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You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: The Philosophy of Style + +Author: Herbert Spencer + +Release Date: June, 2004 [EBook #5849] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on September 13, 2002] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, THE PHILOSOPHY OF STYLE *** + + + + +Produced by P. Peterson + + + +THE PHILOSOPHY OF STYLE. + + +By Herbert Spencer + + + + + + +PART I. + + +CAUSES OF FORCE IN LANGUAGE WHICH DEPEND UPON ECONOMY OF THE MENTAL +ENERGIES. + + + + + + +i. The Principle of Economy. + +1. Commenting on the seeming incongruity between his father's +argumentative powers and his ignorance of formal logic, Tristram +Shandy says:--"It was a matter of just wonder with my worthy tutor, +and two or three fellows of that learned society, that a man who +knew not so much as the names of his tools, should be able to work +after that fashion with them." Sterne's intended implication that +a knowledge of the principles of reasoning neither makes, nor is +essential to, a good reasoner, is doubtless true. Thus, too, is it +with grammar. As Dr. Latham, condemning the usual school-drill in +Lindley Murray, rightly remarks: "Gross vulgarity is a fault to be +prevented; but the proper prevention is to be got from habit--not +rules." Similarly, there can be little question that good composition +is far less dependent upon acquaintance with its laws, than upon +practice and natural aptitude. A clear head, a quick imagination, +and a sensitive ear, will go far towards making all rhetorical precepts +needless. He who daily hears and reads well-framed sentences, will +naturally more or less tend to use similar ones. And where there +exists any mental idiosyncrasy--where there is a deficient verbal +memory, or an inadequate sense of logical dependence, or but little +perception of order, or a lack of constructive ingenuity; no amount +of instruction will remedy the defect. Nevertheless, some practical +result may be expected from a familiarity with the principles of +style. The endeavour to conform to laws may tell, though slowly. +And if in no other way, yet, as facilitating revision, a knowledge +of the thing to be achieved--a clear idea of what constitutes a +beauty, and what a blemish--cannot fail to be of service. + +2. No general theory of expression seems yet to have +been enunciated. The maxims contained in works on composition and +rhetoric, are presented in an unorganized form. Standing as isolated +dogmas--as empirical generalizations, they are neither so clearly +apprehended, nor so much respected, as they would be were they +deduced from some simple first principle. We are told that "brevity +is the soul of wit." We hear styles condemned as verbose or involved. +Blair says that every needless part of a sentence "interrupts the +description and clogs the image;" and again, that "long sentences +fatigue the reader's attention." It is remarked by Lord Kaimes, +that "to give the utmost force to a period, it ought, if possible, +to be closed with that word which makes the greatest figure." That +parentheses should be avoided and that Saxon words should be used +in preference to those of Latin origin, are established precepts. +But, however influential the truths thus dogmatically embodied, +they would be much more influential if reduced to something like +scientific ordination. In this, as in other cases, conviction will +be greatly strengthened when we understand the why. And we may be +sure that a comprehension of the general principle from which the +rules of composition result, will not only bring them home to us +with greater force, but will discover to us other rules of like +origin, + +3. On seeking for some clue to the law underlying these current +maxims, we may see shadowed forth in many of them, the importance +of economizing the reader's or hearer's attention, To so present +ideas that they may be apprehended with the least possible mental +effort, is the desideratum towards which most of the rules above +quoted point. When we condemn writing that is wordy, or confused, +or intricate--when we praise this style as easy, and blame that as +fatiguing, we consciously or unconsciously assume this desideratum +as our standard of judgment. Regarding language as an apparatus +of symbols for the conveyance of thought, we may say that, as in a +mechanical apparatus, the more simple and the better arranged its +parts, the greater will be the effect produced. In either case, +whatever force is absorbed by the machine is deducted from the +result. A reader or listener has at each moment but a limited amount +of mental power available. To recognize and interpret the symbols +presented to him, requires part of this power; to arrange and combine +the images suggested requires a further part; and only that part +which remains can be used for realizing the thought conveyed. Hence, +the more time and attention it takes to receive and understand each +sentence, the less time and attention can be given to the contained +idea; and the less vividly will that idea be conceived. + +4. How truly language must be regarded as a hindrance to thought, +though the necessary instrument of it, we shall clearly perceive +on remembering the comparative force with which simple ideas are +communicated by signs. To say, "Leave the room," is less expressive +than to point to the door. Placing a finger on the lips is more +forcible than whispering, "Do not speak." A beck of the hand is +better than, "Come here." No phrase can convey the idea of surprise +so vividly as opening the eyes and raising the eyebrows. A shrug of +the shoulders would lose much by translation into words. Again, it +may be remarked that when oral language is employed, the strongest +effects are produced by interjections, which condense entire +sentences into syllables. And in other cases, where custom allows +us to express thoughts by single words, as in _Beware, Heigho, +Fudge,_ much force would be lost by expanding them into specific +propositions. Hence, carrying out the metaphor that language is the +vehicle of thought, there seems reason to think that in all cases +the friction and inertia of the vehicle deduct from its efficiency; +and that in composition, the chief, if not the sole thing to be done, +is, to reduce this friction and inertia to the smallest possible +amount. Let us then inquire whether economy of the recipient's +attention is not the secret of effect, alike in the right choice +and collocation of words, in the best arrangement of clauses in +a sentence, in the proper order of its principal and subordinate +propositions, in the judicious use of simile, metaphor, and other +figures of speech, and even in the rhythmical sequence of syllables. + + + +ii. Economy in the Use of Words. + +5. The greater forcibleness of Saxon English, or rather non-Latin +English, first claims our attention. The several special reasons +assignable for this may all be reduced to the general reason--economy. +The most important of them is early association. A child's vocabulary +is almost wholly Saxon. He says, _I have,_ not _I possess_---_I +wish,_ not I _desire;_ he does not _reflect,_ he _thinks;_ he does +not beg for _amusement,_ but for _play_; he calls things _nice_ +or _nasty,_ not _pleasant_ or _disagreeable._ The synonyms which +he learns in after years, never become so closely, so organically +connected with the ideas signified, as do these original words +used in childhood; and hence the association remains less strong. +But in what does a strong association between a word and an idea +differ from a weak one? Simply in the greater ease and rapidity +of the suggestive action. It can be in nothing else. Both of two +words, if they be strictly synonymous, eventually call up the same +image. The expression--It is _acid,_ must in the end give rise to +the same thought as--It is sour; but because the term _acid_ was +learnt later in life, and has not been so often followed by the +thought symbolized, it does not so readily arouse that thought as +the term sour. If we remember how slowly and with what labour the +appropriate ideas follow unfamiliar words in another language, and +how increasing familiarity with such words brings greater rapidity +and ease of comprehension; and if we consider that the same process +must have gone on with the words of our mother tongue from childhood +upwards, we shall clearly see that the earliest learnt and oftenest +used words, will, other things equal, call up images with less loss +of time and energy than their later learnt synonyms. + +6. The further superiority possessed by Saxon English in its +comparative brevity, obviously comes under the same generalization. +If it be an advantage to express an idea in the smallest number of +words, then will it be an advantage to express it in the smallest +number of syllables. If circuitous phrases and needless expletives +distract the attention and diminish the strength of the impression +produced, then do surplus articulations do so. A certain effort, +though commonly an inappreciable one, must be required to recognize +every vowel and consonant. If, as all know, it is tiresome to listen +to an indistinct speaker, or read a badly-written manuscript; and +if, as we cannot doubt, the fatigue is a cumulative result of the +attention needed to catch successive syllables; it follows that +attention is in such cases absorbed by each syllable. And if this +be true when the syllables are difficult of recognition, it will +also be true, though in a less degree, when the recognition of +them is easy. Hence, the shortness of Saxon words becomes a reason +for their greater force. One qualification, however, must not +be overlooked. A word which in itself embodies the most important +part of the idea to be conveyed, especially when that idea is an +emotional one, may often with advantage be a polysyllabic word. Thus +it seems more forcible to say, "It is _magnificent,_" than "It is +_grand._" The word _vast_ is not so powerful a one as _stupendous._ +Calling a thing _nasty_ is not so effective as calling it _disgusting._ + +7. There seem to be several causes for this exceptional superiority +of certain long words. We may ascribe it partly to the fact that a +voluminous, mouth-filling epithet is, by its very size, suggestive +of largeness or strength; witness the immense pomposity of +sesquipedalian verbiage: and when great power or intensity has to +be suggested, this association of ideas aids the effect. A further +cause may be that a word of several syllables admits of more emphatic +articulation; and as emphatic articulation is a sign of emotion, +the unusual impressiveness of the thing named is implied by it. Yet +another cause is that a long word (of which the latter syllables +are generally inferred as soon as the first are spoken) allows +the hearer's consciousness a longer time to dwell upon the quality +predicated; and where, as in the above cases, it is to this predicated +quality that the entire attention is called, an advantage results +from keeping it before the mind for an appreciable time. The +reasons which we have given for preferring short words evidently +do not hold here. So that to make our generalization quite correct +we must say, that while in certain sentences expressing strong feeling, +the word which more especially implies that feeling may often with +advantage be a many-syllabled or Latin one; in the immense majority +of cases, each word serving but as a step to the idea embodied +by the whole sentence, should, if possible, be a one-syllabled or +Saxon one. + +8. Once more, that frequent cause of strength in Saxon and +other primitive words-their imitative character may be similarly +resolved into the more general cause. Both those directly imitative, +as _splash, bang, whiz, roar,_ &c., and those analogically imitative, +as _rough, smooth, keen, blunt, thin,_ hard, crag,_ &c., have a +greater or less likeness to the things symbolized; and by making +on the senses impressions allied to the ideas to be called up, they +save part of the effort needed to call up such ideas, and leave +more attention for the ideas themselves. + +9. The economy of the recipient's mental energy, into which +are thus resolvable the several causes of the strength of Saxon +English, may equally be traced in the superiority of specific over +generic words. That concrete terms produce more vivid impressions +than abstract ones, and should, when possible, be used instead, is +a thorough maxim of composition. As Dr. Campbell says, "The more +general the terms are, the picture is the fainter; the more special +they are, 'tis the brighter." We should avoid such a sentence as:--"In +proportion as the manners, customs, and amusements of a nation are +cruel and barbarous, the regulations of their penal code will be +severe." And in place of it we should write:--"In proportion as men +delight in battles, bull-fights, and combats of gladiators, will +they punish by hanging, burning, and the rack." + +10. This superiority of specific expressions is clearly due to +a saving of the effort required to translate words into thoughts. +As we do not think in generals but in particulars--as, whenever any +class of things is referred to, we represent it to ourselves by +calling to mind individual members of it; it follows that when an +abstract word is used, the bearer or reader has to choose from his +stock of images, one or more, by which he may figure to himself the +genus mentioned. In doing this, some delay must arise some force +be expended; and if, by employing a specific term, an appropriate +image can be at once suggested, an economy is achieved, and a more +vivid impression produced. + + + +ii The Principle of Economy applied to Sentences. + +11. Turning now from the choice of words to their sequence, we +shall find the same general principle hold good. We have _a priori_ +reasons for believing that in every sentence there is some one +order of words more effective than any other; and that this order +is the one which presents the elements of the proposition in the +succession in which they may be most readily put together. As in +a narrative, the events should be stated in such sequence that the +mind may not have to go backwards and forwards in order to rightly +connect them; as in a group of sentences, the arrangement should +be such, that each of them may be understood as it comes, without +waiting for subsequent ones; so in every sentence, the sequence of +words should be that which suggests the constituents of the thought +in the order most convenient for the building up that thought. Duly +to enforce this truth, and to prepare the way for applications of +it, we must briefly inquire into the mental act by which the meaning +of a series of words is apprehended. + +12. We cannot more simply do this than by considering the +proper collocation of the substantive and adjective. Is it better +to place the adjective before the substantive, or the substantive +before the adjective? Ought we to say with the French--un _cheval +noir;_ or to say as we do--a black horse? Probably, most persons of +culture would decide that one order is as good as the other. Alive +to the bias produced by habit, they would ascribe to that the +preference they feel for our own form of expression. They would +expect those educated in the use of the opposite form to have an +equal preference for that. And thus they would conclude that neither +of these instinctive judgments is of any worth. There is, however, a +philosophical ground for deciding in favour of the English custom. +If "a horse black" be the arrangement, immediately on the utterance +of the word "horse," there arises, or tends to arise, in the mind, +a picture answering to that word; and as there has, been nothing +to indicate what _kind_ of horse, any image of a horse suggests +itself. Very likely, however, the image will be that of a brown +horse, brown horses being the most familiar. The result is that +when the word "black" is added, a check is given to the process +of thought. Either the picture of a brown horse already present to +the imagination has to be suppressed, and the picture of a black one +summoned in its place; or else, if the picture of a brown horse be +yet unformed, the tendency to form it has to be stopped. Whichever +is the case, a certain amount of hindrance results. But if, on the +other hand, "a black horse" be the expression used, no such mistake +can be made. The word "black," indicating an abstract quality, arouses +no definite idea. It simply prepares the mind for conceiving some +object of that colour; and the attention is kept suspended until +that object is known. If, then, by the precedence of the adjective, +the idea is conveyed without liability to error. whereas the +precedence of the substantive is apt to produce a misconception, +it follows that the one gives the mind less trouble than the other, +and is therefore more forcible. + +13. Possibly it will be objected that the adjective and +substantive come so close together, that practically they may be +considered as uttered at the same moment; and that on hearing the +phrase, "a horse black," there is not time to imagine a wrongly-coloured +horse before the word "black" follows to prevent it. It must be +owned that it is not easy to decide by introspection whether this +is so or not. But there are facts collaterally implying that it +is not. Our ability to anticipate the words yet unspoken is one +of them If the ideas of the hearer kept considerably behind the, +expressions of the speaker, as the objection assumes, he could hardly +foresee the end of a sentence by the time it was half delivered: +yet this constantly happens. Were the supposition true, the mind, +instead of anticipating, would be continually falling more and +more in arrear. If the meanings of words are not realized as fast +as the words are uttered, then the loss of time over each word must +entail such an accumulation of delays as to leave a hearer entirely +behind. But whether the force of these replies be or be not admitted, +it will scarcely be denied that the right formation of a picture +will be facilitated by presenting its elements in the order in which +they are wanted; even though the mind should do nothing until it +has received them all. + +14. What is here said respecting the succession of the adjective +and substantive is obviously applicable, by change of terms, to +the adverb and verb. And without further explanation, it will be +manifest, that in the use of prepositions and other particles, most +languages spontaneously conform with more or less completeness to +this law. + +15. On applying a like analysis to the larger divisions of +a sentence, we find not only that the same principle holds good, +but that the advantage of respecting it becomes marked. In the +arrangement of predicate and subject, for example, we are at once +shown that as the predicate determines the aspect under which the +subject is to be conceived, it should be placed first; and the +striking effect produced by so placing it becomes comprehensible. +Take the often-quoted contrast between "Great is Diana of the +Ephesians," and "Diana of the Ephesians is great." When the first +arrangement is used, the utterance of the word "great" arouses those +vague associations of an impressive nature with which it has been +habitually connected; the imagination is prepared to clothe with +high attributes whatever follows; and when the words, "Diana of the +Ephesians," are heard, all the appropriate imagery which can, on +the instant, be summoned, is used in the formation of the picture: +the mind being thus led directly, and without error, to the intended +impression. When, on the contrary, the reverse order is followed, +the idea, "Diana of the Ephesians" is conceived with no special +reference to greatness; and when the words "is great" are added, +the conception has to be remodeled: whence arises a loss of mental +energy and a corresponding diminution of effect. The following verse +from Coleridge's 'Ancient Mariner,' though somewhat irregular in +structure, well illustrates the same truth: + + "Alone, alone, all, all alone, + Alone on a wide, wide sea + And never a saint took pity on + My soul in agony." + +16. Of course the principle equally applies when the predicate +is a verb or a participle. And as effect is gained by placing +first all words indicating the quality, conduct or condition of the +subject, it follows that the copula also should have precedence. +It is true that the general habit of our language resists this +arrangement of predicate, copula and subject; but we may readily +find instances of the additional force gained by conforming to it. +Thus, in the line from 'Julius Caesar' + + "Then burst his mighty heart," + +priority is given to a word embodying both predicate and copula. +In a passage contained in 'The Battle of Flodden Field,' the like +order is systematically employed with great effect: + + "The Border slogan rent the sky! + _A Home! a Gordon!_ was the cry; + _Loud were _the clanging blows: + _Advanced--forced back---now low, now high, + _The pennon sunk and rose; + _As bends_ the bark's mast in the gale + When _rent are_ rigging, shrouds and sail, + It wavered 'mid the foes." + +17. Pursuing the principle yet further, it is obvious that for +producing the greatest effect, not only should the main divisions +of a sentence observe this sequence, but the subdivisions of these +should be similarly arranged. In nearly all cases, the predicate is +accompanied by some limit or qualification, called its complement. +Commonly, also, the circumstances of the subject, which form its +complement, have to be specified. And as these qualifications and +circumstances must determine the mode in which the acts and things +they belong to are conceived, precedence should be given to them. +Lord Kaimes notices the fact that this order is preferable; though +without giving the reason. He says:--"When a circumstance is placed +at the beginning of the period, or near the beginning, the transition +from it to the principal subject is agreeable: it is like ascending +or going upward." A sentence arranged in illustration of this will +be desirable. Here is one:--"Whatever it may be in theory, it is +clear that in practice the French idea of liberty is--the right of +every man to be master of the rest." + +18. In this case, were the first two clauses, up to the word +"I practice "inclusive, which qualify the subject, to be placed at +the end instead of the beginning, much of the force would be lost; +as thus:--"The French idea of liberty is--the right of every man to +be master of the rest; in practice at least, if not in theory." + +19. Similarly with respect to the conditions under which any +fact is predicated. Observe in the following example the effect of +putting them last:--"How immense would be the stimulus to progress, +were the honour now given to wealth and title given exclusively to +high achievements and intrinsic worth!" + +20. And then observe the superior effect of putting them first:--"Were +the honour now given to wealth and title given exclusively to high +achievements and intrinsic worth, how immense would be the stimulus +to progress!" + +21. The effect of giving priority to the complement of the +predicate, as well as the predicate itself, is finely displayed in +the opening of 'Hyperion': + + "_Deep in the shady sadness of a vale + Far sunken from the healthy breath of morn, + Far from the fiery noon and eve's one star + Sat_ gray-haired Saturn, quiet as a stone." + +Here it will be observed, not only that the predicate "sat" +precedes the subject "Saturn," and that the three lines in italics, +constituting the complement of the predicate, come before it; but +that in the structure of that complement also, the same order is +followed: each line being so arranged that the qualifying words +are placed before the words suggesting concrete images. + +22. The right succession of the principal and subordinate +propositions in a sentence manifestly depends on the same law. +Regard for economy of the recipient's attention, which, as we find, +determines the best order for the subject, copula, predicate and +their complements, dictates that the subordinate proposition shall +precede the principal one when the sentence includes two. Containing, +as the subordinate proposition does, some qualifying or explanatory +idea, its priority prevents misconception of the principal +one; and therefore saves the mental effort needed to correct such +misconception. This will be seen in the annexed example: "The +secrecy once maintained in respect to the parliamentary debates, is +still thought needful in diplomacy; and in virtue of this secret +diplomacy, England may any day be unawares betrayed by its ministers +into a war costing a, hundred thousand lives, and hundreds of +millions of treasure: yet the English pique themselves on being +a self-governed people." The two subordinate propositions, ending +with the semicolon and colon respectively, almost wholly determine +the meaning of the principal proposition with which it concludes; +and the effect would be lost were they placed last instead of first. + +23. The general principle of right arrangement in sentences, +which we have traced in its application to the leading divisions of +them, equally determines the proper order of their minor divisions. +In every sentence of any complexity the complement to the subject +contains several clauses, and that to the predicate several others; +and these may be arranged in greater or less conformity to the +law of easy apprehension. Of course with these, as with the larger +members, the succession should be from the less specific to the +more specific--from the abstract to the concrete. + +24. Now, however, we must notice a further condition to be +fulfilled in the proper construction of a sentence; but still a +condition dictated by the same general principle with the other: +the condition, namely, that the words and expressions most nearly +related in thought shall be brought the closest together. Evidently +the single words, the minor clauses, and the leading divisions of +every proposition, severally qualify each other. The longer the time +that elapses between the mention of any qualifying member and the +member qualified, the longer must the mind be exerted in carrying +forward the qualifying member ready for use. And the more numerous +the qualifications to be simultaneously remembered and rightly +applied, the greater will be the mental power expended, and the +smaller the effect produced. Hence, other things equal, force will +be gained by so arranging the members of a sentence that these +suspensions shall at any moment be the fewest in number; and shall +also be of the shortest duration. The following is an instance of +defective combination:--"A modern newspaper-statement, though probably +true, would be laughed at if quoted in a book as testimony; but +the letter of a court gossip is thought good historical evidence, +if written some centuries ago." A rearrangement of this, in accordance +with the principle indicated above, will be found to increase the +effect. Thus:--"Though probably true, a modern newspaper-statement +quoted in a book as testimony, would be laughed at; but the letter +of a court gossip, if written some centuries ago, is thought good +historical evidence." + +25. By making this change, some of the suspensions are avoided +and others shortened; while there is less liability to produce +premature conceptions. The passage quoted below from 'Paradise Lost' +affords a fine instance of a sentence well arranged; alike in the +priority of the subordinate members, in the avoidance of long and +numerous suspensions, and in the correspondence between the order +of the clauses and the sequence of the phenomena described, which, +by the way, is a further prerequisite to easy comprehension, and +therefore to effect. + + "As when a prowling wolf, + Whom hunger drives to seek new haunt for prey, + Watching where shepherds pen their flocks at eye, + In hurdled cotes amid the field secure, + Leaps o'er the fence with ease into the fold; + Or as a thief, bent to unhoard the cash + Of some rich burgher, whose substantial doors, + Cross-barr'd, and bolted fast, fear no assault, + In at the window climbs, or o'er the tiles; + So clomb this first grand thief into God's fold; + So since into his church lewd hirelings climb." + +26. The habitual use of sentences in which all or most of +the descriptive and limiting elements precede those described and +limited, gives rise to what is called the inverted style: a title +which is, however, by no means confined to this structure, but is +often used where the order of the words is simply unusual. A more +appropriate title would be the _direct style,_ as contrasted with +the other, or _indirect style_: the peculiarity of the one being, +that it conveys each thought into the mind step by step with little +liability to error; and of the other, that it gets the right thought +conceived by a series of approximations. + +27. The superiority of the direct over the indirect form of +sentence, implied by the several conclusions that have been drawn, +must not, however, be affirmed without reservation. Though, up to +a certain point, it is well for the qualifying clauses of a period +to precede those qualified; yet, as carrying forward each qualifying +clause costs some mental effort, it follows that when the number of +them and the time they are carried become great, we reach a limit +beyond which more is lost than is gained. Other things equal, +the arrangement should be such that no concrete image shall be +suggested until the materials out of which it is to be made have +been presented. And yet, as lately pointed out, other things equal, +the fewer the materials to be held at once, and the shorter the +distance they have to be borne, the better. Hence in some cases it +becomes a question whether most mental effort will be entailed by +the many and long suspensions, or by the correction of successive +misconceptions. + +28. This question may sometimes be decided by considering +the capacity of the persons addressed. A greater grasp of mind +is required for the ready comprehension of thoughts expressed in +the direct manner, where the sentences are anywise intricate. To +recollect a number of preliminaries stated in elucidation of a coming +idea, and to apply them all to the formation of it when suggested, +demands a good memory and considerable power of concentration. +To one possessing these, the direct method will mostly seem the +best; while to one deficient in them it will seem the worst. Just +as it may cost a strong man less effort to carry a hundred-weight +from place to place at once, than by a stone at a time; so, to an +active mind it may be easier to bear along all the qualifications +of an idea and at once rightly form it when named, than to first +imperfectly conceive such idea and then carry back to it, one +by one, the details and limitations afterwards mentioned. While +conversely, as for a boy, the only possible mode of transferring +a hundred-weight, is that of taking it in portions; so, for a weak +mind, the only possible mode of forming a compound conception may +be that of building it up by carrying separately its several parts. + +29. That the indirect method--the method of conveying +the meaning by a series of approximations--is best fitted for the +uncultivated, may indeed be inferred from their habitual use of +it. The form of expression adopted by the savage, as in "Water, +give me," is the simplest type of the approximate arrangement. In +pleonasms, which are comparatively prevalent among the uneducated, +the same essential structure is seen; as, for instance, in--"The +men, they were there." Again, the old possessive case --"The king, +his crown," conforms to the like order of thought. Moreover, the +fact that the indirect mode is called the natural one, implies that +it is the one spontaneously employed by the common people: that +is--the one easiest for undisciplined minds. + +30. There are many cases, however, in which neither the direct +nor the indirect structure is the best; but where an intermediate +structure is preferable to both. When the number of circumstances and +qualifications to be included in the sentence is great, the most +judicious course is neither to enumerate them all before introducing +the idea to which they belong, nor to put this idea first and let +it be remodeled to agree with the particulars afterwards mentioned; +but to do a little of each. Take a case. It is desirable to avoid +so extremely indirect an arrangement as the following:--"We came +to our journey's end, at last, with no small difficulty after much +fatigue, through deep roads, and bad weather." Yet to transform this +into an entirely direct sentence would not produce a satisfactory +effect; as witness:--"At last, with no small difficulty, after +much fatigue, through deep roads, and bad weather, we came to our +journey's end." + +31. Dr. Whately, from whom we quote the first of these two +arrangements,' proposes this construction:--"At last, after much +fatigue, through deep roads and bad weather, we came, with no +small difficulty, to our journey's end." Here it will be observed +that by introducing the words "we came" a little earlier in +the sentence, the labour of carrying forward so many particulars +is diminished, and the subsequent qualification "with no small +difficulty" entails an addition to the thought that is very easily +made. But a further improvement may be produced by introducing +the words "we came" still earlier; especially if at the same time +the qualifications be rearranged in conformity with the principle +already explained, that the more abstract elements of the thought +should come before the more concrete. Observe the better effect +obtained by making these two changes:--"At last, with no small +difficulty, and after much fatigue, we came, through deep roads +and bad weather, to our journey's end." This reads with comparative +smoothness; that is, with less hindrance from suspensions and +reconstructions of thought--with less mental effort. + +32. Before dismissing this branch of our subject, it should +be further remarked, that even when addressing the most vigorous +intellects, the direct style is unfit for communicating ideas of +a complex or abstract character. So long as the mind has not much +to do, it may be well able to grasp all the preparatory clauses +of a sentence, and to use them effectively; but if some subtlety +in the argument absorb the attention--if every faculty be strained +in endeavouring to catch the speaker's or writer's drift, it may +happen that the mind, unable to carry on both processes at once, +will break down, and allow the elements of the thought to lapse +into confusion. + + + +iv. The Principle of Economy applied to Figures. + +33. Turning now to consider figures of speech, we may equally +discern the same general law of effect. Underlying all the rules +given for the choice and right use of them, we shall find the same +fundamental requirement--economy of attention. It is indeed chiefly +because they so well subserve this requirement, that figures of +speech are employed. To bring the mind more easily to the desired +conception, is in many cases solely, and in all cases mainly, their +object. + +34. Let us begin with the figure called Synecdoche. The advantage +sometimes gained by putting a part for the whole, is due to the +more convenient, or more accurate, presentation of the idea. If, +instead of saying "a fleet of ten ships," we say "a fleet of ten +_sail_," the picture of a group of vessels at sea is more readily +suggested; and is so because the sails constitute the most conspicuous +parts of vessels so circumstanced: whereas the word _ships_ would +very likely remind us of vessels in dock. Again, to say, "_All hands_ +to the pumps," is better than to say, "All _men_ to the pumps," as +it suggests the men in the special attitude intended, and so saves +effort. Bringing "gray _hairs_ with sorrow to the grave," is +another expression, the effect of which has the same cause. + +35. The occasional increase of force produced by Metonymy may +be similarly accounted for. "The low morality of _the bar,_" _is_ +a phrase both more brief and significant than the literal one it +stands for. A belief in the ultimate supremacy of intelligence over +brute force, is conveyed in a more concrete, and therefore more +realizable form, if we substitute _the pen_ and _the sword_ for the +two abstract terms. To say, "Beware of drinking!" is less effective +than to say, "Beware of _the bottle!_" and is so, clearly because +it calls up a less specific image. + +36. The Simile is in many cases used chiefly with a view to +ornament, but whenever it increases the _force_ of a passage, it +does so by being an economy. Here in an instance: "The illusion +that great men and great events came oftener in early times than +now, is partly due to historical perspective. As in a range of +equidistant columns, the furthest off look the closest; so, the +conspicuous objects of the past seem more thickly clustered the +more remote they are." + +37. To construct by a process of literal explanation, the thought +thus conveyed would take many sentences, and the first elements +of the picture would become faint while the imagination was busy +in adding the others. But by the help of a comparison all effort +is saved; the picture is instantly realized, and its full effect +produced. + +38. Of the position of the Simile, it needs only to remark, +that what has been said respecting the order of the adjective +and substantive, predicate and subject, principal and subordinate +propositions, &c., is applicable here. As whatever qualifies should +precede whatever is qualified, force will generally be gained by +placing the simile before the object to which it is applied. That +this arrangement is the best, may be seen in the following passage +from the 'Lady of the Lake'; + + "As wreath of snow, on mountain breast, + Slides from the rock that gave it rest, + Poor Ellen glided from her stay, + And at the monarch's feet she lay." + +Inverting these couplets will be found to diminish the effect +considerably. There are cases, however, even where the simile is +a simple one, in which it may with advantage be placed last, as in +these lines from Alexander Smith's 'Life Drama': + + "I see the future stretch + All dark and barren as a rainy sea." + +The reason for this seems to be, that so abstract an idea as that +attaching to the word "future," does not present itself to the +mind in any definite form, and hence the subsequent arrival at the +simile entails no reconstruction of the thought. + +39. Such, however, are not the only cases in which this order +is the most forcible. As the advantage of putting the simile +before the object depends on its being carried forward in the mind +to assist in forming an image of the object, it must happen that +if, from length or complexity, it cannot be so carried forward, +the advantage is not gained. The annexed sonnet, by Coleridge, is +defective from this cause: + + "As when a child, on some long winter's night, + Affrighted, clinging to its grandam's knees, + With eager wond'ring and perturb'd delight + Listens strange tales of fearful dark decrees, + Mutter'd to wretch by necromantic spell; + Or of those hags who at the witching time + Of murky midnight, ride the air sublime, + And mingle foul embrace with fiends of hell; + Cold horror drinks its blood! Anon the tear + More gentle starts, to hear the beldame tell + Of pretty babes, that lov'd each other dear, + Murder'd by cruel uncle's mandate fell: + Ev'n such the shiv'ring joys thy tones impart, + Ev'n so, thou, Siddons, meltest my sad heart." + +40. Here, from the lapse of time and accumulation of circumstances, +the first part of the comparison is forgotten before its application +is reached, and requires re-reading. Had the main idea been first +mentioned, less effort would have been required to retain it, and +to modify the conception of it into harmony with the comparison, +than to remember the comparison, and refer back to its successive +features for help in forming the final image. + +41. The superiority of the Metaphor to the Simile is ascribed +by Dr. Whately to the fact that "all men are more gratified at +catching the resemblance for themselves, than in having it pointed +out to them." But after what has been said, the great economy it +achieves will seem the more probable cause. Lear's exclamation-- + + "Ingratitude! thou marble-hearted fiend," + +would lose part of its effect were it changed into-- + + "Ingratitude! thou fiend with heart like marble;" + +and the loss would result partly from the position of the simile and +partly from the extra number of words required. When the comparison +is an involved one, the greater force of the metaphor, consequent +on its greater brevity, becomes much more conspicuous. If, drawing +an analogy between mental and physical phenomena, we say, "As, in +passing through the crystal, beams of white light are decomposed +into the colours of the rainbow; so, in traversing the soul of the +poet, the colourless rays of truth are transformed into brightly +tinted poetry"; it is clear that in receiving the double set of +words expressing the two halves of the comparison, and in carrying +the one half to the other, considerable attention is absorbed. +Most of this is saved, however, by putting the comparison in a +metaphorical form, thus: "The white light of truth, in traversing +the many sided transparent soul of. the poet, is refracted into +iris-hued poetry." + +42. How much is conveyed in a few words by the help of +the Metaphor, and how vivid the effect consequently produced, may +be abundantly exemplified. From 'A Life Drama' may be quoted the +phrase-- + + "I spear'd him with a jest," + +as a fine instance among the many which that poem contains. A +passage in the 'Prometheus Unbound,' of Shelley, displays the power +of the metaphor to great advantage: + + "Methought among the lawns together + We wandered, underneath the young gray dawn, + And multitudes of dense white fleecy clouds + Were wandering, in thick flocks along the mountains + _Shepherded_ by the slow unwilling wind." + +This last expression is remarkable for the distinctness with which +it realizes the features of the scene: bringing the mind, as it +were, by a bound to the desired conception. + +43. But a limit is put to the advantageous use of the Metaphor, +by the condition that it must be sufficiently simple to be understood +from a hint. Evidently, if there be any obscurity in the meaning +or application of it, no economy of attention will be gained; but +rather the reverse. Hence, when the comparison is complex, it is +usual to have recourse to the Simile. There is, however, a species +of figure, sometimes classed under Allegory, but which might, perhaps, +be better called Compound Metaphor, that enables us to retain the +brevity of the metaphorical form even where the analogy is intricate. +This is done by indicating the application of the figure at the +outset, and then leaving the mind to continue the parallel.' Emerson +has employed it with great effect in the first of his I Lectures +on the Times':--"The main interest which any aspects of the Times +can have for us is the great spirit which gazes through them, the +light which they can shed on the wonderful questions, What are we, +and Whither we tend? We do not wish to be deceived. Here we drift, +like white sail across the wild ocean, now bright on the wave, now +darkling in the trough of the sea; but from what port did we sail? +Who knows? Or to what port are we bound? Who knows? There is no +one to tell us but such poor weather-tossed mariners as ourselves, +whom we speak as we pass, or who have hoisted some signal, or +floated to us some letter in a bottle from far. But what know they +more than we ? They also found themselves on this wondrous sea. No; +from the older sailors nothing. Over all their speaking trumpets +the gray sea and the loud winds answer, Not in us; not in Time." + +44. The division of the Simile from the Metaphor is by no means +a definite one. Between the one extreme in which the two elements +of the comparison are detailed at full length and the analogy +pointed out, and the other extreme in which the comparison is +implied instead of stated, come intermediate forms, in which the +comparison is partly stated and partly implied. For instance:--"Astonished +at the performances of the English plow, the Hindoos paint it, set +it up, and worship it; thus turning a tool into an idol: linguists +do the same with language." There is an evident advantage in leaving +the reader or hearer to complete the figure. And generally these +intermediate forms are good in proportion as they do this; provided +the mode of completing it be obvious. + +45. Passing over much that may be said of like purport upon +Hyperbole, Personification, Apostrophe, &c., let us close our +remarks upon construction by a typical example. The general principle +which has been enunciated is, that other things equal, the force +of all verbal forms and arrangements is great, in proportion as +the time and mental effort they demand from the recipient is small. +The corollaries from this general principle have been severally +illustrated; and it has been shown that the relative goodness of +any two modes of expressing an idea, may be determined by observing +which requires the shortest process of thought for its comprehension. +But though conformity in particular points has been exemplified, +no cases of complete conformity have yet been quoted. It is indeed +difficult to find them; for the English idiom does not commonly +permit the order which theory dictates. A few, however, occur in +Ossian. Here is one:--"As autumn's dark storms pour from two echoing +hills, so towards each other approached the heroes. As two dark +streams from high rocks meet and mix, and roar on the plain: loud, +rough, and dark in battle meet Lochlin and Inisfail. . .As the +troubled noise of the ocean when roll the waves on high; as the +last peal of the thunder of heaven; such is noise of the battle." + +46. Except in the position of the verb in the first two similes, +the theoretically best arrangement is fully carried out in each of +these sentences. The simile comes before the qualified image, the +adjectives before the substantives, the predicate and copula before +the subject, and their respective complements before them. That the +passage is open to the charge of being bombastic proves nothing; +or rather, proves our case. For what is bombast but a force of +expression too great for the magnitude of the ideas embodied? All +that may rightly be inferred is, that only in very rare cases, +and then only to produce a climax, should all the conditions of +effective expression be fulfilled. + + + +v. Suggestion as a Means of Economy. + +47. Passing on to a more complex application of the doctrine +with which we set out, it must now be remarked, that not only in +the structure of sentences, and the use of figures of speech, may +economy of the recipient's mental energy be assigned as the cause +of force; but that in the choice and arrangement of the minor +images, out of which some large thought is to be built up, we may +trace the same condition to effect. To select from the sentiment, +scene, or event described those typical elements which carry many +others along with them; and so, by saying a few things but suggesting + +many, to abridge the description; is the secret of producing a +vivid impression. An extract from Tennyson's 'Mariana' will well +illustrate this: + + "All day within the dreamy house, + The door upon the hinges creaked, + The blue fly sung i' the pane; the mouse + Behind the mouldering wainscot shrieked, + Or from the crevice peered about." + +48. The several circumstances here specified bring with them +many appropriate associations. Our attention is rarely drawn by +the buzzing of a fly in the window, save when everything is still. +While the inmates are moving about the house, mice usually keep +silence; and it is only when extreme quietness reigns that they peep +from their retreats. Hence each of the facts mentioned, presupposing +numerous others, calls up these with more or less distinctness; and +revives the feeling of dull solitude with which they are connected +in our experience. Were all these facts detailed instead of suggested, +the attention would be so frittered away that little impression of +dreariness would be produced. Similarly in other cases. Whatever +the nature of the thought to be conveyed, this skilful selection +of a few particulars which imply the rest, is the key to success. +In the choice of component ideas, as in the choice of expressions, +the aim must be to convey the greatest quantity of thoughts with +the smallest quantity of words. + +49. The same principle may in some cases be advantageously +carried yet further, by indirectly suggesting some entirely distinct +thought in addition to the one expressed. Thus, if we say, "The +head of a good classic is as full of ancient myths, as that of +a servant-girl of ghost stories"; it is manifest that besides the +fact asserted, there is an implied opinion respecting the small value +of classical knowledge: and as this implied opinion is recognized +much sooner than it can be put into words, there is gain in omitting +it. In other cases, again, great effect is produced by an overt +omission; provided the nature of the idea left out is obvious. +A good instance of this occurs in 'Heroes and Heroworship.' After +describing the way in which Burns was sacrificed to the idle +curiosity of Lion-hunters--people who came not out of sympathy, but +merely to see him--people who sought a little amusement, and who +got their amusement while "the Hero's life went for it!" Carlyle +suggests a parallel thus: "Richter says, in the Island of Sumatra +there is a kind of 'Light-chafers,' large Fire-flies, which people +stick upon spits, and illuminate the ways with at night. Persons +of condition can thus travel with a pleasant radiance, which they +much admire. Great honour to the Fire-flies! But--!--" + + + +vi. The Effect of Poetry explained. + +50. Before inquiring whether the law of effect, thus far traced, +explains the superiority of poetry to prose, it will be needful to +notice some supplementary causes of force in expression, that have +not yet been mentioned. These are not, properly speaking, additional +causes; but rather secondary ones, originating from those already +specified reflex results of them. In the first place, then, we may +remark that mental excitement spontaneously prompts the use of those +forms of speech which have been pointed out as the most effective. +"Out with him!" "Away with him!" are the natural utterances of angry +citizens at a disturbed meeting. A voyager, describing a terrible +storm he had witnessed, would rise to some such climax as--"Crack +went the ropes and down came the mast." Astonishment may be heard +expressed in the phrase --"Never was there such a sight!" All of +which sentences are, it will be observed, constructed after the +direct type. Again, every one knows that excited persons are given +to figures of speech. The vituperation of the vulgar abounds with +them: often, indeed, consists of little else. "Beast," "brute," +"gallows rogue," "cut-throat villain," these, and other like metaphors +and metaphorical epithets, at once call to mind a street quarrel. +Further, it may be noticed that extreme brevity is another +characteristic of passionate language. The sentences are generally +incomplete; the particles are omitted; and frequently important +words are left to be gathered from the context. Great admiration +does not vent itself in a precise proposition, as--"It is beautiful"; +but in the simple exclamation--"Beautiful!" He who, when reading a +lawyer's letter, should say, "Vile rascal!" would be thought angry; +while, "He is a vile rascal!" would imply comparative coolness. +Thus we see that alike in the order of the words, in the frequent +use of figures, and in extreme conciseness, the natural utterances +of excitement conform to the theoretical conditions of forcible +expression. + +51. Hence, then, the higher forms of speech acquire a secondary +strength from association. Having, in actual life, habitually heard +them in connection with vivid mental impressions, and having been +accustomed to meet with them in the most powerful writing, they +come to have in themselves a species of force. The emotions that +have from time to time been produced by the strong thoughts wrapped +up in these forms, are partially aroused by the forms themselves. +They create a certain degree of animation; they induce a preparatory +sympathy, and when the striking ideas looked for are reached, they +are the more vividly realized. + +52. The continuous use of these modes of expression that are +alike forcible in themselves and forcible from their associations, +produces the peculiarly impressive species of composition which we +call poetry. Poetry, we shall find, habitually adopts those symbols +of thought, and those methods of using them, which instinct and +analysis agree in choosing as most effective, and becomes poetry +by virtue of doing this. On turning back to the various specimens +that have been quoted, it will be seen that the direct or inverted +form of sentence predominates in them; and that to a degree quite +inadmissible in prose. And not only in the frequency, but in what +is termed the violence of the inversions, will this distinction be +remarked. In the abundant use of figures, again, we may recognize +the same truth. Metaphors, similes, hyperboles, and personifications, +are the poet's colours, which he has liberty to employ almost without +limit. We characterize as "poetical" the prose which uses these +appliances of language with any frequency, and condemn it as "over +florid" or "affected" long before they occur with the profusion +allowed in verse. Further, let it be remarked that in brevity--the +other requisite of forcible expression which theory points out, +and emotion spontaneously fulfils--poetical phraseology similarly +differs from ordinary phraseology. Imperfect periods are frequent; +elisions are perpetual; and many of the minor words, which would +be deemed essential in prose, are dispensed with. + +53. Thus poetry, regarded as a vehicle of thought, is especially +impressive partly because it obeys all the laws of effective speech, +and partly because in so doing it imitates the natural utterances +of excitement. While the matter embodied is idealized emotion, +the vehicle is the idealized language of emotion. As the musical +composer catches the cadences in which our feelings of joy and +sympathy, grief and despair, vent themselves, and out of these +germs evolves melodies suggesting higher phases of these feelings; +I so, the poet develops from the typical expressions in which men +utter passion and sentiment, those choice forms of verbal combination +in which concentrated passion and sentiment may be fitly presented. + +54. There is one peculiarity of poetry conducing much +to its effect--the peculiarity which is indeed usually thought its +characteristic one--still remaining to be considered: we mean its +rhythmical structure. This, improbable though it seems, will be +found to come under the same generalization with the others. Like +each of them, it is an idealization of the natural language of +strong emotion, which is known to be more or less metrical if the +emotion be not too violent; and like each of them it is an economy +of the reader's or hearer's attention. In the peculiar tone and +manner we adopt in uttering versified language, may be discerned its +relationship to the feelings; and the pleasure which its measured +movement gives us, is ascribable to the comparative ease with which +words metrically arranged can be recognized. + +55. This last position will scarcely be at once admitted; but +a little explanation will show its reasonableness. For if, as we +have seen, there is an expenditure of mental energy in the mere act +of listening to verbal articulations, or in that silent repetition +of them which goes on in reading--if the perceptive faculties must +be in active exercise to identify every syllable -then, any mode +of so combining words as to present a regular recurrence of certain +traits which the mind can anticipate, will diminish that strain +upon the attention required by the total irregularity of prose. +Just as the body, in receiving a series of varying concussions, +must keep the muscles ready to meet the most violent of them, as +not knowing when such may come; so, the mind in receiving unarranged +articulations, must keep its perceptives active enough to recognize +the least easily caught sounds. And as, if the concussions recur +in a definite order, the body may husband its forces by adjusting +the resistance needful for each concussion; so, if the syllables +be rhythmically arranged, the mind may economize its energies by +anticipating the attention required for each syllable. + +56. Far-fetched though this idea will perhaps be thought, a +little introspection will countenance it. That we do take advantage +of metrical language to adjust our perceptive faculties to the force +of the expected articulations, is clear from the fact that we are +balked by halting versification. Much as at the bottom of a flight +of stairs, a step more or less than we counted upon gives us a shock; +so, too, does a misplaced accent or a supernumerary syllable. In +the one case, we _know_ that there is an erroneous preadjustment; +and we can scarcely doubt that there is one in the other. But if +we habitually preadjust our perceptions to the measured movement +of verse, the physical analogy above given renders it probable +that by so doing we economize attention; and hence that metrical +language is more effective than prose, because it enables us to do +this. + +57. Were there space, it might be worthwhile to inquire whether +the pleasure we take in rhyme, and also that which we take in +euphony, axe not partly ascribable to the same general cause. + + + + +PART II. + +CAUSES OF FORCE IN LANGUAGE WHICH DEPEND UPON ECONOMY OF THE MENTAL +SENSIBILITIES. + + + +i. The Law of Mental Exhaustion and Repair. + +58. A few paragraphs only, can be devoted to a second division +of our subject that here presents itself. To pursue in detail the +laws of effect, as applying to the larger features of composition, +would carry us beyond our limits. But we may briefly indicate a +further aspect of the general principle hitherto traced out, and +hint a few of its wider applications. + +59. Thus far, then, we have considered only those causes of +force in language which depend upon economy of the mental _energies:_ +we have now to glance at those which depend upon economy of the +mental _sensibilities._ Questionable though this division may be +as a psychological one, it will yet serve roughly to indicate the +remaining field of investigation. It will suggest that besides +considering the extent to which any faculty or group of faculties +is tasked in receiving a form of words and realizing its contained +idea, we have to consider the state in which this faculty or group +of faculties is left; and how the reception of subsequent sentences +and images will be influenced by that state. Without going at length +into so wide a topic as the exercise of faculties and its reactive +effects, it will be sufficient here to call to mind that every +faculty (when in a state of normal activity) is most capable at +the outset; and that the change in its condition, which ends in +what we term exhaustion, begins simultaneously with its exercise. +This generalization, with which we are all familiar in our bodily +experiences, and which our daily language recognizes as true of +the mind as a whole, is equally true of each mental power, from +the simplest of the senses to the most complex of the sentiments. +If we hold a flower to the nose for long, we become insensible to +its scent. We say of a very brilliant flash of lightning that it +blinds us; which means that our eyes have for a time lost their +ability to appreciate light. After eating a quantity of honey, we +are apt to think our tea is without sugar. The phrase "a deafening +roar," implies that men find a very loud sound temporarily +incapacitates them for hearing faint ones. To a hand which has +for some time carried a heavy body, small bodies afterwards lifted +seem to have lost their weight. Now, the truth at once recognized +in these, its extreme manifestations, may be traced throughout. +It may be shown that alike in the reflective faculties, in the +imagination, in the perceptions of the beautiful, the ludicrous, +the sublime, in the sentiments, the instincts, in all the mental +powers, however we may classify them-action exhausts; and that in +proportion as the action is violent, the subsequent prostration is +great. + +60. Equally, throughout the whole nature, may be traced the law +that exercised faculties are ever tending to resume their original +state. Not only after continued rest, do they regain their full +power not only do brief cessations partially reinvigorate them; but +even while they are in action, the resulting exhaustion is ever +being neutralized. The two processes of waste and repair go on +together. Hence with faculties habitually exercised--as the senses +of all persons, or the muscles of any one who is strong--it happens +that, during moderate activity, the repair is so nearly equal to +the waste, that the diminution of power is scarcely appreciable; +and it is only when the activity has been long continued, or has +been very violent, that the repair becomes so far in arrear of +the waste as to produce a perceptible prostration. In all cases, +however, when, by the action of a faculty, waste has been incurred, +_some_ lapse of time must take place before full efficiency can be +reacquired; and this time must be long in proportion as the waste +has been great. + + + +ii Explanation of Climax, Antithesis, and Anticlimax. + +61. Keeping in mind these general truths, we shall be in +a condition to understand certain causes of effect in composition +now to be considered. Every perception received, and every conception +realized, entailing some amount of waste--or, as Liebig would say, +some change of matter in the brain; and the efficiency of the +faculties subject to this waste being thereby temporarily, though +often but momentarily, diminished; the resulting partial inability +must affect the acts of perception and conception that immediately +succeed. And hence we may expect that the vividness with which +images are realized will, in many cases, depend on the order of +their presentation: even when one order is as convenient to the +understanding as the other. + +62. There are sundry facts which alike illustrate this, and are +explained by it. Climax is one of them. The marked effect obtained +by placing last the most striking of any series of images, and the +weakness--often the ludicrous weakness--produced by reversing this +arrangement, depends on the general law indicated. As immediately +after looking at the sun we cannot perceive the light of a fire, +while by looking at the fire first and the sun afterwards we +can perceive both; so, after receiving a brilliant, or weighty, +or terrible thought, we cannot appreciate a less brilliant, less +weighty, or less terrible one, while, by reversing the order, we +can appreciate each. In Antithesis, again, we may recognize the +same general truth. The opposition of two thoughts that are the +reverse of each other in some prominent trait, insures an impressive +effect; and does this by giving a momentary relaxation to the +faculties addressed. If, after a series of images of an ordinary +character, appealing in a moderate degree to the sentiment of +reverence, or approbation, or beauty, the mind has presented to it +a very insignificant, a very unworthy, or a very ugly image; the +faculty of reverence, or approbation, or beauty, as the case may +be, having for the time nothing to do, tends to resume its full +power; and will immediately afterwards appreciate a vast, admirable, +or beautiful image better than it would otherwise do. Conversely, +where the idea of absurdity due to extreme insignificance is to be +produced, it maybe greatly intensified by placing it after something +highly impressive: especially if the form of phrase implies that +something still more impressive is coming. A good illustration of +the effect gained by thus presenting a petty idea to a consciousness +that has not yet recovered from the shock of an exciting one, occurs +in a sketch by Balzac. His hero writes to a mistress who has cooled +towards him the following letter: + +"Madame, Votre conduite m'etonne autant qu'elle m'afflige Non contente +de me dechirer le coeur par vos dedains vous avez l'indelicatesse +de me retenir une brosse a dents, que mes moyens ne me permettent +pas de remplacer, mes proprietes etant grevees d'hypotheques + +"Adieu, trop, belle et trop ingrate ainie! Puissions nous nous +revoir dans un monde meilleur! + +"Charles Edouard" + +63. Thus we see that the phenomena of Climax, Antithesis, and +Anticlimax, alike result from this general principle. Improbable +as these momentary variations in susceptibility may seem, we cannot +doubt their occurrence when we contemplate the analogous variations +in the susceptibility of the senses. Referring once more to phenomena +of vision, every one knows that a patch of black on a white ground +looks blacker, and a patch of white on a black ground looks whiter, +than elsewhere. As the blackness and the whiteness must really be +the same, the only assignable cause for this is a difference in +their actions upon us, dependent upon the different states of our +faculties. It is simply a visual antithesis. + + + +iii. Need of Variety. + +64. But this extension of the general principle of economy--this +further condition to effective composition, that the sensitiveness +of the faculties must be continuously husbanded--includes much +more than has been yet hinted. It implies not only that certain +arrangements and certain juxtapositions of connected ideas are best; +but that some modes of dividing and presenting a subject will be +more striking than others; and that, too, irrespective of its logical +cohesion. It shows why we must progress from the less interesting +to the more interesting; and why not only the composition as a +whole, but each of its successive portions, should tend towards a +climax. At the same time, it forbids long continuity of the same +kind of thought, or repeated production of like effects. It warns +us against the error committed both by Pope in his poems and by Bacon +in his essays--the error, namely, of constantly employing forcible +forms of expression: and it points out that as the easiest posture +by and by becomes fatiguing, and is with pleasure exchanged for one +less easy, so, the most perfectly-constructed sentences will soon +weary, and relief will be given by using those of an inferior kind. + +65. Further, we may infer from it not only that we should +avoid generally combining our words in one manner, however good, +or working out our figures and illustrations in one way, however +telling; but that we should avoid anything like uniform adherence, +even to the wider conditions of effect. We should not make every +section of our subject progress in interest; we should not always +rise to a climax. As we saw that, in single sentences, it is but +rarely allowable to fulfill all the conditions to strength; so, +in the larger sections of a composition we must not often conform +entirely to the law indicated. We must subordinate the component +effect to the total effect. + +66. In deciding how practically to carry out the principles of +artistic composition, we may derive help by bearing in mind a fact +already pointed out--the fitness of certain verbal arrangements for +certain kinds of thought. That constant variety in the mode of +presenting ideas which the theory demands, will in a great degree +result from a skilful adaptation of the form to the matter. We saw +how the direct or inverted sentence is spontaneously used by excited +people; and how their language is also characterized by figures +of speech and by extreme brevity. Hence these may with advantage +predominate in emotional passages; and may increase as the emotion +rises. On the other hand, for complex ideas, the indirect sentence +seems the best vehicle. In conversation, the excitement produced by +the near approach to a desired conclusion, will often show itself +in a series of short, sharp sentences; while, in impressing a view +already enunciated, we generally make our periods voluminous by +piling thought upon thought. These natural modes of procedure may +serve as guides in writing. Keen observation and skilful analysis +would, in like manner, detect further peculiarities of expression +produced by other attitudes of mind; and by paying due attention +to all such traits, a writer possessed of sufficient versatility +might make some approach to a completely-organized work. + + + +iv. The Ideal Writer. + +67. This species of composition which the law of effect points +out as the perfect one, is the one which high genius tends naturally +to produce. As we found that the kinds of sentences which are +theoretically best, are those generally employed by superior minds, +and by inferior minds when excitement has raised them; so, we shall +find that the ideal form for a poem, essay, or fiction, is that +which the ideal writer would evolve spontaneously. One in whom +the powers of expression fully responded to the state of feeling, +would unconsciously use that variety in the mode of presenting his +thoughts, which Art demands. This constant employment of one species +of phraseology, which all have now to strive against, implies an +undeveloped faculty of language. To have a specific style is to be +poor in speech. If we remember that, in the far past, men had only +nouns and verbs to convey their ideas with, and that from then to +now the growth has been towards a greater number of implements of +thought, and consequently towards a greater complexity and variety +in their combinations; we may infer that we are now, in our use +of sentences, much what the primitive man was in his use of words; +and that a continuance of the process that has hitherto gone on, +must produce increasing heterogeneity in our modes of expression. As +now, in a fine nature, the play of the features, the tones of the +voice and its cadences, vary in harmony with every thought uttered; +so, in one possessed of a fully developed power of speech, the +mould in which each combination of words is cast will similarly +vary with, and be appropriate to the sentiment. + +68. That a perfectly endowed man must unconsciously write in +all styles, we may infer from considering how styles originate. +Why is Johnson pompous, Goldsmith simple? Why is one author abrupt, +another rhythmical, another concise? Evidently in each case the +habitual mode of utterance must depend upon the habitual balance +of the nature. The predominant feelings have by use trained the +intellect to represent them. But while long, though unconscious, +discipline has made it do this efficiently, it remains from lack of +practice, incapable of doing the same for the less active feelings; +and when these are excited, the usual verbal forms undergo but +slight modifications. Let the powers of speech be fully developed, +however--let the ability of the intellect to utter the emotions be +complete; and this fixity of style will disappear. The perfect +writer will express himself as Junius, when in the Junius frame of +mind; when he feels as Lamb felt, will use a like familiar speech; +and will fall into the ruggedness of Carlyle when in a Carlylean +mood. Now he will be rhythmical and now irregular; here his language +will be plain and there ornate; sometimes his sentences will be +balanced and at other times unsymmetrical; for a while there will +be considerable sameness, and then again great variety. His mode +of expression naturally responding to his state of feeling, there +will flow from his pen a composition changing to the same degree +that the aspects of his subject change. He will thus without effort +conform to what we have seen to be the laws of effect. And while +his work presents to the reader that variety needful to prevent +continuous exertion of the same faculties, it will also answer to +the description of all highly organized products, both of man and +of nature: it will be not a series of like parts simply placed in +juxtaposition, but one whole made up of unlike parts that +are mutually dependent. + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, THE PHILOSOPHY OF STYLE *** + + + +This file should be named 8phil10.txt or 8phil10.zip +Corrected EDITIONS of our eBooks get a new NUMBER, 8phil11.txt +VERSIONS based on separate sources get new LETTER, 8phil10a.txt + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. 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