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If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Appreciation of Music - Vol. I (of 3) - -Author: Thomas Whitney Surette - Daniel Gregory Mason - -Release Date: December 12, 2018 [EBook #58458] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APPRECIATION OF MUSIC VOL. 1 *** - - - - -Produced by Andrés V. Galia, Jude Eylander and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - THE APPRECIATION OF MUSIC - - - VOL. I. - - - THE APPRECIATION OF MUSIC CLOTH $1.50 - - - _By Thomas Whitney Surette and Daniel Gregory Mason_ - - - SUPPLEMENTARY VOLUME OF MUSICAL ILLUSTRATIONS $1.00 - - - VOL. II. - - - GREAT MODERN COMPOSERS CLOTH $1.50 - - _By Daniel Gregory Mason_ - - VOL. III. - - - SHORT STUDIES IN GREAT MASTERPIECES - - _By Daniel Gregory Mason_ - - - OTHER WORKS - - BY - - DANIEL GREGORY MASON - - A GUIDE TO MUSIC. A BOOK FOR BEGINNERS CLOTH $1.25 - - ORCHESTRAL INSTRUMENTS AND WHAT THEY DO, - WITH TWENTY-SEVEN ILLUSTRATIONS AND - ORCHESTRAL CHART CLOTH $1.25 - - - - - THE - APPRECIATION OF MUSIC - - VOLUME I - - BY - - THOMAS WHITNEY SURETTE - - AND - - DANIEL GREGORY MASON - - _NINTH EDITION_ - - _Supplementary Volume of Musical Illustrations - Price $1.00_ - - NEW YORK - - THE H. W. GRAY CO. - - SOLE AGENTS FOR - - NOVELLO & CO., LTD. - - COPYRIGHT, 1907, BY - THE H. W. GRAY COMPANY - - The Knickerbocker Press, New York - - - - - PREFATORY NOTE. - -This book has been prepared in order to provide readers who wish to -listen to music intelligently, yet without going into technicalities, -with a simple and practical guide to musical appreciation written from -the listener's rather than from the professional musician's standpoint. - -The authors believe that there is at the present moment a genuine need -for such a book. Teachers in schools, colleges, and universities, -educators in all parts of the country, and the music-loving public -generally, are every day realizing more vividly the importance of -applying to music the kind of study which has long been fruitfully -pursued in the other arts; and with the adoption, in 1906, by the -College Entrance Examination Board, of musical appreciation as a -subject which may be offered for entrance to college, this mode of -studying music has established itself firmly in our educational system. -Yet its progress is still hampered by the lack of suitable text-books. -The existing books are for the most part either too technical to -be easily followed by the general reader, or so rhapsodical and -impressionistic as to be of no use to him. - -In the following pages an effort has been made, first, to present -to the reader in clear and untechnical language an account of the -evolution of musical art from the primitive folk-song up to the -symphony of Beethoven; second, to illustrate all the steps of this -evolution by carefully chosen musical examples, in the form of short -quotations in the text and of complete pieces printed in a supplement; -third, to facilitate the study of these examples by means of detailed -analysis, measure by measure, in many cases put into the shape of -tabular views; and fourth, to mark out the lines of further study by -suggesting collateral reading. - -Too much stress cannot be laid on the fact that the music itself is the -central point of the scheme of study, to which the reader must return -over and over again. Carefully attentive, concentrated listening to the -typical pieces presented in the supplement is the essence of the work, -to which the reading of the text is to be considered merely as an aid. -These pieces are for the most part not beyond the reach of a pianist of -moderate ability. - -At the same time, the authors have realized that some readers who might -profit much by such study will not be able to play, or have played for -them, even these pieces. For them, however, the music will still be -accessible through mechanical instruments. - -In view of the fact that one of the chief difficulties in the study of -musical appreciation is the unfamiliarity of classical music to the -ordinary student, the use of an instrument by the students themselves -should form an important part of the work in classes where this book is -used as a text-book. It is hoped that with such practical laboratory -work by all members of the class, and with the help of collateral -reading done outside the class under the direction of the teacher, -and tested by written papers on assigned topics, the course of study -outlined here will be found well-suited to the needs of schools and -colleges, as well as of general readers. - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER I. - - PAGE - - ELEMENTS OF MUSICAL FORM. 1 - - I. INTRODUCTORY 1 - - II. WHAT TO NOTICE FIRST 3 - - III. MUSICAL MOTIVES 4 - - IV. WHAT THE COMPOSER DOES WITH HIS MOTIVES 6 - - V. THE FIRST STEPS AS REVEALED BY HISTORY 10 - - VI. A SPANISH FOLK-SONG 12 - - VII. BALANCE OF PHRASES 13 - - VIII. SUMMARY 14 - - - CHAPTER II. - - FOLK-SONGS. 16 - - I. FOLK-SONGS AND ART SONGS 17 - - II. AN ENGLISH FOLK-SONG 20 - - III. KEY AND MODULATION 21 - - IV. BARBARA ALLEN 22 - - V. NATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS IN FOLK-SONGS 25 - - VI. AN IRISH FOLK-SONG 26 - - VII. A GERMAN FOLK-SONG 28 - - VIII. SUMMARY 30 - - - CHAPTER III. - - THE POLYPHONIC MUSIC OF BACH. 31 - - I. WHAT IS POLYPHONY 32 - - II. AN INVENTION BY BACH 33 - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 1. - - _Bach: Two-voice, Invention. No, VIII, in F-major_ 34 - - III. A FUGUE BY BACH 37 - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 2. - - _Bach: Fugue No. 2, in C-minor, in three voices. - "Well-tempered Clavichord," Book I_ 38 - - IV. GENERAL QUALITIES OF BACH'S WORK 43 - - CHAPTER IV. - - THE DANCE AND ITS DEVELOPMENT. 48 - - I. MUSICAL CHARACTER OF DANCES 48 - - II. PRIMITIVE DANCES 52 - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 3. - - _Corelli: Gavotte in F-major_ 56 - - III. A BACH GAVOTTE 57 - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 4. - - _Bach: Gavotte in D-minor, from the Sixth English Suite_ 57 - - - CHAPTER V. - - THE SUITE. 62 - - I. DERIVATION OF THE SUITE 62 - - II. THE SUITES OF BACH 65 - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 5. - - _Bach: Prelude to English Suite, No. 3, in G-minor_ 65 - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 6. - - _Bach: Sarabande in A-minor, from English Suite, No. 2_ 68 - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 7. - - _Bach: Gigue, from French Suite, No. 4, in E-flat_ 71 - - III. THE HISTORIC IMPORTANCE OF THE SUITE 72 - - - CHAPTER VI. - - THE RONDO. 74 - - I. DERIVATION OF THE RONDO 75 - - II. A RONDO BY COUPERIN 79 - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 8. - - _Couperin: "Les Moissonneurs" ("The Harvesters")_ 80 - - III. FROM COUPERIN TO MOZART 83 - - IV. A RONDO BY MOZART 86 - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 9. - - _Mozart: Rondo from Piano Sonata in B-flat major_ 87 - - - CHAPTER VII. - - THE VARIATION FORM--THE MINUET. 93 - - I. VARIATIONS BY JOHN BULL 94 - - II. A GAVOTTE AND VARIATIONS BY RAMEAU 97 - - III. HANDEL'S "HARMONIOUS BLACKSMITH" 100 - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 10. - - _Handel: "The Harmonious Blacksmith," - from the Fifth Suite for Clavichord_ 101 - - IV. HAYDN'S ANDANTE WITH VARIATIONS, IN F-MINOR 103 - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 11. - - _Haydn: Andante with Variations, in F-minor_ 104 - - V. THE MINUET 108 - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - SONATA-FORM, I. 110 - - I. COMPOSITE NATURE OF THE SONATA 110 - - II. ESSENTIALS OF SONATA-FORM 111 - - III. A SONATA BY PHILIP EMANUEL BACH 114 - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 12. - - _Philip Emanuel Bach: Piano Sonata in F-minor, - first movement_ 115 - - IV. HARMONY AS A PART OF DESIGN 125 - - V. SUMMARY 126 - - - CHAPTER IX. - - SONATA-FORM, II. 128 - - I. HAYDN AND THE SONATA-FORM 128 - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 13. - - _Haydn: "Surprise Symphony," first movement_ 131 - - II. MOZART AND THE SONATA-FORM 134 - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 14. - - _Mozart: Symphony in G-minor, first movement_ 136 - - III. MOZART'S ARTISTIC SKILL 138 - - - CHAPTER X. - - THE SLOW MOVEMENT. 143 - - I. VARIETIES OF FORM 143 - - II. SLOW MOVEMENTS OF PIANO SONATAS 145 - - III. THE STRING QUARTET 148 - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 15. - - _Haydn: Adagio in E-flat major, from the String Quartet - in G-major, op. 77, No. 1_ 149 - - IV. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS 151 - - V. FORM OF HAYDN'S ADAGIO 152 - - VI. MOZART AND THE CLASSIC STYLE 153 - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 16. - - _Mozart: Andante from String Quartet in C-major_ 156 - - VII. FORM OF MOZART'S ANDANTE 159 - - - CHAPTER XI. - - BEETHOVEN--I. 161 - - I. GENERAL CHARACTER OF BEETHOVEN'S WORK 161 - - II. ANALYSIS OF A BEETHOVEN SONATA 166 - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 17. - - _Beethoven: Pathétique Sonata, first movement_ 166 - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 18. - - _Beethoven: Pathétique Sonata, second movement_ 170 - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 19. - - _Beethoven: Pathétique Sonata, third movement_ 171 - - III. SUMMARY 174 - - - CHAPTER XII. - - BEETHOVEN--II. 176 - - I. FORM AND CONTENT 176 - - II. BEETHOVEN'S STYLE 178 - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 20. - - _Beethoven: The Fifth Symphony, first movement_ 181 - - III. THE DRAMATIC ELEMENT IN BEETHOVEN'S MUSIC 185 - - IV. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FIRST MOVEMENT OF - THE FIFTH SYMPHONY 187 - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - BEETHOVEN--III. 191 - - I. THE SLOW MOVEMENT BEFORE BEETHOVEN 191 - - II. THE SLOW MOVEMENTS OF BEETHOVEN'S EARLY SYMPHONIES 192 - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 21. - - _Beethoven: The Fifth Symphony. Slow movement_ 195 - - III. INDIVIDUALITY OF THE ANDANTE OF THE FIFTH SYMPHONY 198 - - IV. THE HARMONIC PLAN 201 - - V. THE UNIVERSALITY OF BEETHOVEN'S GENIUS 203 - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - BEETHOVEN--IV. 205 - - I. BEETHOVEN'S HUMOR 205 - - II. SCHERZOS FROM BEETHOVEN'S SONATAS 209 - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 22. - - _Beethoven: Scherzo from the Twelfth Sonata_ 209 - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 23. - - _Beethoven: Scherzo from the Fifteenth Sonata_ 210 - - III. THE SCHERZOS OF BEETHOVEN'S SYMPHONIES 211 - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 24. - - _Beethoven: Scherzo from the Fifth Symphony_ 218 - - IV. GENERAL SUMMARY 221 - - - THE APPRECIATION OF MUSIC - - - - - CHAPTER I. - - ELEMENTS OF MUSICAL FORM. - - - I. INTRODUCTORY. - -Of the thousands of people who consider themselves lovers of music, it -is surprising how few have any real appreciation of it. It is safe to -say that out of any score of persons gathered to hear music, whether -it be hymn, song, oratorio, opera, or symphony, ten are not listening -at all, but are looking at the others, or at the performers, or at the -scenery or programme, or are lost in their own thoughts. Five more -are basking in the sound as a dog basks in the sun--enjoying it in a -sleepy, languid way, but not actively following it at all. For them -music is, as a noted critic has said, "a drowsy reverie, relieved -by nervous thrills." Then there are one or two to whom the music is -bringing pictures or stories: visions of trees, cascades, mountains, -and rivers fill their minds, or they dream of princesses in old -castles, set free from magic slumber by brave heroes from afar. Perhaps -also there is one who takes a merely scientific interest in the music: -he is so busy analysing themes and labelling motives that he forgets -to enjoy. Only two out of the twenty are left, then, who are actively -following the melodies, living over again the thoughts of the composer, -really appreciating, by vigorous and delightful attention, the beauties -of the music itself. - -Can we not, you and I, join the ranks of these true lovers of music? -Can we not learn to free our minds of all side issues as we listen--to -forget audience, performers, and scene, to forget princesses and -heroes, to forget everything except this unique experience that is -unfolding itself before our ears? Can we not, arousing ourselves from -our drowsy reverie, follow with active co-operation and vivid pleasure -each tone and phrase of the music, for itself alone? - -One thing is sure: Unless we can do so, we shall miss the keenest -enjoyment that music has to offer. For this enjoyment is not passive, -but active. It is not enough to place ourselves in a room where music -is going on; we must by concentrated attention; absorb and mentally -digest it. Without the help of the alert mind, the ear can no more -hear than the eye can see. Sir Isaac Newton, asked how he had made his -wonderful discoveries, answered, "By intending my mind." In no other -way can the lover of music penetrate its mysteries. - -Knowledge of musical technicalities, on the other hand, is not -necessary to appreciation, any more than knowledge of the nature of -pigments or the laws of perspective is necessary to the appreciation -of a picture. Such technical knowledge we may dispense with, if only -we are willing to work for our musical pleasure by giving active -attention, and if we have some guidance as to what to listen for among -so many and such at first confusing impressions. Such guidance to -awakened attention, such untechnical direction what to listen for, it -is the object of this book to give. - - - II. WHAT TO NOTICE FIRST. - -It is no wonder, when one stops to think of it, that music, in spite of -its deeply stirring effect upon us, often defeats our best efforts to -understand what it is all about, and leaves us after it is over with -the uncomfortable sense that we have had only a momentary pleasure, -and can take nothing definite away with us. It is as if we had been -present at some important event, without having the least idea why it -was important, or what was its real meaning. All of us, at one time -or another, must have had this experience. And, indeed, how could it -be otherwise? Music gives us nothing that we can see with our eyes or -touch with our hands. It does not even give our ears definite words -that we can follow and understand. It offers us only sounds, soft or -loud, long or short, high or low, that flow on inexorably, and that too -often come to an end without leaving any tangible impressions behind -them. No wonder we are often bewildered by an experience so peculiar -and so fleeting. - -Yet these sounds, subtle as they are, have a sense, a logic, an order -of their own; and if we can only learn how to approach them, we can get -at this inner orderliness that makes them into "music." The process of -perception which we have to learn here is somewhat akin to certain more -familiar processes. For example, what comes to our eyes from the outer -world is simply a mass of impressions of differently colored and shaped -spots of light; only gradually, as we grow out of infancy, do we learn -that one group of these spots of light shows us "a house," another "a -tree," and so on. Similarly words, as we easily realize in the case of -a foreign language, are to the untrained ear mere isolated sounds of -one kind or another; only with practice do we learn to connect groups -of them into intelligible sentences. So it is with music. The sounds -are at first mere sounds, separate, fragmentary, unrelated. Only after -we have learned to group them into definite melodies, as we group -spots of lights into houses or trees, and words into sentences, do -they become music for us. To approach sounds in such a way as to "make -sense" of them--that is the art of listening to music. - - - III. MUSICAL MOTIVES. - -The first step in making sense of any unfamiliar thing is to get quite -clearly in mind its central subject or subjects, as, for example, -the fundamental idea of a poem, the main contention of an essay, the -characters of a novel, the text of a sermon. All music worthy of the -name has its own kind of subjects; and if we can learn to take note -of, remember, and recognize them, we shall be well on the road to -understanding what at first seems so intangible and bewildering. - -A possible confusion, due to the use of terms, must here be guarded -against. The word "subject" is used in a special sense, in music, to -mean an entire theme or melody, of many measures' duration--thus we -speak of "the first subject of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony," meaning the -entire contents of measures 6-21. Now this is obviously a different -meaning of the word "subject" from the general one we use when we speak -of the subject of a poem or a picture, as the fundamental idea about -which it all centers. This long musical "subject" all centers about a -little idea of four notes, announced in the first two measures of the -symphony: - - [Music: score] - -But as we are already using the word "subject" to mean something else, -we must have another name for this brief characteristic bit out of -which so much is made, and for this the word "motive" is used. Here -again there is a difference of usage which must be noted. When we -speak of a "motive" or "leading motive" of Wagner, we mean not a short -group of this kind, but an entire melody associated with some special -character or idea; e. g., "the Siegfried motive." Let us here, however, -keep the word "motive" to mean a short characteristic group of tones -or "figure," and the word "subject" to mean a complete melody or theme -built up out of one or more motives. - -The smallest elements into which we can analyze the subject-matter of -music are "_motives_"--_that is, bits of tune, groups of from two to a -dozen tones, which have an individuality of their own, so that one of -them cannot possibly be confused with another_. - -"Yankee Doodle," for instance, begins with a motive of seven notes, -which is quite individual, and wholly different from the motive of -six notes at the beginning of "God Save the King," or the motive of -five notes at the beginning of the "Blue Danube" waltz. The three -motives are so different that nobody of ordinary musical intelligence -would confound them one with another, any more than he would confound -the subject of Longfellow's "Psalm of Life" with that of Browning's -"Incident of the French Camp," or the characters in "Dombey and Son" -with those in "Tom Jones." The whole musical individuality of each of -the three tunes grows out of the individuality of its special motive. - -Here, evidently, is a matter of primary importance to the would-be -intelligent music lover. If he can learn to distinguish with certainty -whatever "motives" he hears, half the battle is already gained. - -Four points will be noticeable in any motive he may hear. Its notes -will vary as to (1) length, (2) accent, (3) meter or grouping into -regular measures of two, three, or four notes, and (4) pitch. If he -can once form the habit of noticing them, he will have no further -difficulty in recognizing the themes of any music, and, what is even -more important, following the various evolutions through which they -pass as the composer works out his ideas. The importance of such active -participation in the composer's thought cannot be exaggerated. Without -it there cannot be any true appreciation of music; through it alone -does the listener emerge from "drowsy reverie, relieved by nervous -thrills" into the clear daylight of genuine artistic enjoyment. - - - IV. WHAT THE COMPOSER DOES WITH HIS MOTIVES. - -Let us put ourselves now in the place of a composer who has thought of -certain motives, and who wishes to make them into a complete piece of -music. What shall we do next with these scraps of melody, attractive -but fragmentary? Now, one thing we can see at once from our knowledge -of arts other than music. We must somehow or other keep repeating -our central ideas, or our piece will wander off into mazes and fail -to have any unity or intelligibility; yet we must also vary these -repetitions, or they will become monotonous, and the finished piece -will have no variety or sustained interest. The poet must keep harking -back to the main theme of his poem, or it will degenerate into an -incoherent rhapsody; but he must present new phases of the root idea, -or he will simply repeat himself and bore his readers. The architect, -having chosen a certain kind of column, say, for his building, must not -place next to it another style of column, from a different country and -period, or his building will become a mess, a medley, a nightmare; but -neither must he make his entire building one long colonnade of exactly -similar columns, for then it would be hopelessly dull. In short, every -artist has to solve in his own way the problem of combining _unity of -general impression_ with _variety of detail_. Without either one of -these essentials, no art can be beautiful. - -Here we are, then, with our motive and with the problem before us of -repeating it with modifications sufficient to lend it a new interest, -but not radical enough to hide its identity. - -If we are making our music for several voices or instruments, or for -several parts all played on one instrument like the organ or the -piano, we can let these different voices or parts sound the motive -in succession. If, while the new voice takes the motive, the voice -previously brought in goes on with something new, then we shall have a -very agreeable mingling of unity and variety. This is the method used -in all canons, fugues, inventions, and so on, and in vocal rounds. For -an example, take the round called "Three Blind Mice" (see Figure I). - - [Music: score] - FIGURE I. "THREE BLIND MICE." - - Three blind mice, three blind mice, See how they run, - see how they run, They all ran af - ter the farm - er's wife, Who - cut off their tails with a carv - ing knife. Did you - ev - er see such a sight in your life as three blind mice. - - -One person, A, begins this melody alone, and sings it through. When -he has reached the third measure, B strikes in at the beginning. -When B in his turn has reached the third measure (A being now at the -fifth), C comes in in the same way. In a word, the three people sing -the same tune _in rotation_ (whence the name, "round"). And the tune, -of course, is so contrived that all its different sections, sounded -simultaneously by the various voices, merge in harmony. This kind -of literal repetition by one part of what another has just done is -called "imitation," and is a fundamental principle of all that great -department of music known as the "polyphonic," or many-voiced. - -But now, notice another kind of repetition in this little tune. -Measures 3 and 4 practically repeat, though at a different place in the -scale, the three-note motive of measures 1 and 2. (In order to conform -to the words, the second note is now divided into two, but this is an -unimportant alteration.) The naturalness of this kind of repetition is -obvious. Having begun with our motive in one place, it easily occurs to -us to go on by repeating it, _in the same voice, but higher or lower in -pitch than at first_. The mere fact that it is higher or lower gives it -the agreeable novelty we desire, yet it remains perfectly recognizable. -We may call this sort of repetition, which, like "imitation," is of the -greatest utility to the composer, "transposition," to indicate that the -motive is shifted to a new place or pitch. - -But suppose we do not wish either to imitate or to transpose our -motive, is there any other way in which we can effectively repeat it? -Yes:--we can follow its first appearance with something else, entirely -different, and after this interval of contrast, come back again and -_restate_ our motive just as it was at first. Looking at "Three Blind -Mice" again, we see that this device, as well as the other two, is used -there. After the fifth, sixth, and seventh measures, which contain the -contrast, the eighth measure returns literally to the original motive -of three notes, thus rounding out and completing the tune. This third -kind of repetition, which may be called "restatement after contrast," -or simply "restatement," is also widely in use in all kinds of music. A -most familiar instance occurs in "Way Down upon the Suwanee River." - -Let us keep distinctly in mind, in all our study, these three modes of -repetition, which are of radical importance to musical design: 1st, -the imitation of a motive in a different "voice" or "part"; 2d, the -transposition of a motive, in the same voice, to a higher or lower -place in the scale; 3d, the restatement of a motive already once -stated, after an intervening contrast. We shall constantly see these -kinds of repetition--imitation, transposition, and restatement--used -by the great composers to give their music that unity in variety, that -variety in unity, without which music can be neither intelligible nor -beautiful. - - - V. THE FIRST STEPS AS REVEALED BY HISTORY. - -It must not be thought that these ways of varying musical motives -without destroying their identity were quickly found out by musicians. -On the contrary, it took centuries, literally centuries, to discover -these devices that seem to us so simple. All savage races are musically -like children; they cannot keep more than one or two short bits of tune -in mind at the same time, and these they simply repeat monotonously. -The first two examples in Figure II, taken from Sir Hubert Parry's "The -Evolution of the Art of Music," give an idea of the first stage of the -savage musician. - - 1. - [Music: score] - - 2. - [Music: score] - - 3. - [Music: score] - - 4. - [Music: score] - - FIGURE II. TUNES OF PRIMITIVE SAVAGES. - -The first is from Australia, the second from Tongataboo. Both are made -of a single motive endlessly repeated without relief. - -In a slightly higher stage, two motives are used, but with little more -skill. Number 3, in Figure II, is an example. Then come tunes in which -one or more motives, repeated literally, are still the main feature -of the design, but in which a certain amount of variety is introduced -between the repetitions (see Number 4, in Figure II, a Russian tune). -Here the little characteristic figure of four short notes and a long, -marked N.B., is agreeably relieved by other material. - - - VI. A SPANISH FOLK-SONG. - -From such primitive music as this to the beautiful "folk-song" of -the modern nations is a long step indeed. Even in the simplest real -folk-songs, the means of varied repetition of ideas that we have -been discussing are used with an ingenuity which places them on an -infinitely higher level than these primitive efforts of savages. It -is true that in folk-songs, which were sung by a single voice instead -of a group of voices, the device of "imitation" was used hardly at -all:--that is available only where there are several different voices -to imitate one another. But in order to see what good use was made of -"transposition" and "restatement" we need take only a single example, -from Galicia in Spain (see Figure III). Let us examine this tune in -some detail, as a preparation for a further study of folk-songs in a -later article. - - [Music: score] - From Galicia in Spain. - - FIGURE III. FOLK-SONG. - - -The tune, in spite of its impression of considerable variety, is -founded entirely on two motives-- - - [Music: score] - - [Music: score] - -In the sixth and seventh measures, (1) is so altered and transposed -that it ends on D instead of on C, and in the eighth, ninth, and tenth -measures (2) is transposed so as to end on G instead of on C. By these -transpositions the important element of _contrast_ is introduced, -and when therefore we have, at the end, the two motives given again -almost exactly as to first, we get, by this restatement after contrast, -a delightful sense of unity and completeness. The means here are -wonderfully simple, but the effect is truly artistic. - - - VII. BALANCE OF PHRASES. - -An important principle of musical design is introduced to our notice -by this little melody. It will be observed that it divides itself into -three equal parts: the statement, measures 1-5; the contrast, measures -6-10; and the restatement, measures 11-15. (We may represent these -by the letters A, B, and A.) Now these three parts, being of equal -length and similar material, balance each other just as lines in poetry -do. One makes us expect another, which, when it comes, fulfills our -expectation. Thus we get the impression of regularity, order, symmetry. -This element of symmetry, or the balancing of one phrase of melody by -another, like the balancing of one line of poetry by another, as in the -verses - - "The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea, - And leaves the world to darkness and to me." - -is a most important one, as we shall soon see, in all modern music. - -This balance of one large section of a melody by another is often -referred to by the term "rhythm," owing to its analogy with "rhythm" -in architecture (in the symmetry, for example, of two halves of a -building). But it is simpler to keep the word rhythm, in music, to mean -rather a characteristic combination of tones, as regards their relative -length and accent, as, "the rhythm of the first motive in Beethoven's -Fifth Symphony" (see motive quoted on page 5). In the present articles -the word will be used in this latter sense. - - - VIII. SUMMARY. - -In this chapter we have seen how music, in spite of its subtle, -intangible nature, has certain definite features called "motives," -which we can learn to recognize and follow by noticing the length, -accent, metrical arrangement, and movement "up" or "down," of the tones -of which they are composed. - -We have seen that these primary motives are worked up into complete -pieces of music by being repeated with such alterations as serve to -vary them pleasantly without disguising them beyond recognition. The -chief kinds of modified repetition we have noticed are "imitation," -"transposition," and "restatement after contrast." All of these we have -seen illustrated in "Three Blind Mice." - -We have remarked how very gradually musicians got away from monotonous -harping on their ideas by using these devices. In connection with -the Spanish folk-song, we have noted that, although imitation was not -available, transposition and restatement were most effectively used. - -Finally, we have seen that music, like poetry, has its larger balance -of phrases, by which whole parts of a melody are set off against one -another and made to balance, just as lines do in verse. - -In succeeding chapters we shall trace out all these principles in more -detail. - - - SUGGESTIONS FOR COLLATERAL READING. - -_Parry: "The Evolution of the Art of Music," Chapters I and II; -Dickinson: "The Study of the History of Music," Chapter I; Grove: -"Dictionary of Music and Musicians," article "Form."_ - - - - - CHAPTER II. - - FOLK-SONGS. - - -In the first chapter we have traced the evolution of the formal element -in music, the element through which it gradually attained coherence. We -have seen that this element is an expression of that common sense which -rules in all things; that the various expedients adopted in music as -means of keeping the central idea before the listener, and, at the same -time, providing him with sufficient variety to retain his interest, are -dictated by that sense of fitness that operates everywhere in life. And -these simple formal principles, so conceived, will be found to underlie -the larger musical forms that will engage our attention in succeeding -chapters. - -Let us always keep in mind that, while the psychological effect of -music remains a considerable mystery, and the appreciation of great -music must be a personal and individual act involving a certain -receptivity and sensitiveness to musical impressions, yet the -perception of the logic or sense in a piece of music is a long step -towards understanding it, and one of the best means of cultivating that -receptivity and sensitiveness. - -Folk-songs have been described by an eminent writer[1] as "the first -essays made by man in distributing his notes so as to express his -feelings in terms of design." We shall shortly examine some typical -folk-songs in order to see how this design gradually became larger and -more various, and how, through this process, the foundations were laid -for the masterpieces of modern instrumental music. We shall see that -this advance has accompanied an advance in civilization; that as men's -lives have become better ordered, as higher standards of living and -thinking have appeared, the sense of beauty has grown until, finally, -this steady progress has resulted in the creation of certain permanent -types. It must be kept in mind, however, that these primitive types are -largely the result of instinctive effort, and not of conscious musical -knowledge. The science of music, as we know it, did not exist when -these songs were written. - - - I. FOLK-SONGS AND ART SONGS. - -In order to distinguish between Folk-songs and songs like those of -Schubert and Schumann, musicians call the latter "Art" songs. The -folk-song is a naïve product, springing almost unconsciously from the -hearts of simple people, and not intended to convey any such definite -expression of the meaning of the words as is conveyed in modern songs. -While there are specimens[2] of the art song that closely approach the -simplicity and beauty of the folk-song, the art song in general is not -only of wider range and of wider application to men's thoughts and -feelings, but it also has, as an integral part of it, an accompaniment -of which the folk-song, in its pure state, is entirely devoid. - -A further distinguishing characteristic of the folk-song is that it is -often composed in one of the old ecclesiastical "modes." - -These modes were old forms of the scale that existed before our modern -harmonic system came into use. The following English folk-song, called -"Salisbury Plain," is in the "Aeolian" mode. - - [Music: score] - FIGURE IV. - -This song is written in the scale represented by the white keys of -a pianoforte beginning on A, and the peculiarly quaint effect of it -is due to the unusual intervals of that scale as compared with our -common scale forms. There are various modes[3] called "Phrygian," -"Dorian," etc., each having its own peculiar quality. This quaintness -and characteristic quality to be observed in modal folk-songs almost -entirely disappears when an accompaniment of modern harmony is added, -as is often done. - -Folk-songs occupied a much more important place in the lives of the -people who used them than is commonly supposed. When we consider that -at the time the earliest of them were written few people could read -or write, that books were printed in Latin, and that there were no -newspapers, railways, or telegraphs, we can understand how large a part -these old songs played in the scheme of life. The strolling singer was -the newspaper of the time. Furthermore, the general illiteracy of the -people made of the folk-song a natural vent for their feelings. With a -limited vocabulary at their disposal, it was natural that they should -use the song as a medium of expression for their joys and sorrows. -Gesture was also part of their language, and in a modified way, as a -means of expression, may be said to have performed something of the -function of song. Many of the oldest melodies existed as an adjunct -to dancing and religious ceremonials, and were, therefore, to some -extent utilitarian. But so intimate was their relation to the ideas and -feelings of the people who used them that, in spite of the crudeness -and simplicity of the medium employed, the songs of the various nations -are entirely distinct from each other, and to a remarkable degree -express the characteristics of the people who produced them. - -The songs used with this chapter are chosen chiefly to illustrate the -various methods (already described) of attaining variety and unity -in music. If little space is devoted here to other considerations, -the reader must bear in mind that our purpose is to lead him finally -to as complete an appreciation as possible of the masterpieces of -instrumental music, and that this appreciation must begin with -a perception of the relationships between the various parts of a -primitive piece of music. - - - II. AN ENGLISH FOLK-SONG. - -In Figure V is shown the old English song "Polly Oliver."[4] - - [Music: score] - FIGURE V. - -This is a traditional song handed down without any record of its -origin, from generation to generation. Its unknown composer has -managed very deftly to make it hang together. A good deal is made, in -particular, of the characteristic little motive of three notes which -first occurs at the beginning of the third measure.[5] In the very next -measure, the fourth, this is "transposed" to a lower position. Going -on, we find it coming in again, most effectively, in measure 7, this -time transposed upwards; and it occurs again twice at the end of the -melody. Thus a certain unity is given to the entire tune. Again, the -device of repetition after contrast is well used. After measures 1-9, -which state the main idea of the melody, measures 9-13 come in with a -pronounced contrast; but this is immediately followed up, in measures -13-17, by a literal repetition of the first four measures, which -serves to round out and satisfactorily complete the whole. We thus see -illustrated once more the scheme of form which, in the last chapter, we -denoted by the letters A-B-A. - -This song presents a further element of form by means of which much -variety is imparted to music. - - - III. KEY AND MODULATION. - -It will be noticed that the first phrase of "Polly Oliver" (measures -1-5) moves about the tone E-flat and ends upon it with the effect of -coming to rest, and that the second phrase (measures 5-9) similarly -moves about and comes to rest on the tone B-flat. The last phrase -(13-17), like the first, moves about E-flat. This moving about a -certain tone, which is, so to speak, the center of gravity of the -whole phrase, is called by musicians "being in the key of" that tone; -and when the center of gravity changes, musicians say that the piece -"modulates" from one key to another. Thus, this first phrase is in the -key of E-flat, the second modulates to the key of B-flat, and the song -later modulates back again to the key of E-flat. Here we have another -very important principle in modern music, the principle of "key" -or "tonality,"--important because it makes possible a great deal of -variety that still does not interfere with unity. By putting the first -part of a piece in one key, the second part in another, and finally the -last part in the original key, we can get much diversity of effect, and -at the same time end with the same impression with which we began. We -shall only gradually appreciate the immense value to the musician of -this arrangement of keys. - -A further element of form is found in "Polly Oliver," namely, the -balance of phrases. This balance of phrases one against another is -derived ultimately from the timed motions of the body in dancing, or -from the meter of the four line verse to which the music was sung. And -this balance of phrases, derived from these elemental sources, still -dominates in the melodies of the great masters, although it is managed -with constantly increasing freedom and elasticity, so that we find in -modern music little of that sing-song mechanical regularity which we -may note in most folk-songs and dances. - - - IV. BARBARA ALLEN. - -Let us now examine another old English song, "Barbara Allen." - - [Score: music] - FIGURE VI. - - In Scar-let Town where I was born, - There was a fair maid dwellin', - Made ev' - ry youth cry "well-a-day," - Her name was Barbara Allen. - - All in the merry month of May, - When green buds they were swellin', - Young Jemmy Grove on his death bed lay - For love of Barbara Allen. - - Then slowly, slowly she came up, - And slowly she came nigh him, - And all she said when there she came: - "Young man, I think you're dying." - - When he was dead, and laid in grave, - Her heart was struck with sorrow. - "O mother, mother!--make my bed, - For I shall die to-morrow!" - - She, on her death bed as she lay, - Begg'd to be buried by him, - And sore repented of the day - That she did e'er deny him. - - "Farewell!" she said, "ye maidens all, - And shun the fault I fell in. - Henceforth take warning by the fall - Of cruel Barbara Allen." - -This also is a traditional song. The words celebrate the emotion of -unrequited love, a favorite subject with the old ballad writers. In the -music, we shall find a further illustration of the use of the devices -already referred to. - -We note first of all that there is throughout the melody a constant use -of one rhythmic motive. This figure appears in the first four notes of -the song, and is found at the beginning of every other measure save -the fifth and the last. While these transpositions are not so literal -as is that at the beginning of "Polly Oliver," they are nevertheless -sufficiently close to serve the purpose of preserving unity while still -providing variety. The tune is held together by this insistence on the -motive; there is considerable variety in the melody of the various -phrases, but through it all runs this persistent rhythm. - -Although "Barbara Allen" does not, strictly speaking, contain a -modulation, since there is in the melody no note foreign to the key -in which the song is written, yet the first and last phrases center -round D, the key-note, while the second phrase (to the words "There -was a fair maid dwellin'") centers round and comes to rest on A, thus -producing the effect of a half pause, as if punctuated with a semicolon. - -A very important point should be noted in reference to these half -pauses or modulations in a melody, namely, that they usually occur on -the fifth note of the scale of the original key, called by musicians -the "dominant." In the three songs we have considered thus far the -second phrase has so ended. This modulation to the dominant is the most -common one in music, and we shall often have occasion to refer to it in -later chapters. - -Finally, a comparison of the third phrase of the music--"there was a -fair maid dwellin'"--with the last--"her name was Barbara Allen"--will -reveal a considerable similarity in both rhythm and melodic contour -or curve. By means of this similarity, and by the return, in the last -phrase, to the original key, our sense of proportion is satisfied and a -certain logic is imparted to the tune. It should also be noticed that -the melody is a perfect example of that balance of phrases already -referred to, the two halves (1-5 and 5-9) being of precisely the same -length. - - - V. NATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS IN FOLK-SONGS. - -"Barbara Allen" is like many other English tunes in being -straightforward, positive, and, in a measure, unromantic. It lacks the -soft, undulating, and poetic element to be observed in the Spanish -folk-song (see Chapter I), but has a vigor and somewhat matter-of-fact -quality characteristic of the race that produced it. The story was -evidently popular in the olden time, as many versions of it with -different music have been found all over England. All the important -events of the times were celebrated in song. There were, for example, -many songs about Napoleon and the danger of an invasion of England, -such as "Boney's Lamentation." Songs were written about political -affairs and about religion, and there were many dealing with popular -characters such as Robin Hood. Celebrated criminals became the -subjects of songs, while poaching and other lawless acts committed -by the peasants--which in those days were punished with the greatest -severity--were frequently used as the basis for the strolling singers' -ballads. Such titles as "Here's adieu to all Judges and Juries," "The -Gallant Poachers," and "Botany Bay" are frequently to be found. - -From a perusal of a large number of the old songs one gathers a quite -comprehensive idea of the ways of life and the thoughts and feelings of -the people of "Merrie England." A kind of rude philosophy seems to have -evolved itself out of the mass of common sentiment. And the verses, -rude as they are, have a characteristic directness and vigor that gives -them a value of their own. - -Plain, definite narrative characterizes most of the English songs. -The name of the hero and heroine are usually given with the greatest -accuracy, as are all the other details of the story. One old English -song, for example, begins as follows: - - "'Twas the eighteenth of August, - The eighth month of the year." - -while another is entitled: - - "The Three Butchers; or, Gibson, Wilson, and Johnson." - -Still another begins: - - "Eli Sykes, in the town of Batley, - Killed his sweetheart, Hannah Brooke." - -This quality is in marked contrast to the more romantic and poetic -element to be found in the songs of many European nations. This -energetic and straightforward quality in old English melodies does not -prevent them from being beautiful; they are true to human nature and -unspoiled by sophistry. - - - VI. AN IRISH FOLK-SONG. - -Our next illustration is an Irish song called "The Flight of the -Earls," one of the most beautiful of melodies. (See Figure VII.) - -In this illustration the curved lines represent the phrases and -correspond to the lines of the poem, while the brackets show the larger -formal structure of the melody, A being the statement, or clause of -assertion, B the clause of contrast, and A the restatement. A mere -glance at this music will show how certain phrases are used throughout -to hold the melody together. The first and second measures,[6] for -example, contain a phrase of which one part or the other will be found -in almost every measure of the song. The first half of the song ends -at 9 with a modulation to the fifth above, or dominant, while the -"restatement after contrast" (beginning on the last note of measure 13) -is quite clear. - - [Music: score] - FIGURE VII. - -Certain details may be pointed out for the benefit of the student. The -first phrase, ending on the note D (5), gives a sense of being poised -for a moment before proceeding to the next note, D not being a point -of rest such as is supplied by the C with which the second phrase -ends--at 9. The same device is used at the end of the third phrase -(13). The clause of contrast (9-13), while based on the rhythm of the -motive of three notes at the beginning of the song, is distinguished -from either of the other two parts by the absence of the characteristic -sixteenth-note figure of measure two. - -This song justifies all that we have said about the poetic beauty -of folk-songs. Within its short compass are contained elements of -perfection that may well astonish those who look on folk-songs as -immaterial to the development of the art of music. For this melody is -as complete and perfect an expression of that natural idealism that -seems to have animated human beings from the earliest times as is the -present day music of our own ideals. - - - VII. A GERMAN FOLK-SONG. - -The next illustration is a well known German folk-song called "Sister -Fair." - - [Music: score] - FIGURE VIII. - -This melody is one of great beauty and tenderness. Like many other -German folk-songs, it is full of quiet sentiment, not over-strained, -but sweet and wholesome. It contains certain formal elements with -which we are already familiar: (1) "Repetition," between the first -motive in measures 1 and 2, between measures 5-6 and 7-8, and between -measures 3-4 and 11-12; (2) "transposition," where the motive in -measure 9 is inverted in measure 10 (this is an imitation of rhythm -but not of melody); (3) "restatement after contrast," the last four -measures being, in effect, a repetition of the first four with the -first motive from measure 9 inverted; (4) "modulation," the first -phrase being in A-minor, the second in C-major, and the last in A-minor -again. This is a particularly clear example of a modulation, as the -three phrases distinctly centre round their respective key-notes, or -tonal centres. It should be noted that the modulation is not to the -fifth above the key-note, as in most of the other examples, but to the -third above. This is common in songs in the minor key. - -Quite a distinct charm is imparted to the first phrase of this melody -by the use at the _end_ of measure 2 of the little rhythmic figure -that has already appeared at the _beginning_ of the first and second -measures. There is an unexpected charm in this shifting of a motive -from one part of a measure to another. We shall see this device of -musical construction in many of the larger works that are dealt with in -later chapters. - -There are a great many beautiful German folk-songs which would be well -worth study here did space permit. The student is referred to such -collections as Reimann's "Das Deutsche Lied," where the best of them -will be found. - - - VIII. SUMMARY. - -In this brief study of folk-songs we have noted that the stream of pure -native melody was independent of the art-song and followed its own -natural channel, but that, in spite of its limitation, presents to us -some well developed formal types. - -We have seen how important a part modulation plays in the plan of a -piece of music, and how, by means of a change of key, a new kind of -variety may be imparted to a melody. - -We have observed how closely the old songs reflect the characteristics -of the people who produced them, and how intimate was the connection -between the songs--with the verses to which they were set--and the -thoughts and feelings of those who used them. - -In studying the German folk-song we have observed a subtle element of -form, namely, the shifting of a motive from one part of a measure to -another. - -In the next chapter we shall take up the study of simple polyphonic -pieces, such as have already been referred to in dealing with the -round, "Three Blind Mice." - - - SUGGESTIONS FOR COLLATERAL READING. - -_Parry: "The Evolution of the Art of Music," Chapter III; Grove's -"Dictionary of Music and Musicians," articles "Song" and "Form."_ - - FOOTNOTES: - -[1] Sir Hubert Parry in "The Evolution of the Art of Music." - -[2] Such as Schubert's "Haiden-Röslein." - -[3] The reader will find an account of these modes in Grove's -Dictionary of Music under "Modes, Ecclesiastical." - -[4] In Hadow's "Songs of the British Islands" (Curwen & Co., London). - -[5] The first partial measure is counted as one. - -[6] The partial measure at the beginning is counted as one. - - - - - CHAPTER III. - - THE POLYPHONIC MUSIC OF BACH. - - -We have seen in the last chapter some typical examples of folk-songs, -which have served to give us an impression of folk-music in general, -since it always conforms, in all essentials, to the type they -illustrate. Folk-music is generally simple and unsophisticated in -expression; it is generally cast in short and obvious forms; and -it generally consists of a single melody, either sung alone or -accompanied, on some primitive instrument, by a few of the commonest -chords. - -The prominence given to a single melody by music of this type, -however, makes it unsuitable for groups of different voices, such -as a vocal quartet or a chorus; and therefore when musicians began -to pay attention to music intended for church use they had to work -out a different style, in which several parts, sung by the various -voices, could be strongly individualized. This led to what is called -the "polyphonic," or "many-voiced" style. Another reason why the -ecclesiastical style always remained unlike the secular was that the -learned church musicians disdained any use of those methods which grew -up in connection with folk-songs and dances, considering them profane -or vulgar. Had they been willing to study them, they might have added -much vitality to church music; but they maintained an attitude of -aloofness and of contempt for the popular music. - - - I. WHAT IS "POLYPHONY?" - -The peculiarity of the polyphonic style is that that portion of the -music which accompanies the chief melody is no longer a series of -chords as in folk-music, but a tissue of secondary melodies, like -the chief one, and hardly less important. (This arises, as we have -just suggested, from the necessity of giving each of the four voices -or groups of voices,--soprano, alto, tenor, and bass,--something -individual and interesting to do.) The difference between the two -styles is apparent even to the eye, on the printed page. A folk-song, -or any other piece in "homophonic" or "one-voiced" style, has the -characteristic appearance of a line of notes on top (the melody), with -groups of other notes hanging down from it here and there, like clothes -from a clothes line (the accompaniment). A Bach fugue, in print, -presents the appearance of four (or more) interlacing lines of notes. -(See Figure IX.) - - [Music: score] - (_a_) Beginning of "Polly Oliver." - - While the dawn on the mountain was mist - y and grey, - - [Music: score] - (_b_) Passage from Bach Fugue in G-minor - "Well-Tempered Clavichord," Book I. - - FIGURE IX. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN "HOMOPHONIC" AND "POLYPHONIC" STYLE. - - -Historically speaking, the first great culmination of the polyphonic -style is found in the ecclesiastical choruses of Palestrina -(1528-1594); but it was not until somewhat later that this style was -applied to instrumental music. In the inventions, canons, preludes, -toccatas, and fugues of Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750), we get -the first great examples of polyphony as applied, not to merely -ecclesiastical music, but to music which by its secular character and -its variety of emotional expression is universal in scope. - - - II. AN INVENTION BY BACH. - -Such is the ingenuity and the perfection of detail in Bach's works in -the polyphonic style that a life-time might be spent in studying them. -They have that delicacy of inner adjustment more usually found in the -works of nature than in those of man; their melodies grow out of their -motive germs as plants put forth leaves and flowers; their separate -voices fit into one another like the crystals in a bit of quartz; and -the whole fabric of the music stands on its elemental harmonies as -solidly as the mountains on their granite bases. We can hope to see as -little of this august country of Bach's mind by analyzing a few pieces -as a man may see of the hills and moors in a day's excursion--but, -nevertheless, a beginning must be made. - -The essential features of this music may be seen in even so simple -a piece as the Invention in F-major, number 7, in the two-voiced -inventions, though it is written for only two voices and is but -thirty-four measures long. - - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 1. - - _Bach: Two-voice Invention No. VIII., in F-Major._ - -The subject or theme of this invention is a melody of two measures' -length, first given out by the soprano, and consists of two motives or -characteristic figures, one in eighth-notes, staccato, making a series -of leaps, thus: - - [Music: score] - -and one a graceful descending run in sixteenth-notes, thus - - [Music: score] - -Notice how charmingly the staccato and the legato are contrasted in -these motives. - -The entire invention is made out of this subject by means of those -methods of varied repetition discussed in Chapter I., especially -"imitation" and "transposition." For example, the lower voice, which -we will call the bass, "imitates," almost exactly, through the first -eleven measures, what the soprano says a measure before it. On the -other hand, in measure 12 the bass starts the ball a-rolling by giving -the subject (this time in the key of C), and the soprano takes its turn -at imitating. Then, from measure 29 to the end, it is again the soprano -which leads and the bass which imitates. The student should trace out -these imitations in detail, admiring the skill with which they are made -always harmonious. - -There are many instances of transposition also, most of them carried -out so systematically that they form what musicians call "sequences." - -A sequence is a series of transpositions of a motive, shifting it in -pitch either upward or downward, and carried out systematically through -several repetitions. Examples: measures 4, 5, and 6, transposition -of the motive in soprano, three repetitions; measures 21, 22, 23, -transposition of motives of both voices, three repetitions; measures -24, 25, transposition of motives of both voices, two repetitions. The -second of these sequences is shown in Figure X. - -It will be noted what a strong sense of regular, orderly progress these -sequences impart to the melodies. - -It is interesting to see that the same general scheme of keys is -embodied in this invention that we have observed in folk-songs: i. e., -the modulation to the "dominant" in the middle (measure 12), and the -return at the end to the original key. This divides the piece into two -unequal halves, the first making an excursion away from the home key, -the second returning home--much as the King of France, with twenty -thousand men, marched up the hill and then marched down again. Such a -two-part structure is observable in thousands of short pieces, and is -called by musicians "binary form." - - [Music: score] - FIGURE X. "Sequence" from Bach's Invention in F-Major. - -The difference in texture between this piece and any folk-song or dance -will best be appreciated by playing over the bass part alone, when it -will be seen that, far from being mere "filling" or accompaniment, it -is a delightful melody in itself, almost as interesting as its more -prominent companion. Indeed, in the whole invention there are only two -tones (the C and the A in the final chord) which are not melodically -necessary. Such is the splendid economy and clearness of Bach's musical -thinking. - -Before going further, the reader should examine for himself several -typical inventions, as, for example, No. I, in C-major; No. II, in -C-minor; No. X, in G-major, and No. XIII, in A-minor, in this set -by Bach, noting in each case: (1) the individuality of the motives -used, (2) the imitations from voice to voice, (3) the sequences, -(4) the modulations, (5) the polyphonic character, as evidenced by -the self-sufficiency and melodic interest of the bass, and (6) the -structural division of the entire invention into more or less distinct -sections. - - - III. A FUGUE BY BACH. - -The same general method of composing that is exemplified in the -inventions we see applied on a larger scale in the fugues of Bach. - -The definition of a fugue given by some wag--"a piece of music in which -one voice after another comes in, and one listener after another goes -out"--is true only when the listeners are uneducated. For a trained -ear there is no keener pleasure than following the windings of a well -written fugue. It is, at the same time, true that a fugue presents -especial difficulties to the ear, because of its intricately interwoven -melodies. In a folk-song there is not only but one melody, with nothing -to distract the attention from it, but it is composed in definite -phrases of equal length, like the lines in poetry, with a pause at the -end of each, in which the mind of the listener can take breath, so -to speak, and rest a moment before renewing attention. Not so in the -fugue, where the bits of tune occur all through the whole range of the -music, are of varying lengths and character, and overlap in such a way -that there are few if any moments of complete rest for the attention. -Perhaps this is the chief reason why fugues have the reputation of -being "dry." - -As is suggested by the derivation of the word "fugue," from the Latin -"fuga," a flight, the characteristic peculiarity of the form is the -entrance, one after another, of the several voices, which thus seem to -pursue or chase one another, to go through a sort of musical game of -"tag," in which first one and then another is "It." First one voice -begins with the "subject" of the fugue, in the "tonic" key (key in -which the piece is written). Next enters a second voice, "imitating" -the first, but presenting the subject not in the "tonic," but in the -"dominant" key. Then a third, once more in the tonic, and finally the -fourth, again in the dominant. After these entrances all four voices -proceed to play with the subject, transposing it in all sorts of -ingenious ways, and straying off at times into episodes, generally in -"sequence" form, but finally coming back, towards the end of the fugue, -with renewed energy to the subject itself. All this may be seen in such -an example as the Fugue in C-minor in Bach's "Well-Tempered Clavichord." - - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 2. - - _Bach: Fugue No. 2, C-minor, in three voices. "Well-Tempered - Clavichord."_ Book 1.[7] - -Like all the fugues in Bach's "Well-Tempered Clavichord," this fugue -is preceded by a prelude, in free style, like a series of embroideries -on chords, intended to prepare the nearer for the more active musical -enjoyment of the fugue to come. Parry, in the "Oxford History of -Music," says of the Prelude of Bach and Handel: "It might be a simple -series of harmonies such as a player might extemporize before beginning -the Suite or the Fugue, [such is the case in the present prelude]; or, -its theme might be treated in a continuous consistently homogeneous -movement unrestricted as to length, but never losing sight of the -subject" ... etc. - -A fugal subject is usually longer and more pretentious than an -invention subject, and more nearly approaches what we should call a -complete melody. It may contain several motives. Moreover, while the -second voice is "answering" the subject, the first voice continues -with further melody, and if this is of definite, individual character -it may easily assume almost as great importance as the subject itself, -in which case we may give it the name of "counter-subject." In Figure -XI the subject and counter-subject of this fugue are shown. The long -brackets show subject and counter-subject; the short brackets show -the three chief motives, marked _a_, _b_, and _c_. The simplicity of -the melodic material is noticeable. Motive _a_, which, with its three -repetitions, forms most of the subject, consists of five tones, in a -charming and unforgettable rhythm of two shorts and three longs. Motive -_b_ is simply a descending scale, in equal short notes. Motive _c_ is -four equal long notes. Play the subject and counter-subject through -separately, several times, and get them well "by heart" before going -farther. - -This fugue is a wonderful example of what a master-composer can make -out of simple materials; the whole piece is built from these three -motives. Our analysis may conveniently be made in tabular form, the -student being expected to trace out the development for himself, -measure by measure. - - [Music: score] - - [Music: score] - - FIGURE XI. SUBJECT AND COUNTER-SUBJECT OF BACH'S FUGUE - IN C-MINOR (WELL-TEMPERED CLAVICHORD) - - - TABLE OF THEMATIC TREATMENT OF FUGUE IN C-MINOR - - _Measures._ - 1- 2 Subject in Alto. - 3- 4 Subject "answered" in Soprano ("imitation"), counter-subject - in Alto. - 5- 6 Episode 1: Motive _a_ prominent in Soprano. - 7- 8 Subject in Bass, counter-subject in Soprano, fragments of - motive _c_ in Alto. - 9-10 Episode 2: Motive _a_ tossed between Soprano and Alto, - motive _b_ in Bass. - 11-12 Subject, in key of E-flat major, in Soprano, counter-subject - in Bass. - 13-14 Episode 3: Motive _b_ in Soprano, motive _c_ in other - two voices. - 15-16 Subject in Alto, counter-subject in Soprano, motive _c_ - in Bass. - 17-19 Episode 4: Motives _a_ and _b_ variously distributed between - all three voices. - 20-21 Subject in Soprano, in tonic key again, counter-subject in - Alto, motive _c_ in Bass, - 22-25 Episode 5: Motives _a_ and _b_ in all voices. - 26-28 Climax: Subject in Bass, motives _b_ and _c_ in other voices. - 29-31 Coda: Subject in Soprano. - -Note that all the episodes take the form of _sequences_, as, for -example, in the following instance (measures 9-10): - - [Music: score] - FIGURE XIa. - - A SEQUENCE FROM BACH'S FUGUE IN C-MINOR. - -The general form of this fugue illustrates the same principles of -modulation, and of restatement of subject after contrast, that we -noticed in the folk-songs and in the invention. This may be tabulated -thus: - - - TABLE SHOWING STRUCTURE OF FUGUE IN C-MINOR. - - A. | B. | A. - STATEMENT. | CONTRAST. | RESTATEMENT. - Measures 1-10 in | Measures 11-19 in various | Measures 20-31 - key of C-minor. | keys, beginning with E-flat.| in C-minor. - -The modulation in this case, however, is not to the "dominant" key, -but to what is called the "relative major" key, as is usual in pieces -written in minor keys, (see the folk-song, "Sister Fair," in Chapter -II), the reason being that the relative major affords the most natural -contrast to a minor key, just as the dominant affords the most natural -contrast to a major key. - -The conclusion is emphasized by the finely rugged statement of the -subject in Bass at measure 26. - -The treatment of this fugue, for all its consummate skill, is -comparatively simple. It does not employ the more subtle devices often -employed in fugues, of which may be mentioned the following: - -1. "Inversion:" The subject turned upside down, while retaining its -identity by means of its rhythm. - - [Music: score] - Original Subject. - - [Music: score] - Inversion. - - FIGURE XII. THE DEVICE OF "INVERSION." - - - [Music: score] - Original Subject. - - [Music: score] - Augmentation. - - [Music: score] - Original Subject. - - [Music: score] - Diminution. - - FIGURE XIII. THE DEVICES OF "AUGMENTATION" AND "DIMINUTION." - -2. "Augmentation and Diminution:" The length of the notes doubled -or halved, while their _relative_ length, or rhythm, is carefully -maintained. (Figure XIII.) - -3. "Shifted rhythm:"[8] The subject shifted as regards its position in -the measure, so that all the accents fall differently. - - [Music: score] - Original Subject. - - [Music: score] - Shifted. - - FIGURE XIV. DEVICE OF "SHIFTED RHYTHM." - -4. "Stretto:" The imitation of the subject by a second voice occurring -prematurely, before the first voice has completed the subject, -frequently with highly dramatic effect. (_b_) in Figure IX is an -example of stretto. - -These devices are mentioned here not only because they occur in many -fugues, but because they are used in the symphonic music of Mozart and -Beethoven, as we shall later have occasion to see. - - - IV. GENERAL QUALITIES OF BACH'S WORK. - -Perhaps the most exacting of all tests applicable to music is the test -of economy. Are there superfluous tones that do not enrich the harmony? -Are there unnecessary subjects not needed to fill the scheme of design? -If so, no matter how beautiful the music, it is defective as art. -Bach bears this test victoriously. There is not a note of his writing -which one would willingly sacrifice. There is not a melody that is -not needed. Each subject is not merely introduced and dismissed, but -is developed to the utmost, so that all that was implicit in its germ -becomes explicit in its final form. There is no confusion of the -outline, no overcrowding of the canvas, no blotchiness in the color. As -Giotto proved his supremacy among draughtsmen by the apparently simple -but really enormously difficult feat of drawing a complete, perfect -circle with one stroke of the pencil, so Bach constantly proves his -supremacy among musicians by making two voices satisfy the ear like -an orchestra. And this purity of texture is quite compatible with the -utmost richness. Indeed, Bach's polyphonic scores are inimitably rich, -since each voice sings its own melody, and the melodies all interplay -harmoniously like the lines of a well-composed picture. Those who -call Bach's fugues dry make an astonishing confession of their own -insensibility or crudity of taste. Bach's melodies are not, to be sure, -like "Annie Laurie" or "Home, Sweet Home." But neither is daylight like -candle light; yet we do not call it darkness because it is diffused -through all the atmosphere instead of concentrated in a single visible -ray. - -Bach's daring has been the subject of the endless admiration of -students. Especially in the matter of harmony he did things in the -eighteenth century, and entirely on his own responsibility, that whole -schools of composers band together with a sense of revolutionary -courage to do in the twentieth. He is truly one of the most modern of -composers, and will always remain so. Composers who might have been -his grandsons are now antiquated, while he is always contemporary with -the best musical thought. Brahms, irritated at Rubinstein's persistent -patronizing of "Papa Haydn" in his book, "A Conversation on Music," -remarked in his dry way: "Rubinstein will soon be Great-grandfather -Rubinstein, but Haydn will then be still Papa Haydn." The same might -be said even more truly of Bach, who will always be the father of -musicians. - -Another way in which Bach is modern is in the variety of his musical -expression. It is not only that his range of different species of -works is so great, reaching from the ecstatically tender and exalted -religious choral compositions, such as cantatas, motets, oratorios, and -passions, through the grand and monumental organ toccatas and fugues, -to the intimate, colloquial suites and sonatas for orchestra and for -clavichord; it is even more wonderful that in a single work, such as -the "Well-Tempered Clavichord," he knows how to sound the whole gamut -of human feeling, from the deep and sombre passions of the soul to the -homely gaiety or bantering humor of an idle moment.[9] Bach might have -boasted, had it been in his nature to boast, that in this work he had -not only written in every key known to musicians, but in every mood -known to men. It is the musical "Comédie Humaine." - -Bach lived quietly and in almost complete obscurity; for the last -quarter-century of his life he held a post as teacher of music and -church-music director in Leipsic. - -He travelled little, sought no worldly fame, took no pains to secure -performances of his works, and, above all, made no compromise with the -popular taste of his day. He produced his great compositions, one after -another, in the regular day's work, for performance in his church or by -local orchestras and players. He never pined for a recognition that in -the nature of things he could not have; he wrote the music that seemed -good to him, and thought that his responsibility ended there, and that -his reward lay there. The cynic who said "Every man has his price" -was evidently not acquainted with the life of Bach. Steadily ignoring -those temptations to prostitute his genius for the public's pleasure, -which so materially affected the life course of his great contemporary -Handel, he followed his own ideals with an undivided mind. As always -happens in such cases, since it takes decades for the world to -comprehend a sincere individual, or even centuries if his individuality -is deep and unique, he was not appreciated in his life-time, nor for -many years after his death. - -Indeed, he is not appreciated now, for a man can be appreciated only -by his equals. But we have at last got an inkling of the treasure that -still lies hidden away in Bach; and while Handel and the other idols of -the age sound daily more thin and archaic, Bach grows ever richer as -the understanding we bring to him increases, and still holds out his -promise of novel and perennial artistic delights. - - - SUGGESTIONS FOR COLLATERAL READING. - -_W. R. Spalding: "Tonal Counterpoint." Edward Dickinson: "Study of the -History of Music," Chapter XX. C. H. H. Parry: "Evolution of the Art of -Music," Chapter VIII._ - - FOOTNOTES: - -[7] Number the measures, and call the voices soprano, alto, and bass. - -[8] The reader should examine the example of shifted rhythm given in -the second chapter in dealing with the German song, "Sister Fair." - -[9] In Book I, for example, Fugue II is as light and delicate as XII is -serious and earnest; XVI is pathetic, XVII vigorous and rugged, XVIII -thoughtful and mystical, etc. - - - - - CHAPTER IV. - - THE DANCE AND ITS DEVELOPMENT. - - - I. MUSICAL CHARACTER OF DANCES. - -In the last chapter we studied the most important applications of the -"polyphonic" style, which originated in music for voices, to the music -of instruments. We saw how in such music the attention of the composer -was divided among several equally important voices or parts, and how -much he made of the principle of imitation; and in connection with the -fugue we remarked that the very complex interweaving of the different -voices in such music, one beginning before another leaves off, and all -together making an intricate web, presented certain difficulties to -the listener accustomed to the more modern style, in which a single -voice has the melody, and stops short at regular intervals, giving the -hearer a chance to draw breath, as it were, and renew attention for -what is coming next. Listening to modern music is like reading a series -of short sentences, each clearly and definitely ended by its own full -stop. Listening to the old polyphony is more like reading one of those -long and involved sentences of De Quincey or Walter Pater, in which the -clauses are intricately interwoven and mutually dependent, so that we -can get the sense only by a long-sustained effort of attention. - -This more involved style, suitable to voices, but less natural -to instruments, had historically a very long life. Much of the -instrumental music of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth -centuries was in fact nothing but a transference to instruments of -music really conceived for voices. Thus, for example, in the sixteenth -century, when madrigals and canzonas, which were compositions for -voices in the polyphonic style but of a more secular character than -church music, were exceedingly popular, the composers for stringed -instruments and for the then very fashionable lutes, "when they -wanted something of a superior order, ... simply played madrigals, -or wrote music in imitation of any of the varieties of choral music, -not realizing that without the human tones ... which gave expression -to the rising and falling of the melodic material, the effect was -pointless and flat."[10] Even Bach and Handel, in the eighteenth -century, were, by their deeply-rooted habit of _thinking vocally_, in -some degree hampered in the search for a purely instrumental style. -Instrumental music, having to get along without words, must find some -principle of coherence, some kind of definite design, which will make -it intelligible without the help of words, and enable it to stand on -its own feet. - -And here comes in the importance of folk-song, and of the folk-dance -which grew up beside it, to our modern instrumental music. For both -song and dance pointed the way to such a principle of independent -intelligibility, through definite balance of phrases (see Chapter I), -and through contrasts and resemblances of _key_ in the various phrases -and sections of a composition. Music intended to accompany songs or -dances _had_ to consist of balanced phrases of equal length--in the -case of songs, because it had to reproduce the verse structure of -the words, which of course were composed in regular stanzas of equal -lines, and in the case of dances, because it had to afford a basis for -symmetrical movements of the body. And when once it was thus divided -up into equal phrases, it took musicians but a short time to find that -these phrases could be effectively contrasted, and made the parts of -larger musical organisms, by being put into different keys (as we have -seen in the instances of modulation cited in Chapters II and III). How -vital these principles of structure in balanced phrases and sections, -and of contrast of keys, are to the entire modern development of music, -we shall realize fully only as we proceed. - -Again, both song and dance have proved supremely important to the -development of the homophonic style (one melody, with accompaniment -not itself melodic). In the case of song the reason is obvious. A song -rendered by a solo voice, with instrumental accompaniment, naturally -takes the homophonic style, since it would be highly artificial to -make the subordinate element in the combination as prominent as the -chief one. Dance is less inevitably homophonic than song; indeed many -dances, as we shall see, are to a greater or less degree polyphonic; -but nevertheless the tendency toward homophony is always apparent. -In the first place, the interweaving of many melodies would tend to -obscure the division into definite phrases, since an inner melody might -sometimes fill up the pause in the main one, as we saw it constantly -doing in the fugue. Secondly, the mode of performing dances tends to -give prominence to a single melody. The old dances were generally -played by one melodic instrument, such as a violin or hautboy, -accompanied by chords on an instrument of the lute or guitar family, -and frequently by a drum to strengthen the accents. Such a combination -affords but one prominent "voice," and does not lend itself naturally -to polyphonic writing. - - [Music: score] - FIGURE XV. - - Viens dans ce bo- ca- ge, belle A- min - te, - Sans contrain - te L'on y for - me des vœux; Viens, - Viens dans ce bo - ca - ge, belle A- min - te, - Il est fait pour les plai-sirs et les jeux: - - -The "Tambourin," for instance, an old French dance of Provence, was -played by one performer, the melody with one hand on the "galoubet," a -kind of pipe or flageolet, and the accompanying rhythm with the other -on a small drum. The quotation in Figure XV, taken from Wekerlin's -collection, "Echos du Temps Passé" (Vol. III), is a good example of -this ancient dance. In this arrangement for piano, the left hand -imitates the drum, and the right hand the "galoubet" or pipe. This -quotation illustrates the common use of dance melodies in songs. Many -primitive airs were so used in the olden times. - - - II. PRIMITIVE DANCES. - -The rude dances which spring up spontaneously in all communities, -savage as well as civilized, and of which we in America have examples -in the war-dances of Indians and the cake-walks of negroes, are thus -seen to be pregnant of influence on developed musical art, no less than -the folk-songs which we discussed in the second chapter, and the more -academic music in the polyphonic style which we treated in the third. -Both songs and dances, indeed, sometimes enter into artistic music -even in their crude form, but in most cases composers treat them with -a certain freedom, and in various ways enhance their effectiveness, as -Haydn, for instance, treats the Croatian folk-tune "Jur Postaje," in -the Andante of his "Paukenwirbel" Symphony. In Figure XVI the reader -will see both the crude form of the tune and the shape into which Haydn -moulds it for his purposes. - - [Music: score] - "Jur Postaje." - - [Music: score] - HAYDN'S Version. - - FIGURE XVI. - -In the long process of development which songs and dances thus undergo -at the hands of composers, they of course lose to some extent their -contrasting characters, until in modern music the dance and the song -elements are as inextricably interwoven as the warp and the woof of a -well-made fabric. - -As imitation is only slightly available in homophonic music, the unity -so vital to all art is attained in dances chiefly by transpositions of -motives, often in systematic "sequences," by more or less exact balance -of phrases, and by restatement after contrast. In crude examples -these means are crudely used; in the work of masters they are treated -with more subtlety and elasticity; but always a careful analysis will -discover them. It will now prove enlightening to compare, from this -point of view, three dance tunes of very different degrees of merit. - - [Music: score] -FIGURE XVII. A "Branle" or "Brawl" from Arbeau's Orchesographie, (1545). - -Figure XVII shows an ancient "Branle" or "Brawl" of the sixteenth -century, taken from Arbeau's "Orchesographie," published in 1545. - -The strong meter, causing a distinct accent on the first note of each -measure, will at once be noted, especially if it be contrasted with the -more moderate accentuation of the folk-songs of Chapter II. Such strong -meter is naturally characteristic of all dance tunes, intended as they -are to guide and stimulate the regular steps of the dancer. - -The phrase balance, though marked, is not absolutely regular, but the -two two-measure phrases at the beginning and the single one at the end -suffice to give an impression of pronounced symmetry. The six-measure -phrase after the double-bar is generated by the sequential treatment of -the little motive of measure 5. - -This sequence (measures 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) is worthy of note because of the -excessive length to which it is carried. Five repetitions are too many, -and grow monotonous. A more skilful composer would have secured his -unity without so great a sacrifice of variety--in a word, he would have -treated a device good in itself with less crudity. - -The exact repetition of measures 3-4 at the end is an effective use of -restatement after contrast. Although the whole of the original theme is -not given, there is enough of it to give the sense of orderliness in -design. - -A Gavotte in F-major by Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713), the famous -violin virtuoso of the seventeenth century, printed in Augener's -edition of Pieces by Corelli, will illustrate a distinctly higher stage -in the treatment of a dance form. This is well worth a brief analysis. - - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 3. - - _Corelli: Gavotte in F-Major._ - -Here the phrase balance, though entirely satisfying to the sense of -rhythm, is much more elastic than in the brawl. The measure-lengths of -the phrases are not all the same; they are as follows: 1, 1, 2, 1, 1, -1, 2, 2. This gives the tune an agreeable variety. - -It will be noted, however, that the sequence is still treated rather -fumblingly. In the three measures after the double-bar, the same motive -is repeated thrice, each time higher than before, and to a fastidious -ear the third repetition grows slightly wearisome. - -On the whole, nevertheless, the gain in elasticity and freedom over the -last example is marked. - -The general structure and scheme of modulation in this little Gavotte -of Corelli deserves careful attention, because it is in these respects -typical of a very great number, indeed of the majority of the short -dances of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It is divided -into two distinct halves, and while each deals with the same musical -material, the two are strongly contrasted in the matter of key. The -first begins in the home key and leaves it to end in a contrasted -key, in the present case the "dominant." The second, beginning in the -dominant, modulates back again to the home key, and ends there. This -scheme, called by musicians "binary" or "two-part" form, is a very -simple and natural one for short pieces of this kind, and is to be -found in thousands of the movements of Corelli, Scarlatti, Couperin, -Rameau, Purcell, Handel, Bach, and other masters of their day. It is -even more common than the "ternary" form to which we shall come in a -moment. - - - III. A BACH GAVOTTE. - -If the reader will now compare with these two dances the Gavotte in the -sixth English Suite of J. S. Bach, who had the advantage of living half -a century later than Corelli (besides being an immeasurably greater -genius), he will be amazed to see the power and originality with which -a master can treat a traditional form.[11] - - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 4. - - _Bach: Gavotte in D-Minor from the Sixth English Suite._ - -Before looking at matters of detail, we must notice the structure -of the piece as a whole, since it is not only highly interesting in -itself, but is an example--the first we have had on a large scale--of a -type of construction that is perhaps more popular with musicians of all -schools than any other. - -This structural type is nothing but an application to an entire piece -of that three-part form which we have seen in little in the Galician -folk-song of Chapter I and in "Polly Oliver" in Chapter II, and to -which we may now give the name of "ternary form," to distinguish it -from the "binary form" discussed in Chapter III. Bach here writes -two distinct gavottes, repeating the first after the second: so that -Gavotte I is a _statement_, Gavotte II a _contrast_ (emphasized by -change of key from minor to major), and the repeated Gavotte I a -_restatement_. This practice is very frequent in Bach's suites, where -we often find two courantes, two bourrées, two passepieds, two minuets, -etc., combined in this way, the function of the second being to afford -contrast to the first. In some instances the second of the pair is -called "trio," probably because the earliest examples were written in -three-voice harmony, or "musette," from the French word for "bagpipe," -in reference to the drone bass imitating that instrument. (This is the -case in the present gavotte, where the gavotte II bears the alternative -name of musette.) - -In the sonatas and symphonies of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, as we -shall see later, this three-section structure is found in the minuet -with trio, and in the scherzo with trio. Nor is it less common in -modern music, occurring notably in the marches of Schubert, many of the -short pieces of Schumann, in the polonaises and some of the nocturnes -of Chopin, in the rhapsodies and intermezzos of Brahms, and in the -lyric pieces of Grieg. Indeed, its naturalness and clearness inevitably -commend it to all composers. - -Looking more closely we see, again, that the same scheme is used by -Bach in each of the two gavottes, _considered separately_. In the -first, we note the structure A = measures 1-10, B = measures 11-27, A = -measures 27-35; in the second we find, A = measures 1-10, B = measures -11-19, A = measures 19-28. The student should verify this analysis for -himself. - -Proceeding now to details, we notice first that Bach, supreme master of -polyphony that he is, writes even a gavotte in such a way that each of -its voices has its own melodic value. The gavotte itself is in three -voices throughout, and the musette in two, and while these voices are -not so purely melodic as in an invention or a fugue, and there is -little strict imitation, yet the general effect is polyphonic rather -than homophonic. In measures 27-31 the alto voice even has the theme. - -The phrase balance is freer than even Corelli's, because Bach's mind -is quicker to seize upon and work out the latent possibilities of his -melodies. All begins regularly enough: the first four phrases are each -two measures in length; but after the double-bar the "plot begins to -thicken." First we find two more phrases just like the preceding ones -(measures 11-13 and 13-15); but in the next phrase, begun in the same -way, in measure 15, the yeast of Bach's fancy begins to work, and the -melody broadens out in a series of evolutions, first in the soprano -and later in the alto, not coming again to a point of rest (end of -a phrase) until measure 23. This extension of a phrase through the -germination or blossoming of the thought (in this case it all comes -from the bit of melody in measure 7) is a matter of supreme importance -in composition, and this instance of it, as well as another in -measures 23-27, should be carefully studied by any one who desires to -understand music. The power thus to develop or draw forth the hidden -potentialities of his motives is one of the most important of all the -gifts which go to make a composer. Still further instances of it should -now be found by the student himself in the musette. - -The artistic freedom and felicity of Bach's way of working is further -illustrated by the manner in which, while using the general principle -of the sequence as a means of giving his music unity of idea, he avoids -those overliteral, mechanical transpositions of motive which we found -in the more primitive dances. There is just the contrast here that -there is between a poor speaker, who keeps repeating the same word or -phrase with futile emphasis, and the man of real eloquence, who follows -a train of thought no less closely, but manages constantly to cast -his ideas in new phraseology and fresh figures of speech, so that the -variety of what he says is quite as striking as its fundamental unity. - -The element of variety introduced into the contrast-section of the -gavotte (11-27), by the free modulation through several keys, should -also be remarked. The plan of modulation is different from any we have -yet had. Instead of beginning in the relative major (which would be the -key of F), the section begins in the _dominant minor_ (A-minor). A good -many keys are then touched upon before the tonic or home key is reached -at the restatement (27-35), which, by a charming subtlety, begins with -the theme in the alto instead of the soprano voice. - -In all these matters we detect the workings of an original and -inventive mind, which, far from being hampered by working in a -traditional form, is stimulated to constantly new solutions of old -problems, and so produces a piece of music at once perfectly clear and -fascinatingly interesting. - -In the next chapter we shall see how composers combined groups of such -dances as this, with other pieces of a different character, into those -suites which were the most popular forms of instrumental music in the -eighteenth century. - - - SUGGESTIONS FOR COLLATERAL READING. - -_Grove's Dictionary: article "Rhythm," and articles under names of -various dances, as "Gavotte," "Allemande," "Courante," "Minuet," -"Gigue," etc._ - -_Other examples of dances may be found in a collection of twenty-five -old gavottes, published by Breitkopf and Härtel, and in a volume of -miscellaneous old dances in the Litolff Edition._ - - FOOTNOTES: - -[10] Parry: Evolution of the Art of Music, page 115. - -[11] For this analysis, number all the measures and parts of measures -consecutively, which will give 35 measure numbers in the Gavotte -proper, and 28 in the second Gavotte or Musette. - - - - - CHAPTER V. - - THE SUITE. - - - I. DERIVATION OF THE SUITE. - -Once musicians had begun to realize how dances could be developed into -finished pieces, like the gavotte of Bach, which we discussed in the -last chapter, they were quick to avail themselves of this advantage by -combining several such dances into a group, thus making a composition -of some length and dignity and yet of popular, easily comprehensible -style. Such compositions, known in England as "Lessons," in France as -"Ordres," and in Germany as "Suites" and "Partitas," became numerous in -the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. - -The first historical step in the development of the suite was taken -when the great violin-makers of Cremona and Brescia, in Italy, -brought the violin to a wonderful mechanical perfection early in the -seventeenth century. Virtuosos on this brilliant instrument were not -slow to appear, and they dazzled their audiences with pieces known as -sonatas, though having little in common with what we nowadays call a -sonata. Their _sonata da chiesa_, or church sonata, was a group of -pieces, all polyphonic in character and derived from the old choral -madrigals and canzonas; the _sonata da ballo_, or dance sonata, was -a group of dance tunes; the _sonata da camera_, or chamber sonata, -combined both types. Gradually the first become obsolete, and the -second and third took respectively the names _suite_ and _partita_, -although the nomenclature was inexact, as suites often contained -movements of strict and severe polyphonic style as well as dances. The -greatest of the violin virtuosos was Arcangelo Corelli, whose "sonatas" -retain their charm even for our modern ears, as may be seen from the -sample of his work studied in the last chapter. - -About the end of the seventeenth century the keyed instruments, -such as the harpsichord, the clavichord, the spinet, and other -precursors of our modern pianoforte, first reached the degree of -mechanical perfection which enabled them to rival the violin; and it -was accordingly not until then that important pieces for such keyed -instruments began to be written. At the end of the seventeenth and the -beginning of the eighteenth centuries, however, we find interesting -music for these instruments by composers of several nations. In France -Couperin (1668-1733) wrote what he called "Ordres," short series of -pieces "in dance style, piquant in rhythm, melodiously graceful, -profusely embroidered with embellishment;"[12] and he was followed by -Rameau (1683-1764) with similar works. A curious whim of these French -masters was the appending of picturesque titles to their pieces, such -as "The Tambourine," "The Hen," "The Return of the Birds," etc.--a -practice which anticipates the program music of to-day. - -Italy had one extraordinary genius in this department of music, -Domenico Scarlatti (1683-1757). He was a most brilliant performer -on the harpsichord, delighted in all feats of agility, and loved to -surprise and astonish his audience. In short he was a virtuoso, and his -performances must have created the kind of sensation in the seventeenth -century that Liszt's did in the nineteenth. "For vivacity, wit, -irony, mischief, mockery, and all the category of human traits which -Beethoven's scherzo served so brilliantly to express," says Parry, "the -world had to wait for a full century to see Scarlatti's equal again." -Some of the preludes, sarabandes, minuets, courantes, etc., composed by -him, still retain their interest. His beautiful Pastorale in E-minor, -and his "Cat fugue," written on a theme played by a pet cat running -across the keyboard, are sometimes heard in recitals. - -It was in the hands of the German masters, Bach and Handel,[13] -however, that the suite reached its highest state. These two great -composers, born in the same year, 1685, possessed not only the sense -of technical effect which made Scarlatti great, and the high spirits, -enthusiasm, and sense of proportion which are needed for the production -of idealized dance movements such as Couperin and Rameau have given us, -but they had great musical learning, and much experience in the use -of the strict choral style of polyphonic writing, which they showed -by introducing into their suites certain movements much more serious -in style and exalted in sentiment than dances. The English and French -Suites, so called, of Bach, and the Twelve Harpsichord Suites, or -"Lessons," as they were called in England, of Handel, deserve to rank -among the great masterpieces of musical art. - - - II. THE SUITES OF BACH. - -The six English and six French Suites of Bach, which deserve a more -detailed study than any others, consist generally of from five to -eight separate pieces or movements. The first, derived from the -severer type of the _sonata da chiesa_, and thus, more remotely, -from the choral madrigal and canzona (see above), is always more -intricate and elaborate than the others. In the English Suite it is a -long contrapuntal prelude, with imitations and sequences such as we -studied in the invention and the fugue. In the French Suites it is an -allemande, less elaborate but still dignified and impressive. We see -this to be appropriate when we remember that the hearer is best able to -follow intricacies when his mind is fresh and unjaded. - - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 5. - - _Bach: Prelude to English Suite, No. 3, in G-Minor._ - -_The Motives_: The thematic material out of which this prelude is -developed is very simple, consisting of just two motives, which we will -call (_a_) and (_b_). - - [Music: score] - Motive (_a_) (imitated through four voices.) - - [Music: score] - Motive (_b_) (imitated by a second voice) measures 33-36. - - FIGURE XVIII. MOTIVES OF BACH PRELUDE IN G-MINOR - -Note the effective contrast between the bold, assertive character of -motive (_a_) and the more graceful character of (_b_). - -_Structure_: The prelude divides itself into seven clearly marked -sections, each ended by a well-marked cadence. Let us examine these -briefly in turn. - - Section I, measures 1-32, key of G-minor: Founded on motive (_a_), - with many sequences which the reader should now be able to trace for - himself. - - Section II, measures 33-66: Begins in G-minor, modulates to B-flat - major, the "relative major." Motive (_b_) in soprano, measures 33-34; - in alto, measures 35-36; in bass, measures 43-44. Motive (_a_), - measures 35, 36, 37 (alto), 38, 39, 43, 44, 53, 54, etc. - - Section III, measures 67-98, key of B-flat: An almost exact copy of - Section I, in a different key. - - Section IV, measures 99-124: Begins in B-flat major, modulates to - D-minor, the "dominant" of the original key. Both motives tossed about - from voice to voice. (The reader should locate each instance for - himself.) - - Section V, measures 125-160: Begins in D-minor, modulates to - E-flat major, thus giving variety of key in the middle part of the - composition, which we begin to see is an important principle of form. - (Compare the Gavotte of the last chapter.) Very similar in treatment - to Section II. - - Section VI, measures 161-179: Modulates back from E-flat major - to the home key, thus preparing the way for the final statements - and conclusion. In measures 175-178 the insistence of the bass on - the tone D, the "dominant" of the original key, will be noticed. - Such an insistence on one tone is called a "pedal point," because - so frequently found in the pedal part of organ music, and serves - admirably here to prepare the mind for the triumphant return to - G-minor in the final section. The rest of Section VI is made up of - sequences, thus: 162-165, 166-169, 170-173; and then, 173, 174, 175, - 176, 177, 178. - - Section VII, measures 180-213: Almost entirely in the home-key, - thus emphasizing the sense of finality. The bulk of this section is - furthermore identical with Section I, thus affording a fine example of - the principle of _restatement after contrast_. - -Altogether this is a most interesting movement. In the great effect -made with simple means we recognize again, as we did in the case -of the invention and the fugue, the splendid power of Bach's mind. -The principles of imitation of motives from voice to voice, of -transpositions of a single motive in a single voice giving rise to the -many sequences, and of restatement after contrast, all discussed in -the first chapter, are illustrated more brilliantly than by any other -composition we have thus far examined. Finally, in the variety of key -of Section V, placed in the middle of the piece, and in the unity of -key of the first and last sections, we get a striking anticipation of a -principle of construction which we shall later see to be at the root of -the most important of modern forms, the sonata-form. - -After listening to such a movement as this we naturally wish to relax -a little; and we are, therefore, pleased to hear a series of dances of -various rhythms and qualities of expression, cast in simple "binary" -or "ternary" forms, and either frankly homophonic in style or not too -elaborately polyphonic. It is impossible to describe in detail here all -the dances found in suites, but the table on page 68 will give an idea -of the more important ones. - -The gavotte studied in the preceding chapter gives an excellent general -impression of the livelier dances used, which may be farther defined -by a glance at such typical pieces as the bourrées of the first and -second English Suites, and the gavottes of the third English and fifth -French Suites. There is generally also to be found in Bach's suites, -introduced for the sake of contrast and in order to represent the more -emotional side of musical expression, a sarabande or other such slow, -stately, and sometimes truly noble movement. Let us take, as an example -of this element, the Sarabande from the second English Suite. - - FIGURE XIX.--THE CHIEF DANCES USED IN SUITES - ----------+----------+----------+-----------------+-------------------------- - NAME | ORIGIN | METER | FORM | CHARACTER ----------+----------+----------+-----------------+-------------------------- -Allemande|German |4-4 |Usually "binary" |Brisk, fluent. -Courante |French |3-2 or 3-4| " "binary" |Merry, energetic. -Sarabande|Spanish |3-2, 3-4 | " "binary" |Stately, serious, - | | | | sometimes noble. -Bourrée |French |4-4, 2-4 | " "ternary"|Lively. -Gavotte |French |4-4 | " "ternary"|Moderately quick, - | | | | well-marked. -Minuet |French |3-8, 3-4 | " "ternary"|Well-regulated gaiety, - | | | | courtly. -Passepied|French |3-4 | |Animated, brisk. -Loure |Old French|6-4 | |Slow, stately. -Anglaise |French |2-4 | |Lively, energetic. -Polonaise|Polish |3-4 | |Dignified, but animated. -Pavane |French |2-4 | |Stately. -Rigaudon |French |2-4, 4-4 | |Very lively, gay. -Gigue |Doubtful |6-8, 12-8 | " "binary" |Very rollicking and merry. ----------+----------+----------+-----------------+-------------------------- - - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 6. _Bach: Sarabande in A-Minor from English - Suite_ II - -The melodic germ from which the piece is developed is the following -very serious and earnest phrase: - - [Music: score] - FIGURE XX.--THEME OF BACH SARABANDE - -a phrase in which great depth of almost tragic feeling is expressed. -Against this is set, for the sake of relief, the lighter and more -suave melody of measures 5 and 6, treated in freely sequential fashion. -The whole sarabande is built from these two brief melodic figures. - -This sarabande serves as an admirable illustration of the type of -beauty common in the music of Bach. Its phraseology, if we may use the -term, is quite different from that in use in the music of to-day; it is -full of quaint and archaic turns of musical speech--formal sequences, -little motives that sound to us almost mechanical. It is like an -etching of Dürer's, full of detail, each line carefully drawn, and the -whole picture instinct with life. Thus its type of beauty differs so -materially from that to which we are accustomed that it often fails -in its appeal. Only by using our imagination are we able to project -ourselves, so to speak, into another _milieu_, another time, another -point of view. And this is the test with which any archaic work of -art confronts us. Without imagination in the beholder a picture by -Botticelli, for example, is a curiosity rather than a work of art. Its -strange allegory, its quaint idea of landscape, its figures with their -unusual posing--all these are beautiful or merely curious according as -we look at them. "Beauty is in the eye of the beholder." - -The repetition at a higher pitch of the main motive in measures 3-4 is -highly poignant; and throughout the expression is intensified by the -use of rich and often complex harmony, as particularly in the last four -measures of all. - -Notwithstanding the earnest and impassioned character of this -sarabande, its derivation from the dance is clearly revealed in the -regularity of the balance of phrases consisting of equal measure -groups, which divide up as follows: 2, 2, 4, 4 (double-bar); 2, 2, 4, -2, 2, 4. The symmetry is much more precise than in an invention or a -fugue. - -The form is binary or two-part. Part one, measures 1-12, begins in -A-minor and ends in the "relative major," the key of C. Part two, -measures 13-28, begins (with the original motive) in C-major, and -returns to A-minor. - -The sequence of measures 23-24, with measures 21-22, is very beautiful -and deserves special notice. - -Following the sarabande the reader will observe a more florid -version of it, bearing the caption, "Les agréments de la même -Sarabande"--"Ornaments for the same Sarabande." This is an example -of the practice, common in Bach's day, of weaving a net-work of -grace-notes, trills, and other decorations about a melody, a practice -due in part to the natural fondness of all musicians for "effect," and -in part to the fact that the instruments of that day were so small and -poor that a tone could only be sustained by being struck many times. -This custom of ornamenting melodies with all manner of embroidery gave -rise to the "theme and variations," a form which we shall study later. - -All the other English Suites of Bach contain very beautiful sarabandes; -those in the French Suites are less interesting, though the first -contains a fine example. - -All of Bach's twelve suites end with gay and vigorous gigues, the most -rollicking of all the dances used. This is natural enough, in view of -the desirability of closing the suite with an impression of energetic -vitality. These gigues are in the headlong 6-8 or 12-8 meter; they are -polyphonic in texture, and constructed in the binary form. Often-times -a high degree of contrapuntal skill is shown in their composition, but -usually this does not interfere with their light and almost careless -character. A curious feature of most of them is that in the second half -the motive is inverted or turned upside down. - - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 7. - - _Bach: Gigue, from French Suite_ IV _in E-Flat_. - - [Music: score] - Theme of Gigue, Bach's French Suite IV, and its - Inversion. - - [Music: score] - Inversion of theme, beginning of second half. - - FIGURE XXI. - -The gay little theme is composed of two motives, as indicated in Figure -XXI, in which the long brackets show the theme and its imitation by -the second voice to enter, and the short brackets show its component -motives, of contrasting character. In measures 5 and 6 the theme is -again imitated by the third voice (left hand part). In the course of -the development a still more lively figure makes its appearance in -measures 19, 23, 24 and 25. - -The now familiar sequences are found at every turn. The form is binary -(Part I, measures 1-26; Part II, measures 27-60). The inversion of -the theme, shown in Figure XXI, makes the subject of the second half. -The key-system is perfectly simple. Part I modulates from the tonic, -E-flat, to the dominant, B-flat; Part II begins there and returns to -the home-key. - - - III. THE HISTORIC IMPORTANCE OF THE SUITE. - -In the course of the eighteenth century the suite gradually waned -in popularity, and gave place to the more highly organic sonata. -Modern suites, notable among which are such delightful works as -Bizet's "L'Arlesienne," Grieg's "Peer Gynt," Dvorák's Suite for small -orchestra, opus. 39, Tschaikowsky's "Nut-Cracker Suite," and Brahms's -"Serenades" for orchestra, are, after all, exceptional and infrequent, -and not the inevitable mould in which the composer casts his ideas. - -But the historical importance of the suite was great, and it fell into -disuse only after its lessons had been thoroughly learned. Through it -musicians developed the dance element which must always be one of the -two main strands of all music; through it they learned to substitute -for the ancient polyphonic style which is suitable to voices the -homophonic style best adapted to the capacities and the limitations -of instruments; and through it they became familiar with those simple -binary and ternary forms in which such instrumental music is most -conveniently and effectively cast. - -Thus the suite formed the bridge between, on the one hand, (_a_) crude -folk-songs, (_b_) primitive dances, and (_c_) strict polyphonic forms -such as the invention and the fugue, and on the other, the sonatas, -quartets, concertos, and symphonies of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. - - - SUGGESTIONS FOR COLLATERAL READING. - -_Dickinson: "The Study of the History of Music," Chapters XIII and XIV. -Parry: "Evolution of the Art of Music," Chapters VIII and IX; Mason: -"Beethoven and His Forerunners," Chapter IV._ - - FOOTNOTES: - -[12] Edward Dickinson, "The Study of the History of Music," page 84. - -[13] Handel, though he lived in England, was in his music a German. - - - - - CHAPTER VI. - - THE RONDO. - - -The study of the suite contained in the last chapter has brought us -for the first time into contact with a cyclic form. We have seen that, -as instruments developed, as the technique of playing them advanced, -and as the themes and their harmonies became more plastic, composers -naturally sought some larger plan than that afforded by a single dance -form; they thus arrived at the suite. But the suite was inclined to be -monotonous. The same key was used for all the separate movements, there -was an almost invariable stated length for each, and the rhythms were -too insistent to admit of great variety of expression. So composers -began to experiment with other forms, chief among which was the -sonata.[14] - -Through all the rest of this book we shall be dealing directly or -indirectly with the musical forms that go to make up the complete -sonata. In the present chapter we shall deal with one of its simplest -and most primitive types of structure, the rondo. - -Sonatas were written as far back as the seventeenth century. Kuhnau's -celebrated "Bible Sonatas," crude attempts at program music, are -among the notable examples of primitive sonatas. These were indeed -"sound-pieces," but their resemblance to a real sonata, as we -understand the term, is slight. Bach and Handel each wrote sonatas; and -some of Bach's are masterly examples of the then prevailing style. His -sonata for violin and piano in F-minor (number V in Peters' edition) -may be studied as an example of the form. It contains four movements, -the first, second, and fourth of which are purely polyphonic, the -third being one of those beautiful meditative pieces of a somewhat -rhapsodical style in which Bach seems to have specially delighted. -Italian contemporaries of Bach also wrote sonatas, and some of those -by D. Scarlatti (1683-1757) and A. Corelli (1653-1713) were of -considerable importance in the development of the form. All these early -specimens, however, were either vague and indeterminate in form, or -were hampered in their expression by the old polyphonic methods. The -modern sonata first begins to emerge in the work of Philip Emanuel -Bach, son of John Sebastian, and his compositions in this style will be -the subject of a later chapter. - - - I. DERIVATION OF THE RONDO. - -Our investigations into the formal element of early dance music have -thus far revealed two plans, "binary" and "ternary," _i. e._, two-part -and three-part. For such short pieces as the inventions of Bach, and -for many of the separate dances in suites, the two-part form was -adequate, but when instrumental music began to develop on broader -lines, so that each of the halves was extended to a considerable -length, the advantage of the three-part form with its "restatement -after contrast" was readily perceived, and it came to be frequently -used. - -Among the early experiments in form we find a kind of extension of -ternary form by the repetition of its separate parts. Such pieces -sometimes consist of but one stable phrase (A) with alternating phrases -of an indefinite character, while others alternate two set phrases, -as: A, B, A, B, A, B, A, etc. The one fixed principle in these pieces -seems to be that they should end with the phrase with which they began. -In primitive songs this fixed part constituted the chorus, with which -the solo melody alternated, having, of course, different words for each -verse. - - [Music: score] - FIGURE XXII. NOUEL DE LAS FLOUS. (CAROL OF THE FLOWERS) - - _Chorus._ - - Come with us, sweet flowers, and worship Christ the Lord, - Let your perfumes hover round the Babe adored. - - _1st & 2nd Sopranos._ - - 1. Modest violet, hiding in the grassy shade, - Thou canst say how humble He for us is made. - - _Chorus._ - - Come with us, &c. (D.C.) - - 2. Lily fair, low bending in the sun's warm light, - Thou dost tell that He is pure as thou art white. - Come with us, &c. - - 3. As thou, Pansy, shinest forth in bright array, - So doth He His majesty to man display. - Come with us, &c. - - 4. As thou, Rose, wide-opening dost thy scent impart, - So His love expanding, draws each sinful heart. - Come with us, &c. - -"The question is sometimes raised whether in the primitive carol the -chorus began, or whether, as in many of our own popular songs, it -waited until the end of the first solo verse. Probably the former is of -the greater antiquity; in any case, it is from it that the rondo[15] is -derived."--Hadow, "Sonata Form." - -An example of this primitive type of carol will be found in Figure XXII. - -This is an ancient carol from the old province of Bas-Quercy (now -Lot-et-Garonne) in the southwestern part of France. - -The obvious weakness of this form, when applied to instrumental music, -is its monotony. One would soon weary of a bald repetition over and -over again of two phrases or two melodies to which no variety was -imparted, such as the change of words supplies in the foregoing carol. -In order to avoid this disadvantage the natural step to take would be -to impart, by some means or other, variety to the music; and this was -soon perceived by composers. The idea of a fixed part remained, _i. e._, -the chief musical idea was retained in its original form, but the -secondary melodies were varied. Once this change had taken place the -rondo became a frequent medium of musical expression. Specimens of the -early rondo may be found in Purcell's song, "I Attempt from Love's -Sickness to Fly," and in Bach's, "Passepied en Rondeau," from the fifth -English Suite. The formula for these two pieces is A, B, A, C, A. - -Another interesting point is the plan of the harmony of the contrasting -sections in the rondo. The first of these (B) would naturally follow -the prevailing custom for "sections of contrast," and be in the -dominant, or, if the piece were in minor, in the relative major (see -Chapter II.); but the second (C) offered a further means of variety, -and the instinct of composers led them to treat it in a free manner -and not confine it to any one key. Each of the examples of rondo form -referred to above adopts this method of procedure. - -While this early form of the rondo possessed a certain charm, it was -somewhat rigid in effect, since the various sections were separated -from each other by a full close or complete pause. They were like -little blocks that fitted together into a definite, if somewhat stiff -pattern. - - - II. A RONDO BY COUPERIN. - -The primitive rondo was chiefly cultivated by the French harpsichord -composers of the early eighteenth century, of whom Couperin (1668-1733) -and Rameau (1683-1764) were the most distinguished. Reference has been -made in our chapter on "The Suite" to the "Ordres" of these composers, -and to the perfecting, at the end of the seventeenth century, of -the instrument for which they were written, the harpsichord. The -strings of the harpsichord were not struck by hammers, as in the -modern pianoforte, but plucked by quills, as the strings of a banjo -are plucked by the fingers of the player. It has been said of the -harpsichord that it produced "a scratch with a tone at the end of it." -The tone produced in this primitive way was weak and of brief duration, -so that composers not only had to keep re-enforcing a tone by striking -it again, as in the trills and other ornaments so characteristic of -their music, but had to avoid altogether any long sustained passages -such as are common in modern music. They had also to substitute for the -polyphonic style, the entire effectiveness of which depends upon the -sustainment of its melodies, a homophonic or one-voiced style which, -while distinct from that usual in modern piano music, was historically -an important factor in its development. - - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 8. - - _Couperin: "Les Moissonneurs" ("The Harvesters")._ - -This naïve and delightful piece is a good example of the prevailing -style of French domestic music in the eighteenth century. It is notable -for its character of elegance; it is _salon_ music, but at the same -time it reveals a certain mimetic quality common among the French. -The swing of its rhythm seems to catch a little of the idea conveyed -by the title. Couperin's pieces have been called "a sort of refined -ballet music," and they are, as a whole, based on well defined rhythmic -movement. But we may trace in them the gradual progress away from dance -forms and towards a freer and more idealized expression. - -Couperin was called by his contemporaries "Le Grand," and was an -important figure in the musical life of Paris during the reign of Louis -XIV. His influence extended beyond France; even John Sebastian Bach -adopts some of his methods in writing his French suites. - -"Les Moissonneurs" may be formally tabulated as follows: - - - FIGURE XXIII. STRUCTURAL PLAN OF COUPERIN'S "LES MOISSONEURS." - -+---------+-------------+-------------------------------------+ -| Section | Measures | Notes | -+---------+-------------+-------------------------------------+ -| A | [16]1-9 | Entirely in tonic key with pause | -| | | at end. (The key is B-flat major.) | -+---------+-------------+-------------------------------------+ -| B | 10-14 | Modulating to the dominant | -| | | and ending thereon. | -+---------+-------------+-------------------------------------+ -| A | 15-23 | An exact repetition of the first A. | -+---------+-------------+-------------------------------------+ -| C | 24-32 | Entirely in relative minor key | -| | | with pause at end. | -+---------+-------------+-------------------------------------+ -| A | 33-41 | An exact repetition of the first A. | -+---------+-------------+-------------------------------------+ -| D | 42-56 | Beginning in tonic; modulating to | -| | | C minor and back again. | -+---------+-------------+-------------------------------------+ -| A | 57-65 | An exact repetition of the first A. | -+---------+-------------+-------------------------------------+ - -An examination of this rondo will reveal that the subsidiary -portions--B. C. and D.--are episodes rather than distinct themes. -Their melodies, instead of being entirely new as in the more highly -developed rondos of Haydn and Mozart, are either literal copies of the -chief melody, or close imitations of it, in _related keys_; so that -the chief variety imparted by them is a variety of _harmony_. The plan -of these harmonies should be carefully noted, particularly the use -of the home key in the section marked D. This method of unifying a -melody or a whole piece, by coming back to the original key at the end, -embodying as it does an important æsthetic principle, has been pointed -out several times already. We may say, then, that the structure of this -piece is "harmonic" rather than "thematic." In all instrumental music -of any consequence this harmonic element is of great importance. - -The use of the word "Couplet" to describe the episodes seems to -indicate the derivation of these rondos from the old song and chorus -like the "Carol of the Flowers." In fact, one gets from this piece a -decided impression as of a fixed[17] part in somewhat rigid form, and -with comparatively full "harmonies," alternating with verses (couplets) -in which the right hand plays, as it were, a solo melody against an -unobtrusive accompaniment. - - - III. FROM COUPERIN TO MOZART. - -This form of the rondo[18] persisted until the time of Haydn and -Mozart, and our next example for analysis is from that period. During -the century that elapsed between Couperin and Mozart the piano was so -perfected as to displace the harpsichord. The invention of the damper -pedal entirely changed the style of writing for the piano, and the -necessity for filling out the melody with elaborate ornamentation -no longer existed. The greater power and better action of the new -instruments also afforded composers a much wider scope. - -But more important still, during this century Philip Emanuel Bach -(1714-1788) had written some pianoforte works that advanced the art -into a new realm. In the eighth chapter we shall study one of his -pianoforte sonatas, but it may be said here that both Haydn and Mozart -freely acknowledged their great debt to him. This study is postponed -for the moment because he did not affect the form of the rondo. - -Franz Josef Haydn (1732-1809), who spent many years as Kapellmeister to -Prince Esterhazy and who, in consequence, lived more or less isolated -from the world, made many interesting experiments with musical forms. -He may be said to be the father of the symphony and the string quartet, -and several of his piano sonatas contain movements that are obviously -attempts at creating new forms or combining old ones in new ways. - -His ninth[19] piano sonata, for example, has for its finale a curious -and interesting combination of the rondo and the variation form, while -the finale to the third sonata is marked "Tempo di Minuetto." Such -experiments are always to be found when we examine the work of creative -minds. - - [Music: score] - FIGURE XXIV. - -Haydn's sonatas thus provide us with a link in the chain that binds -Mozart to his predecessors. The foregoing quotation from Haydn's -second sonata will illustrate the primitive nature of some of his rondo -themes (Figure XXIV). This theme is, in effect, a jolly dance tune -without pretensions to dignity, and against it is placed a conventional -pattern accompaniment. - -Another rondo theme from Haydn may be cited to illustrate his gentle -humor. - - [Music: score] - FIGURE XXV. - -This has for its first episode, or secondary theme, the following -vividly contrasting passage: - - [Music: score] - FIGURE XXVI. - -These two quotations illustrate the childlike naïveté of Haydn's -nature. He is never tragic; his pieces are like delightful pictures of -rural life painted by an artist who was himself country born and bred -and who feels the natural charm of the simplest, commonest things. -Haydn's pictures are flooded with sunlight. - - - IV. A RONDO BY MOZART. - -Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791), aside from his supreme greatness -as a composer, represents the culmination of what is called the -"Classical" period. The tendency away from strict polyphony and towards -a free homophonic style has already been noted. It was the peasant-born -Haydn who first subordinated polyphony, producing long instrumental -pieces based on song melodies. His symphonies and string quartets are -bubbling over with melodiousness. Often frankly adopting folk tunes, or -inventing themes in the same style, he produced great works that depend -hardly at all on the interweaving of themes, but have as their basis -rather the exposition of single melodies as the _raison d'être_ of the -music. Not by any means lacking in erudition, Haydn turns to naïve -melody as his natural means of expression. - -Along with this element, and as a component part of what we call -"classic," is that perfection of form and style that particularly -distinguishes the music of Mozart. - -"His works are often cited as the most perfect illustrations of the -classic idea in music,--this term referring in a general way to the -absence of individualism in conformity to a general type of style and -form, naïveté as opposed to self-consciousness, symmetry of outline, -highest finish of detail, purity of sound, loftiness and serenity of -mood."--Dickinson, "The Study of the History of Music." - - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 9. - - _Mozart: Rondo from Piano Sonata in B-flat major._ - -This rondo is the last of the three movements of this characteristic -sonata. Mozart's piano sonatas seldom have more than three movements, -and of these the rondo is last, the plan being to present the more -highly organized movements first, and to end, as in the suite, with -a bright and cheerful piece. The rondos of this period were lively -and rhythmically energetic. While not essentially dance-like, they -nevertheless were ultimately derived from the dance, and lacked the -meditative and sentimental qualities to be found in slow movements. -It is from one of these two sources--the dance tune and the -folk-song--that all these sonata movements sprang. Contributory streams -entered here and there--the polyphonic influence is discernible; -Italian opera lends its fluent vocal style and occasionally its love -of display in elaborate cadenzas; and, of course, the idiom of the -piano--the peculiar manner of writing that the instrument requires--is -always present. - -The first theme of this movement, for example, suggests motion; one -can almost imagine the opening section (measures 1-16) as suited to -the first evolution in a dance, and the second (beginning at measure -16) as the strain intended for a new set of dancers, while the chords -in measure 17 quite vividly suggest the steps of a dance. The left -hand part is largely in the familiar idiom of the piano of Mozart's -time, though there is occasionally polyphonic treatment--as in -measures 1-8. The various divisions of the piece are strongly marked -by cadences, sometimes preceded by formal patterns of scales, or other -meaningless passages, as at 144-147, such as Wagner likened to "the -clatter of dishes at a royal banquet." Sequences, so familiar in the -music of Bach, frequently appear here, and were, indeed, a part of the -phraseology of the time. The passage between measures 189 and 193 is, -in this respect, especially notable because of the harsh dissonance -between E-flat and D at measure 191. - -The cadenza is an interesting and unusual factor in this rondo. A -cadenza always occurred in certain types of operatic arias, and in the -concerto was introduced to display the skill of the performer, but it -is unusual to find one in a rondo. - - FIGURE XXVII. - - STRUCTURAL PLAN OF MOZART'S RONDO IN B-FLAT MAJOR. - -+---------+----------+----------------------------------------------------+ -| Section | Measures | Notes | -+---------+----------+----------------------------------------------------+ -| A | 1-24 | Chief theme in two sections (1-8 and 9-24), | -| | | the last slightly extended. | -+---------+----------+----------------------------------------------------+ -| B | 24-40 | First contrasting theme in dominant. Measures | -| | | 36-40 constitute a codetta to this section. | -+---------+----------+----------------------------------------------------+ -| A | 41-64 | Chief theme as before, but modulating (62) | -| | | to the relative minor. | -+---------+----------+----------------------------------------------------+ -| C | 64-111 | Second contrasting theme in two parts: 1st in | -| | | G-minor (64-75), 2nd in E-flat major (76-90). | -| | | This section is concluded by a passage in | -| | | C-minor based on motive from chief theme, and | -| | | by a codetta (105-111) similar to that in B. | -+---------+----------+----------------------------------------------------+ -| A | 112-148 | Chief theme as before, but extended. | -+---------+----------+----------------------------------------------------+ -| B | 148-172 | First contrasting theme now in tonic, | -| | | and with an extended codetta. | -+---------+----------+----------------------------------------------------+ -| A | 173-224 | Free treatment of chief theme, and other material: | -| | | motive from codetta extensively used (179-196); | -| | | cadenza (198); epilogue, or coda (213). | -+---------+----------+----------------------------------------------------+ - - -This rondo flows on happily from beginning to end without touching -either great heights or depths. It is a good example of a style of -piano music intended more for the domestic circle than for the -concert room. It shows that "absence of individualism in conformity to -a general type of style and form" referred to by Dickinson, _i. e._, -one does not feel in listening to it the obtrusion of a personal point -of view; there are no idiosyncrasies such as are continually appearing -in more modern music. There is here also that "purity of sound" that -characterizes Mozart's music. There are no elisions, no subtleties -of musical language, no suggested meanings such as one finds, for -example, in Schumann. There is the same placidity, the same clearness -of meaning, the same lucidity of diction that we find in the poetry of -Mozart's day. Musical language was not then overlaid with secondary -significance as it has since become. - -An examination of Figure XXVII will reveal a considerable advance in -this rondo over that of Couperin. The last section (A) in particular -fulfills its office of providing, as it were, a kind of _denouement_ to -the whole piece; the interest is skillfully made to center or come to -a climax here, and the stiff angularity that characterizes the older -rondo is conspicuously absent. And while the scheme of harmonies in -this rondo has many elements in common with that of "Les Moissonneurs," -there are here excursions, by the way, into other keys giving variety -and warmth of color. But, most important of all, the recurrence of the -first contrasting theme (at measure 148) in the tonic key after having -first appeared in the dominant (measure 24) gives to this piece a real -strength, or stoutness of construction. It is as though there were -certain strands in the fabric that run entirely through it and make it -firm, whereas the Couperin rondo seems to be made by putting together a -series of little blocks. - -Another important point of contrast between these two rondos is in -the matter of themes. Where Couperin has only one, which he presents -in a variety of charming forms, but from which little that is new is -evolved, Mozart has three distinct contrasting themes, and a little -codetta motive; and all these germinate, even if but slightly, into new -musical developments. The codetta passage, in particular, sprouts and -blossoms (179-196) in a most delightful manner, the little germ having -first appeared (36) as an unpromising and monotonous succession of -single notes. - -We referred at some length, in the chapter on "The Dance and Its -Development," to this germination of musical thought as of the greatest -importance in composition. The reader will readily understand that the -highest form of an art like music, in which the element of time enters -as a vital matter--in which the message of the composer comes to us in -successive sounds--must depend on something more than the beauty of -its several and successive melodies. In the first place, the limit of -such a succession would soon be reached; the mind, after having taken -in a certain number of melodies, would lose track of the first ones and -be left in utter confusion. The obvious device of repeating the first -phrase or melody at the point where, otherwise, this confusion would -result, has been the determining motive of many of the simple forms we -have thus far studied. But this, after all, is a primitive method, and -it is obvious that its possibilities are limited. The rondo is, in -effect, the furthest point to which this plan can go. - -The fundamental quality in anything living--be it the state, the -church, the family or the human body--is organism, the relation of all -the parts to the whole. So in the greatest music as in the greatest -literature, everything germinates from certain fundamental ideas, -and nothing is extraneous. This rondo of Mozart represents a certain -tendency of his to string beautiful melodies together--for his fund of -melodies was well nigh inexhaustible. But he was too great a master not -to see the weakness of such a procedure, and in works like his G-minor -symphony he has left nearly perfect examples of this higher form of -musical development;--perfect, that is, within his own horizon--a wider -view was to unfold itself from that height to which Beethoven finally -struggled. - - - SUGGESTIONS FOR COLLATERAL READING. - -_Parry: "The Evolution of the Art of Music," pp. 52 and 241. Dickinson: -"The Study of the History of Music," Chapter XIV. Goetschius: "The -Homophonic Forms of Musical Composition," p. 203. Mason: "Beethoven and -His Forerunners," Chapter IV. Hadow: "Sonata Form," Chapter IX._ - - - LIST OF SUPPLEMENTARY PIECES FOR STUDY. - -_Haydn: Finale of Sonata in D-major, No. 7 (Schirmer Ed.)._ _Finale of -Sonata in D-major, No. 9 (Schirmer Ed.)._ _Mozart: Finale of Sonata in -F-major, No. 17 (Schirmer Ed.)._ - - FOOTNOTES: - -[14] Sonata, originally from Italian "Suonare," to sound, as Cantata -was from Italian "Cantare," to sing. Later the word Sonata took on a -more precise meaning, which we shall study in later chapters. - -[15] The name "Rondo" (Fr. "Rondeau") is derived from "round," and its -application to pieces of the type we are considering was due to the -constant recurrence of one principal melody. - -[16] The first partial measure and all the other half measures where -the double bars occur are counted separately, making 65 measures in the -whole piece. - -[17] The fixed part (A) in the Rondo of this period usually entered -but three times instead of four as is the case here. Couperin's "La -Bandoline" (in "Les Maitres du Clavecin") is another example of the -extended form of the Rondo. - -[18] Pauer's "Alte Meister" (Breitkopf and Härtel) contains several -interesting Rondeaus by Couperin and Rameau. "Les Maitres du Clavecin," -edited by Kohler (Litolff), Vols. X and XI, may also be consulted. - -[19] The numbers referred to here are those of the Schirmer edition. - - - - - CHAPTER VII. - - THE VARIATION FORM--THE MINUET. - - -The process of musical development we have been considering in previous -chapters has tended gradually but surely towards freedom of expression -and, at the same time, definiteness of form. As this process has -advanced, melodies have become less and less constrained, yet the forms -themselves have crystallized into certain accepted types. The ideal -of all this progress was unity and variety; in other words, composers -felt the desire to expand their powers of expression and saw that this -expansion must in the nature of things conform to certain æsthetic -principles and obey certain laws. Mere luxuriance of speech without -order or system means confusion; but order and system without living -feeling means aridity. These two elements must go hand in hand, and in -the music of masters like Bach, Beethoven, and Brahms they do. - -The so-called variation form admirably illustrates these tendencies. -From its very beginning down to the present day there has been a -constant re-adjustment of its expressiveness and its formal interest; a -constant attempt to strike the right balance between the two qualities. -The form is almost as old as music itself. From the earliest times -composers have felt the necessity of varying their tunes by one device -or another. Even before the other primitive forms had crystallized, -crude variations existed, and we find old hymn tunes or popular songs -repeated over and over again with elaborate changes of phraseology or -with contrapuntal devices. Certain arid processes--such as writing -a tune backwards--were sometimes employed, and a study of the whole -range of the variation form in its early stages reveals a constant -fluctuation. - - - I. VARIATIONS BY JOHN BULL. - -Among the most interesting of these early attempts to solve the problem -are certain pieces by the English composers for the harpsichord -who lived in the latter part of the sixteenth century. John Bull -(1563-1628), a chorister in the Chapel Royal of Queen Elizabeth, was -one of the most famous of these, and he has left us several pieces -in variation form, one of which, "Courante Jewel," is well worth our -attention. - -The courante (Fr. _courir_, to run) is one of the old dance forms -that became imbedded in the suite, where it followed the opening[20] -Allemande. This particular example of the courante illustrates the -habit, common at that time, of writing pieces based on well known -dance rhythms such as we have studied in Chapters IV and V. Composers -attempted to provide further interest in their pieces by giving them -special titles. We find, for example, one of Byrd's harpsichord pieces -called "Galiardo, Mrs. Mary Brownlo," and one of Bull's entitled -"Pavana, St. Thomas Wake." This tendency in English music towards -definiteness of idea, and away from all that is vague, has been already -noted in our chapter on "Folk Songs." - -The "Courante Jewel" is an interesting example of a form of variation -that has now become practically obsolete. It consists of four separate -melodies, each immediately followed by its variation. The plan might be -expressed by the following formula: A, a; B, b; C, c; D, d, the large -letters representing the themes and the small letters the variations. -The first theme begins as follows: - - [Music: score] - FIGURE XXVIII. From first theme of Bull's "Courante Jewel." - -The complete theme is sixteen measures long and is divided off into -phrases of regular length. This is immediately followed by the -variation, the corresponding portion of which will be found in Figure -XXIX. - - [Music: score] - FIGURE XXIX. Part of the variation. - -In Figure XXX are shown the first phrases of the second, third and -fourth melodies, in order that the reader may see how distinct is each -one. - - [Music: score] - II - - [Music: score] - III - - [Music: score] - IV - - FIGURE XXX. - -This little piece illustrates what has been already said about freedom -of expression. It does not impress us as strictly dance music; it -is manifestly written for its own sake and represents that natural -tendency to create something beautiful which underlies art everywhere. -But in respect of order and design we find here a decided weakness. -Four separate and successive ideas, each followed by an elaboration -of itself, would make a poor model for any art. One feels a sense of -vagueness after listening to a piece so constructed; no single idea -dominates; one longs for some point upon which the attention may be -centered. - - - II. A GAVOTTE AND VARIATIONS BY RAMEAU. - -Pauer's "Alte Meister," Vol. I, contains another interesting -experiment in the variation form, a "Gavotte and Variations" by Rameau -(1683-1764). The opening phrase of this Gavotte runs as follows: - - [Music: score] - FIGURE XXXI. First phrase of Gavotte by Rameau. - -In the variation of the above, which will be found in Figure XXXII, -the theme is presented less definitely than in the original, while the -upper part in sixteenth notes makes a kind of free counterpoint. - - [Music: score] - FIGURE XXXII. First phrase of Variation by Rameau. - -What has been said in our last chapter of Couperin's harpsichord -pieces applies to these variations of Rameau. There is in them a kind -of refinement and delicacy that characterizes all the French music of -that period. The theme itself is less naïve than that of the "Courante -Jewel," and more suggestive of the slow movement themes of the sonatas -of later composers. In fact, this has in it little of the real Gavotte, -its meditative quality is too strong and its rhythms too weak. - -These two compositions admirably illustrate the general striving for -some ordered means of expression in secular music that characterizes -the seventeenth century. It was a time of groping. Sacred music had -largely occupied the attention of composers, and few paths had been -opened for those who desired other means of expression, so that the -problem of secularization was the all-important one. It must also -be kept in mind that this particular advance could not take place -until musical instruments and the technique of playing them had -been perfected. As late as 1571 Ammerbach's "Orgel oder Instrument -Tabulatur" was published, forbidding the use of _either the thumb or -little finger_ in organ playing, and writers of the seventeenth century -speak of certain uses of the thumb in playing as "daring innovations." -Couperin in his "L'Art de Toucher le Clavecin," published in Paris in -1717, advocates a system of fingering that still uses the thumb in a -clumsy manner, and it was not until John Sebastian Bach's method of -tuning by "equal temperament" and his new system of fingering came into -use that music for the harpsichord and clavichord was freed from the -old incubus of an awkward mechanical technique. For it is obvious that -an art can never reach anything like perfection as long as its working -materials are inadequate. In piano playing, for example, one could -not use chords spread out far beyond the grasp of the hands until the -sustaining pedal had been invented. While these conditions existed, -composers naturally turned their attention to sacred music and to the -opera, where there were fewer limitations. - -Among the many examples of the variation form produced in the time of -Couperin and Rameau the most important are those of Bach and Handel. -Since we are here dealing with the precursors of the sonata and -symphony and with the development of homophonic music, we shall not -discuss Bach's celebrated "Goldberg Variations," which are masterly -examples of his intricate and vivid polyphony, but shall turn to a set -of variations in more modern form by Handel. The reader may, however, -consult the second Sarabande accompanying Chapter V for an example of -Bach's method of elaborating a given theme. - - - III. HANDEL'S "HARMONIOUS BLACKSMITH." - -Our chapter on the suite has given the order in which the various -dances usually appeared, and mention was there made of the exceptions -occasionally to be found among the works of adventurous composers. - -George Frederic Handel (1685-1759) composed a set of "Suites de Piéces -pour le Clavecin" containing several movements not usually found in -the suite form. Among these are "Allegros," "Prestos," and "Arias con -Variazioni," while in Handel's "Sonatas" are to be found sarabandes, -gavottes, and bourreés. In other words, the suite and the sonata, as -conceived by Handel, are more or less convertible forms; it is not -until the next generation that the modern sonata begins to emerge in -the pianoforte works of Philip Emanuel Bach. (See Chapter VIII.) These -distinctive pieces represent the groping of composers after some new -and more flexible medium of expression than that provided by stiff -dance forms. And this same fundamental principle of growth is what, -many years later, led Beethoven to enlarge the scope of the sonata, -and still later produced the symphonic poem of Liszt and other modern -composers. - -Each phase of an art has its culmination where a medium becomes -perfected--and therefore exhausted; where the flower blooms and dies. -This point is reached when some great master unites in his works two -essential qualities complementary to each other, namely, the idea and -its formal investiture. Such a point was reached in Bach's Fugues, in -Mozart's Symphonies, and in Beethoven's String Quartets; in all these -the two great elements of perfection were united. In Mozart's G-minor -Symphony, for example, the thing said, and the manner of saying it--the -design, the orchestral expression, etc.--are identical, but in the -instrumental works of Handel the matter was still in process. - -"The Harmonious Blacksmith" is in the fifth of the "Suites de Piéces -pour le Clavecin," commonly known as "Lessons," and composed for -Princess Anne, Handel's royal pupil, daughter of the Prince of Wales. -This suite consisted of the following pieces:--I. Prelude, II. -Allemande, III. Courante, IV. Air. - - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 10. - - _Handel: "The Harmonious Blacksmith," - from the Fifth Suite for Clavichord._ - -The biographies of Handel give several versions of the story supposed -to be connected with this little piece. It seems to be quite certain -that the composer never used the title, and that it has one at all -is probably due to the fact that the public seems to like a piece -better if it is supposed to be "about" something. Many similar uses of -supposititious titles will occur to the reader, as, for example, the -"Moonlight" sonata of Beethoven, and the "Rain-drop" prelude of Chopin, -neither of which grotesque names was ever sanctioned by the composer. -If this tune of Handel's ever was sung by a burly smith at his forge he -was indeed an "harmonious" blacksmith. In any case, it is a matter of -record that the identical anvil was finally "discovered" by a Mr. Clark -and found a resting place as a curio in an "Egyptian Hall" in London. - -The tune itself has qualities familiar enough to students of Handel's -instrumental music. Its final cadence, in particular, is thoroughly -Handelian, and all through it there is that decisive and assertive -manner that characterizes the melodies of this great man. There is -nothing of the mystic about Handel; his oratorios and nearly all his -smaller pieces have a straightforward and uncompromising style. He -never gropes; his music speaks of an unfaltering self-confidence, -unclouded by doubts. - -The methods of treatment in the variations is a simple one. The -harmonies remain the same throughout, while the melody is changed in -various ways. In variation I, for example, the first two notes of the -original melody have been made into an arpeggio, or broken chord, and -this treatment persists throughout. In variation II the melody loses -something of its physiognomy, and is only suggested by occasional -notes in the upper or lower part for the right hand, while the left -hand plays a familiar pattern accompaniment. Variation III plays -lightly with the original theme, hovering around it with delicate scale -passages. - -This variation illustrates an important principle of musical -appreciation. Played by itself, without reference to what has preceded -it, it would be so lacking in definiteness as to be uninteresting; its -connection with the original theme, however, lends to it a certain -charm and significance. So in the longer instrumental pieces of the -great masters who followed Handel, we find whole sections whose -meaning depends on their relation to what has preceded them, and -our appreciation of the significance of such passages is in exact -proportion to our powers of co-ordinating in our own minds these -various sections of a work, often separated from each other by a -considerable lapse of time. - -The fourth variation is like an inversion of the third, the left hand -now taking the rapid scale passages. Variation V is the least definite -of them all, being made of scales played against chords that dimly -outline the original melody. - -"The Harmonious Blacksmith" is not a highly developed piece of music, -for it lacks one essential element--in an instrumental piece as long -as this there should be some _germination_. The several variations of -this melody are merely slightly altered versions of the original idea; -in highly developed specimens of this form each variation is a new -creation germinated from the parent thought. - - - IV. HAYDN'S ANDANTE WITH VARIATIONS IN F-MINOR. - -Reference has already been made in our chapter on "The Rondo" to the -great advance in pianoforte music brought about by Philip Emanuel -Bach and Haydn, but Haydn's Andante with Variations in F-minor is -still more mature than any of the pieces to which we referred. In -fact, this Andante is Haydn's most charming pianoforte piece, uniting -as it does the best of his qualities. It is the first composition in -homophonic style we have studied in which the interest of the listener -is constantly engaged from beginning to end. There are here no bald -repetitions, as in the Rondo of Mozart, no meaningless accompaniment -figures, no conventional endings, but from first to last Haydn tempts -us onward by constantly unfolding new beauties, yet never leaves us -vaguely wandering, doubtful of our starting point. In short, this -andante is a fine example of a well organized piece of music; it is -full of variety, yet its unity is unmistakable. - - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 11. - - _Haydn: Andante with Variations in F-Minor._ - -It is unusual for a variation theme to be in two distinct parts, as -is the case here. The chief theme in F-minor is followed by a "trio" -theme in F-major of quite a distinct character. This is one of the many -interesting experiments of Haydn in devising new forms or combining old -ones. The weakness of this arrangement is that the whole theme is a -little too long; it lacks the conciseness that is necessary to a theme -that is to be treated in a long series of variations. The trio theme is -also less interesting than the first theme and does not lend itself so -readily to variations. - -An important principle of musical development is involved here. It will -be found from an examination of the music of the great composers that -the most perfect lyric melodies do not germinate, whereas themes like -the first theme of this andante, the first theme of Beethoven's Fifth -Symphony--which are not by any means beautiful lyric melodies--are -pregnant with possibilities. Any perfect melody like "Annie Laurie," -for example, is a complete thing; nothing can be added to it or taken -away from it. The two themes just mentioned, on the contrary, are made -up of motives which are characterized by some individual quality and -which contain certain potentialities that are realized only as the -piece progresses. And in general it may be noted that the distinctly -lyric composers, such as Schubert, Schumann, and Grieg, have not been -conspicuously successful in those larger forms where this principle is -most operative. - -The little motive of five notes with which the right hand part of the -andante by Haydn begins illustrates this. There is hardly a measure of -the original theme and of its variations in which this motive is not -heard, and the variety Haydn imparts to it is quite remarkable. The -trio theme, on the other hand, is more lyric--more song-like, and, as a -consequence, we find the variations consist of elaborate ornamentations -of the theme rather than of new ideas germinated from it. - -Variation I is a particularly interesting example of Haydn's style. The -syncopation in the right hand part, with its delicacy of utterance, -and its occasional tender poignancy (as at measure 52) gives to -this portion of the piece an unusual charm. The transposition of -the syncopation to the left hand (at measure 56) is particularly -interesting because of the delicate dissonances that result. The -passage at measures 83-88 might almost have been written by Rameau or -Couperin, so full is it of trills and other ornaments. This is in the -old harpsichord style of the generation before Haydn. - -Variation II preserves the harmony of the original theme, but supplants -its melody by a fluent and interesting passage in sixteenth notes that -passes at will from one hand to the other. - -These two free variations, through which the original theme has dimly -shone, are now succeeded by a finale, so called, in which the theme is -presented in its simple form as if to bring the listener home again -after his excursions afield. And here, it should be specially noted, -Haydn omits all reference to the trio theme, as if conscious of its -inferiority. The whole finale (from measure 147) is a kind of dramatic -summing up of the story, and serves much the same purpose as that of -the restatement in ternary form. - -The passage between measures 195 and 200 is an interesting example of -a process common in pure music. Here the motive of three notes (in -right hand), derived from the original five note motive in measure 1, -gradually loses its physiognomy until its characteristic outline has -entirely disappeared and it has become a purely conventional figure. A -celebrated example of this process is shown in Figure XXXIII from the -first movement of Beethoven's String Quartet, op. 59, No. 1. - - [Music: score] - First phrase of Theme from Beethoven's Quartet, op. 59, No. 1. - - [Music: score] - Passage from Development Section. - - FIGURE XXXIII. - -The passage from which the second of the quotations is taken is one -of the most beautiful in all chamber music, and the whole development -section in this wonderful movement will repay the closest study. - -Haydn's andante ends with a few tender allusions to the persistent -motive of the original theme, which faintly echoes in pathetic cadence. -Such passages endear Haydn to us because of their genuineness. There is -nothing false in his sentiment; he is always straightforward, he always -writes unaffectedly. Among the great composers he stands apart as a -simple-hearted man, who was without guile, and who retained to the end -of his life the same childlike naïveté. - - - V. THE MINUET. - -The general characteristics of dances like the minuet, gavotte, etc., -have been referred to in Chapter IV, where the inclusion of the minuet -in the sonata and symphony of the classical period was noted. We are -here chiefly concerned with the effect of this inclusion on the minuet -itself and with its status in the group of movements that made up the -cyclic form. - -The minuet is a dance of French origin, characterized by stateliness -and grace. The earliest music written for it consisted of one melody -containing two eight measure phrases. These were gradually lengthened, -and finally a second minuet was added as in the gavotte. Bach used -the minuet sparingly in his suites. The reader is referred to the -fourth English Suite, which contains a minuet followed by minuet II, -not called "Trio." Handel occasionally incorporates the minuet in his -suites and frequently uses it as the last movement in his oratorio -overtures. All these old minuets were in slow tempo, but the desire -for freedom of expression impelled composers not only to expand them -in various ways, but, finally, to increase their speed. This important -change was doubtless largely inspired by the desire for contrast in -the movements of the symphony, for in the sonatas of Haydn and Mozart -we find the middle movement usually an andante or adagio, and when the -minuet[21] is incorporated it is in slow tempo. - -Practically all the minuets of Bach and Handel as well as those of -the Haydn-Mozart-Beethoven period were written in what we have called -"simple ternary form," the second minuet, or trio, constituting the -middle section, B. Occasionally a minuet with two trios appears, in -which case the form becomes A, B, A, C, A. Marches (which are commonly -in simple ternary form) are quite frequently written with two trios, -the most familiar example being the well known wedding march by -Mendelssohn. - -The symphonic minuet is the only relic of the suite retained in the -sonata and symphony. The changes it underwent through this promotion -from the ranks of the old dances were not only changes of tempo, but -of spirit or essence. For whereas it had been demure, conventional, -and stately, as if pervaded by a kind of courtly grace, it became in -Haydn's time a wayward, humorous, and even frolicsome member of musical -society, and provided a certain lightness and spontaneity much needed -in the sober symphonic family. - -The reader is urged to consult any of the minuets to be found in the -string quartets or symphonies of Haydn and Mozart. These popular short -movements are so available in arrangements for the piano that it is not -thought necessary to incorporate one here. - - - SUGGESTIONS FOR COLLATERAL READING. - -_Grove's Dictionary: articles "Minuet," "Sonata," and "Symphony." -Shedlock: "The Pianoforte Sonata." Mason: "Beethoven and His -Forerunners."_ - - FOOTNOTES: - -[20] In Bach's English Suites a Prelude is placed before the Allemande. - -[21] See the Minuet in Haydn's piano sonata in E-flat (No. 3 in -Schirmer edition) and the Minuet in Mozart's well known piano sonata in -A-major (with the Theme and Variations). - - - - - CHAPTER VIII - - SONATA-FORM I. - - - I. COMPOSITE NATURE OF THE SONATA. - -Undoubtedly the most important of all musical forms to-day is the -sonata, as will easily be recognized if we remember that not only -the pieces which bear this name as a title, but also the numerous -symphonies, overtures, concertos, and trios, quartets, quintets, and -so on, are examples of this form. The symphony is simply a sonata, -on a large scale, for orchestra; the overture is a similar piece for -orchestra, in one movement; the concerto is, as it were, a symphony -with a solo instrument emphasized or placed in the foreground; trios, -quartets, quintets, etc., are sonatas for various groups of string -and wind instruments. Thus it will be seen that the bulk of all -instrumental music is cast in this ever available and useful form of -the sonata. - -At this point, however, a confusion is likely to arise from the fact -that the term "sonata" is used in two senses. It means sometimes a -complete piece of music in three or more distinct movements; at other -times it means a scheme or plan of musical structure exemplified in one -or more of these movements, usually the first. When used in this sense -it is generally coupled with the word "form": this is the way in which -we shall use it here, letting "sonata-form" mean this peculiar type of -musical structure, to be described in detail presently, while using -"sonata" alone to name a complete composition of which one or more -movements are in "sonata-form." - -The sonata, as written by Philip Emanuel Bach, Haydn, Mozart, -Beethoven, and modern composers, usually contains some movements in -forms more primitive than "sonata-form," and already familiar to us. -Thus the minuet, which often appears as the second or third movement -of a sonata, has changed little since Mozart's day; the rondo, -frequently used in the finale of a sonata, remains in all essentials as -it is presented in the last diagram of Chapter VI; and the theme and -variations, so far as its formal plan is concerned, has remained very -much as Haydn left it, although, in common with the rondo, it has been -vastly enriched in content and diversified in style by the genius of -Beethoven. - - - II. ESSENTIALS OF SONATA-FORM. - -The element of true novelty in sonatas is to be found, not in -these primitive movements, but rather in those movements which are -in "sonata-form," and which show a breadth of conception and an -elaboration in development never found in simple lyric forms like -the minuet. This breadth and elaboration is always the result of -a germination of musical thought, such as we have already often -mentioned, and by virtue of which alone a composition can take on real -grandeur of proportions. The essentials of sonata-form are (1) the -presentation of two or more themes or subjects in that section known -as the Exposition, and symbolized in our diagrams by the letter A; -(2) the evolution of these themes, by means of melodic germination, -in that section known as the Development, and symbolized by B; -and (3) the restatement of the original themes, rounding out the -movement symmetrically, in the section known as the Recapitulation, -and symbolized again by A on account of its practical identity with -the Exposition. It matters not which movement of a sonata takes this -characteristic form, whether, as in the majority of cases, it is the -first (whence the term "first-movement form," often used as a synonym -for "sonata-form") or the slow movement, as often happens, or the -finale. Wherever sonata-form exists we find this three-part sectional -structure, resulting from the natural germination in the middle section -of the musical ideas stated in the first, followed by their restatement -in the third section. - -The reader may ask at this point, in what respect such a form differs -from the simple ternary form illustrated in a minuet, for example, -wherein the second section usually contains some development of the -theme, and the third some recapitulation. The answer is that in the -sonata-form the enlargement of the proportions throughout results, -first, in the substitution of complete and more or less contrasting -themes, for the rather slight musical subject of a minuet, and second, -in the substitution of a long and elaborate development of these -themes for the rather casual and superficial modification of the -subject which forms the second section of a minuet. Moreover, in the -sonata-form a novel feature is the contrast introduced by making the -first section embody duality of key (first theme in tonic, second in -related key) while the third section, by presenting both themes in -the tonic, embodies unity of key. Nevertheless it remains true that -sonata-form is, both logically and historically, a development of such -simple forms as we have in the minuet, as is indicated by the name of -"developed ternary form" often given to it.[22] - -Sonata-form is thus but an extreme application of certain essential -principles of structure exemplified in simple ways in other more -primitive musical forms, and for that matter in many other departments -of life. It is perhaps not over-fanciful to discover the same -principles in the construction of a novel, in which we often find: -first, the presentation of certain characters, more or less in -antagonism; second, the development of the plot and of the characters -themselves; and third, the reconciliation of the characters in the -_denouement_. Similarly, a sermon consists of (1) the assertion of a -text or subject of discourse, (2) the illustration of its truth by -examples and other elucidations of what is implied in it, and (3) a -final restatement of it with the greater force made possible by its -discussion. Or again, we may see striking analogies to the artistic -form we are considering in such processes of nature as the budding, -flowering, and death of a plant, or in human life with its youth, its -period of activity, and its time of retrospect. - - - III. A SONATA BY PHILIP EMANUEL BACH. - -Sonata-form, historically speaking, first takes definite shape in the -work of Philip Emanuel Bach (1714-1788), the most distinguished of -the sons of the great Sebastian Bach. Though not a man of the highest -creative genius, C. P. E. Bach possessed an ingenuity and a pioneering -spirit which led him to make innovations so important that Haydn and -Mozart freely acknowledged their debt to him. Feeling that music in -the polyphonic style had reached its full development, he was original -and adventurous enough to seek new means of expression and a novel -combination of features of style already familiar. - -In order to understand the situation that confronted him we must put -aside temporarily the impressions we have received from the Andante -of Haydn and the Rondo of Mozart, since both these compositions were -produced at a time when his influence had already made itself felt. -He had to face the problem of writing instrumental music that should -be free from the constraining influence of the dance, of polyphonic -style, and of the elaborately ornamented style of operatic music. He -had also to find out how to unify a long piece of instrumental music -by co-ordinating all its parts. The only solution of these problems -lay in inventing what might be called _pure instrumental melody_: -_i. e._, melody that was essentially expressive in the particular -medium employed--the piano, the violin, the orchestra--and that was -unhampered either by strict poetic or dance forms, or by the peculiar -phraseology of polyphony. He did not, to be sure, entirely achieve -this; we find evidences of both the older styles in his music. But an -examination of any instrumental masterpiece of Beethoven will reveal -how much he owed to the pioneer labors of C. P. E. Bach. - -We must here caution the reader against the supposition that music -at this particular time leaped suddenly forward. The tendencies that -we have been speaking of were latent long before Philip Emanuel Bach -appeared, and there was no strict line of demarcation where one kind of -music stopped and another began. Organic development never progresses -in that way; each phase of it begins slowly, becomes eventually -operative, and dies as slowly as it began. And there were other -composers working at that time on the same problems; composers who were -of considerable importance then, but whose names are now forgotten. - - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 12. - - _Philip Emanuel Bach: Piano Sonata_[23] _in F-Minor, First Movement._ - -This Sonata has three movements: 1. Fast (Allegro assai); 2. Slow -(Andante cantabile); 3. Slow (Andantino grazioso). The third of these -is marked "attacca" to indicate that the usual pause between the -movements is to be omitted. In the second and third movements the -themes themselves and their treatment reveal the tentative nature of -Bach's efforts. Each of these themes is over-embellished; each has -something of the vagueness usual in piano music of his time, and yet -there is a distinct tendency towards definite, strophic melody such as -is common in the sonatas of Haydn and Mozart. - -But the first movement of this sonata of Philip Emanuel Bach's is quite -remarkable. Its theme is definite, its phraseology clear and concise, -and its form well rounded. In fact a comparison of the opening measures -with those of the theme from Beethoven's first sonata will reveal a -decided similarity. Beethoven's theme is constructed from a figure or -phrase, ascending like an arpeggio higher and higher, until a climax is -reached, after which the melody dies down to a pause or half cadence -on the dominant chord. This is precisely what happens with the theme -of Philip Emanuel Bach, although the second half of the theme is more -regular than Beethoven's, the complete melody being in what might be -called "verse form," each two-measure phrase corresponding to a line of -verse. - -More important still, however, is the quality of the melody itself. -It is distinctly in the style suitable for the piano; there is no -evidence of the old song melody, nor of polyphonic phraseology, nor -of dance tunes. This is, in short, one of the earliest examples of -pure pianoforte music, using the term in a modern sense. Another -interesting point in this movement is the presence of two contrasting -themes in the Exposition. "The principle of alternately stating -two contrasting themes, which found its ultimate expression in the -successive presentation of first and second subjects, had been familiar -to the musical world as long as minuets and trios, gavottes, musettes, -and the like, had been in vogue, but the process by which the two -subjects are allowed to be interwoven with each other, or to generate, -as it were, new material having its origin in something that has gone -before, opened out a world of fresh possibilities to the composers of -the later times, and gave them opportunities which had been altogether -withheld from Bach and his contemporaries." "Oxford History of Music," -Vol. IV, p. 141. The two themes constitute the material out of which -the whole movement grows or germinates, so that they somewhat resemble -characters in a story, and this analogy is further carried out in the -quality of the themes themselves, the first being usually vigorous -and to a certain degree non-lyric, while the second is lyric and more -sentimental; as if one were masculine and the other feminine. - -But in this movement of Philip Emanuel Bach's Sonata the second theme -is hardly more than an embryo. It begins at measure 16, and occupies -only ten measures, the last five of which are somewhat vague and -rhapsodical. Thus its entire effect is somewhat indefinite, and if we -compare it with the second theme of any modern sonata we shall realize -that it is very imperfectly individualized. The second theme did not -become an essential and distinct element of sonata-form until somewhat -later; in Philip Emanuel Bach, and even in many movements of Haydn, it -remains completely subordinate to its more important companion, the -first theme. Following the second theme--at measure 26--a coda ensues. -This important factor in musical form has been already referred to in -our chapters on "The Rondo" and "The Variation." Its office here is -the same as in former examples, namely, to round out this part of the -movement properly and to emphasize the close of the first section. - -The exposition (A) extends through measure 34 and is concluded with -a double-bar. During the period from Philip Emanuel Bach to Mozart -this portion of the movement was always repeated in order to make it -perfectly familiar to the listener. The development section begins -immediately after the double-bar and extends to the point where the -first theme returns in its original form; in this movement that point -is reached at measure 66. We have already pointed out certain simple -methods of generation in music, as in the Bach Gavotte discussed in -Chapter IV, but we now have to consider the growth of a long section of -a composition from certain germs contained in the original theme. And -this brings up an important question: How do musical themes generate? -In the Bach Gavotte a brief phrase of one measure duration blossoms out -into a passage six measures long. This may be observed by reference to -Figure XXXIV, in which (a) represents the original phrase and (b) the -expansion of it. - - [Music: score] - (_a._) - - [Music: score] - (_b._) - - FIGURE XXXIV. - -This development, however, is hardly more than an extension of the -original phrase. For the purposes of sonata-form something more radical -and far reaching, something more like new creation is necessary. -Without going into detail[24] we may be content with pointing out -the essential principle of this more radical development. Analysis -shows that it always depends on the selection of certain salient -characteristics of the original themes and representation of them under -new guises, or under new conditions. - -Just as a novelist develops his characters by letting their fundamental -peculiarities manifest themselves in all sorts of ways and among all -kinds of circumstances, meanwhile paying but scant attention to their -more accidental or superficial traits, so the composer of a sonata -seizes upon whatever is individual in his themes--a strong rhythm, -a peculiar turn of phrase, a striking bit of harmony--and repeats -and insists upon it tirelessly, with whatever variation of minor -details his ingenuity may suggest. An examination of this process of -generation in the works of Haydn and Mozart will make these important -points clear. In Figure XXXV (a), is shown a brief quotation from -the beginning of the first movement of Haydn's Symphony in D-major. -Although this theme has no pronounced rhythmic figures the four -repeated notes in measure 3 are unusual in a simple melody of this -type, and Haydn chooses them (with the first two notes in the next -measure) as the first subject of his development section. - - [Music: score] - (_a_) - - [Music: score] - (_b_) - - FIGURE XXXV. - -At _b_ in the above quotation will be found a short passage from the -beginning of the development section of the same movement. This passage -illustrates the detachment of a characteristic motive in a melody, and -here the use of it in various keys as a means of setting forth, as it -were, its latent possibilities. Here a certain element in the theme is -freed and takes on an existence of its own, and until the very end of -the section we hear it over and over again in different parts of the -orchestra. - - [Music: score] - (_a_) - - [Music: score] - (_b_) - - [Music: score] - (_c_) - - FIGURE XXXVI. - -The methods of germination employed by Haydn in the foregoing -illustration were typical of his time. Mozart commonly relies, in his -development sections, on the interest provided by presenting some -salient motive in a variety of keys and with polyphonic treatment. -Examples of this are to be found in Figure XXXVI, containing (a) the -original motive from the first movement of his string quartet in -C-major, dedicated to Haydn, and (b), (c), short excerpts from the -development section of the same movement. - -It will be observed that in (b), the viola imitates the first violin -while the second violin and 'cello reiterate the four eighth-notes of -the original motive, and that, in (c), the 'cello takes the motive, -while each of the three upper parts sounds the eighth-notes, staccato; -the contrasts of key should also be observed. This is a very concise -and logical example of the methods of generation employed by Haydn and -Mozart. - -The first theme of the movement by Philip Emanuel Bach has two salient -qualities: it progresses by leaps upward, and it has a peculiarly -noticeable rhythm. These two properties are brought into play almost -immediately. After a brief statement of the opening phrase of the theme -(36-39) in the relative major key--as if to tell us what is to be the -subject of this part of the movement--the composer proceeds to evolve -a passage (40-44) with chords (in the right hand) in the rhythm of the -theme, and against them (in the left hand) a passage containing the -leaps upward. This is further varied by free changes in harmony. - -The initial phrase of the first theme and a brief quotation from this -passage in the development section are shown in Figure XXXVII. - -This development is, however, all too short. After measure 44 the -music becomes discursive, showing no longer any definite bearing on the -original subject matter. - - [Music: score] - (_a_) - - [Music: score] - (_b_) - - FIGURE XXXVII - -This discursiveness is a natural characteristic of the formative period -in the evolution of sonata-form, before composers had learned the -necessity of a close logical development throughout. - -The "restatement after contrast" in sonata-form is commonly known -as the "recapitulation." In the early specimens of the form the -recapitulation was, except in its harmonies, almost identical with the -exposition. Here the first theme is reduced to one half its original -length, which is rather an unusual abbreviation. Mr. Hadow, in his -"Sonata Form," lays down the following rule for this portion of the -movement: "The recapitulation should not contain any noticeably fresh -material; it should follow the main thought of the exposition with no -important parentheses or divergences, and, when it varies, should do so -in a manner which does not obscure the subjects, but only sets them in -a new light." - -In Figure XXXVIII is shown the foregoing plan in the form of a diagram. -This should be compared with the similar diagrams in Chapter IX. - - - FIGURE XXXVIII. TABULAR VIEW OF SONATA-FORM, OR FIRST-MOVEMENT FORM. - ------------------------------+------------------------+-------------------- - A | B | A - Exposition | Development | Recapitulation ------------------------------+------------------------+-------------------- -Introduction (optional) |This section is based on|Theme I. -Theme I, usually followed by |themes already presented|Transition (?) - a short transition, or link|in the Exposition |Theme II in tonic or -Theme II in contrasting key | | home key -Coda | |Coda -(Duality of harmony) |(Plurality of Harmony) |(Unity of Harmony) ------------------------------+------------------------+-------------------- - - - IV. HARMONY AS A PART OF DESIGN. - -There remains to be considered the important factor of harmony, or -arrangement of keys. This arrangement is shown in the diagram, Figure -XXXVIII; but the principle involved is an important one, and the mere -statement of Duality, Plurality and Unity hardly suffices to explain -it. There seems to be no doubt that the subtle uses composers make of -harmony are less intelligible to the average listener than are the uses -of themes. A theme represents, as it were, a line, and since it is the -tune that, for most listeners, constitutes the music the attention of -the listeners is readily drawn to changes which materially affect it. -Harmonic design, on the other hand--the setting of one key or series -of keys against another--is often only dimly recognized, if at all, -although it is of the greatest importance in all modern music. In -sonata-form the harmonic plan (described above by the terms Duality, -Plurality and Unity) adds an important element since it unifies the -last section by stating both first and second theme in the same key. -And in the middle, or development section, the freedom of harmonic -progression--the multitude of keys--gives great variety and enables the -composer freely to indulge his fancy. - -In the present movement Bach chooses at times certain remote keys that -impart to this section of the piece a charm of their own. The passage -beginning on the second beat of measure 54 illustrates this: the four -measures that follow are all in the remote key of F-flat major. (The -reader should examine each of the modulations that occurs in the -development section.) However unconscious of the charm of harmonic -variety the average listener may be, he would surely be conscious of -monotony were the piece all in one or even two keys. And since the -tendency of the music of to-day is to exalt harmony at the expense -of melody, it is desirable that the student should pay particular -attention to these early phases of harmonic structure, so as to be able -to appreciate this important element in modern music. In fact the whole -progress of music since Haydn has been steadily onward towards a free -use of the different keys, and as our ears have become accustomed to -new combinations of chords, we have gradually come to feel the beauty -that lies in glowing musical colors, and to accept them as a legitimate -means of expression. In our chapters on Beethoven this phase of musical -development will receive fuller attention. - - - V. SUMMARY. - -In this movement of C. P. E. Bach, despite its many crudities, there -is taken a long step toward the establishment of modern sonata-form. -The main divisions of the form, exposition, development, and -recapitulation, appear clearly; solid harmonic structure is attained -by the sequence of duality, plurality, and unity; there are two -contrasting themes, though the second is rudimentary; the general -principle of development of themes through insistence on salient -features is illustrated; and the whole movement is written in a style -well suited to the piano, and emancipated from the influence of -polyphony and of the short dance and song forms. - -In the next chapter we shall see how Haydn and Mozart proceeded to -build more elaborate structures on the foundation thus laid by C. P. E. -Bach. - - - SUGGESTIONS FOR COLLATERAL READING. - -_Dickinson: "The Study of the History of Music," Chapter XIV. Grove: -"Dictionary of Music," articles on "Bach, Philip Emanuel," "Sonata," -"Form." C. H. H. Parry: "Evolution of the Art of Music," Chapters VII -and IX (Appleton). "Oxford History of Music," Volume IV._ - - FOOTNOTES: - -[22] It will be noted that there are three names for this one type of -structure: "Sonata-form," "First-movement form," and "Developed ternary -form." - -[23] No. 1 in the edition by Peters, Leipzig. - -[24] See Hadow's "Sonata-Form" (Novello) Chapter VII, for a discussion -of the various methods of theme-development. - - - - - CHAPTER IX. - - SONATA-FORM II. - - - I. HAYDN AND THE SONATA-FORM. - -The type of musical structure which first took on definite shape in -the work of Philip Emanuel Bach, the type which may be defined as -consisting essentially of the exposition, development, and restatement -of two contrasted themes, and to which the name of sonata-form is -given, was not reduced to perfect clearness until the time of Haydn -(1732-1809), who because of his labors in this field is often called -"The father of the symphony."[25] Having the inestimable advantage -of being concert-master, for a period of thirty years (1761-1791), -to the princely house of the Esterhazys, where he had a small but -good orchestra under his direction, and was expected constantly to -produce new pieces for it to play, he was practically forced to write -an astonishing amount of music, in all of which this form figured -prominently. Hardly one of his hundred and twenty-five symphonies, -and his seventy-seven string quartets, etc., is without one or more -examples of sonata-form. Such constant practice enabled him to carry it -far beyond the rather indeterminate state in which Philip Emanuel Bach -left it, and to crystallize it as a structural type for all time. - -Among the most important advances made by Haydn over the practice of -his predecessor, as we saw it illustrated in the last chapter, were -(1) the greater importance and individuality given to the second -theme[26]; (2) the abolishment of merely rhapsodical passages, and -the substitution of successions of chords marking off unmistakably -the various sections of the movement; (3) increased definition at -the end of the exposition section, in the "codetta," which, in some -instances, even has a definite theme or themes of its own, called -conclusion-themes; (4) greater clearness in the key-system of the -whole movement, according to the principle of Duality-Plurality-Unity -already discussed; (5) increased importance and extent of the coda, -which sometimes grows to the proportions of a fourth section to the -movement; (6) use of an introduction, generally in slow time and of a -stately character, preparing the mind for serious attention. It will -be noted that all these advances are in the direction of making the -form more definite, clear-cut, and readily intelligible, as it was most -important that it should be made in its early existence until it was -perfectly familiar to the audience. Increased _variety_ came later, in -the work of Mozart and Beethoven, and could come only after the typical -structure was thoroughly understood by the public. Thus Haydn's -function was that of a systematizer, an establisher of sure foundations -on which more elaborate and free superstructures may later be built; -and for this work his clear, simple, well-disciplined mind and his -thorough rather than brilliant artistic technique admirably fitted him. - -These points will be made clear by an analysis of an example of -sonata-form, taken from the "Surprise" Symphony which he wrote for -London audiences in 1791, toward the close of his career. - -The general structure, as regards both themes and larger sections, may -be conveniently shown in tabular form, thus:-- - - - TABULAR VIEW OF STRUCTURE OF THE FIRST MOVEMENT OF HAYDN'S - "SURPRISE" SYMPHONY. - ---------------------+-----------------------------------------+--------- - Main Divisions. | Themes. |Measures. ---------------------+-----------------------------------------+--------- -Slow Introduction | | 1-17 -Exposition (A) |First theme, G-major | 18-22 - |Passage work | 22-39 - |First theme, repeated | 40-44 -Duality of Harmony |Transition to key of D-major (Dominant) | 44-67 - |Second theme, D-major | 67-80 - |Third, or Conclusion theme, D-major | 81-93 - |"Cadences," emphasizing close in this key| 93-108 ---------------------+-----------------------------------------+--------- -Development (B) | | -Plurality of Harmony| |109-156 ---------------------+-----------------------------------------+--------- -Recapitulation (A) |First theme, G-major |156-160 - |Passage work |160-185 - |Second theme, now in G-major |185-196 -Unity of Harmony |Further working of First theme |196-231 - |Conclusion theme, now in G-major |231-244 - |"Cadences," emphasizing the home key of | - | G-major |244-259 ---------------------+-----------------------------------------+--------- - - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 13. - - _Haydn:_[27] _"Surprise Symphony" the first movement. Two-hand piano - arrangement of twelve Symphonies of Haydn._ - -The first thing that strikes us about the general character of this -movement is its admirable clearness, in which it is representative -of all Haydn's work. In spite of its being so much larger and more -complex than the sonata of Philip Emanuel Bach, its structure is so -obvious that a child could hardly go astray in following it. This is -in large measure due to the pains the composer takes to emphasize each -key and each change of key by means of scale-passages and chords. -(See, for example, measures 59-67, emphasizing the key of D-major, -and the entire conclusion-portions of both the exposition and the -recapitulation (67-108) and (185-259), one insisting on D-major, the -other on G-major.) Such passages as these have been much criticised for -their conventionality and lack of melodic interest, but when we realize -how they _punctuate_ the movement, so to speak, and what a perfect -clearness they give it, we realize how important they were to the early -stage of development of the sonata-form, when its principles had not -become as universally familiar as they are now. They are an immense -advance over the vague rhapsodizings of Philip Emanuel Bach in parallel -places. - -The key-relationships of the movement follow the usual practice. In -the exposition we find duality of key: G-major and D-major. In the -development there is ample plurality. - -In the recapitulation the home key, G-major, dominates throughout. - -Haydn's second theme, though more definite than Philip Emanuel Bach's, -is still somewhat lacking in individuality. It is hardly more than a -string of chords and scales having more tonal interest than melodic -life. It is certainly far from being a lyrical melody strikingly -contrasted with the more energetic first theme. The conclusion theme, -full of Haydnish amiability, grace, and good cheer, is much more -definitely melodious. - -Another symptom of the crudity inseparable from early stages of -artistic evolution is the shortness and rather mediocre interest of -the development section. The first theme is briefly but monotonously -treated in measures 109-126. Then comes (127-132) a little playing, in -the bass, with the small figure which first appeared in (44-45): - - [Music: score] - Germ (measures 44-45.) - - [Music: score] - Development (127 seq.) - - FIGURE XXXVIIIa. - -and later (133-135), an _inversion_ of this: - - [Music: score] - Inversion (133 seq.) - - [Music: score] - Later (136 seq.) - - FIGURE XXXIX. - -The rhythmic figure thus established is made to do duty in the -extended modulation that immediately follows (136-143), after which -comes (144-155) a reminiscence of the passage first used just before -the second theme; and with this Haydn returns to his first theme -and enters on the recapitulation. It is thus almost as if, after -stating his themes, he was at a loss what to do with them, and after -a brief dalliance, from which little novelty results, hurried on to -the restatement, much as an unimaginative preacher tries to make up -by the vehemence with which he reasserts his text for his failure to -give it vivid illustration and suggestive elucidation. In Beethoven's -symphonies the development is usually the point of greatest interest. -But it is of course not fair to expect of a pioneer the last fruits -of culture. Haydn lays down in such movements as the present one the -essential principles of form in instrumental music; to have done -that, with whatever minor shortcomings, is a sufficient claim upon our -admiration and gratitude. - -The shortcomings of Haydn's work are those natural to his circumstances -as a pioneer and to certain emotional limitations of his temperament. -Compared with Beethoven he is lacking both in profundity of feeling -and in variety of style; he is less brilliant and less polished than -Mozart. But on the other hand, Haydn has a homely simplicity, a sort -of childlike charm, all his own; he lives in a world of artistic -truth untainted by sophistry, uncomplicated by oversubtlety; he -is always clear, sincere, straightforward, and he often rises to -nobility and true dignity. Above all, he has the peculiar merit of -having taken up a sort of music which was fragmentary and immature, -and of having elevated it into a new, an essentially modern, and an -infinitely promising type of art. Such a fundamental work can never be -discredited by the more brilliant exploits of later workers who have -the indispensable advantage of building upon it. - - - II. MOZART AND THE SONATA-FORM. - -Though Haydn (1732-1809) was not only by many years the senior of -Mozart (1756-1791), but also outlived him, the relations between the -two were most cordial and close. Haydn had done much of his best work -before 1788, when Mozart wrote his three greatest symphonies, and so -may be said to have served as Mozart's model. Yet he in turn learned -much from his younger but more brilliant friend, and did not write his -own greatest symphonies (the twelve so-called "Salomon" symphonies, -which were written for Salomon, a London orchestral conductor, in 1791 -and 1794, and of which the "Surprise" is one) until after Mozart's -untimely death. How thoroughly each man respected the other, we know -from their own words. Mozart in dedicating his six finest string -quartets to Haydn, said: "It was due from me, for it was from him that -I learned how quartets should be written." As for Haydn, he once put -an end to an argument on the merits and defects of "Don Giovanni" by -remarking: "I cannot decide the questions in dispute, but this I know, -that Mozart is the greatest composer in the world." - -Mozart not only had the great advantage of building on Haydn's secure -foundations, but he brought to the task a genius much more supreme than -his predecessor's. From his earliest composition, a minuet written -when he was only five years old,[28] to the three great symphonies in -G-minor, E-flat major, and C-major ("Jupiter") produced at the end -of his career, a movement from the first of which we shall presently -study, all his work shows a spontaneity of inspiration, a graciousness -of melody, a stoutness and symmetry of musical construction, a finish -of style, a depth of emotional expression, and a classical lucidity and -purity, perhaps not to be found all together in the work of any other -musician. Especially does he excel Haydn in profundity of feeling, -versatility of resource, and a certain aristocratic distinction. All -these qualities are shown in his great G-minor Symphony, one of his -supreme masterpieces. - - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 14. - - _Mozart: Symphony in G-minor, the first movement._[29] - - TABULAR VIEW OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE FIRST MOVEMENT OF MOZART'S - G-MINOR SYMPHONY. - ---------------------+------------------------------------------+--------- - Main Divisions. | Themes. |Measures. ---------------------+------------------------------------------+--------- -Exposition (A) | | 1-100 - comprising |First theme | 1-27 - |Transition, on a subsidiary theme | 28-42 - |Second theme, in relative major key | 44-72 -Duality of Harmony |Conclusion theme, built on first theme | 72-88 - |Cadence formulas emphasizing | - | the key of B-flat | 88-99 - |Modulation | 100. ---------------------+------------------------------------------+--------- -Development Section,| | -or Free Fantasia (B)| | 101-165 - |Modulation continued | 101-103 - |First theme in various keys | 104-115 -Plurality of Harmony|First theme, alternating between bass | - | and treble, with contrapuntal treatment | - | of the transition theme in "diminution."| 115-134 - |Cadence in dominant of original key | - | emphasized | 135-138 - |Rhythm of First theme variously used | 139-165 ---------------------+------------------------------------------+--------- -Recapitulation (A) | | 165-293 - |First theme | 165-191 -Unity of Harmony |Transition, on subsidiary theme | 191-225 - |Second theme, in G-minor (tonic) | 227-260 - |Conclusion theme, First theme | 260-275 - |Cadences-formulas, emphasizing G-minor | 275-285 ---------------------+------------------------------------------+--------- -Coda |On First theme | 286-299 ---------------------+------------------------------------------+--------- - -There is no slow introduction, as in Haydn's "Surprise" Symphony, -but there is a short coda. A little detailed comparison with the -Haydn movement will prove interesting. There is none of the rather -meaningless passage work which Haydn uses in his transition from -the first to the second theme; instead there is a subsidiary theme -(measures 28-42) which in spite of its secondary formal importance -is vigorous, strongly characterized music. Instead of an entirely -new theme for conclusion (Haydn, 81-93) we find an adaptation of -the characteristic rhythm of the first theme (72-88) fulfilling the -function of conclusion theme--to emphasize the close of the first -section of the movement--by harping constantly on the tonic and -dominant chords. This adaptation of familiar matter to a new purpose -is ingenious. The return to the first theme, after the development -section, is beautifully managed. Over a held D in the bass, beginning -at measure 160, the upper voices weave a gradually descending passage -out of the motive of the first theme (three notes only). There is a -slight retarding, a sense of decreasing momentum, until, with the -unobtrusive entrance of the theme in measure 165, a new start is -taken, and the recapitulation goes merrily onward. The apparently -unpremeditated nature of this entrance (though of course it was -carefully planned) is charming. - -In the recapitulation, the subsidiary theme which first appeared -at 28-42, enters at 191, and is made the subject of a considerable -episode. It appears in the bass at 198. Note the sequence at 202-203, -and 204-205. The second theme, on its second appearance (227), is not -only put in the tonic key of G, but is changed from major to minor. -This gives rise to an interesting change in its expression. Instead of -being merely tender and ingenuous, as its first and major form was, it -takes on now a certain air of mystery and of resignation or controlled -pathos. The conclusion theme (260) is also now put into the minor mode. -The coda is short, and contains first a final suggestion of the main -subject of the movement, and the necessary cadences for closing it -firmly in the home key. - - - III. MOZART'S ARTISTIC SKILL. - -This movement affords a remarkable example of Mozart's power to infuse -endless variety into the details of his work, without ever impairing -its coherence and fundamental unity. He shows here, in short, that -remarkable fecundity of imagination, constantly subordinated to the -demands of clearness and musical logic, which gives all his music a -fascinating variety that never degenerates into miscellaneousness. - -For convenience in analysis, we may briefly examine first the elements -of variety and later the underlying unity (though it should be -remembered throughout that in the work itself the two qualities are -intertwined, so to speak, and affect us co-operatively). Thus in the -capital matter of rhythm, for example, the real master of construction -always takes care to maintain the unity of the fundamental meter -with which he starts out, and builds up a variety of rhythms on this -uniform basis by making different themes group the elementary beats -in different ways: as Mozart, in this movement, keeps his measure of -four quarter-notes throughout, but makes the rhythm of his first theme -out of quarters and eighths, and that of his second theme largely out -of dotted halves and quarters. _An actual change of measure_ in a new -theme, such as we find in many modern composers, is often a sign of -deficient mental concentration, a kind of incoherence in which variety -is secured at the expense of unity. The true masters drive their unity -and their variety, so to speak, abreast. - -Note then in the first place, the contrasts between the three chief -themes of the movement, viz.: the first theme, the subsidiary theme -that does duty in the transition (28-42), and the second theme. -Their rhythmic diversity may be noted at a glance in the following -comparative table, in which the rhythm only of four measures of each -theme is set down. - - [Music: score] - First. - - [Music: score] - Subsidiary. - - [Music: score] - Second. - - FIGURE XL. - -A reference back to the first movement of the Haydn "Surprise" Symphony -will show Mozart's advance in respect of rhythmical diversity. - -A parallel advance in diversity of style is noteworthy. Haydn's -movement is steadily homophonic in style, and grows somewhat monotonous -for that reason. Mozart sets off against his homophonic exposition -section a delightfully clean-cut and vigorous polyphonic passage -founded on the first theme in the development section of the movement -(115-134), and another similar passage in the recapitulation (the new -treatment of the subsidiary, 191-217.). - -Again, Mozart uses skillfully the possibilities for variety opened up -to the composer by modulation and setting off against one another of -different keys. A radical and fascinating change of coloring is also -obtained by transposing the second and conclusion themes, on their -final appearance (227 and 260), from major to minor. They are thus -exhibited, as it were, in a new light, while retaining their essential -character sufficiently to be perfectly recognizable. - -Underneath all this charming play of fancy, the fundamental plan of -the movement is as clear as the outline of a mountain range under all -the luxuriant foliage that clothes its slopes. This clearness of form -is due chiefly to two causes, a fine logic in the use of themes, and -a careful adjustment of keys. The closeness with which Mozart sticks -to his thematic texts may in some cases at first sight escape us, but -when we come to realize it through careful dissection, we cannot but be -profoundly impressed by the intellectual grasp it indicates. Thus, the -passage at measures 66-67 is not new, but is made from that of 48-49 -_inverted_. The conclusion theme (72-88) is not made from new matter, -as is usual with Haydn, but is derived from the little three-note -motive of the first theme. The entire development is wrought out of -new manipulations of the same theme, as is also the coda. The long -transition in the recapitulation (191-225) is made entirely from the -subsidiary. There is here, in a word, none of that "clattering of the -dishes" between the courses. The economy of the master is everywhere -observable; irrelevancies are excluded; there is no superfluity, no -surplusage, no prolixity and wordiness. Every measure fulfils its -purpose in the simplest and most direct way, and justifies its presence -by its reference to the essential thematic ideas of the work. - -Unity of key is secured by a careful observation of the main traditions -of the sonata-form in the matter of the distribution of tonalities. The -exposition shows the customary quality of key, tonic (G-minor) being -contrasted with relative major (B-flat major).[30] The development, as -we have already seen, exemplifies plurality of key. The recapitulation -emphasizes throughout the home key of G-minor, thus ending the movement -with the fitting impression of tonal unity. A glance at measures 38-42, -72-99, 134-138, 146-165, 221-225, and 260-307 will show how much pains -Mozart has taken to emphasize his keys at all important points in the -design. The emphasis, as in the case of Haydn, is superfluous for -modern ears, but was very necessary for the audiences addressed by the -early advocates of so complex a scheme of musical design. - -Altogether then, we see in such a movement as the present, Mozart -taking the sonata-form a step in advance of where Haydn had left it, -and while preserving its essential outline, filling it with the wealth -of detail which his luxuriant fancy suggested. Later it will become -clear that he was thus preparing it for the still further elaboration -of an even greater master of construction--Beethoven. - - - SUGGESTIONS FOR COLLATERAL READING. - -_D. G. Mason: "Beethoven and His Forerunners," Chapters V and VI. -C. H. H. Parry: "The Evolution of the Art of Music," Chapter XI. E. -Dickinson: "The Study of the History of Music," Chapters XXIV and XXV._ -_W. H. Hadow: "Sonata Form."_ - - FOOTNOTES: - -[25] A symphony, as we have seen, is only a sonata, on a large scale, -for orchestra. - -[26] Even in Haydn, however, the second themes remain generally rather -rudimentary (see the analysis of his "Surprise Symphony," later in this -chapter). In many cases his second theme is hardly more than a variant -of the first; as for example in the two pianoforte sonatas in E-flat -major. In the first movement of his "Paukenwirbel" Symphony, however, -there is a very distinct second theme, and in many other movements the -student will note a marked tendency toward definition. - -[27] Published for piano, two or four hands, by Peters, Leipzig. For -convenience of reference number all measures, and parts of measures, -consecutively. The numbers will run to 258. - -[28] See Mason's "Beethoven and His Forerunners," page 218. - -[29] Arrangement for piano, two hands, in the Peters edition. Number -the measures throughout. There are three hundred and seven. The general -structure will be seen at a glance in the appended tabular view. - -[30] This is according to custom in movements written in minor keys. -The second theme is in such cases usually put in the relative major -instead of in the dominant. (See the chapter on "Folk-Song.") - - - - - CHAPTER X. - - THE SLOW MOVEMENT. - - - I. VARIETIES OF FORM. - -In the classical sonata the usual arrangement of movements was as -follows: (1) Allegro (in "Sonata-form"): (2) Adagio or Minuet: (3) -Finale (usually a rondo). - -Occasionally--as in Mozart's Piano Sonata in A-major--the slow -movement, in the form of a theme and variations, was placed at -the beginning, and in that case the order would be (1) Theme and -Variations, (2) Minuet (3) Finale. The symphony, which, it must be -remembered, was a sonata on a large scale--always began with a movement -in sonata-form, and had four movements. Although the sonata was subject -to many outside influences--most important of which were polyphony and -the old overture and other operatic forms--its two main sources were -dance tunes and folk-songs. The evolution of the dance tune through -Bach's polyphonic gavottes, sarabandes, etc., has already been traced -in Chapters IV, V, and VI, and the influence of the dance on the first -movement in Chapters VIII and IX. - -The slow movement is ultimately derived from the folk-song, and, while -more subject to operatic influence than were the other movements, -it still retains something of that simple lyric quality that -distinguished it in its primitive form. Unlike the other movements of -the sonata and symphony, however, the slow movement has no settled -form: _i. e._, while we speak of first-movement, or sonata-form, of -the rondo form, and of the minuet form, we do not speak thus of "slow -movement form." For in the slow movement style rather than form is -of greatest importance. On account of its slow tempo it is shorter -than the first movement, and consequently not so dependent for -intelligibility on formal structure. Its themes, also, are song-like in -character, and song themes, being in themselves complete, do not lend -themselves readily to development--do not generate new material--as -has already been pointed out. As a consequence the slow movement is -usually written in what we call a "sectional" form: _i. e._, a series of -sections following one another according to whatever order or system -the composer may choose. The most common use is, however, the form -employed in the minuet. But in slow movements the long song themes, -somewhat elegiac in style and full of sentiment, make the _mood_ of -each section of supreme importance, and throw the formal element into -the background. So that, while the slow movement usually falls under -some one of the common forms already discussed, it often modifies them -in one way or another. - -There are rare instances of developed ternary form in the slow -movements of Mozart's pianoforte sonatas. The Andante of the Sonata in -B-flat (no. 10 in Schirmer's edition), has a development section. It -comprises only nineteen measures, however, and its effect as a section -germinating from the exposition is somewhat lessened by the scheme of -repeats, which is as follows: A :⎜⎜: B. A. :⎜⎜. The use of rondo form -in the slow movement will be discussed in a later chapter. - - - II. SLOW MOVEMENTS OF PIANOFORTE SONATAS. - -Reference has already been made in Chapters VI and VII to the lack of -sustaining power in the tone of the pianoforte of Haydn and Mozart's -day, and the consequent use of ornament in their pianoforte music. In -Figure XLI (_a_) is shown the beginning of the andante of Mozart's -sonata referred to above, and at (_b_) will be found the corresponding -portion of the restatement in the same movement. These two quotations -should be compared with the corresponding portions of the two pieces -that serve as examples for analysis with this chapter. This comparison -will reveal how much more highly ornamented was the music written for -the piano than that for instruments with sustained tone. - - [Music: score] - (_a_) - - [Music: score] - (_b_) - - FIGURE XLI. - -It will be observed that this quotation from Mozart is in strophic -form; each phrase of two measures constitutes, as it were, a poetic -line, the second of which closes with a half cadence, and the last -with a full cadence or period. In this respect it follows the old -folk-song type, and, indeed, that model serves for the great majority -of lyric themes in sonatas and symphonies. But in its initial qualities -this melody shows a great advance over tunes like "Barbara Alien" and -"Polly Oliver," an advance due to the flexibility to which both melody -and harmony had attained in Mozart's time, and to that freedom of -technique provided by the piano as compared with the voice. - -These quotations from Mozart are from a sonata movement which is, on -the whole, above the formal average of the pianoforte pieces of that -period. Many of them were excessively ornamented. In Figure XLII are -shown two quotations from a sonata of Haydn, in the latter of which the -ornaments are profuse. - - [Music: score] - (_a_) - - [Music: score] - (_b_) - - FIGURE XLII. - -In spite of the somewhat artificial atmosphere that surrounds much of -the pianoforte music of this period there is, in the best specimens -of it, a charming formal beauty. It is within its own sphere genuine -and true to life. One has to consider the kind of society that it -represents, as well as the status of music in that society. The art was -not, at that time, free enough, nor practical enough, to deal with deep -emotions; people looked on it as a refined sort of amusement. Not until -Beethoven had written his music did its possibilities as a vehicle for -deep human feeling and experience become evident. - - - III. THE STRING QUARTET. - -It was not until the time of Haydn that the string quartet[31] came -into being; a fact for which we may easily account by examining the -instrumental parts of orchestral compositions before Haydn's time. We -shall find the 'cello, for example, playing for the most part merely -the bass notes that support the superstructure of the orchestra, -and consequently entirely unaccustomed to individual parts of any -difficulty. Another obstacle in the path of the string quartet was the -slow development of the viola, which only gradually emerged from the -older and more cumbersome types, such as the viola d'amour and viola -da braccio. Haydn began by writing little quartets of the simplest -possible kind--the first movement of the first quartet contains only -twenty-four measures--but by constant practice throughout his long life -he attained a complete mastery of the form. In his early quartets he -usually wrote five movements, two of them minuets, but he soon settled -on the regular four movement form which has remained ever since as the -usually accepted model. - - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 15. - - _Haydn: Adagio in E-flat major from the String Quartet_[32] _in - G-major, op. 77, No. 1._ - -This Adagio is thoroughly characteristic of Haydn's best style of -writing. It is without the elaborate and somewhat diffuse treatment -we observed in the trio of his "Andante with Variations" (See Chapter -VII), nor does it depend for its effect on the much more artistic use -of ornament employed by Mozart in the Andante quoted in Figure XLI. -Almost everything in this composition germinates from the two motives -given out in measures 1-2 and 3-4, and it should be noted that each -of these motives is sufficiently pronounced in character to serve the -purposes of generation, and that the theme, as a whole, is not by -any means a perfect lyric melody such as will be found in our second -example for analysis. - - [Music: score] - FIGURE XLIII. - -The first of these motives (see Figure XLIII, measures 1-2) is easily -traced throughout the whole composition, since the changes that are -made in it are largely changes in key, but the second motive (measures -3-4) almost immediately evolves into something new. This may be -observed in measure 11, where the rhythm of the passage at measure 3 -is changed, the melody being given to the left hand. The second part -(or stanza) of the melody, beginning at measure 13, uses chiefly the -phrase from measure 2, which will be found again in the dominant--to -which key this section tends--at measures 21-22. Even the passage at -23 is an elaboration of that at 11, and this same original motive is -lengthened into a delightful bit of by-play at measures 35-37. The -close in C-major at 42, with its accents transferred to the fourth beat -of the measure, should be noted, while the sudden change of key after -the pause was, at that time, almost a revolutionary modulation, and -sounds more like Beethoven than Haydn (see, for example, the sudden -and complete change of key in the coda of the first movement of the -"Eroica" Symphony). The use of the motive from measure 2 at 45-54 and -the gradual elimination of its melodic quality until only its rhythm -remains (53-54) is an interesting example of a familiar process in -music (see Chapter VIII). This gradual dying away and ceasing of motion -is also a familiar process at this point in a movement, providing as it -does a sense of expectancy and preparation for the re-entrance of the -main theme. The restatement begins at measure 55 and as is customary -retains the original key instead of modulating to the dominant as did -the first section. The coda begins at 82 and, according to Haydn's -usual plan, presents a kind of reminiscence of the main subject, as if -in tender farewell. - - - IV. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. - -While this movement does not reach the heights of lyric beauty attained -by Mozart in the Andante which we shall analyze in a moment, it is, -nevertheless, a thoroughly interesting and really beautiful piece of -music. Our attention is constantly enlisted by fresh glimpses of the -theme, or by new harmonies; the ornamentation all grows naturally -out of the structure and is not laid on for its own sake, and the -melody itself is expressive and tender. Furthermore, the themes and -their treatment are characterized by a perfect adaptability to the -string quartet, for even in the pianoforte version, we can observe -how interesting is the part given to each instrument. Here, just as -in a perfect story or a perfect poem, there is nothing redundant, -nothing that has not some part in the main purpose of the work. And -this combination of placid beauty with perfection of form makes what -is called the "Classic" in music. Especially do we find here an entire -absence of those perfunctory passages that occur in the movement of the -"Surprise" Symphony discussed in the last chapter. - -Taken as a whole, this piece is immeasurably finer than any movement of -its kind produced up to that time, save alone those of Mozart; and the -advance is not only in method but in the essence of the idea itself. -There is a geniality and warmth about this music that marks a new era. -Bach was more profound, but more isolated; here we have simple human -sentiment and a kind of naïve charm that distinguished Haydn's music -from that of all other composers. - - - V. FORM OF HAYDN'S ADAGIO. - -This Adagio of Haydn is a good illustration of what we have called -"sectional form." It may be tabulated as follows: - - - TABULAR VIEW OF SECTIONS IN HAYDN'S ADAGIO. - ---------------------+-------------------+-------------------+----------------- - 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 ---------------------+-------------------+-------------------+----------------- - Section in E-flat | Section in the | Section of free | Double Section - measures 1-16 | dominant (B-flat) | modulation 30-54 | in E-flat 55-82 - | 16-30 | | Coda 83-91 - | | | - Duality | Plurality | Unity -----------------------------------------+-------------------+----------------- - -Section four contains practically the same material as Sections 1 -and 2, with its last half in the tonic instead of the dominant. It -will be observed that the harmonic plan of the movement is that of -"sonata-form," but that the first two sections (which would constitute -the exposition) are not repeated, as was the invariable custom in -Haydn's first movements. Yet the resemblance is quite close, for -the third part is like a development section and the fourth like a -restatement. Still there is not here that decided difference between -the three sections of exposition, development, and recapitulation that -is essential to sonata-form. - - - VI. MOZART AND THE CLASSIC STYLE. - -The slow movements of the symphonies and string quartets of Mozart, who -represents the culmination of the classic type in music, are thoroughly -characteristic of the ideals of the classical period. Unlike the rustic -Haydn, Mozart was accustomed from his childhood to the atmosphere of -courts and lived in the favor of princes. His music is never brusque, -nor does it have the homely wit and sentiment of Haydn--it does -not smack of the soil--but it possesses a certain ideal beauty and -elegance, a certain finesse and finely pointed wit that were beyond -Haydn's powers. Yet these ideally beautiful compositions of Mozart -are absolutely spontaneous. We are never admitted into his work-shop; -we never trace a sign of his labor; his music seems to have sprung -full born from his brain. He is the type of the consummate artist -who deals with the language of music as easily as an ordinary mortal -deals with his native tongue. He was not a philosopher like Bach, nor -a great man like Beethoven. We find no evidences of his having been, -outside his music, particularly distinguished from his fellows, for his -improvidence and fondness for amusement are matters of record. When we -think of Beethoven's music we think of Beethoven; Mozart and his art -are distinct and separate.[33] - -At this point the question naturally arises: "Just what do we mean -by classic beauty?" In a general way a book, a picture or a piece of -music becomes a "classic" when it is universally accepted as a model -of its kind. In this sense Grey's "Elegy in a Country Churchyard" is a -classic; so are Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, the Sistine Madonna, and -the Apollo Belvedere. The same term is applied to Beethoven's Fifth -Symphony, and to Schumann's "Träumerei." These works of art represent -many varieties of mood, of style, and of structure, and the application -to them all of the term "classic" is a very broad usage. "Classic," -as opposed to "Romantic," in music, means something quite different -and much more definite. It refers to purity of outline and simplicity -of harmony; to pure beauty of sound as opposed to luxuriance or the -poignancy produced by dissonances; to clear and translucent colors -and definite lines curved in beauty, rather than to picturesqueness. -Classical music tells its story clearly and definitely and does not -depend on suggestion, as does, for example, the romantic music of -Schumann. - -Our illustrations from Haydn have revealed how this classic spirit -gradually approached its culmination. In his Andante with Variations -there is something of the classic spirit, though the occasional diffuse -ornamentation of the trio theme mars the purity of the composition. -In the movement from the "Surprise" Symphony there is too much that -is rustic to admit of its being considered altogether classic. But a -fine example of the classic type is afforded by the first movement of -Mozart's G-minor Symphony, discussed in Chapter IX. The distinction -may be made still more clear by reference to Figure XLIV, containing -(a) the opening phrases of the Finale of Tschaikowsky's "Pathétique" -Symphony, and (b) a short quotation from Schumann's Novelette, op. 21, -No. 1. - - [Music: score] - (_a_) - - [Music: score] - (_b_) - - FIGURE XLIV. - -The poignancy of the passage from Tschaikowsky is remarkable, and the -opening chord, modulating at once to another key than the tonic, -produces a feeling of unrest which is further intensified, as the -piece proceeds, by harsh dissonances. The quotation from Schumann's -Novelette is notable for its brusqueness, and for the roughness of -its dissonances. Effects like these would not have been tolerated in -Mozart's time, and illustrate the tendency of music to become more -personal and to seek to express a wider range of human feeling. A -comparison of these two quotations with the opening of the andante by -Mozart will reveal how far apart are the ideals of classic and romantic -music. - - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 16. - - _Mozart: Andante from String Quartet_[34] _in C-major, - dedicated to Haydn._ - -In Chapter IX reference has been made to the influence of Haydn and -Mozart on each other. Mozart undoubtedly profited by Haydn's labors in -the quartet form, and Haydn, in turn, shows in his latest quartets that -he had learned something from his younger contemporary. Ever since this -form came into being it has been a favorite one with composers, for -in it they are able to express musical ideas in all their purity and -divested of extraneous influences. For this reason the quartet became -the medium for their most advanced ideas. Both Mozart and Beethoven -wrote quartets that were far in advance of their time, and that were -subjected to harsh criticism by their contemporaries. The introduction -to the quartet from which this andante is taken is a case in point. -The harmonies, within the space of a few measures, wander far from the -home key, and commit what were then unpardonable sins of cacophony. -A brief quotation from the beginning of this introduction is shown -in Figure XLV. The harsh dissonances between the A-flat in the first -measure of the viola part and the succeeding A-natural in the first -violin part should be noted. - - [Music: score] - (_a_) - - [Music: score] - (_b_) - - FIGURE XLV. - -The vague harmonies of this introduction serve as an admirable foil to -the bright opening of the first movement. The æsthetic purpose they -serve is one of which Beethoven also made constant use when he desired -to enhance the charm of a passage by vivid contrast of color. The -opening theme of the movement (shown at (b) in Figure XLV) will be seen -to be foreshadowed in the introduction (Figure XLV (a); viola part, -measure 3, first violin part, measures 4-5). From the point of view of -both harmony and thematic development this introduction is therefore -extremely modern. - - [Music: score] - FIGURE XLVI. - -Of this andante by Mozart we can say unreservedly that it is a perfect -specimen of pure classic beauty. Its translucent harmonies, its -exquisite curve of melody, its clear outlines, all make it a model of -its kind. The chief theme, extending to measure 12 (see Figure XLVI), -should be compared with those of Handel, Haydn and Mozart shown in -previous chapters. This comparison will reveal an important element -in the present theme, namely, the element of organization. In our -earliest musical examples quoted in the first two chapters there was a -conspicuous lack of variety. "Three Blind Mice" contented itself with -two motives, which were repeated over and over again. "Barbara Allen" -was made up of one rhythmic figure, constantly reiterated, and even in -the themes of Philip Emanuel Bach and Haydn there were many rhythmic -repetitions. In the Haydn quartet movement there were but two motives, -and while they were used with the greatest skill, the theme itself was -entirely constructed from them. In Mozart's theme, on the contrary, -there is hardly a single repetition of rhythm. An examination of the -melody will reveal how great a variety is imparted to it by the many -different rhythmic figures. Yet there is no sense of vagueness about -it; it holds together firmly. This quality distinguishes all highly -organized melodies, and is never found in folk-music. The same element -may be observed in a developed language in which words have come to be -flexible in their meaning, and more or less complicated sentences are -possible. In this theme one does not get the sense of what the composer -is trying to say until the melody ends; in simple themes, made up by -repeating the same motive, one can foresee the end long before it is -reached. Themes like this beautiful one of Mozart are possible only -after art has become well developed, and after people in general have -become sufficiently familiar with the phraseology of music to be able -to follow complicated musical sentences. - -A further charm is added to this movement by the free and flowing -counterpoint of the several parts. This is an essential element in the -string quartet, since without it, there being little variety in the -tone of the four instruments, monotony would result. - - - VII. FORM OF MOZART'S ANDANTE. - -Here, as in the Haydn slow movement, we find another example of -sectional form. It may be tabulated as follows: - - - TABULAR VIEW OF SECTIONS IN MOZART'S ANDANTE. - --------------------------------------------------------------------------- - I. | II. ---------------------------------------+----------------------------------- - Modulating from tonic to dominant | Modulating from dominant back to -and containing theme I, episode theme | tonic with the same succession of -(13) and theme II (26), 1-44. | themes. Coda (102), 54-114. ---------------------------------------+----------------------------------- - -The sub-divisions of the above should be carefully noted (as indicated -by the entrance of the different themes). These sub-divisions break -the piece up into smaller sections, each distinct from the others. A -particularly interesting and beautiful effect is produced in the coda -(measures 103-5) by the augmentation of the phrase from measures 1-2, -which is reproduced in longer notes against a familiar counterpoint.[35] - - - SUGGESTIONS FOR COLLATERAL READING. - -_C. H. H. Parry: "The Evolution of the Art of Music," Chapters XI and -XII. W. H. Hadow: "Sonata Form," Chapter X. D. G. Mason: "Beethoven and -His Forerunners," Chapters V and VI._ - - FOOTNOTES: - -[31] The instruments employed in the string quartet are two violins -(first and second) viola, and violoncello. - -[32] Published in miniature score, Payne edition, price 20 cents. This -quartet also appears among Haydn's works in the form of a sonata for -violin and piano. - -[33] See Mason's "Beethoven and his Forerunners," pages 232-240. - -[34] Published in miniature score, Payne edition, price 20 cents. - -[35] A reference to the full score of this movement will reveal certain -crossings of the lower instruments over the upper by which interesting -effects of tone color are produced. - - - - - CHAPTER XI. - - BEETHOVEN--I. - - - I. GENERAL CHARACTER OF BEETHOVEN'S WORK. - -The reader who has attentively followed the story of the long and -gradual development of music from the folk-song and peasant dance up -to the point we have now reached, cannot but have been impressed by -the character of preparation for some supreme achievement of which -this development seems to partake throughout. All the laborious steps -lead on toward a goal which even in the splendid work of Haydn and -Mozart is not quite reached. Haydn crystallizes the form and style of -instrumental music; Mozart adds his peculiar aristocratic grace of -manner and classical beauty of substance, yet even in his work there -remains a certain coldness and conventionality--the body of the art is -perfect, but the spiritual passion of modern music as we know it is -still lacking. Even during the life-times of these great musicians, -however, the supreme genius who was to bring to its perfect flowering -the plant they had so carefully tended was preparing for his work. In -1791, when Mozart died, and when Haydn made his first journey to London -to produce his Salomon symphonies, Ludwig van Beethoven, born in 1770, -was just entering on his young manhood. - -In order to understand the character and work of Beethoven, it is -necessary constantly to bear in mind the two-sided truth that -the greatest men are those who combine the utmost receptivity and -teachableness with a perfect self-dependence and fearless initiative. -Beethoven, who is equally remarkable for both, could never have done -what he did had he lacked either. Had he been merely "original" -he could not have securely founded himself on the work of his -predecessors, and, therefore, would probably not have surpassed them. -Had he been content always to imitate, had he never ventured beyond -what was sanctioned by tradition, he would never have inaugurated a -new epoch in music. It becomes, therefore, a matter of great interest -to trace these opposed but complementary traits of docility and -unconventionality, first in his character, and secondly in his music. - -In what has been written of Beethoven, his eccentricities have been -so dwelt upon that his capacity for laborious study has hardly been -appreciated. It is true that he was a restive pupil. He was taught -for a while by Haydn, but soon quarreled with him. His teacher in -counterpoint, the learned pedagogue Albrechtsberger, said of him: "He -will never do anything according to rule; he has learnt nothing." -But Beethoven was essentially self-taught; and in his efforts, under -his own guidance, to master all the technical difficulties of his -art, he showed the most inexhaustible patience and subjected himself -to the most tireless labor. Never did the veriest dolt drudge more -faithfully at the A, B, C of his art than the "divine Beethoven." We -have proof of this in his sketch-books, many of which have been edited -and printed by Nottebohm. In them we see him jotting down his ideas, -often surprisingly trite in the first instance, and then returning, -day after day, to the task of developing them into the perfect themes -of his finished compositions. Nothing could be more salutary to those -who fancy that musical creation is entirely a matter of "inspiration" -than a perusal of these endless pages in which Beethoven slowly and -painfully separates the pure metal from the ore of his thought and -refines it to complete purity.[36] - -Beethoven's wonderful certainty of touch, economy of material, and -logical coherence of ideas were doubtless attainable only by this -laborious method of working. He learned, by careful imitation, all -that the models left by his predecessors could teach him before he -ventured to push beyond them. Yet even in his early 'prentice work, -like the first two symphonies and the earlier piano sonatas, in which -the influence of Haydn and Mozart are constantly evident, there is a -vigor of execution, a ruggedness of style, and a depth of feeling, that -are all his own. In other words, his strong originality was already -coloring all that he did; even when he imitated, it was with a subtle -difference. - -Later, as his powers developed and self-confidence grew, he became -more and more indifferent to tradition, more and more singly bent on -following his own genius wherever it might lead him. A strong dramatic -instinct began to possess him, showing itself in a love for sudden -changes of harmony and rhythm, for unexpected transitions from loud -to soft or from soft to loud, and in other such eccentricities. His -rhythms became more striking, his melodies broader and more various, -his harmonies and modulations so daring and unprecedented that the -conservatives of the day held up their hands in horror. His sense of -musical structure, of that combining of themes in long movements which -is akin to the architect's combination of pillars, arches, windows, -buttresses and colonnades in great buildings, became so powerful and -unerring that he created works of vaster proportions and more subtle -symmetry than had ever been dreamed of before--so great and complex -that they could be followed only by the highly trained ear and mind. - -Such were the works of his maturity. Later still, as he became more and -more thrown in upon himself by poverty, pride, the terrible affliction -of deafness, and the failure of his contemporaries to understand him, -he came to live entirely in his own ideal world, and his music became -more and more markedly individual, and in some cases almost perversely -so. His latest works are not thoroughly understood, even to-day, except -after the most patient, exhaustive study. - -The customary division of Beethoven's artistic life into three -periods[37] is based on these internal differences observable in his -works. Those of the first period, extending to about 1803, of which the -most important are the piano sonatas up to opus 53, the first three -piano concertos, the string quartets, opus 18, and the first and second -symphonies, show him under the influence of Haydn and Mozart, though -already more poignant, impassioned, and forcible than his models. - -In the second period, the period of full and vigorous maturity, -extending from 1803 to 1813, he throws off all restricting traditions, -and stands forth a heroic figure, the like of which music had never -seen, and may never see again. The compositions of this decade, among -which may be specially mentioned the piano sonatas from the "Waldstein" -to opus 90, the fourth and fifth piano concertos, the unique concerto -for violin, the string quartets, opus 59 and opus 74, the overtures -"Coriolanus" and "Egmont," the opera "Fidelio," the great Mass in C, -and above all the six magnificent symphonies from the "Eroica" to the -eighth, are among the supreme achievements of human art. They combine -the utmost variety of form and style with a perfect unity; they are -models of structure for all time; and as to expression, one knows not -what to marvel at most, their rugged virility and intensity of passion, -their deep pathos and tender sentiment, their moods of effervescent -merriment, humor, and whimsical perversity, or their almost superhuman -moments of mystical elevation. - -The third period, extending from 1813 to Beethoven's death in 1827, is -as we have said characterized by an almost excessive individuality, -and is difficult to relate to the normal progress of musical art. -Nevertheless it contains some of his greatest works--notably the Ninth -Symphony, the Mass in D, and the final sonatas and quartets. The -detailed study of it falls outside the province of this book. - -With this brief and necessarily cursory survey of Beethoven's -achievement in its entirety, we may pass on to the examination of a -single typical work, hoping in the course of it to make clearer to -the student the two main facts about Beethoven on which we have been -trying to insist: his indebtedness to his predecessors in the matters -of general structure and style, and the indomitable originality by -virtue of which all that he does is infused with a novel beauty and -an unparalleled profundity of feeling. We shall choose for our first -example one of the finest compositions of his first period--the -"Pathétique Sonata," for piano, opus 13, taking up in later chapters -some typical examples of his more advanced style. - - - II. ANALYSIS OF A BEETHOVEN SONATA. - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 17. - - _Beethoven: Piano Sonata, Opus 13. First movement._ - -It will be noted that Beethoven adds to the three traditional sections -of the sonata-form an introduction in slow tempo (of which we saw an -earlier example in Haydn's "Surprise" Symphony) and a brief coda, -based on the main material of the movement, to round out the complete -movement satisfactorily. In his later work both of these additional -sections came often to figure very prominently, the increased -development he gave to them being indeed one of his most important -contributions to sonata-form. We shall see in his Fifth Symphony a fine -example of his treatment of the coda, which raises it to a dignity -equal to that of the other organic sections. The introduction of the -Fourth Symphony extends to thirty-eight measures of slow tempo, that -of the Seventh Symphony to sixty-two measures, with great variety of -treatment. - -The general structure of this movement, which is in extended -sonata-form, is shown in the following tabular view: - - - TABULAR VIEW OF STRUCTURE OF FIRST MOVEMENT OF THE PATHÉTIQUE SONATA. - --------------------+---------------------------------------------+---------- - Sections. | Themes. | Measures. --------------------+---------------------------------------------+---------- -Slow Introduction | | 1-10 --------------------+---------------------------------------------+---------- -Exposition (A) | First theme, C minor | 11-27 - | Transition, based on first theme | 27-50 - Duality of | Second theme, E-flat minor | 51-88 - Harmony | Codetta or Conclusion section, E-flat major | 89-134 - | Consisting of | - | Conclusion-theme I | 89-112 - | Conclusion-theme II | 113-120 - | Reminiscence of theme I | 121-134 --------------------+---------------------------------------------+---------- -Development (B) | Introduction-motive | 135-138 - Plurality of | Theme I and Introduction-motive treated | 139-196 - Harmony | | --------------------+---------------------------------------------+---------- -Recapitulation (A) | First theme, C minor | 197-209 - | New transition | 209-222 - Unity of | Second theme, F minor | 223-254 - Harmony | Codetta, C minor | 255-296 --------------------+---------------------------------------------+---------- - Coda | | 297-312 - | Consisting of | - | Introduction motive | 297-300 - | First theme, reminiscence | 301-311 --------------------+---------------------------------------------+---------- - -The motive of the introduction, shown in Figure XLVII, is a deeply -expressive bit of melody which at once establishes the mood to which -the sonata owes its name of "Pathetic." How incisive and seizing is -this very first measure! What a different world it takes us into--a -romantic world of personal feeling--from the classic realms of Haydn -and Mozart! The emotion thus suggested at the outset becomes deeper, -too, as we proceed, first with the higher utterance of the same motive -in the second measure, and then with the fragments of it in the third -and fourth, urging us on to a climax on the high A-flat. Finally, -in the fifth and succeeding measures, the pulsating rhythm of the -accompaniment adds a still greater agitation, while the melody climbs -ever higher and higher until it reaches the F of measure 9, after -which it dies away in preparation for the main theme. The intensity of -Beethoven's expression, by which his claim to the title of "romantic" -is most surely indicated, could hardly be better shown than by this -brief introduction of ten measures. - - [Music: score] - (_a_) Motive of the Introduction, Pathétique Sonata. - - [Music: score] - (_b_) Treatment of this motive in the Development. - - FIGURE XLVII. - -The body of the movement begins energetically, yet sombrely, with the -first theme, in minor key and strongly pronounced rhythm. This merges -quickly in the transition (27-50), which is neither a bit of empty -passage-work as often with Haydn, nor a new melody as with Mozart, but -contains constant references to the main theme (35-37, 39-41, 43-45). -The second theme is both more lyrical in character and more extended -than the first. It is not in the traditional key of the relative major -(see Chapters II and III), but oscillates between E-flat minor and -D-flat, coming into E-flat major (the relative of C-minor) only as it -closes and debouches into the first conclusion theme (89-112). The -closing section or codetta is, however, almost entirely in E-flat, and -is moreover fairly long and important. It consists of two independent -themes and of a reminiscence of the first theme at measures 121-135. A -fine instance of melodic germination is found in the first conclusion -theme, where the gradually rising melody twice builds itself up into -a long phrase of eight measures (93-100, and 105-112) with splendidly -sustained effect. The great variety of rhythm embodied in the codetta -should be especially noticed. - -The development begins with a restatement of the poignant -introduction-motive, so managed that it leads into the remote key of -E-minor. Now begins, with the resumption of the allegro tempo, a rather -short but most interesting treatment of the first theme, continued with -an ingenious variant of the introduction-motive (measures 142-143, -148-149: see Figure XLVII (_b_)), followed by the transference of the -fragment of the first theme to the bass, where it is thrice repeated, -amid constant modulation. Then, in the measure following 169, comes -one of those inimitably hushed, mysterious passages so peculiar to -Beethoven, through which, like fountains from a sombre pool, rise -fragments of the first theme. Then, with a rapidly descending passage, -the movement plunges into its recapitulation. - -This section the reader will have no difficulty in analyzing for -himself, not failing to note the felicity with which a new transition, -from first to second themes (209-222), is made to germinate from -the last two measures of the main theme. The coda, very brief, -contains nothing but a final announcement of fragments of the -introduction-motive and a single sentence of the first theme. - - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 18. - - _Beethoven: Piano Sonata, opus 13. Second movement._ - -This slow movement, a beautiful _adagio cantabile_ in Beethoven's -tranquilly serious mood, takes on the sectional form of the rondo, -consisting of a theme (_A_), an episode (_B_), recurrence of the theme -(_A_), a second episode (_C_), second recurrence of the theme (_A_), -and brief codetta. - - [Music: score] - FIGURE XLVIII. - -The theme itself, filling only eight measures, but repeated at a higher -pitch in the second eight measures, is a fine example of the variety -in unity of Beethoven's melodies, secured only after much laborious -sketching. It is shown in Figure XLVIII, and should be examined -carefully. Almost every measure of it presents a new rhythm, so that -there is none of the monotony of those themes which endlessly repeat -a single rhythmic figure. (Compare the tunes of primitive savages -shown in Chapter I.) Yet the whole melody is so deftly composed that -its final impression of unity is perfect. The sequence form which the -harmonies of the last four measures take contributes in no small degree -to this impression of unity. - -The theme being in the key of A-flat, both episodes are planned to give -variety of key, the first (B--measures 17-28) being in the relative -minor, F-minor, and the second (C--measures 37-50), beginning in A-flat -minor and modulating, through E-major, back to the home-key. - -With the third entrance of the main theme, the accompaniment takes the -more animated rhythm of triplets; and these continue through the brief -but delightful codetta (66-73). - - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 19. - - _Beethoven: Piano Sonata, opus 13. Third movement._[38] - -This movement is an example of rondo form, being, like the Mozart rondo -we have already studied, based on the alternation of a chief theme, -with sections containing other material. The tabular view on the next -page exhibits the complete structure. - -The first theme, sprightly and energetic, and recalling in its melodic -curve the second theme of the first movement, is in strophic form, -with its last half repeated, and the cadence extended for greater -emphasis. The sequences in measures 6-7 and 10-11 should be noted. -The transition also starts off with a sequence, measures 23-26, -corresponding to 19-22. Our old familiar, the device of imitation, also -figures in measures 38 and 39. It is interesting to see Beethoven using -these tools of the polyphonic style (see Chapters I and III) in a work -so far removed from it, and with such ingratiating freshness. - - - TABULAR VIEW OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE FINALE OF THE PATHÉTIQUE SONATA. - ----------+---------------------------------------------------+-------- -Sections.| Themes. |Measures. ----------+---------------------------------------------------+-------- - A. | First theme, C-minor | 1-18 - | Transition | 19-26 ----------+---------------------------------------------------+-------- - B. | Second theme, E-flat major | 26-44 - | Closing theme (Codetta) | 44-52 - | Transition (on motive from close of second theme) | 52-62 ----------+---------------------------------------------------+-------- - A. | First theme, C-minor | 62-79 ----------+---------------------------------------------------+-------- - C. | Third theme, A-flat | 80-108 - | Florid passage work | 108-121 ----------+---------------------------------------------------+-------- - A. | First theme, C-major | 121-135 ----------+---------------------------------------------------+-------- - B. | Second theme, C-minor | 135-154 - | Closing theme (codetta) | 155-171 ----------+---------------------------------------------------+-------- - A. | First theme, C-minor | 172-183 - | Codetta, extended | 183-203 - | Final suggestions of first theme | 203-211 ----------+---------------------------------------------------+-------- - -The second theme enters for only eight measures, after which the -gay little imitations are again resorted to, and carry us to the -re-entrance of the main theme. - -The episode (C), based on a new theme in the key of A-flat major, for -the sake of the harmonic variety so essential to the middle part of a -movement, is again in sequence form, and in strict polyphonic style, -first with two voices and later with three. In measures 100-103 we have -the theme in the right hand, and set against it in the left a staccato -counterpoint in eighth-notes; in the next four measures this scheme is -just reversed. A rather florid passage, which may be compared to the -cadenza in the rondo from Mozart analyzed in Chapter VI, leads over to -the return of the first theme. - - [Music: score] - FIGURE XLIX. - -The appearance of the second theme, on its return, in the key of -C-major instead of E-flat major, imparts organic solidity to the -movement by its insistence on the tonic key, as in similar cases in the -sonata-form (compare again Chapter VI). It is also this time made to -germinate into eight additional measures (see Figure XLIX). - -In the final section A (172-end) the little motive of the transitions -does further duty, and a new figure is introduced in measure 194. After -the pause of measures 202-203, we have brief hints, piano, of the main -theme, and then with one of the sudden fortissimos Beethoven loves so -well, a precipitous downward scale ends the movement with vigor. - - - III. SUMMARY. - -The "Pathétique Sonata" illustrates most vividly the general truths -about its composer's first period which we have tried to bring out -above. The similarity to the style of Haydn and Mozart is most -striking. Not only do we find the general types of structure developed -by them applied with great fidelity, but there are many details of -style, such as the accompaniment figures and the ornamentation, which -recall them. Yet the strings, so to speak, are all tightened, there -is not a trace of flabbiness or diffuseness, everything irrelevant is -omitted, and the style is at once more varied and more unified than -theirs. The vigor and individuality of all the themes is consummate; -the organic beauty of such themes as that of the Adagio is supreme. -The transitions are notable for their pertinency and derivation from -the thematic materials of the movement--there are no empty scales -and arpeggios. The developments give the impression of inevitability, -of growing from the primary motives as naturally as plants grow -from their seeds. Contrast in rhythm, in melody, in harmony, and in -style (as exemplified in the use of polyphonic style in the finale) -abounds. There is never a dull moment, yet interest is never secured -at the expense of unity. Above all, the virility, profundity, and -earnestness of the expression, surprise us; there is here none of the -detachment, the cool remoteness, of classic art; every note throbs with -personal feeling--music has left the innocence and transparent gaiety -of childhood behind it, and begun to speak with the deeper and more -moving, if less serene, accents of maturity. - -In the next chapters we shall trace this progress further. - - - SUGGESTIONS FOR COLLATERAL READING. - -_E. Dickinson: "The Study of the History of Music," Chapter XXVI. C. -H. H. Parry: "The Evolution of the Art of Music," Chapter XII. D. G. -Mason: "Beethoven and His Forerunners," Chapters VII, VIII, and IX._ - - FOOTNOTES: - -[36] See for quotations from the sketch-books, Mason's "Beethoven and -His Forerunners," pp. 304-314. Several of the complete sketch-books, -edited by Nottebohm, are published by Breitkopf and Härtel. - -[37] See Von Lenz's "Beethoven et ses trois styles." - -[38] In numbering the measures, begin with the first (partial) measure, -even though it is incomplete. - - - - - CHAPTER XII. - - BEETHOVEN--II. - - - I. FORM AND CONTENT. - -Our study of the Pathétique Sonata has shown how closely Beethoven -followed the models of Haydn and Mozart, at the same time infusing -into them a new spirit. The first movement of that sonata does not -differ materially in form from the first movement of Mozart's G-minor -Symphony, discussed in Chapter IX, yet Beethoven takes us into a new -world, far removed from that world of pure impersonal beauty in which -Mozart dwelt. Beethoven is the man struggling, fighting, working out -his own individuality, learning through bitter experience; Mozart -is the artist not so much turning his own experience into music, as -creating outside himself imperishable works of an almost superhuman -beauty. In many of Beethoven's works there is this same regularity of -form coupled with freedom of expression. The brusqueness of his style -led his contemporaries to think him an iconoclast; and it was not till -many years after works like the Fifth Symphony were produced that the -public began to understand how orthodox they are. - -This free individual expression, now a characteristic of art generally -and evident enough in all phases of human life--this assertion of the -personal point of view--began with Beethoven and has been increasing -ever since his day, until we now have music in which certain phrases -or themes no longer please us as beautiful sounds, but exist for some -ulterior and individual purpose. - - [Music: score] - (_a_) - - [Music: score] - (_b_) - - FIGURE L. - -This change was perhaps only a part of that more general transformation -of society by which the composer, who had previously been subject -to the favor of princely patrons, became an independent individual, -living in direct contact with the public at large. Music, thus freed -and given an independent existence, became an expressive art and took -deeper root in human experience. It lost, in this process, something of -that calm, ethereal beauty it had possessed, but it gained greatly in -expressiveness. In Beethoven's hands it became plastic; he enlarged the -range of harmonic combinations far beyond that of Mozart, and created -themes that were of wider application to human feeling. In illustration -of this there will be found in Figure L, (_a_) a quotation from the -slow movement of Beethoven's piano sonata, op. 2, no. 2, and in (_b_) -a quotation from the slow movement of his sonata, op. 10, no. 3. These -should be compared with the theme from Mozart's piano sonata in Figure -XLI. The difference between the themes of Beethoven and that of Mozart -is in their content rather than in their form. - -The purpose of Mozart's theme is beauty; the purpose of Beethoven's -themes is expressiveness, the conveyance of deep emotion. They are -lacking in one essential quality of melodic beauty, namely, outline, or -curve.[39] These two quotations are not representative of Beethoven's -lyric genius, for he has left us many fine melodies, but they reveal -a general tendency of his to seek in music an outlet for his deepest -thoughts and feelings, and to sacrifice, if necessary, that beauty of -outline that characterizes Mozart's finest tunes. - - - II. BEETHOVEN'S STYLE. - -One peculiarity of Beethoven's music, due to his constant search -after expressiveness rather than mere formal symmetry, is a unity -and conciseness of style notably superior to that of Mozart. Many of -his themes lack the perfect balance of phrases, in exact thesis and -antithesis, found in Mozart's, their structure resulting rather from a -logical development of the leading motive, which, by a favorite device -of his, presses on, in constant repetition and with increasing vigor, -to an emotional climax. The contrast between this method of treating a -theme and the method of Mozart may be seen in Figure LI. - - [Music: score] - (_a_) From Mozart's G-minor Symphony. - - [Music: score] - (_b_) From Beethoven's first piano Sonata. - - [Music: score] - (_c_) From Beethoven's String Quartet, op. 59, No. 1. - - FIGURE LI. - -In the quotation from Mozart's symphony it will be observed that the -two-measure phrases exactly balance each other, but that the second -phrase is melodically unrelated to the first, and is, furthermore, a -somewhat trivial figure. One feels in listening to the whole theme -that the real significance of it lies in the opening phrase, and this -conclusion is justified by reference to the development section of the -movement, where the composer altogether discards the second phrase. The -style of this theme is, therefore, largely dictated by the convention -of perfect phrase balance. The style of the two Beethoven themes, on -the contrary, is vigorous and terse. The outward symmetry is dictated -by the inner sense. - -In the sonata theme Beethoven presses home his idea with greater -and greater intensity until the climax is reached, after which the -tension is gradually abated; in the theme from the string quartet an -almost identical method is pursued. For a further illustration of the -terseness of Beethoven's style reference may be made to the development -sections of this sonata and string quartet, where most interesting -use is made of the short motives from which these themes are derived. -These methods of writing give evidence of the fine economy Beethoven -continually displays. There is, in his music, nothing redundant--no -unnecessary word--and it is this quality of style that produces such an -effect of life and vigor. - -Beethoven carries out these methods in whole movements, and even in -complete symphonies. We have already seen how, in the Pathétique -Sonata, a theme in the finale is derived from one in the first -movement, but a much more interesting example of the process[40] may be -found in the Fifth Symphony. - - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 20. - - _Beethoven: The Fifth Symphony._[41] _First movement._ - - [Music: score] - (_a_) - - [Music: score] - (_b_) - - [Music: score] - (_c_) - - [Music: score] - (_d_) From the Scherzo. - - FIGURE LII. - -In Figure LII will be found quotations from the three themes of the -first movement of the Fifth Symphony, and from the secondary theme of -the scherzo. - -It will be observed that the first motive in theme I--consisting of -three short notes followed by a long one--is the germ from which both -the conclusion theme and scherzo theme spring, and that the same motive -serves as the bass to the second theme. This motive, in fact, dominates -the entire first movement, the extraordinary vitality of which is -largely due to the incisive quality of the motive itself and to the -occasional thunderous proclamations of it by the entire orchestra. -Here we have the virility of Beethoven's style admirably illustrated; -no time is given to platitudes, no single measure wanders away from -the chief issues. At times this first motive is extended into a -succession of loud chords from the full orchestra; again the prevailing -two-measure rhythm is interrupted by a measure of silence that shifts -the accents dramatically from one place to another, dislocating the -whole passage.[42] This intensity of utterance--each phrase hammered -home--gives to the whole work a quite unique place among symphonies. - -The complete movement may be tabulated as follows: - - - TABULAR VIEW OF STRUCTURE OF FIRST MOVEMENT OF BEETHOVEN'S - FIFTH SYMPHONY. - - ----------------+---------------------------------------------------+--------- - Sections. | Themes. |Measures. - ----------------+---------------------------------------------------+--------- - Introduction. | On motive from theme I | 1-5 - ----------------+---------------------------------------------------+--------- - Exposition (A) | First theme, C-minor | 6-56 - | Transition consisting of a chord of modulation | 58 - Duality of | Introduction to theme II based on original motive | 59-62 - Harmony | Second theme in E-flat major | 63-95 - | Codetta or Conclusion-section consisting of | - | Conclusion-theme | 95-119 - | Reminiscence of theme I | 110-124 - ----------------+---------------------------------------------------+--------- - Development (B) | Motive from theme I treated | 125-179 - | Introduction to theme II lengthened and treated | - | in sequence (G-minor and C-minor) | 179-195 - Plurality of | Half note phrase pass the same extended into | - Harmony | long passage finally losing its contour and | - | retaining only its rhythm | 195-240 - ----------------+---------------------------------------------------+--------- - Recapitulation | Further treatment of theme I | 240-252 - (A) | First theme, C-minor | 253-300 - | Transition leading to C-major | 302 - Unity of | Introduction to theme II | 303-306 - Harmony | Second theme in C-major | 307-346 - | Conclusion-theme C-major | 346-374 - ----------------+---------------------------------------------------+--------- - Coda | Theme I treated | 374-397 - | Introduction to theme II with new counterpoint | 398-406 - | Motive from the same in diminution (basses) | 406-415 - | Motive from theme II treated | 416-469 - | Motive from theme I treated | 469-502 - ----------------+---------------------------------------------------+--------- - -The foregoing table should be compared with those in Chapters VIII and -IX in order to get a comprehensive view of the gradual development -of sonata-form. It will be seen that Beethoven destroys nothing, but -that the changes he makes in the older models are changes such as -the nature of his themes and the length of the movement demand. The -chief difference in themes is that the first theme is less lyric than -those of Mozart, and more suited to development; a better contrast -between themes I and II is thereby provided. The coda is extended far -beyond that of the old model, and becomes an important part of the -structure--important, because at this stage of the development of -sonata form (audiences having become accustomed to listening to long -pieces of pure music) the repetition of the whole first section (A) is -a little too obvious, and the introduction of a dramatic coda after the -recapitulation section provides fresh interest at the point where it is -most needed. - -Sir Hubert Parry[43] writes of Beethoven's innovations in this phase -of musical development as follows: "It was his good fortune that the -sonata-form had been so perfectly organized and that the musical -public had been made so perfectly familiar with it, that they were -ready to follow every suggestion and indication of the principle of -form; and even to grasp what he aimed at when he purposely presumed on -their familiarity with it to build fresh subtleties and new devices -upon the well known lines; and even to emphasize the points by making -progressions in directions which seemed to ignore them." - -But most important of all is the close reasoning (if we may use the -term) displayed throughout this movement. There is hardly a single note -in it that has not some direct bearing on the subject matter, the two -chords in the transitions being the only portions not derived from -the themes proper. With all these elements of strength, and the added -cohesion resulting from the similarity of themes, this movement stands -as a model of what a symphonic first movement should be. - - - III. THE DRAMATIC ELEMENT IN BEETHOVEN'S MUSIC. - - [Music: score] - (_a_) - - [Music: score] - (_b_) - - [Music: score] - (_c_) - - FIGURE LIII. - -We have referred in Chapter VIII to that process of development whereby -a theme becomes gradually changed, losing its physiognomy little by -little until it is only a shadow of its former self. In the quotation -in Figure LIII this process might almost be said to be the opposite -of development, since the theme is gradually denuded of its melodic -curve, until nothing but its rhythm remains; but the effect, at least, -is to produce something quite new out of a germinal motive, and to -relieve, for a moment, that insistence on melody that characterizes -the first section. The device is a favorite one with Beethoven, and in -this movement he makes interesting use of it. The passage begins at -measure 195 ((_a_) in the figure) with the phrase used to introduce -the second theme, as if it intended going on with the theme as before, -but instead there enters a long passage of half-notes, (_b_), in which -the _outline_ of the half-note phrase is preserved for a while, after -which the rhythm only is retained, and the passage becomes a series of -chords floating mysteriously, and dimly outlined as in a cloud ((_c_) -in the figure). The original motive crashes through (measure 228) for -a moment, the soft chords sound again, and then the whole orchestra -rushes rapidly to the end of the section. - -The effect of this cessation of the rapid movement that has thus far -animated the music is very dramatic, and the startling interruption of -its peaceful flow by the loud chords at measures 228-231--as if they -were impatient to begin the turmoil again--gives the whole passage a -peculiarly vivid effect. This device is analogous to that employed in -the novel when the author prepares his readers, by a page or two of -peaceful narrative, for his most dramatic episode. The significance of -this passage is, of course, due to its connection with the introductory -phrase from which it sprang, but it should be noted that the whole -passage is a re-creation from the original motive and not a restatement -of it in another key. And its position in the movement is exactly at -the point where some relief is needed from what might otherwise be a -too great insistence on the first theme, and just before the beginning -of the recapitulation, where the first theme is to appear in its -original form. It will be found that such passages are usually placed -in this position. - -The themes in Beethoven's finest works are not only hammered out, as -it were, from the rough metal, but we may say of them--as we cannot -say of those of Haydn's and Mozart's--that they are pregnant with -possibilities which are not fully realized until the composition is -finished. With Haydn and Mozart the development section is usually -a string of different versions of the original theme--as is the -latter's G-minor symphony, first and last movements. With Beethoven the -development section reveals what was latent in the original theme, but -what had not been before realized. In the development section of the -Fifth Symphony he not only convinces us by his logic, but overpowers us -by the sweep of his eloquence. - - - IV. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FIRST MOVEMENT OF THE FIFTH SYMPHONY. - -It is impossible to express in words the significance of this music, -but it runs almost the complete gamut of human feeling. The opening -theme is so incisive and has such a tremendous energy that it takes -us into a new world. If we compare it with Mozart's first movement -themes we realize at once that it deals with things that music had -never attempted to express before. The second theme is not by any -means a fine melody, being made up of a constantly reiterated phrase, -but it has an appealing beauty of its own that we would not exchange -for perfection. Occasionally the terrible asserts itself, as in those -ominous chords with empty fifths in the coda (measures 481-482), while -the whole movement seems to have been struck off at white heat. - -That this was not the case, however, but that on the contrary even the -first theme itself took its present shape only after a laborious effort -of the composer's mind, we know from the evidence of his sketch-book. -The theme first appears there in the following form. - - [Music: score] - FIGURE LIV. - -This commonplace theme evidently lay generating in Beethoven's mind for -a long period. Various sketches on it appear from time to time, and it -was only after much thought that it finally emerged in its permanent -form. This was always his method of composition. Unlike Mozart, who -wrote music with the utmost fluency and rapidity, Beethoven rewrote his -themes many times before they satisfied him, and the process caused -him actual mental agony. With him composing was a struggle, a fight; -he stamped, and sang, and shouted over the composition of some of his -larger works, and finally emerged from his solitude exhausted. - -There is no doubt but that Beethoven was affected by the prevailing -social unrest of his time--by the revolutionary ideas that were then -stirring. Although we cannot attempt to translate into words the -significance of the fifth symphony, there is no mistaking its language -as that of independence and freedom from conventional shackles. -"Writing in a period of revolution," says Mr. Hadow,[44] "himself an -ardent revolutionary, he broke in upon the politeness of the Austrian -court with an eloquence as tempestuous as that of Mirabeau or Danton." -So that, looking at his music as a whole, we are not only struck by -its significance, but by the close relation in which it stands to the -life of Beethoven's period. Never before had music been so untrammeled, -so free. The medium itself--harmony, melody, rhythm--had become more -plastic, and the old incubus of tradition had been thrown off. Not only -that, but the various elements in composition were fused for the first -time in Beethoven's music. Polyphony takes its place as a means and -not an end; pure melody--even folk-melody--becomes a part of the larger -scheme in which its beauty is set off against contrasting elements--and -is thereby enhanced; rhythm becomes a means of expression in itself, -and not merely a vehicle; harmony is made an important part of the -general design, and its latent possibilities as a means of expression -are realized. - -All these threads were gathered together by Beethoven, and woven into -the complex fabric of his music. Great men are usually born at just the -right moment, and Beethoven was no exception to the rule; for he found -the art at just the point where a master spirit was needed to take its -various elements and fuse them. Under his hands all the inessential -parts dropped away, and the essentials were placed in such relation to -each other that a completely organic work of art resulted. - - - SUGGESTIONS FOR COLLATERAL READING. - -_"Oxford History" Vol. III: Chapters X and XI. Grove's "Beethoven and -His Nine Symphonies." Grove's "Dictionary of Music and Musicians:" -articles "Beethoven," "Symphony," and "Form." Mason's "Beethoven and -His Forerunners," Chapters VII, VIII, and IX._ - - FOOTNOTES: - -[39] An examination of any one of the best folk-songs quoted in -Chapter II, or the melodies of Bach, Handel, Haydn or Mozart quoted in -succeeding chapters, will show how important an element of melody is -this curve or outline. - -[40] The themes in the minuet and finale of Haydn's "Emperor" quartet -have a slight similarity of contour. - -[41] Published for piano, two or four hands, by Peters, Leipzig. For -convenience of reference, number all measures and parts of measures -consecutively. - -[42] The presence of measure 389--which is silent--has been a subject -of discussion among musicians: it is sometimes omitted in performance. - -[43] "Evolution of the Art of Music," Chapter XII. - -[44] "Oxford History of Music." - - - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - BEETHOVEN--III. - - - I. THE SLOW MOVEMENT BEFORE BEETHOVEN. - -The slow movements of the sonatas and symphonies of Haydn and Mozart -were essentially lyric pieces in which the composer relied for his -effect on the beauty of his melodies. These melodies, usually two in -number, were varied by being presented in different keys and by being -ornamented with passing-notes, scale passages, trills, etc. Each -section was clearly separated from the others by cadence chords, so -that the total effect was of a series of separate divisions, each, as -it were, independent and complete in itself. There are, of course, -exceptions to this method of procedure, particularly in the string -quartets of Haydn and Mozart, which are more highly developed than is -usual in their piano sonatas, but as a general rule this was their way -of treating slow movements. - -This lyric, sectional form of slow movement served as a foil to the -more involved first movement. The lovely, serene melodies were not -disturbed by passion, nor sacrificed for picturesque effect of any -kind. In the string quartets and symphonies they were enlivened by a -certain amount of polyphony (see Chapter X), and in the piano sonatas -they occasionally departed from the simple regular form, but they -seldom dealt with tragedy and seldom presented any evidence of that -idiosyncrasy and intense individuality that marks the slow movement of -later times. - - - II. THE SLOW MOVEMENTS OF BEETHOVEN'S EARLY SYMPHONIES. - -The early sonatas and symphonies of Beethoven are largely constructed -on the old model. The first piano sonata, referred to in Chapter XII, -has a sectional slow movement that might almost have been written by -Mozart. The slow movement of the first symphony is simplicity itself, -both in form and content; and even the adagio of the Pathétique Sonata -(see Chapter XI) is a straightforward sectional piece with a lyric -melody presented several times, with varying accompaniment, and with -the usual contrasting middle section. - - [Music: score] - (_a_) - - [Music: score] - (_b_) - - [Music: score] - (_c_) - - [Music: score] - (_d_) - - [Music: score] - (_e_) - - [Music: score] - (_f_) - - [Music: score] - (_g_) - - FIGURE LV. - -In Figure LV is shown the first theme of the andante of the first -symphony, (_a_) themes from the larghetto of the second symphony, -(_b_) and (_e_) and portions of the middle section of the same (_c_), -(_d_), (_f_), and (_g_). Each of these themes is distinctly strophic; -each has perfect phrase balance, charm of contour or outline, and -simplicity of harmonization. Not so highly organized as the theme from -the Pathétique Sonata (see Chapter XI, Figure XLVII) they resemble the -themes of the older masters, but bear, nevertheless, some evidence -of the individuality that so fully characterizes Beethoven's later -music. But in the treatment of the theme from the second symphony that -individuality is clearly manifested. Instead of a mere restatement -varied by new harmonization or by elaboration of the theme itself, -there is a free play of fancy, one or two short motives from the -first theme being tossed about in the orchestra from one instrument to -another in delightful by-play. - -All sorts of devices are resorted to to keep the interest of the -listener at its height. The chief motive (Figure LV, (_b_)) passes from -calm serenity to playfulness, and again to splendid sonorous grandeur; -a phrase from this same motive becomes the subject of an almost crabbed -discussion (Figure LV, (_d_)), while the charming secondary theme -(Figure LV, (_e_)), whose whimsical gayety animates the early part of -the movement, is given a plaintive quality by a change to minor (Figure -LV, (_f_)) and the touching contrapuntal phrases that are set against -it. A little later a single phrase from the same theme becomes the -subject of a bit of vigorous by-play between the different instruments -(Figure LV, (_g_)). - -Thus the slow movement, even in Beethoven's early works, becomes -vivified by his intense individuality. In his more mature compositions -in this form the whole body of the music pulsates with life--no single -part stagnates. - - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 21. - - _Beethoven: The Fifth Symphony, Slow movement._ - -We have already pointed out in Chapter X that the slow movement is -usually written in some sectional form. Beethoven followed the old -models in this respect in the majority of his slow movements, but -his enrichment of the content of the music and his skill in avoiding -conventional endings and other platitudes makes his pieces less rigid -in effect than those of Haydn and Mozart. He was particularly fond of -leaving his listeners until the last moment in doubt of the ultimate -conclusion of a passage, leading them away from his point and coming -back to it by an unexpected modulation or turn of phrase; he frequently -ends the section of a movement with one or two brusque chords suddenly -inserted after a passage full of sentiment. In short, his sectional -movements are less obvious in design, and more flowing and continuous, -than was the custom before his day. - -The andante of the Fifth Symphony is in free variation form, the -divisions--unlike those in the variations referred to in Chapter -VII--not being clearly marked nor regular in form. The theme has -two parts, but Beethoven skillfully avoids that prolixity sometimes -evident in Haydn's "Andante with Variations;" nor does he lengthen -his two themes to such an extent as to make them a little doubtful as -proper subjects for variation treatment, as did Haydn. Furthermore, -although the second part of Beethoven's theme is a better subject -than Haydn's "Trio" theme, being more terse and more characteristic, -Beethoven presents it in nearly its original form each time it appears, -making the first and more important subject serve as the basis of his -variations. Such changes as do occur in the second theme will be noted -later. The complete movement may be tabulated as follows: - - - TABULAR VIEW OF STRUCTURE OF THE ANDANTE OF THE FIFTH SYMPHONY.[45] - ----------+----------------------------------------------------+--------- -Sections.| Themes. |Measures. ----------+----------------------------------------------------+--------- - 1. | Theme I in A-flat major | 1-23 - | Theme II in A-flat and C-major | 23-50 ----------+----------------------------------------------------+--------- - 2. | First variation of theme I, A-flat major | 50-72 - | Second part of theme I as before but with | - | more elaborate accompaniment | 72-99 ----------+----------------------------------------------------+--------- - 3. | Second variation of theme I, A-flat major | - | (theme given out three times: cellos, | 99-124 - | violins and basses) | - | Episode, founded on initial motive from theme I | 124-148 - | Theme II in C-major (first two phrases lengthened) | 148-158 - | Episode, founded on motive from theme I | 158-167 - | Theme I in A-flat minor | 167-177 - | Transition passage leading to return of theme I | 177-186 ----------+----------------------------------------------------+--------- - 4. | Theme I, A-flat major | 186-206 ----------+----------------------------------------------------+--------- - 5. | Coda | 206-248 ----------+----------------------------------------------------+--------- - -The foregoing table may be compared with that of the Haydn variations -in Chapter VII. While the general scheme is the same--for the two -themes are in each case presented several times--the Beethoven -variations are much more concise, and at the same time much more fully -expressive and illustrative of the original theme. Haydn's variations -are naïve; Beethoven's are conscious. Beethoven presents his themes -from widely different points of view; Haydn presents charmingly -elaborate versions of the same melodies. "Composers did not for a -long while," says Parry,[46] "find out the device of making the same -tune or 'theme' appear in different lights, so as to make studies of -different aspects of the same story under changing conditions, as in -Robert Browning's _Ring and the Book_." - -These entirely distinct presentations of the original idea give to this -movement an especial charm, placing it far above any of Haydn's or -Mozart's variations. - - - III. INDIVIDUALITY OF THE ANDANTE OF THE FIFTH SYMPHONY. - -The peculiar charm of this andante lies not so much in its melodies, -beautiful as they are, as in the individuality of their treatment. The -first version of the theme as it appears in Beethoven's sketch-book is -shown in Figure LVI (_a_), and at (_b_) is given the first part of the -completed theme. - - [Music: score] - (_a_) - - [Music: score] - (_b_) - - FIGURE LVI. - -It will be observed that the original idea was somewhat mechanical in -its rhythm, and lacked that variety imparted to the completed theme -by the tied note at the beginning of measure 3 and at the middle of -measure 5. Beethoven's original intention must have been quite at -variance in other ways with what he finally evolved, for he marks his -first sketch, "Andante quasi Minuetto," _i. e._ "in the style of the -minuet," and of this there is left no evidence whatever. - -Each variation of this theme is quite distinct from the original, -particularly in its mood. While the original theme has a calm and even -pensive beauty, full of sentiment, the two variations of it are less -serious and, at times, verge on the humorous and playful (as at measure -108), or on the grotesque (as at measure 115). But in the episodes -that occur between the variations--in the transitions or links between -the different parts--Beethoven's fancy has fullest play. He ranges all -the way from comedy to tragedy, from delicate gaiety to lumbering, -Brobdingnagian heaviness. Simple raillery seizes him when, at measure -160, he allows the violin to take up the familiar motive and toss it -to the basses and take it back again, or when he amuses himself with -weaving thirds up and down (134), crossing and recrossing, spinning out -the little three-note motive into a fine web, which is finally torn -apart as the whole orchestra thunders out the secondary theme (148). - -These two passages (portions of which are shown in Figure LVII) in -their freedom from restraint and their expression of the composer's -idiosyncrasies, are quite beyond what had ever been attempted before. -We see working here a mind full of resource and capable of sounding -the greatest depths of the subject. - - [Music: score] - - [Music: score] - - FIGURE LVII. - -And this highly imaginative method of treating the transitions or -connecting passages is one of the fundamental differences between the -variations of Haydn and Mozart and those of Beethoven "_A priori_,"[47] -says Mr. Hadow, "it would be easy to conjecture that the variation form -is unsatisfactory. It affords little scope for structural organization, -little for episode or adventure, it seems to have no higher aim than -that of telling the same story in the largest possible number of -different words. Indeed, composers before Beethoven are often in -evident straits to maintain its interest." An examination of any set -of variations by an inferior composer will reveal just the defects -Mr. Hadow refers to. But Beethoven not only tells the story in quite -different words, but finds opportunity for all sorts of interesting -episodes and adventures, so that the structural weakness of the form -is quite lost sight of. With him the connecting passages skillfully -avoid too great stress on pure melody--with which the listeners would -otherwise be surfeited--and, at the same time, they never degenerate -into unmeaning passages of empty chords and scales such as often -occurred in the music of Haydn and Mozart. - - - IV. THE HARMONIC PLAN. - -The recurrence in the same key of the theme in the variation form -gives to it a certain monotony of harmonization unless the episodes -are treated with great harmonic freedom. As was pointed out in Chapter -II, harmony sometimes becomes an important element of structure, -particularly in the rondo and variation forms, and in Haydn's and -Mozart's variations the harmonic plan is not sufficiently varied to -provide this much needed contrast. Beethoven, however, always much more -free in the use of modulation than his predecessors, imparts to these -variations almost at the outset great variety of key, and in all his -episodes ranges freely about, unhampered by limitations. In measure -28, for example, he suddenly starts towards the key of B-flat minor, -only to emerge a moment later in C-major. The passage, beginning at -measure 39, not only provides that relief from too great insistence -on melody which we have already referred to as characteristic of his -episodes, but its harmonies are purposely vague, leaving us in doubt -until the last moment as to their ultimate conclusion. An interesting -and beautiful effect is again produced, at measures 167-177, by the -changes of key, while the scale passages that follow introduce further -harmonic variety. At measure 206 begins a passage that seems to intend -the key of D-flat, but again our expectations are not realized. So that -the total impression we receive from the harmony of this movement is -of a more complete unity and variety than is produced by the themes -themselves. - -It must also be noted in general that this freedom of harmony is one of -the signs of advancement in the art of music, and that at the present -time the combination of chords is much less restricted than was the -case in Beethoven's day. And this steady advance has been as steadily -opposed by theorists. When we remember that Monteverde (1567-1643) was -bitterly criticised for introducing in a chord the unprepared dominant -seventh, making thereby a dissonance almost as familiar to modern ears -as is the simple major triad--we can easily realize how difficult it -was for people in Beethoven's time to understand his far-reaching -modulations. The steady progress is further illustrated by Wagner's -music-dramas, which were considered when they first appeared as almost -cacophonous in their harmonization, but which now seem perfectly simple -and normal. - - - V. THE UNIVERSALITY OF BEETHOVEN'S GENIUS. - -A piece of music like this is a human document. It embraces so many -phases of human feeling, and it places them all, as it were, in -such proper focus that we feel in listening to it as though we had -come in contact with elemental human experience. This music is not -unapproachably grand; we hear in it echoes of our own strivings, hopes, -and despairs. And it is this sense of proportion, this wideness of -vision, that makes Beethoven's music so universal. For in the last -analysis the effect of any work of art depends on the artist's sense -of values; a fine situation in a novel is all the finer for being set -against a proper background; a tragedy must have moments of relief; -beauty alone, whether in a painting or a piece of music, soon palls -upon us; in the greatest works of art this sense of values--this -feeling for proportion--is always present to save the situation -(whatever it may be) from the deadly sin of being uninteresting. - -Beethoven continually gives evidence of his mastery over this important -element in composition. The beauty of his melodies never palls. Before -that point is reached there is some sudden change of feeling, some -unexpected turn of melody or modulation, some brusque expression that -shocks us out of our dream. He is particularly fond of the latter -device, and frequently lulls us into a fancied quiet only to awaken -us abruptly when we least expect it. With him everything has its -proportionate value, so that we get a clearly defined impression of -the whole work, just as in a fine novel the values are so carefully -preserved that we feel the locality of every incident, and come to -know the characters as we know our own friends. - -One who is thoroughly familiar with the andante of the Fifth Symphony -feels this quality as predominant. We are not enraptured by the theme -itself, as we are by that of Mozart's andante from the string quartet -(referred to in Chapter X), but we feel the charm of incident and -by-play, we are just as much interested in the connecting passages as -we are in any other part of the piece; and we think of it all as we -do of a finely written play, where one incident hangs on another, and -nothing happens that does not bear on the plot. - -Thus, judging music from the standpoint of universal human feeling, -Beethoven reaches the highest point in its development. No other -composer, before or since, has equalled him in this particular, and the -more we study him the more we find in him. Repeated hearings do not -dim the luster of his genius, nor have the great composers who have -followed him had as broad a survey of human life as he possessed. - - - SUGGESTIONS FOR COLLATERAL READING. - -_Hadow: "Oxford History," Vol. V. Parry: "Studies of Great Composers." -Mason: "Beethoven and His Forerunners," Chapters VII, VIII, and IX._ - - FOOTNOTES: - -[45] Number the measures and parts of measures consecutively from -beginning to end--making 248 measures in all. - -[46] "Oxford History," Vol. III, p. 85. - -[47] "Oxford History of Music," Vol. V, p. 272. - - - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - BEETHOVEN--IV. - - - I. BEETHOVEN'S HUMOR. - -One of Beethoven's most prominent characteristics, without a special -consideration of which no account of him would be at all complete, was -his humor. In the three foregoing chapters we have had passing glimpses -of it: we have noted his distaste for the obvious, the trite, the -conventional, and his fondness for breaking in on the tranquillity of -his audience, sometimes in danger of lapsing into inattentive dullness, -with all manner of shocks and surprises--clashing chords in the midst -of soft passages, unexpected modulations to distant keys, piquant -interruptions of rhythm, long holds, sudden spasms of wild speed. -All such tricks were dear to him as means of avoiding the monotony -which is the one unpardonable sin of an artist, and of attaining -constant novelty and a kaleidoscopic diversity of effect. None of his -predecessors, and perhaps none of his successors, carried to such -lengths as he did this peculiar kind of musical humor. It is one of the -most essentially "Beethovenish" of all his qualities. - -The particular form of movement in which his humor attained its freest -scope (though it is hardly ever entirely absent in anything that he -wrote) was the minuet of his earlier, and the scherzo of his later -sonatas and symphonies. The minuet of Haydn and Mozart, which we have -discussed in Chapter VII, though not entirely lacking in the element of -whim and perversity which gives rise to humor, was primarily stately, -formal, and suave. When we listen to a minuet of this old school, our -mind's eye conjures up the picture of a group of eighteenth century -dames and cavaliers, hoop-skirted and bewigged, gravely going through -the set evolutions of their dance with unfailing dignity and courtly -grace. From such a scene a Beethoven scherzo whisks us in a moment -to some merry gathering of peasants, where all is wild conviviality, -boisterous rejoicing, and unrestrained high spirits. - -Doubtless this contrast was in some measure due, as Sir George Grove -points out in an interesting passage, to the differences of the social -conditions under which the composers lived. "The musicians of the -eighteenth century," he says, "were too commonly the domestic servants -of archbishops and princes, wore powder and pigtails, and swords, and -court dresses, and gold lace, dined at the servants' table, and could -be discharged at a moment's notice like ordinary lackeys. Being thus -forced to regulate their conduct by etiquette, they could not suddenly -change all their habits when they came to make their music, or give -their thoughts and feelings the free and natural vent which they would -have had, but for the habits engendered by the perpetual curb and -restraint of their social position. But Beethoven had set such social -rules and restrictions at naught. It was his nature, one of the most -characteristic things in him, to be free and unrestrained. Almost with -his first appearance in Vienna he behaved as the equal of everyone he -met, and after he had begun to feel his own way his music is constantly -showing the independence of his mind."[48] - -Whatever the causes of this mental independence of Beethoven, whatever -part of it was due to changed social conditions, and what to his purely -personal character, there is ample testimony to its existence in his -biography. The man who could throw a badly cooked stew at the head of -the waiter, who could in a fit of temper publicly shake his fist under -the window of one of his best friends and patrons, who could haughtily -refuse to make the ordinary salutations to his emperor and empress on -a chance meeting, lest he appear servile, and who when he was asked -whether he were of noble blood answered proudly that his nobility lay -in his head and in his heart, was not likely to pay exaggerated respect -to traditions, whether in life or in art. Indeed, perhaps the deepest -secret of his greatness was that while, as his sketch-books signally -prove, he spared no pains or labor to conform his work to those great -natural laws which are above all individual wills, he paid not the -slightest respect to mere rules and conventions, and held especially -in contempt the arbitrary codes of pedants and pedagogues. "It is not -allowed?" he inquired quizzically, when some such dogmatist objected to -a passage he had written: "Very well, then, _I_ allow it." - - [Music: score] - (_a_) - - [Music: score] - (_b_) - - FIGURE LVIII. - -Little wonder is it, then, that such a daring spirit, such a hater of -the timid and the droning, such a passionate lover of the individual, -the striking, the bizarre, and even the grotesque, found a congenial -task in infusing humor and irresponsibility into the classic minuet. -This form, already the lightest part of the sonata and symphony, -already consecrated to the expression of the composer's gayest and most -graceful thoughts, needed only to be made plastic enough to include -fantasy and banter in order to give free scope to Beethoven's most -frolicsome moods. To the task of thus aerating the symphonic minuet he -applied himself very early. Take, as an instance, the minuet of the -very first piano sonata, opus 2, number 1. As a whole it breathes the -polite graciousness of Mozart. The first cadence, especially, recalls -the sweetly formal manner of the old school. (See Figure LVIII (_a_).) -Yet a moment later Beethoven begins to play with this very cadence in -true scherzo fashion, like a cat with a mouse, twice pawing it gently, -so to speak, and then pouncing on it with fury: ((_b_) in the same -figure.) - -In the other two sonatas bearing the same opus number he adopts the -name scherzo--which is an Italian word meaning "joke" or "jest"--and -with it introduces still more of the playful spirit; and as the sonatas -progress we find this tendency growing, until in opus 26 and opus 28 we -have full-fledged, though rather brief, examples of the real Beethoven -scherzo. Let us look at these more carefully. - - - II. SCHERZOS FROM BEETHOVEN'S SONATAS. - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 22.[1] - - _Beethoven: Scherzo_[49] _from the Twelfth Sonata, opus 26._ - -We note first of all that though the time-signature is three-four, as -in the old minuet, the pace is much more rapid--"allegro molto"--so -that a sense of bustle and restless activity is substituted for the -well-bred deliberateness of the minuet. This acceleration of time is -observable in most of the scherzos. - -Again, the theme (measures 1-17) is of most energetic character, which -is even further intensified, on its re-entrance in the bass at measure -46, by a rushing accompaniment in eighth-notes. - -A characteristic passage precedes this return of the theme. To make the -excitement more welcome when it comes Beethoven has one of his "lulls" -for sixteen measures (31-46), during which the motion dies out and all -seems to stagnate for a moment. This sort of quiescence, in which one -takes breath for a new access of energy, is always consummately managed -by Beethoven, who has made the "lull" a famous device. - -The trio calls for no particular comment. It is in binary form, while -the scherzo itself is ternary. - - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 23. - - _Beethoven: Scherzo from the Fifteenth Sonata, opus 28._ - -The tempo is again brisk--"allegro vivace." - -The theme is exceedingly whimsical: long notes jumping down through -four octaves--first single notes, then thirds, then sixths--followed -each time by a quaint little cadence in which the staccato touch is -prominent. - -The section of contrast after the double-bar (measures 33-48) takes the -form of a sequence, in which the left hand part carries the original -theme. - -In the return of the theme we find one of those violent dynamic -contrasts so beloved by Beethoven, the theme in measures 49-53 being -sounded in a mild _piano_ and then, without warning, in measures 58-61, -pealed forth _fortissimo_ in large chords. - -The trio is again inconspicuous, save for its charming harmonization. - -These two scherzos give a good idea of how Beethoven gives play to -his whimsicality in his piano sonatas,[50] but to get the Beethoven -scherzo at its highest power we must go to the symphonies. There he -has all the wondrous potentialities of instrumental coloring to fire -his imagination, and a canvas broad enough to afford scope for endless -ingenuity. It is a fascinating study to trace out how he gradually -advanced in the power to utilize all these possibilities. - - - III. THE SCHERZOS OF BEETHOVEN'S SYMPHONIES. - -The third movement of the first symphony, though called "Minuetto," -is marked "allegro molto e vivace," and with its spirited theme, -fascinating harmonies, and striking rhythms, is essentially a scherzo. -Perhaps the most interesting single feature of it is the completely -Beethovenish means adopted for getting back to the theme and the home -key of C-major after the section of contrast. - - [Music: score] - FIGURE LIX. - -The passage is shown in Figure LIX, and merits careful study. From -D-flat major, a key far distant from C, return is made by imperceptible -degrees. At the same time there is a crescendo of power, until finally -the theme breaks out vigorously in the home-key. It will be noted that -the brief phrases played by the left hand in this passage are made from -the first two notes of the theme itself. Thus closely does Beethoven -stick to his text. - -The forcible syncopated rhythms and dissonant harmonies near the end -of this movement also deserve notice. They give it a rugged character -strangely at variance with its title of "minuet." - -In the second symphony the name scherzo is adopted, and the phials -of mirth are freely opened. Sudden alternations of loud and soft are -especially conspicuous, as will be seen by referring to the theme, -quoted in (_a_) in Figure LX. Each new measure, here, brings something -unexpected and deliciously piquant. - -Violent shifts of accent on to ordinarily unimportant parts of the -measure will be noticed in the twenty-first and twenty-fifth measures, -affording relief from what might without them become monotonous. - -A little later, after the reappearance of the theme, Beethoven -indulges in one of those passages which puzzle us and pique our -curiosity (Figure LX (_b_).) Where is he going? we ask ourselves, -what will he do next? But after a few moments' suspense, in which -the music seems to be spinning about in an eddy, so to speak, it -falls into the current again, and all goes cheerfully to the end. - - [Music: score] - (_a_) - - [Music: score] - (_b_) - - FIGURE LX. - -In the trio, the student should note the whimsicality of the long hold -on an F-sharp through six entire measures, _pianissimo_, followed by a -sudden loud chord on A. - -Indeed, the prankishness of the entire movement is inexhaustible. - -We do not reach the full stature of the Beethoven scherzo, however, -until we get to that of the third or "Eroica" symphony. In this -wonderful movement we have a perfect masterpiece of irresistible, -tireless, kaleidoscopic humor, a great epic of irresponsibility which -must be ranked with such unique expressions of the humorous spirit -in literature as Shakespeare's Falstaff plays, Sterne's "Sentimental -Journey," or Stevenson's "New Arabian Nights." Well may Sir George -Grove say of it, that it is "perhaps the most _Beethovenish_ of all -his compositions," and that in it "the tragedy and comedy of life are -startlingly combined." - -It begins with a stealthy, soft succession of staccato chords in the -strings, uniformly pianissimo and yet most insistent in rhythm. Against -this is presently outlined the most piquant little theme by the oboe -((_a_) in Figure LXI); the chords go on again, and then sounds above -them once more this incisive little theme. In the contrast section -after the double-bar comes first more playing with the rapid soft -chords, and then a charming bit of "imitation" of the theme from one -voice to another ((_b_) in Figure LXI). The note D is finally reached -in this way, and then Beethoven, instead of making some trite and -uninteresting modulation back to E-flat, whither he wishes to go in -order to begin his restatement, simply goes on sounding D for ten -measures, _piano_, and then without warning drops down to B-flat, -_pianissimo_, for four measures, and therewith proceeds with his theme -again. The mystery and charm of this return to key are indescribable; -the persistent _pianissimo_ adds much to its extraordinary -effectiveness. - - [Music: score] - (_a_) - - [Music: score] - (_b_) - - [Music: score] - (_c_) - - [Music: score] - (_d_) - - FIGURE LXI. - -Now, however, with the return of the theme, we at last get a good -ear-filling fortissimo, the whole orchestra taking part in a vigorous -game of musical tag (the theme made into a canon--(_c_) in Figure LXI). -A fine climax is reached in a passage of bold leaping melody in the -strings, in which the accents are dramatically placed on the second -instead of the first beats of the measures, followed and completed by -staccato chords on the wood-wind instruments ((_d_) in Figure LXI). -This is enormously vigorous, and makes a fitting culmination for -this first part of the movement, besides giving an opportunity for -still greater effect later, as we shall see in a moment. After it, a -cadence is soon reached, though not before the strings and wood-wind -instruments have had a brief whimsical dialogue on the subject of the -staccato chords. - -So far all is bantering merriment, iridescent color, and energetic high -spirits. But in the trio, one of the most wonderful of all Beethoven's -strokes of genius, the mood changes, and while the quick three-four -measure is still felt underneath, the long notes, and the deep mellow -tones of the horns, give an almost tragic quality to the music. The -theme, given out by three horns alone, with a brief cadence by the -strings, does not reach its full stature until its recurrence near the -end of the trio. In its second phrase the lowest horn reaches, and -holds for two measures, a D-flat which is of almost unearthly solemnity -of effect. This passage repays careful study, so wonderfully does it -use the simplest means to gain the highest beauty. Sir George Grove -well says of it: "If ever horns talked like flesh and blood, they do it -here." - -The scherzo, on its return, goes on much as at first. Yet Beethoven -still has one last shot in reserve, as we suggested a moment back. -When he comes to that splendidly proud passage of descending leaps in -the strings (Figure LXI, _d._), instead of repeating it, as he did at -first, in the same rhythm, he suddenly transforms it into even half -notes, which crash downwards like an avalanche, quite irresistible. -(See Figure LXII.) The effect is again indescribable in words; its -gigantesque vigor is of a kind to be found nowhere but in Beethoven, -and in him only in his inspired moments. - - [Music: score] - FIGURE LXII. - -In this wonderful movement the Beethoven scherzo first reaches its full -stature. It may be questioned whether he ever achieved anything finer. - -Yet in its own way the scherzo of the Fifth Symphony[51] is equally -original and characteristic, and as we have already analyzed two -movements of that symphony we will now make a detailed analysis of this -movement too. - - - EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 24. - - _Beethoven: Scherzo from the Fifth Symphony._ - -This scherzo is interlinked with the finale, into which it is merged -by a famous passage derived from the scherzo itself, and leading -up from the softest pianissimo to a grand outburst of the full -orchestra. We shall, however, end our analysis where this passage -begins. The complete scherzo, therefore, omitting this link-passage, -will have three hundred and thirty measures, which should be numbered -continuously for easy reference (counting the first partial measure as -one, as well as the incomplete measures at the beginning of the trio). - -The theme is of a very curious character, certainly nothing like the -usual bustling scherzo theme, but on the contrary mysterious, vague, -groping. Berlioz says of it: "It is as fascinating as the gaze of -a mesmerizer." After seventeen measures of this, a more energetic, -rhythmic theme succeeds (20-45) given out by the horns, fortissimo, -with rugged chords in accompaniment, in which we recognize a new -variant of that motive of three short notes and a long, which was so -prominent in the first movement (see Chapter XII). The remainder of -the scherzo proper is worked up out of these two contrasting strains, -thus: 46-71, from the first, mysterious one; 72-97, from the second, -energetic one; 98-133, beginning softly in mystery with the first, and -later (116) continuing with it a new, more lively melody (note how the -phrase of measures 3 and 4 persists in the bass all through this part); -134-141, concluding cadence, on the second strain. - -The trio, measures 142 to 238, is irresistibly ludicrous in the -elephantine antics through which the unwieldy double-basses are -put. They announce (142-148) a scrambling fugue theme, which is -"answered"--in imitation--several times at higher pitches (measures -148, 154, 156) by the other and more agile stringed instruments. A -sonorous close is reached at the double bar. - -Then comes a most grotesque and amusing passage, in which, three -several times, these poor lumbering double basses hurl themselves upon -the theme, twice only to give up in despair after the first measure -and pause as if for breath. The effect of this brave attack and utter -failure to "keep up the pace" is irresistibly comic. But the third time -proverbially never fails, and in the measures following 168 they hold -to their effort with bull-dog tenacity, and succeed in reaching a safe -haven in the G of measure 173. Thereupon the theme enters once more -above them, and is once more carried through an exciting fugal chase, -the entrances, which the student should trace out carefully, occurring -in measures 176, 180, 182, and 184, each time a little higher up. -The cadence is reached in 200, and the entire passage from the inept -onslaughts of the basses is almost literally repeated (200-227), except -that now it becomes quieter and quieter, and finally leads back to the -mysterious scherzo theme (239-257). - -This time the ruggedness of the second strain of the scherzo has all -disappeared, and it remains delicate, almost ethereal, through measures -258 to 330, with which the scherzo proper ends. As has been stated, no -complete pause is reached before the finale, but instead of the cadence -we have placed at the end, there is a long passage leading over into -the splendid march-like theme of the last movement. How this passage is -made out of the themes of the scherzo itself will be seen by referring -to Figure LXIII. - - [Music: score] - FIGURE LXIII. - -With this scherzo from the Fifth Symphony we may take our farewell of -Beethoven for the present, and also of the art in which he represents -one of the great culminating points. After him it seemed to musicians -for a while as if the triumphs of organic musical structure could no -further go, and they turned their attention in other directions, and -sought for other kinds of interest. But to follow them on these new -paths is not a part of our present undertaking. - - - IV. GENERAL SUMMARY. - -We have now followed the continuous and unbroken course of the -development of music from the most primitive sounds grouped together -in rude patterns by savages, up to the symphonies of Beethoven, which -must always remain among its most wonderful and perfect monuments. We -have seen how all music, which has any beauty or interest, is based -on certain short characteristic groups of tones called motives, and -how these are made to take on variety, without losing unity, by being -"imitated," "transposed," "restated after contrast," "inverted," -"augmented" or "diminished," "shifted in rhythm," and otherwise -manipulated. We have examined simple cases of this treatment of musical -ideas in representative folk-songs. We have seen how the polyphonic -style of Bach, in which these bits of melody occur everywhere -throughout the tissue of the music, arose and reached its perfection. -We have studied the simple dances which, adopted by the musicians of -the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, were developed by them and -combined in "suites." Then, proceeding to a higher stage of artistic -evolution, we have examined the various plans which composers devised -for making longer pieces in which variety and unity were still able to -coexist--such forms as the minuet, the theme and variations, the rondo, -and the sonata-form. In conclusion, we have analyzed representative -examples of music composed in these typical forms during the great -classical period of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. - -Yet all this study and analysis, which may often have seemed to -the reader uselessly detailed and dully scientific, has been made -with an ulterior aim in view, and unless that aim has been in some -degree attained, our work has been futile indeed. The great object -of musical analysis must always be to concentrate the attention -of the music-lover, to focus his mind as well as his ears on the -melodies, and their developments, which he hears, and so eventually -to increase his pleasure in music, and to help him to substitute for -that "drowsy reverie, relieved by nervous thrills," an active, joyful, -vigorous co-operation with composers, through which alone he can truly -appreciate their art. - -That, and that alone, is the object of the analytic study of music. -For what shall it profit a man if he can tell a second theme from a -transition-passage, or a minuet from a set of variations, if he has not -meanwhile, through this exercise, got into vital contact with the music -itself? But that he can do, no matter how great his natural sensibility -to sound, only by learning how to listen. - - FOOTNOTES: - -[48] Grove's "Beethoven and His Nine Symphonies," page 35. - -[49] For convenience of reference number the measures and partial -measures consecutively. There will be 69 in the scherzo proper, and 31 -in the trio. - -[50] The student should also study the interesting scherzo of the -Eighteenth Sonata, which is not in minuet form but in regular -sonata-form. It is carried out with immense spirit. - -[51] The Fourth Symphony has again, like the First, a minuet, though a -most active one. - - - NOVELLO & CO.'S - - Music Primers and Educational Series - - EDITED BY - - JOHN STAINER and C. HUBERT H. PARRY - - _A Complete Library in Itself_ - - 1. The Pianoforte _E. Pauer_ $1.00 - 2. The Rudiments of Music _W. H. Cummings_ .50 - 3. The Organ _J. Stainer_ 1.00 - 4. The Harmonium _King Hall_ 1.00 - 5. Singing (_Paper boards_, $2.50) _A. Randegger_ 2.00 - 6. 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Summary of Musical History _C. H. H. Parry_ 1.00 - 43. Musical Gestures _J. F. Bridge_ 1.00 - 43A. Rudiments in Rhyme _J. F. Bridge_ .35 - 44. Basses and Melodies _Ralph Dunstan_ 1.25 - 45. First Steps at the Pianoforte. _Francesco Berger_ 1.25 - 46. A Dictionary of Pianists and Composers for the Pianoforte - _E. Pauer_ 1.00 - 47. Organ Pedal Technique. Part I. _B. W. Horner_ 1.00 - 47A. Organ Pedal Technique. Part II. _B. W. Horner_ 1.00 - 48. Twelve Trios by Albrechtsberger _A. W. Marchant_ .75 - 49. Fifty Three-part Studies _J. E. Vernham_ .75 - 50. Choral Society Vocalisation _J. Stainer_ 1.00 - 50A. Choral Society, the Exercises arranged and adapted for - Female Voices _A. W. Marchant_ .75 - 51. Two-part Solfeggi _James Higgs_ .50 - 52. Short History of the Pianoforte _A. J. Hipkins_ 1.25 - 53. Scales and Arpeggios _Franklin Taylor_ 1.00 - 54. Sonata-Form _W. H. Hadow_ 1.25 - 55. A Dictionary of Violin Makers _C. Stainer_ 1.25 - 56. The Forty-eight Preludes and Fugues of J. S. Bach - (_or in 4 parts, 50 cents each_) _F. Iliffe_ 1.50 - 57. Appendix to "Analysis of Form" _H. A. Harding_ .25 - 58. Harmonization of Melodies _J. E. Vernham_ .50 - 59. "Braille" Music Notation (_Boards_) _E. Watson_ 3.75 - 60. Five-part Harmony _F. E. Gladstone_ 1.00 - 61. The Viola _Berthold Tours_ 1.00 - 62. Harmonics and Resultants _C. E. Lowe_ .50 - 63. Breathing for Voice Production (_Cloth_) _H. H. Hulbert_ 1.00 - 64. The Choir-boy's Elements of Music _G. J. Bennett_ .50 - 65. First Steps for the Violin _E. Kreuz_ .75 - 65A. First Steps for the Violin, Part II. The pieces for - Violin, with Pianoforte accompaniment _E. Kreuz_ 1.25 - 66. Score-Reading Exercises _Emily R. Daymond_ .75 - 66A. Ditto. Book II _Emily R. Daymond_ .75 - 67. A Method of Singing _J. Stockhausen_ 2.00 - 68. A Treatise on Strict Counterpoint. Part I .75 - _F. E. Gladstone_ - 69. A Treatise on Strict Counterpoint. Part II - _F. E. Gladstone_ .75 - 70. 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