular
+shipment will be ten trains of thirty-three cars each, the gross weight
+of engine, tender and train being about 1,100 tons.<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a>
+The cost of transport from Brandon to Fort William, at the summer rate of
+19 cents per 100 pounds, will be 11.40 cents per bushel. By means of
+the elevator at Fort William it is transhipped to lake vessels. A large
+propeller takes on board 70,000 bushels; the balance is stored away in
+three barges containing 50,000 bushels each. The propeller takes the
+trio in tow and proceeds on its long voyage of 1,200 miles through Lake
+Superior, the “Soo” Canal, lakes Huron and Erie, the Welland Canal and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span>
+Lake Ontario to Kingston, in seven days. The cost of transportation
+from Fort William to Kingston is from three to four cents per bushel,
+and to Montreal two cents more. At Kingston floating elevators come
+alongside the propeller and her consorts, and quickly transfer
+their cargoes into lighters carrying from 20,000 to 30,000 bushels
+each.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a>
+The fleet of nine or ten river barges is towed down the St. Lawrence,
+passing through the Cornwall, Beauharnois and Lachine canals to
+Montreal, 1,940 miles from Brandon by this route. They are laid
+alongside the ocean steamers in pairs, one opposite the forehatch and
+the other at the afterhatch, and their contents are poured into the
+big ship at the rate of 8,000 to 10,000 bushels per hour. The average
+rate to Liverpool is about 5¼ cents per bushel, bringing up the total
+cost of transportation from Brandon to Britain to, say, 22¼ cents per bushel.
+The first shipment of wheat from Manitoba to Britain was made in October, 1877.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Mr. Hugh McLennan, the president of the Montreal Transportation
+Company, is also one of the most extensive shippers of grain in Canada.
+No better illustration can be found anywhere of the man who is the
+architect of his own fortune. Mr. McLennan was born in the County of
+Glengarry in 1825. His father’s family came from Ross-shire, Scotland,
+in 1802, and his mother’s family were United Empire Loyalists, who
+settled in Glengarry at the close of the American War of Independence.</p>
+
+<p>After serving some years in the hardware business in Montreal, Mr.
+McLennan joined the mail steamer Canada, as purser, under Captain
+Lawless. In 1850 he started business on his own account in Kingston,
+as wharfinger and shipping agent. During that season he united with
+some others in organizing a steamboat line to run between Kingston
+and Montreal, in the furtherance of which enterprise he removed to
+Montreal in 1851, adding the business of general shipping agent. In the
+year 1854 he was joined by his elder brother John, when they entered
+extensively into the grain trade, Mr. McLennan going to Chicago in
+connection with that business. In 1867 he returned to Montreal, and
+organized the Montreal Transportation Company, of which he has been
+president to the present time.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="A_ALLEN" id="A_ALLEN"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_296.jpg" alt="ANDREW ALLAN. W. W. OGILVIE. HUGH McLENNAN." width="400" height="582" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="space-above1 space-below3">Mr. McLennan’s name soon became
+identified with many of the leading enterprises of the city, as
+well as in its educational and benevolent institutions. He still
+continues his active connection with the transportation and grain
+export business, and by reason of his long connection has become an
+acknowledged authority in everything pertaining to the past history of
+these important branches of Canadian trade. He is an ex-president of
+the Board of Trade, and represented that organization upon the Harbour
+Board for a quarter of a century, resigning the position during the
+present season. He is a director of the Bank of Montreal, a governor
+of McGill University, and of the Montreal General Hospital, and is
+treasurer of the Sailors’ Institute. He is also an active member of the
+American Presbyterian Church.</p>
+
+<p>A large proportion of the wheat grown in the Western States and in
+Canada is made into flour and transported in that form to eastern and
+foreign markets. Minneapolis, in the State of Minnesota, claims to
+be the greatest flour manufacturing centre in the world. Its milling
+capacity is said to be 54,800 barrels daily. Its actual output in
+1895 was 10,581,633 barrels. Although Canada may not compare with
+Minneapolis in its annual output of flour, she claims to have the
+largest individual miller in the world, in the person of W. W. Ogilvie,
+of Montreal. Mr. William Watson Ogilvie was born at St. Michel, near
+Montreal, April 14th, 1836, being descended from a younger brother
+of the Earl of Angus, who, some centuries ago, was rewarded with the
+lands of Ogilvie, in Banffshire, and assumed the name of the estate.
+His immediate ancestors belonged to Stirlingshire, Scotland, his
+grandfather having come to this country in the year 1800.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The milling business now represented by Mr. Ogilvie was begun by
+his grandfather, who, in 1801, erected a mill at Jacques Cartier,
+near Quebec, and also one at the Lachine Rapids, in 1808. In 1860
+he became a member of the firm of A. W. Ogilvie &amp; Co., then formed,
+whose transactions in grain soon became very extensive, resulting in
+the building of the “Glenora Mills,” at Montreal, and others of large
+capacity at Goderich, Seaforth and Winnipeg. On the death of Mr. John
+Ogilvie, in 1888, Senator A. W. Ogilvie, having retired in 1874, Mr.
+W. W. became the sole member of the firm, and has since proved himself
+a man of marvellous executive ability. He went to Hungary to see
+the roller process at work, where it came into use in 1868, and was
+one of the first to introduce it into this country. He acquired by
+purchase the famous Gould Mills in Montreal, at a cost of $250,000,
+thus adding 1,100 barrels to his daily milling capacity, which, at the
+present time, is about 9,000 barrels a day. The annual output of Mr.
+Ogilvie’s mills is about 2,500,000 barrels. About 30 per cent. of that
+amount is exported to different European countries; and, recently, a
+demand has arisen in Japan, Australia, and even in the Fiji Islands,
+for “Ogilvie’s Hungarian flour.” The balance is sold in all parts of
+the Dominion. Mr. Ogilvie purchases between four and five millions of
+bushels of wheat annually, and is rich in elevators, having as many as
+sixty-nine of these for his own special use in various parts of the
+country. In carrying on his extensive business he occasionally charters
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span>
+whole fleets of lake steamers and barges, and it is said of
+him that he is as fair in his business methods as he is
+generous in his charities. Mr. Ogilvie is a director of
+the Bank of Montreal, ex-President of the Montreal
+Board of Trade, and largely interested in several of
+the leading commercial interests of Canada.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Deeper Waterways.</span></h3>
+
+<p>The enlargement of the St. Lawrence and Erie canals cannot fail to
+prove advantageous to the inland shipping trade; but, so far from
+solving the question of “cheapest transportation,” it seems rather to
+have accentuated the demand for greater facilities of a like kind. The
+cry for “deeper waterways” has been in the air for many years, but
+never has it been louder than just now. The first enlargement of the
+St. Mary’s Falls Canal in 1881, and the subsequent deepening of the
+channels connecting the Upper Lakes had the effect, almost immediately,
+of doubling the tonnage of vessels plying the lakes and of producing a
+corresponding reduction in the rates of freight. The increase of the
+commerce of the lakes, incredible to those who are not engaged in it,
+and what appears to be its limitless future, have been keenly discussed
+in conventions as well as on the floors of Parliament and Congress
+for a number of years past, but it was only in 1894 that the movement
+assumed an organized form.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>At a meeting held in Toronto in September, 1894, there was formed
+“The International Deep Waterways Association,” the declared object
+of which was “to promote the union of the lakes and the high seas by
+waterways of the greatest practicable capacity and usefulness; and
+recognizing the supreme utility of such waterways’ development.” At
+that meeting it was resolved: “That the depth of all channels through
+the lakes and their seaboard connections be not less than twenty-one
+feet, and that all permanent structures be designed on a basis not less
+than twenty-six feet, in order that the greater depth may be quickly
+and cheaply obtained whenever demanded by the future necessities of
+commerce.”</p>
+
+<p>On the 8th of February, 1895, it was resolved by the Senate and
+House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress
+assembled, “That the President is authorized to appoint three persons
+who shall have power to meet and confer with any similar committee
+which may be appointed by the Government of Great Britain or the
+Dominion of Canada, and who shall make inquiry and report whether it is
+feasible to build such canals as shall enable vessels engaged in ocean
+commerce to pass to and fro between the Great Lakes and the Atlantic
+Ocean, where such canals can be most conveniently located, and the
+probable cost of the same, with estimates in detail; and if any part of
+the same should be built on the territory of Canada, what regulations
+or treaty arrangements will be necessary between the United States and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span>
+Great Britain to preserve the free use of such canals to the people of
+this country at all times.”</p>
+
+<p>By an order of Council dated at Ottawa, 14th December, 1895, Messrs.
+O. A. Howland, M.P.P., of Toronto, Thomas C. Keefer, C.E., and Thomas
+Munro, C.E., of Ottawa, were appointed Commissioners on behalf of the
+Canadian Government to meet and confer with the Commissioners appointed
+by the President of the United States on this important subject.</p>
+
+<p>Several meetings of this International Waterways Commission have
+been held, a good deal of money has been spent in preliminary
+surveys, and reports favourable to the proposal, embodying much
+exceedingly interesting information as to the amount and rapid growth
+of the commerce of the lakes, have been submitted to the respective
+Governments. The American Commissioners favour the construction of
+a series of ship canals connecting Lake Erie with the seaboard,
+suggesting that the minimum depth of navigable water should be 28 feet,
+with canal locks 560 feet long and 64 feet wide. They present a choice
+of routes: (1) “The natural route” <i>via</i> the St. Lawrence to Montreal,
+and <i>via</i> Lake Champlain to the Hudson River. (2) <i>Via</i> Lake Ontario to
+Oswego and thence through the Mohawk Valley to Troy on the Hudson. The
+latter would be entirely through United States territory; the former
+would necessarily be of an international character, and preferable,
+provided that satisfactory treaty arrangements could be effected for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span>
+the settlement of any differences that might arise between the two
+Governments interested. In either case the construction of a ship canal
+at Niagara Falls on the American side of the river is judged to be
+necessary. The international route would involve a ship canal from some
+point below Ogdensburg to near the boundary line on Lake St. Francis,
+and thence through Canadian territory to Lake Champlain.</p>
+
+<p>The Canadian Commissioners in general terms endorse the international
+proposal as the one “which would give an opportunity of doing what our
+canals were intended to do, but have failed to do, that is, to obtain
+the maximum amount of the western trade for the St. Lawrence route.”
+It is agreed that the class of vessels adapted to the Welland and St.
+Lawrence canals, limited to a draft of fourteen feet, can never compete
+successfully with the large United States vessels plying on the Upper
+Lakes; and the fact that these large United States vessels are unable
+to leave the Upper Lakes, “seems to embrace the whole ‘Deep Waterways’
+question in a nutshell.”<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p>
+
+<p>Regarding Montreal as a seaport and the natural outlet for the commerce
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span>
+of the West, it is conceded that its harbour accommodation must be
+largely increased, that it should be furnished with the best known
+appliances for the storage and shipment of grain, and that the
+navigable channel to Quebec be deepened to at least thirty feet and the
+Welland Canal to at least twenty feet.</p>
+
+<p>The project of enlarged ship canals to connect the Great Lakes with the
+Atlantic Ocean is a magnificent one. Its advantages have been skilfully
+set forth. There are no insurmountable engineering difficulties in
+the way of its accomplishment, but it is still in nubibus. Apart from
+the complications necessarily attending an international work of this
+magnitude, it is not likely that it will be entered upon until the
+results to commerce of the enlargement of existing canals in both
+countries have been fairly tested.</p>
+
+<p>In estimating the comparative merits of Montreal and New York, or any
+other American port on the North Atlantic coast, it may be assumed
+that the average summer rate of freight upon a bushel of wheat by
+either route from the head of the Upper Lakes to Liverpool is almost
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span>
+identical.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a>
+But it must be borne in mind that grain shipped <i>via</i> Buffalo, whether
+by rail or canal, may be stored at the American seaboard, to be shipped
+at any time during the winter that may be desirable, thus placing the
+Montreal route at a disadvantage. The rates of marine insurance are
+also said to be in favour of New York. Another argument in favour of
+the route to New York <i>via</i> Buffalo is that the Erie Canal is open for
+navigation from three to four weeks later in the autumn than the St.
+Lawrence canals, a fact of great importance to the Western farmer who
+wishes to dispose of as much of his crop as possible before the close
+of navigation.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Montreal, Ottawa and Georgian Bay Canal.</span></h3>
+
+<p>This latest canal project is the revival of a proposal that was
+entertained by the Canadian Government many years ago, and upon which
+there was spent a good deal of money, but which was subsequently
+abandoned in favour of the St. Lawrence route. Mr. Macleod Stewart,
+ex-Mayor of Ottawa, and a man of great energy as well as of influence,
+is the chief promoter of the present enterprise. At his instance a
+company of British capitalists has been formed for the purpose of
+constructing and operating a system of canals to complete a through
+waterway from Montreal to the Great Lakes along the course of the
+Ottawa and Mattawa rivers, Lake Nipissing and French River to the
+Georgian Bay, Lake Huron—following precisely the track of the early
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span>
+voyageurs. The chief advantage claimed for this route, from a
+commercial point of view, is that it is by far the shortest that can be
+devised from the Upper Lakes to the seaboard. Owing to the directness
+of the route it would effect a saving in distance of 450 miles over the
+Erie Canal route, and of 375 over the Welland and St. Lawrence route.</p>
+
+<p>The total distance by the proposed route from Montreal to the waters
+of Lake Huron is 430 miles, requiring, it is said, the construction of
+only twenty-nine miles of canal, in addition to the existing canals,
+to complete a through waterway adapted to the navigation of vessels
+of 1,000 tons burthen and drawing ten feet of water. Assuming the
+estimated cost not to exceed $25,000,000, it is represented in the
+company’s prospectus as an investment holding out the prospect of
+becoming a fairly remunerative commercial enterprise. It is further
+advanced in favour of the immediate prosecution of the work, that
+this route, being cooler and more sheltered than the lakes’ route,
+would enable grain and cattle to be taken through in better condition;
+that the rate of insurance would be less; that it would render
+available immense natural forces in the waters of the Ottawa and its
+tributaries; and, especially, that owing to its distance from the
+international boundary it would, in case of war, be of the highest
+military importance, and prove of great value as a means of defence
+and of protection to our commerce. Provided that the necessary funds
+are forthcoming, there are said to be no engineering difficulties to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span>
+prevent the work being completed in three years’ time. On the other
+hand, it is alleged that a canal system limited to a draft of ten feet
+would not meet the present-day requirements, and could not be expected
+to compete successfully with one offering fourteen feet, even if the
+distance to be traversed would be shorter. Grain merchants, East and
+West, hold strongly to the opinion that the route which will bring the
+largest class of vessels navigating the Great Lakes to the seaboard at
+least expense is the route that will capture the trade. A ship canal
+for the Ottawa route, having twenty-five to thirty feet depth of water,
+with locks of 500 to 600 feet in length, would seem to offer many
+advantages, though in the estimation of the Deep Waterways Commission
+“its consideration is not now justified.”</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span></p>
+<div class="chapter"><h2>CHAPTER X.<br /><span class="h_subtitle">IN THE PROVINCES OF THE DOMINION.</span></h2></div>
+
+<p class="center">
+The History of Steam Navigation in the several Provinces<br /> of the Dominion and Newfoundland.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">In the Province of Quebec.</span></h3>
+
+<div>
+  <img class="drop-cap" src="images/letter_a.jpg" width="34" height="40" alt="A" />
+</div>
+<p class="drop-cap no-indent">
+AMONG the names of those who were chiefly connected with the
+introduction and development of steam navigation in this province may
+be mentioned the Hon. John Molson, Messrs. John and David Torrance, and
+George Brush.</p>
+
+<p>The founder of the Molson family and father of the steamboat enterprise
+in Canada came to this country from Lincolnshire, England, in 1782. Two
+years later he returned to Britain and raised money on his paternal
+estate to erect a brewery in Montreal. Subsequently he sold his English
+property, which enabled him to complete the Canadian enterprise that
+eventually grew into an extensive and lucrative business. Mr. Molson
+was an excellent business man and did much to advance the commercial
+and educational interests of his adopted country. He was President of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span>
+the Bank of Montreal from June, 1826, till his death, which occurred
+in Montreal in 1836, in his seventy-second year. He was also an
+influential member of the Executive Council of Lower Canada. His son,
+the late Hon. John Molson, who inherited his father’s enthusiasm in
+regard to steamboats and shipping, also took a prominent part in the
+introduction of railways in Canada. The Molsons Bank and the William
+Molson Hall of McGill University are fitting memorials of the family in
+Montreal.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="TORRANCE" id="TORRANCE"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_308.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="595" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">JOHN TORRANCE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span>
+The Torrances are a “Border” family. The late Mr. John Torrance was
+born at Gatehouse, in the Shire of Galloway, Scotland, June 8th, 1786.
+Early in the century he came to Canada, and before long established a
+wholesale business in Montreal and founded the eminent firm of John
+Torrance &amp; Co. His elder brother Thomas had preceded him in Montreal,
+and was at the head of a large and lucrative business, residing at
+Belmont Hall, which he built, and which was at that time considered
+a palatial mansion. On his removal to Quebec this fine property was
+acquired by a member of the Molson family. Mr. David Torrance, a
+nephew of Mr. John Torrance, was born in New York in 1805. He came to
+reside in Montreal about the year 1821, and became a partner in his
+uncle’s firm. He was a man of exceptional business capacity, energy
+and enterprise, and did much to advance the commercial interests
+of Montreal and Canada. In 1826 this firm purchased the steamboat
+<i>Hercules</i> and placed her on the Montreal and Quebec route, in the
+double capacity of a tow-boat and passenger steamer—this being the
+first step towards the vigorous opposition to the Molson line of
+steamers that ensued. They were also the first in Canada to branch
+out into direct trade with the East Indies and China. Mr. David
+Torrance died in Montreal, January 29th, 1876. His son, Mr. John
+Torrance, now the senior member of the firm of David Torrance &amp; Co.,
+was born in Montreal in August, 1835. He has had the Montreal agency
+of the Dominion Line of steamships for many years, and is otherwise
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span>
+extensively occupied in the shipping business. It may be added that
+after the death of Mr. John Torrance, <i>primus</i>, in 1870, the name of
+the firm was changed to David Torrance &amp; Co., which it still retains.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Brush was a native of Vermont, born at Vergennes, in 1793. After
+some time spent in mercantile pursuits, he engaged in boat-building
+and navigation on Lake Champlain, and became captain of a steamer
+plying between St. John’s and Whitehall. He afterwards had command of
+some of Mr. Torrance’s steamers on the St. Lawrence. In 1834 he became
+manager of the Ottawa and Rideau Forwarding Company, and resided in
+Kingston until 1838, when he joined the Wards in the Eagle Foundry,
+Montreal, of which he became the sole proprietor in 1840. Mr. Brush
+died in Montreal, at the advanced age of ninety years and two months.
+The following extracts from memoranda left by him are interesting and
+valuable:</p>
+
+<p>“The steam-engines for the <i>Swiftsure</i> (1813), the <i>Malsham</i> (1814),
+the <i>Car of Commerce</i> (1816), and the <i>Lady Sherbrooke</i> (1817), were
+all made by Bolton &amp; Watt, of Soho, England, who would not allow more
+than <i>four pounds</i> pressure of steam; and a hand-pipe was used to feed
+the boilers by gravitation. The first steam-engine built in Canada was
+in 1819, for the <i>Montreal</i>, a small ferry-boat, of about fourteen
+horse-power, built by John D. Ward, at the Eagle Foundry. In 1823
+the merchants of Montreal formed a stock company for the purpose of
+building tow-boats. I was employed by that company to build their boats.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span>
+The first (the <i>Hercules</i>) we built in Munn’s shipyard, about where
+H. &amp; A. Allan’s office now stands. The <i>Hercules</i> was fitted with an
+engine of one hundred horse-power, built by J. D. Ward &amp; Co., at the
+Eagle Foundry, on the Bolton &amp; Watt low-pressure principle. Under my
+command the <i>Hercules</i> commenced towing vessels in May, 1824, when she
+towed up the ship <i>Margaret</i> of Liverpool from Quebec to Montreal and
+up the current of St. Mary’s—the first ship so towed up. Our company
+also built the steamers <i>British America</i>, <i>St. George</i> and <i>Canada</i>,
+of about 150 horse-power each.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="QUEBEC" id="QUEBEC"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_311.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="324" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">STEAMER “QUEBEC” AND CITADEL.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>“In 1838-39 the Imperial Government built a steam frigate here, called
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span>
+the <i>Sydenham</i>. It was engined by Ward, Brush &amp; Co., with a pair of
+side-lever engines, and proved to be one of the fastest vessels in the
+Royal navy of that time.”</p>
+
+<p>Connected with Mr. Brush there is a good fish story, which is better
+authenticated than some of that class that have passed current. A
+pike-headed whale—the only one that is known to have visited these
+waters—followed some vessel up from sea into the harbour of Montreal,
+in September, 1823. Captain Brush rigged a boat and captured him with a
+harpoon. He was a beautiful specimen, measuring 39½ feet in length, and
+23 feet in circumference. His jaw-bones were for many years to be seen
+overarching the entrance to Gilbault’s Gardens, and there are those
+still living who remember having seen the carcase as it lay, far too
+long for sensitive nostrils, on the river bank.</p>
+
+<p>As already stated, Molson’s <i>Accommodation</i> began to ply between
+Montreal and Quebec in 1809—two years later than Fulton’s <i>Clermont</i>
+on the Hudson, and three years earlier than Bell’s <i>Comet</i> on the
+Clyde. The <i>Accommodation</i> proved a fairly successful commercial
+venture, although Mr. Molson did not obtain a monopoly of the business
+as Mr. Fulton had done. She was soon followed by the <i>Swiftsure</i>,
+the <i>Malsham</i>, the <i>Car of Commerce</i>, the <i>John Molson</i>, the
+<i>Lady Sherbrooke</i>, and other steamboats. The last-named was 170 feet long,
+34 feet beam, and 10 feet in depth, with a sixty-three horse-power
+side-lever engine. A much better service had now been instituted, for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span>
+up to about 1818 many preferred to drive all the way from Montreal to
+Quebec in caleches over rough roads. Now, however, that the steamboats
+had comfortable cabins, and canvas awnings over their decks, they
+secured nearly all the through passenger traffic. About the year 1823
+several powerful tow-boats were built, which also carried passengers.
+After these the <i>Waterloo</i> and the <i>John Molson</i> of the Molson Line,
+the <i>St. George</i>, the <i>British America</i> and the <i>Canada</i>, owned by
+John Torrance &amp; Co., and other boats of larger dimensions, having better
+passenger accommodation and higher speed, followed in rapid succession.
+The <i>Waterloo</i> foundered in Lake St. Peter, and was replaced by the
+<i>John Bull</i>, a fine boat of 190 feet in length, but which was burned
+in 1838. The <i>John Bull</i> used too much coal to be profitable, and
+the saying that she made most money when lying at anchor, arose from
+the fact that, anchored off the city, she was repeatedly used as the
+official residence of the Governor-General, Lord Durham. The <i>Canada</i>,
+which came out in 1837, was 240 feet long, and was accounted the
+largest and fastest steamer then afloat in the New World. In 1840 the
+<i>Lord Sydenham</i> (the former <i>Ontario</i>) and the <i>Lady Colborne</i> ran
+as the mail boats to Quebec. About 1845 several famous boats were
+built—the <i>Rowland Hill</i>, Mr. Torrance’s <i>Montreal</i>, Wilson Connoly’s
+<i>Quebec</i>, the <i>Queen</i> and the <i>John Munn</i>—all upper cabin boats of
+high speed. The <i>John Munn</i> was longer than any previous, or, indeed,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span>
+any subsequent, river steamer on the St. Lawrence, being 400 feet in
+length. Her boilers were placed on either guard, as the fashion then
+was, and a huge walking-beam in the centre. She was too large for the
+trade. After running a few years she was broken up, and her magnificent
+engines were sent to New York. The <i>Montreal</i>, also a large and fine
+steamer, was lost in a snow-storm near Batiscan, in November, 1853, and
+was replaced by the <i>Lord Sydenham</i>, afterwards lengthened to 250 feet,
+and renamed the <i>Montreal</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The first iron steamers came into use on the St. Lawrence in 1843,
+namely, the <i>Prince Albert</i> and <i>Iron Duke</i>, which at that time began
+to ply as ferry-boats to Laprairie and St. Lambert, in connection
+with the Champlain and St. Lawrence railway service. These boats were
+designed in Scotland, sent out in segments, and were put together by
+Parkins, of the St. Mary Foundry, Montreal.</p>
+
+<p>The Richelieu Steamboat Company, formed in 1845, commenced business by
+running a market boat to Sorel. In 1856 they put two small steamers on
+the through line to Quebec, the <i>Napoleon</i> and the <i>Victoria</i>. About
+this time Messrs. Tate Brothers, ship-builders, in Montreal, purchased
+the <i>Lady Colborne</i>, renamed her the <i>Crescent</i>, and coupling her with
+the <i>Lady Elgin</i>, started a fourth line of steamers to ply between
+Montreal and Quebec. The business had already been overdone, and this
+was the last straw that breaks the camel’s back. The opposition had
+gone far enough when it had reduced the cabin fare to $1.00, including
+meals and stateroom, and the steerage passage to 12½ cents! The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span>
+excitement that prevailed at this time was intense. The arrival
+and departure of the boats at either end of the route were scenes
+of indescribable confusion. Vast crowds of people assembled on the
+wharves, while clouds of smoke issuing from the funnels and the roar
+of escaping steam plainly indicated that the stokers were doing their
+level best to burst the boilers. This vicious and ruinous opposition
+was brought to an end by a tragic occurrence, the burning of the
+steamer <i>Montreal</i>.</p>
+
+<p>On a fine summer evening in June, 1857, while on her voyage from Quebec
+with a load of over 400 passengers, most of whom were emigrants from
+Scotland, who had just completed a long sea voyage, and were gazing
+with interest on the shores that in anticipation were to offer them
+happy homes, suddenly the cry of “Fire!” was raised. Clouds of smoke
+burst out from between decks. A panic ensued. Groups of men and women
+clung to each other in despair, imploring help that was not to be
+found; then a wild rush, with the terrible alternative of devouring
+flames and the cold water below. Two hundred and fifty-three persons
+perished; and all the more sadly that the calamity was traced by
+public opinion and the press of the day to “culpable recklessness
+and disregard of human life.” A truce to ruinous opposition ensued.
+An amicable arrangement was reached, by which superfluous boats were
+withdrawn. The bulk of the passenger business fell to the Richelieu
+Company, which continued for a number of years to do a lucrative trade,
+paying handsome annual dividends to its shareholders.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In 1875 an amalgamation was effected with the Canadian Steam Navigation
+Company (the old Upper Canada Line), under the name of the Richelieu
+and Ontario Navigation Company, which has become one of the largest
+enterprises of the kind in America, having a paid-up capital of
+$1,350,000, a fleet of twenty-four steamers, and operating a continuous
+line of navigation a thousand miles in length. The <i>Montreal</i> and
+<i>Quebec</i>, which ply between the cities from which they are named,
+though more than thirty years old, still have a high reputation for
+speed and comfort. They are each over 300 feet long, and have an
+average speed of about sixteen miles an hour. They have each ample
+sleeping accommodation for some 300 cabin passengers. They make their
+trips during the night. Supper on board either of these steamers is an
+event to be remembered.</p>
+
+<p>The head office of the Richelieu and Ontario Company is in Montreal.
+The General Manager is Mr. C. F. Gildersleeve. Mr. Alexander Milloy,
+the Traffic Manager, who was born in Kintyre, Scotland, in 1822, came
+to Canada in 1840, when he entered the Montreal office of the Upper
+Canada Line of mail steamers, and continued his connection with the company,
+amid all its changes, until May, 1898, when he retired from the service.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">On the Ottawa River.</span></h3>
+
+<p>The navigation of the Ottawa differed from that of the St. Lawrence
+in that its rapids were wholly impassable for boats with cargo. The
+necessity for canals thus became urgent. The original Grenville Canal
+was designed and commenced by the Royal Engineers for the Imperial
+Government, and was completed in 1832, simultaneously with the Rideau
+Canal. It was enlarged by the Dominion Government a few years ago, but
+it is not yet of sufficient capacity to allow the free passage of the
+larger steamers on this route. Travellers are therefore subject to
+transhipment at Carillon, and are conveyed by railway to Grenville, a
+distance of thirteen miles, where another steamer is ready to convey
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span>
+them to Ottawa. This little bit of railway is one of the oldest in
+Canada, and is further remarkable as being the only one of 5 feet 6
+inches gauge in the country. It was purchased by the Ottawa River
+Navigation Company in 1859, and is operated only in connection with
+their steamers, not being used in winter.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="SOVEREIGN" id="SOVEREIGN"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_317.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="355" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">OTTAWA RIVER STEAMER “SOVEREIGN.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The completion of the Grenville Canal in its original form opened up
+a new route to the West, somewhat circuitous, doubtless, but with
+greatly increased facilities for the transportation of merchandise, the
+immediate effect of which was to transfer the great bulk of west-bound
+traffic from the St. Lawrence route to that of the Ottawa and Rideau.
+About this time was formed “The Ottawa and Rideau Forwarding Company,”
+by leading merchants in Montreal, with Mr. Cushing as manager. A few
+years later the forwarding business became a lucrative one, and was
+carried on by a number of prominent firms represented at Montreal,
+Prescott, Brockville and Kingston. Chief among these were the Messrs.
+Macpherson, Crane &amp; Co., Hooker &amp; Jones, Henderson &amp; Hooker (afterwards
+Hooker &amp; Holton), H. &amp; J. Jones of Brockville, and Murray &amp; Sanderson
+of Montreal. Messrs. Macpherson and Crane were easily the foremost in
+the enterprise, for they owned a private lock at Vaudreuil and thus
+held the key to the navigation of the Ottawa, and had complete control
+of the towage until 1841, when Captain R. W. Shepherd, then in command
+of the steamer <i>St. David</i>, belonging to a rival company, as the result
+of a clever and hazardous experiment, discovered a safe channel through
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span>
+the rapids at St. Ann’s, which put an end to the monopoly.</p>
+
+<p>Up to 1832 the long portage between Carillon and Grenville was a
+serious drawback to traffic, necessitating a double service of steamers
+and barges, one for the upper and one for the lower reach of the
+river. The first steamer on the upper reach seems to have been the
+<i>Union</i>, Captain Johnson, built in 1819, and which commenced to ply the
+following year between Grenville and Hull, covering the distance of
+sixty miles in about 24 hours! On the lower reach the <i>William King</i>
+began to ply about 1826 or 1827, at first commanded by Captain Johnson,
+afterwards by Captain De Hertel. The <i>St. Andrew</i> followed soon after.
+In 1828 the <i>Shannon</i>, then considered a large and powerful steamer,
+was built at Hawkesbury and placed on the upper route, commanded at
+first by Captain Grant and afterwards by Captain Kaines.</p>
+
+<p>At the height of the forwarding business on the Ottawa, Macpherson &amp;
+Crane owned a fleet of thirteen steamers and a large number of bateaux
+and barges, which were towed up the Ottawa and through the Rideau
+Canal to Kingston, the entire distance being 245 miles. The flotilla
+would make the round trip, returning <i>via</i> the St. Lawrence, in twelve
+or fourteen days. The steamers engaged in this service were mostly
+small, high-pressure boats—commonly called “puffers.” At the first
+the noise which they made, especially the unearthly shriek of their
+steam-whistles, scared the natives as well as the cattle along the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span>
+banks of the river. The passengers were usually accommodated in
+the barges in tow of the steamers, but as time went on a few of
+the “puffers” attained the dignity of passenger boats, and, when
+unencumbered with tows, made the round trip in a week. The writer well
+remembers making the trip in the early forties on the <i>Charlotte</i>,
+Captain Marshall, and a very pleasant trip it was, the chief
+attractions being the long chain of locks at the small village of
+Bytown—soon to become the beautiful capital of the Dominion; the big
+dam at Jones’ Falls, with its retaining wall three hundred feet in
+thickness at the base and ninety feet high; the marvellous scenery of
+the Lake of the Thousand Islands, and, as the climax, what was then the
+novelty of shooting the rapids on a steamboat. Captain Howard informed
+me that the first steamer to shoot the “lost channel” of the Long Sault
+rapids was the old <i>Gildersleeve</i> of Mr. Hamilton’s line, in command of
+Captain Maxwell and piloted by one Rankin. That was in 1847, and was
+considered a daring feat at the time, but it established the safety of
+the new channel which has ever since been used by the larger passenger
+steamers. No one, however, can form an adequate idea of the grandeur of
+this raging torrent who has not made the descent upon a raft; though,
+speaking from experience, this mode of shooting the “lost channel” is
+not to be recommended to persons of weak nerves.</p>
+
+<p>It is said that in 1836 a steamboat named the <i>Thomas Mackay</i> plied
+between Quebec and Ottawa, but its journeyings seem to have been
+erratic and its subsequent history “lost in obscurity”—a phrase that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span>
+applies in some degree, indeed, to the early history of steam on the
+Ottawa. The <i>St. David</i> was the only steamer that could pass through
+the Grenville Canal in 1841. The first truly passenger service on the
+Ottawa commenced in 1842 with the <i>Oldfield</i> on the lower route and
+the <i>Porcupine</i> on the upper. In 1846 the <i>Oldfield</i> was purchased by
+Captain Shepherd and others who formed a private company named the
+“Ottawa Steamers Company.” The steamer <i>Ottawa Chief</i> was built by that
+company in 1848, but she was found to draw too much water, and in the
+following spring was chartered by Mr. Hamilton and placed on the St.
+Lawrence route. The <i>Lady Simpson</i>, built in 1850, was the precursor of
+a number of excellent steamers that have made travelling on the Ottawa
+popular with all classes. Among these were the <i>Atlas</i>, <i>Prince of
+Wales</i> (which ran for twenty-four years), <i>Queen Victoria</i>, <i>Dagmar</i>,
+<i>Alexandra</i>, etc. The reputation of the line is well sustained at
+present by the <i>Empress</i>, Captain Bowie, and the <i>Sovereign</i>, Captain
+Henry W. Shepherd, both very fine and fast steel boats of 400 and 300
+tons, respectively. Other steamers in commission and employed in the
+local trade bear such loyal names as <i>Maude</i>, <i>Princess</i> and <i>Duchess
+of York</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="SHEPHERD" id="SHEPHERD"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_322.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="524" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">CAPTAIN R. W. SHEPHERD.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="space-below3">Captain Robert Ward Shepherd retired from
+active service in 1853, when he was appointed General Manager of
+the line. In 1864 the Steamers Company was incorporated by Act of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span>
+Parliament under the name it now bears, the Ottawa River Navigation
+Company, of which Mr. Shepherd was President as long as he lived. Mr.
+Shepherd was born at Sherringham, County Norfolk, England, in 1819. He
+died at his country seat at Como, Quebec, August 29th, 1895, having
+been for fifty-five years closely identified with the progress of
+steam navigation on the Ottawa, and having earned for himself a high
+reputation. His brother, Captain H. W. Shepherd, who succeeded him in
+the command of the <i>Lady Simpson</i> in 1853, is now the commodore of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span>
+fleet—the oldest and most experienced captain on the Ottawa, who in all
+these years has not been chargeable for any accident to life or limb
+of the many thousands who have been committed to his care. The head
+office of the company is in Montreal, Mr. R. W. Shepherd, a son of the
+founder, being the Managing Director.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">In the Province of Ontario.<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor"><small>[62]</small></a></span></h3>
+
+<p>As already mentioned in the previous chapter, the <i>Frontenac</i> and the
+<i>Queen Charlotte</i> were the first two steamers in Upper Canada, launched
+respectively in 1816 and 1818. In 1824 another steamer was built for
+Hon. Robert Hamilton—the <i>Queenston</i>, of 350 tons—which was at first
+commanded by Captain Joseph Whitney and plied between Prescott, York
+and Niagara. The <i>Canada</i>, Captain Hugh Richardson, came out in 1826
+and used to run from York to Niagara (36 miles) in four hours. The
+famous <i>Alciope</i>, of 450 tons, Captain Mackenzie, appeared in 1828, and
+plied with great <i>éclat</i> between Niagara, York, and Kingston, under the
+Hamilton flag.</p>
+
+<p>The late Hon. John Hamilton, who for many years may almost be said
+to have controlled the passenger traffic on the Upper Canada route,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span>
+commenced his connection with the steamboat business about the year
+1830, when he built the <i>Great Britain</i>, of 700 tons, the largest
+vessel then on the lake. After this there was a rapid succession of
+steamers, and some very fine ones. The <i>Cobourg</i>, of 500 tons, Captain
+Macintosh, came out in 1833; the <i>Commodore Barrie</i>, 275 tons, Captain
+Patterson, in 1834. The <i>Sir Robert Peel</i>, 350 tons, one of the finest
+boats then on the lake, was seized and burned on the night of May
+29th, 1838, by a gang of rebels headed by the notorious Bill Johnson.
+The <i>Queen Victoria</i>, Thomas Dick, commander, launched in 1837, was
+advertised to sail daily between Lewiston, Niagara and Toronto,
+connecting at Toronto with the <i>William IV.</i> for Kingston and Prescott.
+“This splendid fast sailing steamer is fitted up in elegant style,
+and is offered to the public as a speedy and safe conveyance.” The
+<i>Sovereign</i>, 500 tons, Captain Elmsley, R.N., Captain Dick’s <i>City of
+Toronto</i>, and the famous <i>Highlander</i>, Captain Stearns, began to run
+about 1840. The <i>Chief Justice Robinson,</i> Captain Wilder, the <i>Princess
+Royal</i>, Captain Twohey, and Captain Sutherland’s <i>Eclipse</i> were all
+noted steamers in their day. The <i>Traveller</i> and the <i>William IV.</i>,
+Captain Paynter, both powerful steamers, famous also for many years,
+ended their careers as tow-boats, the latter being conspicuous by her
+four funnels.</p>
+
+<p>“These steamers, and others that could be named,” says one of my
+informants, “bring to mind good seaworthy ships, fit for any weather
+and commanded by able seamen. Nor was the steward’s department unworthy
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span>
+of the vessels. As good a breakfast and dinner was served on board as
+could be desired.” Such were some of the early steamboats in Upper
+Canada more than fifty years ago, for which the public are indebted
+to the Hon. John Hamilton, Mr. Alpheus Jones, of Prescott, Mr. Donald
+Bethune, of Cobourg, and Mr. Heron, of Niagara, as well as to Captains
+Dick, Sutherland and Richardson.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="WILLIAM4" id="WILLIAM4"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_325.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="418" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">OLD “WILLIAM IV.,” 1832.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Up to 1837 the lake steamers did not venture farther down than
+Kingston, but about that time they commenced running through the Lake
+of the Thousand Islands to Prescott. From that point the small steamer
+<i>Dolphin</i> sailed every morning for the head of the Long Sault rapids,
+enabling passengers to reach Montreal the same evening. The route was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span>
+from Dickenson’s Landing to Cornwall by stage, thence through Lake St.
+Francis by steamer to Coteau du Lac, thence by stage over a plank road
+to the Cascades, where the quaint old steamer <i>Chieftain</i> would be
+waiting to convey passengers to Lachine to be driven thence in a coach
+and six to Montreal. It was not until 1848, when the enlarged Lachine
+Canal was opened, that the Upper Canada steamers began to run all the
+rapids of the St. Lawrence as they now do.</p>
+
+<p>In 1840 Mr. Hamilton had built a powerful steamer, the <i>Ontario</i>,
+with the expectation that she might be able to ascend the rapids,
+but failing in this she was sold to a Montreal firm and placed on
+the Quebec route. The <i>Ontario</i> descended all the rapids of the
+St. Lawrence safely on the 19th of October, 1840, being the first
+large steamer to do so. <i>Facile descensus!</i> It is not recorded that
+more than one steamer ever succeeded in ascending those rapids. In
+November, 1838, the little <i>Dolphin</i>, after four weeks of incessant
+toil, was towed up the Long Sault rapids with the aid of twenty yoke
+of oxen, besides horses, capstans and men, added to the working of
+her engine—the first and probably the last steamer that will ever
+accomplish the feat. About this time the <i>Iroquois</i>, with one large
+stern-wheel, was built for the purpose of stemming the swift currents
+between Prescott and Dickenson’s Landing, but had so much difficulty
+in ascending the river that at Rapide Plat and other points posts were
+sunk at short distances along the shore to each of which she made fast
+in turn until she recovered her breath.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="PASSPORT" id="PASSPORT"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_327.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="365" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">“PASSPORT,” SHOOTING THE RAPIDS IN HER FIFTIETH YEAR.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span>
+The completion of the canals prepared the way for a larger class of
+steamers between Lake Ontario and Montreal, and the “Royal Mail Line”
+was accordingly re-enforced. The <i>Passport</i> was built of iron on the
+Clyde and brought out in sections in 1847, and is still in commission
+and in good running order. The <i>Magnet</i>, also built of iron and on the
+Clyde, and in which Captain Sutherland had a large pecuniary interest,
+came out shortly after the <i>Passport</i>, and under the name of the
+<i>Hamilton</i>, in command of Captain A. J. Baker, is now, in her green
+old age, and with her hull as sound as a bell, performing a weekly
+service between Montreal and Hamilton. The <i>Kingston</i>, since named
+the <i>Algerian</i>, followed in 1855, and was first commanded by Captain
+Clarke Hamilton, now of H. M. Customs at Kingston. About this time
+the <i>Brockville</i>, Captain Day, the <i>Gildersleeve</i>, Captain Bowen, the
+<i>Banshee</i>, Captain Howard, and the <i>Lord Elgin</i>, Captain Farlinger,
+were well-known and favourite boats.</p>
+
+<p>The fifteen years from 1840 to 1855 were the most prosperous in the
+history of steam navigation on Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence. The
+Americans had at that time several lines of steamers plying between
+Ogdensburg, Oswego, Rochester and Lewiston. Some of these were large
+and very fine passenger steamers, such as the <i>United States</i>, the
+<i>Bay State</i>, the <i>New York</i>, the <i>Rochester</i>, the <i>Lady of the Lake</i>,
+the <i>Northerner</i>, the <i>Cataract</i>, and the <i>Niagara</i>. The Great Western
+Railway Company had also a fleet of splendid steamers—the <i>Canada</i>,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span>
+the <i>America</i>, the <i>Europa</i> and the <i>Western World</i>. At the breaking
+out of the American civil war, most of these vessels and some others
+were purchased by the United States Government and taken round to New
+York. Their places on the lake are now occupied by numerous screw
+propellers, chiefly doing a freight business, but many of them having
+excellent accommodation for passengers also.</p>
+
+<p>The opening of the Grand Trunk Railway in 1855 proved disastrous to the
+steamboat interests. Mr. Hamilton, as well as many others, struggled
+gallantly for a time, endeavouring to stem the tide of competition
+with the new system of transportation, but about the year 1862 he was
+obliged to retire from the business which he had created and carried
+on successfully for thirty years. The steamers in which he had a large
+personal interest were sold to a joint stock company, which was named
+the “Canadian Steam Navigation Company.” Mr. Hamilton was appointed
+General Manager of the new company; Sir Hugh Allan, President, and
+Alexander Milloy. Secretary-Treasurer. A few years later Captain Thomas
+Howard became Superintendent of the line, a position which he held
+until 1881, when he was appointed Harbour-master in Montreal. He died
+in Montreal on Easter Sunday, 1898. In 1875 the company united with the
+Richelieu Company, as already stated.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="CORONA" id="CORONA"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_329.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="420" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">“CORONA,” ON NIAGARA RIVER, 1896.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span>
+<i>Lake Ontario.</i>—The volume of steam traffic on Lake Ontario at the
+present time, though not to be compared with that on the Upper Lakes,
+is by no means inconsiderable. From the official “Report of Trade
+and Navigation of the Dominion for 1895,” the arrival and departure
+of steamers at eighteen ports of entry on Lake Ontario, either as
+coasting vessels or as trading with the United States, was 17,558, and
+an aggregate of 6,443,443 registered tonnage; to which must be added
+the large amount of steam shipping that frequents the harbours on the
+American side of the lake, as at Lewiston, Oswego, Sackett’s Harbour,
+Cape Vincent, and that descends the St. Lawrence to Ogdensburg.
+Niagara heads the list on the Canadian side with 3,198 arrivals and
+departures, and 1,581,643 tonnage. Toronto, with 3,844 arrivals and
+departures, counts for 1,569,123 steam tonnage; Kingston stands third,
+with 3,563 vessels, and 882,414 tonnage. Hamilton is represented by
+427,100 tonnage. After these come Belleville, Picton, Cobourg, Port
+Hope, Deseronto and Port Dalhousie, in the order named, and eight other
+smaller ports, each contributing its quota.</p>
+
+<p>Toronto is largely interested in steam navigation. Not to speak of
+numerous steam yachts, ferry steamers and tug-boats, it controls a
+large passenger traffic. The Niagara Navigation Company of Toronto
+has three very fine steamers running to Niagara and Lewiston—the
+<i>Chicora</i>, <i>Chippewa</i> and <i>Corona</i>. The <i>Chicora</i> was built
+in England, as a “blockade runner,” more than thirty years ago, but the civil
+war was ended before she reached this side of the Atlantic. She is an iron
+side-wheel vessel of 518 tons, with a rakish, Old-Country look about
+her. The <i>Chippewa</i>, built at Hamilton, Ont., in 1893, is a very fine
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span>
+paddle-wheel steamer of 850 tons, modelled somewhat after the Hudson
+River boats, with a conspicuous walking-beam. The latest addition
+to the fleet is the <i>Corona</i>, launched in May, 1896, from the noted
+ship-building yard of the Polsons, Toronto, which takes the place of
+the <i>Cibola</i>, a Clyde-built steel steamer, put together by the Rathbun
+Company, Deseronto, in 1887, and which was burned at Lewiston in
+1895. The <i>Corona</i> is claimed by her owners to be “a model of marine
+architecture, and one of the finest day-steamers in the world!” Though
+only 277 feet long, and 32 feet beam (59 feet over the guards), she
+carries nearly two thousand passengers. The hull is constructed of
+open hearth steel. The engine is of the inclined compound condensing
+type, and develops nearly two thousand indicated horse-power. The
+mechanical fittings are all of the most approved kind, and the internal
+arrangements highly artistic.</p>
+
+<p>The Hamilton Steamboat Company has two fine powerful screw steamers,
+the <i>Macassa</i> and <i>Modjeska</i>, plying between Hamilton and Toronto. Both
+were built on the Clyde, and have been very successful financially,
+and also as seaworthy, fast sailing vessels. Kingston, which occupies
+an important position at the foot of the lake and head of the river
+navigation, owns a fleet of no less than forty-six steamers, and is the
+headquarters of half a dozen steamboat companies, some of which are
+largely interested in the Lake Superior trade, while others connect
+Kingston with ports on the Bay of Quinte, Rochester and Cape Vincent,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span>
+N. Y., and Gananoque and the Thousand Islands. The <i>James Swift</i> plies
+between Kingston and Ottawa, <i>via</i> the Rideau Canal. The <i>Passport</i>,
+the oldest steamer now afloat in Canada, is registered at Kingston, and
+was built, as already stated, in 1847.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="HAMILTON" id="HAMILTON"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_331.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="534" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">HON. JOHN HAMILTON.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Hon. John Hamilton, whose name is so intimately associated with the
+rise and progress of steam navigation in Western Canada, was born at
+Queenston, Ontario, in 1802—the seventh and youngest son of the Hon.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span>
+Robert Hamilton, formerly of Edinburgh. One of the sons founded
+the city of Hamilton, another attained distinction in the medical
+profession. John devoted the greater part of his life to the
+development of commerce between Montreal and the cities and towns
+bordering on Lake Ontario, having his headquarters at Kingston. Mr.
+Hamilton was a man of fine presence and highly accomplished; was called
+to the Legislative Council of Upper Canada by Sir John Colborne in
+1831, and to the Senate of the new Dominion, by writ of Her Majesty’s
+sign-manual, in 1867. He was an influential member of the Presbyterian
+Church, and many years chairman of the Board of Trustees of Queen’s
+College, Kingston. He died in 1882.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">In Manitoba.</span><a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor"><small>[63]</small></a></h3>
+
+<p>The first steamer to ply on the Red River was brought in pieces
+across the country from a tributary of the Mississippi, and rebuilt
+at Georgetown, a small place some twenty miles north of the present
+town of Moorhead. The boat was called, before its transportation, the
+<i>Anson Northrup</i>, and was afterwards known as the <i>Pioneer</i>. She
+began her career on the Red River in 1859, and in that year took a cargo to
+Fort Garry. She was the joint property of the Hudson’s Bay Company and
+Messrs. J. C. and H. C. Burbank &amp; Co., of St. Paul, Minnesota. (A cut
+of this steamer may be seen in a book called “The Winnipeg Country,”
+published by Cupples, Upham &amp; Co., Boston.)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The next steamer was the <i>International</i>, built at Georgetown, in
+1861, for the Hudson’s Bay Company, at a cost of about $20,000. Her
+length was 160 feet, breadth 30 feet, depth (from the water-line to the
+ceiling of her upper saloon) 20 feet, and her registered tonnage was
+133⅓ tons. She was found to be too large for the Red River navigation.
+The same company’s steamer, the <i>Northcote</i>, commenced to ply on the
+Saskatchewan about 1875. In 1878 there were running on the waters of
+Manitoba seventeen steamers, among which were the <i>Manitoba</i>, <i>Dakota</i>,
+<i>Selkirk</i>, <i>Swallow</i>, <i>Minnesota</i>, <i>Prince Rupert</i>,
+<i>Keewatin</i>, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The Hudson’s Bay Company at that time owned a propeller which ran on
+Lake Winnipeg to the portage at the mouth of the Saskatchewan, where
+connection was made with the <i>Northcote</i> and a steel-built steamer, the
+<i>Lilly</i>. This company had also another steamer plying on the Red River,
+named the <i>Chief Commissioner</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Since the opening of the country by railways the navigation of the
+Upper Red River and the Assiniboine has been of small account, but
+below Selkirk there is still a considerable trade carried on. There
+are at least half a dozen companies interested in the navigation of
+these waters. The North-West Navigation Company runs three steamers,
+the <i>Princess</i>, 350 tons; the <i>Red River</i>, 200 tons; the <i>Marquette</i>,
+160 tons, and a number of barges. The Selkirk Fish Company owns the
+<i>Sultana</i>, of 200 tons; the Manitoba Fish Company has the <i>City of
+Selkirk</i>, of 160 tons. Besides these there is a numerous fleet of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span>
+steam-tugs and barges. In all there are some fifty steamers on these
+inland waters. During the palmy days of Red River transportation the
+leading name was that of Norman W. Kittson, at that time of St. Paul,
+Minnesota, but formerly a trader of the old Red River settlement, who
+was often familiarly called “Commodore Kittson.”</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">In British Columbia.</span><a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor"><small>[64]</small></a></h3>
+
+<p>The pioneer steamship of the Northern Pacific was the <i>Beaver</i>, whose
+history from first to last was a very romantic one. This vessel was
+built at Blackwall, on the Thames, by Messrs. Green, Wigram and Green,
+for the Hudson’s Bay Company, and was launched in 1835 in the presence
+of 150,000 spectators, including William IV. and many of the English
+nobility. Cheers from thousands again greeted her in answer to the
+farewell salute of her guns when she sailed away for the New World.
+The <i>Beaver</i> was a side-wheel steamer, 101.4 feet long, 20 feet beam,
+and 11 feet deep; tonnage, 109. Her machinery, made by Boulton &amp; Watt,
+was placed in position, but the paddle-wheels were not attached. She
+was rigged as a brig, and on August 27th sailed for the Pacific under
+canvas, in command of Captain Home, with the barque <i>Columbia</i> as her
+consort. On March 19th, 1836, the <i>Beaver</i> dropped anchor at the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span>
+mouth of the Columbia River, having made the voyage in 204 days.
+In her log-book it is recorded on May 16th: “Carpenters stripping
+paddle-wheels. At 4 p. m. engineers got up steam, tried the engines,
+and found to answer very well; at 5 o’clock, came to anchor, and moored
+in our old berth; at 8 o’clock all hands were mustered to ‘splice the
+main brace’”—a nautical phrase used in reference to the custom, less
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span>
+common now than then, of celebrating particular events by serving out
+a liberal supply of rum. The <i>Beaver</i> went into service without delay,
+running up and down the coast, in and out of every bay, river and inlet
+between Puget Sound and Alaska, collecting furs and carrying goods for
+the company’s posts.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="BEAVER" id="BEAVER"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_335.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="414" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">THE LAST OF THE OLD “BEAVER.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>On March 13th, 1843, the <i>Beaver</i> arrived at Camosun with Factor
+Douglas and some of the Hudson’s Bay Company’s people to found the Fort
+Victoria, and the first salute which echoed in what is now Victoria
+harbour, was fired on the 13th of June, when the fort was finished and
+the company’s flag hoisted.<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a>
+“The old steamer <i>Beaver</i>,” as she was called, continued her rounds
+under different owners with remarkable regularity and success until the
+fatal trip in July, 1888, when she went on the rocks near the entrance
+to Vancouver harbour, and was totally wrecked.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="NELSON" id="NELSON"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_337.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="247" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">THE STERNWHEELER “NELSON,” AT NELSON, B. C.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It was fourteen years after the arrival of the <i>Beaver</i> before much
+effort was made at steam-boating in these waters. About that time
+several small steamers were built on the Columbia River. In 1852 the
+Hudson’s Bay Company had another vessel built at Blackwall: this was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span>
+the <i>Otter</i>, a screw steamer of 220 tons, with a pair of condensing
+engines by Penn, of Greenwich, which took the first prize at the London
+Exhibition in 1851. The <i>Otter</i> left London in January 1853, and
+arrived at Victoria five months later. The year 1858 witnessed a boom
+in steam navigation, consequent upon the rush and wild excitement of
+gold-seekers to the Fraser River and Cariboo. “The <i>Surprise</i> first
+woke the echoes in the grand mountain gorges in the wild regions of
+Fort Hope with the shrill scream of the steam-whistle, and astonished
+the natives with her wondrous power in breasting successfully the
+fierce current of the now world-renowned Fraser. That wild and
+unearthly yell of the imprisoned steam escaping into the free air of
+heaven must have astonished the denizens of those mountain fastnesses
+and startled man and beast into the belief that some uncanny visitor,
+not of earth, had dropped in upon their solitude.” The <i>Surprise</i> was
+followed by a fleet of small steamboats built in the United States.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span>
+Among those were the <i>Ranger</i> and <i>Maria</i>—mere steam launches of about
+40 feet in length. The <i>Maria</i> was brought up from San Francisco in
+a barge. The first boat built in British Columbia was the <i>Governor
+Douglas</i>, a good-sized stern-wheeler which commenced to ply between
+Victoria and the Fraser River in 1859. Among the other notable boats
+were the Seabird and the <i>Eliza Anderson</i>. The former carried immense
+crowds, but drew too much water for the river trade. The latter was
+a side-wheeler, built in Portland, 140 feet long, and of registered
+tonnage, 279. On her arrival at Victoria in 1859 she commenced a career
+of money-making which has seldom been equalled. After these appeared
+the <i>Umatilla</i>, <i>Enterprise</i> and <i>Colonel Moody</i>, the last-named being
+the fastest yet built for this route. All the light-draught boats
+were then, as they are now, stern-wheelers. About this time another
+and larger vessel arrived from London, the <i>Labouchere</i>, a side-wheel
+steamer, of 680 tons register, 202 feet long, 28 feet beam, and 15 feet
+hold. She continued running up north until 1865, when she was granted
+a subsidy of $1,500 a trip to carry mails between Victoria and San
+Francisco, but was lost on her first voyage. In 1861 more steamboats
+were built than in any previous year. Nearly a dozen were added to
+those already plying on the rivers and lakes, and the subsequent
+progress in steam navigation was continuous. The entrance of mining
+prospectors into the Kootenay country in 1886 led to the necessity
+of increased transportation on the Columbia River, which has gone on
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span>
+increasing until now on that river and the Kootenay lakes there are
+some of the finest river steamers in the Dominion, fitted with every
+comfort and appliance that experience can suggest. The development of
+the coast wise trade has also led to the building of special steamers
+both in British Columbia and also in England. The coal mines at Nanaimo
+and the Comox district also find employment for a large quantity of
+steam tonnage.<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a>
+The aggregate amount at the four ports of Victoria, Vancouver, Nanaimo,
+and Westminster for 1895 was: Arrivals, 1,496,409 tons; departures,
+1,513,233 tons. There are at present registered in British Columbia 161
+steamboats with a tonnage of 24,153.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the inland steamers there are coasting lines from Victoria and
+Vancouver to Portland and San Francisco, and to Puget Sound and Alaska.
+There are also four regular lines of steamships to Japan and China,
+namely, the Canadian Pacific Steamship Company, with its beautiful
+fleet of “Empress” steamers; the Northern Pacific Steamship Company;
+the Oregon R. R. and Navigation Company, and the Nipon Yunen Kaisha of
+Japan. There is also the direct line of steamers to Australia elsewhere
+referred to. The number of vessels in the different lines is uncertain,
+as they are increased by chartered boats whenever there is much freight moving.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">In Nova Scotia.</span><a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor"><small>[67]</small></a></h3>
+
+<p>The harbour of Halifax is one of the finest in the world. It is easy
+of access and open all the year round. It is nearly six hundred miles
+nearer to Liverpool than is New York, and has therefore many advantages
+to offer as a point of arrival and departure for ocean steamers. It is
+the centre of an extensive local and coasting trade, in which a large
+number of both steamers and sailing vessels are employed. The number of
+arrivals of sea-going vessels in 1895 was 978, with a gross tonnage of
+627,572 tons; the number of arrivals of coasting vessels was 3,651, of
+which 496 were steamers, with a tonnage of 153,790 tons. The number of
+steamers registered in the port is 55, with a gross tonnage of 10,912
+tons. The steam tonnage which entered the port in 1896 was 212,085; the
+clearances were 229,653 tons.</p>
+
+<p>The first steamer to enter this renowned harbour was the <i>Royal
+William</i> (Captain John Jones, R. N.), from Quebec, August 24th, 1831,
+which arrived here on the morning of the 31st and was welcomed with
+great <i>éclat</i>. The trip was made in six days and a half, including two
+days’ detention at Miramichi. The cabin fare was £6 5s., including
+meals and berths. Having been built for this trade, the <i>Royal William</i>
+made a number of successful voyages between Quebec and Halifax,
+calling at intermediate ports previous to her historic voyage across
+the Atlantic, which was to proclaim her the pioneer of ocean steam
+navigation!</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Cunard Line commenced to call at Halifax fortnightly <i>en route</i> to
+Boston, in 1840. The <i>Britannia</i> was the first of that famous fleet
+to enter the harbour of Halifax. This arrangement did not last very
+long, however, for, on making New York their western terminus, the
+Cunarders gave “the finest harbour” the go-by, never to return except
+in cases of emergency. There are, however, some fifteen or sixteen
+lines of steamers plying regularly from Halifax to Britain, the United
+States, the West Indies, South America, Newfoundland, and Canadian
+ports. During the winter months the Beaver Line, carrying the Canadian
+mails, calls here weekly <i>en route</i> from St. John, N. B., to Liverpool.
+The Allan Line from Liverpool to Philadelphia, <i>via</i> Newfoundland,
+touches here once a fortnight going and coming. The Furness Line has
+excellent steamers sailing fortnightly from London to Newfoundland
+and Halifax. The Canada and Newfoundland Line also maintains a good
+service from Halifax to St. John’s, Liverpool and London; the Jones
+Line to Jamaica; the Pickford and Black Line to Bermuda and the West
+Indies; the Musgrave Line to Havana. The Red Cross Line from New York
+to Newfoundland calls here; besides, a number of coasting steamers
+to Cape Breton, Newfoundland, Yarmouth, Bridgewater, St. Pierre and
+other places call at Halifax, while the Canada Atlantic and Plant Line
+supplies a direct route to Boston and all points in the United States.</p>
+
+<p>Many “tramp” steamers call at Halifax with freight or for freight. Many
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span>
+call for coal. Many a storm-tossed mariner is glad to make for Halifax
+and to find in it a secure harbour of refuge, with all needful
+appliances for refitting a battered ship. The whole coast of Nova
+Scotia, indeed, is indented with harbours of refuge, which are the
+resorts of large numbers of sailing craft. The graving-dock at Halifax
+is the largest on this continent. It was completed in 1889 by a private
+company, subsidized by the Imperial and Federal Governments and the
+city of Halifax to the extent of about $30,000. It is 585 feet in
+length, 89¼ feet wide at the entrance, and has 30 feet of water on the
+sills. It is adapted for steamships of the <i>Teutonic</i> class, but is 35
+feet too short for the <i>Lucania</i>. A few months ago it had the honour
+of accommodating within its walls the <i>Indiana</i>, one of the largest
+of the United States ships of war, sent here for repairs. There are
+three other graving-docks, the property of the Dominion Government, as
+follows:<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Dimensions of Great Lakes." cellpadding="0" >
+  <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;At&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl_sp1">Esquimalt, B. C.,</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&nbsp;built in&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdc">1886,</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&emsp;430 × 65 × 26½</td> <td class="tdc">&nbsp;feet.&nbsp;</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl_sp1">Kingston, Ont.,</td>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdc">1871,</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&emsp;280 × 55 × 16½</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdl_sp1">Levis, Que.,</td>
+      <td class="tdc">"</td> <td class="tdc">1887,</td>
+      <td class="tdc">&emsp;445 × 62 × 26½</td> <td class="tdc">"</td>
+    </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">In New Brunswick.</span><a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor"><small>[69]</small></a></h3>
+
+<p>The first steamboat in New Brunswick, the <i>General Smyth</i>, was launched
+from the yard of John Lawton, Portland, St. John, in April, 1816. Her
+owners were John Ward, Hugh Johnson, sen., Lauchlan Donaldson, J. C.
+F. Bremner, of St. John, and Robert Smith, of Fredericton. This vessel
+was run between St. John and Fredericton, making the round trip in a
+week. She started from St. John on her first trip, May 13th, 1816.
+She was a paddle boat. No official description of her is extant, as
+the registry book of that date was burned in the great fire of 1877.
+Later steamboats on this route were the <i>St. George</i>, <i>John Ward</i>,
+<i>Fredericton</i>, <i>St. John</i>, <i>Forest Queen</i>, <i>Heather Bell</i>, <i>Olive</i>,
+<i>Prince Arthur</i>, <i>David Weston</i>, <i>Rothsay</i> (which afterwards ran
+between Montreal and Quebec), the <i>Fawn</i> and <i>May Queen</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The second steamer, the <i>St. George</i>, was launched on April 23rd, 1895,
+from the yard of John Owens, at Portland, St. John. Her owners were
+John and Charles Ward, of St. John; Jedediah Slason and James Segee, of
+Fredericton—the last-named being the first master of the vessel. Her
+tonnage was 204<small><sup>17</sup>&frasl;<sub>94</sub></small>;
+length, 105 feet; greatest breadth, 24 feet 6½ inches;
+depth of hold, 8 feet 6 inches. She had one mast, a standing
+bowsprit, square stern, and was carvel built. She had a copper boiler,
+and, like the <i>General Smyth</i>, made one trip each way between
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span>
+Fredericton and St. John in a week. The <i>Victoria</i>, the first steam
+ferry-boat between St. John and Carleton, commenced running September
+5th, 1839.</p>
+
+<p>The pioneer steamboat on the Bay of Fundy was the <i>St. John</i>, built at
+Deer Island, N. B., in 1826. In her was placed the machinery of the
+<i>General Smyth</i>. Her tonnage was 87<small><sup>84</sup>&frasl;<sub>94</sub></small>;
+length, 89 feet; breadth, 18 feet; depth, 8 feet. Later boats on this route were the <i>Royal
+Tar</i>, <i>Fairy Queen</i>, <i>Maid of Erin</i>, <i>Pilot</i>, <i>Emperor</i>, <i>Commodore</i>,
+<i>Empress</i>, <i>Scud</i>, <i>Secret</i> and <i>City of Monticello</i>. The steamers
+at present running from St. John are: to Digby, the steel paddle SS.
+<i>Prince Rupert</i>, 620 tons, having a speed of 18⅞ knots; to Windsor and
+Hantsport, N. S., the <i>Hiawatha</i>, 148 tons; to Yarmouth, N. S., the
+<i>Alpha</i>, 211 tons; to Grand Manan, the <i>Flushing</i>, 174 tons.</p>
+
+<p>The first New Brunswick steamer to ply between St. John and Boston
+was the <i>Royal Tar</i>, 256<small><sup>90</sup>&frasl;<sub>94</sub></small>
+tons, Thomas Reed, master, built at Carleton in 1835.
+She was burned in Penobscot Bay, October 25th, 1836,
+on her voyage to Portland, Maine, when thirty-two lives were lost; also
+a whole menagerie with elephants, horses, etc. This service is now
+performed daily by the International Steamship Company of Portland,
+Maine, who have three splendid steamers on the route—the <i>State of
+Maine</i>, 818 tons; the <i>Cumberland</i>, 896 tons, and the <i>St. Croix</i>,
+1,064 tons. On the River St. John there are eight passenger steamers
+and eleven tug-boats. A large number of tugs also ply on the harbour.
+The number of steamers that entered the port during the year ending
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span>
+June 30th, 1897, was 823, aggregating 609,319 tons. Of these, 359 were
+ocean and 464 coasting steamers. The lines of ocean steamers plying
+to and from St. John during the winter of 1897-98 were: the Furness
+Line, to London and to the West Indies; the Beaver Line, carrying Her
+Majesty’s mails to Liverpool, <i>via</i> Halifax and Moville; the Allan Line
+and William Thomson &amp; Co.’s boats to London; the Donaldson Line, to
+Glasgow, and the Head Line, to Belfast and Dublin.</p>
+
+<p class="space-below3">Many advantages are claimed for St. John as
+a winter port for the Dominion. In point of distance from Liverpool
+it has the advantage over Portland of 80 miles, and over New York
+of 450 miles. Halifax is nearer England by 200 miles, but the land
+carriage from the West is much greater. St. John is the centre of an
+extensive lumber business. It is connected with Western Canada by both
+the Intercolonial and Canadian Pacific railways. The approach to the
+harbour is said to be free from fogs in the winter months, and ice is
+altogether unknown in the Bay of Fundy. Large sums of money have been
+expended during the last few years in improving the export facilities,
+and the lieges of St. John see no reason why this port should not
+become the Canadian winter terminus of the coming “Fast Line.”</p>
+
+<p>Captain W. L. Waring, the Inspector of Steamboats in New Brunswick and
+Prince Edward Island, claims that the invention and application of the
+compound steam-engine, which has done so much towards the increase of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span>
+power and lessening the amount of fuel for its production, belongs
+rightfully to Canada. Though experiments had been made in using steam
+twice for the same engine, it was only in 1856 that John Elder, of the
+Fairfield Ship-building Company on the Clyde, reduced it to a practical
+success in Britain, and it was not until 1870 that it came into general
+use. Captain Waring states that the steamer <i>Reindeer</i>, 129 feet 9
+inches long, 13 feet 8 inches wide and 8 feet deep, was built by Thomas
+Prichard at Fredericton, N.B., and launched April 20th, 1845, and that
+she was fitted with compound engines, the diameter of the high-pressure
+cylinder being 17 inches, of the low-pressure cylinder 32 inches, and
+the length of stroke 4 feet 9 inches. “This,” says Captain Waring, “was
+the pioneer steamboat with engines using steam the second time. For the
+first four or five years she was not a success. While the principle was
+good, the machinery was defective, and between the incredulity of the
+people and the defects in the machinery she was near being laid up as
+a failure. After a thorough overhaul, it was demonstrated on her trial
+trip—the writer being on board—that she was a success, in proof of
+which the owners of the steamers on the St. John River bought her at
+an advance of four times what they offered for her in the fall.” It is
+added that the <i>Reindeer’s</i> machinery was placed in a new boat called
+the <i>Antelope</i>, which proved a great success, being very fast. It was
+next placed in the <i>Admiral</i>, where it now is, the original compound
+engine of 1845.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Honour to whom Honour!</i> Mr. Barber states that the first steam
+fog-whistle in the world was started on Partridge Island, at the
+entrance of St. John harbour, in 1860, under the superintendency of Mr.
+T. T. Vernon Smith. “The whistle was made by Mr. James Fleming, of St.
+John, in 1859.”</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">In Prince Edward Island.</span><a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor"><small>[70]</small></a></h3>
+
+<p>The smallest of the provinces of the Dominion and the last to enter
+Confederation, in 1873, has long been noted for its marine enterprise,
+its ship-building, and its fisheries. As many as a hundred sea-going
+vessels have been built there in a single year; but iron and steel in
+these days have so largely superseded wood, this branch of industry
+has greatly decreased in Prince Edward Island, which modestly claims
+not much more than 2 per cent. of the registered steam tonnage of the
+Dominion of Canada.</p>
+
+<p>The first steamer to enter any port in Prince Edward Island was a
+tug-boat, built in Pictou for the Albion Mines Coal Company, and named
+after the then manager, <i>Richard Smith</i>. She brought over a party of
+excursionists to Charlottetown, on August 5th, 1830, and returned the
+same day. On September 7th, 1831, the famous <i>Royal William</i>, on her
+first return voyage from Halifax to Quebec, called at Charlottetown,
+but as the merchants of that place declined to purchase the fifty
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span>
+shares of stock in the new enterprise, which they had been offered
+conditionally, she called there no more. On May 11th, 1832, a steamer
+named the <i>Pocahontas</i>, built in Pictou, commenced to ply between
+that port and Charlottetown, about fifty miles distant, under
+arrangement with the post-office authorities. This vessel was followed
+at successive intervals by the <i>Cape Breton</i>, the <i>St. George</i>, the
+<i>Rose</i>, and the <i>Rosebud</i>, the last three being owned on the Island.
+A fine steamer, the <i>Lady Marchant</i>, owned in Richibucto, also made
+Charlottetown a port of call. There were many periods, however, between
+these steamers when communication with the Island had to be kept up
+by sailing schooners, until about 1852, when a regular service was
+commenced by the <i>Fairy Queen</i> and the <i>Westmoreland</i>, between Point du
+Chene and Summerside, and thence to Charlottetown and Pictou.</p>
+
+<p>In 1863 the Prince Edward Island Steam Navigation Company was
+organized, and the steamer <i>Heather Belle</i>, built in Charlottetown,
+began the service in 1864, followed by the <i>Princess of Wales</i>, built
+at St. John, N.B. The <i>St. Lawrence</i> was added in 1868. With these
+three steamers a regular service was maintained between Miramichi,
+Richibucto, Point du Chene, Summerside, Charlottetown, Brulé and
+Pictou, until the railway was opened to Pictou, when the service was
+extended to Port Hood and Hawkesbury, on the Gut of Canso, and to
+Georgetown and Murray Harbour on the Island. Again, on the completion
+of the Cape Breton railway and the extension of the Island railway to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span>
+Georgetown, the service was changed to a daily route between
+Charlottetown and Pictou, and Summerside and Point du Chene, as at
+present. The new steamers, <i>Northumberland</i> and <i>Princess</i>, are
+scarcely surpassed for the work they have to do by any steamers in
+Canada, and the company are able to show a record which is probably
+unique—that during thirty-three years not an accident has occurred by
+which a person or a package of freight has been injured.</p>
+
+<p>Some years ago the North Atlantic Steamship Company was organized at
+Charlottetown, with a view of establishing a direct trade with the Old
+Country. The fleet consisted of one steamer only, the <i>Prince Edward</i>,
+and as the enterprise did not prove self-sustaining, after having run
+for several seasons the vessel was sold at a considerable loss to the
+shareholders.</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">The Winter Ferry.</span></h4>
+
+<p>Prince Edward Island, lying in the southern part of the Gulf of
+St. Lawrence, is separated from the mainland by the Strait of
+Northumberland, which at its narrowest point is about nine miles wide.
+Owing to the accumulation of ice by which this strait is obstructed in
+winter, communication with the Island at that season of the year has
+always been attended with difficulty and not unfrequently with danger.
+For many years the only conveyance for mails and passengers in winter
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span>
+was by means of open boats or canoes manned by expert boatmen. Latterly
+these boats, most of which now belong to the Government of Canada, have
+been greatly improved. They now make the passage never less than three
+together, each manned by five able men, and the fleet under the charge
+of an experienced ice-captain. If large ice-fields should be jammed
+between capes Tormentine and Traverse, the crossing may be made without
+putting the boats into the water at all—the men, assisted by the male
+passengers, hauling the boats over the ice by straps fastened to the
+gunwales. When the ice is good the passage may be made in three or four
+hours. At other times lanes of open water occur into which the boats
+are launched and rowed as far as practicable. If there is much “lolly”
+to work through, this entails great loss of time and labour. Or the
+ice may be very rough and hummocky, which makes the crossing difficult
+and tedious. When overtaken by a snow-storm there is danger of losing
+the bearings and of travelling in the wrong direction. There have been
+occasions when parties have been out all night and nearly perished; but
+since the Government has taken charge of the ferry better regulations
+are in force. Each boat carries a fixed number of passengers and a
+limited amount of mail and baggage. This, with carrying compasses,
+provisions, and proper fur wraps, has greatly improved the service.</p>
+
+<p>The ice attached to the shores on either side of the strait extends
+about one mile, leaving seven miles for the ferry, but owing to the run
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span>
+of the tide—about four miles an hour—which carries with it, to and
+fro, huge masses of ice, often closely packed, the actual distance
+traversed by the boat is greatly increased. Horses and sleighs await
+the arrival of the boats at the board-ice on either side, when the
+passengers and mails are conveyed to the boat-sheds. For about two
+months every winter this boat service proves the quickest and most
+reliable means of crossing, and it is likely to remain so.</p>
+
+<p>At the time of Confederation the Dominion Government guaranteed to
+provide the Island with a steam ferry service. The first effort to
+carry out the agreement was made by employing an old steamer, the
+<i>Albert</i>, to run between Pictou and Georgetown, but she had not
+sufficient power to force her way through the ice. In the meantime the
+<i>Northern Light</i> was being built at Quebec—a vessel of considerable
+power and extraordinary shape. She drew nineteen feet aft, and it was
+intended that her keel, forward, should be above the water-line, but
+owing to a miscalculation as to her displacement, it proved to be some
+two feet below, and this spoiled her for ice-breaking; but on the Whole
+she did good service from 1876 to 1888, although she was often “frozen
+in,” and was for several weeks at a time fast in the ice when full of
+passengers.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Stanley</i>, which succeeded the <i>Northern Light</i>, was built in 1888
+at Govan on the Clyde, after the model of similar ice-steamers in
+Norway and Sweden. She has done excellent service, and her powers of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span>
+breaking ice and separating large floes must be seen to be understood
+or believed. That she has not been able to keep up continuous
+communication does not surprise those who know what the Gulf is at
+some seasons of the year. She has made passages when it seemed futile
+to expect it; and while she has been imprisoned in the ice for as
+much as three weeks at a time, she has made the voyage from Pictou
+to Georgetown—40 miles—in two hours and a half. During the season
+1894-95 the <i>Stanley</i> carried 1,600 passengers. Her earnings were
+$9,266.92; the cost of her repairs and maintenance was $28,179.32.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="STANLEY" id="STANLEY"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_352.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="333" />
+    <p class="center space-below1">“STANLEY,” WINTER FERRY-BOAT TO PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND, 1881.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The <i>Stanley</i> is built throughout of Siemens-Martin steel. Her
+dimensions are: length, 207 feet; breadth, 32 feet; depth, 20 feet 3
+inches. She is a screw boat of 914 tons gross, and 300 horse-power,
+and attains a speed of nearly 15 knots in clear water. She is so
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span>
+constructed that she runs up on heavy ice, breaking it with her sheer
+weight. At times she has passed through what is called “shoved ice,”
+eight feet in thickness. She has good state room accommodation for
+about fifty cabin passengers, and is in every way a very efficient,
+powerful and staunch boat.</p>
+
+<p>In the spring and fall of the year the <i>Stanley</i> is employed in the
+Coast Buoy service; in summer she takes her place in the Fisheries’
+Protection fleet, and proves herself a smart and formidable cruiser
+and a terror to evil-doers. She commences the winter mail service
+from Charlottetown to Pictou about the first of December, and about
+Christmas, when the Charlottetown harbour is frozen over, she takes
+up the route from Pictou to Georgetown, at the eastern end of Prince
+Edward Island. When she is imprisoned in the ice, as frequently
+happens, the mails and passengers are taken by the open boats in
+manner above described. From February 8th to April 12th, 1895, when
+the <i>Stanley</i> was laid up for repairs, the ice-boat service carried
+3,497 mail bags, 458 pounds of baggage, 76 pounds of express goods, 9
+passengers, and 77 “strap-passengers.”</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Dominion Steamers.</span></h3>
+
+<p>In connection with the Lighthouse and Buoy service and the Fisheries’
+Protection the Canadian Government employs fourteen steamers and three
+sailing vessels. The aggregate gross tonnage of the steamers is 5,589
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span>
+tons. Of these the <i>Stanley</i> is the largest, after which come the
+<i>Newfield</i>, 785 tons; the <i>Aberdeen</i>, 674 tons; the <i>Acadia</i>, 526
+tons—all of Halifax; the <i>Lansdowne</i>, 680 tons, of St. John, N.B.; the
+<i>Quadra</i>, 573 tons, of Victoria, B.C.; <i>La Canadienne</i>, 372 tons, of
+Quebec, etc., etc.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Newfoundland.</span><a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor"><small>[71]</small></a></h3>
+
+<p>The history of steam navigation in this province begins with the year
+1840, when Her Majesty’s ship <i>Spitfire</i>—a paddle steamer—entered the
+harbour of St. John’s with a detachment of soldiers to strengthen the
+garrison. In 1842 the steamship <i>John McAdam</i> visited St. John’s, and a
+number of ladies and gentlemen made excursions in her to Conception and
+Trinity bays, startling the natives by the sight of a vessel walking
+the waters without the aid of sails or oars. In 1844 the Government
+arranged with the owners of the steamship <i>North American</i> to carry
+mails and passengers regularly between St. John’s and Halifax. When
+this vessel first entered the harbour, with her huge walking-beam and a
+figurehead of an Indian, painted white, half of the population of the
+city crowded the wharves to see her. She had made the run from Halifax
+in sixty hours. Soon after this a contract was made with the Cunard
+Company for a mail service between St. John’s and Halifax, fortnightly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span>
+in summer and monthly during the winter months. In 1873 direct steam
+communication with England and America was established by arrangement
+with the Allan Line for the conveyance of mails, passengers and goods,
+fortnightly during nine months of the year and monthly during the
+remaining months, though at a later date fortnightly trips were made
+all the year round.</p>
+
+<p>At the present time there are five regular lines of steamships sailing
+from St. John’s—the Allan Line, the Canadian and Newfoundland
+Steamship Company, the Red Cross Line, the Black Diamond and the Ross
+Lines. Besides these, a steamer plies regularly between Halifax and the
+western ports of Newfoundland; and two local steamers ply between St.
+John’s and the principal ports north, south and west.</p>
+
+<p>The total number of steamers registered in St. John’s is thirty-two,
+with a gross tonnage of 9,272 tons. About 1,500 vessels arrive and
+depart annually from the several ports of Newfoundland. The sealing
+fleet comprises some twenty steamers, with a united tonnage of 6,230
+tons, and crews numbering 4,680 men. The first steamers to engage
+in the seal fishing were the <i>Bloodhound</i> and the <i>Wolf</i> in 1862.
+The former arrived with 3,000 seals, and the latter with only 1,300.
+The largest catch of seals recorded was in 1844, when 685,530 were
+captured. The cod-fishing industry is carried on by sailing schooners.
+The annual catch in the Newfoundland waters is about 1,350,000 quintals
+of 112 pounds. But the total amount of cod caught in North American
+waters is estimated at 3,700,000 quintals annually. Allowing fifty fish
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span>
+to a quintal, we have the enormous number of 185,000,000 fish caught
+every year. And still they continue to multiply and replenish the sea!</p>
+
+<p>As yet no steamers have been built in Newfoundland.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">General Summary.</span></h3>
+
+<p>The total number of vessels on the registry books of the Dominion on
+December 31st, 1896, was 7,279, with a gross tonnage of 789,299 tons.
+Of that number 1,762 were steamboats, with a gross tonnage of 251,176
+tons.<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a>
+The steam tonnage of the Dominion is divided about as follows:
+Ontario, 41.1 per cent.; Quebec, 32.3 per cent.; British Columbia, 10
+per cent.; Nova Scotia, 7.9 per cent.; New Brunswick, 3.8 per cent.;
+Manitoba, 2.6 per cent.; Prince Edward Island 2 per cent.</p>
+
+<p>The total number of steamers registered and enrolled in the United
+States in 1896 (including steam yachts, barges, etc.), was 6,595
+vessels, with a tonnage of 2,307,208 gross tons.<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p>
+
+<p>The total number of steam vessels in the United Kingdom of Great
+Britain and Ireland, over 100 tons gross, recorded in Lloyds Register
+for 1896-97, was 6,508; their gross tonnage was 9,968,573 and their net
+tonnage, 6,143,282. Including the British Colonies, the number of steam
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span>
+vessels is 7,373 and their gross tonnage, 10,508,443 tons.<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a>
+Of these only about 420 are built of wood, 3,883 are built of iron and
+the rest of steel.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">The World’s Steamers.</span></h3>
+
+<p>According to Lloyds Register above quoted, the total number of steam
+vessels, over 100 tons, in the world in 1897 was 13,652, and their
+gross tonnage, 17,737,825 tons. The number of wooden steamers was
+1,163; of iron, 7,099, and 5,390 of steel.</p>
+
+<p>The British Empire owns 54 per cent. of the entire merchant marine
+tonnage of the world, estimated by Lloyds at 25,614,089 tons gross; she
+owns 62 per cent. of the entire merchant marine steam tonnage.</p>
+
+<p>If to these figures were added the number of steam vessels in the
+navies of the world, the grand total would be very largely increased.
+The British navy alone would increase the number of vessels by 700 at
+least, and the tonnage by more than 1,500,000 tons.</p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Conclusion.</span></h3>
+
+<p>Reliable statistics are not easily found and are often accounted dry
+reading. From a variety of causes, figures are peculiarly prone to err.
+But whatever may be thought of the merely numerical argument which has
+almost unavoidably been introduced in these pages, the indisputable
+fact remains, that of all the triumphs of mind over matter in this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span>
+nineteenth century nothing has contributed more to the advancement of
+civilization and the spread of Christianity, to the wealth of nations
+and the convenience and comfort of the human race, than the marvellous
+development of steam navigation which will ever be identified with the
+history of the illustrious reign of Her Majesty <span class="smcap">Queen Victoria</span>.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="chapter"><h2>APPENDICES.</h2></div>
+
+<h3>I. CAPTAIN JOHN ERICSSON.</h3>
+
+<p>The name and fame of the inventor of the screw propeller are less
+widely known in Britain than in America, and in neither country,
+perhaps, has full justice been done to his memory. As a mechanical
+genius, he was one of the most remarkable men of his time, and did much
+to promote the development of steam navigation.</p>
+
+<p>Ericsson was born in the Province of Vermeland, in Sweden, in the year
+1803. Coming to England in 1826, he entered into partnership with
+Braithwaite, a noted mechanician, in London, and there and then entered
+upon his remarkable career as an inventor. In 1836 he married Amelia,
+daughter of Mr. John Byam, second son of Sir John Byam. Accompanied by
+his wife, he came to the United States, arriving at New York, in the
+<i>British Queen</i>, November 2nd, 1839. His wife, however, soon afterwards
+returned to England, and during the rest of their lives, “by an
+amicable arrangement,” the Atlantic rolled between.</p>
+
+<p>Before leaving England, Ericsson had already patented a number of his
+inventions. One of the first of these was a machine for compressing
+air, a discovery which has since proved valuable in the construction of
+long tunnels and in many other ways. The introduction of his system of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></span>
+artificial draught was the key-note of the principle on which rapid
+locomotion chiefly depends. He electrified London with his steam
+fire-engine, but the conservative authorities would not countenance
+“a machine that consumed so much water!” In 1829 he entered into
+competition with Robert Stephenson, when a prize of £500 was offered
+for the best locomotive. He came off second-best, but it was a feather
+in his cap that his locomotive, the <i>Novelty</i>, glided smoothly over the
+track at the amazing speed of thirty miles an hour! His experiments
+with hot air occupied much of his time, and not without valuable
+results. His forte, however, was in the construction of steam-engines,
+of which he designed a large number, introducing many new principles,
+some of which were destined to survive.</p>
+
+<p>Ericsson’s first stroke of business in the United States made
+him famous. The <i>Princeton</i> war-ship (<a href="#Page_69">see page 69</a>),
+built at the Philadelphia navy-yard under his direction, and fitted
+with his screw propeller, proved a great success, and gained him the
+favour and patronage of the government officials. Soon after the
+completion of the <i>Princeton,</i> he embarked in what he then accounted
+the greatest enterprise of his life—</p>
+
+<h4>THE CALORIC SHIP “ERICSSON.”</h4>
+
+<p>With the financial assistance of several wealthy friends in New York,
+Ericsson proceeded to build a large sea-going vessel, to be propelled
+by means of hot air. It was a costly experiment, involving an outlay of
+$500,000, the engines alone costing $130,000. The cylinders were 168
+inches in diameter, with six-feet stroke. The machinery was in motion
+within seven months of the laying of the vessel’s keel. On her trial
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span>
+trip the <i>Ericsson</i> attained a speed of eight miles an hour, and
+subsequently as much as eleven miles an hour. The <i>Ericsson</i> was at
+once a success and a failure. She sustained the inventor’s theory as
+to the power of heated air, <i>but</i> so excessive was the temperature of
+the air required to develop the power, the cylinders were warped out
+of shape and some of the fittings were burned to a crisp. The costly
+experiment was consequently abandoned. The caloric engine was replaced
+by an ordinary steam-engine, and thus transformed the <i>Ericsson</i> earned
+her living for many years.</p>
+
+<h4>THE “MONITOR.”</h4>
+
+<p>This further product of Ericsson’s fertile brain is in the form of an
+armour-protected, semi-submerged steam vessel for war purposes, and
+first came prominently into notice in connection with the memorable
+contest which took place in Hampton Roads on the 9th of March, 1862,
+between the <i>Merrimac</i> and <i>Monitor</i>. The former was an old wooden
+vessel refitted by the Confederate Government at Norfolk navy-yard,
+and covered with protective armour to the water-line. The <i>Monitor</i>
+was a flat iron boat resembling a scow, with nothing visible above
+water save the flush deck, from the centre of which rose a massive
+iron tower containing two guns of heavy calibre. The “cheese-box,”
+as the <i>Monitor</i> was contemptuously styled, held her own against the
+<i>Merrimac</i>, which carried eleven guns. It was a drawn battle, but a
+victory for Ericsson, and resulted in many other steam vessels of
+this description being built for harbour and coast defence under his
+supervision.</p>
+
+<p>John Ericsson died in New York on the 8th of March, 1889. <i>Vide</i>
+“Ericsson and His Inventions,” in <i>Atlantic Monthly</i> for July, 1862,
+and “John Ericsson, the Engineer,” in <i>Scribner’s Magazine</i> for March, 1890.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>II. THE WHALEBACK</h3>
+
+<p>was invented and patented some years ago by Captain McDougall, of
+Duluth, a long-headed and level-headed Scotchman hailing from the
+famed island of Islay. The peculiarity of its construction consists in
+its elliptical form, combining strength of hull, cheapness of first
+cost and working, and large carrying capacity upon a light draught of
+water. Having no masts, the whaleback is entirely dependent on its
+steam-power, which in case of a breakdown or heavy weather renders
+the vessel helpless and unmanageable; but, on the other hand, it is
+contended that so long as she has sufficient water under her she is
+practically unsinkable. She has no deck to speak of, and consequently
+nothing to wash overboard save the waves, which play harmlessly over
+her arched roofing. Her hold is, so to speak, hermetically sealed.
+Though chiefly intended to carry freight, the capabilities of the
+whaleback as a passenger steamer have been satisfactorily tested.
+The <i>Christopher Columbus</i>, built on this principle, did duty as an
+excursion steamer at the Chicago World’s Fair, and is now plying
+regularly as a passenger boat between Chicago and Milwaukee—the
+largest excursion steamer, so it is said, in the world, “having a
+carrying capacity of 5,000, which number of persons she has comfortably
+transported on a number of occasions.” The steamer is 362 feet in
+length, has engines of 2,800 horse-power, and runs at the rate of
+twenty miles an hour. A considerable number of “whalebacks” are now
+engaged in the Upper Lakes grain and iron ore trade, all of them having
+been built by the Steel Barge Company at West Superior.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="COLBY" id="COLBY"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_363.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="294" />
+    <p class="center">THE “JOHN S. COLBY” WHALEBACK.</p>
+    <p class="center space-below1">From a photo presented by Mr. D. G. Thomson, of Montreal.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The above cut is a faithful representation of a type of steamer
+peculiar to the Upper Lakes, which, though somewhat odd-looking, is
+said to answer its purpose well as a grain-carrier.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The latest addition to the fleet is the biggest vessel of her class,
+and just now the largest grain-carrier on the lakes. This vessel, named
+after the inventor, <i>Alexander McDougall</i>, is 130 feet in length over
+all, 50 feet moulded breadth, and 27 feet in depth. Her double bottom
+is five feet deep, giving her a total water ballast capacity of 2,000
+tons. Her displacement on a draught of 18 feet is about 10,000 tons,
+and she is able to carry the enormous cargo of 7,200 tons, equivalent
+to 240,000 bushels of wheat. She is built of steel, and has quadruple
+expansion engines. The only departure from the original whaleback
+in this instance is the substitution of the perpendicular stem for
+the “swinish snout” or “spoon bow,” which has called forth so many
+uncomplimentary remarks, and which is much in evidence in our cut.</p>
+
+<p>In 1891 the whaleback <i>Wetmore</i> was the first of this class of vessels
+to bring a cargo of grain from the Upper Lakes to Montreal and continue
+the voyage to Liverpool, where she arrived safely on July 21st. From
+Liverpool the <i>Wetmore</i> sailed to the Pacific coast <i>via</i> Cape Horn,
+and while carrying a cargo of coal from Puget Sound to San Francisco
+she was disabled in a violent storm, went ashore, and was wrecked.</p>
+
+<h3>III. THE TURRET STEAMSHIP.</h3>
+
+<p>The hull of the turret ship closely resembles that of the whaleback,
+but instead of the “spoon bow” it has the straight stem, and is further
+distinguished by a “turret deck,” so called, about one-third the width
+of the vessel and extending over its entire length, at a height of some
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span>
+five or six feet above the turn of the hull. This forms the working
+deck, and towering above it are the bridge, the cook’s galley, the
+engineers’ quarters, and other two-story erections, forming an
+unship-shapely <i>tout ensemble</i> of a most unprepossessing appearance;
+and yet, this is the type of steamship at one time seriously proposed
+by the contractors for the Canadian fast-line service! There are some
+thirty-five such vessels afloat in different parts of the world, all
+built at Sunderland, and most of them engaged in the coal trade, for
+which they are said to be well adapted.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Turret Age</i>, which plies between Sydney, C.B., and Montreal during
+the season of navigation, was built in 1893, and is owned by Messrs.
+Peterson, Tate &amp; Co., of Newcastle-on-Tyne. She is one of the largest
+of her class, being 311 feet in length, 38.2 feet in width, and 21.6
+feet deep. She is propelled by a single screw, has a speed of eleven
+knots, and carries 3,700 tons of coal. Her capacious, unobstructed hold
+and continuous hatchway permit of loading and discharging cargo with
+marvellous rapidity, and she is said to be a fairly good sea-boat.</p>
+
+<h3>IV. WATER JET SYSTEM OF PROPULSION.</h3>
+
+<p>While Ericsson, Smith, Woodcroft and Lowe were busying themselves with
+experiments for perfecting the principle of the submerged screw as a
+means of propelling vessels through the water, another plan was being
+devised which, for a time, excited much interest, and was very nearly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span>
+becoming a success. This was Ruthven’s water-jet propeller. It differed
+from Ericsson’s in the singular fact that the actual propeller was
+placed inside of the ship instead of on the outside. This propeller,
+in the shape of a fan-wheel with curved blades, was made to revolve
+horizontally and rapidly in a tank of water placed in the hold of the
+vessel, fed from the sea through openings in the hull. The power of the
+steam-engine was applied to expelling the water from this tank through
+curved pipes with nozzles, on either side of the ship. In proportion to
+the velocity with which the water was forced through these pipes into
+the sea below the water-line, an impetus in the opposite direction was
+given to the vessel. The nozzles were so constructed that they could
+be turned easily towards the bow or stern, as occasion required, for
+forward or backward motion. The first experiment with this appliance
+was made by Messrs. Ruthven, of Edinburgh, on the Frith of Forth, with
+an iron boat 40 feet in length, in 1843, when a speed of seven miles an
+hour was attained. The <i>Enterprise</i>, 90 feet long and 100 tons burthen,
+was built on this principle, and made her trial trip, January 16th,
+1854, when she developed a speed of 9.35 miles an hour. This vessel was
+intended for the deep-sea fishing, and the jet-propeller was suggested
+in this case as being less liable to become entangled with the nets
+than the screw or paddle. The water-jet system was also tried on a
+Rhine passenger steamboat with some measure of success; but while the
+theory was upheld, it seems to have failed in practice, because the
+results in speed and in other respects were not proportioned to the
+working power and the consumption of fuel. See <i>En. Britannica</i>,
+8th ed., vol. xx., p. 661.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>V. THE CIGAR STEAMBOAT.</h3>
+
+<p>Experiments with this style of river craft have been frequent on both
+sides of the Atlantic without, however, being followed by substantial
+success. So long ago as 1835, the <i>Rapid</i>, consisting of two hollow
+cylinders, pointed at either end in cigar fashion, placed ten feet
+apart, with a large wheel between them in the centre, appeared on the
+Upper St. Lawrence, fitted with the steam-engine of the superannuated
+<i>Jack Downing</i>. Her first trip down the river was also her last, for,
+after many fruitless attempts to return, she was wrecked, and for a
+time abandoned. Eventually, she was towed, by way of the Ottawa and
+Rideau canals, to Ogdensburg, where she was refitted and plied for some
+time as a ferry boat. A very pretty specimen of a cigar-boat built of
+iron, with an elegant superstructure, the writer remembers having seen
+on the Clyde more than half a century ago, but as to its career and
+ultimate fate deponent sayeth not. A twin-boat steamer, reminding us of
+Patrick Miller’s first attempt at steam-boating, propelled, however,
+by side-wheels, may be seen any day during the season of navigation
+dragging its slow length along on the ferry from Laprairie to the
+opposite shore of the St. Lawrence, near Montreal.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>VI. THE ROLLER STEAMBOAT.</h3>
+
+<p>The reader is requested to put on his thinking cap before endeavouring
+to comprehend the brief reference now to be made to Mr. Knapp’s
+“Roller.” On the 8th of September, 1897, there was launched from the
+yard of the well-known Polson’s Iron Works Company in Toronto, an
+enlarged model of the strangest craft ever seen—a huge innovation upon
+all preconceived ideas of marine architecture. The exterior of the boat
+in question, if it can be called a boat, has all the appearance of a
+round boiler 110 feet long and 25 feet in diameter. The outer cylinder
+is built of one-quarter inch steel plates stoutly ribbed and riveted,
+and armed with a number of fins, or small paddles, the ends being
+funnel-shaped, with openings in the centre. This is made to revolve by
+means of two engines of 60 horse-power each, placed one at either end
+of the vessel. An inner cylinder similarly constructed, corresponding
+to the hold of a ship, remains stationary while the other is supposed
+to be rolling over the surface of the water, regardless of wind and
+waves, at railway speed. The modest calculation of the inventor is that
+a steam vessel so constructed of 700 feet in length and 150 feet in
+diameter, <i>ought</i> to cover the distance between New York and Liverpool
+in forty-eight hours! This model was built at a cost of $10,000. The
+results of the trial trip on Toronto Bay have not been made public.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>VII. THE “TURBINIA.”</h3>
+
+<p>In June, 1897, there appeared on the Solent, at the time of the great
+Jubilee Naval Review, a steam vessel furnished with a novel method of
+propulsion, by which a speed far in excess of any previous record was
+attained. In the opinion of competent experts this new application of
+steam-power is likely to bring about in the near future a revolution
+in steam navigation. The following account of this phenomenal craft
+appeared in the Montreal <i>Star</i>:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot1">
+<p class="author">“<span class="smcap">London</span>, July 5th, 1897.</p>
+
+<p>“The record-breaking 100-foot torpedo boat <i>Turbinia</i> has intensely
+interested the public here generally, and experts in marine engineering
+in particular. It is admitted that if the principle of the steam
+turbine invented by Charles Parsons and fitted in the <i>Turbinia</i> can
+be extended to large ships, it will mark the greatest revolution in
+mechanics since the invention of the steam-engine itself.</p>
+
+<p>“Mr. Wolff, M. P. for Belfast, head of the famous firm of Harland &amp;
+Wolff, of Belfast, and himself the designer of the White Star Liners, says:</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot2">
+<p>“‘I saw the <i>Turbinia</i> at Spithead going nearly
+eight miles an hour faster than any vessel had ever gone before, and
+even then she was not being pushed to her full speed. She passed
+quite close to the <i>Teutonic</i>, on which I was. She dashed along with
+marvellous speed and smoothness.</p>
+
+<p>“‘I must say, however, that I felt more secure on the <i>Teutonic</i> than
+I should have felt on the <i>Turbinia</i>, for you know they have not yet
+surmounted the difficulty of reversing the engine. She can go ahead
+forty miles an hour but can only reverse at less than four.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[Pg 370]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>“‘If Parsons can make a similar turbine engine practicable for big
+craft with proper reversing power, he will open a new era in the
+history of steam motors. But, although he has carried the economizing
+of steam to a great pitch for a turbine engine, still from my
+observation the waste of both steam and fuel under his system, if
+applied on a large scale, would be almost fatal. That there is a big
+future before his turbine engine for launches and other small craft I
+do not doubt, provided that he can get over the reversing difficulty.’”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The <i>Scientific American</i>, in its issue of June 26th, 1897, says:
+“Nothing more startling has ever occurred than the wonderful runs which
+have recently been made by a little craft called the <i>Turbinia</i>, in
+which the motive power is supplied by a steam turbine of the Parsons type.”</p>
+
+<p>Quoting from a paper read at a meeting of the Institution of Civil
+Engineers in London, by the Hon. Charles A. Parsons, the inventor
+of this new system, the advantages of the turbine system are thus
+summarized:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot1">
+<p>“(1) Greatly increased speed, owing to diminution of weight and
+smaller steam consumption; (2) increased carrying power of vessel;
+(3) increased economy in coal consumption; (4) increased facilities
+for navigating shallow waters; (5) increased stability of vessel;
+(6) reduced weight of machinery; (7) reduced cost of attendance
+on machinery; (8) reduced size and weight of screw propellers and
+shafting; (9) absence of vibration; (10) lowered centre of gravity of
+machinery, and reduced risk in time of war.</p>
+
+<p>“The <i>Turbinia</i> is 100 ft. in length, 9 ft. beam, 3 ft. draught
+amidships, and 44½ tons displacement. She has three screw shafts, each
+directly driven by a compound steam turbine of the parallel flow type.
+The three turbines are in series, and the steam is expanded—at full
+power—from a pressure of 170 pound absolute, at which it reaches the
+motor, to a pressure of one pound absolute, at which it is condensed.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</a></span>
+The shafts are slightly inclined, and each carries three crews, making
+nine in all. The screws have a diameter of 18 in., and when running at
+full speed they make 2,200 revolutions per minute. Steam is supplied
+from a water tube boiler, and the draught is forced by a fan, mounted
+on the prolongation of the low pressure motor shaft, the advantage of
+this arrangement being that the draught is increased as the demand for
+steam increases, and also that the power to drive the fan is obtained
+directly from the main engines.</p>
+
+<p>“Up to the present the maximum mean speed attained has been 32¾ knots,
+as the mean of two consecutive runs on the measured mile. These runs
+were made after about four hours’ steaming at other speeds, and the
+boat on the day of the trials had been fifteen days in the water. It is
+anticipated that on subsequent trials, after some alterations to the
+steam pipe, still higher mean speeds will be obtained.</p>
+
+<p>“It is believed that when boats of 200 feet in length and upward are
+fitted with compound turbine motors, speeds of 35 to 40 knots may be
+easily obtained in vessels of the destroyer class, and it is also
+believed that the turbine will—in a lesser degree—enable higher speeds
+to be realized in all classes of passenger vessels.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Referring to the difficulty of reversing the engines of the <i>Turbinia</i>,
+the <i>Scientific American</i> adds, that “by using a system of ‘butterfly’
+reversing steam valves, a motor has been constructed in which the
+steam may be made to flow through the blades of the turbine in either
+direction, the whole horse-power of the engines being thus available
+for going astern.” Detailed drawings and descriptions of the <i>Turbinia</i>
+and the new motor may be found in the supplements of the <i>Scientific
+American</i> (New York) for June 26th, 1897, and March 12th, 1898.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</a></span></p>
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[Pg 373]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="chapter"><h2>INDEX.</h2></div>
+
+<p class="center space-below1"><i>Letter</i> <b>“S”</b> <i>indicates Inland Steamer</i>,
+<b>“SS”</b> <i>Ocean Steamer.</i></p>
+
+<ul class="index">
+<li class="isub1">Aberdeen Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Acadia, SS., <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Accommodation, S., <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Adriatic, SS., Collins, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Adriatic, SS., White Star, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">African Steamship Company, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Aird, Captain, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Aitken &amp; Company, steamship builders, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Alaska, SS., <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Albany to Montreal, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Alberta, S., <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Algoma, S., <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Allan, Alexander, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Allan, Andrew, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Allan, Bryce, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Allan, James, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Allan, Sir Hugh, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Allan Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Alps, SS., <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Amazon, steel barge, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">America, SS., <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Amerika, SS., <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">American Steamship Line, Lake Ontario, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Anchor Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ancient, Rev. W. J., <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Anderson, Captain, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Angloman, SS., <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Anglo-Saxon, SS., wrecked, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Appomattox, S., <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Archer, Captain, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Archimedes, S., <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Arctic, SS., <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Arizona, SS., <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Armed cruisers, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Armed mail packets, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Arrow Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Athabaska, S., <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Athenian, SS., <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Atlantic, SS., Collins, <a href="#Page_104">104-106</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Atlantic, SS., White Star, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Atlantic Transport Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Augusta Victoria, SS., <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Australasian, SS., <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Australia, SS., P. &amp; 0., <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Australia and Vancouver Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Austria, SS., burned, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Aylmer, Lord, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Bain, Captain Robert, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ballantine, Captain, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Baltic, SS., Collins, <a href="#Page_104">104-106</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Baltic, SS., White Star, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Bannockburn, S., <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Barbadian, SS., <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Barber &amp; Company Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Barber, Keith A., <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Barclay &amp; Curie, builders, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Battleships, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Bay of Fundy, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Beauharnois Canal, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Beaver Steamship Line, The, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Beaver, The old steamer, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Belgravia, SS., <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.
+                  <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[Pg 374]</a></span></li>
+<li class="isub1">Bell, Henry, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Bibby Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Black Ball Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Black Diamond Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Blue Flag Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Bohemian, SS., <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub3">wrecked, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Boothby, Captain, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Boulton &amp; Watt, engineers, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Brandon to Britain, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Bristol City Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Britannia, SS., <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Britannic, SS., <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">British and African Steamship Company, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">British and Colonial Steam Navigation Company, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">British Columbia, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">British India Steam Navigation Company, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">British and North American Royal Mail Steam-Packet Company, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">British navy, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">British Queen, SS., <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Brooks, Captain, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Brown, Captain, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Bruce Mines, S., <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Brunel, Isambard, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Brush, George, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Buenos Ayrean, SS., <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Bulwer, Sir Edward, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Burial of dead at sea, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Burlington, S., <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Burns, Rev. Dr., <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Burns, Sir George, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Calcutta and Burmah Steam Navigation Company, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Caledonia, SS., Cunard, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Caledonia, SS., P. &amp; O., <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Calvin Company, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cameron, Captain, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Campana, S., <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Campania, SS., <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Campbell, Captain Howard, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Canada, SS., Cunard Line, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Canada, SS., Dominion Line, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Canada Shipping Company, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Canadian, SS., <a href="#Page_198">198-200</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Canadian canals, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Canadian commerce on lakes, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Canadian Pacific Railway, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Canadian Pacific steamers, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>,
+            <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Canadian Steam Navigation Company, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Canal tariffs, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cape of Good Hope, SS., <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Car of Commerce, S., <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Carthaginian, SS., <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Castle Steamship Line, The, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Celtic, SS., <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Charity, SS., <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Charlotte Dundas, S., <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Chesapeake and Ohio Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Chicora, S., <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Chieftain, S., <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Chimborazo, SS., <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">China, SS., <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Chippewa, S., <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cimbria, SS., sunk, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Circassia, SS., <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Circassian, SS., <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">City of Berlin, SS., <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">City of Boston, SS., <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">City of Brussels, SS., <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">City of Chicago, SS., <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">City of Glasgow, SS., <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">City of Manchester, SS., <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">City of Montreal, SS., <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">City of New York, SS., <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">City of Paris, SS., <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">City of Philadelphia, SS., <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">City of Rome, SS., <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">City of Washington, SS., <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">City Steamship Line to India, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Clan Steamship Line, The, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cleopatra, SS., <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Clermont, S., <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cleveland, Ohio, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Clipper ships, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Clyde River steamers, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Codfish industry, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Collingwood and Owen Sound, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Collins, E. K., <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Collins Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.
+                      <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[Pg 375]</a></span></li>
+<li class="isub1">Collision at sea, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Columba, S., <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Comet, S., Bell’s, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Commerce of Great Lakes, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Compagnie Générale Transatlantique, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Compound engines, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Connal &amp; Co., builders, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Continental Steamship Lines, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cook, Captain, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Corona, S., <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cost of running steamships, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cramp &amp; Sons, builders, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Crathie, SS., collision, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Crescent, H.M.S., <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Crimean War, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cruisers, Armed, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cumberland, S., <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cunard fleet, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cunard Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cunard, Sir Edward, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cunard, Sir Samuel, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cunard track chart, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Currie, Captain, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cushing, Manager, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cuzco, SS., <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Dakota, SS., <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Dalziel, Captain, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Danmark, SS., foundered, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Danube, SS., <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Dawn of steam navigation, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Deeper waterways, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Dennys, ship-builders, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>,
+ <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Detroit River tonnage, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Devonia, SS., <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Diamond Jubilee Review, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Dick, Captain, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Dickens, Charles, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Distances, Marine, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Dolphin, S., <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Dominion Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Dominion Steamers, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Donaldson Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Douglas, Captain, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Douglas, Governor of British Columbia, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Dramatic Line, The, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Draught, Induced, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Drummond Castle, SS., lost, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Dry-docks, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Duke of Marlborough, H.M.S., <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Duke of Wellington, H.M.S., <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Durham boats, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Durham City, SS., <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Dutton, Captain, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Early Atlantic steamers, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Eastern trade, The, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">East India Company, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Elbe, SS., sunk, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Elder, Dempster Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Elder, John, &amp; Co., <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
+           <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Eldridge, Captain, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Elevator, The grain, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Emerald, S., <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Emigrant ships, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Empress Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Empire, S., <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Empire City, S., <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Enterprise, SS., <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ericsson, John, inventor, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Erie Canal, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Erin, SS., lost, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Etolia, SS., in the ice, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Etruria, SS., <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>,
+          <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Europa, SS., <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">European, SS., <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Eutopia, SS., sunk, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Evans, Captain, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Exports from Montreal, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Fares to India and the East, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Fairfield Ship-yard, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Farlinger, Captain, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Fast Line of Steamships, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Fast service to Japan, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Favourite, sailing-ship, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Fawcett, William, SS., <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ferry-boats, American, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">First compound engine, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">First live stock shipment, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">First lake propeller, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">First steamer in Canada, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.
+                       <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[Pg 376]</a></span></li>
+<li class="isub1">First steamer on Lake Ontario, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">First steamer on Lake Erie, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">First ocean steamship, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">First steam fog-horn, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">First steel steamship, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">First wheat shipment from Manitoba, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Fleming, Sir Sandford, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>,
+            <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Floating elevators, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Flying Squadron, The, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Fox, Sir Douglas, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Francis B. Ogden, S., <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Francis Smith, S., <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Frederick the Great, SS., <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Freight, inland rates, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">French Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Friesland, SS., <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Frontenac, S., <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Fulda, SS., <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Fulton, Robert, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Furnessia, SS., <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Furness Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Fürst Bismarck, SS., <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Gallia, SS., <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Garonne, SS., <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Gaskin, Captain, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">General Smyth, S., <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Genova, SS., <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">German East African Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Germanic, SS., <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Gildersleeve, S., <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Gildersleeve, Manager, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Glenmorag, ship, wrecked, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Golconda, SS., <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Gore, S., <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Gothic, SS., <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Graham, Captain John, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Grain-sucker, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Grain elevator, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Grand Trunk Railway opened, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Grange, Captain, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">“Graphic,” The London, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Graving-docks, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Great Britain, SS., <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Great Eastern, SS., <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Great Lakes, The, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Great Northern Transit Company, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Great Republic, SS., <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Great Western, SS., <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Great Western Railroad Line, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Grenville Canal, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Griffin, schooner, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Guion Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Gulf ports, Map of, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Hagart &amp; Crangle Line, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Haines, Captain, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Haliburton, Judge, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Halifax harbour, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hall Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hamburg &amp; American Steamship Packet Company, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hamilton, Captain Clarke, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hamilton, Hon. John, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hamilton, S., <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hamilton Steam Navigation Company, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Handyside &amp; Henderson, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hansa St. Lawrence Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Harland &amp; Wolff, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>,
+          <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Harrison, Captain, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Havel, SS., <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Head Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Henderson Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hennepin, Father, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hercules, S., <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hibernia, SS., <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Hibernian, SS., <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Highlander, S., <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hill Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Himalaya, SS., <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hindostan, SS., <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hooker &amp; Jones, forwarders, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hornet, torpedo destroyer, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Horse-boat, The, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Howard, Captain Thomas, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>,
+                         <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Howe, Hon. Joseph, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Howland, O. A., <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.
+             <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[Pg 377]</a></span></li>
+<li class="isub1">Hudson’s Bay Company, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Hungarian, SS., lost, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Icebergs, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Idaho, SS., lost, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Imrie, William, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Independence, propeller, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">India, SS., <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">India and the East, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Indian, SS., <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Indiana, SS., U.S., <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Inman Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">International Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Inverclyde, Lord, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ireland, propeller, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Iron steamers, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Iron ore transportation, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Iroquois, S., <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ismay, Thomas, H., <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">James Swift, S., <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">James Watt, S., <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">John Jacob Astor, sail vessel, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">John Kenzie, brig, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">John Munn, S., <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Johnston Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Jones, Captain J., <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Jones, Captain Thomas, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Jones, J. &amp; J., forwarders, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Jubilee Review, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Judkins, Captain, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Julia Palmer, propeller, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Jura, SS., stranded, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse, SS., <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Kaiser Wilhelm II, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Keefer, Thomas, C.E., <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Kent, S., <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Kingsford, Historian, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Kingston, Ontario, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Kingston, S., <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Klondike, Steam to, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Labrador, SS., <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lachine Canal, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lady Colborne, S., <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lady Eglinton, S., <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lady Elgin, S., <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lady Sherbrooke, S., <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lady Washington, schooner, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lahn, SS., <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lake Ontario, SS., <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lake St. Peter, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lake Superior, SS., <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lakes, Navigation Companies, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lakes, The Great, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">La France, ship, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">La Salle, explorer, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">La Bourgogne, SS., lost, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">La Touraine, SS., <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lamport &amp; Holt Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lifeboats at sea, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lindall, Captain, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Live stock exportation, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Liverpool landing-stage, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Liverpool packet-ships, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Liverpool, SS., <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lochearn, SS., collision, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Locomotives, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lord Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lord Sydenham, S., <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lott, Captain, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lowe, James, inventor, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lucania, SS., <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Lusitania, SS., <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Magnet, S., <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Majestic, SS., <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Malsham, S., <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Manchester Ship Canal, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Manhanset Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Manitoba, S., <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Manitou, S., <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Map of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Marjery, S., <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Marine distances, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Mariposa, SS., wrecked, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Marshall, Captain, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Matiana, SS., <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Maudsley, Field &amp; Company, engineers, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Memphis, SS., lost, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.
+           <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[Pg 378]</a></span></li>
+<li class="isub1">Merchant Lines, Hamilton, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Merritt, Hon. William, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Messageries Maritimes Steamship Company, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Miller, Patrick, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Milloy, Alexander, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Miowera, SS., <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Missouri, SS., <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Moldavia, SS., <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Molson, Hon. John, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Monarch, S., <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Montana, SS., <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Montreal Ocean Steamship Company, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Montreal, Port of, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Montreal steamer burned, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Montreal Transportation Company, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Moodie, Captain, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Moravian, SS., wrecked, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Morris, Hon. Alex., <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">MountStephen, Lord, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Munro, Thomas, C.E., <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Murrell, Captain, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Mutiny at sea, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Macaulay, Captain, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Macdougall, Captain John, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Maclean, Captain N., <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Macleod, Dr. Norman, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Macpherson, Crane &amp; Co., <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">McIver, David, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">McKean, McLarty &amp; Co., <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">McKenzie, Captain, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">McKinstry, Captain, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">McLennan, Hugh, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">McMaster, Captain, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Napier, David, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Napier, Robert, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>,
+          <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Napoleon, S., <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Naronic, SS., lost at sea, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Natal Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">National Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Navy, The Royal, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Nestorian, SS., <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Netherlands Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">New England, SS., <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Newfoundland, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">New York, SS., <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Niagara Ship Canal, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Niagara, SS., <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Niagara Steam Navigation Company, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Nile, SS., <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Norman, SS., <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Normannia, SS., <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">North Atlantic Steamship Company, P. E. I., <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">North American, SS., <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">North Briton, SS., lost, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">North American Transport Company, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Northern Light, S., <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Northern Steamship Company, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">North German Lloyd Steamship Company, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">North Shore Navigation Company, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">North-West Fur Company, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">North-West Navigation Company, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">North-West, S., <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">North-West Transportation Company, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Norwegian, SS., wrecked, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Nova Scotia, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Nova Scotian, SS., <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Ogilvie, W. W., <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Oldfield, S., <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Old Man of the Sea, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ontario Lake Navigation, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ontario, S., <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ontario, SS., <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ophir, SS., <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Oregon, SS., Cunard, sunk, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Oregon, SS., Dominion, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Orient Steam Navigation Company, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Orizaba, SS., <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ottawa, SS., <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ottawa and Georgian Bay Canal, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ottawa and Rideau Forwarding Company, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.
+                     <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[Pg 379]</a></span></li>
+<li class="isub1">Ottawa River steamers, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ottawa River Navigation Company, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Overland route, The, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Owego, S., <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Pacific, SS., <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Pacific Steamship Navigation Company, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Packet-ships, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Papin, Denis, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Paris, SS., <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Parisian, SS., <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Parsell, Captain, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Passport, S., <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Patterson of Bristol, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Paynter, George, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Penelope, H.M.S., <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Peninsular and Oriental Steamship Company, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Pennsylvania, SS., <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Persia, SS., <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Peruvian, SS., <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Peterson, Tate &amp; Co., <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Phœnician, SS., <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Pioneer, S., <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ploughboy, S., <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Polynesian, SS., <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Pomeranian in a storm, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Pomone, French war-ship, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Postal compensation, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">President, SS., lost at sea, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Prince Edward Island, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Prince of Wales, war-ship, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Princeton, war-ship, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Priscilla, S., <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Provisions, Ships’, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Puffers, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Pumper, S., <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Quebec Province, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Quebec and Halifax Steamship Company, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Quebec, S., <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Quebec Steamship Company, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Queen Charlotte, S., <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Queen City, S., <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Quetta, SS., wrecked, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Racing at sea, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Randolph, Elder &amp; Co., <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Rates of passage, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Rathbun Company, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Rattler, H.M.S., <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Recovery, brigantine, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Red Star Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Renown, H.M.S., <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Republic, SS., White Star, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Richardson, Captain, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Richard Smith, S., <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Richards, Mills &amp; Co., <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Richelieu Steamboat Company, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Rideau Canal, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ritchie, Captain, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Robert Garrett, S., <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Rob Roy, S., <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Rockefeller Fleet, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Rosemount, S., <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Royal Mail West Indies Steam-Packet Company, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Royal William, S.S., <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>,
+                     <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Rubattino Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Russell, Scott, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Russia, SS., <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Sail <i>versus</i> Steam, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Salier, SS., lost at sea. <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sampson, propeller, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sam Ward, S., <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sarah Sands, SS., <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sardinian, SS., <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sarmatian, SS., <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sarnia, SS., <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sault Ste. Marie Canal, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Savannah, SS., <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Scotia, SS., <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Scotsman, SS., <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Scott &amp; Company, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Schiller, SS., wrecked, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Screw propeller, The, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sealing steamers, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Servia, SS., <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Shaw, Savill and Albion Steamship Company, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Shenango, ferry steamer, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Shepherd, Captain H. W., <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Shepherd, Captain R. W., <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.
+       <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[Pg 380]</a></span></li>
+<li class="isub1">Ship-building, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ship canals, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Siberian, SS., <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Simpson, Sir George, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Simcoe, General, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sirius, SS., <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sir Robert Peel, S., <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Smith, T. P., inventor, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Smith, Captain W. H., <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Smith, Donald A., <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Smythe, Major C., <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sophia, S., <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sovereign, S., <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Spaarndam, SS., <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Spitfire, H.M.S., <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Spithead reviews, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Spree, SS., <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Stanley, S. P. E. I., <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">State Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Steam Navigation in British Columbia, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Steam Navigation in New Brunswick, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Steam Navigation on the Ottawa, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Steam Navigation in Newfoundland, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Steam Navigation in Nova Scotia, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Steam Navigation in Prince Edward Island, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Steam Navigation in Quebec, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Steam Navigation in Manitoba, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Steam Navigation in Ontario, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Stearns, Captain, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Steel barges, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Steel steamships. First, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Stephen, George, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Stewart, Macleod, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Stone, Captain, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Strachan, Bishop, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">St. George, SS., wrecked, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">St. John harbour, N. B., <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">St. Lawrence canals, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">St. Lawrence route, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">St. Mary’s Falls Canal, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">St. Louis, SS., <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">St. Paul, SS., <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Strathcona, Lord, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Subsidies to steamship companies, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>,
+                  <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Subventions, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Suez Canal, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Summary of Steam Navigation, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sunday at sea, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sutherland, Captain, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Swearing, Profane, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Swiftsure, S., <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Symington, William, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Tartar, SS., <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Taylor, T. F., <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Taylor, Dr. W. M., <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Tate Brothers, builders, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Thingvalla Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Thomas MacKay, S., <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Thomson, J. A., steamboat inspector, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Thomson Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Thomson, J. and G., steamship builders, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>,
+                 <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Teutonic, SS., <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Tidal waves, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Tod &amp; McGregor, engineers, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Tonnage on the Great Lakes, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Toronto and Steam Navigation, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Torpedo boats, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Torrance, John, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Torrance, Messrs. David, &amp; Co., <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Transportation companies, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Transportation business, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Trave, SS., <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Trent, SS., <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Trevethick, Engineer, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Tripoli, SS., lost, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Twohey, Captain, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Ulster Steamship Company, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Umbria, SS., <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Unicorn, SS., <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Union Steamship Company, Africa, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Union Steamship Company, New Zealand, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.
+           <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[Pg 381]</a></span></li>
+<li class="isub1">United Empire, S., <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">United Empire Loyalists, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">United Kingdom, SS., <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">United States Shipping Company, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Up-to-date steamships, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Utica, barge, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Vancouver Island, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Vancouver, SS., <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Vandalia, propeller, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Vesta, SS., <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Vicksburg, SS., lost, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Victoria, B. C., founded, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Victoria Steamboat Association, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ville de Havre, SS., lost, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ville de Ciotat, SS., <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Voyageurs, Early, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Waghorn, Lieut., <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Waldensian, SS., <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Walk-in-the-Water, S., <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Ward &amp; Co., <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Waring, Captain W. L., <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Warrimoo, SS., <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Warrior, H. M. S., <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Washington, schooner, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Waterways of Canada, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Watt, James, engineer, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Welland Canal, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">West Indies and Pacific Steamship Lines, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Whale captured, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">White Star Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">William Fawcett, SS., <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">William IV., S., <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Williams, Captain, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Wilson Connoly Company, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Wilson Steamship Line, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Winter Ferry, P. E. I., <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Woodcroft, Engineer, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Woodruff, Captain, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">World’s Steamers, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Wylie, Captain, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Young, Captain, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><p class="f150 u"><b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a>
+“The Atlantic Ferry,” p. 175.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a>
+If my recollection serves me aright, there were not more than a dozen
+cabin passengers, and the only one of them who ventured aloft with me
+was my now venerable friend, Mr. Robert W. Graham, of the Montreal <i>Star</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a>
+“Denis Papin,” by Henry C. Ewart, in <i>Sunday Magazine</i>, 1880, p. 316.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a>
+Mr. Symington’s account of his interview with Mr. Fulton, as given in
+the “Encyclopædia Britannica,” is as follows: “When engaged in these
+experiments, I was called upon by Mr. Fulton, who told me he was lately
+from North America, and intended returning thither in a few months,
+but could not think of leaving this country without first waiting upon
+me in expectation of seeing the boat, and procuring such information
+regarding it as I might be pleased to communicate.... In compliance
+with his earnest request, I caused the engine fire to be lighted up,
+and in a short time thereafter put the steamboat in motion, and carried
+him four miles west on the canal, returning to the point from which
+we started in one hour and twenty minutes (being at the rate of six
+miles an hour), to the great astonishment of Mr. Fulton and several
+gentlemen, who at our outset chanced to come on board. During the trip
+Mr. Fulton asked if I had any objection to his taking notes regarding
+the steamboat, to which I made no objection, as I considered the more
+publicity that was given to any discovery intended for the general
+good, so much the better.... In consequence he pulled out a memorandum
+book, and, after putting several pointed questions respecting the
+general construction and effect of the machine, which I answered
+in a most explicit manner, he jotted down particularly everything
+then described, with his own observations upon the boat during the trip.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a>
+“The Story of Helensburgh,” 1894, p. 92.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a>
+These cuts, copied from Stanton’s “American Steam Vessels,” represent
+first class Mississippi and Ohio light-draught, high-pressure river
+steamers. The <i>J. M. White</i>, of 1878, was deemed “a crowning effort in
+steamboat architecture in the West.” She was 320 feet long and 91 feet
+in width, over the guards. Her saloons were magnificently furnished,
+and all her internal fittings of the most elaborate description. She
+carried 7,000 bales of cotton and had accommodation for 350 cabinpassengers.
+Her cost was $300,000. She was totally destroyed by fire in 1886.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a>
+“Our Ocean Railways,” p. 69.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a>
+Sufficient importance was attached to this matter to cause the two
+Houses of Parliament, in Ottawa, to order a brass tablet, commemorative
+of the event, to be placed in the corridor of the Library of
+Parliament. The tablet, of which a facsimile is presented in our
+frontispiece, was unveiled with fitting ceremony by His Excellency
+the Governor-General, on the occasion of the opening of the Colonial
+Conference, June 28th, 1894.—<i>Vide</i>: “The Journals of the Colonial
+Conference” (<i>Appendix</i>); “Journal of the House of Commons,” 1894;
+“Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a>
+Others say 10½ days.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a>
+Fry’s “History of Steam Navigation,” p. 182.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a>
+Encyclopedia Britannica, 8th Ed., Vol. xx, p. 657.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a>
+“Our Ocean Railways,” p. 75.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a>
+For at least a hundred and fifty years the Post Office Department had
+maintained a fleet of armed mail “packets.” They had stations at Dover,
+Harwich, Holyhead, Milford, Yarmouth and Falmouth, the last-named being
+the headquarters of the fleet. During the time of the American war,
+1812-15, no fewer than thirty-two sanguinary battles were fought with
+American privateers by the Falmouth packets, which, in a majority of
+instances, successfully resisted their assailants.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a>
+Sir John Burns in <i>Good Words</i> for 1887, p. 261.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a>
+Fry’s “History,” p. 240.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a>
+The invention is claimed for Canada in Chapter X., under the heading of
+“New Brunswick.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a>
+The <i>St. Paul</i>, <i>St. Louis</i>, <i>Paris</i> and <i>New York</i> have all been
+taken over by the United States Government and fitted up as armed
+cruisers, the names of the last two being changed to <i>Harvard</i> and
+<i>Yale</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a>
+Fry’s “History,” p. 193.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a>
+The <i>Germanic</i> has since been overhauled and has now a set of triple
+expansion engines, making her a seventeen-knot boat. In July, 1895,
+she crossed from Queenstown to New York in 6 days, 23 hours, 45 minutes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a>
+Fry’s “History,” p. 180.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a>
+A missionary of the Church of England, who ministered to a few poor
+fishermen at Terence Bay, at the imminent risk of his life put off
+to the wreck in a small boat and succeeded in saving the life of the
+first officer of the ship after all hope of further rescue had been
+abandoned, and when even the hardy fishermen forbade the rash attempt.
+Mr. Ancient had formerly been attached to the British navy, and during
+this heartrending scene acted the part of a hero in his efforts to save
+life and to relieve the sufferings of the survivors. Captain Williams
+was severely censured, and had his certificate suspended for two years.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a>
+This was written before the Hispano-American war began; since then
+several of these vessels have been employed by the United States
+Government with a change of nomenclature.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a>
+“U. S. A. Report on Navigation for 1896,” p. 104.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a>
+Last April the great <i>Kaiser</i> surpassed her previous record, making the
+voyage from New York to Southampton (3,065 knots) in 5 days, 17 hours,
+8 minutes, showing an average speed of 22.35 knots per hour.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a>
+<span class="smcap">The “Bourgogne” Disaster.</span>—Since the sinking
+of the <i>Eutopia</i> in Gibraltar Bay in 1891, no such marine disaster has
+occurred as that which recently befell the SS. <i>Bourgogne</i>—a, tragedy
+in some respects the most appalling that has ever been recorded.
+This vessel of 7,795 tons—one of the finest of the French line of
+steamers—sailed from New York for Havre on the 2nd of July, 1898, with
+a ship’s company, including passengers and crew, of 726 souls. Early on
+the morning of the 4th, when about sixty miles south of Sable Island,
+during a dense fog, and while running at the rate of some eighteen
+knots an hour, she came into collision with the British sailing ship
+<i>Cromartyshire</i>, of 1,554 tons, and in a very short time foundered,
+carrying down with her about 520 persons. Had it not been for her
+collision bulkhead the <i>Cromartyshire</i> must have sunk, too. As it was,
+she was badly damaged, but hove to all day in the hope of picking up
+survivors. In the meantime the Allan SS. <i>Grecian</i> came up to the scene
+of the disaster, the rescued passengers were taken on board, and the
+disabled ship was towed into Halifax harbour. The survivors were the
+purser of the steamship, three engineers, thirty of the crew, and 170
+passengers—204 in all. Of the seventy-two ladies in the first cabin
+only one was saved. Captain Deloncle, commander of the <i>Bourgogne</i>,
+was a lieutenant in the navy, and a knight of the Legion of Honour,
+having under him a competent staff of officers who appear to have done
+what they could to save the lives of others. All of them went down with
+their ship into the sailor’s grave. The loss of life was appalling, but
+even more heartrending were the accounts given of the barbarous conduct
+of some of the steerage passengers and sailors in the terrible struggle
+for self-preservation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a>
+Fry’s “History,” p. 309.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a>
+“Whitaker’s Almanack,” 1897, p. 543.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a>
+“Our Ocean Railways,” p. 119.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a>
+“Statistical Year-Book, 1896,” under Railways, p. 20.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a>
+The <i>Duke of Wellington</i> was 240.6 feet long, 60 feet beam, 3,826 tons
+burthen, and 2,500 horse-power. She was engined by Robert Napier &amp;
+Sons, Glasgow, with geared engines and wooden cogs, and made 10.2 knots
+an hour on her trial trip in 1853. The <i>Rattler</i>, of 1851, was 179½
+feet long, 32¾ feet beam, had geared engines of 436 horse-power, and
+attained a speed of 10 knots.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a>
+<a href="#Page_90">See also p. 90.</a></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a>
+Based on a compilation by Captain W. H. Smith.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a>
+“Encyclopedia Brit.,” Vol. xvii., p. 581, 8th Ed.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a>
+The <i>Angloman</i> was wrecked on the Skerries, in the Irish Sea, in
+February, 1897. The crew were rescued, but the ship, with her valuable
+cargo and a large number of cattle, became a total loss, though fully
+covered by insurance.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a>
+The SS. <i>Memphis</i>, of the African Steamship Company, but employed by
+the Elder, Dempster Line, went ashore on the west coast of Ireland in a
+fog in November, 1896, and became a total wreck. Ten of the crew were
+drowned and 350 head of cattle.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a>
+The Manchester ship canal is 35 miles long, 120 feet bottom width, and
+26 feet in depth. The docks at Manchester cover 104 acres and have five
+miles of quays. It was estimated to cost £10,000,000 sterling, but cost
+over £15,000,000 before it was completed. Arrangements are in progress
+by a Manchester syndicate for the establishment of a weekly line of
+steamships of 8,500 tons capacity, to be provided with cold storage
+and the most approved equipments for carrying live stock. The best
+modern appliances for loading and discharging cargo, grain elevators
+being included, are among the attractions which enterprising Manchester
+presents to the shipping trade of Canada.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a>
+“Montreal Board of Trade Report, 1897,” pp. 52, 88.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p>
+<a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a></p>
+<p class="f120">DIMENSIONS OF THE GREAT LAKES.</p>
+<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Dimensions of Great Lakes." cellpadding="0" rules="cols">
+  <thead><tr>
+      <th class="tdc bb" colspan="6">&nbsp;</th>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <th class="tdc bb">LAKES.</th>
+      <th class="tdc bb">&nbsp;Length.&nbsp;<br />(Miles.)</th>
+      <th class="tdc bb">&nbsp;Greatest&nbsp;<br />Width.<br />(Miles.)</th>
+      <th class="tdc bb">&nbsp;Depth.&nbsp;<br />(Feet.)</th>
+      <th class="tdc bb">&nbsp;Above Sea.&nbsp;<br />(Feet.)</th>
+      <th class="tdc bb">Area.<br />&nbsp;(Sq. Miles.)&nbsp;</th>
+    </tr>
+  </thead>
+  <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Ontario</td> <td class="tdc">180</td>
+      <td class="tdc">65</td> <td class="tdc">&emsp;500</td>
+      <td class="tdc">247</td> <td class="tdc">&nbsp; 7,300</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Erie</td> <td class="tdc">240</td>
+      <td class="tdc">80</td> <td class="tdc">&emsp;210</td>
+      <td class="tdc">573</td> <td class="tdc">10,000</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Huron</td> <td class="tdc">280</td>
+      <td class="tdc">190</td> <td class="tdc">&emsp;802</td>
+      <td class="tdc">581</td> <td class="tdc">24,000</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Michigan ‡&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdc">335</td>
+      <td class="tdc">88</td> <td class="tdc">&emsp;868</td>
+      <td class="tdc">581</td> <td class="tdc">25,600</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">Superior</td> <td class="tdc">420</td>
+      <td class="tdc">160</td> <td class="tdc">1,008</td>
+      <td class="tdc">601</td> <td class="tdc">32,000</td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc bt" colspan="6">‡ Lake Michigan lies wholly within the United States.</td>
+    </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a>
+These figures refer exclusively to vessels belonging to the merchant
+marine of the United States on the Great Lakes and are taken from
+official reports.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a>
+Mr. C. H. Keep, in his report on the “Internal Commerce of the United
+States for 1891,” has given a graphic History of Navigation on the
+Great Lakes, and is our chief authority for these notes on the early
+American lake steamers.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a>
+Robertson’s “Landmarks of Toronto,” p. 847.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a>
+Bryce’s “Short History of the Canadian People,” p. 333.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a>
+Hugh McLennan’s “Lecture on Canadian Waterways, 1885.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a>
+The setting-pole might be twenty-five feet long, heavily shod with
+iron at one end and at the other fitted with a rounded knob. This pole
+was dropped into the water at the bow of the boat, and the boatman
+having put his shoulder to the other end of it, facing the stern, and
+pushing with all his might, walked to the farther end, cleats being
+fastened to the deck to give him foothold. By the time he reached the
+stern the barge had advanced exactly its own length, when he withdrew
+the pole, dragged it to the bow and repeated the process. Two or three
+men on each side of the boat would be similarly employed, and so the
+barge dragged its slow length along, much after the fashion of the
+horse-boat, only that the horse tugged at a stationary post while the
+men pushed from it.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a>
+Kingsford’s “Canadian Canals” (Toronto, 1865) contains an elaborate
+history of the Welland and the financial difficulties that attended
+its construction. The Imperial Government seem to have contributed
+some £55,555 towards it, while stock was taken in the enterprise
+by individuals in the United States for £69,625, and by English
+capitalists, £30,137. The first vessels to pass through the canal are
+said to have been the schooners <i>Ann and Jane</i> and <i>R. H. Boughton</i>,
+in November, 1829. On the 5th of July, 1841, during the first session
+of the United Parliament of Canada, Lord Sydenham announced that Her
+Majesty had confirmed the bill for transferring the Welland to the
+Provincial Government.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. McLennan states that the first Canadian vessel to pass through
+the Welland was the propeller <i>Ireland</i>, Captain Patterson.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a>
+The schooner <i>Niagara</i>, built by Muirs, of Port Dalhousie, was sent to
+Liverpool with 20,000 bushels of wheat about the year 1860. Captain
+Gaskin, of Kingston, built several sea-going vessels, one of which
+he took over to Liverpool himself and sold her there. But experience
+has proved that vessels suited to the navigation of the lakes will
+never be able to compete successfully with ocean steamships of 10,000
+tons.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a>
+“Report of Dominion Railways and Canals, 1895,” p. 256.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a>
+“Montreal Board of Trade Report, 1897,” p. 70.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a>
+<i>Vide</i> page 26 of said Report.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a>
+“Buffalo Board of Trade Report, 1895,” p. 98.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a>
+“United States Deep Waterways Commission Report, 1896.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a>
+“Chicago Board of Trade Report, 1895.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a>
+“United States Deep Waterways Commission Report, 1896.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a>
+“United States International Commerce Report, 1892,” p. 52.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a>
+For these notes on the Erie Canal the author is chiefly indebted to
+Kingsford’s “Canadian Canals,” Mr. Thomas C. Keefer, C. E., Ottawa,
+and the Superintendent’s “Report on Canals in the State of New York, 1896.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a>
+The latest improvement in this direction is what is called the “Grain
+Sucker,” by which the process of loading and unloading cargoes of grain
+is accomplished with astonishing speed. The new appliance combines in
+its construction the main features of the ordinary elevator, and causes
+the grain to go through all the different movements above described,
+with this difference, that instead of the leg with the belt and bucket,
+the grain is elevated to the top of the structure on the principle of
+suction through a flexible pipe. The air being drawn off by pumps from
+the vacuum chamber, the grain is sucked up like water from a well.
+Machines of this kind, fitted with any number of these pipes that may
+be required, are used at the London docks, and are said to be capable
+of transferring wheat at the rate of a hundred and fifty tons an
+hour—<i>Vide Strand Magazine</i> for May, 1898.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a>
+“The steamship <i>Bannockburn</i> and consorts left Fort William on the 3rd
+instant loaded with 220,000 bushels of No. 1 hard wheat for Mr. W.
+W. Ogilvie’s mills. This is the largest shipment that ever left the
+port.”—<i>Montreal Gazette, June 5th, 1896.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a>
+The weight that can be hauled by a locomotive depends largely on
+the gradients of the road traversed. Winnipeg and Fort William are
+nearly on the same sea level, but between them the line of railway
+ascends and descends some 800 feet, limiting the drawing power of
+a sixty-ton locomotive in certain sections to, say, 900 tons. On a
+level road a large American locomotive will easily draw sixty cars
+containing 1,000 bushels of wheat each, or a total weight of 3,000
+tons. As with steamships, the tendency is to increase the size of the
+locomotive. There is this difference, however: the weight and power of
+the locomotive are limited by the strength of the rail upon which it
+travels.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a>
+Since these lines were written, three stationary elevators have been
+erected at Kingston—one by the Montreal Transportation Company,
+with a capacity of 800,000 bushels; one by the Moore Company, for
+500,000 bushels, and one by James Richardson &amp; Sons, for 250,000
+bushels. The Prescott Elevator Company has erected one at Prescott
+of 1,000,000 capacity, and still another has been built at Coteau
+Landing in connection with the Canada Atlantic Railway system, with
+500,000 capacity. All indications are that the enlargement of the St.
+Lawrence canals is confidently expected to result in a large increase
+in the Canadian grain trade and forwarding business. There are sixteen
+floating elevators in Montreal harbour, capable of handling from 4,000
+to 8,000 bushels of grain each per hour.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a>
+The following paragraph, taken from the <i>North-Western Miller</i> for
+November 12th, 1897, doubtless reflects the opinion of the majority
+of Western grain dealers in the United States, with whom the feeling
+of sentiment for the “natural route” is of small account: “The steel
+barge <i>Amazon</i> left Fort William recently loaded with 205,000 bushels
+of Manitoba hard wheat for Buffalo, indicating that the Buffalo
+route is still at its best, and that the monster craft is cutting
+off the Montreal route as effectively as could be desired by any rival.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a>
+We have good authority for quoting the rates of the summer of 1897
+as follows: Duluth to Buffalo, 1½ cents per bushel; Buffalo to New
+York, by the Erie Canal, 3½ cents; New York to Liverpool, 5 cents;
+elevator charges, ⅞ of 1 cent; total, 10⅞ cents per bushel. Fort
+William to Kingston, 3½ cents; Kingston to Montreal, 2 cents; Montreal
+to Liverpool, 5¼ cents, including port charges; total, 10¾ cents per
+bushel. In 1857 the average rate by lake and canal on a bushel of wheat
+from Chicago to New York was 25.29 cents per bushel; now it is less
+than 6 cents. The reduction in cost of transmission is due to improved
+methods of handling freight, deeper channels, larger vessels and more
+rapid conveyance.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a>
+Mr. John Ross Robertson’s “Landmarks of Toronto” (Toronto: 1896)
+contains an account of nearly all the steamboats that have plied on
+Lake Ontario and the Upper St. Lawrence from 1816 to 1895.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a>
+From notes by Rev. Professor Bryce, LL. D., of Winnipeg.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a>
+Mr. J. A. Thomson, Inspector of Steamboats for British Columbia, furnished
+the information contained in these notes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a>
+Vancouver Island was at that time a British possession—leased to the
+Hudson’s Bay Company. When the lease expired, in 1859, the Island was
+made a Crown colony, and the old fort, with the large cattle farm
+attached to it, became the site of the beautiful city of Victoria, with
+its fine streets, electric railways, magnificent public buildings,
+palatial residences, a population of 23,000, and real estate valued at
+$20,000,000. The Island and British Columbia were made one Province in
+1866, and entered the Dominion in 1871.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a>
+Since these lines were penned the rush to the Klondike has given an
+immense impetus to the steamboat business of British Columbia.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a>
+From notes by Rev. Robert Murray, Halifax.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a>
+The largest graving-dock in the world is said to be the one built for
+the Clyde Trust at Govan, on the Clyde, and recently opened. It is 880
+feet long, 115 feet wide and has 26½ feet of water on the sill. The
+Clyde Trust are evidently looking ahead. There may be no ships of 850
+feet in sight at the moment, but there is no telling how soon there
+will be. The Govan dock is ready for them. In the meantime it has been
+partitioned off into two parts by still gates, the outer division being
+460 feet in length, and the inner, 420 feet.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a>
+Information furnished by Mr. Keith A. Barber, of H. M. Customs, St. John, N. B.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a>
+Information supplied by Mr. W. F. Hales, of Charlottetown.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a>
+By the kindness of Rev. Moses Harvey, D.D., of St. John’s.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a>
+“Statistical Year Book of Canada, 1896,” p. 280.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a>
+“Report U. S. Commissioner on Navigation, 1896,” p. 201.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a>
+“Report U. S. Commissioner on Navigation, 1896,” p. 127.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="transnote bbox space-above2">
+<p class="f120 space-above1">Transcriber's Note:</p>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<p class="indent">The cover image was created by the transcriber, and is in the public domain.</p>
+<p class="indent">Old or antiquated spellings have been preserved.</p>
+<p class="indent">The illustrations have been moved so that they do not break up
+                  paragraphs and so that they are next to the text they illustrate.</p>
+<p class="indent">Typographical errors have been silently corrected but other variations
+    in spelling and punctuation remain unaltered.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STEAM NAVIGATION AND ITS RELATION TO THE COMMERCE OF CANADA AND THE UNITED STATES***</p>
+<p>******* This file should be named 58849-h.htm or 58849-h.zip *******</p>
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author	nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org>	2025-02-09 09:14:49 -0800
committer	nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org>	2025-02-09 09:14:49 -0800
commit	4d30fcd7c0f1a0a63711caa5b7c73e4fda933534 (patch)
tree	6f856dfe9431ecae320facb25de38725b02391cd