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<body>
<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 58752 ***</div>
<hr class="chap" />
<div class="figcenter covernote">
<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Book Cover." width="534" height="766" />
</div>
<p class="f150 space-above2"><big><i>HANDBOOKS OF THE GREAT CRAFTSMEN</i></big>.</p>
<hr class="r25" />
<p class="center">Illustrated Monographs, Biographical and Critical, on the Great
Craftsmen<br />and Workers of Ancient and Modern Times.</p>
<p class="center space-above2">Edited by <span class="smcap">G. C. Williamson</span>, Litt.D.<br />
Imperial 16mo, with numerous Illustrations,<br />5<i>s.</i> net each.</p>
<p class="center space-above2"><i>First Volumes of the Series</i></p>
<p class="center">THE PAVEMENT MASTERS OF SIENA.<br />
By <span class="smcap">R. H. Hobart Cust</span>, M.A.</p>
<hr class="r5" />
<p class="center">PETER VISCHER.<br />By <span class="smcap">Cecil Headlam</span>, B.A.</p>
<hr class="r5" />
<div class="chapter"><p class="center">THE IVORY WORKERS OF THE MIDDLE AGES.<br />
By <span class="smcap">A. M. Cust</span>.</p></div>
<p class="center space-above2"><i>Others to follow.</i></p>
<p class="center">LONDON: GEORGE BELL AND SONS<br />NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN CO.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter">
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_1" id="FIG_1"></a>
<img src="images/i_f004.jpg" alt=" " width="250" height="676" />
<p class="center"><small>DOSSETTER PHOTO.   [BRITISH MUSEUM</small><br />
1. LEAF OF A DIPTYCH<br />Byzantine, fifth century</p>
<p class="center"><span class="ws10">[<a href="#Page_55"><i>See p.</i> 55.</a>]</span></p>
</div></div>
<hr class="chap" />
<h1>THE IVORY WORKERS<br /><small>OF THE</small><br />MIDDLE AGES</h1>
<hr class="chap" />
<p class="center space-above3 space-below3"><small>BY</small><br /><big>A. M. CUST</big></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<img src="images/bell_logo.jpg" alt=" " width="90" height="102" />
</div>
<p class="center space-above3">LONDON<br />GEORGE BELL AND SONS<br />1902</p>
<div class="chapter"><p class="center">CHISWICK PRESS: CHARLES WHITTINGHAM AND CO.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p>
<p class="center">TOOKS COURT, CHANCERY LANE, LONDON.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></p>
<hr class="r5" />
<p class="center">TO MY DEAR FATHER<br />I DEDICATE THIS BOOK.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p>
</div>
<hr class="chap" />
<div class="chapter"><h2>PREFACE</h2></div>
<p class="blockquot">This little book can do no more than humbly
touch the fringe of a large subject; but if it leads the reader to a
further study of this beautiful craft, it will have amply fulfilled
its duty.</p>
<p class="blockquot">I must express my deep obligation to the
magnificent volume on ivories by M. Emile Molinier, whose masterly
arrangement of a very fragmentary and scattered subject is a model of
lucidity; and also to Dr. Hans Graeven, whose scholarly researches
and excellent photographs are indispensable for a real study of the
craft.</p>
<p class="author" ><span class="smcap">A. M. Cust.</span></p>
<p><i>December, 1901.</i>
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span></p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter"><p class="f150"><b>CONTENTS</b></p></div>
<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="TOC." cellpadding="0">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="tdl" colspan="3"> </td>
<td class="tdr"><small>PAGE</small></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdl" colspan="3"><span class="smcap">List of Illustrations</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_xiii">xiii</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdl" colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Bibliography</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_xvii">xvii</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><br />CHAPTER I.</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdl" colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Consular and other Secular Diptychs</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_1"> 1</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><br />CHAPTER II.</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdl" colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Latin and Byzantine Ivories</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdl1"> </td>
<td class="tdr">I.</td>
<td class="tdl1">Latin and Latino-Byzantine and</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdl1"> </td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl1"> the Early Byzantine Ivories</td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAP_II_I">37</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdl1"> </td>
<td class="tdr">II.</td>
<td class="tdl1">Byzantine Caskets</td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAP_II_II">75</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdl1"> </td>
<td class="tdr">III.</td>
<td class="tdl1">The Byzantine Renaissance</td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAP_II_III">84</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><br />CHAPTER III.</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdl" colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Lombardic, Anglo-Saxon, Carlovingian</span></td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdl" colspan="3"> <span class="smcap">and German Ivories</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdl1"> </td>
<td class="tdr">I.</td>
<td class="tdl1">Lombard Ivory Carvings</td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAP_III_I">96</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdl1"> </td>
<td class="tdr">II.</td>
<td class="tdl1">Anglo-Saxon Ivory Carvings</td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAP_III_II">99</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdl1"> </td>
<td class="tdr">III.</td>
<td class="tdl1">The Carlovingian Renaissance</td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAP_III_III">106</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdl1"> </td>
<td class="tdr">IV.</td>
<td class="tdl1">German Ivory Carving in the time</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdl1"> </td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl1"> of the Ottos</td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAP_III_IV">118</a>
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdc" colspan="3"><br />CHAPTER IV.</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdl" colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Romanesque and Gothic Ivories</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdl" colspan="3"><br /><span class="smcap">List of Diptychs</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdl" colspan="3"><span class="smcap">List of Places where Important Examples</span></td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdl" colspan="3"> <span class="smcap">of Ivories can be found</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdl" colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter"><p class="f150"><b>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</b></p></div>
<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="LOI." cellpadding="0">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="tdr"><small>FIG.</small></td>
<td class="tdl"> </td>
<td class="tdr"><small>PAGE</small></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">1.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">An Angel.</span> Leaf of a Diptych.</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">Fifth century. Byzantine</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><i>British Museum, London</i></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_1"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">2.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">Second Leaf of the Diptych of Probianus,</span></td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><span class="smcap">Vice-Prefect of Rome.</span> End of fourth century</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><i>Berlin Library</i></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_2"> 8</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">3.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">First Leaf of the Diptych of Probus,</span></td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><span class="smcap">Consul at Rome</span>, 406 <small>A.D.</small></td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><i>Duomo, Aosta</i></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_3"> 9</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">4.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">First Leaf of the Diptych of Orestes,</span></td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><span class="smcap">Consul at Rome</span>, 530 <small>A.D.</small></td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><i>Victoria and Albert Museum, London</i></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_4">14</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">5.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">Leaf of the Diptych of Amalasuntha</span>(?)</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">Sixth Century. Italian</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr bb"> </td>
<td class="tdl2 bb"><i>Bargello, Florence</i></td>
<td class="tdr bb"><a href="#FIG_5">30</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">6.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">Adam in the Terrestrial Paradise, and Scenes</span></td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><span class="smcap">from the Life of St. Paul.</span></td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">Leaves of a Diptych. Fifth century. Italian</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><i>Bargello, Florence</i></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_6">41</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">7 & 8.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">Two Plaques</span>, <span class="smcap">The Crucifixion</span> and <span class="smcap">Christ leaving</span></td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><span class="smcap">the Prætorium</span>.</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">Fifth century. Italian</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><i>British Museum</i></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_7">46</a>, <a href="#FIG_8">47</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">9.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">Pyx with the Scene of Christ healing the Paralytic.</span></td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">Sixth century. Italo-Byzantine</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><i>Musée de Cluny, Paris</i></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_9">51</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">10.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">Cover of a Book of the Gospels</span></td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">(from S. Michele di Murano). Sixth century. Italo-Byzantine</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr bb"> </td>
<td class="tdl2 bb"><i>Ravenna Museum</i></td>
<td class="tdr bb"><a href="#FIG_10">53</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">11.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">Cover of a Book of the Gospels</span>, with three scenes from</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">the Nativity (from Metz Cathedral).</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">Sixth century. Italo-Byzantine</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span></td>
<td class="tdl2"><i>Bibliothèque nationale, Paris</i></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_11">57</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">12.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">Front of the Ivory Throne of St. Maximian,</span></td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">with St. John Baptist and the Four Evangelists.</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">Sixth century. Byzantine</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><i>Duomo, Ravenna</i></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_12">59</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">13.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">A Panel from the same Throne, Bringing Joseph’s</span></td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><span class="smcap">Coat to Jacob.</span></td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">Sixth century. Byzantine</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><i>Duomo, Ravenna</i></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_13">63</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">14.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">Oliphant.</span> Ninth to tenth century.</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">Oriental Byzantine</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><i>Victoria and Albert Museum, London</i></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_14">73</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">15.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">Veroli Casket.</span> Byzantine</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr bb"> </td>
<td class="tdl2 bb"><i>Victoria and Albert Museum, London</i></td>
<td class="tdr bb"><a href="#FIG_15">77</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">16.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">Front of a Casket</span>, with scenes from the life of David.</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">Ninth century. Byzantine</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><i>Museo Kircheriano, Rome</i></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_16">81</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">17.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">Harbaville Triptych.</span></td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">Tenth century. Byzantine</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><i>Louvre, Paris</i></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_17">87</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">18.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">Plaque with the Ascension of Christ.</span></td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">Eleventh century. Byzantine</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><i>Bargello, Florence</i></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_18">89</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">19.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">Christ enthroned.</span></td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">Eleventh century. Byzantine</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><i>Trivulzio Collection, Milan</i></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_19">91</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">20.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">Christ crowning the Emperor Romanus and the</span></td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><span class="smcap">Empress Eudoxia.</span></td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">Eleventh century. Byzantine.</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr bb"> </td>
<td class="tdl2 bb"><i>Cabinet des Médailles, Bibliothèque nationale, Paris</i></td>
<td class="tdr bb"><a href="#FIG_20">93</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">21.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">The Adoration of the Magi.</span></td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">Eleventh century. Anglo-Saxon</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><i>Victoria and Albert Museum, London</i></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_21">101</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">22.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">The XXVIIth Psalm represented in scenic form.</span></td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">Ninth century. Carlovingian</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><i>Zürich Museum</i></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_22">109</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">23.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">Cover of a Book of the Gospels.</span></td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">Ninth century. Carlovingian</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</a></span></td>
<td class="tdl2"><i>Abbey of St. Gall, Switzerland</i></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_23">113</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">24.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">The Crucifixion and Allegorical Figures.</span></td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">Ninth century. Carlovingian</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><i>Victoria and Albert Museum, London</i></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_24">115</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">25.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">Panel of the Crucifixion</span>, from a book cover.</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">Tenth century. German</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr bb"> </td>
<td class="tdl2 bb"><i>John Rylands Library, Manchester</i></td>
<td class="tdr bb"><a href="#FIG_25">123</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">26.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">Ceremonial Comb.</span></td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">Eleventh century. English</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><i>British Museum, London</i></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_26">127</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">27.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">A Bishop’s Crozier.</span></td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">Fourteenth century. French</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><i>Victoria and Albert Museum, London</i></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_27">131</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">28.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">The Coronation of the Virgin.</span></td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">Thirteenth century. French</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><i>Louvre, Paris</i></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_28">137</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">29.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">The Virgin and Child.</span></td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">Thirteenth century. French</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><i>Bargello, Florence</i></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_29">139</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">30.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">The Descent from the Cross.</span></td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">Thirteenth century. French</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr bb"> </td>
<td class="tdl2 bb"><i>Louvre, Paris</i></td>
<td class="tdr bb"><a href="#FIG_30">141</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">31.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">A Polyptych</span>, with the Virgin and Child</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">and various scenes from the Nativity.</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">Fourteenth century. French</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><i>Victoria and Albert Museum, London</i></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_31">143</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">32.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">First Leaf of a Diptych.</span></td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">Fourteenth century. French</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><i>Mayer Coll., Liverpool Museum</i></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_32">145</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">33.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">Plaque from a Casket Representing Dancers.</span></td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">Fourteenth century. French</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><i>Bargello, Florence</i></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_33">147</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">34.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">A Mirror Case</span>, with the Elopement of Guinivere and Lancelot.</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">Fourteenth century. French</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><i>Mayer Coll., Liverpool Museum</i></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_34">149</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">35.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">Panel from a Casket.</span></td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">Fourteenth century. French</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr bb"> </td>
<td class="tdl2 bb"><i>Bargello, Florence</i></td>
<td class="tdr bb"><a href="#FIG_35">151</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">36.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">Triptych made for Bishop Grandison of Exeter</span>.</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">1327-1369. English</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><i>British Museum, London</i></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_36">153</a></td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr">37.</td>
<td class="tdl1"><span class="smcap">Triptych.</span></td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2">Early fifteenth century. Italian</td>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
</tr><tr>
<td class="tdr"> </td>
<td class="tdl2"><i>Victoria and Albert Museum, London</i></td>
<td class="tdr"><a href="#FIG_37">155</a></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[Pg xvi]</a></span></p>
<hr class="r25" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[Pg xvii]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter"><h2>BIBLIOGRAPHY</h2></div>
<ul class="index">
<li class="isub1">Antoniewicz.</li>
<li class="isub3">Romanische Forschungen.</li>
<li class="isub3">G. Böhne, Leipsic.</li>
<li class="isub1">Barbier de Montault, Xavier.</li>
<li class="isub3">Le symbolisme du bélier sur les crosses d’ivoire au moyen âge.</li>
<li class="isub3">Revue de l’Art Chrétien. 1883, p. 157.</li>
<li class="isub1">Darcel, Alfred.</li>
<li class="isub3">Collection Basilewsky. Catalogue raisonné. 2 vols. Fol.</li>
<li class="isub3">Paris, 1874.</li>
<li class="isub1">Spitzer, Frédéric. La Collection Spitzer.</li>
<li class="isub3">Les Ivoires. Notice de M. Alf. Darcel.</li>
<li class="isub3">Paris, 1890.</li>
<li class="isub1">Garucci. Storia dell’ arte cristiana. Vol. 6.</li>
<li class="isub3">Prato, 1872-80.</li>
<li class="isub1">Gatty, Charles T. Catalogue of Mediæval and Later Antiquities</li>
<li class="isub3">contained in the Mayer Museum.</li>
<li class="isub3">Gilbert & Walmsley. Liverpool, 1883.</li>
<li class="isub1">Goodyear, W. H. Roman and Mediæval Art.</li>
<li class="isub3">Flood & Vincent, Chatauqua Press.</li>
<li class="isub1">Gori, Ant. Francesco. Thesaurus Veterum Diptychorum</li>
<li class="isub3">Consularium et Ecclesiasticorum. 3 vols.</li>
<li class="isub3">Florence, 1759.</li>
<li class="isub1">Graeven, Hans. “Entstellte Consular Diptychon.”</li>
<li class="isub4">Mitth. Arch. Instituts. Rom. 1892, p. 204.</li>
<li class="isub3">“Ein Reliquienkästchen aus Pirano.” Jahrbuch der</li>
<li class="isub4">Kunsthistorischen Sammlungen des Allerhöchsten</li>
<li class="isub4">Kaiserhauses, Wien. Vol. XX. 1899.</li>
<li class="isub3">“Der Wiener-Genesis und byzantinische Elfenbeinwerke.”</li>
<li class="isub4">Do. Vol. XXI. 1900.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">[Pg xviii]</a></span></li>
<li class="isub3">“Antike Vorlagen Byzantinische Elfenbeinreliefs.”</li>
<li class="isub4">Jahrbuch der K. Preuss. Kunstsammlungen, XVIII. 3. 1897.</li>
<li class="isub3">Photographs.</li>
<li class="isub4">Frühchristliche und mittelalterliche Elfenbeinwerke</li>
<li class="isub4">in photographischer Nachbildung</li>
<li class="isub3">“Aus Sammlungen in England.” 1898.</li>
<li class="isub3">“Aus Sammlungen in Italien.” 1900.</li>
<li class="isub1">Labarte, Jules. Histoire des Arts Industriels au Moyen Age</li>
<li class="isub3">et à l’Epoque de la Renaissance.</li>
<li class="isub3">V<sup>e</sup> A. Morel. Paris, 1872.</li>
<li class="isub1">Maskell, W. Ancient and Mediæval Ivories in the</li>
<li class="isub3">South Kensington Museum.</li>
<li class="isub3">London, Chapman and Hall, 1872.</li>
<li class="isub3">The Introduction is sold separately. Price 1<i>s.</i></li>
<li class="isub1">Meyer, Wilhelm (aus Speyer). Zwei Antike Elfenbeintafeln</li>
<li class="isub3">der k. Staats-Bibliothek in München.</li>
<li class="isub3">München, Verlag der K. Akademie. 1879.</li>
<li class="isub1">Molinier, Emile. Histoire Générale des Arts appliqués</li>
<li class="isub3">à l’Industrie du V<sup>e</sup> à la fin du XVIII<sup>e</sup> Siècle.</li>
<li class="isub3">Vol I. Ivoires. E. Lévy et C<sup>ie</sup>. Paris.</li>
<li class="isub3">Catalogue des Ivoires. Musée national du Louvre. Paris, 1896.</li>
<li class="isub1">Oldfield, Edmund. A Catalogue of Specimens of Ancient</li>
<li class="isub3">Ivory Carvings in various collections.</li>
<li class="isub3">With Memoir by Sir Digby Wyatt. First edition, 1856.</li>
<li class="isub3">New edition, without memoir, 1893.</li>
<li class="isub1">Pulzky, Francis. Catalogue of the Fejéváry Ivories in the</li>
<li class="isub3">Museum of Joseph Mayer, Esq.</li>
<li class="isub3">Liverpool, 1856.</li>
<li class="isub1">Roujon, Molinier et Marcou. Catalogue Illustré Officiel de</li>
<li class="isub3">l’Exposition Rétrospective de l’Art Français des Origines à 1800.</li>
<li class="isub3">Paris, 1900.</li>
<li class="isub1">Scharf, Sir G. Article on “Sculpture” in Waring’s</li>
<li class="isub3">Art Treasures of the United Kingdom.</li>
<li class="isub3">Manchester, 1873.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix">[Pg xix]</a></span></li>
<li class="isub1">Schlumberger, G. Un Empereur Byzantin au X<sup>e</sup> Siècle.</li>
<li class="isub3">Nicéphore Phocas. Paris. Didot. 1890.</li>
<li class="isub3">L’Epopée Byzantine à la fin du X<sup>e</sup> Siècle.</li>
<li class="isub3">Paris, Hachette et C<sup>ie</sup>. 1896.</li>
<li class="isub1">Stuhlfauth, G. Die altchristliche Elfenbeinplastik.</li>
<li class="isub3">Leipsig, 1896.</li>
<li class="isub1">Venturi, Adolfo. Un cofano civile bizantino di Cividale.</li>
<li class="isub3">Gallerie nazionale italiane. Vol 3. 1897.</li>
<li class="isub1">Storia dell’ arte italiana. I. Dai primordi dell’ arte</li>
<li class="isub3">cristiana al tempo di Giustiano.</li>
<li class="isub3">Hoepli. Milan, 1901.</li>
<li class="isub1">Vöge, W. Katalog der Berliner Elfenbeinwerke.</li>
<li class="isub4">(In course of publication.) Berlin, 1900.</li>
<li class="isub3">“Ein deutscher Schnitzer des X Jahrhunderts.” Jahrbuch</li>
<li class="isub4">der k. preuss. Kunstsammlungen. Vol. XX. Berlin, 1899.</li>
<li class="isub1">Westwood, J. O. A Descriptive Catalogue of the</li>
<li class="isub3">Fictile Ivories in the South Kensington Museum.</li>
<li class="isub3">With an Account of the Continental Collections</li>
<li class="isub3">of Classical and Mediæval Ivories.</li>
<li class="isub3">Chapman and Hall. London, 1876.</li>
<li class="isub1">Wilpert, Josef. Un Capitolo della Storia di Vestario.</li>
<li class="isub3">L’Arte. 1898, 1899.</li>
<li class="isub3"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xx" id="Page_xx">[Pg xx]</a></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="chapter">
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p class="f150"><b>THE IVORY WORKERS OF THE MIDDLE AGES</b></p>
</div>
<hr class="chap" />
<h2>CHAPTER I<br /><span class="h_subtitle">CONSULAR AND OTHER SECULAR DIPTYCHS</span></h2>
<p>From the earliest dawn of the human race until our time, Ivory has
held a first place as a material for making the pleasing little
luxuries of life, religious or civil. Cave-Man has left behind him
incised sketches of animals, the product of his leisure moments; all
literature tells of the use of it, and the digger’s spade turns up
a series of charming objects, from the ornamental hair combs of a
prehistoric princess, who dazzled the Egyptian court some 7000 years
<small>B.C.</small>, to the ivory-handled walking-stick of some
gouty old Greek who lived at the outset of this most prosaic era.</p>
<p>To this passion for carved ivory we owe our knowledge of the
continuity of art for many centuries after the break up of the Roman
Empire, and the almost complete cessation of monumental sculpture.
In fact, no such continuous chain has survived in any other artistic
production; and this alone makes the study of the craft of such
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span>
intense interest, illustrating as it does the early quickening of art
in a period of great obscurity between the old order and the new.</p>
<p>There is no real break between Classical art and that of the Middle
Ages; the early Christian was the last phase of Roman art, and the
Church handed on with the Christian religion a mass of Judaic and
Latin culture which the barbarian races, having none of their own,
accepted, but through their different nature and requirements,
modified and debased. Thence we see the continuity, and also the two
main causes of the deterioration of Classical art: first, by the rise
of Christianity, which was in its early days antagonistic to the
plastic arts, owing to a haunting horror of images, inherited from
Judaism, and a fear of falling back under the pagan spell of sensuous
beauty: and though later and for a long period the Church became by
far the most munificent and inspiring patron, the final tendency in
the Eastern Empire was to stifle the true spirit of art by subjecting
it to as dogmatic a rigour in design as in doctrine. Secondly the
near presence of the powerful and rapidly assimilating barbarian, who
imitating all things, often ignorant of their meaning, and incapable of
good workmanship, reduced art in the Western Empire to the lowest ebb.</p>
<p>In Constantinople there lingered a fading shadow of the old Greek
spirit, which, at least, inspired the craftsman to finished
workmanship and a love of elegant form.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p>
<p>In spite of the paralysis caused by the enforcement of a fixed canon
of iconography there were long periods of high artistic excellence
(Figs. 17 and 18). We have an exaggerated idea of the rigidity of
Byzantine art owing to the numerous repetitions by inferior craftsmen
which are found in our museums, and by confusing the Golden Age, with
the period of real deadness which commenced in the twelfth century,
and has lasted to this very day in the art of the Greek Church.
Byzantine art became the technical school of the younger nations,
teaching them craftsmanship and design, thus enabling them to express
their more impulsive religious emotions and leading them on till they
found the full expression of their genius in the aspiring beauty of
Gothic art.</p>
<p>The best period for commencing the study of mediæval ivory-carving
is with the fourth century, <small>A.D.</small>, and the great
series of Consular Diptychs which form the backbone of the early history of
the craft and created a type which lasted through the whole mediæval era.</p>
<p>Theodosius the Great (✝395), divided the Roman Empire between his
two sons. Arcadius ruled the Eastern Empire, his capital continuing
at Constantinople. Honorius, then only eleven years old, nominally
governed the Western. He did not make the Eternal City his seat of
government, in fact the Imperial Court had rarely returned there
since it was deserted by Diocletian. Milan was considered too exposed
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>
to the attacks of the barbarians, so the city of Ravenna, almost
impregnable owing to the surrounding marshes, was chosen, and remained
the capital of the varying rulers of Italy until the eighth century.</p>
<p>Two Consuls were chosen for the East and West, their names continuing
to give the legal date to the year, according to the ancient custom.
And though every vestige of political power was gone, the post was
the object of much ambition, it being a personal favour of the
Emperor, and conferring on the holder the highest rank. It also
brought great popularity with the people, who still honoured the name
of Consul, full of memories of the great republic, and still more
passionately appreciated the Games in the Circus, which it was the
expensive privilege of the Consul to inaugurate on his accession.</p>
<p>These Games were an occasion for great ostentation, and were carried
out with lavish expenditure. First there was a procession of all the
dignitaries of the city, in which the Consul was the most important
figure; this was greeted on its arrival at the amphitheatre by the
tens of thousands of spectators starting up and clapping their
hands; then all were breathlessly still while the Consul, cynosure
of every eye, flung down into the arena the small white napkin, or
<i>Mappa Circensis</i>, with which he, and he alone, might signal the
commencement of the games.</p>
<p>This was the psychic moment, and the scene has been preserved for all
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span>
time on the carved ivory diptychs which were presented by the Consul
to the Senators and other high officials in commemoration of his office.</p>
<p>The word diptych is derived from the Greek δίπτυχον or “double
folded,” and the diptychs given by the Consuls were an elaborate form
of the ordinary writing-tablets or <i>pugillares</i>, “a thing held in the
fist.” They consisted of two pieces of ivory joined together like a
book by hinges, decorated on the outside and grooved inside to hold
the wax, which was written on by a sharp style. The most important
leaf is the right hand one, or that which comes uppermost when the
book is closed, on it, with a few early exceptions, the Consul’s name
was always inscribed, the second leaf bearing his titles.</p>
<p>These consular diptychs probably contained the <i>Fasti Consulares</i>
or List of Consuls up to the year of the donor.</p>
<p>They were often gilded, the inscriptions being painted in red; and
some were of great size, as the Byzantine Angel in the British Museum
(frontispiece), which measures 16¼ by 5½ in., and is so large that
no known tusk would suffice to cut it. It has been thought that the
ancients possessed some secret for rolling out ivory or joining it
invisibly; but it is more likely that elephants had not been so
much killed down for the sake of their ivory, so larger tusks were
obtainable.</p>
<p>These tablets were so costly that Theodosius decreed in 384 that they
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>
should only be given away by the <i>Consules Ordinarii</i>, or the Consuls
admitted on the 1st of January and who named the year, and not by
those who replaced them or by any other officials; but this law was
soon disregarded, and nine years later we read in a letter of the
noble Roman Symmachus that, in honour of his son’s elevation to the
quæstorship he is sending to the very same Emperor a diptych set in gold.</p>
<p>This series of diptychs spreads over a period of about 150 years,
from the end of the fourth to the middle of the sixth century. The
sculpture steadily decreasing in value, the earliest examples show
freedom of design and good work, but the last were nothing but
indifferent repetitions of the same subjects, in bad proportion and
worse relief till it became possible to produce a figure such as
that of Orestes (<a href="#FIG_4">Fig. 4</a>). Soon after Orestes the Emperor Justinian
abolished this ancient office, and, really, he must be held justified
if all the consuls could do was to give bloodthirsty shows to the
citizens, and still more corrupt the standard of art by distributing
such despicable types of art among the provincials.</p>
<p>It is noticeable that all the fifth century diptychs, the earliest
and the best, both consular and otherwise are from the West. By the
end of the century there was a complete collapse, following the
further invasions of the Huns and other barbarians, and the Western
Empire flickered out with the suppression, by Odoacer the Goth, of the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>
last emperor, grotesquely named Romulus Augustulus, a sort of satire
on his unworthy following of such mighty predecessors.</p>
<p>Orestes, Consul at Rome, 530 (<a href="#FIG_4">Fig. 4</a>), No. 34,<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>
is the only Western Consul of the sixth century whose diptych has
been preserved; the style is so like that of Constantinople, that it
gives weight to Graeven’s theory that the medallions on it represent
Amalasuntha, daughter of Theodoric the Ostro-Goth, who was then
ruling in the name of her young son Athalric, and who carried on
that short renaissance of the Arts, so artificially introduced from
Constantinople by her father. The busts cannot represent the reigning
Emperor Justinian and his wife Theodora, because at that time he was
forty-eight years of age, and they never had a son.</p>
<p>Before passing to the real consular diptychs, it is impossible to leave
unmentioned the splendid tablets of Probianus at Berlin (<a href="#FIG_2">Fig. 2</a>), No. 50.</p>
<p>We know no more than what the well-cut inscription tells us, that
he was <small>VICARIUS URBIS ROMÆ</small>, or Vice-Prefect of the city of
Rome. But, judging from the style, the good proportions (admitting
the convention which made the person of highest rank the largest),
the dignified faces, and the natural arrangement of the drapery,
it must be of early date, probably towards the end of the fourth
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>
century, about the time of the beautiful tablets of the Nicomachi and
the Symmachi (No. 58), to which it is closely allied by the well-hung
drapery and the surrounding border of delicately cut honeysuckle pattern.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_2" id="FIG_2"></a>
<img src="images/i_p008.jpg" alt=" " width="250" height="592" />
<p class="center"><span class="ws8"><small>[BERLIN MUSEUM</small></span><br />
2. SECOND LEAF OF THE DIPTYCH<br />OF PROBIANUS<br />
End of fourth century</p>
</div>
<p>The top has a slight gable, as in the early diptych of Probus (<a href="#FIG_3">Fig. 3</a>),
No. 2. Probianus is depicted in the Tribunal, sitting on his
high-backed throne, surrounded by his clerks, who bear piles of
writing tablets, and below, probably outside the <i>cancelli</i> or
barrier, which is to be found in all Roman basilicas, stand the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>
litigants, who appear to be congratulating him. Outstretched
fingers, in early art, meant the act of speech, and then, as now,
congratulatory addresses were inscribed and presented. On the second
leaf we see the address on his knee, and by a curious convention
he is writing with his own hand the words they acclaim him with,
“<small>PROBIANE FLOREAS</small>.”</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_3" id="FIG_3"></a>
<img src="images/i_p009.jpg" alt=" " width="300" height="662" />
<p class="center"><small>ALINARI PHOTO.]<span class="ws6">[AOSTA CATHEDRAL</span></small><br />
3. FIRST LEAF OF THE DIPTYCH OF PROBUS</p>
</div>
<p>In the first leaf he is delivering judgment, and the two lower figures
wear the toga, showing they are of high rank, and on the other both he
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
and the litigants are arrayed in the chlamys of ordinary folk. Below,
between the litigants is seen a mysterious object on a tripod stand,
which some say is the <i>clepsydra</i> or water-clock, and others declare
to be the official inkpot. On the right of the Vice-Prefect is a
curious standard-like erection called the <i>vexilla regalia</i>, on which
was painted the portraits of the Emperor and Empress, and which was
never absent from any important ceremonial.</p>
<p>The diptych first on Molinier’s list covers an antiphonary in the
Treasury of the Basilica at Monza, which contains so many other
interesting antiquities.</p>
<p>Legend tells us that this ivory was sent about the year 600 to
the Lombard queen, Theodolinda, by Pope Gregory the Great in
acknowledgment of her efforts to convert her very barbaric subjects
from the Arian heresy to Catholicism.</p>
<p>Three figures are represented, a bearded soldier and a stately lady,
who has with her a little boy. It is evidently a portrait group,
and has given rise to many questionings; and among the names of the
numerous historical personages connected with it are those of the
general Constantius, his wife, the famous Galla Placidia, daughter
of Theodosius I., and their little son, afterwards Valentinian III.
This would place it towards the end of the first twenty-five years of
the fifth century. This theory is quite possible, historically; but,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>
judging from the style, the attribution of Molinier is more likely.
He considers that the figures represent another trio who lived a
quarter of a century earlier. The decadence in art was so exceedingly
rapid that it is very doubtful if such good craftsmanship and
originality of design were possible at the later period. Molinier
suggests that the carving represents the great general Stilicho, who
though of Vandal origin, raised himself to a position of great power.
He faithfully served Theodosius I., and the Emperor on his deathbed
intrusted to him the care of his two young sons.</p>
<p>Stilicho, however, finding his influence in the Eastern Court was
checked by Rufinus, concentrated his energies in the West, and
practically ruled the Western Empire, and his weak young son-in-law,
the Emperor Honorius. He kept the invading hordes at bay by conquest
and treaty till his fall in 408, in which year the three persons
depicted on these tablets—Stilicho, his wife Serena, adopted daughter
and niece of Theodosius I., and their young son, Eucherius, were all
cruelly murdered. This attribution would date it about 400, and an
examination of the style supports the idea. The proportions are good,
and the drapery well rendered, especially Serena’s girdled tunic. The
whole design shows originality, and the figures being portraits, the
craftsman was thrown on his own resources and could not copy from
classical sculpture.</p>
<p>The pose of the figures is somewhat uneasy, and contrasts
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>
unfavourably with the grace of the Bacchantes on the beautiful
private diptych, part in the Musée de Cluny, and part in the Victoria
and Albert Museum (No. 58), which probably formed the cover of a
marriage contract between the families of the Nicomachi and the
Symmachi. These tablets, though nearly of the same date, adhere
closely to some Greek model, and though gaining much in beauty, lose
in originality.</p>
<p>Camille Jullian in an interesting article<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>
points out how in the midst of thoroughly Roman surroundings, it is
only the energetic face of Stilicho which is not Roman in type and
betrays his barbarian origin.</p>
<p>The short tunic worn by Stilicho is embroidered all over with
pictures of his wife and son, his long chlamys having only portraits
of the boy. It was a popular custom at this period to have the
portraits of near relations embroidered on State garments, especially
pictures of children. The poet Claudian in his panegyric on Stilicho,
alludes to scenes from the lives of Eucherius and his little sisters
being embroidered on the robe of their father. More often the
portrait was on a square of stuff, or segment, which was let into the
front of the garment (<a href="#FIG_5">see Fig. 5</a>).</p>
<p>The first diptych of certain date is that of Probus, Consul at Rome,
406, No. 2 (<a href="#FIG_3">Fig. 3</a>), and probably intended as a gift for the Emperor
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>
Honorius, who is depicted thereon as a figure of heavy proportions,
borrowed from the common type of imperial statue. The head is evidently
a portrait, as even at the most decadent period there was always
a striving, even if an unsuccessful one, after portraiture and
naturalism.</p>
<p>It is interesting to note the nimbus round the head of Honorius.
In heathen times the nimbus was given to the immortals<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>
and to images of the deified emperors. Christian art adopted it,
but not invariably, and it appears to have been regarded more as an
attribute of power than saintliness. Though Christ and his disciples
and the Old Testament<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>
heroes received it, it also encircled the heads of the great people
of this world. We find it on the celebrated Justinian mosaics at S.
Vitale in Ravenna, and on the medals of Justinian, and as late as the
eleventh century on the plaque of the Emperor and Empress, Romanus
and Eudoxia, in the Bibliothèque nationale at Paris (<a href="#FIG_20">Fig. 20</a>).</p>
<p>Next in date and infinitely coarser in execution is that of Felix,
428 (No. 3); the head is of a rugged type, and the Consul is
represented standing alone at the door of his house. Asturias, 449
(No. 4), on the contrary, is throned high in front of a colonnade and
accompanied by two attendants. In the tablet, however, of the Consul
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
Boethius, 487 (No. 5), we see for the first time the Consul seated,
<i>mappa</i> in hand, signalling the commencement of the games; but the
design on the two leaves still has some variation, and on the second
leaf he stands without the <i>mappa</i>. The diptych of Sividius, 488 (No.
6), furnishes the earliest example of the tablets of simpler type,
which were probably given to people of lower degree. It is decorated
by an inscribed medallion surrounded by foliated scrolls and four
rosettes. All these are from the Western Empire.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_4" id="FIG_4"></a>
<img src="images/i_p014.jpg" alt=" " width="250" height="706" />
<p class="center"><small>[VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM,<br />LONDON</small><br />
4. FIRST LEAF OF THE DIPTYCH<br />OF ORESTES, 530 <small>A.D.</small></p>
</div>
<p>With the commencement of the sixth century and the diptych of
Areobindus, Consul at Constantinople, 506, we change to the Eastern
Empire and find the formal type already fixed (<a href="#FIG_4">see Fig. 4</a>).
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p>
<p>The Consul is seen sitting on the <i>sella curulis</i>, or consular chair.
This has no back, and is usually made of ivory, with elaborately
carved masks and claws of lions, and sometimes has small figures of
Victory on the arms. On it is a richly embroidered cushion, rather
ostentatiously showing; for to sit on a cushion in the Circus was
only allowed to certain privileged classes. His feet rest on the
<i>scabellum</i>, or stool, and he is clad in his gorgeous festival robe,
which is a development of the purple triumphal garb of the victorious
generals in earlier days.</p>
<p>The component parts of this dress are still under discussion, but
according to Meyer<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>
they consist of four parts:</p>
<div class="blockquot">
<p>1st. The <i>paenula</i>. A long plain under-robe with long
narrow sleeves;</p>
<p>2nd. The <i>colobium</i>. A shorter embroidered over-tunic,
with half length wide sleeves;</p>
<p>3rd. An embroidered strip, which is laid over one shoulder
and hangs down before and behind;</p>
<p>4th. A nameless wrap of lighter material, embroidered or
woven in a pattern.</p>
</div>
<p>The complete dress was called the <i>trabea</i> or <i>toga picta</i>.</p>
<p>Wilpert,<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>
however, declares that Nos. 3 and 4 are one long piece equal to the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>
ancient toga: without which, by a decree of 382, the Senators were
forbidden to appear in public, and which by more and more folding was
reduced into the narrow Byzantine <i>lorum</i>. The feet were covered with
red leather shoes, fastened by crossed ribbons with falling ends.</p>
<p>The Consul holds in his right hand the <i>mappa circensis</i> and in his
left the <i>scipio</i> or sceptre. These sceptres are crowned by many
devices—an eagle, busts of the imperial family and even two sitting figures.</p>
<p>As in the diptych of Orestes, there are often two female
personifications of Rome and Constantinople; the former, on the
Consul’s right hand, holds a tessera in her right and a spear in her
left hand. Her helmet has three crests, while that of Constantinople
only one. The latter holds up her right hand and bears a shield or
standard in the left. These cities are sometimes represented in
little medallions on the Consul’s chair (No. 17).</p>
<p>Very often above the head of the central figure were medallions
with the portraits of imperial personages, or, perhaps, renowned
ancestors. These niches were designed in imitation of those wooden
shrines in which Roman households kept the waxen busts of their
ancestors. Sometimes these diptychs were finished with a cross, and
some have a medallion with the bust of Christ (No. 36).</p>
<p>The upper part was inscribed with the name and titles of the Consul,
the last name always denominating the year.</p>
<p>Some early tablets have the name in the genitive, always a sign of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>
antiquity, as <i>Nicomachorum</i> and <i>Symmachorum</i> (No. 58), <i>Felicis</i>
(No. 3), <i>Lampadorium</i> (No. 33), and the plain tablets bearing the
name <i>Gallieni Concessi V.C.</i></p>
<p><i>V. Inl.</i> or <i>Vir Inlustris</i>, <i>V. C.</i> or <i>Vir Clarissimus</i>,
and even <i>Patric.</i> or <i>Patrician</i>, were personal titles and not
hereditary. They denoted that the bearer had held high office. We also find
<i>Præfectus</i>, and <i>Comes domesticorum equites</i>, or commander of the
imperial bodyguard. To be called <i>Vir spectabilis</i>, or a respectable
man, was then esteemed a high honour, while in our degenerate days
it is almost considered an insult. But <i>Cons. ordin.</i> or <i>Consul
ordinarius</i> was the real dignity, and with one exception always stood
last.</p>
<p>In the lower division of the Orestes tablet, two servants pour money
from sacks, doubtless commemorating the Consul’s largesse to the
people. In some diptychs they scatter prizes for the Games, and often
there are lively representations of the chariot races (No. 33), and
the fights with wild beasts. Areobindus has left us the most varied
pictures. A row of spectators look on at the struggling gladiators
(No. 9), or <i>Bestiarii</i> fighting with all sorts of wild beasts, lions
and bears (No. 7), a bull-fight (No. 10), and on an anonymous diptych
at Liverpool (No. 51), five magnificent elans are being attacked by
hunters.</p>
<p>The fights do not appear to have been very dangerous for the men; the
scenes are often quite comic from the numerous precautions taken,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>
especially on the Basilewsky tablet at St. Petersburg (No. 52). The
fighters, carefully packed in leather protectors, bolt through doors
with peep-holes, or climb into a sort of crow’s-nest, curling up
their ferocious opponents at the end of extremely long spears. In
fact there was every means of escape, trap-doors, turnstile exits,
and even dummy figures to divert the attention of the animals.
Perhaps it was necessary, for we read of Pompey providing six hundred
lions for a single show, and of Trajan celebrating his Dacian
victories by the slaughter of eleven thousand beasts. If these little
precautions had not been taken, the entertainment might have ended
abruptly, and more in favour of the lower animals than the lords of
creation.</p>
<p>The fights of the gladiators represented on the Besançon tablet must
have been more exhibitions of skill than struggles to the death.</p>
<p>These gladiatorial fights ceased after the generous act of the monk
Telemachus. He, after travelling to Rome from the far East with
the set purpose, stept down into the arena, at the triumphal games
of the Emperor Honorius (404), and tried to part the combatants.
He was stoned to death by the enraged multitude; but his death was
not unavailing, for his memory was respected, and these degrading
exhibitions were for ever abolished.</p>
<p>Basilius, Consul at Constantinople, 541, was the last of the Consuls
before the Emperor Justinian, impatient of the empty show of power,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>
absorbed the office among his other titles, and from that time the
Emperors always went through the form of being made Consul once on
their accession. Basilius is represented on the first leaf of his
diptych (No. 37) standing by the figure of Constantinople, who holds
a standard on a gigantic pole. Below is a minute chariot race. On the
second leaf, which has been cut, a figure of Victory holds an oval
medallion portrait of the Consul. Below is an eagle with outstretched
wings. These two leaves, though widely separated, were proved to
be a pair by the likeness of the thin sickly face of the Consul on
each leaf. This diptych varies considerably from the contemporary
design, and though all idea of the real structure of the body, and of
the hang of drapery from the limbs has disappeared, still it shows
so much originality and clever portraiture, that Graeven, after a
careful consideration of the fashion of the dress, attributes it to
an earlier Consul Basilius of 480, at a time before the grouping had
become so stereotyped.</p>
<p>The number of these carvings given away was so considerable that all
were not of the same richness. There are many tablets of simpler
design and rougher make, several being smaller and in camel bone (No. 43).
These were, as already stated, intended for persons of lower degree.</p>
<p>The decoration consisted usually of a medallion, inscribed, or with
the bust of the Consul, surrounded by foliated scrolls (Areobindus
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
has left several of this latter kind among his numerous diptychs).
The Barbarini leaf has a charming variation, the bust being inclosed
in a garland bound with hanging ribbons (No. 41). Some are fully
inscribed (No. 35), and others have only a monogram like that formed
from the Greek letters of the name Areobindus (No. 12).</p>
<p>Justinianus, Consul at Constantinople in 541, and afterwards Emperor,
has, in addition to his names, a Latin dedication framed in a
circular moulding of delicate honeysuckle pattern. The diptych of
Philoxenus at the Bibliothèque nationale (No. 29) is quite a new
departure. Three medallions, linked by knotted cords, contain the
portrait of the Consul, his name and titles in Latin, and below,
a female bust, who, some think, represents his wife. She is more
likely to be the personification of Constantinople, judging from the
absence of the fashionable headgear, the hair being simply parted
under a narrow diadem, and from the standard she grasps in her hand,
which is embroidered with a garland in the same fashion as that held
by Constantinople in the Basilius diptychon. The faces are well
characterized and the whole workmanship is excellent, round it is an
elaborate border, the spaces being filled in by a Greek verse, which
runs as follows:</p>
<p>“I Philoxenus being Consul, offer this present to the wise Senate.”</p>
<p>There is a simpler diptych of this Consul at Liverpool, which bears a
Greek dedication to a friend.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p>
<p>The most important among the anonymous consular diptychs is the fine
one preserved in the Cathedral Treasury at Halberstadt (No. 38) on
which the bearded Consul stands among his friends, the group being
varied on each leaf. Above, in a narrow division, are two small
imperial figures seated on a wide throne with the figures of Rome
and Constantinople; at the back stands a Victory, as in the similar
design on a coin of Theodosius I. Below, in another narrow division,
are pathetic groups of captive barbarians. The inscription has been
cut from the top, but the whole style points to an early date, and
Meyer places it between those of Asturias and Boethius in the third
quarter of the fifth century.</p>
<p>The tablet of Lampadius at Brescia is especially interesting for
the large picture it gives of a chariot race, showing the quadrigas
rushing past the <i>spina</i> or turning post.</p>
<p>The Consul, clad in the <i>trabea</i> sits with two companions behind
the richly carved <i>cancelli</i> or balustrade. The only similar
representation is on the magisterial diptych at Liverpool (No. 51),
but the identification is very confusing. In the Brescia tablet the
central <i>trabea</i>-clad figure and the man on his left both hold the
<i>mappa</i>, but on that at Liverpool there is, more reasonably, only one
starter, but he is on the left of the central figure, who holds a
libation cup instead of the <i>mappa</i>, and all three figures have the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
same un-consular dress. Meyer points out an inscription announcing
the restoration of the Flavian Amphitheatre by Caecina Felix
Lampadius, in the second half of the fifth century; the inscription
being in the genitive is also a sign of antiquity. But the smooth and
rather too minute workmanship connect it with the best diptychs of
the early sixth century, and so Molinier attributes it to Lampadius,
Consul at Constantinople in 530, and the same year as our old friend
Orestes (<a href="#FIG_4">Fig. 4</a>), and the smooth finish of the Lampadius tablet
can be contrasted, not altogether unfavourably, with the rougher
modelling of what had become by then almost a provincial school.</p>
<p>The nameless consular diptych of Bourges (No. 39), divides into two
equal registers. Above, the bearded Consul is seated between two
guards, on one leaf these have long hair, and may have been intended
for Goths, and in the corners of the arch are two eagles exactly like
those on the St. Gregory diptych at Monza (No. 44). In each lower
half is a <i>bestiarius</i> transfixing lions and leopards with his spear.
The treatment, if rough, is free, and the grouping of the lions is
somewhat similar to that in the Adam tablet at the Bargello (<a href="#FIG_6">Fig. 6</a>).
It is probably fifth or early sixth century.</p>
<p>Meyer quotes the text of Gregory of Tours, who describes the
installation of Clovis the Frankish king as Consul of the West in
508, with all the pomp and honour of Roman custom, and repeats the
rather problematic suggestion that this diptych commemorates the occasion.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></p>
<p>The ivory tablet in the British Museum, called the Apotheosis of
Romulus, from a very doubtful reading of the monogram, is probably
also of the fifth or even sixth century, though its thoroughly
heathen subject seems to necessitate an earlier date. The composition
is most elaborate. Below, the Consul, clad in the toga, is seated
in an architectural triumphal car drawn by four elephants, each
with their driver. In the centre he is seen in miniature driving in
a quadriga, which bears him upward, preceded by eagles, from the
funeral pile to the heavens, where he is again represented in the
hands of winged genii, who present him to the assembled gods.</p>
<p>This is interesting as being an example of that continuous method of
composition, in which the same figure is repeated acting in sequence.
This method was introduced into Roman art about the Augustan age, and
was largely continued by Christian art, especially in the MSS. It
gained great popularity, and for a while it seemed doubtful whether
the “continuous” or the “episodic” method would be the leading
feature in modern art.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p>
<p>Several consular diptychs have been turned to Christian religious
uses by slight alterations of the figures, and by the removal of
inscriptions and scenes from the games.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span></p>
<p>The most important transformed diptych is in the Cathedral Treasury
at Monza (No. 44), which now represents St. Gregory and King David.
The alterations have been considerable, and have given rise to many
differences of opinion, but the latest writers, with the exception
of Meyer, have gone back to the opinion of the earliest, Gori, who
declared the consular origin of these tablets.</p>
<p>St. Gregory did not die till 604, so could not have been canonized
before the seventh century, and the style is fully that of the
consular diptychs in the first half of the preceding century. The
saints are depicted in full consular robes, the right hand raised
with the <i>mappa</i> in the act of flinging it into the arena, and
in the left the <i>scipio</i>.</p>
<p>The background has the typical decorated arch, supported by
cannelated pilasters, over the capitals of which are rectangular
spaces having the names of Gregory and David cut with a deep
background, as if to destroy any under carving. Above the arch is
a cross similar to that on <a href="#FIG_4">Fig. 4</a>, on each side are two eagles of
the Bourges pattern (No. 39). David sits on a curule chair, his
feet resting on a stool in good consular fashion. On each side of
the chair, above the leg, is a square with deep cut carving. These
squares might have contained the now obliterated busts of Rome and
Constantinople, which decorate that part on the diptych of Anastasius
(No. 17). In fact the knot and twisted stalks almost follow the
outlines of a head and shoulders. There is more deep carving let in a
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>
narrow groove between the pilasters and the smooth background, all of
which has a Carlovingian character.</p>
<p>St. Gregory has been given a tonsure and his hair has been cut at
the expense of his ears, which have been cut away too. The robes
are untouched, but Gregory’s sceptre has been altered to a cross.
Above the head of David are faint traces of an inscription on the
smooth background, and on the other leaf there is a later inscription
referring to Gregory’s Antiphonary, to a copy of which the tablets
formerly acted as a cover.</p>
<p>On a reliquary book cover at Prague is another consul changed into
St. Peter (No. 45). This figure has suffered considerably, for the
<i>trabea</i> has been so much smoothed that it is hardly distinguishable.
The <i>mappa</i> has been turned into a <i>volumen</i> or roll, the <i>scipio</i>
into a key, and the feet have been bared.</p>
<p>There appears to have been a class of diptychs, each leaf consisting
of five pieces joined together by ivory beading or metal mountings.
The four pieces were arranged like a frame round the central and most
important plaque. (See the later Christian book cover, <a href="#FIG_10">Fig. 10</a>.)
Meyer suggests they were especially intended for gifts to members of
the imperial family.</p>
<p>Some of these five-piece panels were more probably intended as book
covers, but one undoubted consular diptych in five parts still
survives, though the pieces are scattered. Two horizontal strips are
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>
in the collection of the Marchese di Trivulzio at Milan. The upper
one, with a bust of Constantinople borne by two winged figures, is
inscribed with a dedication to an Emperor, while the lower strip,
which is carved with barbarians rushing forward to present tribute
(the same motive as that of the Magi), bears the Consul’s titles.</p>
<p>Two upright pieces of slightly varying width, on a book cover in
the Munich Library, represent a consul in the act of walking to his
right, and carrying what is probably a congratulatory address to the
Emperor, his hands being religiously veiled. Above and behind him is
an Imperial Guard, with large shield and spear, his robe embroidered
on the shoulders, and his neck encircled by a collar from whence
hangs a bulla, just as we see them on the mosaic in St. Vitale at
Ravenna.</p>
<p>The narrower piece has a rigidly vertical design. Below is the full
face figure of a man holding a long staff, and above, the upper
portion of a figure of Victory, holding up over her head a wreath
containing a bust of the Emperor, the exact enlargement of those
Victories which so often stand on the arms of the curule chair (No. 17).</p>
<p>Meyer considers that these two unequal pieces formed the two sides,
but the complete want of balance in the composition makes Molinier’s
opinion that they both formed the right side the more probable. This
increases the number of pieces to seven, but the Victory having no
border may have been sawn off the central plaque. On the other hand,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>
in the five-piece panel at Ravenna (<a href="#FIG_10">Fig. 10</a>), the central plaque is
divided horizontally by a beading, if not in two separate pieces. If
we consider that these two pieces formed the right side, and multiply
their combined width for the left side, and then compare the total of
the two sides with the width of the horizontal strips, there is still
ample space for a central plaque representing the Emperor.</p>
<p>Meyer adds to the list of diptychs the celebrated five-piece tablet
in the Barbarini Library at Rome. The upper and lower strips are of
exactly the same character, and in the central plaque the Emperor
(probably Constantine the Great) is seen on a rearing horse, under
whose feet is a woman with her lap full of fruit, who personifies
some conquered country. In the left piece is the figure of a
soldier bringing a Victory, and the other side, which should have a
representation like the Munich Consul, is lost.</p>
<p>Molinier emphatically declares this could not have been a consular
diptych, as there is no trace of inscription; but suggests that it
was the cover of a book intended for the Emperor.</p>
<p>There is one more diptych in exceedingly high relief, which may
possibly be classed among the consular series, the date and subject
of which is still a matter of much discussion. One leaf is in the
Bargello at Florence (<a href="#FIG_5">Fig. 5</a>), and the other in the Vienna Museum (No. 57).</p>
<p>The Florentine portion represents a personage clad in a robe blazing
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>
with jewels, and standing under an elaborate edifice, holding orb and
sceptre. The Vienna leaf is practically the same, only the figure is
seated on a throne set with precious stones, and extends the right
hand in the same manner as the Empress Eudoxia on <a href="#FIG_20">Fig. 20</a>, whilst
the left hand supports the orb. The sex of this personage was long
disputed, but now it is considered by most writers to represent a
woman, both from the modelling of the form and from the dress.</p>
<p>The robes of Emperor and Empress were very similar, but on examining
the mosaics of St. Vitale at Ravenna, we find that though Justinian
and Theodora both wear the <i>chlamys</i>, hers is more lavishly
decorated, and she wears a large collar of pendant jewels, while
Justinian has the <i>fibula</i>. But the head-dresses were always
tolerably distinctive till considerably later. Ladies of high rank
all wore a kind of wig-like turban, sometimes double, as in the case
of Serena (No. 1). That it was a turban and not hair is evident
from the striped pattern on that of Serena. This was often bound
with jewels, and the imperial family wore diadems with long strings
of jewels hanging over the ears, as on the Bargello tablet. These
pendants were often, but not invariably, worn by the Emperor, but
his diadem fitted close on to his forehead without the intervening
wig, as we see on the interesting ninth century casket in the Museo
Kircheriano in Rome, where both head-dresses are represented. A large
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>
segment is inserted on the front of her robe by a jewelled edging, on
which we see the portrait of a chubby boy dressed in the <i>trabea</i>,
and wielding <i>mappa</i> and <i>scipio</i>, a diadem with pendants being on
his head.</p>
<p>Having decided that the figure is intended for a lady, there remains
the vexed question of who she is. Molinier thinks she is of Byzantine
origin, not wrought with the delicate art of the tenth to the
eleventh centuries, but earlier and coarser, and going through the
various historic characters in search of a name, he attributes the
portrait to the Empress Irene, widow of Leo IV., and long Regent for
her ten-year-old son Constantine IV., for she alone would dare to be
portrayed throned, and with all the attributes of sovereignty. It
was Irene who, in the middle of the Iconoclastic period, convened a
council of the Church, repealed the new laws, and encouraged the use
of religious images throughout her realm.</p>
<p>This attribution would bring the date of the diptych down to the
end of the eighth century, and later than the style would seem to
warrant; and it is vigorously opposed by Graeven, who declares that
after the first half of the sixth century, there were no more purely
secular representations; and that the coins of Irene represent her
with both diadem and sceptre surmounted by a cross.</p>
<p>To this may be added the affinity of the architecture with that
on diptychs of the early sixth century, as the eagles on the top,
which are exactly like those surmounting the Bourges (No. 39) and
St. Gregory (No. 44) diptychs. Also the columns with tightly wound
curtains are extremely near in design to those on the tablets of the
Poet and Muse at Monza (No. 63). Curtains, however, with horizontal
stripes were fairly constant all through early art, but were less
used in strictly Byzantine Art than in any other.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_5" id="FIG_5"></a>
<img src="images/i_p030.jpg" alt=" " width="500" height="664" />
<p class="center"><small>ALINARI PHOTO.]<span class="ws8">[BARGELLO, FLORENCE</span></small><br />
5. LEAF OF THE DIPTYCH OF AMALASUNTHA(?)<br />
Italian, sixth century</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>
Graeven having given good reasons for placing this ivory in the first
half of the sixth century, suggests that it represents Amalasuntha,
daughter of Theodoric, who, by right of conquest and the reluctant
consent of the Emperor of the East, was King of Italy from 493-526;
and who, by good government, had brought about some measure of order,
and induced a slight renaissance of the arts. Amalasuntha governed at
Pavia in the name of her young son Athalric (<a href="#FIG_5">Fig. 5</a>).</p>
<p>Graeven suggests that these two are also represented in the
medallions on the diptych of Orestes (<a href="#FIG_4">Fig. 4</a>). Athalric is
represented without a diadem, like his grandfather on the gold
medal, and he wears a coat in Gothic fashion, like that on the
coins of Theodatus, his successor, and his mother’s second husband.
Amalasuntha attempted to control Theodatus in the same manner as her
dead son, but he resented the interference and had her murdered, thus
severing the last link with the enlightened <i>régime</i> of Theodoric,
and plunging the country once more in darkness and barbarism.</p>
<p>There still remain for attention the Private Diptychs, which were
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
given away to celebrate a marriage, or a happy recovery to health, or
some other domestic reason. The subjects were usually mythological,
and the compositions, sometimes of great beauty, were chiefly
borrowed from Classical Art.</p>
<p>First, and by far the most beautiful, is the magnificent diptych of
the noble families of the Nicomachi and the Symmachi; the two leaves
are, respectively, in the Musée de Cluny at Paris and the Victoria
and Albert Museum in London. The wonderful preservation of the
surface shows the soft modelling of the ivory, and though the Paris
leaf has been cruelly shattered and several pieces lost, the soft
flow of the drapery is still sufficiently visible.</p>
<p>It is rather saddening to think of the long periods which must
elapse in the history of ivory carving, from this time when drapery
was still a thing of beauty, showing the form it seemed to hide, on
through phases in which the garments were laid on in a series of
flat lumps, or covered with a multitude of meaningless lines, until,
finally, it emerges in Gothic art, no longer diaphanous and clinging,
it is true, but drapery, real drapery, hanging in long swaying folds
and falling round the feet in delicate little heaps in a manner whose
perfection was the sole prerogative of the French craftsmen.</p>
<p>Between the Nicomachus diptych and the famous Diptychon Quirinalis of
Brescia (No. 59), there is a great abyss. On one leaf of the latter
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
are carved Hippolytus and Phædra, a poor copy of some Greek model; on
the other Diana and Endymion.</p>
<p>Meyer thinks it probable that in the representation of the chaste
Diana, coyly saluting her lover under the chin, we may find the
portrait of a Roman lady. Certainly the attitude of the lady’s left
hand, firmly placed on her hip, could have been copied from no Greek
original, and further, these two figures have curtains behind them
and embroidery on the shoulders of their tunics, after the popular
fashion of the fifth and sixth centuries.</p>
<p>It is interesting to note the architectural background, an arch
supported by two pilasters, which is very similar to that on the St.
Gregory diptych, except that here the string-course which supports
the scallop shell has not been cut away as in that at Monza.</p>
<p>Liverpool Museum has a fine pair of tablets representing Æsculapius
and Hygeia (No. 61); which undoubtedly refer to recovery from an
illness. The figure of Æsculapius appears to be taken from the
Farnese Hercules. Another small ivory of this subject is in a
private collection in Zurich; the figures vary considerably, but are
evidently of the same period—mid sixth century.</p>
<p>There is one more diptych in that wonderful collection in the
Treasury of the Basilica at Monza; representing an elderly
bald-headed man, whose heavy torso and fat puffy face are well
characterized, though the pose is rather awkwardly rendered. He
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>
appears to be a poet, for writing tablets and a <i>volumen</i> lie at his
feet, and on the adjoining leaf we see a Muse playing on the lyre.
But from her matronly figure and his uncompromising ugliness, we
appear to be dealing with another of those portrait diptychs, like
the one at Brescia, in which the noble Roman had his portrait taken
in fancy dress.</p>
<p>There are two most interesting tablets now in the Bibliothèque
nationale at Paris, originally from Sens, where they long served as
a binding to the thirteenth century MS. containing “The Office of
Fools,” or that read on the first day of the year, and in which was
incorporated many customs derived from the Roman Saturnalia. The
decoration is frankly pagan, and is somewhat similar in style to the
sarcophagi of the third century, on which the various scenes are
superimposed in much the same manner.</p>
<p>On one leaf Bacchus Helios is represented clasping a thyrsis in one
hand and an empty wine-cup in the other, while he stands upright in
a car drawn by a male and female centaur. Above are lively scenes of
the vintage, little figures gathering grapes and gaily treading out
the wine. At the bottom of the tablet a group of sea-gods are seen
disporting themselves among dolphins and other fish.</p>
<p>In the centre of the other tablet Diana Lucifera, rises like the moon
from the sea; she wears a crescent on her brow, and round her head
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>
floats a cloud of airy drapery. She carries a lighted torch, and the
two bulls which draw her chariot bound rapidly upward out of the sea.
Above are a satyr and nymph, some women, Cupid and the tiny figure of
Venus in a shell, and below, lying on the waters, is a figure of the
Sea, surrounded by fish and holding a curious crustacean in her hand.</p>
<p>These diptychs have passed through many vicissitudes during the
lapse of time. In the Victoria and Albert Museum there is a later
carving on the back of a mutilated consular diptych, from which the
whole surface has been smoothed away, leaving only a deeper outline
here and there. This gives an idea of the fate of a large number of
carved ivories, and of our great loss; and it is entirely to the
adoption of diptychs for liturgical purposes by the Church that we
owe the preservation of those that remain. The bishops, being high
functionaries, may have received them as gifts, and others were votive.</p>
<p>The Council of Mopsueste, in 550, ordered the churches to keep the
diptychs, and the names of those persons to be prayed for during
the celebration of mass to be inscribed in them, in the following
categories, all having a more or less local connection with the
particular church:</p>
<div class="blockquot">
<p>Firstly: Neophytes, or newly baptized;</p>
<p>Secondly: Benefactors, Sovereigns and Bishops;</p>
<p>Thirdly: Saints and Martyrs; and</p>
<p>Lastly: The Faithful Dead “in the sleep of peace.”</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>
People were very anxious to have their names inscribed, and fearful
of being scratched out for heresy.</p>
<p>For the dead bishops the prayer was less for them, than to them, from
which comes the word “canonize,” or to be named in the Canon of the
Mass. On the inner side of the diptych of Clementinus, at Liverpool,
there is in roughly written Greek letters a prayer for the clergy of
a church of St. Agatha, and for “our Shepherd Hadrian the Patriarch,”
who can be none other than Pope Hadrian (✝795); this diptych probably
came from a church in Sicily, for Greek was still spoken, and the
patron saint of Palermo is St. Agatha.</p>
<p>Lists of bishops were inscribed, and when the list grew too long
parchment leaves were inserted. Whole services were bound in these
carvings, and the covers of many of the oldest MSS. are of diptychs,
set in an elaborate border of goldsmith’s work, to increase the size
as well as to enhance the beauty.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter">
<h2>CHAPTER II<br /><span class="h_subtitle">LATIN AND BYZANTINE IVORIES</span></h2>
</div>
<div><a name="CHAP_II_I" id="CHAP_II_I"></a></div>
<h3>I. <span class="smcap">Latin, Latino-Byzantine and the<br />Early Byzantine Ivories</span></h3>
<p>At the end of the last chapter it was shown how the Church had
preserved a large number of consular diptychs, either unchanged or
altered to suit Christian iconography. To that list must be added
several ivory carvings with religious subjects, yet so closely
connected with the class of Private Diptychs, that it is more than
probable that they also have undergone transformation.</p>
<p>The most important among these are a fragmentary panel in the Museo
Civico at Bologna and the celebrated Ivory Book of Rouen Cathedral.</p>
<p>On the Bologna fragment is the figure of a bearded man of heavy type,
in a well designed but poorly executed robe; he clasps a roll in his
left land and beneath his neatly sandalled feet is a stool, always
a mark of honour, in the side of which is a deepened space with the
name “Petrus” rudely inscribed. Above, in the broken pediment, is a
niche with the bust of a bearded man, labelled “Marcus.” The whole is
surrounded by a handsome ovolo moulding, as are also the panels of the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
Rouen Book Cover, which may be of a slightly later date, but they
must both be placed early in the sixth century. The Rouen carvings
represent St. Peter and St. Paul, without a doubt, for they are
already of that iconographical type which had become fixed by the end
of the preceding century, St. Paul with a bald head and long pointed
beard, and St. Peter with thick hair and a round curling beard; but
it is very likely that the figures on both the Bologna and Rouen
tablets were originally intended for authors or poets as on the
series of complimentary diptychs.</p>
<p>The architecture lends credence to this theory, the cannelated
columns and pediment flanked by so-called “doves,” being much the
same as that on the various sixth century diptychs. The drapery too,
has been copied from good models, that of St. Peter, with the right
arm buried in the folds of his toga, is in imitation of the famous
Lateran Sophocles. Another proof of alteration is the manner in which
he holds a narrow key in a grasp wide enough to contain a roll as
large as that in the Bologna fragment.</p>
<p>There is a diptych in Tongres Cathedral,<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a>
which has a history carrying it back to the ninth century. The names
of the Bishops of Tongres from 855-959 being engraved on the back.</p>
<p>It evidently belongs to the large class of ivories of mixed
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>
Latino-Byzantine origin. The vine scroll border, the flat relief
and rather grooved working of the draperies, also the peculiar
stockings and oriental shoes are all features of this class. St. Paul
raises his hand to bless in the Greek manner, with only two fingers
extended. The interpretation of this gesture is variously given, many
say it is symbolical of the dual nature of Our Lord and of the Trinity.</p>
<p>Byzantine, equally with Italian art, sprang from the last <i>floraison</i>
of Roman Art, and grew up at Constantinople, the New Rome, but much
modified by Greek and Syrian influences. At first the culture of the
two Empires was so linked together, that it is the merest shade which
distinguishes Roman Art in the East and West. The division widens,
and the two branches stretch out, one, the purely Latin, soon to
wither and almost perish, and the other to grow into that spreading
tree of Byzantine Art, whose branches have scattered fruit in every
part of Europe and the Levant.</p>
<p>The latest bloom on the purely Latin branch, before it commenced
to decay, included ivories of singular beauty, as the splendid
casket at Brescia and the famous Carrand diptych in the Bargello at
Florence (Figs. 5 and 6). This carving is of superb finish, worthy
of the beautiful Bacchante diptych, though the design is less purely
classical. The first leaf represents Adam in the Earthly Paradise,
engaged in naming the animals, the figure is thoroughly Greek, and the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>
treatment closely resembles an Orpheus scene, though the curiously
crimped hair and heavy hands and feet betray a decline in art.
The animals show delightful touches of first-hand observation,
the worrying attitude of the little dog, who, forgetting he is in
Paradise, is just going to bark at the dignified goat below. The
droop of the bull’s head as he grazes by the side of the Four Rivers
is very natural, though the artist still adheres to the rather dry
technique of animal portrayal in ancient art. These animals may be
compared with those on the diptych of Bourges, which are scattered
over the background in much the same way, but with less defiance
of perspective, as they are supposed to be leaping in the act of
fighting.</p>
<p>The object of much controversy is another fine Earthly Paradise
carved on the back of an Areobindus diptych in the Louvre (No.
13). It is divided into registers by irregular lines of herbage;
above are Adam and Eve and the Serpent, next come a series of weird
mythological creatures, and then follow serried ranks of animals,
fabulous and otherwise. Molinier declares it cannot be later than
the sixth century, and connects it with the Bargello diptych, but
there is a real difference in the feeling and technique of the
animals, and a bizarre element, quite foreign to the matter-of-fact
and straightforward methods of ancient art. In the opinion of de
Linas and Graeven, the carving was added in the early periods of the
Italian Renaissance, and the former points out a connection with the
carvings on the façade of Orvieto Cathedral.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcontainer">
<a id="FIG_6" name="FIG_6"></a>
<div class="figsub">
<img src="images/i_p041_a.jpg" alt="" width="250" height="576" />
<p><small>ALINARI PHOTO.]</small></p>
</div>
<div class="figsub">
<img src="images/i_p041_b.jpg" alt="" width="245" height="579" />
<p><small><span class="ws4">[BARGELLO, FLORENCE</span></small></p>
</div>
<p class="center">6. DIPTYCH WITH THE EARTHLY PARADISE<br />
AND SCENES FROM THE LIFE OF ST. PAUL<br />Italian, fifth century</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>
The second leaf of the Bargello diptych is covered with three rows of
exquisitely carved and well characterized figures. The top row may
represent the meeting of Paul and Barnabas with Peter at Damascus.
The next shows Paul at Malta, shaking the viper into the fire (Acts,
xviii. 3), and remaining unhurt, to the surprise of Publius, governor
of the island, who stands by dressed as a man of rank in a chlamys
embroidered with a segment and fastened by a rich fibula. The soldier
with the strange sleeved fur coat hung over his shoulders is probably
one of the governor’s guard. At the bottom we see the healing of the
father of Publius, who lay sick of a fever.</p>
<p>The Lipsanoteca, or large ivory casket in the Museo Civico at
Brescia, is a fine work of early Christian sculpture, and has far
more connection with antiquity than with the early development
of the art of the Middle Ages. But it is difficult to pass it by
undescribed, as it gives the early types of so much that is met again
in later art. Molinier classes it among the sixth century ivories of
mixed style. But Westwood points out that the mingling of subjects
from the Old and New Testament histories, and the small size given
to some of them as border pieces, show the precise treatment of many
early sarcophagi, also the classical nature of many of the details
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>
point to an early date, and he attributes it at latest to the fourth
century, with which date Graeven entirely agrees.</p>
<p>The casket has a frieze of fifteen heads in medallions, and in the
narrow borders are the symbolical Types of Old Testament history.
The large central scenes are from the New Testament, showing Christ
as the Good Shepherd at the Gate of the Fold, and several of the
miracles which became so popular on the Italo-Byzantine ivories,
including the rarer scene of the <i>Raising of Jairus’s daughter</i>,
which has many features in common with the <i>Raising of Tabitha</i> on
one of a series of three most interesting little plaques in the
British Museum, notably in the treatment of the long waving hair of
the attendant women. On the flat lid the Cycle of the Passion is most
fully illustrated, but stops short with the scene in the Prætorium
before the sad representation of the Crucifixion.</p>
<p>The great similarity between the art of the Eastern and Western
divisions of the Roman Empire has already been mentioned, and it is
this similarity which causes considerable difficulty in classifying
the early ivories. The three British Museum plaques just referred to
as having a close connection in the scene of the <i>Raising of Tabitha</i>
to the Brescia casket, which is undoubtedly of Western origin, have
also a strong resemblance to the first half of a diptych now in the
Trivulzio Collection at Milan, both in the dress of the soldiers, and
in the crouching figure of one of the Holy Women, which are almost
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>
identical on the two ivories. Molinier considers the Trivulzio tablet
to be purely Constantinopolitan, but Graeven produces good evidence
for connecting it with Latin sculpture.</p>
<p>This tablet is divided into two scenes from the first Easter
Morn, the startled soldiers by the tomb of Christ, and the Angel
appearing to the two Maries. The proportions are on the whole good,
though inclining to the dumpiness peculiar to the reliefs on the
sarcophagi. There are other details which betray the influence of
these sculptures. The half opened door of the tomb is found on pagan
coffins, and the dress of the soldiers, with the strange round
headgear, rather like a cook’s cap, is often characteristic of the
Jews, and is found on several of the sarcophagi. In the British
Museum plaques the Israelites who stoop down to drink of the water
from the rock wear exactly the same dress, treated in exactly the
same manner, even to the ends of the chlamys, which fly out in rapid
movement.</p>
<p>This dress is also found in a Codex (No. 286) at Corpus Christi
College, Cambridge, and again on another set of plaques in the
British Museum, which belonged to a casket, and are of a deep
reddish colour. On these plaques the types of the Holy Women are
the same as those on the Trivulzio tablet, and the crouching women
in the <i>Raising of Tabitha</i> in the British Museum set of three. The
Crucifixion (<a href="#FIG_7">Fig. 7</a>) belongs to the coloured set, and is the earliest
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>
representation known, excepting that on the carved wood doors of St.
Sabina at Rome, which were made by Greek workmen for Pope Celestin
(432-440), and the two conceptions have much in common in modelling
and pose.</p>
<p>It should be noticed that the <i>titulus</i> is written only in Latin.
A most important proof of the Latin origin of these ivories is the
finely cut honeysuckle moulding which surrounds the door of the
tomb in the Trivulzio tablet, and which is found both on the diptych
of Probianus (<a href="#FIG_2">Fig. 2</a>) and on that of the Nicomachi family (No. 58).
The tablet has another close connection with the Probianus diptych
in the division of the surface into two tiers by the border, and the
recognition of the existence of three dimensional space, by grouping
the figures firmly on the ground. This knowledge was soon forgotten,
and the figures on sculptures of scarcely later date float about
one over the other without the artist being in the least troubled
by the problem of the depth of inclosed space. The close connection
with these diptychs points to an early date, probably not later than
the first decades of the fifth century. The dividing border<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a>
is very common in Carlovingian ivories, and is, perhaps, one reason why
Westwood and Stuhlfauth attribute the Trivulzio plaque to that epoch,
but a comparison of the “space” arrangement, imperfect as it is, with
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>
any Carlovingian ivory, clearly shows the superiority of the more
ancient work.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_7" id="FIG_7"></a>
<img src="images/i_p046.jpg" alt=" " width="600" height="471" />
<p class="center"><small>DR. GRAEVEN PHOTO.]<span class="ws10">[BRITISH MUSEUM</span></small><br />
7. THE CRUCIFIXION<br />
Italian, commencement of fifth century</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p>
<hr class="r5" />
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_8" id="FIG_8"></a>
<img src="images/i_p047.jpg" alt=" " width="600" height="448" />
<p class="center"><small>DR. GRAEVEN PHOTO.]<span class="ws10">[BRITISH MUSEUM</span></small><br />
8. CHRIST LEAVING THE PRÆTORIUM<br />
Italian, commencement of fifth century</p>
</div>
<p>After this time angels were rarely represented without wings; the
absence of wings makes the beautiful nimbed angel on the Trivulzio
plaque quite indistinguishable from the figures of Christ on the
British Museum plaques with the Passion. It is interesting to note,
just about the end of the fourth century, the earliest representation
of the symbolism of the Apocalypse in the presence of the Bull of
St. Luke and St. Matthew’s Angel. The round shape of the tomb, with
the raised tiled roof, is a difficult point, it appears to be the
germ of the elaborate circular edifice with a cupola which became
such a feature in purely Byzantine Art; but there were many circular
tombs<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a>
in Rome for the artist to copy, and the huge round mass of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>
the Mausoleum of Hadrian consisted of a drum, raised on a square
basis, and decorated with columns and statues in a rather similar
manner to the tomb on the fine Byzantine plaque with the <i>Ascension</i>,
in the Munich Museum.</p>
<p>Thus we find the two sets of plaques in the British Museum and the
Trivulzio tablet closely connected with each other and in touch with
the Brescia casket. The workmanship is not so good on the smaller
pieces, but on the whole the drawing is fairly correct, the drapery
well designed and falling in few and soft folds over the rather
chubby forms; and the whole technique is very different from the
unyielding draperies and the too minute details of the consular
diptychs.</p>
<p>Sculpture in ivory prospered, while that in marble declined. The
fashion of sculptured marble sarcophagi had almost died out in the
sixth century; but the Latin types and traditions were carried on
by a series of carved pyxes, till they gradually merged in the
Latino-Byzantine Art.</p>
<p>These pyxes are little circular boxes made in Italy, and dating
practically from the fifth and sixth centuries. Many were of pagan
origin, and decorated with mythological subjects, some being used for
the toilet requisites of Roman ladies; and others were, doubtless,
<i>accerae</i>, or boxes for holding incense for heathen worship, such
as we see in the hand of the lovely Bacchante on the diptych of the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
Symmachi family in the Victoria and Albert Museum. Afterwards
they found a place in Christian liturgy, being used to hold the
Reservation of the Host.</p>
<p>The most ancient and beautiful pyx of Christian origin is in the
Berlin Museum. It was probably carved in the fifth century from good
antique models; on it, Christ, posed like Probianus on his diptych,
and represented as a beardless youth, is teaching the Apostles. St.
Peter and St. Paul (who usually takes the place of Judas among the
twelve) are seated at His feet. The apostle on the right of Christ
raises his hand, just in the manner of a consul about to throw the
<i>mappa</i>. On the other side is a very beautiful figure of Abraham
sacrificing Isaac. The style is so completely that of the sarcophagi
that when the design is drawn as a flat strip it could easily be
mistaken for one. In the Bargello there is a well-carved pyx with a
lively picture of the Angel appearing to the Shepherds, who, with
their rough short garments and thick crooked sticks are typical
antique figures and very like Joseph’s brothers on the Throne of
Maximian (<a href="#FIG_13">Fig. 13</a>). We also find on the Throne the strange basket
chair in which the Virgin sits. The onward rush of the Magi, as they
bear gifts to the Infant Saviour, is a very favourite motive in
Byzantine Art. Their barbaric costume, of trousers and short girdled
shirt, surmounted by a Phrygian cap, traces back all through ancient
Greek Art, and, minus the cap, is still the summer dress of the
Russian peasant.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span></p>
<p>A pyx in the Musée de Cluny (<a href="#FIG_9">Fig. 9</a>) is of interest, giving some of
the same series of miracles that are found so repeatedly at this
period, both in carvings and in the mosaics. The Healing of the
Paralytic, who carries his bed, Restoring sight to the man born
blind, the Woman of Samaria, the Raising of Lazarus, and the ever
popular whale scenes from the Life of Jonah (<a href="#FIG_10">Fig. 10</a>).</p>
<p>The minds of the early Christians seemed turned away from the
scenes of Christ’s Passion and Death, and only dwelt on His human
relations as a Teacher and Healer, and on His glorious position as
“Pantocrator,” Ruler of All. A great triumphal joy seems to break out
in the glowing mosaics of the earlier basilicas, and again and again,
Christ, the Mighty, the Ruler, is represented in enormous size on the
glittering walls, and not a trace of His sufferings, which formed the
chief theme of later art.</p>
<p>In the series of miracles Christ is nearly always represented is a
young beardless man, with a slight smile, the hair sometimes cut
short in Roman fashion, but more often at this period with clustering
curls. This younger, or “Ideal” type is, perhaps, slightly the
earlier, and we find it in the catacomb frescoes and the most ancient
mosaics and sarcophagi. The so-called “Portrait” type of Christ, as
a Nazarene, with long hair and beard and a grave face, tending to
severity was employed at the same time and sometimes side by side in
the same decoration, as in the Ivory Book of St. Lupicien, and the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
mosaics of S. Vitale at Ravenna, both sixth century. In each case
He is figured as Pantocrator, this type being invariably bearded in
Byzantine Art. On some few sarcophagi He is also represented with a
beard.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_9" id="FIG_9"></a>
<img src="images/i_p051.jpg" alt=" " width="600" height="387" />
<p class="center"><span class="ws10"><small>[MUSÉE DE CLUNY, PARIS</small></span><br />
9. PYX, CHRIST RAISING THE PARALYTIC<br />
Italo-Byzantine, sixth century</p>
</div>
<p>Early in the third century there had been a sharp struggle about
the appearance of Our Lord; many sided with Tertullian, making Him
of abject form, others with Jerome and John Chrysostom declared He
conquered souls by His beauty. The latter opinion prevailed, as it
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>
agreed with the existing traditions of the beauty of the Immortals.
It is interesting to note that during this controversy no actual
portrait was referred to, all the so-called portraits of Our Lord
being of later date.</p>
<p><a href="#FIG_10">Fig. 10</a> is typical of a large group of ivory carvings of mixed
origin. These book covers and the later pyxes are closely allied to
the scenic pieces on the Throne of Maximian, though the technique is
inferior, some being of very rough workmanship.</p>
<p>The arrangement of these panels is like that of the five-piece
consular diptych mentioned in the last chapter, only the vertical
side panels are divided into two pieces by a border. The three
important examples of this kind of book cover are: this single panel
from S. Michele di Murano, now in the Ravenna Library, the two panels
of the Book of St. Lupicien, in the Bibliothèque nationale at Paris,
and the pair lately discovered by Dr. Strzygowski in the Patriarchal
Library at Etschmiadzin on the slopes of Mount Ararat.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_10" id="FIG_10"></a>
<img src="images/i_p053.jpg" alt=" " width="600" height="648" />
<p class="center"><small>ALINARI PHOTO.]<span class="ws10">[MUSEUM, RAVENNA</span></small><br />
10. COVER OF A BOOK OF THE GOSPELS,<br />
FROM S. MICHELE DI MURANO<br />
Italo-Byzantine, sixth century</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
The figures on the Murano panel are long and slight, and the
modelling, though very barbarous, does round off to the background.
Above are the well-known group of flying angels supporting a garland.
These figures in the course of time have gone through a whole cycle
of changes; starting from the flying Erotes who so commonly support
the portrait of the deceased on Roman sarcophagi, they became clothed
and elongated, as we see them here, and at last stripped and chubby
again we find them on the tombs of the Medici, while their grown-up
relations hover over many an Italian picture and sculpture. The
peculiar dumpy dolphin is an interesting specimen of longevity,
going through more than two thousand years of life from the Choragic
Monument at Athens to a London Drinking Fountain without changing a
line. The surprised gesture of the accompanying disciple (<a href="#FIG_9">Fig. 9</a>),
and of the Three Children in the Fiery Furnace (<a href="#FIG_10">Fig. 10</a>), is another
of those delightful conventions that meet us at every turn in this
most naïve group of sculptures. We meet it again in the St. Lupicien
panels, which are very similar, but nearer in technique to the scenes
on the Throne of Maximian. The subjects vary little, but instead of
Jonah there is a charming picture of the Woman of Samaria standing
by the well. The figure of Christ seated in the central panel is old
and bearded, and it so closely resembles the St. John Baptist on
the Throne (<a href="#FIG_12">Fig. 12</a>) that, except for the large cruciform nimbus,
it might be taken for that saint. The workmanship is coarse and the
hands are terribly large and ill drawn.</p>
<p>The drawing on the Etschmiadzin Book Cover, which is in the same
style as St. Lupicien, is still more incorrect, the legs and arms
of the flying angels being quite detached and merely placed in the
drapery at suitable angles. The modelling is even worse, and goes
in many places sheer down to the background from a surface covered
with grooved lines. Yet the figure of the youthful Christ is not
unpleasing, with the wide smooth face so characteristic of early
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>
Byzantine art. The pose, with fingers raised to teach or bless, is
taken directly from the Roman official type, and should be compared
with the diptych of Probianus. The Virgin is accompanied by two
angels, who, though without wings, can be recognized by their pointed
diadems, which have been inherited by the angels in Italian painting.</p>
<p>There are a number of ivories of a double character, strongly
influenced by Byzantine art yet not so closely allied to the Ravenna
Throne as those already mentioned. The magnificent angel in the
British Museum should probably be classed among these (<a href="#FIG_1">frontispiece</a>).
It is the first half of a diptych of unusual size, and though the
drapery is a little unmeaning in places, still it is good, and
with the rich architecture and the thickly feathered wings, forms
a splendid whole. There is nothing to compare with it in the sixth
century for firmness of design; yet the tendency to fullness in the
face and the wealth of detail are signs of lateness, and it can
hardly be dated with any certainty before the last years of the fifth
century. The first half of the Greek inscription reads, “<i>Receive
these things that are present and learning the cause</i>—”. It is
sad to see how soon this fine type was debased and moon faces and
unstructural forms became the order of the day.</p>
<p>A beautiful book cover in the Bibliothèque nationale at Paris (<a href="#FIG_11">Fig. 11</a>)
came from the Cathedral of Metz, where it had been for centuries
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
a model to the Carlovingian and German craftsmen. The pure design
and justness of the movements, together with the generous folds of
the drapery, all denote a close study of the fine work of antiquity;
yet the complication of the design and the exaggerated fineness of
the carving, which is pierced right through, show how far the work
is from the simplicity of ancient art. The Italian craftsman had
still individuality enough to resist the Byzantine influence in some
things. The Virgin is draped like a Roman lady, and Herod has not yet
donned the dress of a Byzantine functionary, as on the later ivories
where court etiquette reigns supreme.</p>
<p>The artist of the Milan book covers had not so much strength, and
has succumbed still more to Byzantine influence. These panels have
been enriched at a later date by a jewelled lamb and cross. Much of
the dress and detail is still Latin, but he draws his inspiration
from the apocryphal gospel of Nicodemus, and represents the Virgin
receiving the Divine message, not in her own house but by the side of
a stream, from which she is drawing water in a tall vase.</p>
<p>The three plaques of the casket of Werden (now in the Victoria and
Albert Museum) belong to this series; there are the same rushing
figures of the Magi, bearing strange gifts on flat dishes, and the
Virgin also stands by the stream. A curious survivor of paganism
is present at the Baptism of Our Lord, the allegorical figure of
Jordan, not by any means a modest accessory, but a large muscular
figure, proudly comparing his fine shoulders with the rather meagre
proportions of the sacred figures. Decidedly the Christian artists
preferred the Spirit to the Flesh, and the era of elongated figures
and champagne bottle shoulders was soon to commence.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_11" id="FIG_11"></a>
<img src="images/i_p057.jpg" alt=" " width="600" height="806" />
<p class="center"><small>A. GIRAUDON PHOTO.]<span class="ws10">[BIBLIOTHÈQUE NATIONALE, PARIS</span></small><br />
11. COVER OF A BOOK OF THE GOSPELS, WITH<br />
THREE SCENES FROM THE NATIVITY<br />
Italo-Byzantine, sixth century</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
Milan Cathedral possesses another ivory carving too important to be
passed over, which Molinier and Graeven attribute to this period in
contradiction to Labarte, who declares it to be Italian Carlovingian
of the ninth century, but the design is too closely connected with
the series just under discussion for it to be possibly of later date
than the sixth century. The two leaves of the diptych are crowded
with active little figures, all intent on the business in hand. It
should be noted that though the angel by the tomb is almost identical
with that on the Trivulzio tablet, the guards are differently dressed,
having the crested helmet and mailed tunic of antique Roman soldiers.</p>
<p>The separation of the two schools had become complete when the
plaque in the Munich Museum was carved, probably well on in the
sixth century. It is unmistakably Byzantine; in the lower half the
Holy Women visit the Tomb, whilst above, there is a fine figure of
Christ ascending to heaven; He rises with a powerful impetus, and the
whole scene is far superior in vigour to the later representations.
There is an interesting plaque in the Liverpool Museum, on which the
Carlovingian craftsman has closely imitated the grouping of the Holy
Women and the soldiers round the tomb.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p>
<p>The glory of the ivory craft is at Ravenna, the magnificent Throne of
St. Maximian, bishop of that city from 546-553.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_12" id="FIG_12"></a>
<img src="images/i_p059.jpg" alt=" " width="600" height="515" />
<p class="center"><small>L. RICCI PHOTO.]<span class="ws6">[CATHEDRAL, RAVENNA</span></small><br />
12. FRONT OF THE THRONE OF MAXIMIAN<br />
Italo-Byzantine, sixth century</p>
</div>
<p>This <i>cathedra</i> or episcopal chair is entirely covered with carved
ivory, and has been treasured in the Cathedral for more than fourteen
centuries. The throne was made in the sixth century, during that
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
period of great artistic activity, when Justinian was engaged in
beautifying Constantinople and the other great cities of his Empire.
The new Church of St. Sophia was being decorated in the most gorgeous
manner. The old chroniclers tell of gold and silver doors, and six
doors of carved ivory; so the custom of overlaying large surfaces
with ivory plaques was not an innovation. The bishop ordered his
Throne and set it up at a time when Ravenna was still an important
centre, and yearly adding to the number of its beautiful buildings.</p>
<p>S. Vitale, newly finished and decorated with the celebrated mosaic
portraits of Justinian and Theodora, was consecrated by St. Maximian
himself, who is pictured on the walls by the side of the Emperor.
Yet, in spite of all this encouragement, art, and sculpture in
particular, had already commenced that steady decline to the
period of comparative stagnation which, as Professor Krumbacher,
the well-known Byzantine scholar, says, affected not only art but
literature, and lasted nearly two hundred years, from about 650 to
850. The decline can be traced in the mosaics at Ravenna; those in S.
Vitale are not so good as those in the tomb of Galla Placidia, while
the decoration of the Baptistery is the most ancient and the best.</p>
<p>The Throne is most precious as an exception, showing really artistic
work in a period when originality was rare. The height is one yard
fourteen inches, the seat being flanked by two panels rising above it
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>
and forming the arms; the front is entirely filled in by the large
panel with five saints, the back is high and semi-circular, the top
being arched. At the junction of the side panels, with the front and
back, are upright posts, which form the feet, and rising slightly
above the level of the panels are capped by flattened balls; these,
and the strips of ivory which divide the back into little scenes, are
carved with the most decorative vine scrolls, growing out of vases of
classical shape, and peopled with a whole world of animals leaping in
and out amid the leaves and bunches of grapes.</p>
<p>These borders show real progress and the adoption of new oriental
ideas. The animated scroll work is often found on the Eastern
textiles of this period, which must have formed objects of constant
trade. The Koptic tombs on the Nile Delta<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>
have yielded a numerous collection of contemporary textiles with
beautifully woven patterns in much the same style. The vine from
being a popular pagan decoration became closely connected with the
Christian religion.</p>
<p>The carving of the wide borders on the back, if rather summary,
attains the largeness of treatment as of sculpture in marble. The
actual manual work on the Throne varies somewhat, and is probably the
work of different artizans, Byzantine or Italian, but there can be
little doubt that the whole was the work of one master mind.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span></p>
<p>The Five Saints on the front panel are of noble design and most
carefully carved, but lacking in spontaneity. Each stands under the
familiar round arch, and the scallop shell is arranged as a kind of
halo behind each head.</p>
<p>The grand figure of John the Baptist stands in the middle of the Four
Evangelists, among whom we are tempted to recognize St. Peter and St.
Paul, but this resemblance is probably owing to the artist’s poverty
of types. Above, in the border, flanked by two peacocks of evident
Syrian origin, is the monogram of the saint, which reads</p>
<p class="center"><i>Maximianus episcopus</i>.</p>
<p>The plaques on the side panels deal with the life of Joseph, and
those on the back have scenes from the life of Christ. The latter
were twenty-four in number, but only seven remain, four inside
and three out. Some of these are carved on each side, and all are
bordered with a narrow and much debased Greek bead and lozenge
moulding, which is an additional help in the identification of the
straying pieces. One of these lost plaques is now in the collection
of Count Stroganoff at Rome; it represents on one side “the Entry
into Jerusalem,” and on the other “the Nativity,” with an additional
incident in the withering of the hand of the incredulous attendant,
Salome, which is recounted in the apocryphal gospels. The type of
Joseph in this scene is just the low-browed, bullet-headed type of the
Greek wrestler, and must have been borrowed from some ancient sculpture.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_13" id="FIG_13"></a>
<img src="images/i_p063.jpg" alt=" " width="600" height="324" />
<p class="center"><small>L. RICCI PHOTO.]<span class="ws6">[CATHEDRAL, RAVENNA</span></small><br />
13. PANEL FROM THE THRONE OF MAXIMIAN<br />
Italo-Byzantine, sixth century</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
In the scene of the Annunciation the Virgin sits in a high-backed
chair of basket-work, just like that on the Bargello pyx, with the
Visit of the Magi. She is spinning, as described in the apocryphal
gospels, and beside her stands a basket for her wool.</p>
<p>The plaque, with the Virgin riding on an ass, is not the flight into
Egypt, but the journey to Bethlehem just before the Child was born,
and the languid attitude of the Virgin as she leans in weakness on
the shoulder of Joseph, is rendered with much feeling.</p>
<p>The Baptism of Christ is peculiarly interesting as it gives an
insight into the early types of this subject. The Holy Spirit in the
form of a dove flies headlong downwards, and Christ is represented
as a little naked child, and beside him, leaning on an urn is the
personification of the River Jordan. Another remnant of pagan
tradition is found in the winged and bearded genius of Sleep, who
stands by Pharaoh’s couch in the “Dream Scene.” This figure also
appears on a plaque in the Early Christian Room at the British
Museum, which is decorated with scenes from the life of Christ, the
strange bearded angel being present at the baptism. There is a very
interesting ivory in the same room, a pyx representing the Martyrdom
of St. Menas, which has another peculiarity in common with the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
carvings on the Throne, in the elaborate and curiously embroidered
blouse worn by the executioner, which is like that worn by Joseph in
the house of Potiphar.</p>
<p>The scenes from Joseph’s life are more deeply carved than the others,
the figures are wonderfully characterized, the oriental faces of the
Egyptians are framed in long plaits, like the Egyptian hair dressing
on the monuments, which is even now to be seen on the Upper Nile. All
these reliefs are a curious mixture of close observation of nature
and servile imitations of classical types. The woman present at
the sale of Joseph, holds her hand in her veil like many a stately
figure in Roman art, but the meeting of Joseph with his old father is
quite modern in its emotional force, the old man tremblingly totters
forward into the arms of his stalwart young son, and one cannot help
feeling irritated at the bystanders’ conventional gestures as they
gaze on such a touching scene. Jacob’s wild distress (<a href="#FIG_13">Fig. 13</a>) is
terribly realistic, and the contrasted stony despair of the bereaved
Rachel is most dramatic. Rachel appears in other presentments of this
subject, but the Bible narrative mentions her death some time before.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p>
<p>The <i>provenance</i> of this great monument is a very thorny question,<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>
many writers notice the strongly marked oriental characteristics, and
some infer that it was imported from Alexandria, which then had a
flourishing school of artists and craftsmen. St. Maximian certainly
visited Alexandria before he was made bishop, and he may afterwards
have ordered the Throne to be made there, or brought over Alexandrian
workmen. There is every reason to believe the story that the Emperor
Heraklius brought over a carved ivory throne from Alexandria in
the beginning of the next century. The difficulty of adopting this
Alexandrian theory lies in the existence of an Italo-Byzantine school
in Italy, which is proved by the number of pyxes and book covers,
which seem to show nearly every step between the old Latin and the
almost entirely Byzantine art of the Ravenna Throne. Of course many
of these may have been influenced by the carvings on the Throne, but
many are undoubtedly of earlier date. Any way, with the acceptance
or rejection of this theory stands or falls the European origin of
several other most important ivories: first and most important, the
much-discussed Berlin diptych, representing on one leaf Christ as a
middle-aged man, very similar in type to the John Baptist (<a href="#FIG_12">Fig. 12</a>),
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>
and on the others the Virgin, attended by wingless angels;
Schmirnoff, by close examination of the border, which has been
partially cut away, believes he has discovered the remains of a
monogram similar to that on the front panel of the Throne. Also the
plaque with the <i>Baptism of Christ</i>, in the British Museum, the
Tongres diptych, the “Bateman” diptych, and one or two others which
are closely related in style.</p>
<p>Reference was made to an ivory throne brought from Alexandria to
Constantinople by Heraklius (610-641). This throne was ultimately
placed in the Cathedral at Grado, and the legend grew up that it was
actually the episcopal throne of St. Mark, who was the first Bishop
of Alexandria.</p>
<p>In the Castello at Milan there are a series of five plaques dealing
with the subject of St. Mark’s mission to Alexandria and Cyrene, as
told in the Acts of St. Mark; there is every probability that they
belonged to the throne of St. Mark in Grado, which appears to have
been more or less perfect in the sixteenth century, but is reported
by a later writer to be entirely stripped of its decoration. The
Milan reliefs are of a very distinctive technique, the drapery being
marked by rib-like folds, usually in couples, and the type of face is
refined, though over elaborated. They are earlier than the time of
Heraklius, and probably date from the sixth century.</p>
<p>Three scattered plaques are unmistakably connected with this series;
<i>St. Peter dictating the Gospel of St. Mark</i>, with a winged figure
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>
behind, in the Victoria and Albert Museum; <i>The Raising of Lazarus</i>
in the British Museum, and <i>The Annunciation</i>, in the Trivulzio
Collection at Milan. The two last are more delicately carved, but
the striking similarities of pose and drapery, and the same violent
perspective of the architecture, make it almost certain that they are
from the same <i>atelier</i>, if not by the hand of the same craftsman.</p>
<p>Two ivories of a totally different style seem to belong to the next
century, but their dates are still a matter of doubt. One is a plaque
in the Treasury of Trèves Cathedral, deeply undercut and full of
little figures and details. Westwood says it represents the arrival
of the Holy Coat to that very Cathedral.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a>
The relic is in a casket held by two ecclesiastics, who sit in a
gorgeous car drawn by a pair of horses. The procession is led by the
Emperor Constantine and received at the church doors by his mother,
Helena, who holds a cross in memorial of her journey to Jerusalem to
fetch the True Cross. In the background is the Porta Nigra, and the
nave of a basilica showing an apse.</p>
<p>Unfortunately, there is no proof of this attractive theory, though
the building in the background does resemble the Porta Nigra (still
existing at Trèves) and the basilica there has a very similar apse;
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>
but all Roman architecture imperfectly depicted looks much alike,
every basilica has an apse, and it is not recorded how long the ivory
has been in the Treasury at Trèves. Thus we must be reconciled to
call it by an indeterminate name. It is certainly Byzantine, and most
probably about the seventh century.</p>
<p>If possible there is still greater uncertainty about the second
ivory, which is also of an architectural character and has lately
been acquired by the Louvre authorities. It is without doubt
Byzantine, and represents the conventional type of St. Paul,
preaching to a distinguished and eager crowd. The relief of the ivory
is very deep, and there is a certain boldness in the treatment of the
mass of the crowd, also the city which towers over head, is of a very
real structure and seems intended for some actual city.</p>
<p>Comparing the round arched buildings with the types of architecture
on the sixth and seventh century mosaics, Molinier and Saglio
attribute this ivory to the same period, but Schlumberger cannot
believe it to be more ancient than the tenth century. The deep red
colour is the remnant of the purple stain, which was probably still
further enriched by gilding.</p>
<p>With few exceptions, it has been the common practice to colour
ivories as well as statues, and though much at variance with our
modern taste (which is founded on a mistaken appreciation of the tint
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>
of marble from which the colour has faded), it must have greatly
enhanced the effect, especially in the smaller objects which enter
almost into the province of <i>bijouterie</i>.</p>
<p>In the eighth century the iconoclastic<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a>
troubles commenced; the movement was at first one of real reform,
the charge of idolatry which had been brought against the Greek
Christians by their Mahometan neighbours was not without foundation,
but unfortunately the love of images was deeply rooted in the heart
of the people, who transferred to these little pictures and images
the same homage they had paid to their local protecting deities in
pagan times.</p>
<p>A powerful party, always a minority, gained the ear of the Emperor
Leo III., the Isaurian (717-741), a man of low birth, who had raised
himself to his high station by sheer merit on the field of battle,
and though he has been bitterly abused by his enemies, he appears to
have been quite above the average of imperial character, which, it
must be confessed, did not reach an overpoweringly high level.</p>
<p>This man, having subdued his country’s enemies in the East, turned
his active mind to the annihilation of the unhappy artists and all
their works. At first his measures were moderate, the removing
of pictures out of reach of the lips of the worshippers; but
superstition was so deeply rooted that an abortive revolt broke
out, instigated by the monks, who, besides being the most strenuous
advocates for images, were also the chief manufacturers.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p>
<p>This rebellion was easily suppressed, but it provoked severer
measures, an edict was promulgated that all images were to be
destroyed, and the painted walls of the churches to be covered
with plaster. All opposition was punished by a rapid crescendo
of penalties, by imprisonment, mutilation and excommunication.
More revolts followed, Leo became still more angry, and the next
thing we read of is the destruction by fire of the great Library
of Constantinople, guards and all, by order of the Emperor. The
guards were not a matter of importance, as a violent death one way
or other was of small moment in those most unpleasant times; but
the manuscripts were an irreparable loss, almost as terrible as the
burning of the Alexandrian Library by the Mahometans, only a hundred
years before, and for the same unreasonable reason.</p>
<p>These struggles continued, with less or more violence, for nearly 150
years; the choleric Leo was succeeded by his still more violent son,
Constantine V. who, according to the opposite party (which contained
all the chroniclers), was closely related to the Evil One, but he
certainly had great energy, and was probably not so black as he was
painted. He continued the work of his father with great vigour, and,
it must be added, considerable cruelty.</p>
<p>Sometimes there was comparative calm, as when the Empress Irene
seized the reins of government from her unhappy son, Constantine VI.,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>
in 797, and issued an edict of tolerance. She was a wonderful woman,
and lived in imperial state for many years, against all law, human
and divine; for she was many bad things, besides being a woman, and
as such, debarred from government. Among her schemes was an alliance
with Charlemagne, to whom she offered her hand; the offer was not
accepted, and soon after she was exiled to Lesbos by another usurper,
who, being a violent iconoclast, immediately restored all the
oppressive laws. With delightful readiness the ecclesiastical General
Councils promulgated decrees for, or against, the cult of images,
according to the taste of the ruling power.</p>
<p>Theophilus, the last of the iconoclastic emperors, was a great
builder of churches and palaces, and none of the iconoclasts went
to the length of forbidding the introduction of the human form, and
reducing decoration to geometrical motives and scroll work, as is the
case of Arabian art.</p>
<p>Theophilus was succeeded by his widow, the Empress Theodora, who
governing in the name of her infant son Michael III., promptly
reversed all the edicts of her husband and his predecessors, and
endeared herself to the Greeks, by the restoration of their beloved
images, and the final defeat of the iconoclastic party, which was
accomplished about 842.</p>
<p>Though there was a sensible difference after this movement, still it
is easy to exaggerate its influence on Byzantine art. The edicts of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>
the Emperor were not always carried out to the letter, except,
perhaps, in the capital city, and even there the smaller objects were
secreted, and women, always conservative, clung to their <i>lares</i>
and <i>penates</i>, keeping up the old observances as much as possible.
Many an obstinate monk took pride and pleasure in setting the law at
defiance, carving little diptychs with the decoration on the inner side,
so that they could be folded together and slipped away in safety.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_14" id="FIG_14"></a>
<img src="images/i_p073.jpg" alt=" " width="600" height="286" />
<p class="center"><span class="ws14"><small>[VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, LONDON</small></span><br />
14. OLIPHANT<br />Oriental-Byzantine, ninth and tenth centuries</p>
</div>
<p>The civil art went on uninterruptedly, and in such a luxurious city
the objects of secular use must have been very rich and varied.
A large series of caskets have come down to us, preserved in the
treasuries of churches as shrines for the relics of saints, also
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
large oliphants, or complete tusks, hollowed out and thickly covered
with linked patterns of strongly oriental style; these were first
imported from the East and afterwards imitated more or less exactly
by Byzantine craftsmen. In early ritual they were used as horns
to announce the commencement and the end of the Mass, and also to
contain relics, and it was the latter use which brought them in
such numbers to the West. The miniaturists, also, continued their
art, copying and illustrating texts of Homer and Virgil and other
classical writers.</p>
<p>The iconoclastic movement, though lasting a century and a quarter,
had no permanent effect in checking the natural development of art.
In fact, the greater impetus given to the civil art had rather
the effect of purifying the Byzantine style by constant reference
to the antique, and prepared the way for the Renaissance of the
tenth century. Byzantine art is still so little known that it is
probable that many ivories now classed in the tenth may belong to the
preceding century.</p>
<p>Molinier attributes even the Vienna and Bargello diptych (<a href="#FIG_5">Fig. 5</a>)
to the mid iconoclastic period, to that lull in the storm during the
reign of the Empress Irene (end of eighth century), whose portrait
he considers it to be. This ivory, though more probably of the sixth
century, has some slight likeness in the wide face and full neck to
the two busts of Christ and the symbolic angel of St. Matthew in the
Library, Ravenna (the eagle of St. John is in the Victoria and Albert
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
Museum). These must be classed with another ivory of this period in
the Louvre, a figure of Christ standing under a richly decorated
arch, but the low forehead and staring eyes, with the pompous
attitude, in imitation of the beautiful British Museum angel, make it
positively ridiculous.</p>
<p>Another plaque in the Berlin Museum, the only dated ivory of the
ninth century, represents an emperor being crowned by the Virgin,
and bears the name of a “Basileus Leo.” The early emperors of this
name are too ancient, and the last three were rabid iconoclasts, so
that brings it to the Emperor Leo VI., crowned in 886. Unfortunately
this work, which should be most useful for comparison, is of rough
technique, and evidently a provincial production, for no craftsman of
the great metropolis could have produced such uncultivated work, even
on the morrow of the iconoclastic crisis.</p>
<div><a name="CHAP_II_II" id="CHAP_II_II"></a></div>
<h3>II. <span class="smcap">Byzantine Caskets.</span></h3>
<p>We owe to the series of secular caskets most of our knowledge of
this transitional period. They do not appear to have been articles
of great luxury and were usually made of bone and sometimes
indifferently carved. The fashion continued for several hundred
years, and side by side with these secular caskets we have others
decorated with scenes from Old Testament history, which, though very
few in number at first, become more frequent as time goes on. The
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>
religious caskets have many details in common with the secular, but
draw their inspiration from a different source.</p>
<p>There is great similarity in the design of the secular caskets, the
box itself being made of wood and covered with ivory plaques. The
lids are either in the shape of a truncated pyramid, and hinged,
or flat and sliding into grooves. The decoration consists of an
elaborate border surrounding either long scenic plaques, as in the
<i>Veroli</i> casket in the Victoria and Albert Museum (<a href="#FIG_15">Fig. 15</a>),
or more often little squares containing a single figure (Bargello, etc.). The
borders show strong oriental influence, and invariably consist of
ringed rosettes connected by a pointed leaf; these rosettes sometimes
alternate with coin-like medallions, and there are occasionally
additional bands of varying pattern, as on the <i>Volterra</i> casket
(late Spitzer Collection) at the Musée de Cluny.</p>
<p>The subjects are a proof of the still lingering power of classical
antiquity, and of the infiltration of oriental designs. They are
either taken from ancient myths (often very imperfectly understood
by the adaptor), or from scenes in the hippodrome or circus
(<i>Volterra</i>); perhaps also from the statues, part of the Grecian loot
that Constantine had brought from Rome to decorate his new city.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_15" id="FIG_15"></a>
<img src="images/i_p077.jpg" alt=" " width="600" height="237" />
<p class="center"><span class="ws14"><small>[VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, LONDON</small></span><br />
15. THE VEROLI CASKET<br />Byzantine, ninth and tenth centuries</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
Most of these caskets are composed in the gayest frame of mind;
on the beautiful ivory <i>Veroli</i> casket the little loves, on the
light fantastic toe, dance to the harping of poor, melancholy, old
Polyphemus, who is compelled to cease his solitary lament and play
hornpipes and jigs for the benefit of wild Bacchantes, who whirl
round and round till their drapery is tossed out like foam. It is
amusing to see these same ladies on the casket at Cividale, no longer
carved with delicate finish, but angular and rough, the drapery
flying out like wire, and the development of the muscles rivalling
that of a prima ballerina.</p>
<p>The maker of the <i>Pirano</i> casket in the Vienna Museum imitated the
<i>Veroli</i> in many things, as the putti and the panther, and the group
of Mars caressing Venus under the chin, in the good old-fashioned
Brescia diptych way, also the peculiar treatment of the hair in tiny
knobby ringlets, which is found again on the Bologna casket, and
on two most interesting plaques in the British Museum. One plaque
represents <i>Christ freeing the Souls in Hades</i>, and the other
<i>The Nativity</i>. On the first there is a group of little child-souls
with polished round muscles and knobby hair, also the hair of the
angels in both the scenes is of the same character, the rest of
the technique has little to distinguish it from the so-called X-XI
century type; but the conception of the subject is not the ordinary
stereotyped one of later years, and those few peculiarities of style
have such a marked connection with the <i>Veroli</i> casket, that Graeven
considers it likely that they both came from the same <i>atelier</i>, and
may, perhaps, be dated about the middle of the ninth century.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p>
<p>Before pointing out the various similarities between these secular
caskets, and those with religious subjects, it would be well to
inquire into the ancestry of the separate styles.</p>
<p>The classical designs on the secular caskets are more completely
conventionalized than would be the result of direct imitation of
antique originals by later craftsmen; and the coin-like borders give
a clue to finding out what were their actual models. They must have
been inspired by the <i>repoussé</i> designs on gold and silver plate,
it being a very common practice, in all ages, to insert coins round the
edges of precious vessels. The peculiar tapering ankles and delicate
wrists are another proof of some other technique intervening between
the marble sculpture and the ivories. The tendency of marble to crack
if exposed to too great a weight, led to a sturdiness in all detached
forms, and not even in the bronze statues are such exaggeratedly
slender extremities to be found.</p>
<p>Ancient records often tell of large masses of plate being presented
to churches in the West. A single gift to St. Germain at Auxerre
in the seventh century, consisted of one hundred silver vessels,
including two great dishes decorated with reliefs from the Æneid, and
a third with the “Rape of Europa,” and having Greek inscriptions.
If there was such a mass of plate in the West, the richness of
Constantinople in gold and silver vessels must have been simply
fabulous. The descriptions of the Byzantine chroniclers, and the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>
figures given of the Venetian share in the sack of Constantinople by
the Crusaders in 1204, are astounding.</p>
<p>The silver casket at Anagni forms a connecting link; it is the same
shape and style as the ivory caskets, and the little silver reliefs
are mounted in the same manner with border strips.</p>
<p>The caskets with religious subjects are derived from the miniatures
in ancient and contemporary manuscripts, as has been abundantly
proved by the complete correspondence of existing plaques and
miniatures. The Victoria and Albert Museum possesses an excellent
example in the strip of ivory, with Joshua receiving envoys from
the people of Gibeon, which is taken almost line for line from two
miniatures in the famous Joshua Roll in the Vatican Library; except
that in the translation of the painting into sculpture, certain
details had to be simplified, and the serried ranks of Joshua’s
soldiers were reduced to a faithful copy of the forward group.</p>
<p>A tiny plaque in the Grüne Gewölbe at Dresden is another instance
of this connection with the manuscripts. It is one of two surviving
portions of a casket decorated with the life of Joseph, and is
directly inspired by the wonderful Genesis codex at Vienna. This
codex is especially interesting as showing the artist’s delight in
scenes of domestic affection; the picture, which coincides with the
ivory carving, illustrates the departure of Joseph to get news of his
brethren. His father with a stately gesture bids him go, and as he
goes he turns to kiss his little brother Benjamin, who follows him a
little way. The sculptor has taken the moment of the kiss, and the
gentleness of the action is like the little domestic scene on the
casket in the Museo Kircheriano at Rome (<a href="#FIG_16">Fig. 16</a>).
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_16" id="FIG_16"></a>
<img src="images/i_p081.jpg" alt=" " width="600" height="455" />
<p class="center"><small>DR. H. GRAEVEN PHOTO.]<span class="ws6">[MUSEO KIRCHERIANO, ROME</span></small><br />
16. FRONT OF A CASKET. SCENES FROM THE LIFE OF DAVID<br />Byzantine, ninth century</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>
The carvings on this casket give a graphic account of the early life
and adventures of David, and are most probably derived from some
lost manuscript of the Book of Samuel. The active little figures are
exceedingly droll, and it is difficult not to think that a little
of the gay secular spirit had crept into these more sober scenes.
The lamb which sits up and begs while David pipes is particularly
engaging. The front side of the sloping lid is given up to most
tragic scenes. <i>The Massacre of the Innocents</i>, and the <i>Murder of
Zachariah, the High Priest</i>, “<i>killed between the temple and the
altar</i>.” The inscription tells us that the casket was intended as a
marriage gift to a Basileus and Basilissa from another wedded pair,
the portraits all being on the top.</p>
<p>The various details which the two series of caskets have in common,
prove they belong to the same period. On the <i>Veroli</i> casket
(<a href="#FIG_15">Fig. 15</a>), the group of men stoning the bull which bears
away Europa corresponds with a miniature in the Joshua Roll, which depicts the
stoning of the captive people of Achan. The rosette border is also
found on a twelfth century casket with half-length figures of saints
in the Bargello. On some of these caskets the plaques are decorated
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>
with designs taken bodily from Oriental textiles and carvings; the
smaller <i>Volterra</i> casket in the Musée de Cluny is a case in point,
and it has the additional charm of an openwork border of maple leaves
on a gilt background.</p>
<p>Some writers call these caskets Italo-Byzantine because a large
number have been found in the treasuries of Italian cathedrals, but
their ancestry is thoroughly Byzantine. It is not impossible that
some few examples were made in the West, as several stone reliefs
have been found in Venetia, clearly dating from the first decade
of the eleventh century, and ornamented with the same classical
subjects, confused in the same way with foreign elements, and
surrounded by the customary rosette border, and which are most
probably copies of these Byzantine fancy goods.</p>
<p>The Throne of St. Peter in the apse of his church in Rome, is made
up in the same way with little plaques representing the <i>Labours
of Hercules</i> and other purely pagan subjects. The ivory carvings
belong to two periods, one, admittedly, of the ninth century when the
Throne was restored, and the others are traditionally supposed to
date from the lifetime of the apostle. It was inclosed 200 years ago
in a hideous casing, and no close examination is permitted. If this
chair is really of great antiquity, even if not so early as the first
century, it would be a great support to Venturi’s assumption that all
these secular caskets belong really to classical antiquity, and are
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
of late Roman origin. There is a beautiful casket in the Cathedral
of Troyes, of the tenth or eleventh century, which was sent back by
Garnier de Traisnel, Bishop of Troyes, and Almoner to the Crusaders.
Garnier died in the East, but sent home his share of the spoil from
Constantinople. It is stained a rich purple and evidently belonged to
the Basileus, who is depicted on horseback.</p>
<div><a name="CHAP_II_III" id="CHAP_II_III"></a></div>
<h3>III. <span class="smcap">The Byzantine Renaissance.</span></h3>
<p>The Golden Age of Byzantine Art commences about the beginning of the
tenth century, and, roughly speaking, coincides with the rule of
the great Macedonian dynasty, a period when the warrior emperors,
usurpers or otherwise, kept the invading barbarians at bay.</p>
<p>The Byzantine chroniclers expatiate at great length on the
unparalleled luxury of the Court and how the “Sacred Palace” was
filled with art treasures; and they also tell us that Constantine
VII., Porphrygenitus (911-959), was an enthusiastic amateur, and
even employed his “sacred” fingers in carving and painting beautiful
objects; it was about the only thing he did do, for the government
was entirely taken out of his hands by a series of usurpers who were
nominally his colleagues.</p>
<p>Ivory carving was only one small portion of this great stream of
decorative work, but an important part, as there was practically no
sculpture in stone. In the new basilica at Constantinople were some
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>
animals carved on the marble fountains, and a few inferior
bas-reliefs have been found in the Crimea and Mount Athos, but
the technique is merely an enlargement of the tiny reliefs, with
a complete loss of that delicacy and loving finish which is the
greatest charm of the ivory craft.</p>
<p>The number of examples of carved ivory during the tenth and eleventh
centuries is so great that it is most difficult to make a selection.
The Reliquary of the True Cross in the Franciscan Church at Cortona
is valuable for comparison with other carvings of the tenth century,
for it is dated by an inscription mentioning the Basileus Nicephorus,
Conqueror of the Barbarians, who can be no other than Nicephorus
Phocas (963-969). The reliquary is divided in the usual manner
into four compartments by the arms of the great central crucifix,
and owing to the shallowness of the space the figures are not so
disproportionately tall as was mostly the case. In the research for
dignity and reverence the figures became less and less earthly, the
shoulders sloping away to nothing, and a growing tendency crept in to
exaggerate the height out of all proportion; also the calm expression
on the delicate oval faces grew more and more solemn, till on some of
the later ivories it is positively lugubrious. Yet the quiet grace
and exquisite dignity of a figure like that of the Virgin on the
Harbaville Triptych (<a href="#FIG_17">Fig. 17</a>), is hardly to be found in
the finest Italian art. The pose of this figure and that of John the Forerunner,
Πρόδρομος, are almost identical with those on the Cortona Reliquary;
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>
the Virgin’s gesture of adoration is simple and spontaneous, and it
is only when it is repeated by St. John that the balance of the
pattern becomes too exact and pains the eye. The figure of Christ,
grandly posed on the highbacked throne, is the type of nearly every
other representation of the Saviour throughout the whole period
(cf. <a href="#FIG_19">Fig. 19</a>) and traces back directly to the Roman official
diptychs. The drapery is elegant and well considered, though the folds have
a hard flatness in spite of the soft finish of the technique. The
features inherit much from the antique, the well-cut brow and deeply
set eyes, but the noses have increased in length and have that
slight curve at the tip which is so characteristic, and becomes
so pronounced, in later Byzantine Art. The fine heads, framed in
their rugged mane of hair, are very picturesque, but there is such
a strong family likeness among them, that it is quite refreshing to
meet a bald forehead like that of St. Paul or St. John Theologus,
here represented as an aged man and not as the beardless stripling
of Western art. Above all, it is the hands and the well-proportioned
muscular feet, which show the power of the real artist escaping
from the conventionality of his subject. On the back of the panel
he has freed himself entirely from the spell of classical antiquity
and drunk deeply of new oriental ideas, creating a most decorative
design, illustrating the “Triumph of the Cross,” which rises,
ornamented with roses, above the flowering earth, stretching up to
the skies, which are thickly covered with stars, and bear the Greek
inscription <i>Jesus Christ Victorious</i>. Two tall cypresses, tightly
bound by the symbolical vine and by ivy, bow before it, whilst from
the ground spring small trees and reeds, among which wild animals run
in and out.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_17" id="FIG_17"></a>
<img src="images/i_p087.jpg" alt=" " width="600" height="535" />
<p class="center"><small>A. GIRAUDON PHOTO.]<span class="ws6">[LOUVRE, PARIS</span></small><br />
17. TRIPTYCH D’HARBAVILLE<br />Byzantine, tenth century</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
The trees may be contrasted with the fruitful olives on the Bargello
plaque of the Ascension (<a href="#FIG_18">Fig. 18</a>). The composition of this
scene is grand in character, in spite of its small size, and there is great
freedom of movement in the lower group, each pose being cleverly
characterized; the grouping is scarcely freer in the Italian
conception of this subject, and the upraised hand of the apostle
on the Virgin’s left is to be seen, centuries later, in the famous
“Assumption of the Virgin” by Titian. There are many other plaques
with scenic pictures. The elaborate carving of the <i>Death of the
Virgin</i> is still fixed to the Bamberg Missal, which belonged to
Cunigunda, wife of the Emperor Henry II. (1002-1028). The scene is
crowded, and takes place under a richly pierced canopy. Christ holds
the Infant Soul of the Virgin, whilst two angels with veiled hands
fly down to receive it.</p>
<p>Perhaps the most beautiful of all these pictorial sculptures is a
diptych now unfortunately divided. Each leaf has two scenes, the
first, representing the <i>Holy Women kneeling before the risen Christ</i>
and the <i>Resurrection</i>, is at Dresden, while the other, with the
<i>Crucifixion</i> and the <i>Deposition</i>, is in the Provincial Museum at
Hanover. The various scenes are treated with much freedom, and the
proportions are excellent. It is enough to glance at the appalling
length of the two Maries in a twelfth century plaque with the
<i>Resurrection</i> (Bargello) to realize how much we have to be thankful
for in the earlier periods.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_18" id="FIG_18"></a>
<img src="images/i_p089.jpg" alt=" " width="500" height="632" />
<p class="center"><small>DR. H. GRAEVEN PHOTO.]<span class="ws6">[BARGELLO, FLORENCE</span></small><br />
18. ASCENSION<br />Byzantine, eleventh century</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
There are a large number of triptychs<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a>
all more or less of the Harbaville school. A fine one at the Louvre
of <i>Christ</i> and <i>St. Theodore</i> has lost the second wing, and of
another still finer one, only the splendidly carved wings remain,
widely separated now, one being in Vienna and the other in the Doge’s
Palace at Venice. Several of these little shrines inclose a group of
the <i>Virgin and Child</i>, the two most beautiful being in the Episcopal
Museums of Utrecht and Liège. Count Strogonoff in his interesting
collection at Rome has a particularly fine seated <i>Virgin and Child</i>.
The whole pose is most pleasing and the Infant Christ on her knee
has a far more childish face than usual, the Holy Child being more
often like a little man, raising his hand to bless with exaggerated
dignity. But the ineradicable love of ostentation and luxury leads
the artist to diminish the importance of a really dignified figure
by adding a mass of gigantic and over-decorated accessories, and the
legs of the throne are wrought with more exactitude than he bestows
on the robe of the central figure.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_19" id="FIG_19"></a>
<img src="images/i_p091.jpg" alt=" " width="400" height="709" />
<p class="center"><small>G. ROSSI PHOTO.]<span class="ws4">[TRIVULZIO COLLECTION, MILAN</span></small><br />
19. CHRIST ENTHRONED<br />Byzantine, eleventh century</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
There are many other interesting ivories in this fine collection,
which even contains one of the lost plaques from the Throne of
Maximian. Among them is a noble figure of <i>Christ Teaching</i> which
might well correspond to the <i>John Baptist</i> at Liverpool, one of
the gems of the Mayer Collection. John bears a roll with the text
commencing, “Behold the Lamb of God,” which would refer to the
Christ on the opposite leaf of a diptych. The Liverpool Museum also
possesses a fine triptych, with Christ on the Cross, the Virgin and
St. John. This is a type which seized the imagination of the German
people, who constantly repeated it, losing, perhaps, in technique,
but gaining in vigour and expression, as will be seen on referring to
<a href="#FIG_24">Fig. 24</a>.</p>
<p>The plaque in the Cabinet des Médailles of the Bibliothèque
nationale, Paris (<a href="#FIG_20">Fig. 20</a>), is a fitting end to an account
of the ivories of the Byzantine Renaissance. It represents the <i>Emperor
Romanus IV. and the Empress Eudoxia being crowned by Christ</i>. It is
doubly interesting, as through its certain date (the Emperor’s reign
only lasting four years 1067-1071), we can compare it with earlier
work, as the Cortona Reliquary or the Harbaville triptych (<a href="#FIG_17">Fig. 17</a>),
and see that after more than a hundred years the art had not
changed for better or worse. This plaque is also interesting from its
artistic value, which is very high, the figure of Christ being one of
the finest in the whole range of Byzantine ivory carving. We can see
that the artist was perfectly capable of rendering drapery in a soft
and pliant manner, yet the tyranny of the court etiquette compelled
him to envelope the Basileus and Basilissa in the stiffest of
sheaths, covered with a regular mosaic of jewels; and to pay honour
to the Saviour he was obliged to place under His feet that triple
platform of hideous device.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_20" id="FIG_20"></a>
<img src="images/i_p093.jpg" alt=" " width="400" height="594" />
<p class="center"><small>A. GIRAUDON PHOTO.]<span class="ws8">[CABINET DES MÉDAILLES,</span><br />
<span class="ws15">BIBLIOTHÈQUE NATIONALE, PARIS</span></small><br />
20. ROMANUS IV. AND EUDOXIA CROWNED BY CHRIST<br />Byzantine, eleventh century</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>
“The composition of the figures is not the invention of the painters,
but the law of tradition of the Catholic Church.” These are the
words of a decree of the Nicene Council in the eighth century, and
it is not surprising that these compositions, settled on theological
grounds were inclined to be unvarying and hieratic, the wonder is
that they have so many artistic qualities. Another bond for the
unfortunate artist was a certain work called “A Guide to Painting,”
in which minute regulations are laid down for every detail of form
and colouring. It does not appear to have been in force till after
this period of renaissance, but a strict adherence to these formulæ
is, without doubt, the reason why it is practically impossible to tell
a nineteenth from a twelfth century mosaic by reference alone to style.</p>
<p>This great stream of art and culture went on uninterruptedly, no
matter what were the palace intrigues or the sudden changes of
government. One winter night a great cry is raised, the Emperor,
the brave general whose glorious campaigns had enabled the city to
increase its wealth and commerce a thousandfold, had been slain,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
foully murdered by order of his wife and his ancient friend. Yet
there is no revolt among the people; what is it to them? A few
dangerous partizans are killed, and later a few of the hired
murderers, and the wife in question, are offered up to the Church in
expiation of the usurper’s crime. In the evening Nicephorus Phocas
is Emperor, and by the next morning John Zimisces is crowned and
reigning in his stead. Both the emperors were good generals, and
could keep the barbarians at bay, and, for the matter of that, they
were both flagrant usurpers, the rightful sovereigns, Basil and
Constantine, being kept half prisoners in the palace, while their
so-called colleagues ruled the country; and if freedom from invasion,
wealth, and munificent patronage of the arts are signs of good
government, then these usurpers were pattern rulers. This was by no
means the case with Basil II., who, at the mature age of sixty flung
off the tutelage of his colleagues and plunged into a wild career of
conquest, earning for himself not only the title of “Destroyer of the
Bulgarians,” but the hearty hatred of his subjects at home and in the
provinces.</p>
<p>With Basil we must leave the Byzantine Empire, which had reached its
apogee of political power and art production. It was centuries before
the internal decay made itself felt, but the great edifice never
recovered the shock of the invasion and sack of Constantinople by the
Crusaders in 1204, and falling bit by bit before the attacks of the
Mahometans, finally fell an easy prey to the Seljuk Turks in 1453.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter">
<h2>CHAPTER III<br /><span class="h_subtitle">LOMBARDIC, ANGLO-SAXON, CARLOVINGIAN<br />AND GERMAN IVORIES</span></h2>
</div>
<div><a name="CHAP_III_I" id="CHAP_III_I"></a></div>
<h3>I. <span class="smcap">Lombard Ivory Carvings</span></h3>
<p>We have seen how Constantinople, or the “New Rome,” became the
centre of the new Christian World as Alexandria had been of the
Hellenistic; and for many centuries the riches and splendour of this
most luxurious city shone out on the barbarian nations, as a lodestar
for their imagination and a pattern for all civilization and culture.
Byzantine, being an intrusive art in these countries, did not
entirely crush out native effort, but modified the design and vastly
improved the technique. Each imitator introduced more of himself
and got further from the Greek original, so there arose a composite
style, strongly influenced by the Byzantines, yet bearing in it the
seeds of a national art.</p>
<p>Leaving aside the large number of Syro-Byzantine and other Eastern
ivories, we must pass on to Italy, where the remains of the old Latin
art still lingered, though terribly debased and mingled with that
of the barbarian Lungobards. By the seventh century sculpture was
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>
reduced to a deplorable state, and as Cattaneo says,<a name="FNanchor_16_17" id="FNanchor_16_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_17" class="fnanchor">[16]</a>
it is most unlikely that the Ravenna carved sarcophagi were really made
at this period; they more probably belonged to ancient burials, with
the new name carved on the lid.</p>
<p>Even in ivory carving, which is always behind the age, we find an
almost ludicrous barbarity. An ivory tablet of the eighth century
in the Bologna Museum is a fair example of this mixed style; it has
three tiers of scenes from the <i>Nativity</i>, and shows strong Byzantine
influence, yet there is something in the treatment of the drapery,
barbaric as it is, which seems to lead on to the later Italian style
of the eleventh century, which definitely connects with the earliest
Gothic art in France.<a name="FNanchor_17_18" id="FNanchor_17_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_18" class="fnanchor">[17]</a>
An example of this may be seen in a plaque in the Bargello,
representing Christ in glory surrounded by angels.</p>
<p>By far the most celebrated example of this long period is the diptych
of Rambona in the Vatican, which in spite of the miserable relief
and the rudeness of the technique, plainly shows the two influences,
Lombardic and Byzantine. At the foot of the cross is a large
representation of Romulus and Remus with the Roman wolf. At the top
the familiar pair of flying angels, much curtailed, bear a medallion
containing a bust of Christ raising His hand to bless in the Greek
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
manner. On the second leaf the Virgin is enthroned between two cherubim,
the lower portion being ornamented with fragmentary scroll-work of
a northern type, surrounding figures of the saints of more or less
Byzantine design. An important inscription runs between stating that
the diptych was carved for a certain Ageltruda, who was most probably
the wife of Guy, Duke of Camerino and Spoleto, King of Italy, and
Emperor in 891.</p>
<p>In the Victoria and Albert Museum there are two noteworthy examples
of Lombard Art; a strange tall-figured group of <i>The Presentation of
Christ in the Temple</i>, with architecture of a strongly marked Lombard
type, and a plaque with a representation of <i>Joseph’s Dream</i>. Both of
these are carved in a large style with open surfaces, but show a very
rudimentary notion of drapery. The latter is especially interesting
as the design is almost exactly the same as in the elaborate series
of plaques from the <i>Paliotto</i> or shrine in the Cathedral at Salerno
(eleventh to twelfth century). The subjects of these carvings are
taken from the life of Christ and from the Old Testament, and show an
unusually full series of scenes from Genesis, with most picturesque
representations of the creation. The fluency of the design and
technique of these plaques is a strange and sudden oasis in a desert
of barbarism. If they were made at Salerno, as seems likely, the
technique of some school in the old Greek city may have lingered on,
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>
receiving new life from the encouragement of the Normans, who
certainly showed themselves ardent patrons of the arts in Sicily.</p>
<p>There had been little encouragement of the arts elsewhere in Italy.
Several objects of goldsmith’s work and ivory in the Basilica at
Monza are said to have belonged to Theodolinda, the Lombard queen,
in addition to the famous ivory diptych sent to her by Gregory the
Great, which was of an earlier date. Two hundred years later Popes
Adrian and Leo III., seconded Charlemagne in his efforts to restore
learning and culture; and finally Didier, the great abbot of Monte
Cassino in 1018, and afterwards Pope, was also a great admirer and
benefactor of the arts.</p>
<p>It is not surprising that poor Italy made so little progress, for all
this time she was ravaged, first by the Saracens, who invaded the
mainland from Sicily, which they had conquered from the Greeks, and
then by the Normans, who in the eleventh century, consolidated their
power in South Italy, and afterwards in Sicily, under Robert Guiscard.</p>
<div><a name="CHAP_III_II" id="CHAP_III_II"></a></div>
<h3>II. <span class="smcap">Anglo-Saxon Ivory Carvings.</span></h3>
<p>The earliest carvings in the Northern countries still belonged to the
type of geometric and interlaced patterns roughly cut in walrus or
whalebone. The panels from the sarcophagus of St. Caletricus, Bishop
of Chartres in the sixth century, is an example of this rough kind of
decoration, which is also found on objects from the Germanic tombs. The
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>
Anglo-Saxons were far more advanced, owing to the training of the
Keltic schools. In the British Museum there is a whalebone casket,
probably made in Northumbria in the eighth century. It is ornamented
with scenes from the Sagas, the Holy Scriptures and from Roman
legends; this range of subjects gives a clue to the explanation of
the style, which is Norse, influenced by Byzantine religious art, but
the latter has been so transformed by the unskilful craftsman that
it is hardly recognizable. The whole casket is bordered by a Runic
inscription relating the capture of the whale which supplied the
bone; it has been translated thus:</p>
<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
<span class="i3">“The whale’s bones from the fishes’ flood,<br /></span>
<span class="i4">I lifted on Fergen’s Hill:<br /></span>
<span class="i4">He was dashed to death in his gambols<br /></span>
<span class="i4">As a-ground he swam in the shallows.”<br /></span>
</div></div></div>
<p>The name Fergen occurs on a charter of the eleventh century, and has
been identified with Ferry Hill in the county of Durham. The front
panel is divided into two, and represents the daughter of Herodias
receiving John Baptist’s head, the headless body lying on the ground,
and the Wise Men offering gifts, the word “Magi” being written in
runes above them. All that remains of the Byzantine model of the
Virgin and Child are two nimbed heads, one below the other, a lesser
and a greater disk sheltered by a typical Byzantine <i>ciborium</i> or
four-pillared canopy. One end has a picture of Romulus and Remus and
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
their wolf, and the rest is decorated with scenes from the Sagas.
The background of these reliefs is so crowded by small objects and
fragments of scroll-work that the scenes are difficult to make out;
but it is extremely interesting as a sample of English art in the
time of the Heptarchy.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_21" id="FIG_21"></a>
<img src="images/i_p101.jpg" alt=" " width="300" height="674" />
<p class="center"><small>[VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, LONDON</small><br />
21. ADORATION OF THE MAGI<br />Anglo-Saxon, eleventh century</p>
</div>
<p><i>The Adoration of the Magi</i> in the Victoria and Albert Museum
(<a href="#FIG_21">Fig. 21</a>), has been also attributed to this period, but
Westwood’s opinion that it is of the eleventh century is more probably correct,
the workmanship being most delicate and finished, and the design
closely connected with the pictures in the tenth century Anglo-Saxon
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>
manuscripts, which have the same crinkled edges to the drapery, large
heads and protruding eyes, with a sharply accentuated pupil. In the
relief the modelling of the face, with the hollow between the wide
cheekbones and the lips gives the face quite a Hibernian appearance
which is visible in several other ivories of this class, notably in a
most pathetic <i>Deposition</i> in the same museum.</p>
<p>The richly embroidered dress and tiny feet and hands show Byzantine
influence, but the architecture, with the twin arch windows is
thoroughly Saxon. The mysterious man on the roof is a curious genre
addition, and the owl, most likely typifies the night. The hunting
scenes clearly show the two art waves, the lions are unintelligently
copied from the conventional Byzantine animal, but very considerable
first-hand information is shown in the drawing of the boars
and bears, with which the craftsman probably had some personal
acquaintance.</p>
<p><i>The Deposition</i> referred to above is of the eleventh century, and
has a curious prototype in the Arundel Psalter (No. 60, British
Museum), with the same attenuated anatomy and finely plaited drapery.
The design is instinct with the spirit of these Anglo-Saxons and
their Keltic teachers, as is seen in the mournful expression of the
faces, and the utter deadness of Christ’s body as He falls forward
from the cross, hanging His threadlike arms. The whole feeling is of
suffering and sadness, very different from the cheerful scenes on the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>
earlier, and the calm, unmoved solemnity of the later Byzantine
art. This research for expression was a special feature of the
more emotional Germanic nations, and in spite of the almost comic
peculiarities, there is a sincere reverence and religious feeling,
which is almost unknown in any other school of ivory carving.</p>
<p>The series of chessmen made of walrus ivory that were found in the
Island of Lewis should be mentioned here; they have stumpy figures
and fine rugged countenances, and the thrones are carved with the
elaborate tracery so typical of this artistic movement. The game of
chess was early brought from the East, as was the game of draughts,
and many pieces are to be found in the various museums of Europe. In
addition to the chessmen, the British Museum possesses a fine set of
draughts deeply carved in Romanesque style, with men and animals.</p>
<p>In the Victoria and Albert Museum there is a specimen of a large
and elaborate set of chessmen, having tiers of attendants round the
principal figure. A charming story is told in one of the <i>Chansons de
Gestes</i>, and was repeatedly carved on mirror covers and other small
objects in the fourteenth century, showing the popularity of the
game. It tells how the crusader Huon de Bordeaux was taken prisoner
by the Saracen admiral and condemned to death; one chance was given
him, that he should play a game of chess with the admiral’s daughter,
the most expert player of her day, the stakes being his life or the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>
lady’s hand; but it seems the lady looked too much in his eyes and
too little at the game, and the result was one more convert to the
Christian faith.</p>
<p>The tracery which decorates the thrones of the chessmen is a small
example of the elaborate interlaced scroll-work, which is a leading
feature in Keltic and Anglo-Saxon work. In the manuscripts it is
often reduced to a series of calligraphic flourishes, but it also
develops into serpents and dragons inextricably woven together, and,
later, more varied animal forms are introduced and even human figures
are seen crushed in the serpentine rings. Forms from vegetation
are rarely seen, and the introduction of the acanthus into these
intricacies is due to the Carlovingian scribes of the ninth century
and may be seen in the Bible written for Charles the Bald.</p>
<p>Several objects decorated with the earlier forms of this wild tracery
are found in the great abbeys of Germany and Eastern France, and are
thought to have been made in Great Britain or Ireland and brought
over by the throng of missionaries who flocked on to the continent to
convert the wild tribes of Frisia, Germany and Switzerland, bearing
with them culture and learning.</p>
<p>Little Ireland in early days was a centre of artistic diffusion,
almost more important for the Northern nations than that of
Constantinople. Owing to freedom from invasion, Christianity and
civilization had continued to flourish and the remnant of the old
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>
Latin literature was carefully preserved. Not long after the death
of St. Patrick, the Irish Church, having increased in strength and
learning, sent forth the famous St. Columba to minister to the hordes
of barbarians who were over-running Britain. St. Columba met with
great success and founded several large monasteries which became
powerful centres of religion and learning in Scotland and England.
For hundreds of years the schools of Ireland continued in great
repute, numerous bands of missionaries were sent across the sea to
convert the Germanic tribes on the continent. Most famous among
these was St. Columbanus, who laboured in the East of France for
many years, and afterwards in Switzerland and Italy, dying in 615
at the monastery he had founded at Bobbio. Everywhere these monks
went they took with them the seeds of art and learning, beautiful
illuminated manuscripts and other small works of art, which formed an
inexhaustible store of <i>motifs</i> for the sculptors and goldsmiths of
the following centuries. One of the disciples of Columbanus, St.
Gall, who was called the “Apostle of Switzerland,” founded there the
great monastery named after him, which became a most flourishing art
centre in later years.</p>
<p>The Anglo-Saxons were not idle, and in the eighth century St.
Boniface and many others pierced far into the wild forests of
Germany, founding the great monastic establishments which exist to
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>
this day. This was not a fleeting movement, but a close relation was
kept up between England and the continent till well into the eleventh
century.</p>
<div><a name="CHAP_III_III" id="CHAP_III_III"></a></div>
<h3>III. <span class="smcap">The Carlovingian Renaissance.</span></h3>
<p>Charlemagne, crowned emperor in 800, if not perhaps the wondrous
hero of tradition, was a very powerful factor in the history and
civilization of his day, and exerted all his energy to introduce
order and learning among the vast hordes of barbarians who more
or less willingly acknowledged his rule. He stirred up all latent
powers, introduced new ideas and stimulated an admiration for all
Roman culture, being dazzled quite as much by the actual pomp and
splendour of the Constantinopolitan court as by the memories of
ancient Rome. He invited learned men from the East and the West, but
the most famous were Alcuin, who was born at York, and his pupil,
Eginhardt, who became Secretary and Chronicler to Charlemagne and his
successor.</p>
<p>The Carlovingian renaissance was a most composite production.
Byzantine Art had long been known to the Northern races, and at
this time its influence was spread still further by the presence of
artists exiled by the iconoclasts; but the Anglo-Saxon influence was
even stronger, encouraged as it was by the bands of missionaries,
and by Alcuin and his followers. To these intermingled strains must
be added the independent Gallo-Roman reminiscence, the study of the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>
monuments, and also a strange, but undeniable Oriental tendency,
arising from communications with the East and the Moors in Spain.
This renaissance, though to a certain extent artificial, lasted for
nearly three centuries and affected the civilization of the whole of
Western Europe.</p>
<p>Carlovingian art flourished for centuries in Germany, but the
invasions of the Normans checked for a while the artistic progress of
Northern France. What little art they had was in much the same Norse
style, but freshly barbaric and not like that of the British Isles,
which had undergone centuries of incubation and had the additional
Latin element.</p>
<p>It was to this Anglo-Saxon Art, conventional as it had become, the
human form often being reduced to a geometrical figure, that the
Carlovingian craftsmen turned for inspiration. Two classes of ivory
carving arose, one copied almost directly from the miniatures in the
Anglo-Saxon manuscripts, which were themselves derived from late
Roman types; and the second following more closely in the steps of
the Byzantines.</p>
<p>All through the Carlovingian period there is a close connection
between the illuminator and the ivory carver, the latter trying to
treat his subjects more in the manner of a painter, enlarged the
cycle of Christian representations and began to break with tradition
and recover his liberty. The figures still, in many cases, retain the
heavy and rather crushed forms of degenerate Roman art; and in the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>
endeavour to impart deeper expression the proportions were often
spoiled, delicate parts, as the features being delineated in undue
size, and the research for originality often leading to violent and
exaggerated attitudes, and to the overloading of detail, yet all the
gestures are instinct with life, and full of a naïve directness of
action.</p>
<p>A small plaque in the museum at Zurich (<a href="#FIG_22">Fig. 22</a>)
is a good illustration of the immense influence of the miniatures on ivory
carving. The Book of Psalms was especially popular, and this plaque
is a word for word translation of certain verses of the XXVIIth
Psalm (XXVI. in the Vulgate) into plastic form. <i>v.</i> 2. “When the
wicked, even my enemies and my foes, came upon me to eat up my flesh,
they stumbled and fell.” (The crowd of warriors, some of whom have
fallen). <i>v.</i> 5. “For in the time of trouble he shall hide me in
his pavilion: in the secret of his tabernacle he shall hide me: he
shall set me up upon a rock.” (David is seen being welcomed into
the Tabernacle, which stands on a rock). Part of <i>v.</i> 6. “Therefore
will I offer in his tabernacle sacrifices of joy” (altar and lamb).
<i>V.</i> 10. “When my father and mother forsake me then the Lord will
take me up” (in the right corner a man and woman turn away from a
child). The hand above is typical of the protection of God which is
asked for throughout the psalm. The slight and thin-ankled figures,
and the continuous method of narration are characteristic of the
miniatures, which originally derived their technique from late Roman
Art, and carried on the old system of an unbroken series of scenes
which is to be found in the <i>bas-reliefs</i> of Trajan’s Column. In the
Utrecht Psalter (Anglo-Saxon) is an almost identical illustration of
this psalm, which proves that this plaque was copied from it or some
analogous manuscript, as the Bodley Psalter (No. 603) in the British
Museum. These Psalters have furnished a model for another of these
scenic psalms, carved on a plaque set in the magnificent binding of
the <i>Psalter of Charles the Bald</i>, in the Bibliothèque nationale at
Paris. The manuscript was written between the years 842-869, and
there is no reason to think that the jewelled and ivory cover is not
contemporary. One side gives a graphic picture of the LVIth Psalm,
and the other represents Nathan telling David the story of the little
ewe lamb (2 Sam. xii.). The Louvre possesses a plaque, also of the
ninth century, representing the interview of Abner and Joab (2 Sam.
ii.), a subject by no means of general interest, and unlikely to have
a plastic type, which proves still further the custom of copying the
miniatures with more or less servility.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_22" id="FIG_22"></a>
<img src="images/i_p109.jpg" alt=" " width="500" height="635" />
<p class="center"><span class="ws10"><small>[SCHWEIZERISCHER LANDESMUSEUM, ZURICH</small></span><br />
22. ILLUSTRATION OF PSALM XXVII<br />Carlovingian, ninth century</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>
One more scenic plaque in the Louvre is of interest, not so much in
connection with the MSS., but from the strong resemblance to the
Probianus diptych (<a href="#FIG_2">Fig. 2</a>), especially in the lower scene,
where the figures raise their hands to Solomon on his judgment seat. On the
second half David is dictating his psalms to an assembly of clerks.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p>
<p>It is difficult to class the ivories of this long period, but the
majority are of German origin. Art and culture were a great deal
dependent on the Court, which had the effect of bringing into line
the work of craftsmen of very varying nationalities. Here also was
a fear lest the people should worship the images themselves, but
an iconoclastic spirit never arose, and these numerous carvings,
besides adding to the sumptuousness of the cult, were used for the
instruction of the unlettered.</p>
<p>Ivory was classed with the precious metals, and much sought after
for ecclesiastical purposes, the great abbeys of eastern France and
Germany became regular workshops, making a large number of exquisite
objects in goldsmith’s work and ivory. We are given a little
side-light on the use of ivory in a letter of Eginhardt to his son,
in which he mentions that he is sending him a carved ivory model
of classical architecture that he should better understand certain
passages in Vitruvius.</p>
<p>The mention of the work done in the monasteries brings us to the
Abbey of St. Gall and the monk Tuotilo, who has long been the hero
of the craft; but, alas, the charming picture that the chronicler
Ekkehardt gives, a hundred years later, of this Leonardo among
craftsmen is utterly without foundation; that there was a monk
Tuotilo at the end of the ninth and the beginning of the tenth
centuries the records of the monastery tell us, and a note added by a
later hand says that he was learned and a sculptor.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p>
<p>Ekkehardt spoils his argument in favour of Tuotilo by attributing
to him too many perfections, and by finally quoting the opinion of
Charlemagne, who had been dead and buried nearly a hundred years. It
is very sad to have to give up the one real individual who greets
us on the rather weary path of anonymity. The fine book cover, one
leaf of which Ekkehardt attributes to Tuotilo (<a href="#FIG_23">Fig. 23</a>),
is still safely preserved in the Abbey of St. Gall, but the two leaves appear
to be by the same hand, though there is every reason to attribute
the workmanship to the ninth century. On the upper leaf Christ is
represented in glory, youthful and beardless in type, as is often
the case in Carlovingian ivories which come from the Germanic part
of the empire. There was a flourishing school of German craftsmen
who closely imitated the ivories of the Italo-Byzantine school
of the sixth century, the great abbeys having many specimens of
ancient ivory carving in their treasuries. The two cherubim and Four
Evangelists with their symbolic beasts are also strongly Byzantine;
above are busts of the sun and moon and beneath the figures of Ocean
and Earth. In fact, the arrangement is borrowed wholesale from a
very frequent Carlovingian type of the crucifixion (<a href="#FIG_24">Fig. 24</a>),
even to the little tombs which have no connection with the subject. The
workmanship is delicate, but very conventional, and the concentric
folds on this and on the second leaf, point to the influence of the
manuscripts. The second leaf represents the Assumption of the Virgin,
the attitude is stiff and the drapery is terribly unreal, having
almost the appearance of corrugated iron, but the movements of the
angels are freer, especially the forward movement of the one on the
Virgin’s right.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_23" id="FIG_23"></a>
<img src="images/i_p113.jpg" alt=" " width="400" height="666" />
<p class="center"><small>SCHOBINGER AND]<span class="ws10">[EPISCOPAL LIBRARY,</span><br />
 SANDHERR PHOTO.<span class="ws10">ST. GALL, SWITZERLAND</span></small><br />
23. COVER OF A BOOK OF THE GOSPELS<br />Carlovingian, ninth century</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>
The lower scene represents St. Gall taming the bears, which bring
him bread whilst his companion sleeps. In this carving we see what
the craftsman can do when left to himself; it is not a very artistic
production, but it has a freshness entirely lacking in the other
panels. The ornamental panels are splendidly carved, and recall the
beautiful openwork panels on the book cover at Monza, which most
probably belonged to Berenger, King of Italy in 888, and Emperor
916, and also the marble screens and balustrades which decorate so
many Byzantine buildings. There are two more plaques at Cluny<a name="FNanchor_18_16" id="FNanchor_18_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_16" class="fnanchor">[18]</a>
which should be classed with these, and which are decorated with
scroll-work containing figures of men fighting with satyrs and lions.
The figures have a great likeness to those on the sixth century
diptychs, especially the diptych in the Hermitage at St. Petersburg;
and as that diptych formed part of the treasure of Metz Cathedral,
it could easily have served as a model to the Carlovingian ivory
workers. The rich border is of scroll-work with alternating rosettes
and animals. The second plaque is still more like the Byzantine
original, and this similarity has caused many writers to differ with
Molinier and class it among pure Byzantine work.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_24" id="FIG_24"></a>
<img src="images/i_p115.jpg" alt=" " width="400" height="686" />
<p class="center"><small><span class="ws8">[VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, LONDON</span></small><br />
24. CRUCIFIXION<br />Carlovingian, ninth century</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>
One of the most important ivories of the tenth century is the
Frankfort book cover; the second leaf is still in the Library, but
the other was in the late Spitzer Collection. It represents the large
figure of <i>An Archbishop chanting the Psalms</i> in company with some
smaller canons, the whole group being surrounded by a battlemented
wall, probably that of the convent. The work is dry, but very exact
and particularly interesting for the study of early ecclesiastical
vestments, which are given with great detail. In the Frankfort leaf,
the Archbishop celebrates the mass, surrounded by attendant priests
and acolytes.</p>
<p>The numerous representations of the crucifixion of the ninth and
tenth centuries can be roughly divided into two classes: those
decidedly original and others copied from Byzantine models. The
Carlovingian type is filled with symbolism, not altogether of
Christian origin. These plaques are very numerous and all vary
slightly. <a href="#FIG_24">Fig. 24</a> is typical of a large number. The whole
scene is emotional, all creation is moved, the sun and moon are represented
with mournful faces, while the attendant angels weep bitterly; and
below, the old pagan personifications of Earth and Sea bow their
heads in sorrow. Stephaton with reed and sponge, and Longinus with
his spear, stand on each side of the Cross, and the Virgin and St.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>
John are always near. The two women carrying banners are allegorical
figures of the Church and the Synagogue<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a>
or the Old and New Dispensations; the banner of the latter is sometimes
reversed and broken, while the Church in some renderings of the scene
catches the blood of the Redeemer in a chalice. These figures seem to
be the successors of the little cities of Jerusalem and Bethlehem in
the Early Christian mosaics, which likewise typified the Old and New
Dispensations.</p>
<p>At the foot of the Cross is often rolled a serpent, emblem of
Christ’s triumph over Evil and Death; and on each side the dead are
rising and stretching out their hands towards their Redeemer.</p>
<p>On the Metz book cover in the Bibliothèque nationale, Adam and Eve
crouch beneath the feet of the Saviour. On the Brunswick casket, Sol
and Luna are each depicted driving in a <i>biga</i> and bearing torches.
On this Brunswick casket, and on one in the Berlin Museum, Christ is
represented beardless, and the technique is close to the St. Gall
book cover.</p>
<p>In the Carlovingian period the plaques are nearly always framed by
a deeply cut acanthus border. Many of these carvings show traces of
colour and others have been studded with gold nails, and portions
incrusted with gold foil (<a href="#FIG_24">Fig. 24</a>). Two plaques in the
Bargello have a charming additional border of tiny dots and beads inlaid with gold.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span></p>
<p>In the ivory plaque on the cover of the gospels which were presented
by the Emperor Henry II. to the Abbey at Bamberg (now in the Munich
Library), the stronger Byzantine influence is visible, the relief,
also, is exceptionally deep, the figures of the two soldiers being
almost detached, as in the purely Byzantine ivory of <i>The Death of
the Virgin</i> in the same library. This Byzantine influence is also to
be seen in <i>The Crucifixion</i> in the Musée de Cluny; the arrangement
of this carving is more like a Reliquary of the True Cross, the four
compartments being crowded with figures. The figure of Christ is
robed in a flowing garment, as in many Byzantine renderings of the
subject, and there is a greater delicacy of technique, showing the
more intimate knowledge of Byzantine models.</p>
<p>The drapery on the Essen and Tongres plaques is particularly good,
and they probably were carved in the same atelier.</p>
<div><a name="CHAP_III_IV" id="CHAP_III_IV"></a></div>
<h3>IV. <span class="smcap">German Ivory Carving<br />in the Time of the Ottos.</span></h3>
<p>Otto the Great having consolidated his power in Germany, undertook,
in 962, the classic expedition to Rome to be crowned Emperor of the
West. An ivory tablet, now in the Trivulzio Collection at Milan,
appears to commemorate that event. It represents Otto, his wife
Adelheid, and their little son, kneeling at the feet of Christ, while
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>
their patron saints, Maurice and Mary, intercede for them, the name
<small>OTTO IMPERATOR</small> being inscribed beneath. The
apparent age of the young Otto, about seven years, would coincide with
the date of the coronation, making this carving valuable for comparison
with other German ivories, many being of far earlier date and closely
connected with the Carlovingian, from which this characteristically
German art slowly developed.</p>
<p>The style of the Trivulzio plaque is rude, the figures heavy and
inclined to be coarse, but there is a largeness of design, the
drapery being arranged in wide planes, and the energetic heads, with
the typical long pointed beards and round cut hair, are of marked
Germanic type.</p>
<p>With this certain knowledge of the German style in the second half
of the tenth century, it is easier to turn back and examine the
transitional period, which is represented by a series of caskets in
the Louvre, Brunswick Museum, and the Bamberg Reliquary, half of
which is at Munich, and half in the Berlin Museum.</p>
<p>The Louvre casket has many Carlovingian features, the long tiled
roofs with slender columns are exactly like those in the Bible of
Charles le Chauve (ninth century). That of Brunswick shows strong
Byzantine influence, and the Bamberg casket is typical of the German
imitations of Byzantine type; the forms have a greater fulness and a
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>
certain swing is introduced into the placid folds of the Byzantine
drapery, a swing which develops into the gusty flutterings which are
a curious characteristic of some of the German schools.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a>
A gorgeous ivory casket is still preserved in the cathedral at
Quedlinburg adorned with exquisite jewelled filigree work, and
<i>repoussée</i> plaques. The plaques are in conventional Byzantine design,
while the ivory sides of the casket are ornamented with seated figures
and scenes from the gospels, of Byzantine inspiration it is true, but
translated into the most colloquial German. Martin Luther might have
sat as a model for the heavily built angel in the Easter Morning scene,
and if this casket really dates back to the time of Henry the Fowler,
whose gift it is said to have been, it proves that this German national
art had existed as early as the second decade of the tenth century.</p>
<p>A most interesting series of square plaques belong to the second half
of the century, and are much the same type as the Trivulzio tablet;
the figures are positively grotesque, with their peculiar cap-like
hair, staring eyes, heavy features, and large unmodelled forms, yet
there is such a sincere reverence and solemn earnestness about them,
that the attention is forcibly arrested.</p>
<p>The Darmstadt plaque represents <i>Christ healing the Demoniac</i>, who
is held, whilst the evil spirit struggles forth from his lips. The
British Museum possesses an equally well-carved plaque with the
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>
<i>Raising of the Widow’s Son at Nain</i>, the vertical folds are finely
fluted, and the features, though peculiar, are in no way coarse. The
background of this plaque like one in the Berlin Museum, and another
at Liverpool, is covered with a diaper of cruciform perforations,
like those on St. Patrick’s Bell and other early Irish antiquities.
Christ is youthful and beardless on the Berlin plaque, which
represents <i>Mary and Joseph finding Him in the Temple</i>. The technique
in this and the remaining plaques at Liverpool is slightly coarser,
but the style in all is identical. Christ alone is nimbed, and in
each the figures have heavy masses of hair drawn back half over the
ears, and strange solid robes, with the folded edge of the transverse
drapery passing just below the knee.</p>
<p>Another very exceptional series, which must be the work of some
Rhenish master at the end of the century, is intensely forcible in
style; but the artist is already preoccupied with the technical
effects of which he shows himself such a master. The cover of the
Echternach codex, which is said to have belonged to the Empress
Theophano, bears in the centre an ivory plaque representing Christ on
the Cross, with Longinus and Stephaton. These bizarre figures seem
to presage the whole future of German art, the love of descriptive
figures, that evil should appear evil, and earthly things should have
no heavenly aspect. Perhaps they carried their love of naturalism to
extremes, and as heavenly things were few and far between, they also
gained a strong earthly taint.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span></p>
<p>The Crucifixion on a binding in the John Rylands Library at
Manchester (<a href="#FIG_25">Fig. 25</a>) is evidently by the same artist.
The grouping is purely Byzantine, but the severance of feeling is as far
as the East is from the West. The gesture of the beloved disciple as he
clasps his hands to control his passionate emotion, is worth all
the stereotyped poses of Byzantine art, and one forgets the crudity of
the whole thing in wonder at the emotion pent up in those rugged forms.</p>
<p>The clumsy features and moustache divided into two solid pieces,
with the forceful attitudes and the peculiar drapery edged with
an embroidered hem, are found again on several other carvings,<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a>
notably an aged figure of St. Paul in the Musée de Cluny. The bald
head, wrinkled forehead, and the fulness of the drooping lids, are
portrayed with wonderful realism in a wide and rough technique, the
very reverse of the caressing finish of the contemporary Byzantine
artist.</p>
<p>This contrast of German and Byzantine art on a book belonging to the
Empress, raises the question of how much of the Byzantine influence
was attributable to Theophano, grandchild of the artistic Constantine
Porphrygenitus, and sister of the Emperors Basil and Constantine.</p>
<p>After long hesitation on the part of the proud Byzantine Court, the
German offer was accepted and Theophano, the delicately nurtured
Porphrygenite, was married to that little boy we see kneeling by his
mother’s side on the Trivulzio tablet, and set forth on a journey
to the savage wilds of Germany. Otto II. grew up to be an heroic
dreamer, and on his early death, during one of his campaigns in
Italy, the youthful Theophano claimed to be regent, and had a hard
struggle for the rights of her young son, Otto III.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_25" id="FIG_25"></a>
<img src="images/i_p123.jpg" alt=" " width="400" height="630" />
<p class="center"><span class="ws8"><small>[JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY, MANCHESTER</small></span><br />
25. CRUCIFIXION<br />German, tenth century</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
Theophano, whose grand figure stands out against a background of
incredible rudeness and turbulence, must, undoubtedly, have had
considerable influence in introducing the softer Byzantine manners.
Her husband, Otto II., is said to have adopted much of the Byzantine
court ceremonial, and the wedding presents she brought with her, on
her arrival in 972, must have formed a fund of novel design for the
German craftsmen. Yet it is very easy to exaggerate her personal
influence. Byzantium had always been a remarkable civilizing agent,
and in the tenth to eleventh centuries was exercising the strongest
influence on the West. Relations with Germany had been established
long before the time of Theophano, and were continued long after.
In reality Otto III. was the more special admirer and imitator
of Byzantine arts and customs, this influence coming, no doubt,
indirectly from his mother’s care in choosing for his masters, men
of high culture. One of these men, the most trusted councillor of
Theophano, was the refined and learned Greek, John of Calabria; and
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>
the other, the German, Bernward, was a most enthusiastic amateur of
the arts, and on his appointment to the See of Hildesheim, helped
to create the new German school which flourished all through the
eleventh and twelfth centuries.</p>
<p>In every museum there are examples of the Byzantino-German school,
one branch of which was situated in the Rhine Provinces. The relief
of the Rhenish carvings is usually bold, and the figures large and
long, but they often lack both the spontaneity of the Germans and
the elegance of the Byzantines. A charming representation of the
<i>Nativity</i> encircled by an embattled wall, and another plaque with
the <i>Visitation of the Magi</i>, in the Victoria and Albert Museum,
show these features, the figures having almost the appearance of
children’s toys set out at random without the slightest relation to
the background. A peculiar feature in some of these carvings, is the
row of dots drilled down the centre of each fold. There was also a
school of direct copiers of Byzantine carvings, which varies from the
most miserable caricatures to such splendidly finished work, that
critics experience great difficulty in deciding for or against the
Byzantine origin. A case in point is the magnificent book cover in
the Vatican, which came from the Abbey of Lorsch in Germany, and the
similar panel in the Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
<p>The central figure of Christ on the Vatican panel has a wide smooth
face (without a beard), as in the sixth century sculptures. The
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>
Virgin’s face is much narrower and more of the Byzantine type, and
the robes are treated with a wonderful complexity of folds. Both
these panels are divided like the five-piece diptych (<a href="#FIG_10">Fig. 10</a>,
with a single figure on each side), and have a similar pair of flying angels
above, and long narrow scene beneath. Westwood has attributed them to
Italy in the sixth to eighth centuries, but that is impossible, as
the actual technique is far more delicate than anything that could
have been accomplished even in the sixth century. Molinier thinks
it probable that the Vatican panel is an original from the finest
period of Byzantine Art, and the English panel is an imitation by an
almost contemporary German craftsman. The extraordinary similarity of
technique, even down to such small details as the folds of drapery
on the thighs of the standing figures, seems to point that the two
panels came from the same atelier, even if they were not made for
the same book cover, the latter seeming to be disproved owing to the
slight variation in size and shape of some of the panels. The book cover
in the Bodleian Library at Oxford is a variant of the panel in the Vatican.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_26" id="FIG_26"></a>
<img src="images/i_p127.jpg" alt=" " width="400" height="638" />
<p class="center"><span class="ws16"><small>[BRITISH MUSEUM</small></span><br />
26. CEREMONIAL COMB<br />English, eleventh century</p>
</div>
<p>Most of the small objects connected with ecclesiastical ceremonial
are of this period, for instance the liturgic combs used by the
bishop or officiating priest before celebrating high mass; the
comb was a special feature in Anglo-Saxon ritual, and several have
been found in Great Britain. The strange large comb in the British
Museum is said to have been found in Wales, and is probably about
the eleventh century (<a href="#FIG_26">Fig. 26</a>). It shows the later forms
of the Anglo-Saxon scroll-work and has much in connection with Romanesque
decoration. The comb of St. Gauzelin, Bishop of Toul is still
preserved in the cathedral at Nancy, and the comb of St. Loup in
the cathedral at Sens; both betray strong Byzantine and oriental
influence, and both date from the tenth century. These combs all have
the more general arrangement of a double row of teeth, in two sizes;
but that attributed to St. Heribert (in Cologne Museum), has only one
row, and is probably more ancient, as the grouping of the Crucifixion
is like that on the Carlovingian plaques of the ninth century (<a href="#FIG_24">Fig. 24</a>).
The <i>urcei</i>, or holy water stoups are usually of German origin.
A magnificent example in Milan Cathedral bears the inscription of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>
Gotfredus, Archbishop of Milan, 973-978. It is very handsome in
design, being surrounded by an arcade, above which rise the towers of
the new Jerusalem. Underneath are seated the Virgin and Child and the
Four Evangelists, modelled in the rather heavy German style of the
tenth century.</p>
<p>Another <i>urceus</i> in the Hermitage Museum at St. Petersburg is of
the same bucket shape, but ornamented with two tiers of arcades
containing complicated scenes from the Passion. The Cathedral
Treasury at Aix-la-Chapelle contains two of these <i>urcei</i> one of an
octagon shape, each panel having two figures. The style of carving
is like that of the school of ivory carvers founded by Bernward at
Hildesheim in the eleventh century.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter">
<h2>CHAPTER IV<br /><span class="h_subtitle">ROMANESQUE AND GOTHIC IVORIES</span></h2>
</div>
<p>Romanesque Art grew up north of the Alps in the valley of the
Lower Rhone and South France, and is especially the work of the
French people. The Italians led the way in the first centuries
<small>A.D.</small>, and were followed by the Greeks of
Byzantium, and then by the Carlovingian Germanic peoples in the great
art development of Europe; but from the eleventh century France
entirely fills the stage, and this pre-eminence was kept up till the
early Renaissance, when Italy again takes a leading part.</p>
<p>The Romanesque style was transitional, and turned for re-inspiration
to the Gallo-Roman monuments, but it is deeply influenced by that
northern spirit which later on triumphed in the full perfection of
the Gothic Art.</p>
<p>There was a great revival of monumental sculpture with the growth of
the Romanesque spirit, and sculptured figures, from being introduced
tentatively in the capitals and other parts connected with the
structure, later, entirely filled the great <i>tympana</i> or arches
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>
surmounting the doors of the churches, and from thence spread to
every nook and cranny till in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries
they were numbered by thousands.</p>
<p>Carved ivories are not so numerous in the eleventh and twelfth
centuries as in the years before, and when they became popular again,
in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the division between the
sculptors in stone and the ivory workers had taken place, beautiful
and clever imitations of the sculptures were turned out by the dozen,
but it is exceedingly rare to find the work of a real artist.</p>
<p>The sculptures of the eleventh and early twelfth centuries have many
details in common with the book cover at St. Gall (<a href="#FIG_23">Fig. 23</a>);
but gradually the folds of the drapery grew vertical and the figures more
drawn out, and with a peculiar tendency to arrange the hair in set
curled locks. One of the most important transitional ivories is the
diptych of St. Nicasius, Bishop of Rheims, which is preserved in the
Cathedral of Tournai, and is still strongly Carlovingian, as will be
seen in the typical representation of the Crucifixion. Each leaf has
a central medallion, that on the first leaf containing the <i>Agnus
Dei</i> supported by angels, whose movements can be closely paralleled
in the St. Gall plaque. Above, Christ is throned in a mandorla and
accompanied by the symbols of the four evangelists. On the second
leaf, in addition to the medallion containing the figure of St.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>
Nicasius are some pierced vine scrolls rather like those on <a href="#FIG_23">Fig. 23</a>,
and by far the best part of a very poor work. The drapery is,
perhaps, better designed than in the Carlovingian sculptures, but the
folds are only engraved, and though there is a certain change in the
type of the faces, in the matter of beauty it is entirely for the
worse. A plaque in the British Museum seems also to belong to this
period, it is bordered by a flowered scroll and has representations
of <i>The Nativity</i>, <i>The Announcement to the Shepherds</i> and <i>The
Baptism</i>, the latter being very strange; the figure of Christ being
immersed to the waist in a large vase.</p>
<div class="figright">
<a name="FIG_27" id="FIG_27"></a>
<img src="images/i_p131.jpg" alt=" " width="200" height="453" />
<p class="center"><small>[VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM,<br /><span class="ws10">LONDON</span></small><br />
27. CROZIER<br />French, fourteenth century</p>
</div>
<p>The Romanesque age was, above all, the age of symbolism; the
sculptures on the pastoral staves are full of hidden meaning. The
<i>tau</i>, or crutch shape, is the earliest form and belonged, more
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>
especially, to the insignia of the abbots, though in later days they
also had croziers. The most ancient <i>tau</i><a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a>
belonged to Morard, Abbot of St. Germain de Près (990-1014) and is
ornamented with a network pattern. Another fine <i>tau</i>, with the ends
curling upwards and finished with lions’ heads, belonged to Gérard,
Bishop of Limoges.</p>
<p>The earlier croziers had a simple volute usually ending in a dragon’s
or serpent’s head, with snapping jaws, which symbolizes the struggle
between the serpent and the cross,<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a>
the latter being borne by the symbolic ram, a development of the <i>Agnus
Dei</i>. This ram is the symbol of Christ; as St. Ambrose says, because he
washes his fleece, guides the flock, clothes the shepherd, conquers the
wolves by his strength and was the victim which replaced Isaac at the
sacrifice, and again, because the ram is silent before the shearers, as
Christ was before his judges, and finally the crozier curls like the
horn of a ram, a symbol of force.</p>
<p>The famous crozier (so-called of “St. Gregory”) in the Monastery of
St. Gregory on the Cœlian Hill at Rome, shows the dragon’s head,
the ram bearing the cross and a strange little lion cub, which is
a direct reference to the death and resurrection of Christ. In the
natural history of the Middle Ages, which drew more on fancy than on
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>
fact, it was narrated how the lion cub died at birth and could only
be recalled to life by the breath of its father.</p>
<p>The Romanesque Church plunged even deeper into this symbolic thought,
and the Pascal Taper, which signifies the life of Christ on earth was
placed in a candelabrum supported by lions.</p>
<p>The strange pagan form, half human and half serpent, with a cock’s
head, is none other than the mystic Abraxas, whose name in Greek
numerals represented in the elaborate Gnostic calculations the whole
hierarchy of heaven and the Supreme Ruler of the Universe.</p>
<p>This symbol was supposed to have great talismanic powers to ward
off evil, and though it was contrary to canonical rules, Gnostic
gems engraved with the Abraxas deity were often set in the episcopal
croziers, or even the crook was decorated with this mysterious
symbol, as on the ivory crozier in the British Museum.</p>
<p>These croziers became more and more complicated in design, whole
groups of figures were introduced and foliage of a freer pattern,
as in the Staff of St. Ives, Bishop of Chartres, which is now in
the Bargello at Florence. The Gothic artists of the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries filled the volutes with figures and exquisite
foliage, the groups of the Crucifixion and the Virgin in glory
fitting back to back so accurately, that each side appeared perfect,
and the join of the ivory volute on to the wooden staff was often hidden
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>
by a row of saints under delicate Gothic canopies.</p>
<p>The book cover of the Princess Melisanda, daughter of Baldwin II.,
King of Jerusalem (✝1160), is preserved in the MS. Department of
the British Museum; it is especially interesting as it shows the
curious mixture of Byzantine, Arabian, and Western art which had been
adopted by the Frankish rulers of the East, and which must have had
considerable influence on French art. The upper panel is ornamented
with representations of the six good actions, the principal actor
being richly apparelled as a Byzantine <i>basileus</i>. These medallions
are surrounded by a cord-like scroll, and the spaces are filled
with struggling oriental animals, which symbolize the combat of the
Virtues and Vices. On the lower leaf the medallions contain scenes
from the life of King David and both panels are surrounded by a
border of thoroughly oriental design.</p>
<p>Before entering on the subject of Gothic carvings, one class of bone
caskets should be mentioned which are roughly carved in imitation
of the Romanesque monumental style, with rows of tall figures under
round arcades. Molinier thinks they are rather archaistic than
archaic, being made in Constantinople as late as the thirteenth
century, from old models, and sold to contain the relics brought back
from the East by the Crusaders.</p>
<p>There are examples in the Berlin Museum, the Louvre, and the Musée
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>
Cluny; the latter contained the relics of St. Barnaby, and was
the gift of Hugh, Abbot d’Estival and Bishop of Ptolemaïs in the
thirteenth century.</p>
<p>The stages of development from the Romanesque to Gothic are almost
imperceptible, and it is hard to say when the lingering classical
traditions received their final transformation. The same breath which
awakened the life in architecture freed the sculptor from the chains
of custom, and we may consider the statues on the porch at Chartres
as the commencement of modern sculpture. Like the Greeks, the Gothic
artists formed a type by the process of selection from individuals.
The new art was at first absolutely religious and simple, but the
research for grace and the ever growing naturalism, mitigated, it
is true, by extreme elegance and delicacy, gradually engrossed
the entire mind of the artist and ended in the exclusion of all
spirituality.</p>
<p>The ivory carvers long continued repeating the old formulæ, and it
was only by the end of the thirteenth century that they commenced to
copy the exquisite statues which decorated the new cathedrals in such
numbers.</p>
<p>There are several examples of thirteenth century work still extremely
old-fashioned in style, as the three little pierced plaques in
the Louvre, representing the twelve apostles, accompanied by the
favourite French saints, Denis, Rusticus and Eleutherius. The style
is still transitional, but the forms of the foliage are freer, and a
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>
considerable modification of type is visible. The Virgin in the
Collection Fillon is seated full face with the Child sitting equally
on both knees, the stiffness of the pose being only relieved by a
little freedom in the turn of the Child’s head.</p>
<p>The marvellous impulse of religious enthusiasm, which, arising in
the thirteenth century, became evident by the passionate fervour
of the worship of the Virgin, and the multiplication of her images
for public and private devotion. One of the most ideally noble
representations is that in the group of <i>The Coronation of the
Virgin</i> in the Louvre, (<a href="#FIG_28">Fig. 28</a>); it closely
resembles the best sculpture in its severe lines, and was probably made
about 1280. A hundred years later there is an entry in the Inventory of
Charles V. which most probably refers to this group; it reads most quaintly
in the old French. “<i>Item, ung courronnement de Nostre Seigneur à
Nostre-Dame, d’yvire et trois angellotz de mesmes.</i>”</p>
<p>The earlier ivories were always painted, and much of the original
colouring is preserved. The Virgin is dressed in rich robes, <i>semées
de France</i> (as much in honour of the Royal House as of her attribute
the “lily”), but she is utterly unconscious of self as she humbly
bows her head to receive the crown. The two little ecstatic angels
form a part of every group of the Glorification of the Virgin, either
bearing tall candles, or with their hands raised in adoration.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_28" id="FIG_28"></a>
<img src="images/i_p137.jpg" alt=" " width="600" height="446" />
<p class="center"><small>A. GIRAUDON PHOTO.]<span class="ws18">[LOUVRE, PARIS</span></small><br />
28. CORONATION OF THE VIRGIN<br />
End of thirteenth century</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>
There is hardly fifty years between this purely idealistic conception
and the beautiful, but completely mundane <i>Vierge de la Sainte
Chapelle</i> in the same collection. This magnificent figure is carved
from one huge piece of ivory, and was probably the gift of St. Louis
to his new chapel, about 1320. The masterly arrangement of the
drapery and the exquisite finish make it one of the most celebrated
ivories of the fourteenth century, but the old simplicity is quite
gone, and the studied ease of the Virgin’s pose is chosen to give
value to every line of drapery and figure. There is a feeling of
movement in all her being, which, with the beautiful broken folds
of the drapery has within it the germ of that restlessness which,
rapidly increasing, became a painful fault in later Gothic sculpture.
The colouring is very delicate, the pupils of the eyes are dark; the
lips, which are just parting in a rather affected smile, are lightly
touched with carmine, and a faint gilded border relieves the edges of
the garments. The little seated figure of the Virgin in the Bargello
(<a href="#FIG_29">Fig. 29</a>), is more direct and simple in design,
and is probably of the last years of the thirteenth century.</p>
<p>The curve in many of these figures has been put down to the shape
of the tusk; this is no doubt the case in many examples, but the
peculiar twist is first found in some of the stone figures of the
Sainte Chapelle, where it seems to have been introduced as a contrast
to the perpendicular shafts of the architecture, and the constant
employment of this peculiar twist in the tiny figures of the ivory
reliefs and in stone carving, proves it to be more a question of
taste than necessity.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_29" id="FIG_29"></a>
<img src="images/i_p139.jpg" alt=" " width="500" height="667" />
<p class="center"><small>ALINARI PHOTO.]<span class="ws18">[BARGELLO, FLORENCE</span></small><br />
29. THE MADONNA AND CHILD<br />Thirteenth century</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>
In the Paris Exposition of 1900 two lovely ivory figures were
placed together and formed a group of the Annunciation. They belong
to different private collections,<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a>
and have been beautifully illustrated in the splendid series of
photogravures of the treasures in the <i>Exposition retrospective de
l’Art français</i>. Whether they are by the hand of the same craftsman
seems a matter of doubt, as the technique of the drapery varies
somewhat; but nothing can equal the exquisite softness of the Virgin’s
robes and the dignified pose, worthy of the best work of the thirteenth
century.</p>
<p>The ideal and pathetic group of <i>The Descent from the Cross</i> now
in the Louvre (<a href="#FIG_30">Fig. 30</a>). It is strangely reminiscent in
design, recalling the Byzantine rendering of the same subject in an eleventh
century ivory, late in the Bonaffé Collection, in which the
Virgin raises the hand of Christ to her lips with the same noble
and restrained gesture, while His lifeless body slips helplessly
down over the shoulder of Joseph of Arimathea. A similar group is
sculptured in the Church of Le Bourget in Savoy, which is also useful
in giving a clue to the fourth figure, which is evidently missing
from the Louvre group.</p>
<p>Maskell, in the introductions to his <i>Catalogue of Ivories in the
Victoria and Albert Museum</i>, refers to a small carving from the
centre of a crozier which represents the Dead Christ on the knees of
the Virgin, which is treated with strong but reserved feeling.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_30" id="FIG_30"></a>
<img src="images/i_p141.jpg" alt=" " width="500" height="679" />
<p class="center"><small>A. GIRAUDON PHOTO.]<span class="ws18">[LOUVRE, PARIS</span></small><br />
30. THE DESCENT FROM THE CROSS<br />End of thirteenth century</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>
The series of religious <i>tableaux cloans</i> are very numerous,
especially in the fourteenth century; they consist of two, three or
more pieces and were intended for private devotions or as portable
decorations for the various altars of a church, being taken with the
cross and candles by the acolyte and placed on the altar for mass.
The ornamentation was usually in tiers of little scenes, or with one
large central figure (<a href="#FIG_31">Fig. 31</a>). The subjects have little
variety and are taken from the Passion or the popular <i>Légende dorée</i>.
The scenes usually follow in chronological order from the bottom of the
left leaf to the corresponding corner on the right. The composition
is often very confused, owing to the tendency to portray different
stages of the same action in different compartments, to avoid placing
figures on a second plane, and often the complicated architectural
setting compelled the figures to be placed in contorted attitudes;
in many representations of the Crucifixion the figure of Christ is
strangely twisted to bring the head on a level with the other figures
beneath the arcade.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_31" id="FIG_31"></a>
<img src="images/i_p143.jpg" alt=" " width="500" height="699" />
<p class="center"><small><span class="ws18">[VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, LONDON</span></small><br />
31. POLYPTYCH. VIRGIN AND CHILD—SCENES FROM THE NATIVITY<br />French, fourteenth century</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>
A fine triptych of the thirteenth century, in the Collection Martin
le Roy at Paris, is especially interesting, as it is an early example
of the composition of the scenes of <i>The Death of the Virgin</i>, as
described by Jaques Voragine in the <i>Légende dorée</i>, and it shows
how the types hardly altered all through the succeeding century. The
angel coming to the Virgin to announce her death brings her a palm
from Paradise as a sign; the group of men in uneasy attitudes are the
apostles newly dropped from the clouds, having been collected from
all parts to be present. The lowest scene of the central part is the
most important; in it the Virgin is lying dead, surrounded by the
apostles, whilst the little naked soul is on the arm of Christ, Who
raises His hand to bless the dead body. The whole imagery is the same
as on the Byzantine ivory in the Library at Munich. In another part
the body is borne away for burial. On the second register the Virgin
rises in glory carrying a palm and book and accompanied by the most
charming group of music-making angels; above, she sits enthroned
beside Christ and attended by the two candle-bearing angels.</p>
<p>The only known signed mediæval ivory is a box in the British Museum
which bears the name of <i>Jehan Nicolle</i>. In the Inventory of Charles
V. the name of one ivory carver has survived, but he was also
goldsmith to the king. “<i>Item, deux grans beaulx tableaux d’yvire des
troys Maries que fist Jehan le Braellier, en ung estuy de cuir.</i>”
These <i>estuys de cuir</i> were made of very beautiful tooled leather,
two fine examples are in the Salting Collection in the Victoria and
Albert Museum. Reference is made to as many as three degrees of ivory
carvers in the list of <i>mestiers and marchandise</i> of the town of
Paris in 1258.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_32" id="FIG_32"></a>
<img src="images/i_p145.jpg" alt=" " width="500" height="760" />
<p class="center"><small><span class="ws18">[MAYER COLLECTION, LIVERPOOL MUSEUM</span></small><br />
32. FIRST LEAF OF A DIPTYCH<br />French, fourteenth century</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>
As the country grew more settled, riches and comfort increased, and
once more the ivory carvers turned their attention to ornamenting the
little objects of civil life, and we find exquisitely carved writing
tablets, caskets and articles for the toilet, as combs, long hair
wavers, and above all, the covers for the little metal mirrors that
were worn hanging from the girdle. No self-respecting woman could
dispense with these little luxuries, and in the lengthy <i>Miroir de
Mariage</i> of Eustache Deschamps, one verse deals with the requirements
of a wife:</p>
<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
<span class="i0"><i>Pigne, tressoir, semblablement</i></span>
<span class="i0"><i>Et miroir, pour moy ordonner</i></span>
<span class="i0"><i>D’yvoire me devez donner,</i></span>
<span class="i0"><i>Et l’estuy qui soit noble et gent</i></span>
<span class="i0"><i>Pendre a cheannes d’argent.</i></span>
</div></div></div>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_33" id="FIG_33"></a>
<img src="images/i_p147.jpg" alt=" " width="600" height="488" />
<p class="center"><small>ALINARI PHOTO.]<span class="ws20">[BARGELLO, FLORENCE</span></small><br />
33. PLAQUE FROM A CASKET  <br />
French, fourteenth century</p>
</div>
<p>Quite a new range of subjects were introduced at the end of the
thirteenth century, and in civil as in religious subjects the
compositions were fixed and varied but little afterwards; though
we know that about 1340 there was a complete change in dress, and
the old-fashioned long loose robes, which fell in such soft folds
were discarded for tighter and rather shorter garments; these are
sometimes seen in social groups, as the games of <i>la mourre</i> and
<i>la main chaude</i> (a sort of forfeits), which are carved on a pair of
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>
writing tablets in the Louvre. The subjects are nearly all from
literary sources, the miniatures of the MSS. having once more furnished
models for the ivory carver. There is a beautiful little casket in
the British Museum with scenes from the romance of <i>La Chastelaine
de Vergi</i>, and the delightful dancing group in the Bargello (<a
href="#FIG_33">Fig. 33</a>) formed part of a similar casket. The
rhythmic flow of the soft rich drapery as the dancers move to the
sound of music is exceedingly beautiful and the treatment broad,
considering that the whole scene is contained in little more than six
square inches. The figures are well proportioned, but with hardly
any muscular development, and there is an entire absence of manliness
in the male figures, who can only be recognized by the arrangement of
the hair, the centre lock being cut across the forehead, and by the
slightly shorter robes.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span></p>
<p>Scenes are taken from the <i>Lai d’Aristote</i> and the other so-called
classical romances of <i>Jason</i>, <i>Alexander</i> and <i>Virgil</i>, the
latter being described as a mediæval enchanter. Both he and poor Aristotle
were most cruelly treated by their mistresses, the dignified Virgil
being compelled to crawl on all fours while the lady rides on his
back, and Aristotle fared even worse, being suspended in mid-air
in a basket. The cycle of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round
Table are ever popular themes, especially the scene of <i>Tristan and
Iseult</i> surprised by the reflection of King Mark in the fountain.
<i>The Assault of the Castle of Love</i> was taken from an allegory in the
<i>Romaunt de la Rose</i>. The knights ride up to force the gate or scale
the battlements and are met with a shower of posies, but the fair garrison
makes but a faint show of resistance, and the enemy is soon within.</p>
<p>Four lions or basilisks crawl along the outer edge of these mirrors
for convenience in opening the circular cover. There are examples
in all collections of these civil ivories, some of a perfectly
marvellous delicacy and minuteness, and it is unnecessary to name any
special examples, except, perhaps, a fine but broken mirror cover in
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>
the Musée de Cluny which is splendidly carved with the figures of a
king and queen.</p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_34" id="FIG_34"></a>
<img src="images/i_p149.jpg" alt=" " width="600" height="651" />
<p class="center"><span class="ws20"><small>[MAYER COLLECTION, LIVERPOOL MUSEUM</small></span><br />
34. THE ELOPEMENT OF GUINIVERE<br />
French, fourteenth century</p>
</div>
<p>The art of Southern France had a peculiar local style, the figures
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span>
being heavier and flabbier with little thought of the modelling of
forms, which were thickly covered with brilliant paint; there is
perhaps a greater freedom in the grouping of the figures.</p>
<p>By the end of the fourteenth century the Franco-Flemish influence
appears, and art rapidly lost its delicacy in the attempts at realism.</p>
<p>A magnificent chess-board in the Bargello of the closely allied
Burgundian school, is carved with a tourney and other festivities,
and gives a good picture of the costumes of the fifteenth century.
The beautiful ivory harp in the Louvre, and the prettily carved wand
of the Lord High Falconer of England in the Liverpool Museum are some
of the latest Gothic efforts before the advent of the Renaissance.</p>
<p>There is little to distinguish German ivories in the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries from the French; perhaps there is a tendency to
greater elaboration in the architecture, and on rare occasions the
figures betray the German type; but in the fifteenth century the love
of realism gained ground, and the ivory carvers more closely imitated
the painters and the rapidly increasing school of wood carving.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_35" id="FIG_35"></a>
<img src="images/i_p151.jpg" alt=" " width="600" height="381" />
<p class="center"><small>ALINARI PHOTO.]<span class="ws20">[BARGELLO, FLORENCE</span></small><br />
35. PANEL FROM A CASKET<br />
French, fourteenth century</p>
</div>
<p>The English were also profoundly influenced by the French Gothic
art, but gradually worked out a style of their own. There was less
monotony of design and a considerable modification of types, the
figures becoming thinner and the faces graver, more earnest and
sweeter in expression, though, at the same time, more realistic; also
there is a variation in certain details of the costumes. Two pierced
plaques with scenes from <i>The Life of St. Agnes</i> which were in the
Meyrick and Spitzer Collections, and a plaque representing Christ
with the apostles, the group being surrounded by rich architecture,
and two other pierced plaques with scenes of the Passion, in the
Victoria and Albert Museum, seem to be English work. In the Salting
Collection, now in the same museum, is a deeply cut diptych of a
strongly characteristic type representing the <i>Virgin and Child</i>,
and <i>Christ teaching</i>; the figures are framed in architecture of an
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>
English type decorated with small heraldic roses. This diptych formed
part of both the Soltykoff and Spitzer Collections.</p>
<p>The triptych in the British Museum (<a href="#FIG_36">Fig. 36</a>) is closely
connected with it, and is said to have been carved for Bishop Grandison of
Exeter (1327-1369), but Molinier thinks that the style is far
nearer that of the early fifteenth century. In the British Museum
there is also the wing of a diptych, in two divisions, with <i>The
Annunciation</i>, and below, <i>John Baptist</i>; the other wing is in the
Louvre and represents the <i>Coronation</i>, with <i>John the Evangelist</i>
in the lower compartment.</p>
<p>Before closing this short survey, one small statuette in the Victoria
and Albert Museum should be mentioned, as the sweet and affectionate
earnestness of the Virgin’s face is typical of the English ivories,
for if far inferior to the French in actual technique, they have a depth
of reverent feeling which is too often entirely wanting in the latter.</p>
<p>The Italian ivory workers continued long under the spell of the
Byzantines, and when aroused to the fresh ideas of Gothic art, their
work at first showed few features that could distinguish it from
the French models. Gradually the designs became less concentrated
and many differences crept in, especially in the treatment of the
conventional foliage. The gorgeously coloured crozier in the Salting
Collection is an example of this period; it belonged to Benci
Aldobrandini, Bishop of Volterra in 1331. On the top is a half-length
figure of Christ between two men; <i>The Adoration of the Magi</i> is
figured within the crook, which emerges from the throat of a dragon,
and just below, in four highly-painted shrines, sit the Evangelists.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_36" id="FIG_36"></a>
<img src="images/i_p153.jpg" alt=" " width="500" height="585" />
<p class="center"><small>MANSELL PHOTO.]<span class="ws20">[BRITISH MUSEUM</span></small><br />
36. TRIPTYCH OF BISHOP GRANDISON OF EXETER<br />
English, fourteenth century</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>
In the late fourteenth century the Italians commenced an entirely
original style of carving on narrow strips of bone. The figures with
the scenic accessories are closely related to the early schools of
painting. These sculptures, unlike the unmixed ivory of the French
carvings, were always framed in narrow intarsia borders. Small
triptychs (<a href="#FIG_37">Fig. 37</a>) developed into enormous size, as
the great altar-piece in the old Sacristy at the Certosa at Pavia and the
famous <i>retable</i> in the Louvre, which comes from the abbey of Poissy,
and was the gift of the Due de Berri, brother of Charles V., and one
of the regents for the young Charles VI. in 1380. It contains his
portrait and that of his wife, Jehanne de Bourgogne. The fragments of
a third large <i>retable</i> still exist, divided between the John Rylands
Library at Manchester and the Victoria and Albert Museum.</p>
<p>These <i>retables</i> are large in size, but not great in design, and
though the groups of figures are lovely in detail, they are not
impressive as a whole, the low relief giving little scope for the
play of light and shade.</p>
<p>There are many beautiful polygonal caskets with domed covers, also
combs and other small articles, and a very excellent account of the
whole series has been given by Julius v. Schlosser in the <i>Wiener
Jahrbuch</i> for 1900.
<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span></p>
<div class="figcenter">
<a name="FIG_37" id="FIG_37"></a>
<img src="images/i_p155.jpg" alt=" " width="500" height="724" />
<p class="center"><span class="ws12"><small>[VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, LONDON</small></span><br />
<span class="ws10"><small>LOAN COLLECTION HON. A. BERESFORD-HOPE, M.P.</small></span><br />
37. TRIPTYCH IN CARVED BONE<br />
Italian, early fifteenth century</p>
</div>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span>
This short account of the Ivory Workers of the Middle Ages commenced
with Italy in the last years of the fourth century, and, having made
the round of Europe, returns to her after a thousand years, at the
end of the fourteenth century, and must close, just at the outgoing
of the mediæval era, with this magnificent group of carvings, which
lies half across the border line of the early and true Renascimento.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter">
<h2>LIST OF DIPTYCHS<br /><span class="h_subtitle">FROM MOLINIER</span></h2>
</div>
<h3>CONSULAR</h3>
<ul class="index">
<li class="ifrst"> 1. About 400. [Probably] <span class="smcap">Stilicho</span>.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> Stilicho, standing, armed, bearded.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>b.</i> Serena and little Eucherius, standing.</li>
<li class="isub8"><i>Tesorio della Basilica, Monza.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst"> 2. 406. <span class="smcap">Probus.</span> Rome.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> Emperor Honorius, standing, armed, with standard and orb.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>b.</i> Emperor Honorius, standing, armed, with shield and spear.</li>
<li class="isub16"><i>Cathedral Treasury, Aosta.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst"> 3. 428. <span class="smcap">Felix.</span> Rome.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> Standing in trabea, bearded.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>b.</i> Standing in chlamys.</li>
<li class="isub8"><i>Bibliothèque nationale, Paris.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst"> 4. 449. <span class="smcap">Asturias.</span> Rome.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> Sitting on curule chair, two attendants (lost).</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>b.</i> Same type (formerly at Liège).</li>
<li class="isub12"><i>Darmstadt Museum.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst"> 5. 487. <span class="smcap">Boethius.</span> Rome.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> Sitting, holding <i>mappa</i>.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>b.</i> Standing.</li>
<li class="isub11"><i>Museo Civico, Brescia.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst"> 6. 488. <span class="smcap">Sividius.</span> Rome.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> Inscribed medallion and scrolls.</li>
<li class="isub8"><i>Bibliothèque nationale, Paris.</i></li>
<li class="isub3"><i>b.</i> Inscribed medallion and scrolls (lost).</li>
<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span></li>
<li class="ifrst"> 7. 506. <span class="smcap">Areobindus.</span> Constantinople.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> Consular type. Lions.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>b.</i> Cons. type. Bears.</li>
<li class="isub9"><i>National Museum, Zurich.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst"> 8. 506. <span class="smcap">Areobindus.</span> Constantinople.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> Cons. type. Bears (Basilewsky Coll.).</li>
<li class="isub5"><i>Museum of the Hermitage, St. Petersburg.</i></li>
<li class="isub3"><i>b.</i> (Lost.)</li>
<li class="ifrst"> 9. 506. <span class="smcap">Areobindus.</span> Constantinople.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> Cons. type. Gladiators.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>b.</i> (Lost, or possibly pair to No. 10.)</li>
<li class="isub11"><i>Besançon Museum.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">10. 506. <span class="smcap">Areobindus.</span> Constantinople.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> (Lost or possibly pair to No. 9.)</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>b.</i> Cons. type. Bull-fight (late Baudot Coll.).</li>
<li class="isub10"><i>Musée de Cluny, Paris.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">11. 506. <span class="smcap">Areobindus.</span> Constantinople.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> and <i>b.</i> Crossed cornucopias.</li>
<li class="isub11"><i>Biblioteca, Lucca.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">12. 506. <span class="smcap">Areobindus.</span> Constantinople.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> and <i>b.</i> Bust and scroll. Monogram.</li>
<li class="isub7"><i>Trivulzio Collection, Milan.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">13. 506. <span class="smcap">Areobindus.</span> Constantinople.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> Same as No. 12. (Renaissance carving on back.)</li>
<li class="isub12"><i>Louvre, Paris.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">14. 506. <span class="smcap">Areobindus.</span> Constantinople.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> and <i>b.</i> Type of No. 12, without monogram</li>
<li class="isub4">(formerly in Treasury of St. Gaudenzio, Novara).</li>
<li class="isub8"><i>Museo Civico, Bologna.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">15. 513. <span class="smcap">Clementinus.</span> Constantinople.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> and <i>b.</i> Cons. type. Monogram.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>Mayer Collection, Liverpool Museum.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">16. 515. <span class="smcap">Anthemius.</span> Constantinople.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> Cons. type (lost).</li>
<li class="isub10">(<i>Formerly at Limoges.</i>)</li>
<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span></li>
<li class="ifrst">17. 517. <span class="smcap">Anastasius.</span> Constantinople.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> Cons. type. Bears.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>b.</i> Cons. type. Manumission of slaves, etc.</li>
<li class="isub10"><i>Bibliothèque nationale, Paris.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">18. 517. <span class="smcap">Anastasius.</span> Constantinople.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> Cons. type (formerly at Liège).</li>
<li class="isub10"><i>Berlin Museum.</i></li>
<li class="isub3"><i>b.</i> Cons. type (broken), (formerly at Liège).</li>
<li class="isub4"><i>Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, London.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">19. 517. <span class="smcap">Anastasius.</span> Constantinople.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>b.</i> Type of No. 18. Two Amazons and jugglers.</li>
<li class="isub9"><i>Chapter Library, Verona.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">20. 517. <span class="smcap">Anastasius.</span> Constantinople.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>b.</i> Lower fragment, two Amazons and tumblers.</li>
<li class="isub8">(<i>Formerly Coll. Jauzé, lost.</i>)</li>
<li class="ifrst">21. 518. <span class="smcap">Magnus.</span> Constantinople.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> Cons. type (formerly at Leyden).</li>
<li class="isub8"><i>Bibliothèque nationale, Paris.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">22. 518. <span class="smcap">Magnus.</span> Constantinople (attributed to).</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> Type of No. 21 (camel bone).</li>
<li class="isub4">Re-inscribed <small>PIO PRAESULE BALDRICO IUBENTE</small>.</li>
<li class="isub8"><i>Mayer Collection, Liverpool Museum.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">23. 518. <span class="smcap">Magnus.</span> Constantinople (attributed to).</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> Type of No. 21.</li>
<li class="isub4">Re-inscribed <small>ARABONTI DEO VOTA</small> (formerly Basilewsky Coll.).</li>
<li class="isub8"><i>Hermitage, St. Petersburg.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">24. 518. <span class="smcap">Magnus.</span> Constantinople (attributed to).</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> Type of No. 21. Changed to wrinkled old man.</li>
<li class="isub9"><i>Museo di Castello, Milan.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">26. 521. <span class="smcap">Justinianus.</span> Constantinople.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> and <i>b.</i> Inscribed medallion, four rosettes.</li>
<li class="isub8"><i>Trivulzio Collection, Milan.</i></li>
<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span></li>
<li class="ifrst">27. 521. <span class="smcap">Justinianus.</span> Constantinople.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> and <i>b.</i> Type of No. 26.</li>
<li class="isub7"><i>Collection Sigismond Bordac.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">28. 521. <span class="smcap">Justinianus.</span> Constantinople.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> Type of No. 26 (formerly at Autun).</li>
<li class="isub7"><i>Bibliothèque nationale, Paris.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">29. 525. <span class="smcap">Philoxenus.</span> Constantinople.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> and <i>b.</i> Three linked medallions (formerly</li>
<li class="isub4">in St. Corneille, Compiègne).</li>
<li class="isub7"><i>Bibliothèque nationale, Paris.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">30. 525. <span class="smcap">Philoxenus.</span> Constantinople.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> and <i>b.</i> Inscribed octagon with scrolls.</li>
<li class="isub8"><i>Trivulzio Collection, Milan.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">31. 525. <span class="smcap">Philoxenus.</span> Constantinople.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> and <i>b.</i> Type of No. 30.</li>
<li class="isub6"><i>Mayer Collection, Liverpool Museum.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">32. 525. <span class="smcap">Philoxenus.</span> Constantinople.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> and <i>b.</i> Type of No. 30 (worn).</li>
<li class="isub7"><i>Bibliothèque nationale, Paris.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">33. [530?] <span class="smcap">Lampadius.</span> Constantinople.</li>
<li class="isub4">Consul behind <i>cancelli</i>. Chariot Race.</li>
<li class="isub10"><i>Museo Civico, Brescia.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">34. 530. <span class="smcap">Orestes.</span> Rome.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> and <i>b.</i> Cons. type. Two Servants.</li>
<li class="isub4"><i>Victoria and Albert Museum, London.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">35. 539. <span class="smcap">Arion.</span> Constantinople.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> and <i>b.</i> Bust and scrolls.</li>
<li class="isub4"><i>Chapter House of Orviedo Cathedral, Spain.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">36. 540. <span class="smcap">Justinus.</span> Constantinople.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> and <i>b.</i> Bust and scrolls. Three medallions.</li>
<li class="isub4">Two servants.</li>
<li class="isub12"><i>Berlin Museum.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">37. 541. <span class="smcap">Basilius.</span> Constantinople.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> Consul and Constantinople.</li>
<li class="isub11"><i>Castello, Milan.</i></li>
<li class="isub3"><i>b.</i> Victory.</li>
<li class="isub11"><i>Uffizi, Florence.</i></li>
<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span></li>
</ul>
<h3>ANONYMOUS CONSULAR DIPTYCHS</h3>
<ul class="index">
<li class="isub1">38. V. cent.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> Consul and friends; above, imperial figures enthroned;</li>
<li class="isub5">below, barbarians.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>b.</i> Repeated with variations.</li>
<li class="isub11"><i>Cathedral Treasury, Halberstadt.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">39. V.-VI. cent.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> Consul and two attendants. Below, large scene,</li>
<li class="isub5">leopard fight.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>b.</i> Consul and two attendants. Below, large scene,</li>
<li class="isub5">lions (formerly in Cathedral Treasury).</li>
<li class="isub17"><i>Bourges Museum.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">40. V.-VI. cent. So-called Apotheosis of Romulus.</li>
<li class="isub5">Consul borne to Heaven in chariot.</li>
<li class="isub18"><i>British Museum.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">41. VI. cent.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>b.</i> Bust in garland, four rosettes.</li>
<li class="isub13"><i>Biblioteca Barbarini, Rome.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">42. VI. cent. Two worn fragments of a diptych.</li>
<li class="isub3">Cons. type. (Later carving on back.)</li>
<li class="isub13"><i>Victoria and Albert Museum.</i></li>
<li class="isub18"><i>British Museum.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">43. VI. cent. Bust and scrolls.</li>
<li class="isub3">Type of No. 12. Camel bone.</li>
<li class="isub7"><i>Mayer Collection, Liverpool Museum.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">44. VI. cent.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> Cons. type, sitting.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>b.</i> Cons. type, standing.</li>
<li class="isub4">Changed to St. Gregory and King David.</li>
<li class="isub8"><i>Tesorio della Basilica, Monza.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">45. VI. cent. Cons. type, changed to St. Peter.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>Library of the Metropolitan Chapter House, Prague.</i></li>
<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span></li>
<li class="ifrst">46, 47, 48, 49. VI. cent. Five-piece diptych.</li>
<li class="isub3">(46) Top. Flying figures.</li>
<li class="isub3">(47) Bottom. Barbarians.</li>
<li class="isub8"><i>Trivulzio Collection, Milan.</i></li>
<li class="isub3">(48) Top. Flying figures.</li>
<li class="isub13"><i>Basle Museum.</i></li>
<li class="isub3">(49) Right side. Consul and Victory.</li>
<li class="isub12"><i>Munich Library.</i></li>
</ul>
<h3>OFFICIAL DIPTYCHS</h3>
<ul class="index">
<li class="ifrst">50. End of IV. or commencement of V. cent. <i>Probianus.</i></li>
<li class="isub5">Vice-prefect of Rome.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> Sitting, delivering justice. Below, two litigants.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>b.</i> Sitting with scroll. Below, two litigants.</li>
<li class="isub17"><i>Berlin Library.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">51. V.-VI. cent.</li>
<li class="isub5">Above, type of No. 33. Below, fight with elans.</li>
<li class="isub8"><i>Mayer Collection, Liverpool Museum.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">52. V.-VI. cent.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> and <i>b.</i> Games in Circus (varied),</li>
<li class="isub5">(formerly in Basilewsky Coll.).</li>
<li class="isub12"><i>Hermitage, St. Petersburg.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">53. VI. cent.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> Rome carrying orb and spear.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>b.</i> Constantinople carrying cornucopia and palm.</li>
<li class="isub5">Later inscription <i>Temperancia</i> and <i>Castitas</i>.</li>
<li class="isub7"><i>Cabinet of Antiquities, Vienna Museum.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">54. VI. cent.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> A bald man standing half under a porch.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>b.</i> Slightly varied pose.</li>
<li class="isub12"><i>Cathedral Treasury, Novara.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">55. VI. cent. Standing figure.</li>
<li class="isub14"><i>Museo Civico, Bologna.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">56. VI. cent. Muse, standing (broken, found at Trèves).</li>
<li class="isub17"><i>Berlin Museum.</i></li>
<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span></li>
<li class="ifrst">57. VI. cent. (?)</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> Figure, sitting.</li>
<li class="isub11"><i>Cabinet of Antiquities, Vienna.</i></li>
<li class="isub3"><i>b.</i> Figure, standing.</li>
<li class="isub15"><i>Bargello, Florence.</i></li>
</ul>
<h3>PRIVATE DIPTYCHS</h3>
<ul class="index">
<li class="ifrst">58. End of IV. or commencement of V. cent.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> Nicomachorum. Draped figure and torch.</li>
<li class="isub13"><i>Musée de Cluny, Paris.</i></li>
<li class="isub3"><i>b.</i> Symmachorum. Draped figure and altar.</li>
<li class="isub7"><i>Victoria and Albert Museum, London.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">59. V.-VI. cent.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> Hippolytus and Phædra.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>b.</i> Diana and Endymion.</li>
<li class="isub13"><i>Museo Civico, Brescia.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">60. VI. cent. Two registers. Dioscuri. Europa and the Bull.</li>
<li class="isub16"><i>Trieste Museum.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">61. VI. cent.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> Æsculapius.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>b.</i> Hygeia.</li>
<li class="isub11"><i>Mayer Collection, Liverpool.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">62. VI. cent.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> Muse with lyre.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>b.</i> Poet.</li>
<li class="isub10"><i>Tesorio della Basilica, Monza.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">63. VI. cent.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> and <i>b.</i> Authors and Muses, varied poses.</li>
<li class="ifrst">64. VI. cent.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>a.</i> Bacchus Helios.</li>
<li class="isub3"><i>b.</i> Diana Lucifera</li>
<li class="isub5">(formerly in the Cathedral Treasury).</li>
<li class="isub16"><i>Sens Museum.</i></li>
<li class="ifrst">65. VI. cent. Three registers. Apollo and the Muses</li>
<li class="isub7">(broken).</li>
<li class="isub10"><i>Bibliothèque nationale, Paris.</i></li>
</ul>
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span></p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter">
<h2>LIST OF MUSEUMS</h2>
</div>
<p class="center">The following Museums are richest in Mediæval Ivory Carving.</p>
<ul class="index">
<li class="isub9_frst"><i>Austria.</i></li>
<li class="isub2"><span class="smcap">Vienna.</span> (Cabinet des Antiques),</li>
<li class="isub6">K. K. Oesterreichisches Museum.</li>
<li class="isub9_frst"><i>England.</i></li>
<li class="isub2"><span class="smcap">London.</span> British Museum.</li>
<li class="isub6">Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington.</li>
<li class="isub7">(This museum has a large collection of Fictile Ivories.)</li>
<li class="isub6">Salting Loan Collection.</li>
<li class="isub2"><span class="smcap">Liverpool.</span> Mayer Collection. Free Public Museum.</li>
<li class="isub2"><span class="smcap">Manchester.</span> John Rylands Library. (Late Crawford Collection.)</li>
<li class="isub2"><span class="smcap">Oxford.</span> Bodleian Library.</li>
<li class="isub9_frst"><i>France.</i></li>
<li class="isub2"><span class="smcap">Paris.</span> Bibliothèque nationale</li>
<li class="isub6">Cabinet des Médailles. Département des MSS.</li>
<li class="isub5">Musée de Cluny.</li>
<li class="isub5">Musée du Louvre.</li>
<li class="isub9_frst"><i>German Empire.</i></li>
<li class="isub2"><span class="smcap">Berlin.</span> Kunstkammer. K. Museum. K. Bibliothek.</li>
<li class="isub2"><span class="smcap">Munich.</span>K. Staats-Bibliothek. National Bavarian Museum.</li>
<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span></li>
<li class="isub9_frst"><i>Italy.</i></li>
<li class="isub2"><span class="smcap">Bologna.</span> Museo Civico.</li>
<li class="isub2"><span class="smcap">Brescia.</span> Museo Civico.</li>
<li class="isub2"><span class="smcap">Florence.</span> Museo nazionale.</li>
<li class="isub6"> Bargello.</li>
<li class="isub2"><span class="smcap">Milan.</span> Museo archeologico.</li>
<li class="isub5">Castello.</li>
<li class="isub5">Tesorio del Duomo.</li>
<li class="isub2"><span class="smcap">Monza.</span> Tesorio della Basilica.</li>
<li class="isub2"><span class="smcap">Ravenna.</span> Museo Civico. Duomo.</li>
<li class="isub2"><span class="smcap">Rome.</span> Biblioteca Barbarini.</li>
<li class="isub5">Museo Kircheriano (Collegio Romano).</li>
<li class="isub5">Vatican. Museo cristiano. Biblioteca.</li>
</ul>
<p>For the study of Ivory Carvings M. Molinier gives a full bibliography
in his work on <i>Ivoires</i>.</p>
<p>For illustrations. Garucci, vol. vi. and the Collections of Photographs
published by Dr. Graeven.</p>
<p>Fictile Ivories for sale, see Oldfield’s Catalogue.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span></p>
<div class="chapter">
<h2>INDEX</h2>
</div>
<ul class="index">
<li class="isub1">Abraxas, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Aix-la-Chapelle, Cathedral, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Aldobrandini, Benci, Bishop of Volterra, crozier of, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Amalasuntha, <a href="#Page_7"> 7</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>,
<a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Anagni, silver casket at, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Anastasius, diptych of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Areobindus, diptychs of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>,
<a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>,
<a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Asturias, diptych of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
<li class="ifrst">Bamberg Missal, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;
reliquary, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Basil II., the Emperor, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Basilewsky tablet, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Basilius, diptych of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>,
<a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Bateman diptych, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Berlin, Museum, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>,
<a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>,
<a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Bernward, Bishop of Hildesheim, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>,
<a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Besançon, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Boethius, diptych of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Bologna, Museo Civico, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>,
<a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Bonaffé Collection, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Book covers, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>,
<a href="#Page_52">52-57</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>,
<a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,</li>
<li class="isub7"><a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>,
<a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Bourges, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Brescia, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>,
<a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>,
<a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Brunswick, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Brussels, Royal Art Museum, <a href="#Footnote_8_8">38 <i>n.</i></a></li>
<li class="ifrst">Cambridge, Corpus Christi College, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Carrand diptych, <a href="#Page_39">39-42</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Caskets, Byzantine, <a href="#Page_75">75-84</a>;</li>
<li class="isub3">Anglo-Saxon, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li>
<li class="isub3">Carlovingian, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</li>
<li class="isub3">Romanesque, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li>
<li class="isub3">Gothic, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Chalandon, M., <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Charles V., inventory of, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Chessboard, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Chessmen, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Christ, representation of, in early times, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Cividale, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Clementinus, diptych of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Clovis, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Cologne, Museum, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span></li>
<li class="isub1">Combs, ceremonial, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Constantine the Great, the Emperor, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Constantine V., the Emperor, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Constantine VI., the Emperor, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Constantine VII., the Emperor, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Consular diptychs, <a href="#Page_3">3, <i>et seq.</i></a></li>
<li class="isub1">Cortona Reliquary, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Croziers, <a href="#Page_131">131-133</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
<li class="ifrst">Darmstadt, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Dresden, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
<li class="ifrst">Echternach codex, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Essen, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Etschmiadzin book cover, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
<li class="ifrst">Felix, diptych of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Florence, Bargello, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39-42</a>,
<a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>,
<a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>,</li>
<li class="isub9"><a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>,
<a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>,
<a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Frankfort, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
<li class="ifrst">Garnier, M., <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Gérard, Bishop of Limoges, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Gotfredus, Archbishop of Milan, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Grandison, Bishop, triptych of, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Gregory the Great, Pope, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
<li class="ifrst">Hadrian, Pope, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Halberstadt, Cathedral, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Hanover, Provincial Museum, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Harbaville triptych, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>,
<a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Heraklius, the Emperor, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Honorius, the Emperor, <a href="#Page_5"> 5</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>,
<a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
<li class="ifrst">Iconoclasm of the Emperors, <a href="#Page_70">70-75</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Irene, the Empress, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>,
<a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
<li class="ifrst">Justinian, the Emperor, <a href="#Page_6"> 6</a>, <a href="#Page_7"> 7</a>,
<a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
<li class="ifrst">Lampadius, tablet of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Le Bourget, Church, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Leo III., the Emperor, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Leo VI., the Emperor, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Liège, Episcopal Museum, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Lipsanoteca, the, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Liverpool Museum, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>,
<a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>,
<a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">London, British Museum, <a href="#Page_5"> 5</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>,
<a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
<a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>,
<a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>,</li>
<li class="isub12"><a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>,
<a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>,
<a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>,</li>
<li class="isub12"><a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>,
<a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">—— Victoria and Albert Museum, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>,
<a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>,
<a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>,</li>
<li class="isub15"><a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>,
<a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>,</li>
<li class="isub15"><a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>,
<a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>,</li>
<li class="isub15"><a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>,
<a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Lorsch, Abbey of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span></li>
<li class="ifrst">Manchester, John Rylands Library, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>,
<a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Maximian, the Throne of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>,
<a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58-67</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Melisanda, Princess, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Metz, Cathedral, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Meyrick Collection, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Milan, Castello, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">—— Cathedral, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">—— Trivulzio Collection, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>,
<a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>,</li>
<li class="isub12"><a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>,
<a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Mirror covers, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Monza, Basilica at, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>,
<a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Mopsuete, Council of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Morard, Abbot, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Munich, Library, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>,
<a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">—— Museum, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
<li class="ifrst">Nancy, Cathedral, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Nicephorus Phocas, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Nicolle, Jehan, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Nicomachi and Symmachi, diptych of the, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>,
<a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
<li class="ifrst">Oliphants, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Orestes, diptych of, <a href="#Page_6"> 6</a>, <a href="#Page_7"> 7</a>,
<a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>,
<a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Otto the Great, the Emperor, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Otto II., the Emperor, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Otto III., the Emperor, <a href="#Footnote_12_12">65 <i>n.</i></a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Oxford, Bodleian, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
<li class="ifrst">Paris, Louvre, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Footnote_9_9">45 <i>n.</i></a>,
<a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>,
<a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>,</li>
<li class="isub11"><a href="#Page_135">135-141</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>,
<a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Paris Bibliothèque nationale, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>,
<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>,</li>
<li class="isub13"><a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>,
<a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">—— Musée de Cluny, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>,
<a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>,</li>
<li class="isub10"><a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>,
<a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">—— Collection Martin le Roy, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Pavia, Certosa, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Philoxenus, diptych of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Pirano casket, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Poissy, Abbey of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Prague, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Probianus, diptych of, <a href="#Page_7"> 7</a>, <a href="#Page_8"> 8</a>,
<a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Probus, diptych of, <a href="#Page_8"> 8</a>, <a href="#Page_9"> 9</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Pyxes, <a href="#Page_48">48-51</a>.</li>
<li class="ifrst">Quedlinburg, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Quirinalis diptychon, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
<li class="ifrst">Rambona, diptych of, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Ravenna, <a href="#Page_4"> 4</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>,
<a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>,
<a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58-67</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Romanus and Eudoxia, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Rome, Barbarini Library, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">—— Kircherian Museum, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">—— Monastery of St. Gregory, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">—— St. Peter’s, the Throne of St. Peter, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">—— Count Stroganoff, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span></li>
<li class="isub1">—— Vatican, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Romulus, the Apotheosis of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Rouen Cathedral, Ivory Book of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
<li class="ifrst">St. Barnaby, relics of, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">St. Caletricus, Bishop of Chartres, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">St. Columba, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">St. Columbanus, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">St. Gall, monastery of, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>,
<a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">St. Gauzelin, comb of, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">St. Gregory and King David, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>,
<a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">St. Gregory, crozier of, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">St. Heribert, comb of, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">St. Ives, Bishop of Chartres, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">St. Loup, comb of, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">St. Lupicien, Ivory Book of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">St. Nicasius, diptych of, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">St. Petersburg, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Salerno, Cathedral, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Salting Collection, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Sens, Cathedral, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Sividius, diptych of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Soltykoff Collection, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Spitzer Collection, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Stilicho, diptych of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Symmachus, <a href="#Page_6"> 6</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Symmachi, diptych of the, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
<li class="ifrst">Telemachus, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Theodolinda, Queen, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Theodora, the Empress, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Theodosius I., the Emperor, <a href="#Page_3"> 3</a>, <a href="#Page_5"> 5</a>,
<a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Theophano, the Empress, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>,
<a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Theophilus, the Emperor, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Tongres, Cathedral, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Tournai, Cathedral, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Trèves, Cathedral, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Troyes, Cathedral, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Tuotilo, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
<li class="ifrst"><i>Urcei</i>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Utrecht, Episcopal Museum, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
<li class="ifrst">Venice, Doge’s Palace, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Veroli casket, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>,
<a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Vienna, Museum, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>,
<a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
<li class="isub1">Volterra casket, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
<li class="ifrst">Werden, casket of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
<li class="ifrst">Zurich, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
</ul>
<hr class="chap" />
<p class="center">CHISWICK PRESS: PRINTED BY CHARLES WHITTINGHAM AND CO.<br />
TOOKS COURT, CHANCERY LANE, LONDON.</p>
<hr class="chap" />
<div class="footnotes"><p class="f150 u"><b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
<div class="footnote"><p>
<a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a>
The numbers to the diptychs, in all cases, refer to those in the list
of diptychs at the end of the book.</p></div>
<div class="footnote"><p>
<a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a>
<i>Mélanges de l’Archéol. et d’Histoire</i>, Rome, 1882.</p></div>
<div class="footnote"><p>
<a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a>
See the figure of Circe in the Casa di Modesta, Pompeii.</p></div>
<div class="footnote"><p>
<a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a>
See the Joshua Rotulus, edited by the Directors of the
Vatican Library, Rome.</p></div>
<div class="footnote"><p>
<a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a>
<i>Zwei Antike Elfenbeintafeln</i>, Munich, 1879.</p></div>
<div class="footnote"><p>
<a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a>
<i>L’Arte</i>, 1898.</p></div>
<div class="footnote"><p>
<a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a>
<i>Roman Art</i>, Wickhoff, Eng. trans. by Mrs. A. Strong.</p></div>
<div class="footnote"><p>
<a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a>
Second leaf in the Royal Museum of Decorative and Industrial Art, Brussels.</p></div>
<div class="footnote"><p>
<a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a>
See the plaque with the <i>Judgment of Solomon</i> in the Louvre.</p></div>
<div class="footnote"><p>
<a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a>
A round tomb with a cupola has been excavated in the Via Praestina, and
the circular Church of S. Costanzo is the tomb of a daughter of the
Emperor Constantine.</p></div>
<div class="footnote"><p>
<a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a>
<i>Les Tapisseries Coptes</i>, par M. Gerspach, Paris, 1890.</p></div>
<div class="footnote"><p>
<a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a>
Venturi considers that the Throne was made for another Maximian,
Archbishop of Constantinople 345, and being taken in the course of
time to Venetia, is identical with that mentioned in the Chronicle of
the Deacon John; who tells of an ivory throne sent in December, 1001,
by the Doge Pietro Orseolo, to the Emperor Otto III., who was then
residing in Ravenna, and gave it to the Cathedral. There is no mention
of an ivory throne in the Cathedral before this date. Cf. <i>Storia dell’
arte italiana</i>, vol. i., p. 466. Ricci connects this throne with that
of St. Mark in Grado. Cf. <i>L’arte italiana decorativa e industriale</i>,
vol. vii., p. 104.</p></div>
<div class="footnote"><p>
<a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a>
This coat is said to be the one “without seam,” for which the soldiers
cast lots, and which has an undoubted history from the time of the
Empress Helena, in the fourth century.</p></div>
<div class="footnote"><p>
<a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a>
From εἰκὼν, a likeness, and κλάω, I break in pieces.</p></div>
<div class="footnote"><p>
<a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a>
Full list given by Molinier, <i>Les Arts appliqués</i>, vol. i.</p></div>
<div class="footnote"><p>
<a name="Footnote_16_17" id="Footnote_16_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_17"><span class="label">[16]</span></a>
<i>L’Archittetura in Italia, VI.-XI. cent.</i> Venice, 1890.</p></div>
<div class="footnote"><p>
<a name="Footnote_17_18" id="Footnote_17_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_18"><span class="label">[17]</span></a>
See Marcel Reymond, <i>La Sculpture Toscane</i>. Florence, 1897.</p></div>
<div class="footnote"><p>
<a name="Footnote_18_16" id="Footnote_18_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_16"><span class="label">[18]</span></a>
Nos. 1041-2, Cat. 1881.</p></div>
<div class="footnote"><p>
<a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a>
Dr. Paul Weber, <i>Geistliche Schauspiel und Kirchliche Kunst</i>.</p></div>
<div class="footnote"><p>
<a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a>
See a plaque in the British Museum with the Nativity, and notably the Salutation.</p></div>
<div class="footnote"><p>
<a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a>
See article by Dr. W. Vöge in the <i>Jahrbuch der kgl. preuss. Kunst-samml.</i>, 1899.</p></div>
<div class="footnote"><p>
<a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a>
See an article on Croziers by Cahier and Martin, <i>Mélanges d’Archéologie</i>, t. iv.</p></div>
<div class="footnote"><p>
<a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a>
See an article by Barbier de Montault, <i>Revue de l’Art Chrétien</i>, 1883, p. 157.</p></div>
<div class="footnote"><p>
<a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a>
The Angel belongs to M. G. Chalandon and the Virgin to M. P. Garnier.</p></div>
</div>
<hr class="chap" />
<div class="transnote bbox">
<p class="f120 space-above1">Transcriber's Notes:</p>
<hr class="r5" />
<p class="indent">The cover image is in the public domain.</p>
<p class="indent">The illustrations have been moved so that they do not break up
paragraphs and so that they are next to the text they illustrate.</p>
<p class="indent">Old or antiquated spellings have been preserved.</p>
<p class="indent">Typographical errors have been silently corrected.</p>
</div>
<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 58752 ***</div>
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