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| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-02-08 19:23:45 -0800 |
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| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-02-08 19:23:45 -0800 |
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margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; - padding-bottom: .5em; padding-top: .5em; padding-left: .5em; - padding-right: .5em;} - - </style> - </head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Appreciation of Music - Vol. I (of 3), by -Thomas Whitney Surette and Daniel Gregory Mason - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Appreciation of Music - Vol. I (of 3) - -Author: Thomas Whitney Surette - Daniel Gregory Mason - -Release Date: December 12, 2018 [EBook #58458] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK APPRECIATION OF MUSIC VOL. 1 *** - - - - -Produced by Andrés V. Galia, Jude Eylander and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 520px;"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="520" height="784" alt="book_cover" /> -</div> - -<div class="box"> -<p class="p2 center"><big>THE APPRECIATION OF MUSIC</big></p> - - -<p class="center">VOL. I.</p> - -<p class="small1">THE APPRECIATION OF MUSIC <span class="shiftright">CLOTH $1.50</span></p> - -<p class="center small1"><i>By Thomas Whitney Surette and Daniel Gregory Mason</i></p> - -<p class="small1" style="margin-top: 1em; ">SUPPLEMENTARY VOLUME OF MUSICAL ILLUSTRATIONS <span class="shiftright">$1.00</span></p> - -<p class="center" style="margin-top: 2em; ">VOL. II.</p> - -<p class="small1">GREAT MODERN COMPOSERS <span class="shiftright">CLOTH $1.50</span></p> - -<p class="center small1"><em>By Daniel Gregory Mason</em></p> - - -<p class="center" style="margin-top: 2em; ">VOL. III.</p> - -<p class="small1">SHORT STUDIES IN GREAT MASTERPIECES</p> - -<p class="center small1"><em>By Daniel Gregory Mason</em></p> - - -<p class="center" style="margin-top: 3em; ">OTHER WORKS</p> - -<p class="center small1">BY</p> - -<p class="center"><big>DANIEL GREGORY MASON</big></p> - -<p class="small1" style="margin-top: 1em; ">A GUIDE TO MUSIC. A BOOK FOR BEGINNERS <span class="shiftright">CLOTH $1.25</span></p> - -<p class="small1" style="margin-top: 1em; ">ORCHESTRAL INSTRUMENTS AND WHAT THEY DO,<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 2em;">WITH TWENTY-SEVEN ILLUSTRATIONS AND</span><br /> -<span style="margin-left: 2em;">ORCHESTRAL CHART</span> <span class="shiftright">CLOTH $1.25</span></p> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h1>THE APPRECIATION OF MUSIC</h1> -</div> -<p class="center1" style="margin-bottom: 2em; ">V<small>OLUME</small> I</p> -<p class="center">BY</p> - -<p class="p4 center">THOMAS WHITNEY SURETTE<br /> -<small>AND</small><br /> -DANIEL GREGORY MASON</p> - -<p class="center" style="margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;"><small><em>NINTH EDITION</em></small></p> - -<p class="center"><em>Supplementary Volume of Musical Illustrations<br /> -Price $1.00</em></p> - -<p class="center" style="margin-top: 4em; ">NEW YORK<br /> -THE H. W. GRAY CO.<br /> -<small>SOLE AGENTS FOR</small><br /> -<big>NOVELLO & CO., LTD.</big></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="p6 center"> C<small>OPYRIGHT</small>, 1907, <small>BY</small><br /> -THE H. W. GRAY COMPANY</p> -<br /> -<p class="p6 center"><small>The Knickerbocker Press, New York</small></p> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span></p> -</div> - -<p class="p4 center">PREFATORY NOTE.</p> - - -<p>This book has been prepared in order to provide readers -who wish to listen to music intelligently, yet without going -into technicalities, with a simple and practical guide to -musical appreciation written from the listener's rather -than from the professional musician's standpoint.</p> - -<p>The authors believe that there is at the present moment -a genuine need for such a book. Teachers in schools, -colleges, and universities, educators in all parts of the -country, and the music-loving public generally, are every -day realizing more vividly the importance of applying to -music the kind of study which has long been fruitfully -pursued in the other arts; and with the adoption, in 1906, -by the College Entrance Examination Board, of musical -appreciation as a subject which may be offered for entrance -to college, this mode of studying music has established -itself firmly in our educational system. Yet its progress -is still hampered by the lack of suitable text-books. The -existing books are for the most part either too technical -to be easily followed by the general reader, or so rhapsodical -and impressionistic as to be of no use to him.</p> - -<p>In the following pages an effort has been made, first, -to present to the reader in clear and untechnical language -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span> -an account of the evolution of musical art from the primitive -folk-song up to the symphony of Beethoven; second, -to illustrate all the steps of this evolution by carefully -chosen musical examples, in the form of short quotations -in the text and of complete pieces printed in a supplement; -third, to facilitate the study of these examples by means -of detailed analysis, measure by measure, in many cases -put into the shape of tabular views; and fourth, to mark -out the lines of further study by suggesting collateral reading.</p> - -<p>Too much stress cannot be laid on the fact that the -music itself is the central point of the scheme of study, to -which the reader must return over and over again. Carefully -attentive, concentrated listening to the typical pieces -presented in the supplement is the essence of the work, to -which the reading of the text is to be considered merely -as an aid. These pieces are for the most part not beyond -the reach of a pianist of moderate ability.</p> - -<p>At the same time, the authors have realized that some -readers who might profit much by such study will not be -able to play, or have played for them, even these pieces. -For them, however, the music will still be accessible through -mechanical instruments.</p> - -<p>In view of the fact that one of the chief difficulties in -the study of musical appreciation is the unfamiliarity of -classical music to the ordinary student, the use of an instrument -by the students themselves should form an important -part of the work in classes where this book is used as a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span> -text-book. It is hoped that with such practical laboratory -work by all members of the class, and with the help of -collateral reading done outside the class under the direction -of the teacher, and tested by written papers on assigned -topics, the course of study outlined here will be found well-suited -to the needs of schools and colleges, as well as of -general readers.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a><br /><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p> - -</div> - - -<p class="p4 center">CONTENTS.</p> - - -<div class="center"> -<table class="toc" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="CONTENTS"> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc">CHAPTER I. </td> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl"> </td> -<td class="tdpage">PAGE</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl">ELEMENTS OF MUSICAL FORM.</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_1">1</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">I. </td> -<td class="tdl">INTRODUCTORY</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_1">1</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">II. </td> -<td class="tdl">WHAT TO NOTICE FIRST</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_3">3</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">III. </td> -<td class="tdl">MUSICAL MOTIVES</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_4">4</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">IV.</td> -<td class="tdl">WHAT THE COMPOSER DOES WITH HIS MOTIVES</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_6">6</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">V.</td> -<td class="tdl">THE FIRST STEPS AS REVEALED BY HISTORY</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_10">10</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">VI. </td> -<td class="tdl">A SPANISH FOLK-SONG</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_12">12</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">VII. </td> -<td class="tdl">BALANCE OF PHRASES</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_13">13</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">VIII. </td> -<td class="tdl">SUMMARY</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_14">14</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc">CHAPTER II. </td> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl">FOLK-SONGS.</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_16">16</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">I. </td> -<td class="tdl">FOLK-SONGS AND ART SONGS</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_17">17</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">II. </td> -<td class="tdl">AN ENGLISH FOLK-SONG</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_20">20</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">III. </td> -<td class="tdl">KEY AND MODULATION</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_21">21</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">IV. </td> -<td class="tdl">BARBARA ALLEN</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_22">22</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">V. </td> -<td class="tdl">NATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS IN FOLK-SONGS</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_25">25</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">VI. </td> -<td class="tdl">AN IRISH FOLK-SONG</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_26">26</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">VII. </td> -<td class="tdl">A GERMAN FOLK-SONG</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_28">28</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">VIII. </td> -<td class="tdl">SUMMARY</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_30">30</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc">CHAPTER III. </td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl"> THE POLYPHONIC MUSIC OF BACH.</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_31">31</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">I. </td> -<td class="tdl">WHAT IS POLYPHONY</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_32">32</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">II. </td> -<td class="tdl">AN INVENTION BY BACH</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_33">33</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc"> E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 1.</td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl"><em>Bach: Two-voice, Invention. No, VIII, in F-major</em></td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_34">34</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">III. </td> -<td class="tdl">A FUGUE BY BACH</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_37">37</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc"> E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 2. </td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> <br /> - </td> -<td class="tdl"><em>Bach: Fugue No. 2, in C-minor, in three voices.<br /> -"Well-tempered Clavichord," Book I</em></td> -<td class="rightnp"> <br /> -<a href="#Page_38">38</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">IV. </td> -<td class="tdl">GENERAL QUALITIES OF BACH'S WORK</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_43">43</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc">CHAPTER IV. </td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl"> THE DANCE AND ITS DEVELOPMENT.</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_48">48</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">I. </td> -<td class="tdl">MUSICAL CHARACTER OF DANCES</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_48">48</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">II. </td> -<td class="tdl">PRIMITIVE DANCES</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_52">52</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc">E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 3. </td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl"><em>Corelli: Gavotte in F-major</em></td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_56">56</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">III. </td> -<td class="tdl">A BACH GAVOTTE</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_57">57</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc">E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 4. </td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl"><em>Bach: Gavotte in D-minor, from the Sixth English Suite</em></td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_57">57</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc">CHAPTER V. </td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl">THE SUITE.</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_62">62</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">I. </td> -<td class="tdl">DERIVATION OF THE SUITE</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_62">62</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">II. </td> -<td class="tdl">THE SUITES OF BACH</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_65">65</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc"> E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 5. </td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl"> <em>Bach: Prelude to English Suite, No. 3, in G-minor</em></td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_65">65</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc">E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 6. </td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl"><em>Bach: Sarabande in A-minor, from English Suite, No. 2</em></td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_68">68</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc">E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 7.</td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl"> <em>Bach: Gigue, from French Suite, No. 4, in E-flat</em></td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_71">71</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">III. </td> -<td class="tdl">THE HISTORIC IMPORTANCE OF THE SUITE</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_72">72</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc">CHAPTER VI. </td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl">THE RONDO.</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_74">74</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">I. </td> -<td class="tdl">DERIVATION OF THE RONDO</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_75">75</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">II. </td> -<td class="tdl">A RONDO BY COUPERIN</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_79">79</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc"> E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 8. </td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl"> <em>Couperin: "Les Moissonneurs" ("The Harvesters")</em></td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_80">80</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">III. </td> -<td class="tdl">FROM COUPERIN TO MOZART</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_83">83</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">IV. </td> -<td class="tdl">A RONDO BY MOZART</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_86">86</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc"> E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 9. </td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl"> <em>Mozart: Rondo from Piano Sonata in B-flat major</em></td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_87">87</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc">CHAPTER VII. </td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl"> THE VARIATION FORM—THE MINUET.</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_93">93</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">I. </td> -<td class="tdl">VARIATIONS BY JOHN BULL</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_94">94</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">II. </td> -<td class="tdl">A GAVOTTE AND VARIATIONS BY RAMEAU</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_97">97</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">III. </td> -<td class="tdl">HANDEL'S "HARMONIOUS BLACKSMITH"</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_100">100</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc"> E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 10. </td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl"> <em>Handel: "The Harmonious Blacksmith," from the Fifth Suite for Clavichord</em></td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_101">101</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">IV. </td> -<td class="tdl">HAYDN'S ANDANTE WITH VARIATIONS, IN F-MINOR</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_103">103</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc"> E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 11.</td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl"> <em>Haydn: Andante with Variations, in F-minor</em></td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_104">104</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">V. </td> -<td class="tdl">THE MINUET</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_108">108</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc">CHAPTER VIII. </td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl"> SONATA-FORM, I.</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_110">110</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">I. </td> -<td class="tdl">COMPOSITE NATURE OF THE SONATA</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_110">110</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">II. </td> -<td class="tdl">ESSENTIALS OF SONATA-FORM</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">III. </td> -<td class="tdl">A SONATA BY PHILIP EMANUEL BACH</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_114">114</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc"> E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 12. </td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl"> <em>Philip Emanuel Bach: Piano Sonata in F-minor, first movement</em></td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_115">115</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">IV. </td> -<td class="tdl">HARMONY AS A PART OF DESIGN</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_125">125</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">V. </td> -<td class="tdl">SUMMARY</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_126">126</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc">CHAPTER IX. </td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl">SONATA-FORM, II.</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_128">128</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">I. </td> -<td class="tdl">HAYDN AND THE SONATA-FORM</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_128">128</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc"> E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 13. </td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl"> <em>Haydn: "Surprise Symphony," first movement</em></td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_131">131</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">II. </td> -<td class="tdl">MOZART AND THE SONATA-FORM</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_134">134</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc"> E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 14. </td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl"> <em>Mozart: Symphony in G-minor, first movement</em></td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_136">136</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">III. </td> -<td class="tdl">MOZART'S ARTISTIC SKILL</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_138">138</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc">CHAPTER X. </td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl"> THE SLOW MOVEMENT.</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_143">143</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">I. </td> -<td class="tdl">VARIETIES OF FORM</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_143">143</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">II. </td> -<td class="tdl">SLOW MOVEMENTS OF PIANO SONATAS</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_145">145</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">III. </td> -<td class="tdl">THE STRING QUARTET</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_148">148</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc">E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 15. </td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> <br /> - </td> -<td class="tdl"> <em>Haydn: Adagio in E-flat major, from the<br /> -String Quartet in G-major, op. 77, No. 1</em></td> -<td class="rightnp"> <br /> -<a href="#Page_149">149</a></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">IV.</td> -<td class="tdl">GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_151">151</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">V. </td> -<td class="tdl">FORM OF HAYDN'S ADAGIO</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_152">152</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">VI. </td> -<td class="tdl">MOZART AND THE CLASSIC STYLE</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_153">153</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc"> E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 16. </td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl"> <em>Mozart: Andante from String Quartet in C-major</em></td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_156">156</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">VII. </td> -<td class="tdl">FORM OF MOZART'S ANDANTE</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_159">159</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc">CHAPTER XI. </td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl">BEETHOVEN—I.</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_161">161</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">I. </td> -<td class="tdl">GENERAL CHARACTER OF BEETHOVEN'S WORK</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_161">161</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">II. </td> -<td class="tdl">ANALYSIS OF A BEETHOVEN SONATA</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_166">166</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc"> E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 17. </td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl"> <em>Beethoven: Pathétique Sonata, first movement</em></td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_166">166</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc"> E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 18.</td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl"><em>Beethoven: Pathétique Sonata, second movement</em></td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_170">170</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc"> E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 19. </td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl"> <em>Beethoven: Pathétique Sonata, third movement</em></td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_171">171</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">III. </td> -<td class="tdl">SUMMARY</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_174">174</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc">CHAPTER XII. </td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl">BEETHOVEN—II.</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_176">176</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">I. </td> -<td class="tdl">FORM AND CONTENT</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_176">176</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">II. </td> -<td class="tdl">BEETHOVEN'S STYLE</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_178">178</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc"> E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 20. </td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl"><em>Beethoven: The Fifth Symphony, first movement</em></td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_181">181</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">III. </td> -<td class="tdl">THE DRAMATIC ELEMENT IN BEETHOVEN'S MUSIC</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_185">185</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">IV. </td> -<td class="tdl">THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FIRST MOVEMENT OF THE FIFTH SYMPHONY</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_187">187</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc">CHAPTER XIII.</td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl">BEETHOVEN—III.</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_191">191</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl">I. THE SLOW MOVEMENT BEFORE BEETHOVEN</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_191">191</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">II. </td> -<td class="tdl">THE SLOW MOVEMENTS OF BEETHOVEN'S EARLY SYMPHONIES</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_192">192</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc"> E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 21.</td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl"> <em>Beethoven: The Fifth Symphony. Slow movement</em></td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_195">195</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">III. </td> -<td class="tdl">INDIVIDUALITY OF THE ANDANTE OF THE FIFTH SYMPHONY</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_198">198</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">IV. </td> -<td class="tdl">THE HARMONIC PLAN</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_201">201</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">V. </td> -<td class="tdl">THE UNIVERSALITY OF BEETHOVEN'S GENIUS</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_203">203</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc">CHAPTER XIV.</td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl"> BEETHOVEN—IV.</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_205">205</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">I. </td> -<td class="tdl">BEETHOVEN'S HUMOR</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_205">205</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">II. </td> -<td class="tdl">SCHERZOS FROM BEETHOVEN'S SONATAS</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_209">209</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc"> E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 22.</td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl"> <em>Beethoven: Scherzo from the Twelfth Sonata</em></td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_209">209</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc"> E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 23.</td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl"> <em>Beethoven: Scherzo from the Fifteenth Sonata</em></td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_210">210</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">III. </td> -<td class="tdl">THE SCHERZOS OF BEETHOVEN'S SYMPHONIES</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_211">211</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdc"> E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 24.</td> -<td class="rightnp"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr"> </td> -<td class="tdl"> <em>Beethoven: Scherzo from the Fifth Symphony</em></td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_218">218</a> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="tdr">IV. </td> -<td class="tdl">GENERAL SUMMARY</td> -<td class="rightnp"><a href="#Page_221">221</a> </td> -</tr> - -</table> -</div> - - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="half-title">THE APPRECIATION OF MUSIC</p> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> - -</div> - - -<h2>CHAPTER I.<br /> - -<small>ELEMENTS OF MUSICAL FORM.</small></h2> - - -<h3>I. <small>INTRODUCTORY</small>.</h3> - -<p>Of the thousands of people who consider themselves -lovers of music, it is surprising how few have any real appreciation -of it. It is safe to say that out of any score of persons -gathered to hear music, whether it be hymn, song, oratorio, -opera, or symphony, ten are not listening at all, but are -looking at the others, or at the performers, or at the scenery -or programme, or are lost in their own thoughts. Five -more are basking in the sound as a dog basks in the sun—enjoying -it in a sleepy, languid way, but not actively following -it at all. For them music is, as a noted critic has said, -"a drowsy reverie, relieved by nervous thrills." Then -there are one or two to whom the music is bringing pictures -or stories: visions of trees, cascades, mountains, and rivers -fill their minds, or they dream of princesses in old castles, -set free from magic slumber by brave heroes from afar. -Perhaps also there is one who takes a merely scientific interest -in the music: he is so busy analysing themes and labelling -motives that he forgets to enjoy. Only two out of the -twenty are left, then, who are actively following the melodies, -living over again the thoughts of the composer, really -appreciating, by vigorous and delightful attention, the -beauties of the music itself.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span></p> - -<p>Can we not, you and I, join the ranks of these true lovers -of music? Can we not learn to free our minds of all side -issues as we listen—to forget audience, performers, and -scene, to forget princesses and heroes, to forget everything -except this unique experience that is unfolding itself before -our ears? Can we not, arousing ourselves from our drowsy -reverie, follow with active co-operation and vivid pleasure -each tone and phrase of the music, for itself alone?</p> - -<p>One thing is sure: Unless we can do so, we shall miss -the keenest enjoyment that music has to offer. For this -enjoyment is not passive, but active. It is not enough to -place ourselves in a room where music is going on; we must -by concentrated attention; absorb and mentally digest it. -Without the help of the alert mind, the ear can no more -hear than the eye can see. Sir Isaac Newton, asked how he -had made his wonderful discoveries, answered, "By intending -my mind." In no other way can the lover of music -penetrate its mysteries.</p> - -<p>Knowledge of musical technicalities, on the other hand, -is not necessary to appreciation, any more than knowledge -of the nature of pigments or the laws of perspective is necessary -to the appreciation of a picture. Such technical knowledge -we may dispense with, if only we are willing to work -for our musical pleasure by giving active attention, and if -we have some guidance as to what to listen for among so -many and such at first confusing impressions. Such guidance -to awakened attention, such untechnical direction -what to listen for, it is the object of this book to give.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p> - - -<h3>II. <small>WHAT TO NOTICE FIRST.</small></h3> - -<p>It is no wonder, when one stops to think of it, that -music, in spite of its deeply stirring effect upon us, often -defeats our best efforts to understand what it is all about, -and leaves us after it is over with the uncomfortable sense -that we have had only a momentary pleasure, and can take -nothing definite away with us. It is as if we had been present -at some important event, without having the least idea -why it was important, or what was its real meaning. All of -us, at one time or another, must have had this experience. -And, indeed, how could it be otherwise? Music gives us -nothing that we can see with our eyes or touch with our -hands. It does not even give our ears definite words that -we can follow and understand. It offers us only sounds, -soft or loud, long or short, high or low, that flow on inexorably, -and that too often come to an end without leaving -any tangible impressions behind them. No wonder we are -often bewildered by an experience so peculiar and so fleeting.</p> - -<p>Yet these sounds, subtle as they are, have a sense, a logic, -an order of their own; and if we can only learn how to -approach them, we can get at this inner orderliness that -makes them into "music." The process of perception -which we have to learn here is somewhat akin to certain -more familiar processes. For example, what comes to our -eyes from the outer world is simply a mass of impressions -of differently colored and shaped spots of light; only gradually, -as we grow out of infancy, do we learn that one group -of these spots of light shows us "a house," another "a tree," -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> -and so on. Similarly words, as we easily realize in the case -of a foreign language, are to the untrained ear mere isolated -sounds of one kind or another; only with practice do we -learn to connect groups of them into intelligible sentences. -So it is with music. The sounds are at first mere sounds, -separate, fragmentary, unrelated. Only after we have -learned to group them into definite melodies, as we group -spots of lights into houses or trees, and words into sentences, -do they become music for us. To approach sounds in -such a way as to "make sense" of them—that is the -art of listening to music.</p> - - -<h3>III. <small>MUSICAL MOTIVES.</small></h3> - -<p>The first step in making sense of any unfamiliar thing is -to get quite clearly in mind its central subject or subjects, -as, for example, the fundamental idea of a poem, the main -contention of an essay, the characters of a novel, the text of -a sermon. All music worthy of the name has its own kind -of subjects; and if we can learn to take note of, remember, -and recognize them, we shall be well on the road to understanding -what at first seems so intangible and bewildering.</p> - -<p>A possible confusion, due to the use of terms, must here -be guarded against. The word "subject" is used in a -special sense, in music, to mean an entire theme or melody, -of many measures' duration—thus we speak of "the first -subject of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony," meaning the -entire contents of measures 6-21. Now this is obviously -a different meaning of the word "subject" from the general -one we use when we speak of the subject of a poem or a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> -picture, as the fundamental idea about which it all centers. -This long musical "subject" all centers about a little idea -of four notes, announced in the first two measures of the -symphony:</p> - - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/pag5_score.jpg" width="500" height="80" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag5_score.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag5_score.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p>But as we are already using the word "subject" to mean -something else, we must have another name for this brief -characteristic bit out of which so much is made, and for -this the word "motive" is used. Here again there is a -difference of usage which must be noted. When we speak -of a "motive" or "leading motive" of Wagner, we mean -not a short group of this kind, but an entire melody associated -with some special character or idea; e. g., "the Siegfried -motive." Let us here, however, keep the word -"motive" to mean a short characteristic group of tones -or "figure," and the word "subject" to mean a complete -melody or theme built up out of one or more motives.</p> - -<p>The smallest elements into which we can analyze the -subject-matter of music are "<em>motives</em>"—<em>that is, bits of tune, -groups of from two to a dozen tones, which have an individuality -of their own, so that one of them cannot possibly be -confused with another</em>.</p> - -<p>"Yankee Doodle," for instance, begins with a motive of -seven notes, which is quite individual, and wholly different -from the motive of six notes at the beginning of "God Save -the King," or the motive of five notes at the beginning of the -"Blue Danube" waltz. The three motives are so different -that nobody of ordinary musical intelligence would confound -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> -them one with another, any more than he would confound -the subject of Longfellow's "Psalm of Life" with -that of Browning's "Incident of the French Camp," or the -characters in "Dombey and Son" with those in "Tom -Jones." The whole musical individuality of each of the -three tunes grows out of the individuality of its special -motive.</p> - -<p>Here, evidently, is a matter of primary importance to -the would-be intelligent music lover. If he can learn to -distinguish with certainty whatever "motives" he hears, -half the battle is already gained.</p> - -<p>Four points will be noticeable in any motive he may -hear. Its notes will vary as to (1) length, (2) accent, (3) -meter or grouping into regular measures of two, three, or -four notes, and (4) pitch. If he can once form the habit -of noticing them, he will have no further difficulty in recognizing -the themes of any music, and, what is even more -important, following the various evolutions through which -they pass as the composer works out his ideas. The -importance of such active participation in the composer's -thought cannot be exaggerated. Without it there cannot -be any true appreciation of music; through it alone does the -listener emerge from "drowsy reverie, relieved by nervous -thrills" into the clear daylight of genuine artistic enjoyment.</p> - - -<h3>IV. <small>WHAT THE COMPOSER DOES WITH HIS MOTIVES.</small></h3> - -<p>Let us put ourselves now in the place of a composer -who has thought of certain motives, and who wishes to -make them into a complete piece of music. What shall we -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> -do next with these scraps of melody, attractive but fragmentary? -Now, one thing we can see at once from our -knowledge of arts other than music. We must somehow -or other keep repeating our central ideas, or our piece will -wander off into mazes and fail to have any unity or intelligibility; -yet we must also vary these repetitions, or they -will become monotonous, and the finished piece will have -no variety or sustained interest. The poet must keep -harking back to the main theme of his poem, or it will -degenerate into an incoherent rhapsody; but he must present -new phases of the root idea, or he will simply repeat himself -and bore his readers. The architect, having chosen -a certain kind of column, say, for his building, must not -place next to it another style of column, from a different -country and period, or his building will become a mess, a -medley, a nightmare; but neither must he make his entire -building one long colonnade of exactly similar columns, -for then it would be hopelessly dull. In short, every artist -has to solve in his own way the problem of combining -<em>unity of general impression</em> with <em>variety of detail</em>. Without -either one of these essentials, no art can be beautiful.</p> - -<p>Here we are, then, with our motive and with the problem -before us of repeating it with modifications sufficient -to lend it a new interest, but not radical enough to hide its -identity.</p> - -<p>If we are making our music for several voices or instruments, -or for several parts all played on one instrument -like the organ or the piano, we can let these different -voices or parts sound the motive in succession. If, while -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> -the new voice takes the motive, the voice previously brought -in goes on with something new, then we shall have a very -agreeable mingling of unity and variety. This is the -method used in all canons, fugues, inventions, and so on, -and in vocal rounds. For an example, take the round -called "Three Blind Mice" (see Figure I).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag8_score.jpg" width="550" height="340" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag8_score.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag8_score.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE I. "THREE BLIND MICE."</p> - -<p class="indent15"> -Three blind mice, three blind mice, See how they run,<br /> -see how they run, They all ran af - ter the farm - er's wife, Who<br /> -cut off their tails with a carv - ing knife. Did you<br /> -ev - er see such a sight in your life as three blind mice.</p> - - -<p>One person, A, begins this melody alone, and sings it -through. When he has reached the third measure, B -strikes in at the beginning. When B in his turn has reached -the third measure (A being now at the fifth), C comes in -in the same way. In a word, the three people sing the -same tune <em>in rotation</em> (whence the name, "round"). And -the tune, of course, is so contrived that all its different -sections, sounded simultaneously by the various voices, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> -merge in harmony. This kind of literal repetition by one -part of what another has just done is called "imitation," -and is a fundamental principle of all that great department -of music known as the "polyphonic," or many-voiced.</p> - -<p>But now, notice another kind of repetition in this little -tune. Measures 3 and 4 practically repeat, though at a -different place in the scale, the three-note motive of measures -1 and 2. (In order to conform to the words, the -second note is now divided into two, but this is an unimportant -alteration.) The naturalness of this kind of -repetition is obvious. Having begun with our motive in -one place, it easily occurs to us to go on by repeating it, -<em>in the same voice, but higher or lower in pitch than at first</em>. -The mere fact that it is higher or lower gives it the agreeable -novelty we desire, yet it remains perfectly recognizable. -We may call this sort of repetition, which, like "imitation," -is of the greatest utility to the composer, "transposition," -to indicate that the motive is shifted to a new place or -pitch.</p> - -<p>But suppose we do not wish either to imitate or to transpose -our motive, is there any other way in which we can -effectively repeat it? Yes:—we can follow its first appearance -with something else, entirely different, and after this -interval of contrast, come back again and <em>restate</em> our motive -just as it was at first. Looking at "Three Blind Mice" -again, we see that this device, as well as the other two, is -used there. After the fifth, sixth, and seventh measures, -which contain the contrast, the eighth measure returns -literally to the original motive of three notes, thus rounding -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> -out and completing the tune. This third kind of repetition, -which may be called "restatement after contrast," -or simply "restatement," is also widely in use in all kinds -of music. A most familiar instance occurs in "Way Down -upon the Suwanee River."</p> - -<p>Let us keep distinctly in mind, in all our study, these -three modes of repetition, which are of radical importance -to musical design: 1st, the imitation of a motive in a different -"voice" or "part"; 2d, the transposition of a motive, in -the same voice, to a higher or lower place in the scale; -3d, the restatement of a motive already once stated, after -an intervening contrast. We shall constantly see these -kinds of repetition—imitation, transposition, and restatement—used -by the great composers to give their music -that unity in variety, that variety in unity, without which -music can be neither intelligible nor beautiful.</p> - - -<h3>V. <small>THE FIRST STEPS AS REVEALED BY HISTORY.</small></h3> - -<p>It must not be thought that these ways of varying -musical motives without destroying their identity were -quickly found out by musicians. On the contrary, it took -centuries, literally centuries, to discover these devices that -seem to us so simple. All savage races are musically like -children; they cannot keep more than one or two short bits -of tune in mind at the same time, and these they simply -repeat monotonously. The first two examples in Figure II, -taken from Sir Hubert Parry's "The Evolution of the Art -of Music," give an idea of the first stage of the savage -musician.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag11_score1.jpg" width="550" height="65" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">1. </p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag11_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag11_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag11_score2.jpg" width="550" height="74" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">2.</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag11_score2.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag11_score2.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag11_score3.jpg" width="550" height="72" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag11_score3.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag11_score3.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">3. </p> - - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag11_score4.jpg" width="550" height="177" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">4.</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag11_score4.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag11_score4.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE II. TUNES OF PRIMITIVE SAVAGES.</p> - -<p>The first is from Australia, the second from Tongataboo. -Both are made of a single motive endlessly repeated -without relief.</p> - -<p>In a slightly higher stage, two motives are used, but with -little more skill. Number 3, in Figure II, is an example. -Then come tunes in which one or more motives, repeated -literally, are still the main feature of the design, but in which -a certain amount of variety is introduced between the -repetitions (see Number 4, in Figure II, a Russian tune). -Here the little characteristic figure of four short notes and a -long, marked N.B., is agreeably relieved by other material.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p> - - -<h3>VI. <small>A SPANISH FOLK-SONG.</small></h3> - -<p>From such primitive music as this to the beautiful -"folk-song" of the modern nations is a long step indeed. -Even in the simplest real folk-songs, the means of varied -repetition of ideas that we have been discussing are used -with an ingenuity which places them on an infinitely higher -level than these primitive efforts of savages. It is true that -in folk-songs, which were sung by a single voice instead of a -group of voices, the device of "imitation" was used hardly -at all:—that is available only where there are several -different voices to imitate one another. But in order to see -what good use was made of "transposition" and "restatement" -we need take only a single example, from Galicia -in Spain (see Figure III). Let us examine this tune in some -detail, as a preparation for a further study of folk-songs in -a later article.</p> - -<p class="right" style="padding-right: 5em; "><small>From Galicia in Spain.</small></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag12_score1.jpg" width="550" height="145" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag12_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag12_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE III. FOLK-SONG.</p> - -<p>The tune, in spite of its impression of considerable -variety, is founded entirely on two motives—</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag12_score2.jpg" width="550" height="91" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag12_score2.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag12_score2.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag13_score1.jpg" width="550" height="86" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag13_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag13_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - - -<p>In the sixth and seventh measures, (1) is so altered and -transposed that it ends on D instead of on C, and in the -eighth, ninth, and tenth measures (2) is transposed so as to -end on G instead of on C. By these transpositions the -important element of <em>contrast</em> is introduced, and when therefore -we have, at the end, the two motives given again almost -exactly as to first, we get, by this restatement after contrast, -a delightful sense of unity and completeness. The means -here are wonderfully simple, but the effect is truly artistic.</p> - - -<h3>VII. <small>BALANCE OF PHRASES.</small></h3> - -<p>An important principle of musical design is introduced -to our notice by this little melody. It will be observed that -it divides itself into three equal parts: the statement, measures -1-5; the contrast, measures 6-10; and the restatement, -measures 11-15. (We may represent these by the letters -A, B, and A.) Now these three parts, being of equal length -and similar material, balance each other just as lines in -poetry do. One makes us expect another, which, when it -comes, fulfills our expectation. Thus we get the impression -of regularity, order, symmetry. This element of symmetry, -or the balancing of one phrase of melody by another, -like the balancing of one line of poetry by another, as in the -verses</p> - -<p class="indent15"> -"The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea,<br /> -And leaves the world to darkness and to me."</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span></p> - -<p>is a most important one, as we shall soon see, in all modern -music.</p> - -<p>This balance of one large section of a melody by another -is often referred to by the term "rhythm," owing to its analogy -with "rhythm" in architecture (in the symmetry, for -example, of two halves of a building). But it is simpler to -keep the word rhythm, in music, to mean rather a characteristic -combination of tones, as regards their relative length -and accent, as, "the rhythm of the first motive in Beethoven's -Fifth Symphony" (see motive quoted on page -5). In the present articles the word will be used in this -latter sense.</p> - - -<h3>VIII. <small>SUMMARY.</small></h3> - -<p>In this chapter we have seen how music, in spite of its -subtle, intangible nature, has certain definite features called -"motives," which we can learn to recognize and follow by -noticing the length, accent, metrical arrangement, and -movement "up" or "down," of the tones of which they -are composed.</p> - -<p>We have seen that these primary motives are worked up -into complete pieces of music by being repeated with such -alterations as serve to vary them pleasantly without disguising -them beyond recognition. The chief kinds of modified -repetition we have noticed are "imitation," "transposition," -and "restatement after contrast." All of these we have seen -illustrated in "Three Blind Mice."</p> - -<p>We have remarked how very gradually musicians got -away from monotonous harping on their ideas by using these -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> -devices. In connection with the Spanish folk-song, we have -noted that, although imitation was not available, transposition -and restatement were most effectively used.</p> - -<p>Finally, we have seen that music, like poetry, has its -larger balance of phrases, by which whole parts of a melody -are set off against one another and made to balance, just as -lines do in verse.</p> - -<p>In succeeding chapters we shall trace out all these -principles in more detail.</p> - - -<p class="center">S<small>UGGESTIONS FOR</small> C<small>OLLATERAL</small> R<small>EADING</small>.</p> - -<p><cite>Parry: "The Evolution of the Art of Music," Chapters -I and II; Dickinson: "The Study of the History of -Music," Chapter I; Grove: "Dictionary of Music and -Musicians," article "Form."</cite></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span></p> - -</div> - - -<h2>CHAPTER II.<br /> -<small>FOLK-SONGS.</small></h2> - - -<p>In the first chapter we have traced the evolution of the -formal element in music, the element through which it -gradually attained coherence. We have seen that this element -is an expression of that common sense which rules in -all things; that the various expedients adopted in music as -means of keeping the central idea before the listener, and, -at the same time, providing him with sufficient variety to -retain his interest, are dictated by that sense of fitness that -operates everywhere in life. And these simple formal principles, -so conceived, will be found to underlie the larger -musical forms that will engage our attention in succeeding -chapters.</p> - -<p>Let us always keep in mind that, while the psychological -effect of music remains a considerable mystery, and the -appreciation of great music must be a personal and individual -act involving a certain receptivity and sensitiveness to -musical impressions, yet the perception of the logic or sense -in a piece of music is a long step towards understanding it, -and one of the best means of cultivating that receptivity and -sensitiveness.</p> - -<p>Folk-songs have been described by an eminent writer<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> -as "the first essays made by man in distributing his notes -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> -so as to express his feelings in terms of design." We shall -shortly examine some typical folk-songs in order to see how -this design gradually became larger and more various, and -how, through this process, the foundations were laid for the -masterpieces of modern instrumental music. We shall see -that this advance has accompanied an advance in civilization; -that as men's lives have become better ordered, as -higher standards of living and thinking have appeared, the -sense of beauty has grown until, finally, this steady progress -has resulted in the creation of certain permanent types. It -must be kept in mind, however, that these primitive types -are largely the result of instinctive effort, and not of conscious -musical knowledge. The science of music, as we -know it, did not exist when these songs were written.</p> - - -<h3>I. <small>FOLK-SONGS AND ART SONGS.</small></h3> - -<p>In order to distinguish between Folk-songs and songs -like those of Schubert and Schumann, musicians call the -latter "Art" songs. The folk-song is a naïve product, -springing almost unconsciously from the hearts of simple -people, and not intended to convey any such definite -expression of the meaning of the words as is conveyed in -modern songs. While there are specimens<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> of the art song -that closely approach the simplicity and beauty of the folk-song, -the art song in general is not only of wider range and -of wider application to men's thoughts and feelings, but -it also has, as an integral part of it, an accompaniment of -which the folk-song, in its pure state, is entirely devoid.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span></p> - -<p>A further distinguishing characteristic of the folk-song -is that it is often composed in one of the old ecclesiastical -"modes."</p> - -<p>These modes were old forms of the scale that existed -before our modern harmonic system came into use. The -following English folk-song, called "Salisbury Plain," is -in the "Aeolian" mode.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag18_score1.jpg" width="550" height="258" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag18_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag18_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE IV.</p> - -<p>This song is written in the scale represented by the -white keys of a pianoforte beginning on A, and the peculiarly -quaint effect of it is due to the unusual intervals of that -scale as compared with our common scale forms. There -are various modes<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> called "Phrygian," "Dorian," etc., -each having its own peculiar quality. This quaintness and -characteristic quality to be observed in modal folk-songs -almost entirely disappears when an accompaniment of -modern harmony is added, as is often done.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></p> - -<p>Folk-songs occupied a much more important place -in the lives of the people who used them than is commonly -supposed. When we consider that at the time the earliest -of them were written few people could read or write, that -books were printed in Latin, and that there were no newspapers, -railways, or telegraphs, we can understand how -large a part these old songs played in the scheme of life. -The strolling singer was the newspaper of the time. -Furthermore, the general illiteracy of the people made of -the folk-song a natural vent for their feelings. With a -limited vocabulary at their disposal, it was natural that they -should use the song as a medium of expression for their -joys and sorrows. Gesture was also part of their language, -and in a modified way, as a means of expression, may be -said to have performed something of the function of song. -Many of the oldest melodies existed as an adjunct to dancing -and religious ceremonials, and were, therefore, to some -extent utilitarian. But so intimate was their relation to the -ideas and feelings of the people who used them that, in -spite of the crudeness and simplicity of the medium employed, -the songs of the various nations are entirely distinct -from each other, and to a remarkable degree express the -characteristics of the people who produced them.</p> - -<p>The songs used with this chapter are chosen chiefly to -illustrate the various methods (already described) of attaining -variety and unity in music. If little space is devoted -here to other considerations, the reader must bear in mind -that our purpose is to lead him finally to as complete an -appreciation as possible of the masterpieces of instrumental -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> -music, and that this appreciation must begin with a -perception of the relationships between the various parts -of a primitive piece of music.</p> - - -<h3>II. <small>AN ENGLISH FOLK-SONG.</small></h3> - -<p>In Figure V is shown the old English song "Polly Oliver."<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag20_score1.jpg" width="550" height="355" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag20_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag20_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE V.</p> - - -<p>This is a traditional song handed down without any -record of its origin, from generation to generation. Its -unknown composer has managed very deftly to make it -hang together. A good deal is made, in particular, of the -characteristic little motive of three notes which first occurs -at the beginning of the third measure.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> In the very next -measure, the fourth, this is "transposed" to a lower position. -Going on, we find it coming in again, most effectively, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> -in measure 7, this time transposed upwards; and it occurs -again twice at the end of the melody. Thus a certain -unity is given to the entire tune. Again, the device of -repetition after contrast is well used. After measures 1-9, -which state the main idea of the melody, measures 9-13 -come in with a pronounced contrast; but this is immediately -followed up, in measures 13-17, by a literal repetition of -the first four measures, which serves to round out and -satisfactorily complete the whole. We thus see illustrated -once more the scheme of form which, in the last chapter, -we denoted by the letters A-B-A.</p> - -<p>This song presents a further element of form by means -of which much variety is imparted to music.</p> - - -<h3>III. <small>KEY AND MODULATION.</small></h3> - -<p>It will be noticed that the first phrase of "Polly Oliver" -(measures 1-5) moves about the tone E-flat and ends upon -it with the effect of coming to rest, and that the second -phrase (measures 5-9) similarly moves about and comes -to rest on the tone B-flat. The last phrase (13-17), like -the first, moves about E-flat. This moving about a certain -tone, which is, so to speak, the center of gravity of the -whole phrase, is called by musicians "being in the key of" -that tone; and when the center of gravity changes, musicians -say that the piece "modulates" from one key to another. -Thus, this first phrase is in the key of E-flat, the second -modulates to the key of B-flat, and the song later modulates -back again to the key of E-flat. Here we have another -very important principle in modern music, the principle -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> -of "key" or "tonality,"—important because it makes -possible a great deal of variety that still does not interfere -with unity. By putting the first part of a piece in one key, -the second part in another, and finally the last part in the -original key, we can get much diversity of effect, and at the -same time end with the same impression with which we -began. We shall only gradually appreciate the immense -value to the musician of this arrangement of keys.</p> - -<p>A further element of form is found in "Polly Oliver," -namely, the balance of phrases. This balance of phrases -one against another is derived ultimately from the timed -motions of the body in dancing, or from the meter of the four -line verse to which the music was sung. And this balance of -phrases, derived from these elemental sources, still dominates -in the melodies of the great masters, although it is -managed with constantly increasing freedom and elasticity, -so that we find in modern music little of that sing-song -mechanical regularity which we may note in most folk-songs -and dances.</p> - - -<h3>IV. <small>BARBARA ALLEN.</small></h3> - -<p>Let us now examine another old English song, "Barbara -Allen."</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag22_score1.jpg" width="550" height="137" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag22_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag22_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE VI.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse">In Scar-let Town where I was born,</div> -<div class="verse ileft2">There was a fair maid dwellin',</div> -<div class="verse">Made ev' - ry youth cry "well-a-day,"</div> -<div class="verse ileft2">Her name was Barbara Allen.</div> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse">All in the merry month of May,</div> -<div class="verse ileft2">When green buds they were swellin',</div> -<div class="verse">Young Jemmy Grove on his death bed lay</div> -<div class="verse ileft2">For love of Barbara Allen.</div> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse">Then slowly, slowly she came up,</div> -<div class="verse ileft2">And slowly she came nigh him,</div> -<div class="verse">And all she said when there she came:</div> -<div class="verse ileft2">"Young man, I think you're dying."</div> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse">When he was dead, and laid in grave,</div> -<div class="verse ileft2">Her heart was struck with sorrow.</div> -<div class="verse">"O mother, mother!—make my bed,</div> -<div class="verse ileft2">For I shall die to-morrow!"</div> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse">She, on her death bed as she lay,</div> -<div class="verse ileft2">Begg'd to be buried by him,</div> -<div class="verse">And sore repented of the day</div> -<div class="verse ileft2">That she did e'er deny him.</div> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse">"Farewell!" she said, "ye maidens all,</div> -<div class="verse ileft2">And shun the fault I fell in.</div> -<div class="verse">Henceforth take warning by the fall</div> -<div class="verse ileft2">Of cruel Barbara Allen."</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>This also is a traditional song. The words celebrate -the emotion of unrequited love, a favorite subject with the -old ballad writers. In the music, we shall find a further -illustration of the use of the devices already referred to.</p> - -<p>We note first of all that there is throughout the melody a -constant use of one rhythmic motive. This figure appears -in the first four notes of the song, and is found at the beginning -of every other measure save the fifth and the last. -While these transpositions are not so literal as is that at the -beginning of "Polly Oliver," they are nevertheless sufficiently -close to serve the purpose of preserving unity while still providing -variety. The tune is held together by this insistence -on the motive; there is considerable variety in the melody -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> -of the various phrases, but through it all runs this persistent -rhythm.</p> - -<p>Although "Barbara Allen" does not, strictly speaking, -contain a modulation, since there is in the melody no note -foreign to the key in which the song is written, yet the first -and last phrases center round D, the key-note, while the -second phrase (to the words "There was a fair maid -dwellin'") centers round and comes to rest on A, thus producing -the effect of a half pause, as if punctuated with a -semicolon.</p> - -<p>A very important point should be noted in reference to -these half pauses or modulations in a melody, namely, that -they usually occur on the fifth note of the scale of the original -key, called by musicians the "dominant." In the three -songs we have considered thus far the second phrase has so -ended. This modulation to the dominant is the most common -one in music, and we shall often have occasion to refer -to it in later chapters.</p> - -<p>Finally, a comparison of the third phrase of the music—"there -was a fair maid dwellin'"—with the last—"her -name was Barbara Allen"—will reveal a considerable -similarity in both rhythm and melodic contour or curve. -By means of this similarity, and by the return, in the last -phrase, to the original key, our sense of proportion is satisfied -and a certain logic is imparted to the tune. It should -also be noticed that the melody is a perfect example of that -balance of phrases already referred to, the two halves (1-5 -and 5-9) being of precisely the same length.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span></p> - - -<h3>V. <small>NATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS IN FOLK-SONGS.</small></h3> - -<p>"Barbara Allen" is like many other English tunes in -being straightforward, positive, and, in a measure, unromantic. -It lacks the soft, undulating, and poetic element to -be observed in the Spanish folk-song (see Chapter I), but -has a vigor and somewhat matter-of-fact quality characteristic -of the race that produced it. The story was evidently -popular in the olden time, as many versions of it -with different music have been found all over England. All -the important events of the times were celebrated in song. -There were, for example, many songs about Napoleon and -the danger of an invasion of England, such as "Boney's -Lamentation." Songs were written about political affairs -and about religion, and there were many dealing with popular -characters such as Robin Hood. Celebrated criminals -became the subjects of songs, while poaching and other lawless -acts committed by the peasants—which in those days -were punished with the greatest severity—were frequently -used as the basis for the strolling singers' ballads. Such -titles as "Here's adieu to all Judges and Juries," "The -Gallant Poachers," and "Botany Bay" are frequently to -be found.</p> - -<p>From a perusal of a large number of the old songs one -gathers a quite comprehensive idea of the ways of life and -the thoughts and feelings of the people of "Merrie England." -A kind of rude philosophy seems to have evolved -itself out of the mass of common sentiment. And the verses, -rude as they are, have a characteristic directness and vigor -that gives them a value of their own.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span></p> - -<p>Plain, definite narrative characterizes most of the English -songs. The name of the hero and heroine are usually -given with the greatest accuracy, as are all the other details -of the story. One old English song, for example, begins as -follows:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse">"'Twas the eighteenth of August,</div> -<div class="verse">The eighth month of the year."</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>while another is entitled:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse">"The Three Butchers; or, Gibson, Wilson, and Johnson."</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Still another begins:</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse">"Eli Sykes, in the town of Batley,</div> -<div class="verse">Killed his sweetheart, Hannah Brooke."</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>This quality is in marked contrast to the more romantic -and poetic element to be found in the songs of many European -nations. This energetic and straightforward quality -in old English melodies does not prevent them from being -beautiful; they are true to human nature and unspoiled by -sophistry.</p> - - -<h3>VI. <small>AN IRISH FOLK-SONG</small>.</h3> - -<p>Our next illustration is an Irish song called "The Flight -of the Earls," one of the most beautiful of melodies. (See -Figure VII.)</p> - -<p>In this illustration the curved lines represent -the phrases and correspond to the lines of the poem, -while the brackets show the larger formal structure of -the melody, A being the statement, or clause of assertion, -B the clause of contrast, and A the restatement. A mere -glance at this music will show how certain phrases are used -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> -throughout to hold the melody together. The first and -second measures,<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> for example, contain a phrase of which -one part or the other will be found in almost every measure -of the song. The first half of the song ends at 9 with a -modulation to the fifth above, or dominant, while the "restatement -after contrast" (beginning on the last note of -measure 13) is quite clear.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag27_score1.jpg" width="550" height="330" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag27_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag27_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - - -<p class="small2">FIGURE VII.</p> - -<p>Certain details may be pointed out for the benefit of the -student. The first phrase, ending on the note D (5), gives -a sense of being poised for a moment before proceeding to -the next note, D not being a point of rest such as is supplied -by the C with which the second phrase ends—at 9. The -same device is used at the end of the third phrase (13). -The clause of contrast (9-13), while based on the rhythm -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> -of the motive of three notes at the beginning of the song, -is distinguished from either of the other two parts by the -absence of the characteristic sixteenth-note figure of measure -two.</p> - -<p>This song justifies all that we have said about the poetic -beauty of folk-songs. Within its short compass are contained -elements of perfection that may well astonish those -who look on folk-songs as immaterial to the development -of the art of music. For this melody is as complete and -perfect an expression of that natural idealism that seems -to have animated human beings from the earliest times as -is the present day music of our own ideals.</p> - - -<h3>VII. <small>A GERMAN FOLK-SONG</small>.</h3> - -<p>The next illustration is a well known German folk-song -called "Sister Fair."</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag28_score1.jpg" width="550" height="271" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag28_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag28_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE VIII.</p> - -<p>This melody is one of great beauty and tenderness. -Like many other German folk-songs, it is full of quiet -sentiment, not over-strained, but sweet and wholesome. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> -It contains certain formal elements with which we are -already familiar: (1) "Repetition," between the first motive -in measures 1 and 2, between measures 5-6 and 7-8, and -between measures 3-4 and 11-12; (2) "transposition," -where the motive in measure 9 is inverted in measure 10 -(this is an imitation of rhythm but not of melody); (3) -"restatement after contrast," the last four measures being, -in effect, a repetition of the first four with the first motive -from measure 9 inverted; (4) "modulation," the first -phrase being in A-minor, the second in C-major, and the -last in A-minor again. This is a particularly clear example -of a modulation, as the three phrases distinctly centre -round their respective key-notes, or tonal centres. It -should be noted that the modulation is not to the fifth -above the key-note, as in most of the other examples, but to -the third above. This is common in songs in the minor key.</p> - -<p>Quite a distinct charm is imparted to the first phrase -of this melody by the use at the <em>end</em> of measure 2 of the -little rhythmic figure that has already appeared at the -<em>beginning</em> of the first and second measures. There is an -unexpected charm in this shifting of a motive from one part -of a measure to another. We shall see this device of musical -construction in many of the larger works that are dealt -with in later chapters.</p> - -<p>There are a great many beautiful German folk-songs -which would be well worth study here did space -permit. The student is referred to such collections as -Reimann's "Das Deutsche Lied," where the best of them -will be found.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span></p> - - -<h3>VIII. <small>SUMMARY.</small></h3> - -<p>In this brief study of folk-songs we have noted that -the stream of pure native melody was independent of the -art-song and followed its own natural channel, but that, in -spite of its limitation, presents to us some well developed -formal types.</p> - -<p>We have seen how important a part modulation plays -in the plan of a piece of music, and how, by means of a -change of key, a new kind of variety may be imparted to -a melody.</p> - -<p>We have observed how closely the old songs reflect the -characteristics of the people who produced them, and how -intimate was the connection between the songs—with the -verses to which they were set—and the thoughts and feelings -of those who used them.</p> - -<p>In studying the German folk-song we have observed a -subtle element of form, namely, the shifting of a motive -from one part of a measure to another.</p> - -<p>In the next chapter we shall take up the study of simple -polyphonic pieces, such as have already been referred to in -dealing with the round, "Three Blind Mice."</p> - - -<p class="center">S<small>UGGESTIONS FOR</small> C<small>OLLATERAL</small> R<small>EADING</small>.</p> - -<p><cite>Parry: "The Evolution of the Art of Music," -Chapter III; Grove's "Dictionary of Music and -Musicians," articles "Song" and "Form."</cite></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - - -<div class="footnotes"><p class="p4 center">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Sir Hubert Parry in "The Evolution of the Art of Music."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Such as Schubert's "Haiden-Röslein."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> The reader will find an account of these modes in Grove's Dictionary of Music -under "Modes, Ecclesiastical."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> In Hadow's "Songs of the British Islands" (Curwen & Co., London).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> The first partial measure is counted as one.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> The partial measure at the beginning is counted as one.</p></div></div> - -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span></p> -</div> - -<h2>CHAPTER III.<br /> - -<small>THE POLYPHONIC MUSIC OF BACH.</small></h2> - - -<p>We have seen in the last chapter some typical examples -of folk-songs, which have served to give us an impression -of folk-music in general, since it always conforms, in all -essentials, to the type they illustrate. Folk-music is generally -simple and unsophisticated in expression; it is generally -cast in short and obvious forms; and it generally consists -of a single melody, either sung alone or accompanied, -on some primitive instrument, by a few of the commonest -chords.</p> - -<p>The prominence given to a single melody by music of this -type, however, makes it unsuitable for groups of different -voices, such as a vocal quartet or a chorus; and therefore -when musicians began to pay attention to music intended -for church use they had to work out a different -style, in which several parts, sung by the various voices, -could be strongly individualized. This led to what is -called the "polyphonic," or "many-voiced" style. Another -reason why the ecclesiastical style always remained unlike the -secular was that the learned church musicians disdained -any use of those methods which grew up in connection with -folk-songs and dances, considering them profane or vulgar. -Had they been willing to study them, they might have -added much vitality to church music; but they maintained -an attitude of aloofness and of contempt for the popular -music.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span></p> - - -<h3>I. <small>WHAT IS "POLYPHONY</small>?"</h3> - -<p>The peculiarity of the polyphonic style is that that -portion of the music which accompanies the chief melody -is no longer a series of chords as in folk-music, but a tissue -of secondary melodies, like the chief one, and hardly less -important. (This arises, as we have just suggested, from -the necessity of giving each of the four voices or groups of -voices,—soprano, alto, tenor, and bass,—something -individual and interesting to do.) The difference between -the two styles is apparent even to the eye, on the printed -page. A folk-song, or any other piece in "homophonic" -or "one-voiced" style, has the characteristic appearance -of a line of notes on top (the melody), with groups of other -notes hanging down from it here and there, like clothes -from a clothes line (the accompaniment). A Bach fugue, -in print, presents the appearance of four (or more) interlacing -lines of notes. (See Figure IX.)</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag32_score1.jpg" width="550" height="212" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>a</em>) Beginning of "Polly Oliver."</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag32_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag32_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="indent15"> While the dawn on the mountain was mist-y and grey,</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag33_score1.jpg" width="550" height="190" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>b</em>) Passage from Bach Fugue in G-minor<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">"Well-Tempered Clavichord," Book I.</span></p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag33_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag33_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE IX. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN "HOMOPHONIC" AND "POLYPHONIC" STYLE.</p> - -<p>Historically speaking, the first great culmination of the -polyphonic style is found in the ecclesiastical choruses of -Palestrina (1528-1594); but it was not until somewhat later -that this style was applied to instrumental music. In the -inventions, canons, preludes, toccatas, and fugues of -Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750), we get the first great -examples of polyphony as applied, not to merely ecclesiastical -music, but to music which by its secular character and -its variety of emotional expression is universal in scope.</p> - - -<h3>II. <small>AN INVENTION BY BACH</small>.</h3> - -<p>Such is the ingenuity and the perfection of detail in -Bach's works in the polyphonic style that a life-time might -be spent in studying them. They have that delicacy of -inner adjustment more usually found in the works of nature -than in those of man; their melodies grow out of their motive -germs as plants put forth leaves and flowers; their separate -voices fit into one another like the crystals in a bit of quartz; -and the whole fabric of the music stands on its elemental -harmonies as solidly as the mountains on their granite bases. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> -We can hope to see as little of this august country of Bach's -mind by analyzing a few pieces as a man may see of the -hills and moors in a day's excursion—but, nevertheless, a -beginning must be made.</p> - -<p>The essential features of this music may be seen in even -so simple a piece as the Invention in F-major, number 7, in -the two-voiced inventions, though it is written for only -two voices and is but thirty-four measures long.</p> - - -<h3>E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 1.</h3> - -<p class="sub"><em>Bach: Two-voice Invention No. VIII., in F-Major.</em></p> - -<p>The subject or theme of this invention is a melody of -two measures' length, first given out by the soprano, and -consists of two motives or characteristic figures, one in -eighth-notes, staccato, making a series of leaps, thus:</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/pag34_score1.jpg" width="400" height="74" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag34_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag34_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p>and one a graceful descending run in sixteenth-notes, thus</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 390px;"> -<img src="images/pag34_score2.jpg" width="390" height="69" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag34_score2.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag34_score2.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p>Notice how charmingly the staccato and the legato are contrasted -in these motives.</p> - -<p>The entire invention is made out of this subject by means -of those methods of varied repetition discussed in Chapter -I., especially "imitation" and "transposition." For example, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> -the lower voice, which we will call the bass, "imitates," -almost exactly, through the first eleven measures, -what the soprano says a measure before it. On the other -hand, in measure 12 the bass starts the ball a-rolling by -giving the subject (this time in the key of C), and the -soprano takes its turn at imitating. Then, from measure -29 to the end, it is again the soprano which leads and -the bass which imitates. The student should trace out -these imitations in detail, admiring the skill with which -they are made always harmonious.</p> - -<p>There are many instances of transposition also, most of -them carried out so systematically that they form what -musicians call "sequences."</p> - -<p>A sequence is a series of transpositions of a motive, -shifting it in pitch either upward or downward, and carried -out systematically through several repetitions. Examples: -measures 4, 5, and 6, transposition of the motive in soprano, -three repetitions; measures 21, 22, 23, transposition of motives -of both voices, three repetitions; measures 24, 25, -transposition of motives of both voices, two repetitions. -The second of these sequences is shown in Figure X.</p> - -<p>It will be noted what a strong sense of regular, orderly -progress these sequences impart to the melodies.</p> - -<p>It is interesting to see that the same general scheme of -keys is embodied in this invention that we have observed -in folk-songs: i. e., the modulation to the "dominant" in -the middle (measure 12), and the return at the end to the -original key. This divides the piece into two unequal -halves, the first making an excursion away from the home -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> -key, the second returning home—much as the King of -France, with twenty thousand men, marched up the hill -and then marched down again. Such a two-part structure -is observable in thousands of short pieces, and is called by -musicians "binary form."</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag36_score1.jpg" width="550" height="340" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag36_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag36_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE X. "Sequence" from Bach's Invention in F-Major.</p> - -<p>The difference in texture between this piece and any -folk-song or dance will best be appreciated by playing over -the bass part alone, when it will be seen that, far from being -mere "filling" or accompaniment, it is a delightful melody -in itself, almost as interesting as its more prominent companion. -Indeed, in the whole invention there are only two -tones (the C and the A in the final chord) which are not -melodically necessary. Such is the splendid economy and -clearness of Bach's musical thinking.</p> - -<p>Before going further, the reader should examine for himself -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> -several typical inventions, as, for example, No. I, in -C-major; No. II, in C-minor; No. X, in G-major, and No. -XIII, in A-minor, in this set by Bach, noting in each case: -(1) the individuality of the motives used, (2) the imitations -from voice to voice, (3) the sequences, (4) the modulations, -(5) the polyphonic character, as evidenced by the self-sufficiency -and melodic interest of the bass, and (6) the structural -division of the entire invention into more or less distinct -sections.</p> - - -<h3>III. <small>A FUGUE BY BACH</small>.</h3> - -<p>The same general method of composing that is exemplified -in the inventions we see applied on a larger scale in -the fugues of Bach.</p> - -<p>The definition of a fugue given by some wag—"a -piece of music in which one voice after another comes in, -and one listener after another goes out"—is true only when -the listeners are uneducated. For a trained ear there is no -keener pleasure than following the windings of a well written -fugue. It is, at the same time, true that a fugue presents especial -difficulties to the ear, because of its intricately interwoven -melodies. In a folk-song there is not only but one -melody, with nothing to distract the attention from it, but it is -composed in definite phrases of equal length, like the lines in -poetry, with a pause at the end of each, in which the mind -of the listener can take breath, so to speak, and rest a -moment before renewing attention. Not so in the fugue, -where the bits of tune occur all through the whole range of -the music, are of varying lengths and character, and overlap -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> -in such a way that there are few if any moments of complete -rest for the attention. Perhaps this is the chief reason why -fugues have the reputation of being "dry."</p> - -<p>As is suggested by the derivation of the word "fugue," -from the Latin "fuga," a flight, the characteristic peculiarity -of the form is the entrance, one after another, of the -several voices, which thus seem to pursue or chase one -another, to go through a sort of musical game of "tag," in -which first one and then another is "It." First one voice -begins with the "subject" of the fugue, in the "tonic" key -(key in which the piece is written). Next enters a second -voice, "imitating" the first, but presenting the subject not -in the "tonic," but in the "dominant" key. Then a third, -once more in the tonic, and finally the fourth, again in the -dominant. After these entrances all four voices proceed to -play with the subject, transposing it in all sorts of ingenious -ways, and straying off at times into episodes, generally in -"sequence" form, but finally coming back, towards the end -of the fugue, with renewed energy to the subject itself. All -this may be seen in such an example as the Fugue in C-minor -in Bach's "Well-Tempered Clavichord."</p> - - -<h3>E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 2.</h3> - -<p class="sub"><em>Bach: Fugue No. 2, C-minor, in three voices. "Well-Tempered -Clavichord."</em> Book 1. <a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a> -<a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p> - -<p>Like all the fugues in Bach's "Well-Tempered Clavichord," -this fugue is preceded by a prelude, in free style, -like a series of embroideries on chords, intended to prepare -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> -the nearer for the more active musical enjoyment of the -fugue to come. Parry, in the "Oxford History of Music," -says of the Prelude of Bach and Handel: "It might be a -simple series of harmonies such as a player might extemporize -before beginning the Suite or the Fugue, [such is the -case in the present prelude]; or, its theme might be -treated in a continuous consistently homogeneous movement -unrestricted as to length, but never losing sight of the -subject" ... etc.</p> - -<p>A fugal subject is usually longer and more pretentious -than an invention subject, and more nearly approaches -what we should call a complete melody. It may contain -several motives. Moreover, while the second voice is -"answering" the subject, the first voice continues with -further melody, and if this is of definite, individual character -it may easily assume almost as great importance as the subject -itself, in which case we may give it the name of "counter-subject." -In Figure XI the subject and counter-subject -of this fugue are shown. The long brackets show -subject and counter-subject; the short brackets show the -three chief motives, marked <em>a</em>, <em>b</em>, and <em>c</em>. The simplicity of -the melodic material is noticeable. Motive <em>a</em>, which, with -its three repetitions, forms most of the subject, consists of -five tones, in a charming and unforgettable rhythm of two -shorts and three longs. Motive <em>b</em> is simply a descending -scale, in equal short notes. Motive <em>c</em> is four equal long -notes. Play the subject and counter-subject through separately, -several times, and get them well "by heart" before -going farther.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span></p> - -<p>This fugue is a wonderful example of what a master-composer -can make out of simple materials; the whole -piece is built from these three motives. Our analysis may -conveniently be made in tabular form, the student being -expected to trace out the development for himself, measure -by measure.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag40_score1a.jpg" width="550" height="108" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag40_score1a.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag40_score1a.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag40_score1b.jpg" width="550" height="166" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag40_score1b.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag40_score1b.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XI. SUBJECT AND COUNTER-SUBJECT OF BACH'S FUGUE IN C-MINOR<br /> - (WELL-TEMPERED CLAVICHORD)</p> - -<p class="center"><small>TABLE OF THEMATIC TREATMENT OF FUGUE IN C-MINOR</small></p> - -<div class="small1"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="fugue"> - -<tr> -<td align="left"><em>Measures.</em></td> -<td align="left"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right"> 1-2</td> -<td align="left">Subject in Alto.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right"> 3-4</td> -<td align="left">Subject "answered" in Soprano ("imitation"), counter-subject in Alto.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right"> 5-6</td> -<td align="left">Episode 1: Motive <em>a</em> prominent in Soprano.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right"> 7-8</td> -<td align="left">Subject in Bass, counter-subject in Soprano, fragments of motive <em>c</em> in Alto.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right"> 9-10</td> -<td align="left">Episode 2: Motive <em>a</em> tossed between Soprano and Alto, motive <em>b</em> in Bass.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">11-12</td> -<td align="left">Subject, in key of E-flat major, in Soprano, counter-subject in Bass.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">13-14</td> -<td align="left">Episode 3: Motive <em>b</em> in Soprano, motive <em>c</em> in other two voices.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">15-16</td> -<td align="left">Subject in Alto, counter-subject in Soprano, motive <em>c</em> in Bass.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">17-19</td> -<td align="left">Episode 4: Motives <em>a</em> and <em>b</em> variously distributed between all three voices.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">20-21</td> -<td align="left">Subject in Soprano, in tonic key again, counter-subject in Alto, motive <em>c</em> in Bass,</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">22-25</td> -<td align="left">Episode 5: Motives <em>a</em> and <em>b</em> in all voices.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">26-28</td> -<td align="left">Climax: Subject in Bass, motives <em>b</em> and <em>c</em> in other voices.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">29-31</td> -<td align="left">Coda: Subject in Soprano.</td> -</tr> -</table> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></p> - -<p>Note that all the episodes take the form of <em>sequences</em>, -as, for example, in the following instance (measures 9-10):</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag41_score1.jpg" width="550" height="381" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag41_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag41_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XIa. A SEQUENCE FROM BACH'S FUGUE IN C-MINOR.</p> - -<p>The general form of this fugue illustrates the same -principles of modulation, and of restatement of subject after -contrast, that we noticed in the folk-songs and in the invention. -This may be tabulated thus:</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="small1 center" style="margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;">TABLE SHOWING STRUCTURE OF FUGUE IN C-MINOR.</p> -</div> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="toc1" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="fuguecm"> - -<tr> -<td class="td1head">A.</td> -<td class="td1head">B.</td> -<td class="td1headr">A.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1head"><small>STATEMENT.</small></td> -<td class="td1head"><small>CONTRAST.</small></td> -<td class="td1headr"><small>RESTATEMENT.</small></td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1cen1">Measures 1-10 in key of</td> -<td class="td1cen1">Measures 11-19 in various keys,</td> -<td class="td1cen2">Measures 20-31 in</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1cen1">C-minor.</td> -<td class="td1cen1">beginning with E-flat.</td> -<td class="td1cen2">C-minor.</td> -</tr> -</table> -</div> - -<p>The modulation in this case, however, is not to the -"dominant" key, but to what is called the "relative -major" key, as is usual in pieces written in minor keys, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> -(see the folk-song, "Sister Fair," in Chapter II), the -reason being that the relative major affords the most -natural contrast to a minor key, just as the dominant -affords the most natural contrast to a major key.</p> - -<p>The conclusion is emphasized by the finely rugged statement -of the subject in Bass at measure 26.</p> - -<p>The treatment of this fugue, for all its consummate -skill, is comparatively simple. It does not employ the more -subtle devices often employed in fugues, of which may be -mentioned the following:</p> - -<p>1. "Inversion:" The subject turned upside down, -while retaining its identity by means of its rhythm.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag42_score1a.jpg" width="550" height="80" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">Original Subject.</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag42_score1a.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag42_score1a.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag42_score1b.jpg" width="550" height="67" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">Inversion.</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag42_score1b.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag42_score1b.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XII. THE DEVICE OF "INVERSION."</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 390px;"> -<img src="images/pag42_score2b.jpg" width="390" height="75" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">Original Subject.</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag42_score2b.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag42_score2b.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 390px;"> -<img src="images/pag42_score2c.jpg" width="390" height="98" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">Augmentation.</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag42_score2c.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag42_score2c.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 551px;"> -<img src="images/pag42_score2d.jpg" width="551" height="60" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">Original Subject.</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag42_score2d.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag42_score2d.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag42_score2e.jpg" width="550" height="65" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">Diminution.</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag42_score2e.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag42_score2e.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XIII. THE DEVICES OF "AUGMENTATION" AND "DIMINUTION."</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span></p> - -<p>2. "Augmentation and Diminution:" The length of -the notes doubled or halved, while their <em>relative</em> length, or -rhythm, is carefully maintained. (Figure XIII.)</p> - -<p>3. "Shifted rhythm:"<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> The subject shifted as regards -its position in the measure, so that all the accents fall -differently.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/pag43_score1b.jpg" width="500" height="85" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">Original Subject.</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag43_score1b.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag43_score1b.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> -<img src="images/pag43_score2.jpg" width="500" height="104" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">Shifted.</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag43_score2.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag43_score2.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XIV. DEVICE OF "SHIFTED RHYTHM."</p> - -<p>4. "Stretto:" The imitation of the subject by a second -voice occurring prematurely, before the first voice has completed -the subject, frequently with highly dramatic effect. -(<em>b</em>) in Figure IX is an example of stretto.</p> - -<p>These devices are mentioned here not only because they -occur in many fugues, but because they are used in the symphonic -music of Mozart and Beethoven, as we shall later -have occasion to see.</p> - - -<h3>IV. <small>GENERAL QUALITIES OF BACH'S WORK.</small></h3> - -<p>Perhaps the most exacting of all tests applicable to music -is the test of economy. Are there superfluous tones that -do not enrich the harmony? Are there unnecessary subjects -not needed to fill the scheme of design? If so, no -matter how beautiful the music, it is defective as art. Bach -bears this test victoriously. There is not a note of his -writing which one would willingly sacrifice. There is not -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> -a melody that is not needed. Each subject is not merely -introduced and dismissed, but is developed to the utmost, -so that all that was implicit in its germ becomes explicit -in its final form. There is no confusion of the outline, no -overcrowding of the canvas, no blotchiness in the color. -As Giotto proved his supremacy among draughtsmen by -the apparently simple but really enormously difficult feat -of drawing a complete, perfect circle with one stroke of the -pencil, so Bach constantly proves his supremacy among -musicians by making two voices satisfy the ear like an -orchestra. And this purity of texture is quite compatible -with the utmost richness. Indeed, Bach's polyphonic scores -are inimitably rich, since each voice sings its own melody, -and the melodies all interplay harmoniously like the lines -of a well-composed picture. Those who call Bach's fugues -dry make an astonishing confession of their own insensibility -or crudity of taste. Bach's melodies are not, to be -sure, like "Annie Laurie" or "Home, Sweet Home." -But neither is daylight like candle light; yet we do -not call it darkness because it is diffused through all -the atmosphere instead of concentrated in a single visible -ray.</p> - -<p>Bach's daring has been the subject of the endless -admiration of students. Especially in the matter of harmony -he did things in the eighteenth century, and entirely -on his own responsibility, that whole schools of composers -band together with a sense of revolutionary courage -to do in the twentieth. He is truly one of the most modern -of composers, and will always remain so. Composers who -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> -might have been his grandsons are now antiquated, while -he is always contemporary with the best musical thought. -Brahms, irritated at Rubinstein's persistent patronizing -of "Papa Haydn" in his book, "A Conversation on Music," -remarked in his dry way: "Rubinstein will soon be Great-grandfather -Rubinstein, but Haydn will then be still Papa -Haydn." The same might be said even more truly of -Bach, who will always be the father of musicians.</p> - -<p>Another way in which Bach is modern is in the variety -of his musical expression. It is not only that his range of -different species of works is so great, reaching from the -ecstatically tender and exalted religious choral compositions, -such as cantatas, motets, oratorios, and passions, -through the grand and monumental organ toccatas and -fugues, to the intimate, colloquial suites and sonatas for -orchestra and for clavichord; it is even more wonderful that -in a single work, such as the "Well-Tempered Clavichord," -he knows how to sound the whole gamut of human feeling, -from the deep and sombre passions of the soul to the homely -gaiety or bantering humor of an idle moment.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> Bach might -have boasted, had it been in his nature to boast, that in this -work he had not only written in every key known to -musicians, but in every mood known to men. It is the -musical "Comédie Humaine."</p> - -<p>Bach lived quietly and in almost complete obscurity; -for the last quarter-century of his life he held a post as -teacher of music and church-music director in Leipsic.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span></p> - -<p>He travelled little, sought no worldly fame, took no pains to -secure performances of his works, and, above all, made -no compromise with the popular taste of his day. He produced -his great compositions, one after another, in the -regular day's work, for performance in his church or -by local orchestras and players. He never pined for -a recognition that in the nature of things he could -not have; he wrote the music that seemed good to him, -and thought that his responsibility ended there, and that -his reward lay there. The cynic who said "Every man has -his price" was evidently not acquainted with the life of -Bach. Steadily ignoring those temptations to prostitute -his genius for the public's pleasure, which so materially -affected the life course of his great contemporary Handel, -he followed his own ideals with an undivided mind. As -always happens in such cases, since it takes decades for -the world to comprehend a sincere individual, or even -centuries if his individuality is deep and unique, he was not -appreciated in his life-time, nor for many years after his -death.</p> - -<p>Indeed, he is not appreciated now, for a man can be -appreciated only by his equals. But we have at last got -an inkling of the treasure that still lies hidden away in -Bach; and while Handel and the other idols of the age -sound daily more thin and archaic, Bach grows ever richer -as the understanding we bring to him increases, and still -holds out his promise of novel and perennial artistic -delights.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span></p> - - -<p class="center">S<small>UGGESTIONS FOR</small> C<small>OLLATERAL</small> R<small>EADING</small>.</p> - -<p><cite>W. R. Spalding: "Tonal Counterpoint." Edward -Dickinson: "Study of the History of Music," Chapter XX. -C. H. H. Parry: "Evolution of the Art of Music," -Chapter VIII.</cite></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - - -<div class="footnotes"><p class="p4 center">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Number the measures, and call the voices soprano, alto, and bass.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> The reader should examine the example of shifted rhythm given in the second -chapter in dealing with the German song, "Sister Fair."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> In Book I, for example, Fugue II is as light and delicate as XII is serious and -earnest; XVI is pathetic, XVII vigorous and rugged, XVIII thoughtful and mystical, -etc.</p></div></div> - -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span></p> -</div> - -<h2>CHAPTER IV.<br /> -<small>THE DANCE AND ITS DEVELOPMENT.</small></h2> - - -<h3>I. <small>MUSICAL CHARACTER OF DANCES.</small></h3> - -<p>In the last chapter we studied the most important -applications of the "polyphonic" style, which originated in -music for voices, to the music of instruments. We saw how -in such music the attention of the composer was divided -among several equally important voices or parts, and how -much he made of the principle of imitation; and in connection -with the fugue we remarked that the very complex interweaving -of the different voices in such music, one beginning -before another leaves off, and all together making an -intricate web, presented certain difficulties to the listener -accustomed to the more modern style, in which a single -voice has the melody, and stops short at regular intervals, -giving the hearer a chance to draw breath, as it were, and -renew attention for what is coming next. Listening to -modern music is like reading a series of short sentences, -each clearly and definitely ended by its own full stop. -Listening to the old polyphony is more like reading one of -those long and involved sentences of De Quincey or Walter -Pater, in which the clauses are intricately interwoven and -mutually dependent, so that we can get the sense only by -a long-sustained effort of attention.</p> - -<p>This more involved style, suitable to voices, but less -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> -natural to instruments, had historically a very long life. -Much of the instrumental music of the sixteenth, seventeenth, -and eighteenth centuries was in fact nothing but -a transference to instruments of music really conceived for -voices. Thus, for example, in the sixteenth century, -when madrigals and canzonas, which were compositions -for voices in the polyphonic style but of a more secular -character than church music, were exceedingly popular, the -composers for stringed instruments and for the then very -fashionable lutes, "when they wanted something of a -superior order, ... simply played madrigals, or wrote -music in imitation of any of the varieties of choral music, -not realizing that without the human tones ... which -gave expression to the rising and falling of the melodic -material, the effect was pointless and flat."<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> Even Bach -and Handel, in the eighteenth century, were, by their deeply-rooted -habit of <em>thinking vocally</em>, in some degree hampered -in the search for a purely instrumental style. Instrumental -music, having to get along without words, must find -some principle of coherence, some kind of definite design, -which will make it intelligible without the help of words, and -enable it to stand on its own feet.</p> - -<p>And here comes in the importance of folk-song, and of -the folk-dance which grew up beside it, to our modern instrumental -music. For both song and dance pointed the way -to such a principle of independent intelligibility, through -definite balance of phrases (see Chapter I), and through -contrasts and resemblances of <em>key</em> in the various phrases and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> -sections of a composition. Music intended to accompany -songs or dances <em>had</em> to consist of balanced phrases of equal -length—in the case of songs, because it had to reproduce -the verse structure of the words, which of course were composed -in regular stanzas of equal lines, and in the case of -dances, because it had to afford a basis for symmetrical -movements of the body. And when once it was thus divided -up into equal phrases, it took musicians but a short time to -find that these phrases could be effectively contrasted, and -made the parts of larger musical organisms, by being put -into different keys (as we have seen in the instances of modulation -cited in Chapters II and III). How vital these -principles of structure in balanced phrases and sections, and -of contrast of keys, are to the entire modern development -of music, we shall realize fully only as we proceed.</p> - -<p>Again, both song and dance have proved supremely -important to the development of the homophonic style (one -melody, with accompaniment not itself melodic). In the -case of song the reason is obvious. A song rendered by a -solo voice, with instrumental accompaniment, naturally -takes the homophonic style, since it would be highly artificial -to make the subordinate element in the combination as -prominent as the chief one. Dance is less inevitably homophonic -than song; indeed many dances, as we shall see, are -to a greater or less degree polyphonic; but nevertheless the -tendency toward homophony is always apparent. In the -first place, the interweaving of many melodies would tend -to obscure the division into definite phrases, since an inner -melody might sometimes fill up the pause in the main one, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> -as we saw it constantly doing in the fugue. Secondly, the -mode of performing dances tends to give prominence to a -single melody. The old dances were generally played by -one melodic instrument, such as a violin or hautboy, accompanied -by chords on an instrument of the lute or guitar -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> -family, and frequently by a drum to strengthen the accents. -Such a combination affords but one prominent "voice," and -does not lend itself naturally to polyphonic writing.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag51_score1.jpg" width="550" height="643" alt="" /> -</div> -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag51_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag51_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> -<p class="small2">FIGURE XV.</p> -<p class="indent15"> -Viens dans ce bo- ca- ge, belle A- min - te,<br /> -Sans contrain - te L'on y for - me des vœux; Viens,<br /> -Viens dans ce bo - ca - ge, belle A- min - te,<br /> -Il est fait pour les plai-sirs et les jeux:<br /> -</p> - - -<p>The "Tambourin," for instance, an old French dance -of Provence, was played by one performer, the melody with -one hand on the "galoubet," a kind of pipe or flageolet, and -the accompanying rhythm with the other on a small drum. -The quotation in Figure XV, taken from Wekerlin's collection, -"Echos du Temps Passé" (Vol. III), is a good -example of this ancient dance. In this arrangement for -piano, the left hand imitates the drum, and the right -hand the "galoubet" or pipe. This quotation illustrates -the common use of dance melodies in songs. Many -primitive airs were so used in the olden times.</p> - - -<h3>II. <small>PRIMITIVE DANCES.</small></h3> - -<p>The rude dances which spring up spontaneously in all -communities, savage as well as civilized, and of which we -in America have examples in the war-dances of Indians and -the cake-walks of negroes, are thus seen to be pregnant of -influence on developed musical art, no less than the folk-songs -which we discussed in the second chapter, and the more -academic music in the polyphonic style which we treated -in the third. Both songs and dances, indeed, sometimes -enter into artistic music even in their crude form, but in most -cases composers treat them with a certain freedom, and in -various ways enhance their effectiveness, as Haydn, for -instance, treats the Croatian folk-tune "Jur Postaje," in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> -the Andante of his "Paukenwirbel" Symphony. In Figure -XVI the reader will see both the crude form of the tune and -the shape into which Haydn moulds it for his purposes.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag53_score1.jpg" width="550" height="166" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">"Jur Postaje."</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag53_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag53_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag53_score2.jpg" width="550" height="496" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">HAYDN'S Version.</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag53_score2.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag53_score2.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XVI.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span></p> - -<p>In the long process of development which songs and dances -thus undergo at the hands of composers, they of course lose -to some extent their contrasting characters, until in modern -music the dance and the song elements are as inextricably -interwoven as the warp and the woof of a well-made -fabric.</p> - -<p>As imitation is only slightly available in homophonic -music, the unity so vital to all art is attained in dances chiefly -by transpositions of motives, often in systematic "sequences," -by more or less exact balance of phrases, and by restatement -after contrast. In crude examples these means are crudely -used; in the work of masters they are treated with more -subtlety and elasticity; but always a careful analysis will -discover them. It will now prove enlightening to compare, -from this point of view, three dance tunes of very different -degrees of merit.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag54_score1.jpg" width="550" height="188" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag54_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag54_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XVII.<br /> -A "Branle" or "Brawl" from Arbeau's Orchesographie, (1545).</p> - -<p>Figure XVII shows an ancient "Branle" or "Brawl" -of the sixteenth century, taken from Arbeau's "Orchesographie," -published in 1545.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span></p> - -<p>The strong meter, causing a distinct accent on the first -note of each measure, will at once be noted, especially if -it be contrasted with the more moderate accentuation of the -folk-songs of Chapter II. Such strong meter is naturally -characteristic of all dance tunes, intended as they are to -guide and stimulate the regular steps of the dancer.</p> - -<p>The phrase balance, though marked, is not absolutely -regular, but the two two-measure phrases at the beginning -and the single one at the end suffice to give an impression -of pronounced symmetry. The six-measure phrase after -the double-bar is generated by the sequential treatment of -the little motive of measure 5.</p> - -<p>This sequence (measures 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) is worthy of note -because of the excessive length to which it is carried. Five -repetitions are too many, and grow monotonous. A more -skilful composer would have secured his unity without so -great a sacrifice of variety—in a word, he would have -treated a device good in itself with less crudity.</p> - -<p>The exact repetition of measures 3-4 at the end is an -effective use of restatement after contrast. Although the -whole of the original theme is not given, there is enough of -it to give the sense of orderliness in design.</p> - -<p>A Gavotte in F-major by Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713), -the famous violin virtuoso of the seventeenth century, -printed in Augener's edition of Pieces by Corelli, will -illustrate a distinctly higher stage in the treatment of a -dance form. This is well worth a brief analysis.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span></p> - - -<h3>E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 3.</h3> - -<p class="sub"><em>Corelli: Gavotte in F-Major.</em></p> - -<p>Here the phrase balance, though entirely satisfying to -the sense of rhythm, is much more elastic than in the brawl. -The measure-lengths of the phrases are not all the same; -they are as follows: 1, 1, 2, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2. This gives the tune -an agreeable variety.</p> - -<p>It will be noted, however, that the sequence is still -treated rather fumblingly. In the three measures after -the double-bar, the same motive is repeated thrice, each time -higher than before, and to a fastidious ear the third repetition -grows slightly wearisome.</p> - -<p>On the whole, nevertheless, the gain in elasticity and -freedom over the last example is marked.</p> - -<p>The general structure and scheme of modulation in this -little Gavotte of Corelli deserves careful attention, because -it is in these respects typical of a very great number, indeed -of the majority of the short dances of the seventeenth -and eighteenth centuries. It is divided into two distinct -halves, and while each deals with the same musical material, -the two are strongly contrasted in the matter of key. The -first begins in the home key and leaves it to end in a contrasted -key, in the present case the "dominant." The -second, beginning in the dominant, modulates back again -to the home key, and ends there. This scheme, called by -musicians "binary" or "two-part" form, is a very simple -and natural one for short pieces of this kind, and is to be -found in thousands of the movements of Corelli, Scarlatti, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> -Couperin, Rameau, Purcell, Handel, Bach, and other -masters of their day. It is even more common than the -"ternary" form to which we shall come in a moment.</p> - - -<h3>III. <small>A BACH GAVOTTE.</small></h3> - -<p>If the reader will now compare with these two dances -the Gavotte in the sixth English Suite of J. S. Bach, who -had the advantage of living half a century later than Corelli -(besides being an immeasurably greater genius), he will -be amazed to see the power and originality with which a -master can treat a traditional form.<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p> - - -<h3>E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 4.</h3> - -<p class="sub"><em>Bach: Gavotte in D-Minor from the Sixth English Suite.</em></p> - -<p>Before looking at matters of detail, we must notice the -structure of the piece as a whole, since it is not only highly -interesting in itself, but is an example—the first we have -had on a large scale—of a type of construction that is -perhaps more popular with musicians of all schools than -any other.</p> - -<p>This structural type is nothing but an application to -an entire piece of that three-part form which we have seen -in little in the Galician folk-song of Chapter I and in -"Polly Oliver" in Chapter II, and to which we may now -give the name of "ternary form," to distinguish it from -the "binary form" discussed in Chapter III. Bach here -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> -writes two distinct gavottes, repeating the first after the -second: so that Gavotte I is a <em>statement</em>, Gavotte II a -<em>contrast</em> (emphasized by change of key from minor to -major), and the repeated Gavotte I a <em>restatement</em>. This -practice is very frequent in Bach's suites, where we often -find two courantes, two bourrées, two passepieds, two -minuets, etc., combined in this way, the function of the second -being to afford contrast to the first. In some instances -the second of the pair is called "trio," probably because -the earliest examples were written in three-voice harmony, -or "musette," from the French word for "bagpipe," in -reference to the drone bass imitating that instrument. -(This is the case in the present gavotte, where the gavotte II -bears the alternative name of musette.)</p> - -<p>In the sonatas and symphonies of Haydn, Mozart, and -Beethoven, as we shall see later, this three-section structure -is found in the minuet with trio, and in the scherzo with -trio. Nor is it less common in modern music, occurring -notably in the marches of Schubert, many of the short -pieces of Schumann, in the polonaises and some of the -nocturnes of Chopin, in the rhapsodies and intermezzos -of Brahms, and in the lyric pieces of Grieg. Indeed, its -naturalness and clearness inevitably commend it to all -composers.</p> - -<p>Looking more closely we see, again, that the same -scheme is used by Bach in each of the two gavottes, <em>considered -separately</em>. In the first, we note the structure A = -measures 1-10, B = measures 11-27, A = measures 27-35; -in the second we find, A = measures 1-10, B = measures -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> -11-19, A = measures 19-28. The student should verify -this analysis for himself.</p> - -<p>Proceeding now to details, we notice first that Bach, -supreme master of polyphony that he is, writes even a -gavotte in such a way that each of its voices has its own -melodic value. The gavotte itself is in three voices throughout, -and the musette in two, and while these voices are not -so purely melodic as in an invention or a fugue, and there -is little strict imitation, yet the general effect is polyphonic -rather than homophonic. In measures 27-31 the alto -voice even has the theme.</p> - -<p>The phrase balance is freer than even Corelli's, because -Bach's mind is quicker to seize upon and work out the -latent possibilities of his melodies. All begins regularly -enough: the first four phrases are each two measures in -length; but after the double-bar the "plot begins to thicken." -First we find two more phrases just like the preceding ones -(measures 11-13 and 13-15); but in the next phrase, -begun in the same way, in measure 15, the yeast of Bach's -fancy begins to work, and the melody broadens out in a -series of evolutions, first in the soprano and later in the alto, -not coming again to a point of rest (end of a phrase) until -measure 23. This extension of a phrase through the germination -or blossoming of the thought (in this case it all -comes from the bit of melody in measure 7) is a matter of -supreme importance in composition, and this instance of -it, as well as another in measures 23-27, should be carefully -studied by any one who desires to understand music. -The power thus to develop or draw forth the hidden potentialities -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> -of his motives is one of the most important of all -the gifts which go to make a composer. Still further -instances of it should now be found by the student himself -in the musette.</p> - -<p>The artistic freedom and felicity of Bach's way of working -is further illustrated by the manner in which, while -using the general principle of the sequence as a means of -giving his music unity of idea, he avoids those overliteral, -mechanical transpositions of motive which we found in the -more primitive dances. There is just the contrast here that -there is between a poor speaker, who keeps repeating the -same word or phrase with futile emphasis, and the man of -real eloquence, who follows a train of thought no less closely, -but manages constantly to cast his ideas in new phraseology -and fresh figures of speech, so that the variety of what he -says is quite as striking as its fundamental unity.</p> - -<p>The element of variety introduced into the contrast-section -of the gavotte (11-27), by the free modulation -through several keys, should also be remarked. The plan -of modulation is different from any we have yet had. -Instead of beginning in the relative major (which would be -the key of F), the section begins in the <em>dominant minor</em> (A-minor). -A good many keys are then touched upon before -the tonic or home key is reached at the restatement (27-35), -which, by a charming subtlety, begins with the theme -in the alto instead of the soprano voice.</p> - -<p>In all these matters we detect the workings of an original -and inventive mind, which, far from being hampered by -working in a traditional form, is stimulated to constantly -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> -new solutions of old problems, and so produces a piece of -music at once perfectly clear and fascinatingly interesting.</p> - -<p>In the next chapter we shall see how composers combined -groups of such dances as this, with other pieces of a -different character, into those suites which were the most -popular forms of instrumental music in the eighteenth -century.</p> - - -<p class="center">S<small>UGGESTIONS FOR</small> C<small>OLLATERAL</small> R<small>EADING</small>.</p> - -<p><cite>Grove's Dictionary: article "Rhythm," and articles -under names of various dances, as "Gavotte," "Allemande," -"Courante," "Minuet," "Gigue," etc.</cite></p> - -<p><em>Other examples of dances may be found in a collection of -twenty-five old gavottes, published by Breitkopf and Härtel, -and in a volume of miscellaneous old dances in the Litolff -Edition.</em></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - - -<div class="footnotes"><p class="p4 center">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Parry: Evolution of the Art of Music, page 115.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> For this analysis, number all the measures and parts of measures consecutively, -which will give 35 measure numbers in the Gavotte proper, and 28 in the second Gavotte -or Musette.</p></div></div> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span></p> -</div> - -<h2>CHAPTER V.<br /> - -<small>THE SUITE.</small></h2> - - -<h3>I. <small>DERIVATION OF THE SUITE.</small></h3> - -<p>Once musicians had begun to realize how dances could -be developed into finished pieces, like the gavotte of Bach, -which we discussed in the last chapter, they were quick to -avail themselves of this advantage by combining several -such dances into a group, thus making a composition of -some length and dignity and yet of popular, easily comprehensible -style. Such compositions, known in England as -"Lessons," in France as "Ordres," and in Germany as -"Suites" and "Partitas," became numerous in the seventeenth -and eighteenth centuries.</p> - -<p>The first historical step in the development of the suite -was taken when the great violin-makers of Cremona and -Brescia, in Italy, brought the violin to a wonderful mechanical -perfection early in the seventeenth century. Virtuosos -on this brilliant instrument were not slow to appear, and -they dazzled their audiences with pieces known as sonatas, -though having little in common with what we nowadays -call a sonata. Their <em>sonata da chiesa</em>, or church sonata, -was a group of pieces, all polyphonic in character and -derived from the old choral madrigals and canzonas; the -<em>sonata da ballo</em>, or dance sonata, was a group of dance tunes; -the <em>sonata da camera</em>, or chamber sonata, combined both -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> -types. Gradually the first become obsolete, and the second -and third took respectively the names <em>suite</em> and <em>partita</em>, -although the nomenclature was inexact, as suites often contained -movements of strict and severe polyphonic style as -well as dances. The greatest of the violin virtuosos was -Arcangelo Corelli, whose "sonatas" retain their charm -even for our modern ears, as may be seen from the sample -of his work studied in the last chapter.</p> - -<p>About the end of the seventeenth century the keyed instruments, -such as the harpsichord, the clavichord, the spinet, -and other precursors of our modern pianoforte, first reached -the degree of mechanical perfection which enabled them to -rival the violin; and it was accordingly not until then that -important pieces for such keyed instruments began to be -written. At the end of the seventeenth and the beginning -of the eighteenth centuries, however, we find interesting -music for these instruments by composers of several nations. -In France Couperin (1668-1733) wrote what he called -"Ordres," short series of pieces "in dance style, piquant in -rhythm, melodiously graceful, profusely embroidered with -embellishment;"<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> and he was followed by Rameau (1683-1764) -with similar works. A curious whim of these French -masters was the appending of picturesque titles to their -pieces, such as "The Tambourine," "The Hen," "The -Return of the Birds," etc.—a practice which anticipates -the program music of to-day.</p> - -<p>Italy had one extraordinary genius in this department -of music, Domenico Scarlatti (1683-1757). He was a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> -most brilliant performer on the harpsichord, delighted in -all feats of agility, and loved to surprise and astonish his -audience. In short he was a virtuoso, and his performances -must have created the kind of sensation in the seventeenth -century that Liszt's did in the nineteenth. "For vivacity, -wit, irony, mischief, mockery, and all the category of human -traits which Beethoven's scherzo served so brilliantly to -express," says Parry, "the world had to wait for a full century -to see Scarlatti's equal again." Some of the preludes, -sarabandes, minuets, courantes, etc., composed by him, still -retain their interest. His beautiful Pastorale in E-minor, and -his "Cat fugue," written on a theme played by a pet cat running -across the keyboard, are sometimes heard in recitals.</p> - -<p>It was in the hands of the German masters, Bach and -Handel,<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> however, that the suite reached its highest state. -These two great composers, born in the same year, 1685, -possessed not only the sense of technical effect which made -Scarlatti great, and the high spirits, enthusiasm, and sense -of proportion which are needed for the production of idealized -dance movements such as Couperin and Rameau have -given us, but they had great musical learning, and much -experience in the use of the strict choral style of polyphonic -writing, which they showed by introducing into their suites -certain movements much more serious in style and exalted -in sentiment than dances. The English and French Suites, -so called, of Bach, and the Twelve Harpsichord Suites, or -"Lessons," as they were called in England, of Handel, -deserve to rank among the great masterpieces of musical art.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span></p> - -<h3>II. <small>THE SUITES OF BACH.</small></h3> - -<p>The six English and six French Suites of Bach, which -deserve a more detailed study than any others, consist -generally of from five to eight separate pieces or movements. -The first, derived from the severer type of the <em>sonata da -chiesa</em>, and thus, more remotely, from the choral madrigal -and canzona (see above), is always more intricate and -elaborate than the others. In the English Suite it is a long -contrapuntal prelude, with imitations and sequences such -as we studied in the invention and the fugue. In the French -Suites it is an allemande, less elaborate but still dignified -and impressive. We see this to be appropriate when we -remember that the hearer is best able to follow intricacies -when his mind is fresh and unjaded.</p> - - -<h3>E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 5.</h3> - -<p class="sub"><em>Bach: Prelude to English Suite, No. 3, in G-Minor.</em></p> - -<p><em>The Motives</em>: The thematic material out of which this -prelude is developed is very simple, consisting of just two -motives, which we will call (<em>a</em>) and (<em>b</em>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag65_score1.jpg" width="550" height="190" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">Motive (<em>a</em>) (imitated through four voices.)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag65_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag65_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag66_score1.jpg" width="550" height="163" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">Motive (<em>b</em>) (imitated by a second voice) measures 33-36.</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag66_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag66_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XVIII. MOTIVES OF BACH PRELUDE IN G-MINOR</p> - -<p>Note the effective contrast between the bold, assertive -character of motive (<em>a</em>) and the more graceful character of -(<em>b</em>).</p> - -<p><em>Structure</em>: The prelude divides itself into seven clearly -marked sections, each ended by a well-marked cadence. -Let us examine these briefly in turn.</p> - -<div class="small1 indent2"> - -<p>Section I, measures 1-32, key of G-minor: Founded on motive (<em>a</em>), with many -sequences which the reader should now be able to trace for himself.</p> - -<p>Section II, measures 33-66: Begins in G-minor, modulates to B-flat major, the -"relative major." Motive (<em>b</em>) in soprano, measures 33-34; in alto, measures 35-36; in -bass, measures 43-44. Motive (<em>a</em>), measures 35, 36, 37 (alto), 38, 39, 43, 44, 53, 54, etc.</p> - -<p>Section III, measures 67-98, key of B-flat: An almost exact copy of Section I, in a -different key.</p> - -<p>Section IV, measures 99-124: Begins in B-flat major, modulates to D-minor, the -"dominant" of the original key. Both motives tossed about from voice to voice. (The -reader should locate each instance for himself.)</p> - -<p>Section V, measures 125-160: Begins in D-minor, modulates to E-flat major, thus -giving variety of key in the middle part of the composition, which we begin to see is an -important principle of form. (Compare the Gavotte of the last chapter.) Very similar in -treatment to Section II.</p> - -<p>Section VI, measures 161-179: Modulates back from E-flat major to the home key, -thus preparing the way for the final statements and conclusion. In measures 175-178 -the insistence of the bass on the tone D, the "dominant" of the original key, will be -noticed. Such an insistence on one tone is called a "pedal point," because so frequently -found in the pedal part of organ music, and serves admirably here to prepare the mind -for the triumphant return to G-minor in the final section. The rest of Section VI is made -up of sequences, thus: 162-165, 166-169, 170-173; and then, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178.</p> - -<p>Section VII, measures 180-213: Almost entirely in the home-key, thus emphasizing -the sense of finality. The bulk of this section is furthermore identical with Section I, -thus affording a fine example of the principle of <em>restatement after contrast</em>.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span></p> - -<p>Altogether this is a most interesting movement. In -the great effect made with simple means we recognize again, -as we did in the case of the invention and the fugue, the splendid -power of Bach's mind. The principles of imitation of -motives from voice to voice, of transpositions of a single -motive in a single voice giving rise to the many sequences, -and of restatement after contrast, all discussed in the first -chapter, are illustrated more brilliantly than by any -other composition we have thus far examined. Finally, -in the variety of key of Section V, placed in the middle -of the piece, and in the unity of key of the first and last -sections, we get a striking anticipation of a principle of -construction which we shall later see to be at the root of the -most important of modern forms, the sonata-form.</p> - -<p>After listening to such a movement as this we naturally -wish to relax a little; and we are, therefore, pleased to hear -a series of dances of various rhythms and qualities of expression, -cast in simple "binary" or "ternary" forms, and either -frankly homophonic in style or not too elaborately polyphonic. -It is impossible to describe in detail here all the -dances found in suites, but the table on page 68 will give -an idea of the more important ones.</p> - -<p>The gavotte studied in the preceding chapter gives an -excellent general impression of the livelier dances used, -which may be farther defined by a glance at such typical -pieces as the bourrées of the first and second English Suites, -and the gavottes of the third English and fifth French -Suites. There is generally also to be found in Bach's -suites, introduced for the sake of contrast and in order to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> -represent the more emotional side of musical expression, a -sarabande or other such slow, stately, and sometimes truly -noble movement. Let us take, as an example of this -element, the Sarabande from the second English Suite.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="small2">FIGURE XIX. THE CHIEF DANCES USED IN SUITES</p> -</div> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="toc1" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="chief"> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt"> </td> -<td class="td1lt"> </td> -<td class="td1lt"> </td> -<td class="td1lt"> </td> -<td class="td1l2t"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1head">NAME</td> -<td class="td1head">ORIGIN</td> -<td class="td1head">METER </td> -<td class="td1head">FORM</td> -<td class="td1headr">CHARACTER</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt">Allemande</td> -<td class="td1lt">German</td> -<td class="td1lt">4-4</td> -<td class="td1lt">Usually "binary"</td> -<td class="td1l2t">Brisk, fluent.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1">Courante</td> -<td class="td1l1">French</td> -<td class="td1l1">3-2 or 3-4</td> -<td class="td1l1"> " "binary" </td> -<td class="td1l2">Merry, energetic.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1">Sarabande</td> -<td class="td1l1"> Spanish </td> -<td class="td1l1">3-2, 3-4 </td> -<td class="td1l1"> " "binary" </td> -<td class="td1l2">Stately, serious, sometimes noble.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1">Bourrée</td> -<td class="td1l1">French </td> -<td class="td1l1">4-4, 2-4 </td> -<td class="td1l1"> " "ternary"</td> -<td class="td1l2">Lively.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1">Gavotte </td> -<td class="td1l1">French</td> -<td class="td1l1">4-4 </td> -<td class="td1l1"> " "ternary" </td> -<td class="td1l2">Moderately quick, well-marked.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1">Minuet</td> -<td class="td1l1"> French </td> -<td class="td1l1">3-8, 3-4 </td> -<td class="td1l1"> " "ternary" </td> -<td class="td1l2">Well-regulated gaiety, courtly.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1">Passepied </td> -<td class="td1l1">French </td> -<td class="td1l1">3-4 </td> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l2">Animated, brisk.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1">Loure</td> -<td class="td1l1"> Old French </td> -<td class="td1l1">6-4</td> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l2">Slow, stately.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1">Anglaise</td> -<td class="td1l1"> French</td> -<td class="td1l1"> 2-4 </td> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l2">Lively, energetic.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1">Polonaise</td> -<td class="td1l1"> Polish </td> -<td class="td1l1">3-4 </td> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l2">Dignified, but animated.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1">Pavane</td> -<td class="td1l1"> French</td> -<td class="td1l1">2-4 </td> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l2">Stately.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1">Rigaudon</td> -<td class="td1l1"> French </td> -<td class="td1l1">2-4, 4-4 </td> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l2">Very lively, gay.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lb">Gigue</td> -<td class="td1lb"> Doubtful </td> -<td class="td1lb">6-8, 12-8 </td> -<td class="td1lb"> " "binary"</td> -<td class="td1l2b">Very rollicking and merry.</td> -</tr> - -</table> -</div> - - -<p class="center">E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 6.<br /> -<em>Bach: Sarabande in A-Minor from English Suite</em> II</p> - -<p>The melodic germ from which the piece is developed is -the following very serious and earnest phrase:</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 430px;"> -<img src="images/pag68_score1.jpg" width="430" height="167" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag68_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag68_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XX.—THEME OF BACH SARABANDE</p> - -<p>a phrase in which great depth of almost tragic feeling is -expressed. Against this is set, for the sake of relief, the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> -lighter and more suave melody of measures 5 and 6, -treated in freely sequential fashion. The whole sarabande -is built from these two brief melodic figures.</p> - -<p>This sarabande serves as an admirable illustration of -the type of beauty common in the music of Bach. Its -phraseology, if we may use the term, is quite different from -that in use in the music of to-day; it is full of quaint and -archaic turns of musical speech—formal sequences, little -motives that sound to us almost mechanical. It is like an -etching of Dürer's, full of detail, each line carefully drawn, -and the whole picture instinct with life. Thus its type of -beauty differs so materially from that to which we are -accustomed that it often fails in its appeal. Only by using -our imagination are we able to project ourselves, so to -speak, into another <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">milieu</i>, another time, another point of -view. And this is the test with which any archaic work of -art confronts us. Without imagination in the beholder a -picture by Botticelli, for example, is a curiosity rather than -a work of art. Its strange allegory, its quaint idea of landscape, -its figures with their unusual posing—all these are -beautiful or merely curious according as we look at them. -"Beauty is in the eye of the beholder."</p> - -<p>The repetition at a higher pitch of the main motive in -measures 3-4 is highly poignant; and throughout the expression -is intensified by the use of rich and often complex -harmony, as particularly in the last four measures of all.</p> - -<p>Notwithstanding the earnest and impassioned character -of this sarabande, its derivation from the dance is clearly -revealed in the regularity of the balance of phrases consisting -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> -of equal measure groups, which divide up as follows: -2, 2, 4, 4 (double-bar); 2, 2, 4, 2, 2, 4. The symmetry is -much more precise than in an invention or a fugue.</p> - -<p>The form is binary or two-part. Part one, measures -1-12, begins in A-minor and ends in the "relative major," -the key of C. Part two, measures 13-28, begins (with the -original motive) in C-major, and returns to A-minor.</p> - -<p>The sequence of measures 23-24, with measures 21-22, -is very beautiful and deserves special notice.</p> - -<p>Following the sarabande the reader will observe a more -florid version of it, bearing the caption, "Les agréments de -la même Sarabande"—"Ornaments for the same Sarabande." -This is an example of the practice, common in -Bach's day, of weaving a net-work of grace-notes, trills, and -other decorations about a melody, a practice due in part to -the natural fondness of all musicians for "effect," and in -part to the fact that the instruments of that day were so -small and poor that a tone could only be sustained by being -struck many times. This custom of ornamenting melodies -with all manner of embroidery gave rise to the "theme and -variations," a form which we shall study later.</p> - -<p>All the other English Suites of Bach contain very beautiful -sarabandes; those in the French Suites are less interesting, -though the first contains a fine example.</p> - -<p>All of Bach's twelve suites end with gay and vigorous -gigues, the most rollicking of all the dances used. This is -natural enough, in view of the desirability of closing the -suite with an impression of energetic vitality. These gigues -are in the headlong 6-8 or 12-8 meter; they are polyphonic -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> -in texture, and constructed in the binary form. Often-times -a high degree of contrapuntal skill is shown in their -composition, but usually this does not interfere with their -light and almost careless character. A curious feature of -most of them is that in the second half the motive is inverted -or turned upside down.</p> - - -<p class="center">E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 7.</p> - -<p><em>Bach: Gigue, from French Suite</em> IV <em>in E-Flat</em>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag71_score1.jpg" width="550" height="115" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2"> Theme of Gigue, Bach's French Suite IV, and its Inversion.</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag71_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag71_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag71_score2.jpg" width="550" height="156" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">Inversion of theme, beginning of second half.</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag71_score2.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag71_score2.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XXI.</p> - -<p>The gay little theme is composed of two motives, as -indicated in Figure XXI, in which the long brackets show -the theme and its imitation by the second voice to enter, -and the short brackets show its component motives, of -contrasting character. In measures 5 and 6 the theme -is again imitated by the third voice (left hand part). In -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> -the course of the development a still more lively figure -makes its appearance in measures 19, 23, 24 and 25.</p> - -<p>The now familiar sequences are found at every -turn. The form is binary (Part I, measures 1-26; -Part II, measures 27-60). The inversion of the theme, -shown in Figure XXI, makes the subject of the second half. -The key-system is perfectly simple. Part I modulates from -the tonic, E-flat, to the dominant, B-flat; Part II begins -there and returns to the home-key.</p> - - -<h3>III. <small>THE HISTORIC IMPORTANCE OF THE SUITE.</small></h3> - -<p>In the course of the eighteenth century the suite gradually -waned in popularity, and gave place to the more highly -organic sonata. Modern suites, notable among which are -such delightful works as Bizet's "L'Arlesienne," Grieg's -"Peer Gynt," Dvorák's Suite for small orchestra, opus. 39, -Tschaikowsky's "Nut-Cracker Suite," and Brahms's "Serenades" -for orchestra, are, after all, exceptional and infrequent, -and not the inevitable mould in which the composer -casts his ideas.</p> - -<p>But the historical importance of the suite was great, and -it fell into disuse only after its lessons had been thoroughly -learned. Through it musicians developed the dance element -which must always be one of the two main strands -of all music; through it they learned to substitute for the -ancient polyphonic style which is suitable to voices the -homophonic style best adapted to the capacities and -the limitations of instruments; and through it they became -familiar with those simple binary and ternary forms in which -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> -such instrumental music is most conveniently and effectively -cast.</p> - -<p>Thus the suite formed the bridge between, on the one -hand, (<em>a</em>) crude folk-songs, (<em>b</em>) primitive dances, and (<em>c</em>) -strict polyphonic forms such as the invention and the fugue, -and on the other, the sonatas, quartets, concertos, and -symphonies of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven.</p> - - -<p class="center">S<small>UGGESTIONS FOR</small> C<small>OLLATERAL</small> R<small>EADING</small>.</p> - -<p><cite>Dickinson: "The Study of the History of Music," -Chapters XIII and XIV. Parry: "Evolution of the Art -of Music," Chapters VIII and IX; Mason: "Beethoven -and His Forerunners," Chapter IV.</cite></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - - -<div class="footnotes"><p class="p4 center">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Edward Dickinson, "The Study of the History of Music," page 84.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Handel, though he lived in England, was in his music a German.</p></div></div> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span></p> -</div> - -<h2>CHAPTER VI.<br /> - -<small>THE RONDO.</small></h2> - - -<p>The study of the suite contained in the last -chapter has brought us for the first time into contact with -a cyclic form. We have seen that, as instruments -developed, as the technique of playing them advanced, -and as the themes and their harmonies became more plastic, -composers naturally sought some larger plan than that -afforded by a single dance form; they thus arrived at the -suite. But the suite was inclined to be monotonous. The -same key was used for all the separate movements, there -was an almost invariable stated length for each, and the -rhythms were too insistent to admit of great variety of -expression. So composers began to experiment with other -forms, chief among which was the sonata.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p> - -<p>Through all the rest of this book we shall be dealing -directly or indirectly with the musical forms that go to -make up the complete sonata. In the present chapter we -shall deal with one of its simplest and most primitive types -of structure, the rondo.</p> - -<p>Sonatas were written as far back as the seventeenth -century. Kuhnau's celebrated "Bible Sonatas," crude -attempts at program music, are among the notable -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> -examples of primitive sonatas. These were indeed "sound-pieces," -but their resemblance to a real sonata, as we understand -the term, is slight. Bach and Handel each wrote -sonatas; and some of Bach's are masterly examples of -the then prevailing style. His sonata for violin and piano -in F-minor (number V in Peters' edition) may be studied -as an example of the form. It contains four movements, -the first, second, and fourth of which are purely polyphonic, -the third being one of those beautiful meditative pieces -of a somewhat rhapsodical style in which Bach seems -to have specially delighted. Italian contemporaries of -Bach also wrote sonatas, and some of those by D. Scarlatti -(1683-1757) and A. Corelli (1653-1713) were of considerable -importance in the development of the form. All these -early specimens, however, were either vague and indeterminate -in form, or were hampered in their expression by the -old polyphonic methods. The modern sonata first begins -to emerge in the work of Philip Emanuel Bach, son of John -Sebastian, and his compositions in this style will be the -subject of a later chapter.</p> - - -<h3>I. <small>DERIVATION OF THE RONDO.</small></h3> - -<p>Our investigations into the formal element of early -dance music have thus far revealed two plans, "binary" -and "ternary," <em>i. e.</em>, two-part and three-part. For such -short pieces as the inventions of Bach, and for many of -the separate dances in suites, the two-part form was -adequate, but when instrumental music began to develop -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> -on broader lines, so that each of the halves was extended -to a considerable length, the advantage of the three-part -form with its "restatement after contrast" was readily -perceived, and it came to be frequently used.</p> - -<p>Among the early experiments in form we find a kind -of extension of ternary form by the repetition of its separate -parts. Such pieces sometimes consist of but one stable -phrase (A) with alternating phrases of an indefinite -character, while others alternate two set phrases, as: A, B, -A, B, A, B, A, etc. The one fixed principle in these pieces -seems to be that they should end with the phrase with -which they began. In primitive songs this fixed part -constituted the chorus, with which the solo melody alternated, -having, of course, different words for each verse.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag76_score1.jpg" width="550" height="323" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag76_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag76_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XXII. NOUEL DE LAS FLOUS. (CAROL OF THE FLOWERS)</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span></p> - -<div class="indentp"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse ileft2"><em>Chorus.</em></div> -<div class="verse ileft4">Come with us, sweet flowers, and worship Christ the Lord,</div> -<div class="verse ileft4">Let your perfumes hover round the Babe adored.</div> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="indentp"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse ileft2"><em>1st & 2nd Sopranos.</em></div> -</div> -</div> - - -<div class="indentp"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse ileft2"><em>Chorus.</em></div> -<div class="verse ileft6">Come with us, &c. (D.C.)</div> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="indentp"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse ileft4">1. Modest violet, hiding in the grassy shade,</div> -<div class="verse ileft6">Thou canst say how humble He for us is made.</div> -<div class="verse ileft6">Come with us, &c.</div> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="indentp"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse ileft4">2. Lily fair, low bending in the sun's warm light,</div> -<div class="verse ileft6">Thou dost tell that He is pure as thou art white.</div> -<div class="verse ileft6">Come with us, &c.</div> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="indentp"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse ileft4">3. As thou, Pansy, shinest forth in bright array,</div> -<div class="verse ileft6">So doth He His majesty to man display.</div> -<div class="verse ileft6">Come with us, &c.</div> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="indentp"> -<div class="poetry"> -<div class="verse ileft4">4. As thou, Rose, wide-opening dost thy scent impart,</div> -<div class="verse ileft6">So His love expanding, draws each sinful heart.</div> -<div class="verse ileft6">Come with us, &c.</div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>"The question is sometimes raised whether in the -primitive carol the chorus began, or whether, as in many -of our own popular songs, it waited until the end of the -first solo verse. Probably the former is of the greater -antiquity; in any case, it is from it that the rondo<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> -is derived."—Hadow, "Sonata Form."</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span></p> - -<p>An example of this primitive type of carol will be found -in Figure XXII.</p> - -<p>This is an ancient carol from the old province of -Bas-Quercy (now Lot-et-Garonne) in the southwestern -part of France.</p> - -<p>The obvious weakness of this form, when applied to -instrumental music, is its monotony. One would soon -weary of a bald repetition over and over again of two phrases -or two melodies to which no variety was imparted, such -as the change of words supplies in the foregoing carol. -In order to avoid this disadvantage the natural step to -take would be to impart, by some means or other, variety -to the music; and this was soon perceived by composers. -The idea of a fixed part remained, <em>i. e.</em>, the chief musical -idea was retained in its original form, but the secondary -melodies were varied. Once this change had taken place -the rondo became a frequent medium of musical expression. -Specimens of the early rondo may be found in Purcell's -song, "I Attempt from Love's Sickness to Fly," and -in Bach's, "Passepied en Rondeau," from the fifth -English Suite. The formula for these two pieces is -A, B, A, C, A.</p> - -<p>Another interesting point is the plan of the harmony -of the contrasting sections in the rondo. The first of these -(B) would naturally follow the prevailing custom for -"sections of contrast," and be in the dominant, or, if the -piece were in minor, in the relative major (see Chapter II.); -but the second (C) offered a further means of variety, -and the instinct of composers led them to treat it in a free -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> -manner and not confine it to any one key. Each of the -examples of rondo form referred to above adopts this -method of procedure.</p> - -<p>While this early form of the rondo possessed a certain -charm, it was somewhat rigid in effect, since the various -sections were separated from each other by a full close or -complete pause. They were like little blocks that fitted -together into a definite, if somewhat stiff pattern.</p> - - -<h3>II. <small>A RONDO BY COUPERIN.</small></h3> - -<p>The primitive rondo was chiefly cultivated by the -French harpsichord composers of the early eighteenth -century, of whom Couperin (1668-1733) and Rameau -(1683-1764) were the most distinguished. Reference has -been made in our chapter on "The Suite" to the "Ordres" -of these composers, and to the perfecting, at the end of -the seventeenth century, of the instrument for which they -were written, the harpsichord. The strings of the harpsichord -were not struck by hammers, as in the modern -pianoforte, but plucked by quills, as the strings of a banjo -are plucked by the fingers of the player. It has been said -of the harpsichord that it produced "a scratch with a tone -at the end of it." The tone produced in this primitive -way was weak and of brief duration, so that composers -not only had to keep re-enforcing a tone by striking it again, -as in the trills and other ornaments so characteristic of -their music, but had to avoid altogether any long sustained -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> -passages such as are common in modern music. They -had also to substitute for the polyphonic style, the entire -effectiveness of which depends upon the sustainment of -its melodies, a homophonic or one-voiced style which, -while distinct from that usual in modern piano music, -was historically an important factor in its development.</p> - - -<h3>E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 8.</h3> - -<p class="sub"><em>Couperin: "Les Moissonneurs" ("The Harvesters").</em></p> - -<p>This naïve and delightful piece is a good example of -the prevailing style of French domestic music in the -eighteenth century. It is notable for its character of -elegance; it is <em>salon</em> music, but at the same time it reveals -a certain mimetic quality common among the French. -The swing of its rhythm seems to catch a little of the idea -conveyed by the title. Couperin's pieces have been called -"a sort of refined ballet music," and they are, as a whole, -based on well defined rhythmic movement. But we may -trace in them the gradual progress away from dance forms -and towards a freer and more idealized expression.</p> - -<p>Couperin was called by his contemporaries "Le Grand," -and was an important figure in the musical life of Paris -during the reign of Louis XIV. His influence extended -beyond France; even John Sebastian Bach adopts some -of his methods in writing his French suites.</p> - -<p>"Les Moissonneurs" may be formally tabulated as -follows:</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span></p> -</div> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XXIII. STRUCTURAL PLAN OF COUPERIN'S "LES MOISSONEURS."</p> - -<div class="center"> -<table class="toc2" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="plan"> - -<tr> -<td class="centerh"> Section</td> -<td class="centerh">Measures</td> -<td class="centerh">Notes</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="center">A<br /> - </td> -<td align="right"><a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a> -<a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a>1-9<br /> - </td> -<td align="center">Entirely in tonic key with pause<br /> -at end. (The key is B-flat major.)</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="center">B<br /> - </td> -<td align="right">10-14<br /> - </td> -<td align="center">Modulating to the dominant<br /> -and ending thereon.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="center">A</td> -<td align="right">15-23</td> -<td align="center">An exact repetition of the first A.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="center">C<br /> - </td> -<td align="right">24-32<br /> - </td> -<td align="center">Entirely in relative minor key<br /> - with pause at end.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="center">A</td> -<td align="right">33-41</td> -<td align="center">An exact repetition of the first A.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="center">D<br /> - </td> -<td align="right">42-56<br /> - </td> -<td align="center">Beginning in tonic; modulating to<br /> - C minor and back again.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="center">A</td> -<td align="right">57-65</td> -<td align="center">An exact repetition of the first A.</td> -</tr> - -</table> -</div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span></p> - -<p>An examination of this rondo will reveal that the -subsidiary portions—B. C. and D.—are episodes rather -than distinct themes. Their melodies, instead of being -entirely new as in the more highly developed rondos of -Haydn and Mozart, are either literal copies of the chief -melody, or close imitations of it, in <em>related keys</em>; so that -the chief variety imparted by them is a variety of <em>harmony</em>. -The plan of these harmonies should be carefully noted, -particularly the use of the home key in the section marked -D. This method of unifying a melody or a whole piece, -by coming back to the original key at the end, embodying -as it does an important æsthetic principle, has been pointed -out several times already. We may say, then, that the -structure of this piece is "harmonic" rather than "thematic." -In all instrumental music of any consequence this -harmonic element is of great importance.</p> - -<p>The use of the word "Couplet" to describe the episodes -seems to indicate the derivation of these rondos from the -old song and chorus like the "Carol of the Flowers." In -fact, one gets from this piece a decided impression as of -a fixed<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> part in somewhat rigid form, and with comparatively -full "harmonies," alternating with verses (couplets) -in which the right hand plays, as it were, a solo melody -against an unobtrusive accompaniment.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span></p> - -<h3>III. FROM COUPERIN TO MOZART.</h3> - -<p>This form of the rondo<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> persisted until the time of -Haydn and Mozart, and our next example for analysis -is from that period. During the century that elapsed -between Couperin and Mozart the piano was so perfected -as to displace the harpsichord. The invention of the -damper pedal entirely changed the style of writing for -the piano, and the necessity for filling out the melody with -elaborate ornamentation no longer existed. The greater -power and better action of the new instruments also afforded -composers a much wider scope.</p> - -<p>But more important still, during this century Philip -Emanuel Bach (1714-1788) had written some pianoforte -works that advanced the art into a new realm. In the -eighth chapter we shall study one of his pianoforte sonatas, -but it may be said here that both Haydn and Mozart freely -acknowledged their great debt to him. This study is -postponed for the moment because he did not affect the -form of the rondo.</p> - -<p>Franz Josef Haydn (1732-1809), who spent many -years as Kapellmeister to Prince Esterhazy and who, in -consequence, lived more or less isolated from the world, -made many interesting experiments with musical forms. -He may be said to be the father of the symphony and -the string quartet, and several of his piano sonatas contain -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> -movements that are obviously attempts at creating new -forms or combining old ones in new ways.</p> - -<p>His ninth<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> piano sonata, for example, has for its finale -a curious and interesting combination of the rondo and -the variation form, while the finale to the third sonata is -marked "Tempo di Minuetto." Such experiments are -always to be found when we examine the work of creative -minds.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag84_score1.jpg" width="550" height="485" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag84_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag84_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XXIV.</p> - -<p>Haydn's sonatas thus provide us with a link in the -chain that binds Mozart to his predecessors. The foregoing -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> -quotation from Haydn's second sonata will illustrate the -primitive nature of some of his rondo themes (Figure XXIV). -This theme is, in effect, a jolly dance tune without pretensions -to dignity, and against it is placed a conventional -pattern accompaniment.</p> - -<p>Another rondo theme from Haydn may be cited to illustrate -his gentle humor.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag85_score1.jpg" width="550" height="301" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag85_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag85_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XXV.</p> - -<p>This has for its first episode, or secondary theme, the -following vividly contrasting passage:</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag85_score2pluspage86_score1.jpg" width="550" height="344" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag85_score2pluspage86_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag85_score2pluspage86_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XXVI.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span></p> - -<p>These two quotations illustrate the childlike naïveté -of Haydn's nature. He is never tragic; his pieces are -like delightful pictures of rural life painted by an artist -who was himself country born and bred and who feels -the natural charm of the simplest, commonest things. -Haydn's pictures are flooded with sunlight.</p> - - -<h3>IV. <small>A RONDO BY MOZART.</small></h3> - -<p>Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791), aside from -his supreme greatness as a composer, represents the culmination -of what is called the "Classical" period. The -tendency away from strict polyphony and towards a free -homophonic style has already been noted. It was the -peasant-born Haydn who first subordinated polyphony, -producing long instrumental pieces based on song melodies. -His symphonies and string quartets are bubbling over with -melodiousness. Often frankly adopting folk tunes, or inventing -themes in the same style, he produced great works -that depend hardly at all on the interweaving of themes, -but have as their basis rather the exposition of single melodies -as the <i lang="fr">raison d'être</i> of the music. Not by any means -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> -lacking in erudition, Haydn turns to naïve melody as his -natural means of expression.</p> - -<p>Along with this element, and as a component part of -what we call "classic," is that perfection of form and style -that particularly distinguishes the music of Mozart.</p> - -<p>"His works are often cited as the most perfect illustrations -of the classic idea in music,—this term referring -in a general way to the absence of individualism in conformity -to a general type of style and form, naïveté as -opposed to self-consciousness, symmetry of outline, highest -finish of detail, purity of sound, loftiness and serenity of -mood."—Dickinson, "The Study of the History of Music."</p> - - -<h3>E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 9.</h3> - -<p class="sub"><em>Mozart: Rondo from Piano Sonata in B-flat major.</em></p> - -<p>This rondo is the last of the three movements of this -characteristic sonata. Mozart's piano sonatas seldom have -more than three movements, and of these the rondo is -last, the plan being to present the more highly organized -movements first, and to end, as in the suite, with a bright -and cheerful piece. The rondos of this period were lively -and rhythmically energetic. While not essentially dance-like, -they nevertheless were ultimately derived from the -dance, and lacked the meditative and sentimental qualities -to be found in slow movements. It is from one of these -two sources—the dance tune and the folk-song—that -all these sonata movements sprang. Contributory streams -entered here and there—the polyphonic influence is discernible; -Italian opera lends its fluent vocal style and -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> -occasionally its love of display in elaborate cadenzas; and, -of course, the idiom of the piano—the peculiar manner -of writing that the instrument requires—is always present.</p> - -<p>The first theme of this movement, for example, suggests -motion; one can almost imagine the opening section -(measures 1-16) as suited to the first evolution in a dance, -and the second (beginning at measure 16) as the strain -intended for a new set of dancers, while the chords in -measure 17 quite vividly suggest the steps of a dance. -The left hand part is largely in the familiar idiom of the -piano of Mozart's time, though there is occasionally polyphonic -treatment—as in measures 1-8. The various -divisions of the piece are strongly marked by cadences, -sometimes preceded by formal patterns of scales, or other -meaningless passages, as at 144-147, such as Wagner -likened to "the clatter of dishes at a royal banquet." -Sequences, so familiar in the music of Bach, frequently -appear here, and were, indeed, a part of the phraseology -of the time. The passage between measures 189 and 193 -is, in this respect, especially notable because of the harsh -dissonance between E-flat and D at measure 191.</p> - -<p>The cadenza is an interesting and unusual factor in -this rondo. A cadenza always occurred in certain types -of operatic arias, and in the concerto was introduced to -display the skill of the performer, but it is unusual to find -one in a rondo.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span></p> -</div> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XXVII.<br /> -STRUCTURAL PLAN OF MOZART'S RONDO IN B-FLAT MAJOR.</p> - - -<table class="toc2" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> - -<tr> -<td class="centerh">Section</td> -<td class="centerh">Measures</td> -<td class="centerh">Notes</td> -</tr> - -<tr> - -<td align="center">A<br /> - </td> -<td align="right">1-24<br /> - </td> -<td align="left">Chief theme in two sections (1-8 and 9-24),<br /> - the last slightly extended.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="center">B<br /> - </td> -<td align="right">24-40<br /> - </td> -<td align="left">First contrasting theme in dominant. Measures<br /> - 36-40 constitute a codetta to this section.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="center">A<br /> - </td> -<td align="right">41-64<br /> - </td> -<td align="left">Chief theme as before, but modulating (62)<br /> - to the relative minor.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="center">C<br /> - <br /> - <br /> - <br /> - </td> - -<td align="right">64-111<br /> - <br /> - <br /> - <br /> - </td> - -<td align="left">Second contrasting theme in two parts: 1st in<br /> - G-minor (64-75), 2nd in E-flat major (76-90). <br /> - This section is concluded by a passage in <br /> - C-minor based on motive from chief theme, and<br /> - by a codetta (105-111) similar to that in B.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="center">A</td> -<td align="right">112-148</td> -<td align="left">Chief theme as before, but extended.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="center">B<br /> - </td> -<td align="right">148-172<br /> - </td> -<td align="left">First contrasting theme now in tonic,<br /> - and with an extended codetta.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="center">A <br /> - <br /> - </td> -<td align="right">173-224<br /> - <br /> - </td> -<td align="left">Free treatment of chief theme, and other material:<br /> - motive from codetta extensively used (179-196);<br /> - cadenza (198); epilogue, or coda (213).</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>This rondo flows on happily from beginning to end -without touching either great heights or depths. It is a -good example of a style of piano music intended more for -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> -the domestic circle than for the concert room. It shows that -"absence of individualism in conformity to a general type -of style and form" referred to by Dickinson, <em>i. e.</em>, one does -not feel in listening to it the obtrusion of a personal point -of view; there are no idiosyncrasies such as are continually -appearing in more modern music. There is here also -that "purity of sound" that characterizes Mozart's music. -There are no elisions, no subtleties of musical language, -no suggested meanings such as one finds, for example, -in Schumann. There is the same placidity, the same -clearness of meaning, the same lucidity of diction that -we find in the poetry of Mozart's day. Musical language -was not then overlaid with secondary significance as it -has since become.</p> - -<p>An examination of Figure XXVII will reveal a considerable -advance in this rondo over that of Couperin. -The last section (A) in particular fulfills its office of providing, -as it were, a kind of <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">denouement</i> to the whole piece; -the interest is skillfully made to center or come to a climax -here, and the stiff angularity that characterizes the older -rondo is conspicuously absent. And while the scheme of -harmonies in this rondo has many elements in common -with that of "Les Moissonneurs," there are here excursions, -by the way, into other keys giving variety and warmth -of color. But, most important of all, the recurrence of the -first contrasting theme (at measure 148) in the tonic key -after having first appeared in the dominant (measure 24) -gives to this piece a real strength, or stoutness of construction. -It is as though there were certain strands in the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> -fabric that run entirely through it and make it firm, whereas -the Couperin rondo seems to be made by putting together -a series of little blocks.</p> - -<p>Another important point of contrast between these two -rondos is in the matter of themes. Where Couperin has -only one, which he presents in a variety of charming forms, -but from which little that is new is evolved, Mozart has -three distinct contrasting themes, and a little codetta motive; -and all these germinate, even if but slightly, into new -musical developments. The codetta passage, in particular, -sprouts and blossoms (179-196) in a most delightful manner, -the little germ having first appeared (36) as an -unpromising and monotonous succession of single notes.</p> - -<p>We referred at some length, in the chapter on "The -Dance and Its Development," to this germination of musical -thought as of the greatest importance in composition. The -reader will readily understand that the highest form of an -art like music, in which the element of time enters as a -vital matter—in which the message of the composer comes -to us in successive sounds—must depend on something -more than the beauty of its several and successive melodies. -In the first place, the limit of such a succession would soon -be reached; the mind, after having taken in a certain number -of melodies, would lose track of the first ones and be -left in utter confusion. The obvious device of repeating -the first phrase or melody at the point where, otherwise, -this confusion would result, has been the determining -motive of many of the simple forms we have thus far studied. -But this, after all, is a primitive method, and it is obvious -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> -that its possibilities are limited. The rondo is, in effect, -the furthest point to which this plan can go.</p> - -<p>The fundamental quality in anything living—be it -the state, the church, the family or the human body—is -organism, the relation of all the parts to the whole. So in -the greatest music as in the greatest literature, everything -germinates from certain fundamental ideas, and nothing is -extraneous. This rondo of Mozart represents a certain -tendency of his to string beautiful melodies together—for -his fund of melodies was well nigh inexhaustible. But -he was too great a master not to see the weakness of such a -procedure, and in works like his G-minor symphony he -has left nearly perfect examples of this higher form of -musical development;—perfect, that is, within his own -horizon—a wider view was to unfold itself from that -height to which Beethoven finally struggled.</p> - - -<p class="center">S<small>UGGESTIONS FOR</small> C<small>OLLATERAL</small> R<small>EADING</small>.</p> - -<p><cite>Parry: "The Evolution of the Art of Music," pp. 52 -and 241. Dickinson: "The Study of the History of Music," -Chapter XIV. Goetschius: "The Homophonic Forms of -Musical Composition," p. 203. Mason: "Beethoven and -His Forerunners," Chapter IV. Hadow: "Sonata Form," -Chapter IX.</cite></p> - - -<p class="small2">LIST OF SUPPLEMENTARY PIECES FOR STUDY.</p> - -<p><em>Haydn: Finale of Sonata in D-major, No. 7 (Schirmer -Ed.).</em> <em>Finale of Sonata in D-major, No. 9 (Schirmer Ed.).</em> -<em>Mozart: Finale of Sonata in F-major, No. 17 (Schirmer Ed.).</em></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - - -<div class="footnotes"><p class="p4 center">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Sonata, originally from Italian "Suonare," to sound, as Cantata was from Italian -"Cantare," to sing. Later the word Sonata took on a more precise meaning, which we -shall study in later chapters.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> The name "Rondo" (Fr. "Rondeau") is derived from "round," and its application -to pieces of the type we are considering was due to the constant recurrence of one principal -melody.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> The first partial measure and all the other half measures where the double bars occur are counted separately, making 65 measures -in the whole piece.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> The fixed part (A) in the Rondo of this period usually entered but three times instead -of four as is the case here. Couperin's "La Bandoline" (in "Les Maitres du Clavecin") -is another example of the extended form of the Rondo.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Pauer's "Alte Meister" (Breitkopf and Härtel) contains several interesting Rondeaus -by Couperin and Rameau. "Les Maitres du Clavecin," edited by Kohler (Litolff), -Vols. X and XI, may also be consulted.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> -The numbers referred to here are those of the Schirmer edition.</p></div></div> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span></p> -</div> - -<h2>CHAPTER VII.<br /> - -<small>THE VARIATION FORM—THE MINUET.</small></h2> - - -<p>The process of musical development we have been -considering in previous chapters has tended gradually but -surely towards freedom of expression and, at the same -time, definiteness of form. As this process has advanced, -melodies have become less and less constrained, yet the -forms themselves have crystallized into certain accepted -types. The ideal of all this progress was unity and variety; -in other words, composers felt the desire to expand their -powers of expression and saw that this expansion must in -the nature of things conform to certain æsthetic principles -and obey certain laws. Mere luxuriance of speech without -order or system means confusion; but order and system -without living feeling means aridity. These two elements -must go hand in hand, and in the music of masters like -Bach, Beethoven, and Brahms they do.</p> - -<p>The so-called variation form admirably illustrates -these tendencies. From its very beginning down to the -present day there has been a constant re-adjustment of -its expressiveness and its formal interest; a constant attempt -to strike the right balance between the two qualities. The -form is almost as old as music itself. From the earliest -times composers have felt the necessity of varying their -tunes by one device or another. Even before the other -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> -primitive forms had crystallized, crude variations existed, -and we find old hymn tunes or popular songs repeated over -and over again with elaborate changes of phraseology or -with contrapuntal devices. Certain arid processes—such -as writing a tune backwards—were sometimes employed, -and a study of the whole range of the variation form in its -early stages reveals a constant fluctuation.</p> - - -<h3>I. <small>VARIATIONS BY JOHN BULL.</small></h3> - -<p>Among the most interesting of these early attempts -to solve the problem are certain pieces by the English -composers for the harpsichord who lived in the latter part -of the sixteenth century. John Bull (1563-1628), a -chorister in the Chapel Royal of Queen Elizabeth, was -one of the most famous of these, and he has left us several -pieces in variation form, one of which, "Courante Jewel," -is well worth our attention.</p> - -<p>The courante (Fr. <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">courir</i>, to run) is one of the old -dance forms that became imbedded in the suite, where it -followed the opening<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> Allemande. This particular example -of the courante illustrates the habit, common at that time, -of writing pieces based on well known dance rhythms such -as we have studied in Chapters IV and V. Composers -attempted to provide further interest in their pieces by -giving them special titles. We find, for example, one of -Byrd's harpsichord pieces called "Galiardo, Mrs. Mary -Brownlo," and one of Bull's entitled "Pavana, St. Thomas -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> -Wake." This tendency in English music towards definiteness -of idea, and away from all that is vague, has been -already noted in our chapter on "Folk Songs."</p> - -<p>The "Courante Jewel" is an interesting example of a -form of variation that has now become practically obsolete. -It consists of four separate melodies, each immediately -followed by its variation. The plan might be expressed -by the following formula: A, a; B, b; C, c; D, d, the large -letters representing the themes and the small letters the -variations. The first theme begins as follows:</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag95_score1.jpg" width="550" height="321" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag95_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag95_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XXVIII. From first theme of Bull's "Courante Jewel."</p> - -<p>The complete theme is sixteen measures long and is -divided off into phrases of regular length. This is immediately -followed by the variation, the corresponding portion -of which will be found in Figure XXIX.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag96_score1.jpg" width="550" height="349" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag96_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag96_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XXIX. Part of the variation.</p> - -<p>In Figure XXX are shown the first phrases of the -second, third and fourth melodies, in order that the reader -may see how distinct is each one.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag96_score2a.jpg" width="550" height="82" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag96_score2a.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag96_score2a.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag96_score2b.jpg" width="550" height="64" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag96_score2b.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag96_score2b.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag96_score2c.jpg" width="550" height="72" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag96_score2c.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag96_score2c.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XXX.</p> - -<p>This little piece illustrates what has been already said -about freedom of expression. It does not impress us as -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> -strictly dance music; it is manifestly written for its own -sake and represents that natural tendency to create something -beautiful which underlies art everywhere. But in -respect of order and design we find here a decided weakness. -Four separate and successive ideas, each followed -by an elaboration of itself, would make a poor model for -any art. One feels a sense of vagueness after listening -to a piece so constructed; no single idea dominates; one -longs for some point upon which the attention may be -centered.</p> - - -<h3>II. <small>A GAVOTTE AND VARIATIONS BY RAMEAU.</small></h3> - -<p>Pauer's "Alte Meister," Vol. I, contains another -interesting experiment in the variation form, a "Gavotte -and Variations" by Rameau (1683-1764). The opening -phrase of this Gavotte runs as follows:</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag97_score1.jpg" width="550" height="159" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag97_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag97_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XXXI. First phrase of Gavotte by Rameau.</p> - -<p>In the variation of the above, which will be found in -Figure XXXII, the theme is presented less definitely than -in the original, while the upper part in sixteenth notes -makes a kind of free counterpoint.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag98_score1.jpg" width="550" height="197" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag98_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag98_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XXXII. First phrase of Variation by Rameau.</p> - -<p>What has been said in our last chapter of Couperin's -harpsichord pieces applies to these variations of Rameau. -There is in them a kind of refinement and delicacy that -characterizes all the French music of that period. The -theme itself is less naïve than that of the "Courante Jewel," -and more suggestive of the slow movement themes of the -sonatas of later composers. In fact, this has in it little of -the real Gavotte, its meditative quality is too strong and its -rhythms too weak.</p> - -<p>These two compositions admirably illustrate the general -striving for some ordered means of expression in secular -music that characterizes the seventeenth century. It was -a time of groping. Sacred music had largely occupied -the attention of composers, and few paths had been opened -for those who desired other means of expression, so that -the problem of secularization was the all-important one. -It must also be kept in mind that this particular advance -could not take place until musical instruments and the -technique of playing them had been perfected. As late -as 1571 Ammerbach's "Orgel oder Instrument Tabulatur" -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> -was published, forbidding the use of <em>either the thumb or -little finger</em> in organ playing, and writers of the seventeenth -century speak of certain uses of the thumb in playing as -"daring innovations." Couperin in his "L'Art de Toucher -le Clavecin," published in Paris in 1717, advocates a system -of fingering that still uses the thumb in a clumsy manner, -and it was not until John Sebastian Bach's method of -tuning by "equal temperament" and his new system of -fingering came into use that music for the harpsichord and -clavichord was freed from the old incubus of an awkward -mechanical technique. For it is obvious that an art can -never reach anything like perfection as long as its working -materials are inadequate. In piano playing, for example, -one could not use chords spread out far beyond the grasp -of the hands until the sustaining pedal had been invented. -While these conditions existed, composers naturally turned -their attention to sacred music and to the opera, where -there were fewer limitations.</p> - -<p>Among the many examples of the variation form produced -in the time of Couperin and Rameau the most -important are those of Bach and Handel. Since we are -here dealing with the precursors of the sonata and symphony -and with the development of homophonic music, we shall -not discuss Bach's celebrated "Goldberg Variations," which -are masterly examples of his intricate and vivid polyphony, -but shall turn to a set of variations in more modern form -by Handel. The reader may, however, consult the second -Sarabande accompanying Chapter V for an example of -Bach's method of elaborating a given theme.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span></p> - - -<h3>III. <small>HANDEL'S "HARMONIOUS BLACKSMITH."</small></h3> - -<p>Our chapter on the suite has given the order in which -the various dances usually appeared, and mention was -there made of the exceptions occasionally to be found among -the works of adventurous composers.</p> - -<p>George Frederic Handel (1685-1759) composed a set -of "Suites de Piéces pour le Clavecin" containing several -movements not usually found in the suite form. Among -these are "Allegros," "Prestos," and "Arias con Variazioni," -while in Handel's "Sonatas" are to be found -sarabandes, gavottes, and bourreés. In other words, the -suite and the sonata, as conceived by Handel, are more -or less convertible forms; it is not until the next generation -that the modern sonata begins to emerge in the pianoforte -works of Philip Emanuel Bach. (See Chapter VIII.) -These distinctive pieces represent the groping of composers -after some new and more flexible medium of expression than -that provided by stiff dance forms. And this same fundamental -principle of growth is what, many years later, led -Beethoven to enlarge the scope of the sonata, and still -later produced the symphonic poem of Liszt and other -modern composers.</p> - -<p>Each phase of an art has its culmination where a medium -becomes perfected—and therefore exhausted; where the -flower blooms and dies. This point is reached when some -great master unites in his works two essential qualities -complementary to each other, namely, the idea and its -formal investiture. Such a point was reached in Bach's -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> -Fugues, in Mozart's Symphonies, and in Beethoven's -String Quartets; in all these the two great elements of -perfection were united. In Mozart's G-minor Symphony, -for example, the thing said, and the manner of saying it—the -design, the orchestral expression, etc.—are identical, -but in the instrumental works of Handel the matter was -still in process.</p> - -<p>"The Harmonious Blacksmith" is in the fifth of the -"Suites de Piéces pour le Clavecin," commonly known as -"Lessons," and composed for Princess Anne, Handel's -royal pupil, daughter of the Prince of Wales. This suite -consisted of the following pieces:—I. Prelude, II. Allemande, -III. Courante, IV. Air.</p> - - -<h3>E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 10.</h3> - -<p class="sub"><em>Handel: "The Harmonious Blacksmith," from the -Fifth Suite for Clavichord.</em></p> - -<p>The biographies of Handel give several versions of the -story supposed to be connected with this little piece. It -seems to be quite certain that the composer never used the -title, and that it has one at all is probably due to the fact -that the public seems to like a piece better if it is supposed -to be "about" something. Many similar uses of supposititious -titles will occur to the reader, as, for example, the -"Moonlight" sonata of Beethoven, and the "Rain-drop" -prelude of Chopin, neither of which grotesque names was -ever sanctioned by the composer. If this tune of Handel's -ever was sung by a burly smith at his forge he was indeed -an "harmonious" blacksmith. In any case, it is a matter -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> -of record that the identical anvil was finally "discovered" -by a Mr. Clark and found a resting place as a curio in an -"Egyptian Hall" in London.</p> - -<p>The tune itself has qualities familiar enough to students -of Handel's instrumental music. Its final cadence, in -particular, is thoroughly Handelian, and all through it -there is that decisive and assertive manner that characterizes -the melodies of this great man. There is nothing of -the mystic about Handel; his oratorios and nearly all -his smaller pieces have a straightforward and uncompromising -style. He never gropes; his music speaks of an -unfaltering self-confidence, unclouded by doubts.</p> - -<p>The methods of treatment in the variations is a simple -one. The harmonies remain the same throughout, while -the melody is changed in various ways. In variation I, -for example, the first two notes of the original melody have -been made into an arpeggio, or broken chord, and this -treatment persists throughout. In variation II the melody -loses something of its physiognomy, and is only suggested -by occasional notes in the upper or lower part for the right -hand, while the left hand plays a familiar pattern accompaniment. -Variation III plays lightly with the original -theme, hovering around it with delicate scale passages.</p> - -<p>This variation illustrates an important principle of -musical appreciation. Played by itself, without reference -to what has preceded it, it would be so lacking in definiteness -as to be uninteresting; its connection with the original -theme, however, lends to it a certain charm and significance. -So in the longer instrumental pieces of the great masters -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> -who followed Handel, we find whole sections whose meaning -depends on their relation to what has preceded them, -and our appreciation of the significance of such passages -is in exact proportion to our powers of co-ordinating in our -own minds these various sections of a work, often separated -from each other by a considerable lapse of time.</p> - -<p>The fourth variation is like an inversion of the third, the -left hand now taking the rapid scale passages. Variation -V is the least definite of them all, being made of scales -played against chords that dimly outline the original melody.</p> - -<p>"The Harmonious Blacksmith" is not a highly developed -piece of music, for it lacks one essential element—in -an instrumental piece as long as this there should be -some <em>germination</em>. The several variations of this melody -are merely slightly altered versions of the original idea; -in highly developed specimens of this form each variation -is a new creation germinated from the parent thought.</p> - - -<h3>IV. <small>HAYDN'S ANDANTE WITH VARIATIONS IN F-MINOR.</small></h3> - -<p>Reference has already been made in our chapter on -"The Rondo" to the great advance in pianoforte music -brought about by Philip Emanuel Bach and Haydn, but -Haydn's Andante with Variations in F-minor is still more -mature than any of the pieces to which we referred. In fact, -this Andante is Haydn's most charming pianoforte piece, -uniting as it does the best of his qualities. It is the first -composition in homophonic style we have studied in which -the interest of the listener is constantly engaged from -beginning to end. There are here no bald repetitions, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> -as in the Rondo of Mozart, no meaningless accompaniment -figures, no conventional endings, but from first to -last Haydn tempts us onward by constantly unfolding -new beauties, yet never leaves us vaguely wandering, -doubtful of our starting point. In short, this andante is -a fine example of a well organized piece of music; it is full -of variety, yet its unity is unmistakable.</p> - - -<h3>E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 11.</h3> - -<p class="sub"><em>Haydn: Andante with Variations in F-Minor.</em></p> - -<p>It is unusual for a variation theme to be in two distinct -parts, as is the case here. The chief theme in F-minor is -followed by a "trio" theme in F-major of quite a distinct -character. This is one of the many interesting experiments -of Haydn in devising new forms or combining old -ones. The weakness of this arrangement is that the whole -theme is a little too long; it lacks the conciseness that is -necessary to a theme that is to be treated in a long series -of variations. The trio theme is also less interesting than -the first theme and does not lend itself so readily to -variations.</p> - -<p>An important principle of musical development is -involved here. It will be found from an examination of -the music of the great composers that the most perfect -lyric melodies do not germinate, whereas themes like the -first theme of this andante, the first theme of Beethoven's -Fifth Symphony—which are not by any means beautiful -lyric melodies—are pregnant with possibilities. Any -perfect melody like "Annie Laurie," for example, is a -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> -complete thing; nothing can be added to it or taken away -from it. The two themes just mentioned, on the contrary, -are made up of motives which are characterized by -some individual quality and which contain certain potentialities -that are realized only as the piece progresses. And -in general it may be noted that the distinctly lyric composers, -such as Schubert, Schumann, and Grieg, have not been -conspicuously successful in those larger forms where this -principle is most operative.</p> - -<p>The little motive of five notes with which the right -hand part of the andante by Haydn begins illustrates -this. There is hardly a measure of the original theme -and of its variations in which this motive is not heard, -and the variety Haydn imparts to it is quite remarkable. -The trio theme, on the other hand, is more lyric—more -song-like, and, as a consequence, we find the variations -consist of elaborate ornamentations of the theme rather -than of new ideas germinated from it.</p> - -<p>Variation I is a particularly interesting example of -Haydn's style. The syncopation in the right hand part, -with its delicacy of utterance, and its occasional tender -poignancy (as at measure 52) gives to this portion of the -piece an unusual charm. The transposition of the syncopation -to the left hand (at measure 56) is particularly -interesting because of the delicate dissonances that result. -The passage at measures 83-88 might almost have been -written by Rameau or Couperin, so full is it of trills and -other ornaments. This is in the old harpsichord style of -the generation before Haydn.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span></p> - -<p>Variation II preserves the harmony of the original -theme, but supplants its melody by a fluent and interesting -passage in sixteenth notes that passes at will from one -hand to the other.</p> - -<p>These two free variations, through which the original -theme has dimly shone, are now succeeded by a finale, -so called, in which the theme is presented in its simple -form as if to bring the listener home again after his excursions -afield. And here, it should be specially noted, -Haydn omits all reference to the trio theme, as if conscious -of its inferiority. The whole finale (from measure 147) is -a kind of dramatic summing up of the story, and serves much -the same purpose as that of the restatement in ternary form.</p> - -<p>The passage between measures 195 and 200 is an interesting -example of a process common in pure music. Here -the motive of three notes (in right hand), derived from the -original five note motive in measure 1, gradually loses its -physiognomy until its characteristic outline has entirely -disappeared and it has become a purely conventional figure. -A celebrated example of this process is shown in Figure -XXXIII from the first movement of Beethoven's String -Quartet, op. 59, No. 1.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag106_score1.jpg" width="550" height="68" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2"> First phrase of Theme from Beethoven's Quartet, op. 59, No. 1.</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag106_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag106_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag106_score2andpag107_score1.jpg" width="550" height="407" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2"> Passage from Development Section.</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag106_score2andpag107_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag106_score2andpag107_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XXXIII.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span></p> - -<p>The passage from which the second of the quotations -is taken is one of the most beautiful in all chamber music, -and the whole development section in this wonderful movement -will repay the closest study.</p> - -<p>Haydn's andante ends with a few tender allusions to -the persistent motive of the original theme, which faintly -echoes in pathetic cadence. Such passages endear Haydn -to us because of their genuineness. There is nothing -false in his sentiment; he is always straightforward, he -always writes unaffectedly. Among the great composers -he stands apart as a simple-hearted man, who was without -guile, and who retained to the end of his life the same -childlike naïveté.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span></p> - - -<h3>V. <small>THE MINUET.</small></h3> - -<p>The general characteristics of dances like the minuet, -gavotte, etc., have been referred to in Chapter IV, where -the inclusion of the minuet in the sonata and symphony of -the classical period was noted. We are here chiefly concerned -with the effect of this inclusion on the minuet itself -and with its status in the group of movements that made -up the cyclic form.</p> - -<p>The minuet is a dance of French origin, characterized -by stateliness and grace. The earliest music written for -it consisted of one melody containing two eight measure -phrases. These were gradually lengthened, and finally a -second minuet was added as in the gavotte. Bach used -the minuet sparingly in his suites. The reader is referred -to the fourth English Suite, which contains a minuet -followed by minuet II, not called "Trio." Handel occasionally -incorporates the minuet in his suites and frequently -uses it as the last movement in his oratorio overtures. -All these old minuets were in slow tempo, but the -desire for freedom of expression impelled composers not -only to expand them in various ways, but, finally, to -increase their speed. This important change was doubtless -largely inspired by the desire for contrast in the movements -of the symphony, for in the sonatas of Haydn and -Mozart we find the middle movement usually an andante -or adagio, and when the minuet<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> is incorporated it is in -slow tempo.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span></p> - -<p>Practically all the minuets of Bach and Handel as well -as those of the Haydn-Mozart-Beethoven period were -written in what we have called "simple ternary form," -the second minuet, or trio, constituting the middle section, -B. Occasionally a minuet with two trios appears, in -which case the form becomes A, B, A, C, A. Marches -(which are commonly in simple ternary form) are quite -frequently written with two trios, the most familiar example -being the well known wedding march by Mendelssohn.</p> - -<p>The symphonic minuet is the only relic of the suite -retained in the sonata and symphony. The changes it -underwent through this promotion from the ranks of the -old dances were not only changes of tempo, but of spirit -or essence. For whereas it had been demure, conventional, -and stately, as if pervaded by a kind of courtly grace, it -became in Haydn's time a wayward, humorous, and even -frolicsome member of musical society, and provided a -certain lightness and spontaneity much needed in the sober -symphonic family.</p> - -<p>The reader is urged to consult any of the minuets to -be found in the string quartets or symphonies of Haydn -and Mozart. These popular short movements are so -available in arrangements for the piano that it is not thought -necessary to incorporate one here.</p> - - -<p class="center">S<small>UGGESTIONS FOR</small> C<small>OLLATERAL</small> R<small>EADING</small>.</p> - -<p><cite>Grove's Dictionary: articles "Minuet," "Sonata," and -"Symphony." Shedlock: "The Pianoforte Sonata." Mason: -"Beethoven and His Forerunners."</cite></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - - -<div class="footnotes"><p class="p4 center">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> In Bach's English Suites a Prelude is placed before the Allemande.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> See the Minuet in Haydn's piano sonata in E-flat (No. 3 in Schirmer edition) and -the Minuet in Mozart's well known piano sonata in A-major (with the Theme and -Variations).</p></div></div> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span></p> -</div> - - -<h2>CHAPTER VIII<br /> - -<small>SONATA-FORM I.</small></h2> - - -<h3>I. <small>COMPOSITE NATURE OF THE SONATA.</small></h3> - -<p>Undoubtedly the most important of all musical forms -to-day is the sonata, as will easily be recognized if we -remember that not only the pieces which bear this name -as a title, but also the numerous symphonies, overtures, -concertos, and trios, quartets, quintets, and so on, are -examples of this form. The symphony is simply a sonata, -on a large scale, for orchestra; the overture is a similar -piece for orchestra, in one movement; the concerto is, as it -were, a symphony with a solo instrument emphasized or -placed in the foreground; trios, quartets, quintets, etc., -are sonatas for various groups of string and wind instruments. -Thus it will be seen that the bulk of all instrumental -music is cast in this ever available and useful form -of the sonata.</p> - -<p>At this point, however, a confusion is likely to arise from -the fact that the term "sonata" is used in two senses. -It means sometimes a complete piece of music in three or -more distinct movements; at other times it means a scheme -or plan of musical structure exemplified in one or more of -these movements, usually the first. When used in this -sense it is generally coupled with the word "form": this is -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> -the way in which we shall use it here, letting "sonata-form" -mean this peculiar type of musical structure, to be described -in detail presently, while using "sonata" alone to name a -complete composition of which one or more movements -are in "sonata-form."</p> - -<p>The sonata, as written by Philip Emanuel Bach, -Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and modern composers, usually -contains some movements in forms more primitive than -"sonata-form," and already familiar to us. Thus the -minuet, which often appears as the second or third movement -of a sonata, has changed little since Mozart's day; -the rondo, frequently used in the finale of a sonata, remains -in all essentials as it is presented in the last diagram of -Chapter VI; and the theme and variations, so far as its -formal plan is concerned, has remained very much as -Haydn left it, although, in common with the rondo, it has -been vastly enriched in content and diversified in style -by the genius of Beethoven.</p> - - -<h3>II. <small>ESSENTIALS OF SONATA-FORM.</small></h3> - -<p>The element of true novelty in sonatas is to be found, -not in these primitive movements, but rather in those -movements which are in "sonata-form," and which show -a breadth of conception and an elaboration in development -never found in simple lyric forms like the minuet. This -breadth and elaboration is always the result of a germination -of musical thought, such as we have already often -mentioned, and by virtue of which alone a composition -can take on real grandeur of proportions. The essentials -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> -of sonata-form are (1) the presentation of two or more -themes or subjects in that section known as the Exposition, -and symbolized in our diagrams by the letter A; (2) the -evolution of these themes, by means of melodic germination, -in that section known as the Development, and -symbolized by B; and (3) the restatement of the original -themes, rounding out the movement symmetrically, in the -section known as the Recapitulation, and symbolized -again by A on account of its practical identity with the -Exposition. It matters not which movement of a sonata -takes this characteristic form, whether, as in the majority -of cases, it is the first (whence the term "first-movement -form," often used as a synonym for "sonata-form") or the -slow movement, as often happens, or the finale. Wherever -sonata-form exists we find this three-part sectional -structure, resulting from the natural germination in the -middle section of the musical ideas stated in the first, -followed by their restatement in the third section.</p> - -<p>The reader may ask at this point, in what respect -such a form differs from the simple ternary form illustrated -in a minuet, for example, wherein the second section -usually contains some development of the theme, and the -third some recapitulation. The answer is that in the -sonata-form the enlargement of the proportions throughout -results, first, in the substitution of complete and more or -less contrasting themes, for the rather slight musical subject -of a minuet, and second, in the substitution of a long -and elaborate development of these themes for the rather -casual and superficial modification of the subject which -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> -forms the second section of a minuet. Moreover, in the -sonata-form a novel feature is the contrast introduced by -making the first section embody duality of key (first theme -in tonic, second in related key) while the third section, by -presenting both themes in the tonic, embodies unity of key. -Nevertheless it remains true that sonata-form is, both -logically and historically, a development of such simple -forms as we have in the minuet, as is indicated by the name -of "developed ternary form" often given to it.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p> - -<p>Sonata-form is thus but an extreme application of -certain essential principles of structure exemplified in -simple ways in other more primitive musical forms, and -for that matter in many other departments of life. It is -perhaps not over-fanciful to discover the same principles -in the construction of a novel, in which we often find: -first, the presentation of certain characters, more or less -in antagonism; second, the development of the plot and of -the characters themselves; and third, the reconciliation -of the characters in the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">denouement</i>. Similarly, a sermon -consists of (1) the assertion of a text or subject of discourse, -(2) the illustration of its truth by examples and other -elucidations of what is implied in it, and (3) a final restatement -of it with the greater force made possible by its discussion. -Or again, we may see striking analogies to the -artistic form we are considering in such processes of nature -as the budding, flowering, and death of a plant, or in human -life with its youth, its period of activity, and its time of -retrospect.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span></p> - -<h3>III. <small>A SONATA BY PHILIP EMANUEL BACH.</small></h3> - -<p>Sonata-form, historically speaking, first takes definite -shape in the work of Philip Emanuel Bach (1714-1788), the -most distinguished of the sons of the great Sebastian Bach. -Though not a man of the highest creative genius, C. P. E. -Bach possessed an ingenuity and a pioneering spirit which -led him to make innovations so important that Haydn and -Mozart freely acknowledged their debt to him. Feeling -that music in the polyphonic style had reached its full -development, he was original and adventurous enough to -seek new means of expression and a novel combination -of features of style already familiar.</p> - -<p>In order to understand the situation that confronted -him we must put aside temporarily the impressions we -have received from the Andante of Haydn and the Rondo -of Mozart, since both these compositions were produced -at a time when his influence had already made itself felt. -He had to face the problem of writing instrumental music -that should be free from the constraining influence of the -dance, of polyphonic style, and of the elaborately ornamented -style of operatic music. He had also to find out -how to unify a long piece of instrumental music by co-ordinating -all its parts. The only solution of these problems -lay in inventing what might be called <em>pure instrumental -melody</em>: <em>i. e.</em>, melody that was essentially expressive in the -particular medium employed—the piano, the violin, the -orchestra—and that was unhampered either by strict -poetic or dance forms, or by the peculiar phraseology of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> -polyphony. He did not, to be sure, entirely achieve this; -we find evidences of both the older styles in his music. -But an examination of any instrumental masterpiece of -Beethoven will reveal how much he owed to the pioneer -labors of C. P. E. Bach.</p> - -<p>We must here caution the reader against the supposition -that music at this particular time leaped suddenly -forward. The tendencies that we have been speaking of -were latent long before Philip Emanuel Bach appeared, -and there was no strict line of demarcation where one kind -of music stopped and another began. Organic development -never progresses in that way; each phase of it begins -slowly, becomes eventually operative, and dies as slowly as it -began. And there were other composers working at that -time on the same problems; composers who were of considerable -importance then, but whose names are now forgotten.</p> - - -<h3>E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 12.</h3> - -<p class="sub"><em>Philip Emanuel Bach: Piano Sonata</em><a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a> -<a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> <em>in F-Minor, First -Movement.</em></p> - -<p>This Sonata has three movements: 1. Fast (Allegro -assai); 2. Slow (Andante cantabile); 3. Slow (Andantino -grazioso). The third of these is marked "attacca" to -indicate that the usual pause between the movements -is to be omitted. In the second and third movements the -themes themselves and their treatment reveal the tentative -nature of Bach's efforts. Each of these themes is over-embellished; -each has something of the vagueness usual -in piano music of his time, and yet there is a distinct tendency -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> -towards definite, strophic melody such as is common -in the sonatas of Haydn and Mozart.</p> - -<p>But the first movement of this sonata of Philip Emanuel -Bach's is quite remarkable. Its theme is definite, its -phraseology clear and concise, and its form well rounded. -In fact a comparison of the opening measures with those -of the theme from Beethoven's first sonata will reveal a -decided similarity. Beethoven's theme is constructed from -a figure or phrase, ascending like an arpeggio higher and -higher, until a climax is reached, after which the melody -dies down to a pause or half cadence on the dominant -chord. This is precisely what happens with the theme of -Philip Emanuel Bach, although the second half of the theme -is more regular than Beethoven's, the complete melody -being in what might be called "verse form," each two-measure -phrase corresponding to a line of verse.</p> - -<p>More important still, however, is the quality of the -melody itself. It is distinctly in the style suitable for the -piano; there is no evidence of the old song melody, nor of -polyphonic phraseology, nor of dance tunes. This is, -in short, one of the earliest examples of pure pianoforte -music, using the term in a modern sense. Another interesting -point in this movement is the presence of two -contrasting themes in the Exposition. "The principle of -alternately stating two contrasting themes, which found its -ultimate expression in the successive presentation of first -and second subjects, had been familiar to the musical -world as long as minuets and trios, gavottes, musettes, -and the like, had been in vogue, but the process by which -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> -the two subjects are allowed to be interwoven with each -other, or to generate, as it were, new material having its -origin in something that has gone before, opened out a -world of fresh possibilities to the composers of the later -times, and gave them opportunities which had been altogether -withheld from Bach and his contemporaries." "Oxford -History of Music," Vol. IV, p. 141. The two themes -constitute the material out of which the whole movement -grows or germinates, so that they somewhat resemble -characters in a story, and this analogy is further carried -out in the quality of the themes themselves, the first being -usually vigorous and to a certain degree non-lyric, while -the second is lyric and more sentimental; as if one were -masculine and the other feminine.</p> - -<p>But in this movement of Philip Emanuel Bach's Sonata -the second theme is hardly more than an embryo. It -begins at measure 16, and occupies only ten measures, -the last five of which are somewhat vague and rhapsodical. -Thus its entire effect is somewhat indefinite, and if we -compare it with the second theme of any modern sonata -we shall realize that it is very imperfectly individualized. -The second theme did not become an essential and distinct -element of sonata-form until somewhat later; in -Philip Emanuel Bach, and even in many movements of -Haydn, it remains completely subordinate to its more important -companion, the first theme. Following the second -theme—at measure 26—a coda ensues. This important -factor in musical form has been already referred to in our -chapters on "The Rondo" and "The Variation." Its -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> -office here is the same as in former examples, namely, to -round out this part of the movement properly and to -emphasize the close of the first section.</p> - -<p>The exposition (A) extends through measure 34 -and is concluded with a double-bar. During the period -from Philip Emanuel Bach to Mozart this portion of the -movement was always repeated in order to make it perfectly -familiar to the listener. The development section -begins immediately after the double-bar and extends to -the point where the first theme returns in its original form; -in this movement that point is reached at measure 66. -We have already pointed out certain simple methods of -generation in music, as in the Bach Gavotte discussed in -Chapter IV, but we now have to consider the growth of a -long section of a composition from certain germs contained -in the original theme. And this brings up an important -question: How do musical themes generate? In the Bach -Gavotte a brief phrase of one measure duration blossoms -out into a passage six measures long. This may be observed -by reference to Figure XXXIV, in which (a) represents the -original phrase and (b) the expansion of it.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 295px;"> -<img src="images/pag118_score1a.jpg" width="295" height="93" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>a.</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag118_score1a.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag118_score1a.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag118_score1b.jpg" width="550" height="186" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>b.</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag118_score1b.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag118_score1b.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XXXIV.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span></p> - -<p>This development, however, is hardly more than an -extension of the original phrase. For the purposes of -sonata-form something more radical and far reaching, something -more like new creation is necessary. Without going -into detail<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> we may be content with pointing out the essential -principle of this more radical development. Analysis -shows that it always depends on the selection of certain -salient characteristics of the original themes and representation -of them under new guises, or under new conditions.</p> - -<p>Just as a novelist develops his characters by letting -their fundamental peculiarities manifest themselves in all -sorts of ways and among all kinds of circumstances, meanwhile -paying but scant attention to their more accidental -or superficial traits, so the composer of a sonata seizes -upon whatever is individual in his themes—a strong -rhythm, a peculiar turn of phrase, a striking bit of -harmony—and repeats and insists upon it tirelessly, with -whatever variation of minor details his ingenuity may -suggest. An examination of this process of generation in -the works of Haydn and Mozart will make these important -points clear. In Figure XXXV (a), is shown a brief quotation -from the beginning of the first movement of Haydn's -Symphony in D-major. Although this theme has no pronounced -rhythmic figures the four repeated notes in measure -3 are unusual in a simple melody of this type, and Haydn -chooses them (with the first two notes in the next measure) -as the first subject of his development section.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag120_score1.jpg" width="550" height="159" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>a</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag120_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag120_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag120_score2.jpg" width="550" height="353" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>b</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag120_score2.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag120_score2.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XXXV.</p> - -<p>At <em>b</em> in the above quotation will be found a short passage -from the beginning of the development section of the same -movement. This passage illustrates the detachment of -a characteristic motive in a melody, and here the use of it -in various keys as a means of setting forth, as it were, its -latent possibilities. Here a certain element in the theme -is freed and takes on an existence of its own, and until the -very end of the section we hear it over and over again in -different parts of the orchestra.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/pag121_score1a.jpg" width="400" height="96" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>a</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag121_score1a.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag98_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag121_score1b.jpg" width="550" height="272" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>b</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag121_score1b.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag121_score1b.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag121_score1c.jpg" width="550" height="291" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>c</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag121_score1c.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag121_score1c.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XXXVI.</p> - -<p>The methods of germination employed by Haydn in -the foregoing illustration were typical of his time. Mozart -commonly relies, in his development sections, on the interest -provided by presenting some salient motive in a variety -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> -of keys and with polyphonic treatment. Examples of this -are to be found in Figure XXXVI, containing (a) the original -motive from the first movement of his string quartet in C-major, -dedicated to Haydn, and (b), (c), short excerpts -from the development section of the same movement.</p> - -<p>It will be observed that in (b), the viola imitates the -first violin while the second violin and 'cello reiterate the -four eighth-notes of the original motive, and that, in (c), -the 'cello takes the motive, while each of the three upper -parts sounds the eighth-notes, staccato; the contrasts of key -should also be observed. This is a very concise and logical -example of the methods of generation employed by Haydn -and Mozart.</p> - -<p>The first theme of the movement by Philip Emanuel -Bach has two salient qualities: it progresses by leaps upward, -and it has a peculiarly noticeable rhythm. These -two properties are brought into play almost immediately. -After a brief statement of the opening phrase of the -theme (36-39) in the relative major key—as if to tell us -what is to be the subject of this part of the movement—the -composer proceeds to evolve a passage (40-44) with -chords (in the right hand) in the rhythm of the theme, and -against them (in the left hand) a passage containing the -leaps upward. This is further varied by free changes in -harmony.</p> - -<p>The initial phrase of the first theme and a brief quotation -from this passage in the development section are -shown in Figure XXXVII.</p> - -<p>This development is, however, all too short. After -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> -measure 44 the music becomes discursive, showing no -longer any definite bearing on the original subject matter.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag123_score1.jpg" width="550" height="318" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>a</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag123_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag123_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag123_score2.jpg" width="550" height="330" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag123_score2.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag123_score2.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">(<em>b</em>)</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XXXVII</p> - -<p>This discursiveness is a natural characteristic of the formative -period in the evolution of sonata-form, before composers -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> -had learned the necessity of a close logical development -throughout.</p> - -<p>The "restatement after contrast" in sonata-form is commonly -known as the "recapitulation." In the early specimens -of the form the recapitulation was, except in its -harmonies, almost identical with the exposition. Here -the first theme is reduced to one half its original length, -which is rather an unusual abbreviation. Mr. Hadow, in -his "Sonata Form," lays down the following rule for this -portion of the movement: "The recapitulation should -not contain any noticeably fresh material; it should follow -the main thought of the exposition with no important -parentheses or divergences, and, when it varies, should do -so in a manner which does not obscure the subjects, but -only sets them in a new light."</p> - -<p>In Figure XXXVIII is shown the foregoing plan in the -form of a diagram. This should be compared with the -similar diagrams in Chapter IX.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="small2">FIGURE XXXVIII.<br /> -TABULAR VIEW OF SONATA-FORM, OR FIRST-MOVEMENT FORM.</p> -</div> - - -<table class="toc3" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="sonata"> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt"> </td> -<td class="td1lt"> </td> -<td class="td1l2t"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1head">A<br /> -Exposition</td> -<td class="td1head">B<br /> -Development</td> -<td class="td1headr">A<br /> -Recapitulation</td> -</tr> - - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt">Introduction (optional)<br /> -Theme I, usually followed<br /> -by a short transition, or link<br /> -Theme II in contrasting key</td> - -<td class="td1lt">This section is based on<br /> -themes already presented<br /> -in the Exposition<br /> - </td> - -<td class="td1l2t">Theme I.<br /> -Transition (?)<br /> -Theme II in tonic or home key<br /> - </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1">Coda</td> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l2">Coda</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lb">(Duality of harmony)</td> -<td class="td1lb">(Plurality of Harmony)</td> -<td class="td1l2b">(Unity of Harmony)</td> -</tr> - -</table> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span></p> - - -<h3>IV. <small>HARMONY AS A PART OF DESIGN.</small></h3> - -<p>There remains to be considered the important factor -of harmony, or arrangement of keys. This arrangement is -shown in the diagram, Figure XXXVIII; but the principle -involved is an important one, and the mere statement of -Duality, Plurality and Unity hardly suffices to explain it. -There seems to be no doubt that the subtle uses composers -make of harmony are less intelligible to the average listener -than are the uses of themes. A theme represents, as it -were, a line, and since it is the tune that, for most listeners, -constitutes the music the attention of the listeners is readily -drawn to changes which materially affect it. Harmonic -design, on the other hand—the setting of one key or series -of keys against another—is often only dimly recognized, -if at all, although it is of the greatest importance in all -modern music. In sonata-form the harmonic plan -(described above by the terms Duality, Plurality and -Unity) adds an important element since it unifies the last -section by stating both first and second theme in the same -key. And in the middle, or development section, the -freedom of harmonic progression—the multitude of keys—gives -great variety and enables the composer freely to -indulge his fancy.</p> - -<p>In the present movement Bach chooses at times certain -remote keys that impart to this section of the piece a charm -of their own. The passage beginning on the second beat -of measure 54 illustrates this: the four measures that follow -are all in the remote key of F-flat major. (The reader should -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> -examine each of the modulations that occurs in the development -section.) However unconscious of the charm of -harmonic variety the average listener may be, he would -surely be conscious of monotony were the piece all in one -or even two keys. And since the tendency of the music of -to-day is to exalt harmony at the expense of melody, it is -desirable that the student should pay particular attention -to these early phases of harmonic structure, so as to be able -to appreciate this important element in modern music. In -fact the whole progress of music since Haydn has been -steadily onward towards a free use of the different keys, -and as our ears have become accustomed to new combinations -of chords, we have gradually come to feel the beauty -that lies in glowing musical colors, and to accept them as -a legitimate means of expression. In our chapters on -Beethoven this phase of musical development will receive -fuller attention.</p> - - -<h3>V. <small>SUMMARY.</small></h3> - -<p>In this movement of C. P. E. Bach, despite its many crudities, -there is taken a long step toward the establishment of -modern sonata-form. The main divisions of the form, -exposition, development, and recapitulation, appear -clearly; solid harmonic structure is attained by the sequence -of duality, plurality, and unity; there are two contrasting -themes, though the second is rudimentary; the general -principle of development of themes through insistence on -salient features is illustrated; and the whole movement is -written in a style well suited to the piano, and emancipated -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> -from the influence of polyphony and of the short dance -and song forms.</p> - -<p>In the next chapter we shall see how Haydn and Mozart -proceeded to build more elaborate structures on the foundation -thus laid by C. P. E. Bach.</p> - - -<p class="center">S<small>UGGESTIONS FOR</small> C<small>OLLATERAL</small> R<small>EADING</small>.</p> - -<p><cite>Dickinson: "The Study of the History of Music," -Chapter XIV. Grove: "Dictionary of Music," articles on -"Bach, Philip Emanuel," "Sonata," "Form." C. H. H. -Parry: "Evolution of the Art of Music," Chapters VII -and IX (Appleton). "Oxford History of Music," -Volume IV.</cite></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<div class="footnotes"><p class="p4 center">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> It will be noted that there are three names for this one type of structure: "Sonata-form," -"First-movement form," and "Developed ternary form."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> No. 1 in the edition by Peters, Leipzig.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> See Hadow's "Sonata-Form" (Novello) Chapter VII, for a discussion of the various -methods of theme-development.</p></div></div> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span></p> -</div> - - -<h2>CHAPTER IX.<br /> - -<small>SONATA-FORM II.</small></h2> - - -<h3>I. <small>HAYDN AND THE SONATA-FORM.</small></h3> - -<p>The type of musical structure which first took on -definite shape in the work of Philip Emanuel Bach, the -type which may be defined as consisting essentially of -the exposition, development, and restatement of two contrasted -themes, and to which the name of sonata-form is -given, was not reduced to perfect clearness until the -time of Haydn (1732-1809), who because of his labors in -this field is often called "The father of the symphony."<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> -Having the inestimable advantage of being concert-master, -for a period of thirty years (1761-1791), to the princely -house of the Esterhazys, where he had a small but good -orchestra under his direction, and was expected constantly -to produce new pieces for it to play, he was practically -forced to write an astonishing amount of music, in all of -which this form figured prominently. Hardly one of his -hundred and twenty-five symphonies, and his seventy-seven -string quartets, etc., is without one or more examples -of sonata-form. Such constant practice enabled him to -carry it far beyond the rather indeterminate state in which -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> -Philip Emanuel Bach left it, and to crystallize it as a structural -type for all time.</p> - -<p>Among the most important advances made by Haydn -over the practice of his predecessor, as we saw it illustrated -in the last chapter, were (1) the greater importance and -individuality given to the second theme<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a>; (2) the abolishment -of merely rhapsodical passages, and the substitution -of successions of chords marking off unmistakably the -various sections of the movement; (3) increased definition -at the end of the exposition section, in the "codetta," -which, in some instances, even has a definite theme or -themes of its own, called conclusion-themes; (4) greater -clearness in the key-system of the whole movement, according -to the principle of Duality-Plurality-Unity already -discussed; (5) increased importance and extent of the coda, -which sometimes grows to the proportions of a fourth section -to the movement; (6) use of an introduction, generally -in slow time and of a stately character, preparing the mind -for serious attention. It will be noted that all these -advances are in the direction of making the form more -definite, clear-cut, and readily intelligible, as it was most -important that it should be made in its early existence -until it was perfectly familiar to the audience. Increased -<em>variety</em> came later, in the work of Mozart and Beethoven, -and could come only after the typical structure was thoroughly -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> -understood by the public. Thus Haydn's function -was that of a systematizer, an establisher of sure foundations -on which more elaborate and free superstructures -may later be built; and for this work his clear, simple, -well-disciplined mind and his thorough rather than brilliant -artistic technique admirably fitted him.</p> - -<p>These points will be made clear by an analysis of an -example of sonata-form, taken from the "Surprise" Symphony -which he wrote for London audiences in 1791, -toward the close of his career.</p> - -<p>The general structure, as regards both themes and -larger sections, may be conveniently shown in tabular -form, thus:—</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="small2">TABULAR VIEW OF STRUCTURE OF THE FIRST MOVEMENT OF<br /> -HAYDN'S "SURPRISE" SYMPHONY. </p> -</div> - -<table class="toc3" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt"> </td> -<td class="td1lt"> </td> -<td class="td1l2t"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1head">Main Divisions.</td> -<td class="td1head">Themes.</td> -<td class="td1headr">Measures.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt">Slow Introduction</td> -<td class="td1lt"> </td> -<td class="td1rt2">1-17</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1">Exposition (A)</td> -<td class="td1l1">First theme, G-major</td> -<td class="td1r2">18-22</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">Passage work</td> -<td class="td1r2">22-39</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">First theme, repeated</td> -<td class="td1r2">40-44</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1">Duality of Harmony</td> -<td class="td1l1">Transition to key of D-major (Dominant)</td> -<td class="td1r2">44-67</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">Second theme, D-major</td> -<td class="td1r2">67-80</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">Third, or Conclusion theme, D-major</td> -<td class="td1r2">81-93</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">"Cadences," emphasizing close in this key</td> -<td class="td1r2">93-108</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt">Development (B)</td> -<td class="td1lt"> </td> -<td class="td1rt2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1">Plurality of Harmony</td> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1r2">109-156</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt">Recapitulation (A)</td> -<td class="td1lt">First theme, G-major</td> -<td class="td1rt2">156-160</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">Passage work</td> -<td class="td1r2">160-185</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1"> Second theme, now in G-major</td> -<td class="td1r2">185-196</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1">Unity of Harmony</td> -<td class="td1l1">Further working of First theme</td> -<td class="td1r2">196-231</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1"> Conclusion theme, now in G-major</td> -<td class="td1r2">231-244</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lb"> </td> -<td class="td1lb">"Cadences," emphasizing the home key of G-major</td> -<td class="td1r2b">244-259</td> -</tr> - -</table> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span></p> - - -<h3>E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 13.</h3> - -<p class="sub"><em>Haydn:</em><a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> <em>"Surprise Symphony" the first movement. -Two-hand piano arrangement of twelve Symphonies of Haydn.</em></p> - -<p>The first thing that strikes us about the general character -of this movement is its admirable clearness, in which -it is representative of all Haydn's work. In spite of its -being so much larger and more complex than the sonata -of Philip Emanuel Bach, its structure is so obvious that a -child could hardly go astray in following it. This is in -large measure due to the pains the composer takes to -emphasize each key and each change of key by means of -scale-passages and chords. (See, for example, measures -59-67, emphasizing the key of D-major, and the entire -conclusion-portions of both the exposition and the recapitulation -(67-108) and (185-259), one insisting on D-major, -the other on G-major.) Such passages as these have been -much criticised for their conventionality and lack of melodic -interest, but when we realize how they <em>punctuate</em> the -movement, so to speak, and what a perfect clearness they -give it, we realize how important they were to the early -stage of development of the sonata-form, when its principles -had not become as universally familiar as they are -now. They are an immense advance over the vague rhapsodizings -of Philip Emanuel Bach in parallel places.</p> - -<p>The key-relationships of the movement follow the usual -practice. In the exposition we find duality of key: G-major -and D-major. In the development there is ample plurality.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span></p> - -<p>In the recapitulation the home key, G-major, -dominates throughout.</p> - -<p>Haydn's second theme, though more definite than -Philip Emanuel Bach's, is still somewhat lacking in individuality. -It is hardly more than a string of chords and -scales having more tonal interest than melodic life. It is -certainly far from being a lyrical melody strikingly contrasted -with the more energetic first theme. The conclusion -theme, full of Haydnish amiability, grace, and good -cheer, is much more definitely melodious.</p> - -<p>Another symptom of the crudity inseparable from early -stages of artistic evolution is the shortness and rather -mediocre interest of the development section. The first -theme is briefly but monotonously treated in measures -109-126. Then comes (127-132) a little playing, in the -bass, with the small figure which first appeared in (44-45):</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag132_score1.jpg" width="550" height="174" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">Germ (measures 44-45.)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag132_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag132_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag132_score2.jpg" width="550" height="170" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">Development (127 seq.)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag132_score2.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag132_score2.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XXXVIIIa.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span></p> - -<p>and later (133-135), an <em>inversion</em> of this:</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag133_score1.jpg" width="550" height="146" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">Inversion (133 seq.)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag133_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag133_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag133_score2.jpg" width="550" height="134" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">Later (136 seq.)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag133_score2.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag133_score2.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XXXIX.</p> - -<p>The rhythmic figure thus established is made to do duty -in the extended modulation that immediately follows -(136-143), after which comes (144-155) a reminiscence -of the passage first used just before the second theme; -and with this Haydn returns to his first theme and enters -on the recapitulation. It is thus almost as if, after stating -his themes, he was at a loss what to do with them, and -after a brief dalliance, from which little novelty results, -hurried on to the restatement, much as an unimaginative -preacher tries to make up by the vehemence with which -he reasserts his text for his failure to give it vivid illustration -and suggestive elucidation. In Beethoven's symphonies -the development is usually the point of greatest -interest. But it is of course not fair to expect of a pioneer -the last fruits of culture. Haydn lays down in such movements -as the present one the essential principles of form -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> -in instrumental music; to have done that, with whatever -minor shortcomings, is a sufficient claim upon our admiration -and gratitude.</p> - -<p>The shortcomings of Haydn's work are those natural -to his circumstances as a pioneer and to certain emotional -limitations of his temperament. Compared with -Beethoven he is lacking both in profundity of feeling and in -variety of style; he is less brilliant and less polished than -Mozart. But on the other hand, Haydn has a homely -simplicity, a sort of childlike charm, all his own; he lives -in a world of artistic truth untainted by sophistry, uncomplicated -by oversubtlety; he is always clear, sincere, -straightforward, and he often rises to nobility and true -dignity. Above all, he has the peculiar merit of having -taken up a sort of music which was fragmentary and immature, -and of having elevated it into a new, an essentially -modern, and an infinitely promising type of art. Such a -fundamental work can never be discredited by the more -brilliant exploits of later workers who have the indispensable -advantage of building upon it.</p> - - -<h3>II. <small>MOZART AND THE SONATA-FORM.</small></h3> - -<p>Though Haydn (1732-1809) was not only by many -years the senior of Mozart (1756-1791), but also outlived -him, the relations between the two were most cordial and -close. Haydn had done much of his best work before -1788, when Mozart wrote his three greatest symphonies, -and so may be said to have served as Mozart's model. -Yet he in turn learned much from his younger but more -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> -brilliant friend, and did not write his own greatest symphonies -(the twelve so-called "Salomon" symphonies, -which were written for Salomon, a London orchestral conductor, -in 1791 and 1794, and of which the "Surprise" is -one) until after Mozart's untimely death. How thoroughly -each man respected the other, we know from their own -words. Mozart in dedicating his six finest string quartets -to Haydn, said: "It was due from me, for it was from -him that I learned how quartets should be written." As -for Haydn, he once put an end to an argument on the -merits and defects of "Don Giovanni" by remarking: -"I cannot decide the questions in dispute, but this I know, -that Mozart is the greatest composer in the world."</p> - -<p>Mozart not only had the great advantage of building -on Haydn's secure foundations, but he brought to the -task a genius much more supreme than his predecessor's. -From his earliest composition, a minuet written when -he was only five years old,<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> to the three great symphonies -in G-minor, E-flat major, and C-major ("Jupiter") -produced at the end of his career, a movement from the -first of which we shall presently study, all his work shows a -spontaneity of inspiration, a graciousness of melody, a -stoutness and symmetry of musical construction, a finish -of style, a depth of emotional expression, and a classical -lucidity and purity, perhaps not to be found all together -in the work of any other musician. Especially does he -excel Haydn in profundity of feeling, versatility of resource, -and a certain aristocratic distinction. All these qualities -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> -are shown in his great G-minor Symphony, one of his -supreme masterpieces.</p> - - -<h3>E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 14.</h3> - -<p class="sub"><em>Mozart: Symphony in G-minor, the first movement.</em> -<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="small2">TABULAR VIEW OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE FIRST MOVEMENT OF<br /> -MOZART'S G-MINOR SYMPHONY.</p> -</div> - - -<table class="toc3" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt"> </td> -<td class="td1lt"> </td> -<td class="td1l2t"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1head">Main Divisions.</td> -<td class="td1head">Themes.</td> -<td class="td1headr">Measures.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt">Exposition (A)</td> -<td class="td1lt"> </td> -<td class="td1rt2">1-100</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> comprising</td> -<td class="td1l1">First theme</td> -<td class="td1r2">1-27</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">Transition, on a subsidiary theme</td> -<td class="td1r2">28-42</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">Second theme, in relative major key</td> -<td class="td1r2">44-72</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1">Duality of Harmony</td> -<td class="td1l1">Conclusion theme, built on first theme</td> -<td class="td1r2">72-88</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">Cadence formulas emphasizing the key of B-flat</td> -<td class="td1r2">88-99</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">Modulation</td> -<td class="td1r2">100.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt">Development Section,<br /> -or Free Fantasia (B)</td> -<td class="td1lt"> <br /> - </td> -<td class="td1rt2"> <br /> -101-165</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">Modulation continued</td> -<td class="td1r2">101-103</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">First theme in various keys</td> -<td class="td1r2">104-115</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1">Plurality of Harmony<br /> - <br /> - </td> -<td class="td1l1">First theme, alternating between bass<br /> - and treble, with contrapuntal treatment<br /> - of the transition theme in "diminution."</td> -<td class="td1r2"> <br /> - <br /> -115-134</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">Cadence in dominant of original key emphasized</td> -<td class="td1r2">135-138</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">Rhythm of First theme variously used</td> -<td class="td1r2">139-165</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt">Recapitulation (A)</td> -<td class="td1lt"> </td> -<td class="td1rt2">165-293</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">First theme</td> -<td class="td1r2">165-191</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1">Unity of Harmony</td> -<td class="td1l1">Transition, on subsidiary theme</td> -<td class="td1r2">191-225</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">Second theme, in G-minor (tonic)</td> -<td class="td1r2">227-260</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">Conclusion theme, First theme</td> -<td class="td1r2">260-275</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lb"> </td> -<td class="td1lb">Cadences-formulas, emphasizing G-minor</td> -<td class="td1r2b">275-285</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lb">Coda</td> -<td class="td1lb">On First theme</td> -<td class="td1r2b">286-299</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>There is no slow introduction, as in Haydn's "Surprise" -Symphony, but there is a short coda. A little -detailed comparison with the Haydn movement will prove -interesting. There is none of the rather meaningless -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> -passage work which Haydn uses in his transition from the -first to the second theme; instead there is a subsidiary -theme (measures 28-42) which in spite of its secondary -formal importance is vigorous, strongly characterized music. -Instead of an entirely new theme for conclusion (Haydn, -81-93) we find an adaptation of the characteristic rhythm -of the first theme (72-88) fulfilling the function of conclusion -theme—to emphasize the close of the first section -of the movement—by harping constantly on the tonic -and dominant chords. This adaptation of familiar matter -to a new purpose is ingenious. The return to the first -theme, after the development section, is beautifully managed. -Over a held D in the bass, beginning at measure -160, the upper voices weave a gradually descending passage -out of the motive of the first theme (three notes only). There -is a slight retarding, a sense of decreasing momentum, -until, with the unobtrusive entrance of the theme in -measure 165, a new start is taken, and the recapitulation -goes merrily onward. The apparently unpremeditated -nature of this entrance (though of course it was carefully -planned) is charming.</p> - -<p>In the recapitulation, the subsidiary theme which -first appeared at 28-42, enters at 191, and is made the -subject of a considerable episode. It appears in the bass -at 198. Note the sequence at 202-203, and 204-205. -The second theme, on its second appearance (227), is not -only put in the tonic key of G, but is changed from major -to minor. This gives rise to an interesting change in its -expression. Instead of being merely tender and ingenuous, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> -as its first and major form was, it takes on now a certain -air of mystery and of resignation or controlled pathos. -The conclusion theme (260) is also now put into the minor -mode. The coda is short, and contains first a final suggestion -of the main subject of the movement, and the -necessary cadences for closing it firmly in the home key.</p> - - -<h3>III. <small>MOZART'S ARTISTIC SKILL.</small></h3> - -<p>This movement affords a remarkable example of -Mozart's power to infuse endless variety into the details -of his work, without ever impairing its coherence and -fundamental unity. He shows here, in short, that remarkable -fecundity of imagination, constantly subordinated to -the demands of clearness and musical logic, which gives -all his music a fascinating variety that never degenerates -into miscellaneousness.</p> - -<p>For convenience in analysis, we may briefly examine -first the elements of variety and later the underlying unity -(though it should be remembered throughout that in the -work itself the two qualities are intertwined, so to speak, -and affect us co-operatively). Thus in the capital matter -of rhythm, for example, the real master of construction -always takes care to maintain the unity of the fundamental -meter with which he starts out, and builds up a variety of -rhythms on this uniform basis by making different themes -group the elementary beats in different ways: as Mozart, -in this movement, keeps his measure of four quarter-notes -throughout, but makes the rhythm of his first theme out -of quarters and eighths, and that of his second theme largely -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> -out of dotted halves and quarters. <em>An actual change of -measure</em> in a new theme, such as we find in many modern -composers, is often a sign of deficient mental concentration, -a kind of incoherence in which variety is secured at the -expense of unity. The true masters drive their unity and -their variety, so to speak, abreast.</p> - -<p>Note then in the first place, the contrasts between the -three chief themes of the movement, viz.: the first theme, -the subsidiary theme that does duty in the transition (28-42), -and the second theme. Their rhythmic diversity may be -noted at a glance in the following comparative table, in -which the rhythm only of four measures of each theme is -set down.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag139_score1.jpg" width="550" height="56" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">First.</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag139_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag139_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag139_score2.jpg" width="550" height="55" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">Subsidiary.</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag139_score2.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag139_score2.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag139_score3.jpg" width="550" height="80" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">Second.</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag139_score3.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag139_score3.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XL.</p> - -<p>A reference back to the first movement of the Haydn -"Surprise" Symphony will show Mozart's advance in -respect of rhythmical diversity.</p> - -<p>A parallel advance in diversity of style is noteworthy. -Haydn's movement is steadily homophonic in style, and -grows somewhat monotonous for that reason. Mozart -sets off against his homophonic exposition section a delightfully -clean-cut and vigorous polyphonic passage founded -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> -on the first theme in the development section of the movement -(115-134), and another similar passage in the -recapitulation (the new treatment of the subsidiary, -191-217.).</p> - -<p>Again, Mozart uses skillfully the possibilities for variety -opened up to the composer by modulation and setting off -against one another of different keys. A radical and fascinating -change of coloring is also obtained by transposing -the second and conclusion themes, on their final appearance -(227 and 260), from major to minor. They are -thus exhibited, as it were, in a new light, while retaining -their essential character sufficiently to be perfectly recognizable.</p> - -<p>Underneath all this charming play of fancy, the fundamental -plan of the movement is as clear as the outline of -a mountain range under all the luxuriant foliage that -clothes its slopes. This clearness of form is due chiefly -to two causes, a fine logic in the use of themes, and a careful -adjustment of keys. The closeness with which Mozart -sticks to his thematic texts may in some cases at first sight -escape us, but when we come to realize it through careful -dissection, we cannot but be profoundly impressed by -the intellectual grasp it indicates. Thus, the passage -at measures 66-67 is not new, but is made from that of -48-49 <em>inverted</em>. The conclusion theme (72-88) is not -made from new matter, as is usual with Haydn, but is -derived from the little three-note motive of the first theme. -The entire development is wrought out of new manipulations -of the same theme, as is also the coda. The long -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> -transition in the recapitulation (191-225) is made entirely -from the subsidiary. There is here, in a word, none of -that "clattering of the dishes" between the courses. The -economy of the master is everywhere observable; irrelevancies -are excluded; there is no superfluity, no surplusage, -no prolixity and wordiness. Every measure fulfils its -purpose in the simplest and most direct way, and justifies -its presence by its reference to the essential thematic ideas -of the work.</p> - -<p>Unity of key is secured by a careful observation of the -main traditions of the sonata-form in the matter of the -distribution of tonalities. The exposition shows the customary -quality of key, tonic (G-minor) being contrasted -with relative major (B-flat major).<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> The development, -as we have already seen, exemplifies plurality of key. -The recapitulation emphasizes throughout the home key -of G-minor, thus ending the movement with the fitting -impression of tonal unity. A glance at measures 38-42, -72-99, 134-138, 146-165, 221-225, and 260-307 will show -how much pains Mozart has taken to emphasize his keys -at all important points in the design. The emphasis, as -in the case of Haydn, is superfluous for modern ears, but -was very necessary for the audiences addressed by the -early advocates of so complex a scheme of musical design.</p> - -<p>Altogether then, we see in such a movement as the -present, Mozart taking the sonata-form a step in advance -of where Haydn had left it, and while preserving its essential -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> -outline, filling it with the wealth of detail which his -luxuriant fancy suggested. Later it will become clear -that he was thus preparing it for the still further elaboration -of an even greater master of construction—Beethoven.</p> - - -<p class="center">S<small>UGGESTIONS FOR</small> C<small>OLLATERAL</small> R<small>EADING</small>.</p> - -<p><cite>D. G. Mason: "Beethoven and His Forerunners," -Chapters V and VI. C. H. H. Parry: "The Evolution -of the Art of Music," Chapter XI. E. Dickinson: "The -Study of the History of Music," Chapters XXIV and -XXV.</cite> <cite>W. H. Hadow: "Sonata Form."</cite></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<div class="footnotes"><p class="p4 center">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> A symphony, as we have seen, is only a sonata, on a large scale, for orchestra.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Even in Haydn, however, the second themes remain generally rather rudimentary -(see the analysis of his "Surprise Symphony," later in this chapter). In many cases his -second theme is hardly more than a variant of the first; as for example in the two pianoforte -sonatas in E-flat major. In the first movement of his "Paukenwirbel" Symphony, -however, there is a very distinct second theme, and in many other movements the student -will note a marked tendency toward definition.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Published for piano, two or four hands, by Peters, Leipzig. For convenience of -reference number all measures, and parts of measures, consecutively. The numbers will -run to 258.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> See Mason's "Beethoven and His Forerunners," page 218.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Arrangement for piano, two hands, in the Peters edition. Number the measures -throughout. There are three hundred and seven. The general structure will be seen at a -glance in the appended tabular view.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> This is according to custom in movements written in minor keys. The second theme -is in such cases usually put in the relative major instead of in the dominant. (See the -chapter on "Folk-Song.")</p></div></div> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span></p> -</div> - - -<h2>CHAPTER X.<br /> -<small>THE SLOW MOVEMENT.</small></h2> - - -<h3>I. <small>VARIETIES OF FORM.</small></h3> - -<p>In the classical sonata the usual arrangement of movements -was as follows: (1) Allegro (in "Sonata-form"): -(2) Adagio or Minuet: (3) Finale (usually a rondo).</p> - -<p>Occasionally—as in Mozart's Piano Sonata in A-major—the -slow movement, in the form of a theme -and variations, was placed at the beginning, and in that -case the order would be (1) Theme and Variations, (2) -Minuet (3) Finale. The symphony, which, it must be -remembered, was a sonata on a large scale—always -began with a movement in sonata-form, and had four -movements. Although the sonata was subject to many -outside influences—most important of which were polyphony -and the old overture and other operatic forms—its -two main sources were dance tunes and folk-songs. -The evolution of the dance tune through Bach's polyphonic -gavottes, sarabandes, etc., has already been traced -in Chapters IV, V, and VI, and the influence of the dance -on the first movement in Chapters VIII and IX.</p> - -<p>The slow movement is ultimately derived from the -folk-song, and, while more subject to operatic influence -than were the other movements, it still retains something -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> -of that simple lyric quality that distinguished it in its primitive -form. Unlike the other movements of the sonata and -symphony, however, the slow movement has no settled -form: <em>i. e.</em>, while we speak of first-movement, or sonata-form, -of the rondo form, and of the minuet form, we do not -speak thus of "slow movement form." For in the slow -movement style rather than form is of greatest importance. -On account of its slow tempo it is shorter than the first -movement, and consequently not so dependent for intelligibility -on formal structure. Its themes, also, are song-like -in character, and song themes, being in themselves -complete, do not lend themselves readily to development—do -not generate new material—as has already been pointed -out. As a consequence the slow movement is usually written -in what we call a "sectional" form: <em>i. e.</em>, a series of -sections following one another according to whatever order -or system the composer may choose. The most common -use is, however, the form employed in the minuet. But in -slow movements the long song themes, somewhat elegiac in -style and full of sentiment, make the <em>mood</em> of each section -of supreme importance, and throw the formal element into -the background. So that, while the slow movement usually -falls under some one of the common forms already discussed, -it often modifies them in one way or another.</p> - -<p>There are rare instances of developed ternary form in -the slow movements of Mozart's pianoforte sonatas. The -Andante of the Sonata in B-flat (no. 10 in Schirmer's edition), -has a development section. It comprises only nineteen measures, -however, and its effect as a section germinating from -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> -the exposition is somewhat lessened by the scheme of -repeats, which is as follows: A :⎜⎜: B. A. :⎜⎜. The use -of rondo form in the slow movement will be discussed in a -later chapter.</p> - - -<h3>II. <small>SLOW MOVEMENTS OF PIANOFORTE SONATAS.</small></h3> - -<p>Reference has already been made in Chapters VI and -VII to the lack of sustaining power in the tone of the pianoforte -of Haydn and Mozart's day, and the consequent use -of ornament in their pianoforte music. In Figure XLI -(<em>a</em>) is shown the beginning of the andante of Mozart's -sonata referred to above, and at (<em>b</em>) will be found the corresponding -portion of the restatement in the same movement. -These two quotations should be compared with the -corresponding portions of the two pieces that serve as examples -for analysis with this chapter. This comparison -will reveal how much more highly ornamented was the -music written for the piano than that for instruments with -sustained tone.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag145_score1andpag146_score1.jpg" width="550" height="492" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>a</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag145_score1andpag146_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag145_score1andpag146_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag146_score2andpag147_score1.jpg" width="550" height="626" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>b</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag146_score2andpag147_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag146_score2andpag147_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XLI.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span></p> - -<p>It will be observed that this quotation from Mozart is in -strophic form; each phrase of two measures constitutes, -as it were, a poetic line, the second of which closes with -a half cadence, and the last with a full cadence or period. -In this respect it follows the old folk-song type, and, indeed, -that model serves for the great majority of lyric themes -in sonatas and symphonies. But in its initial qualities -this melody shows a great advance over tunes like "Barbara -Alien" and "Polly Oliver," an advance due to the flexibility -to which both melody and harmony had attained -in Mozart's time, and to that freedom of technique provided -by the piano as compared with the voice.</p> - -<p>These quotations from Mozart are from a sonata movement -which is, on the whole, above the formal average of -the pianoforte pieces of that period. Many of them were -excessively ornamented. In Figure XLII are shown two -quotations from a sonata of Haydn, in the latter of which -the ornaments are profuse.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag147_score2.jpg" width="550" height="192" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>a</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag147_score2.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag147_score2.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag148_score1.jpg" width="550" height="304" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>b</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag148_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag148_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XLII.</p> - -<p>In spite of the somewhat artificial atmosphere that -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> -surrounds much of the pianoforte music of this period there -is, in the best specimens of it, a charming formal beauty. -It is within its own sphere genuine and true to life. One -has to consider the kind of society that it represents, as well -as the status of music in that society. The art was not, -at that time, free enough, nor practical enough, to deal with -deep emotions; people looked on it as a refined sort of -amusement. Not until Beethoven had written his music -did its possibilities as a vehicle for deep human feeling -and experience become evident.</p> - - -<h3>III. <small>THE STRING QUARTET.</small></h3> - -<p>It was not until the time of Haydn that the string -quartet<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> came into being; a fact for which we may easily -account by examining the instrumental parts of orchestral -compositions before Haydn's time. We shall find the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> -'cello, for example, playing for the most part merely the -bass notes that support the superstructure of the orchestra, -and consequently entirely unaccustomed to individual -parts of any difficulty. Another obstacle in the path of -the string quartet was the slow development of the viola, -which only gradually emerged from the older and more -cumbersome types, such as the viola d'amour and viola -da braccio. Haydn began by writing little quartets of -the simplest possible kind—the first movement of the -first quartet contains only twenty-four measures—but -by constant practice throughout his long life he attained -a complete mastery of the form. In his early quartets -he usually wrote five movements, two of them minuets, -but he soon settled on the regular four movement form -which has remained ever since as the usually accepted -model.</p> - - -<h3>E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 15.</h3> - -<p class="sub"><em>Haydn: Adagio in E-flat major from the String Quartet</em><a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> -<em>in G-major, op. 77, No. 1.</em></p> - -<p>This Adagio is thoroughly characteristic of Haydn's -best style of writing. It is without the elaborate and -somewhat diffuse treatment we observed in the trio of -his "Andante with Variations" (See Chapter VII), nor -does it depend for its effect on the much more artistic use -of ornament employed by Mozart in the Andante quoted -in Figure XLI. Almost everything in this composition -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> -germinates from the two motives given out in measures 1-2 -and 3-4, and it should be noted that each of these motives -is sufficiently pronounced in character to serve the purposes -of generation, and that the theme, as a whole, is not by -any means a perfect lyric melody such as will be found -in our second example for analysis.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag150_score1.jpg" width="550" height="179" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag150_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag150_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XLIII.</p> - -<p>The first of these motives (see Figure XLIII, measures -1-2) is easily traced throughout the whole composition, -since the changes that are made in it are largely changes -in key, but the second motive (measures 3-4) almost immediately -evolves into something new. This may be -observed in measure 11, where the rhythm of the passage -at measure 3 is changed, the melody being given to the -left hand. The second part (or stanza) of the melody, -beginning at measure 13, uses chiefly the phrase from -measure 2, which will be found again in the dominant—to -which key this section tends—at measures 21-22. -Even the passage at 23 is an elaboration of that at 11, and -this same original motive is lengthened into a delightful -bit of by-play at measures 35-37. The close in C-major -at 42, with its accents transferred to the fourth beat of -the measure, should be noted, while the sudden change of -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> -key after the pause was, at that time, almost a revolutionary -modulation, and sounds more like Beethoven than Haydn -(see, for example, the sudden and complete change of key -in the coda of the first movement of the "Eroica" Symphony). -The use of the motive from measure 2 at 45-54 -and the gradual elimination of its melodic quality until -only its rhythm remains (53-54) is an interesting example -of a familiar process in music (see Chapter VIII). This -gradual dying away and ceasing of motion is also a familiar -process at this point in a movement, providing as it does a -sense of expectancy and preparation for the re-entrance of -the main theme. The restatement begins at measure 55 -and as is customary retains the original key instead of modulating -to the dominant as did the first section. The coda -begins at 82 and, according to Haydn's usual plan, presents -a kind of reminiscence of the main subject, as if in tender -farewell.</p> - - -<h3>IV. <small>GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.</small></h3> - -<p>While this movement does not reach the heights of -lyric beauty attained by Mozart in the Andante which -we shall analyze in a moment, it is, nevertheless, a -thoroughly interesting and really beautiful piece of music. -Our attention is constantly enlisted by fresh glimpses of -the theme, or by new harmonies; the ornamentation all -grows naturally out of the structure and is not laid on -for its own sake, and the melody itself is expressive and -tender. Furthermore, the themes and their treatment -are characterized by a perfect adaptability to the string -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> -quartet, for even in the pianoforte version, we can observe -how interesting is the part given to each instrument. Here, -just as in a perfect story or a perfect poem, there is nothing -redundant, nothing that has not some part in the main purpose -of the work. And this combination of placid beauty -with perfection of form makes what is called the "Classic" -in music. Especially do we find here an entire absence of -those perfunctory passages that occur in the movement of -the "Surprise" Symphony discussed in the last chapter.</p> - -<p>Taken as a whole, this piece is immeasurably finer -than any movement of its kind produced up to that time, -save alone those of Mozart; and the advance is not only in -method but in the essence of the idea itself. There is a -geniality and warmth about this music that marks a new era. -Bach was more profound, but more isolated; here we have -simple human sentiment and a kind of naïve charm that -distinguished Haydn's music from that of all other composers.</p> - - -<h3>V. <small>FORM OF HAYDN'S ADAGIO.</small></h3> - -<p>This Adagio of Haydn is a good illustration of what -we have called "sectional form." It may be tabulated -as follows:</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="small2">TABULAR VIEW OF SECTIONS IN HAYDN'S ADAGIO.</p> -</div> - -<table class="toc3" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="adagio"> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt"> </td> -<td class="td1lt"> </td> -<td class="td1lt"> </td> -<td class="td1l2t"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1head">1</td> -<td class="td1head">2</td> -<td class="td1head">3</td> -<td class="td1headr">4</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt">Section in E-flat<br /> -measures 1-16</td> -<td class="td1lt">Section in the<br /> -dominant (B-flat) 16-30</td> -<td class="td1lt">Section of free<br /> -modulation 30-54</td> -<td class="td1l2t">Double Section<br /> -in E-flat 55-82</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l2">Coda 83-91</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1cen1b">Duality</td> -<td class="td1cen1b">Duality</td> -<td class="td1cen1b">Plurality</td> -<td class="td1cen2b">Unity</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span></p> - -<p>Section four contains practically the same material as -Sections 1 and 2, with its last half in the tonic instead of -the dominant. It will be observed that the harmonic -plan of the movement is that of "sonata-form," but that -the first two sections (which would constitute the exposition) -are not repeated, as was the invariable custom in Haydn's -first movements. Yet the resemblance is quite close, for -the third part is like a development section and the fourth -like a restatement. Still there is not here that decided -difference between the three sections of exposition, development, -and recapitulation that is essential to sonata-form.</p> - - -<h3>VI. MOZART AND THE CLASSIC STYLE.</h3> - -<p>The slow movements of the symphonies and string -quartets of Mozart, who represents the culmination of the -classic type in music, are thoroughly characteristic of the -ideals of the classical period. Unlike the rustic Haydn, -Mozart was accustomed from his childhood to the atmosphere -of courts and lived in the favor of princes. His -music is never brusque, nor does it have the homely wit -and sentiment of Haydn—it does not smack of the soil—but -it possesses a certain ideal beauty and elegance, a certain -finesse and finely pointed wit that were beyond -Haydn's powers. Yet these ideally beautiful compositions -of Mozart are absolutely spontaneous. We are -never admitted into his work-shop; we never trace a sign -of his labor; his music seems to have sprung full born -from his brain. He is the type of the consummate artist -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> -who deals with the language of music as easily as an ordinary -mortal deals with his native tongue. He was not a -philosopher like Bach, nor a great man like Beethoven. -We find no evidences of his having been, outside his music, -particularly distinguished from his fellows, for his improvidence -and fondness for amusement are matters of record. -When we think of Beethoven's music we think of Beethoven; -Mozart and his art are distinct and separate.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p> - -<p>At this point the question naturally arises: "Just what -do we mean by classic beauty?" In a general way a book, -a picture or a piece of music becomes a "classic" when it -is universally accepted as a model of its kind. In this -sense Grey's "Elegy in a Country Churchyard" is a classic; -so are Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, the Sistine Madonna, -and the Apollo Belvedere. The same term is applied to -Beethoven's Fifth Symphony, and to Schumann's "Träumerei." -These works of art represent many varieties -of mood, of style, and of structure, and the application to -them all of the term "classic" is a very broad usage. -"Classic," as opposed to "Romantic," in music, means -something quite different and much more definite. It -refers to purity of outline and simplicity of harmony; -to pure beauty of sound as opposed to luxuriance or the -poignancy produced by dissonances; to clear and translucent -colors and definite lines curved in beauty, rather -than to picturesqueness. Classical music tells its story -clearly and definitely and does not depend on suggestion, -as does, for example, the romantic music of Schumann.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span></p> - -<p>Our illustrations from Haydn have revealed how this -classic spirit gradually approached its culmination. In his -Andante with Variations there is something of the classic -spirit, though the occasional diffuse ornamentation of the -trio theme mars the purity of the composition. In the -movement from the "Surprise" Symphony there is too -much that is rustic to admit of its being considered altogether -classic. But a fine example of the classic type is -afforded by the first movement of Mozart's G-minor Symphony, -discussed in Chapter IX. The distinction may be -made still more clear by reference to Figure XLIV, containing -(a) the opening phrases of the Finale of Tschaikowsky's -"Pathétique" Symphony, and (b) a short quotation -from Schumann's Novelette, op. 21, No. 1.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag155_score1.jpg" width="550" height="158" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>a</em>)</p> - - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag155_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag155_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag155_score2.jpg" width="550" height="176" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>b</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag155_score2.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag155_score2.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XLIV.</p> - -<p>The poignancy of the passage from Tschaikowsky is -remarkable, and the opening chord, modulating at once -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> -to another key than the tonic, produces a feeling of unrest -which is further intensified, as the piece proceeds, by harsh -dissonances. The quotation from Schumann's Novelette -is notable for its brusqueness, and for the roughness of -its dissonances. Effects like these would not have been -tolerated in Mozart's time, and illustrate the tendency -of music to become more personal and to seek to express -a wider range of human feeling. A comparison of these -two quotations with the opening of the andante by Mozart -will reveal how far apart are the ideals of classic and -romantic music.</p> - - -<h3>E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 16.</h3> - -<p class="sub"><em>Mozart: Andante from String Quartet</em><a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> <em>in C-major, dedicated -to Haydn.</em></p> - -<p>In Chapter IX reference has been made to the influence -of Haydn and Mozart on each other. Mozart -undoubtedly profited by Haydn's labors in the quartet form, -and Haydn, in turn, shows in his latest quartets that he -had learned something from his younger contemporary. -Ever since this form came into being it has been a favorite -one with composers, for in it they are able to express -musical ideas in all their purity and divested of extraneous -influences. For this reason the quartet became the medium -for their most advanced ideas. Both Mozart and Beethoven -wrote quartets that were far in advance of their time, and -that were subjected to harsh criticism by their contemporaries. -The introduction to the quartet from which -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> -this andante is taken is a case in point. The harmonies, -within the space of a few measures, wander far from the -home key, and commit what were then unpardonable -sins of cacophony. A brief quotation from the beginning -of this introduction is shown in Figure XLV. The harsh -dissonances between the A-flat in the first measure of the -viola part and the succeeding A-natural in the first violin -part should be noted.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag157_score1.jpg" width="550" height="192" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>a</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag157_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag157_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> -<img src="images/pag157_score2.jpg" width="400" height="76" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>b</em>)</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XLV.</p> - -<p>The vague harmonies of this introduction serve as an -admirable foil to the bright opening of the first movement. -The æsthetic purpose they serve is one of which Beethoven -also made constant use when he desired to enhance the -charm of a passage by vivid contrast of color. The opening -theme of the movement (shown at (b) in Figure XLV) -will be seen to be foreshadowed in the introduction -(Figure XLV (a); viola part, measure 3, first violin part, -measures 4-5). From the point of view of both harmony -and thematic development this introduction is therefore -extremely modern.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag158_score1.jpg" width="550" height="279" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag158_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag158_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XLVI.</p> - -<p>Of this andante by Mozart we can say unreservedly -that it is a perfect specimen of pure classic beauty. Its -translucent harmonies, its exquisite curve of melody, its -clear outlines, all make it a model of its kind. The chief -theme, extending to measure 12 (see Figure XLVI), should -be compared with those of Handel, Haydn and Mozart shown -in previous chapters. This comparison will reveal an important -element in the present theme, namely, the element of -organization. In our earliest musical examples quoted in -the first two chapters there was a conspicuous lack of -variety. "Three Blind Mice" contented itself with two -motives, which were repeated over and over again. -"Barbara Allen" was made up of one rhythmic figure, -constantly reiterated, and even in the themes of Philip -Emanuel Bach and Haydn there were many rhythmic -repetitions. In the Haydn quartet movement there were but -two motives, and while they were used with the greatest -skill, the theme itself was entirely constructed from them. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> -In Mozart's theme, on the contrary, there is hardly a single -repetition of rhythm. An examination of the melody -will reveal how great a variety is imparted to it by the -many different rhythmic figures. Yet there is no sense -of vagueness about it; it holds together firmly. This -quality distinguishes all highly organized melodies, and is -never found in folk-music. The same element may be observed -in a developed language in which words have come -to be flexible in their meaning, and more or less complicated -sentences are possible. In this theme one does not get -the sense of what the composer is trying to say until the -melody ends; in simple themes, made up by repeating the -same motive, one can foresee the end long before it is -reached. Themes like this beautiful one of Mozart are -possible only after art has become well developed, and -after people in general have become sufficiently familiar -with the phraseology of music to be able to follow complicated -musical sentences.</p> - -<p>A further charm is added to this movement by the free -and flowing counterpoint of the several parts. This is -an essential element in the string quartet, since without -it, there being little variety in the tone of the four instruments, -monotony would result.</p> - - -<h3>VII. <small>FORM OF MOZART'S ANDANTE.</small></h3> - -<p>Here, as in the Haydn slow movement, we find another -example of sectional form. It may be tabulated as -follows:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="small2">TABULAR VIEW OF SECTIONS IN MOZART'S ANDANTE.</p> -</div> - - -<table class="toc3" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt"> </td> -<td class="td1l2t"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1cen1bh">I.</td> -<td class="td1cen2bh">II.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lb">Modulating from tonic to dominant<br /> -and containing theme I, episode theme<br /> -(13) and theme II (26), 1-44.</td> - -<td class="td1l2b">Modulating from dominant back to<br /> -tonic with the same succession of themes.<br /> -Coda (102), 54-114.</td> -</tr> - -</table> - - -<p>The sub-divisions of the above should be carefully -noted (as indicated by the entrance of the different themes). -These sub-divisions break the piece up into smaller sections, -each distinct from the others. A particularly interesting -and beautiful effect is produced in the coda (measures -103-5) by the augmentation of the phrase from measures -1-2, which is reproduced in longer notes against a familiar -counterpoint.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a></p> - - -<p class="center">S<small>UGGESTIONS FOR</small> C<small>OLLATERAL</small> R<small>EADING</small>.</p> - -<p><cite>C. H. H. Parry: "The Evolution of the Art of Music," -Chapters XI and XII. W. H. Hadow: "Sonata Form," -Chapter X. D. G. Mason: "Beethoven and His Forerunners," -Chapters V and VI.</cite></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<div class="footnotes"><p class="p4 center">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> The instruments employed in the string quartet are two violins (first and second) -viola, and violoncello.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Published in miniature score, Payne edition, price 20 cents. This quartet also -appears among Haydn's works in the form of a sonata for violin and piano.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> See Mason's "Beethoven and his Forerunners," pages 232-240.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Published in miniature score, Payne edition, price 20 cents.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> A reference to the full score of this movement will reveal certain crossings of the lower -instruments over the upper by which interesting effects of tone color are produced.</p></div></div> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span></p> -</div> - -<h2>CHAPTER XI.<br /> - -<small>BEETHOVEN—I</small>.</h2> - - -<h3>I. <small>GENERAL CHARACTER OF BEETHOVEN'S WORK.</small></h3> - -<p>The reader who has attentively followed the story of -the long and gradual development of music from the folk-song -and peasant dance up to the point we have now -reached, cannot but have been impressed by the character -of preparation for some supreme achievement of which -this development seems to partake throughout. All the -laborious steps lead on toward a goal which even in the -splendid work of Haydn and Mozart is not quite reached. -Haydn crystallizes the form and style of instrumental -music; Mozart adds his peculiar aristocratic grace of manner -and classical beauty of substance, yet even in his work -there remains a certain coldness and conventionality—the -body of the art is perfect, but the spiritual passion of modern -music as we know it is still lacking. Even during the life-times -of these great musicians, however, the supreme genius -who was to bring to its perfect flowering the plant they had -so carefully tended was preparing for his work. In 1791, -when Mozart died, and when Haydn made his first journey -to London to produce his Salomon symphonies, Ludwig -van Beethoven, born in 1770, was just entering on his young -manhood.</p> - -<p>In order to understand the character and work of Beethoven, -it is necessary constantly to bear in mind the two-sided -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> -truth that the greatest men are those who combine -the utmost receptivity and teachableness with a perfect -self-dependence and fearless initiative. Beethoven, who -is equally remarkable for both, could never have done what -he did had he lacked either. Had he been merely "original" -he could not have securely founded himself on the -work of his predecessors, and, therefore, would probably -not have surpassed them. Had he been content always to -imitate, had he never ventured beyond what was sanctioned -by tradition, he would never have inaugurated a -new epoch in music. It becomes, therefore, a matter -of great interest to trace these opposed but complementary -traits of docility and unconventionality, first in his character, -and secondly in his music.</p> - -<p>In what has been written of Beethoven, his eccentricities -have been so dwelt upon that his capacity for laborious -study has hardly been appreciated. It is true that he was -a restive pupil. He was taught for a while by Haydn, but -soon quarreled with him. His teacher in counterpoint, the -learned pedagogue Albrechtsberger, said of him: "He will -never do anything according to rule; he has learnt nothing." -But Beethoven was essentially self-taught; and in his efforts, -under his own guidance, to master all the technical difficulties -of his art, he showed the most inexhaustible patience -and subjected himself to the most tireless labor. Never -did the veriest dolt drudge more faithfully at the A, B, C -of his art than the "divine Beethoven." We have proof -of this in his sketch-books, many of which have been edited -and printed by Nottebohm. In them we see him jotting -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> -down his ideas, often surprisingly trite in the first instance, -and then returning, day after day, to the task of developing -them into the perfect themes of his finished compositions. -Nothing could be more salutary to those who fancy that -musical creation is entirely a matter of "inspiration" than -a perusal of these endless pages in which Beethoven slowly -and painfully separates the pure metal from the ore of his -thought and refines it to complete purity.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p> - -<p>Beethoven's wonderful certainty of touch, economy of -material, and logical coherence of ideas were doubtless -attainable only by this laborious method of working. He -learned, by careful imitation, all that the models left by -his predecessors could teach him before he ventured to -push beyond them. Yet even in his early 'prentice work, -like the first two symphonies and the earlier piano sonatas, -in which the influence of Haydn and Mozart are constantly -evident, there is a vigor of execution, a ruggedness -of style, and a depth of feeling, that are all his own. In -other words, his strong originality was already coloring all -that he did; even when he imitated, it was with a subtle -difference.</p> - -<p>Later, as his powers developed and self-confidence grew, -he became more and more indifferent to tradition, more and -more singly bent on following his own genius wherever it -might lead him. A strong dramatic instinct began to possess -him, showing itself in a love for sudden changes of harmony -and rhythm, for unexpected transitions from loud to -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> -soft or from soft to loud, and in other such eccentricities. -His rhythms became more striking, his melodies broader -and more various, his harmonies and modulations so daring -and unprecedented that the conservatives of the day held -up their hands in horror. His sense of musical structure, -of that combining of themes in long movements which is -akin to the architect's combination of pillars, arches, windows, -buttresses and colonnades in great buildings, became -so powerful and unerring that he created works of vaster -proportions and more subtle symmetry than had ever been -dreamed of before—so great and complex that they could -be followed only by the highly trained ear and mind.</p> - -<p>Such were the works of his maturity. Later still, as he -became more and more thrown in upon himself by poverty, -pride, the terrible affliction of deafness, and the failure of -his contemporaries to understand him, he came to live -entirely in his own ideal world, and his music became more -and more markedly individual, and in some cases almost -perversely so. His latest works are not thoroughly understood, -even to-day, except after the most patient, exhaustive -study.</p> - -<p>The customary division of Beethoven's artistic life into -three periods<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> is based on these internal differences observable -in his works. Those of the first period, extending to -about 1803, of which the most important are the piano -sonatas up to opus 53, the first three piano concertos, the -string quartets, opus 18, and the first and second symphonies, -show him under the influence of Haydn and Mozart, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> -though already more poignant, impassioned, and forcible -than his models.</p> - -<p>In the second period, the period of full and vigorous -maturity, extending from 1803 to 1813, he throws off all -restricting traditions, and stands forth a heroic figure, the -like of which music had never seen, and may never see -again. The compositions of this decade, among which may -be specially mentioned the piano sonatas from the "Waldstein" -to opus 90, the fourth and fifth piano concertos, the -unique concerto for violin, the string quartets, opus 59 and -opus 74, the overtures "Coriolanus" and "Egmont," the -opera "Fidelio," the great Mass in C, and above all the six -magnificent symphonies from the "Eroica" to the eighth, -are among the supreme achievements of human art. They -combine the utmost variety of form and style with a perfect -unity; they are models of structure for all time; and as to -expression, one knows not what to marvel at most, their -rugged virility and intensity of passion, their deep pathos -and tender sentiment, their moods of effervescent merriment, -humor, and whimsical perversity, or their almost -superhuman moments of mystical elevation.</p> - -<p>The third period, extending from 1813 to Beethoven's -death in 1827, is as we have said characterized by an almost -excessive individuality, and is difficult to relate to the normal -progress of musical art. Nevertheless it contains some of -his greatest works—notably the Ninth Symphony, the -Mass in D, and the final sonatas and quartets. The -detailed study of it falls outside the province of this book.</p> - -<p>With this brief and necessarily cursory survey of Beethoven's -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> -achievement in its entirety, we may pass on to the -examination of a single typical work, hoping in the course -of it to make clearer to the student the two main facts about -Beethoven on which we have been trying to insist: his -indebtedness to his predecessors in the matters of general -structure and style, and the indomitable originality by virtue -of which all that he does is infused with a novel beauty -and an unparalleled profundity of feeling. We shall choose -for our first example one of the finest compositions of his -first period—the "Pathétique Sonata," for piano, opus 13, -taking up in later chapters some typical examples of his -more advanced style.</p> - - -<h3>II. A<small>NALYSIS OF A</small> B<small>EETHOVEN</small> S<small>ONATA</small>.<br /> -E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 17.</h3> - -<p><em>Beethoven: Piano Sonata, Opus 13. First movement.</em></p> - -<p>It will be noted that Beethoven adds to the three traditional -sections of the sonata-form an introduction in slow -tempo (of which we saw an earlier example in Haydn's -"Surprise" Symphony) and a brief coda, based on the main -material of the movement, to round out the complete movement -satisfactorily. In his later work both of these additional -sections came often to figure very prominently, the -increased development he gave to them being indeed one of -his most important contributions to sonata-form. We shall -see in his Fifth Symphony a fine example of his treatment -of the coda, which raises it to a dignity equal to that -of the other organic sections. The introduction of the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> -Fourth Symphony extends to thirty-eight measures of slow -tempo, that of the Seventh Symphony to sixty-two measures, -with great variety of treatment.</p> - -<p>The general structure of this movement, which is in extended -sonata-form, is shown in the following tabular view:</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="small2">TABULAR VIEW OF STRUCTURE OF FIRST MOVEMENT<br /> -OF THE PATHÉTIQUE SONATA.</p> -</div> - -<table class="toc3" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="pathé"> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt"> </td> -<td class="td1lt"> </td> -<td class="td1l2t"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1head">Sections.</td> -<td class="td1head">Themes.</td> -<td class="td1headr">Measures.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt"> </td> -<td class="td1lt">Slow Introduction</td> -<td class="td1rt2">1-10</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt">Exposition (A)</td> -<td class="td1lt">First theme, C minor</td> -<td class="td1rt2">11-27</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">Transition, based on first theme</td> -<td class="td1r2">27-50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> Duality of</td> -<td class="td1l1">Second theme, E-flat minor</td> -<td class="td1r2">51-88</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> Harmony</td> -<td class="td1l1">Codetta or Conclusion section, E-flat major</td> -<td class="td1r2">89-134</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">Consisting of</td> -<td class="td1r2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1"> Conclusion-theme I</td> -<td class="td1r2">89-112</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1"> Conclusion-theme II</td> -<td class="td1r2">113-120</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">Reminiscence of theme I</td> -<td class="td1r2">121-134</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt">Development (B)</td> -<td class="td1lt">Introduction-motive</td> -<td class="td1rt2">135-138</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> Plurality of</td> -<td class="td1l1">Theme I and Introduction-motive treated</td> -<td class="td1r2">139-196</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1"> Harmony</td> -<td class="td1r2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt">Recapitulation (A)</td> -<td class="td1lt">First theme, C minor</td> -<td class="td1rt2">197-209</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">New transition</td> -<td class="td1r2">209-222</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> Unity of</td> -<td class="td1l1">Second theme, F minor</td> -<td class="td1r2">223-254</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> Harmony</td> -<td class="td1l1">Codetta, C minor</td> -<td class="td1r2">255-296</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt">Coda</td> -<td class="td1lt"> </td> -<td class="td1rt2">297-312</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">Consisting of</td> -<td class="td1r2"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1"> Introduction motive</td> -<td class="td1r2">297-300</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lb"> </td> -<td class="td1lb"> First theme, reminiscence</td> -<td class="td1r2b">301-311</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>The motive of the introduction, shown in Figure XLVII, -is a deeply expressive bit of melody which at once establishes -the mood to which the sonata owes its name of -"Pathetic." How incisive and seizing is this very first -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> -measure! What a different world it takes us into—a -romantic world of personal feeling—from the classic realms -of Haydn and Mozart! The emotion thus suggested at the -outset becomes deeper, too, as we proceed, first with the -higher utterance of the same motive in the second measure, -and then with the fragments of it in the third and fourth, -urging us on to a climax on the high A-flat. Finally, in the -fifth and succeeding measures, the pulsating rhythm of the -accompaniment adds a still greater agitation, while the -melody climbs ever higher and higher until it reaches the F -of measure 9, after which it dies away in preparation for the -main theme. The intensity of Beethoven's expression, by -which his claim to the title of "romantic" is most surely -indicated, could hardly be better shown than by this brief -introduction of ten measures.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 460px;"> -<img src="images/pag168_score1.jpg" width="460" height="172" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>a</em>) Motive of the Introduction, Pathétique Sonata.</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag168_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag168_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag168_score2.jpg" width="550" height="161" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>b</em>) Treatment of this motive in the Development.</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag168_score2.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag168_score2.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XLVII.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span></p> - -<p>The body of the movement begins energetically, yet -sombrely, with the first theme, in minor key and strongly -pronounced rhythm. This merges quickly in the transition -(27-50), which is neither a bit of empty passage-work -as often with Haydn, nor a new melody as with -Mozart, but contains constant references to the main theme -(35-37, 39-41, 43-45). The second theme is both more -lyrical in character and more extended than the first. It is -not in the traditional key of the relative major (see Chapters -II and III), but oscillates between E-flat minor and D-flat, -coming into E-flat major (the relative of C-minor) only as -it closes and debouches into the first conclusion theme (89-112). -The closing section or codetta is, however, almost -entirely in E-flat, and is moreover fairly long and important. -It consists of two independent themes and of a reminiscence -of the first theme at measures 121-135. A fine instance of -melodic germination is found in the first conclusion theme, -where the gradually rising melody twice builds itself up into -a long phrase of eight measures (93-100, and 105-112) with -splendidly sustained effect. The great variety of rhythm -embodied in the codetta should be especially noticed.</p> - -<p>The development begins with a restatement of the poignant -introduction-motive, so managed that it leads into the -remote key of E-minor. Now begins, with the resumption -of the allegro tempo, a rather short but most interesting -treatment of the first theme, continued with an ingenious -variant of the introduction-motive (measures 142-143, 148-149: -see Figure XLVII (<em>b</em>)), followed by the transference -of the fragment of the first theme to the bass, where it is -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> -thrice repeated, amid constant modulation. Then, in the -measure following 169, comes one of those inimitably hushed, -mysterious passages so peculiar to Beethoven, through -which, like fountains from a sombre pool, rise fragments of -the first theme. Then, with a rapidly descending passage, -the movement plunges into its recapitulation.</p> - -<p>This section the reader will have no difficulty in analyzing -for himself, not failing to note the felicity with which a -new transition, from first to second themes (209-222), is -made to germinate from the last two measures of the main -theme. The coda, very brief, contains nothing but a final -announcement of fragments of the introduction-motive and -a single sentence of the first theme.</p> - - -<h3>E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 18.</h3> - -<p class="sub"><em>Beethoven: Piano Sonata, opus 13. Second movement.</em></p> - -<p>This slow movement, a beautiful <em>adagio cantabile</em> in -Beethoven's tranquilly serious mood, takes on the sectional -form of the rondo, consisting of a theme (<em>A</em>), an episode -(<em>B</em>), recurrence of the theme (<em>A</em>), a second episode (<em>C</em>), -second recurrence of the theme (<em>A</em>), and brief codetta.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag170_score1.jpg" width="550" height="89" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag170_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag170_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XLVIII.</p> - -<p>The theme itself, filling only eight measures, but repeated -at a higher pitch in the second eight measures, is a fine -example of the variety in unity of Beethoven's melodies, -secured only after much laborious sketching. It is shown in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> -Figure XLVIII, and should be examined carefully. Almost -every measure of it presents a new rhythm, so that there is -none of the monotony of those themes which endlessly repeat -a single rhythmic figure. (Compare the tunes of primitive -savages shown in Chapter I.) Yet the whole melody is so -deftly composed that its final impression of unity is perfect. -The sequence form which the harmonies of the last four measures -take contributes in no small degree to this impression -of unity.</p> - -<p>The theme being in the key of A-flat, both episodes are -planned to give variety of key, the first (B—measures 17-28) -being in the relative minor, F-minor, and the second (C—measures -37-50), beginning in A-flat minor and modulating, -through E-major, back to the home-key.</p> - -<p>With the third entrance of the main theme, the accompaniment -takes the more animated rhythm of triplets; and -these continue through the brief but delightful codetta (66-73).</p> - - -<h3>E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 19.</h3> - -<p class="sub"><em>Beethoven: Piano Sonata, opus 13. Third movement.</em><a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p> - -<p>This movement is an example of rondo form, being, like -the Mozart rondo we have already studied, based on the -alternation of a chief theme, with sections containing other -material. The tabular view on the next page exhibits the -complete structure.</p> - -<p>The first theme, sprightly and energetic, and recalling -in its melodic curve the second theme of the first movement, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> -is in strophic form, with its last half repeated, and the -cadence extended for greater emphasis. The sequences in -measures 6-7 and 10-11 should be noted. The transition -also starts off with a sequence, measures 23-26, corresponding -to 19-22. Our old familiar, the device of imitation, -also figures in measures 38 and 39. It is interesting to see -Beethoven using these tools of the polyphonic style (see -Chapters I and III) in a work so far removed from it, and -with such ingratiating freshness.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="small2">TABULAR VIEW OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE FINALE<br /> - OF THE PATHÉTIQUE SONATA.</p> -</div> - - -<table class="toc3" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="finale"> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt"> </td> -<td class="td1lt"> </td> -<td class="td1l2t"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1head">Sections.</td> -<td class="td1head">Themes.</td> -<td class="td1headr">Measures.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt">A.</td> -<td class="td1lt">First theme, C-minor</td> -<td class="td1rt2">1-18</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">Transition</td> -<td class="td1r2">19-26</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt">B.</td> -<td class="td1lt">Second theme, E-flat major</td> -<td class="td1rt2">26-44</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1r2">44-52</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">Transition (on motive from close of second theme)</td> -<td class="td1r2">52-62</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt">A.</td> -<td class="td1lt">First theme, C-minor</td> -<td class="td1rt2">62-79</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt">C.</td> -<td class="td1lt">Third theme, A-flat</td> -<td class="td1rt2">80-108</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">Florid passage work</td> -<td class="td1r2">108-121</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt">A.</td> -<td class="td1lt">First theme, C-major</td> -<td class="td1rt2">121-135</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt">B.</td> -<td class="td1lt">Second theme, C-minor</td> -<td class="td1rt2">135-154</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">Closing theme (codetta)</td> -<td class="td1r2">155-171</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt">A.</td> -<td class="td1lt">First theme, C-minor</td> -<td class="td1rt2">172-183</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">Codetta, extended</td> -<td class="td1r2">183-203</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lb"> </td> -<td class="td1lb">Final suggestions of first theme</td> -<td class="td1r2b">203-211</td> -</tr> - -</table> - -<p>The second theme enters for only eight measures, after -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> -which the gay little imitations are again resorted to, and -carry us to the re-entrance of the main theme.</p> - -<p>The episode (C), based on a new theme in the key of -A-flat major, for the sake of the harmonic variety so essential -to the middle part of a movement, is again in sequence -form, and in strict polyphonic style, first with two voices -and later with three. In measures 100-103 we have the -theme in the right hand, and set against it in the left a -staccato counterpoint in eighth-notes; in the next four measures -this scheme is just reversed. A rather florid passage, -which may be compared to the cadenza in the rondo from -Mozart analyzed in Chapter VI, leads over to the return of -the first theme.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag173_score1.jpg" width="550" height="454" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag173_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag173_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE XLIX.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span></p> - -<p>The appearance of the second theme, on its return, in -the key of C-major instead of E-flat major, imparts organic -solidity to the movement by its insistence on the tonic key, -as in similar cases in the sonata-form (compare again Chapter -VI). It is also this time made to germinate into eight -additional measures (see Figure XLIX).</p> - -<p>In the final section A (172-end) the little motive of the -transitions does further duty, and a new figure is introduced -in measure 194. After the pause of measures 202-203, we -have brief hints, piano, of the main theme, and then with -one of the sudden fortissimos Beethoven loves so well, a -precipitous downward scale ends the movement with vigor.</p> - - -<h3>III. <small>SUMMARY.</small></h3> - -<p>The "Pathétique Sonata" illustrates most vividly the -general truths about its composer's first period which we -have tried to bring out above. The similarity to the style -of Haydn and Mozart is most striking. Not only do we find -the general types of structure developed by them applied -with great fidelity, but there are many details of style, such -as the accompaniment figures and the ornamentation, which -recall them. Yet the strings, so to speak, are all tightened, -there is not a trace of flabbiness or diffuseness, everything -irrelevant is omitted, and the style is at once more varied -and more unified than theirs. The vigor and individuality -of all the themes is consummate; the organic beauty of such -themes as that of the Adagio is supreme. The transitions -are notable for their pertinency and derivation from the -thematic materials of the movement—there are no empty -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> -scales and arpeggios. The developments give the impression -of inevitability, of growing from the primary motives -as naturally as plants grow from their seeds. Contrast in -rhythm, in melody, in harmony, and in style (as exemplified -in the use of polyphonic style in the finale) abounds. -There is never a dull moment, yet interest is never secured -at the expense of unity. Above all, the virility, profundity, -and earnestness of the expression, surprise us; there is here -none of the detachment, the cool remoteness, of classic art; -every note throbs with personal feeling—music has left -the innocence and transparent gaiety of childhood behind -it, and begun to speak with the deeper and more moving, -if less serene, accents of maturity.</p> - -<p>In the next chapters we shall trace this progress further.</p> - - -<p class="center">S<small>UGGESTIONS FOR</small> C<small>OLLATERAL</small> R<small>EADING</small>.</p> - -<p><cite>E. Dickinson: "The Study of the History of Music," Chapter -XXVI. C. H. H. Parry: "The Evolution of the Art of -Music," Chapter XII. D. G. Mason: "Beethoven and His -Forerunners," Chapters VII, VIII, and IX.</cite></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<div class="footnotes"><p class="p4 center">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> See for quotations from the sketch-books, Mason's "Beethoven and His Forerunners," -pp. 304-314. Several of the complete sketch-books, edited by Nottebohm, are published -by Breitkopf and Härtel.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> See Von Lenz's "Beethoven et ses trois styles."</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> In numbering the measures, begin with the first (partial) measure, even though it -is incomplete.</p></div></div> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span></p> -</div> - -<h2>CHAPTER XII.<br /> - -<small>BEETHOVEN—II.</small></h2> - - -<h3>I. <small>FORM AND CONTENT.</small></h3> - -<p>Our study of the Pathétique Sonata has shown how -closely Beethoven followed the models of Haydn and -Mozart, at the same time infusing into them a new spirit. -The first movement of that sonata does not differ materially -in form from the first movement of Mozart's G-minor -Symphony, discussed in Chapter IX, yet Beethoven takes -us into a new world, far removed from that world of pure -impersonal beauty in which Mozart dwelt. Beethoven is -the man struggling, fighting, working out his own individuality, -learning through bitter experience; Mozart is the -artist not so much turning his own experience into music, -as creating outside himself imperishable works of an almost -superhuman beauty. In many of Beethoven's works there -is this same regularity of form coupled with freedom of -expression. The brusqueness of his style led his contemporaries -to think him an iconoclast; and it was not till many -years after works like the Fifth Symphony were produced -that the public began to understand how orthodox they are.</p> - -<p>This free individual expression, now a characteristic of -art generally and evident enough in all phases of human -life—this assertion of the personal point of view—began -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> -with Beethoven and has been increasing ever since his day, -until we now have music in which certain phrases or themes -no longer please us as beautiful sounds, but exist for some -ulterior and individual purpose.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag177_score1.jpg" width="550" height="355" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>a</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag177_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag177_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag177_score2.jpg" width="550" height="186" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>b</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag177_score2.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag177_score2.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE L.</p> - -<p>This change was perhaps only a part of that more general -transformation of society by which the composer, who -had previously been subject to the favor of princely patrons, -became an independent individual, living in direct contact -with the public at large. Music, thus freed and given an -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> -independent existence, became an expressive art and took -deeper root in human experience. It lost, in this process, -something of that calm, ethereal beauty it had possessed, -but it gained greatly in expressiveness. In Beethoven's -hands it became plastic; he enlarged the range of harmonic -combinations far beyond that of Mozart, and created themes -that were of wider application to human feeling. In illustration -of this there will be found in Figure L, (<em>a</em>) a quotation -from the slow movement of Beethoven's piano sonata, -op. 2, no. 2, and in (<em>b</em>) a quotation from the slow movement -of his sonata, op. 10, no. 3. These should be compared with -the theme from Mozart's piano sonata in Figure XLI. -The difference between the themes of Beethoven and -that of Mozart is in their content rather than in their form.</p> - -<p>The purpose of Mozart's theme is beauty; the purpose -of Beethoven's themes is expressiveness, the conveyance of -deep emotion. They are lacking in one essential quality -of melodic beauty, namely, outline, or curve.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> These two -quotations are not representative of Beethoven's lyric -genius, for he has left us many fine melodies, but -they reveal a general tendency of his to seek in music -an outlet for his deepest thoughts and feelings, and to sacrifice, -if necessary, that beauty of outline that characterizes -Mozart's finest tunes.</p> - - -<h3>II. <small>BEETHOVEN'S STYLE.</small></h3> - -<p>One peculiarity of Beethoven's music, due to his constant -search after expressiveness rather than mere formal -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> -symmetry, is a unity and conciseness of style notably -superior to that of Mozart. Many of his themes lack the -perfect balance of phrases, in exact thesis and antithesis, -found in Mozart's, their structure resulting rather from -a logical development of the leading motive, which, by a -favorite device of his, presses on, in constant repetition -and with increasing vigor, to an emotional climax. The -contrast between this method of treating a theme and -the method of Mozart may be seen in Figure LI.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag179_score1.jpg" width="550" height="138" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>a</em>) From Mozart's G-minor Symphony.</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag179_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag179_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag179_score2.jpg" width="550" height="139" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>b</em>) From Beethoven's first piano Sonata.</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag179_score2.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag179_score2.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag179_score3.jpg" width="550" height="208" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>c</em>) From Beethoven's String Quartet, op. 59, No. 1.</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag179_score3.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag179_score3.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span></p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE LI.</p> - -<p>In the quotation from Mozart's symphony it will be -observed that the two-measure phrases exactly balance -each other, but that the second phrase is melodically unrelated -to the first, and is, furthermore, a somewhat trivial -figure. One feels in listening to the whole theme that -the real significance of it lies in the opening phrase, and -this conclusion is justified by reference to the development -section of the movement, where the composer altogether -discards the second phrase. The style of this theme -is, therefore, largely dictated by the convention of perfect -phrase balance. The style of the two Beethoven themes, -on the contrary, is vigorous and terse. The outward -symmetry is dictated by the inner sense.</p> - -<p>In the sonata theme Beethoven presses home his idea -with greater and greater intensity until the climax is reached, -after which the tension is gradually abated; in the theme -from the string quartet an almost identical method is -pursued. For a further illustration of the terseness of -Beethoven's style reference may be made to the development -sections of this sonata and string quartet, where -most interesting use is made of the short motives from -which these themes are derived. These methods of writing -give evidence of the fine economy Beethoven continually -displays. There is, in his music, nothing redundant—no -unnecessary word—and it is this quality of style that -produces such an effect of life and vigor.</p> - -<p>Beethoven carries out these methods in whole movements, -and even in complete symphonies. We have -already seen how, in the Pathétique Sonata, a theme in -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> -the finale is derived from one in the first movement, but a -much more interesting example of the process<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> may be -found in the Fifth Symphony.</p> - - -<h3>E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 20.</h3> - -<p class="sub"><em>Beethoven: The Fifth Symphony.</em><a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> <em>First movement.</em></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag181_score1andpag181_score2a.jpg" width="550" height="339" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>a</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag181_score1andpag181_score2a.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag181_score1andpag181_score2a.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;"> -<img src="images/pag181_score1b.jpg" width="350" height="181" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>b</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag181_score1b.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag181_score1b.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag181_score1c.jpg" width="550" height="167" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>c</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag181_score1c.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag181_score1c.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag182_score1.jpg" width="550" height="131" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>d</em>) From the Scherzo.</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag182_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag182_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE LII.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span></p> - -<p>In Figure LII will be found quotations from the three -themes of the first movement of the Fifth Symphony, and -from the secondary theme of the scherzo.</p> - -<p>It will be observed that the first motive in theme I—consisting -of three short notes followed by a long one—is -the germ from which both the conclusion theme and -scherzo theme spring, and that the same motive serves -as the bass to the second theme. This motive, in fact, -dominates the entire first movement, the extraordinary -vitality of which is largely due to the incisive quality of -the motive itself and to the occasional thunderous proclamations -of it by the entire orchestra. Here we have the -virility of Beethoven's style admirably illustrated; no time -is given to platitudes, no single measure wanders away from -the chief issues. At times this first motive is extended into -a succession of loud chords from the full orchestra; again -the prevailing two-measure rhythm is interrupted by a -measure of silence that shifts the accents dramatically from -one place to another, dislocating the whole passage.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> This -intensity of utterance—each phrase hammered home—gives -to the whole work a quite unique place among -symphonies.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span></p> - -<p>The complete movement may be tabulated as follows:</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="small2">TABULAR VIEW OF STRUCTURE OF FIRST MOVEMENT OF<br /> -BEETHOVEN'S FIFTH SYMPHONY.</p> -</div> - - -<table class="toc3" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="finale"> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt"> </td> -<td class="td1lt"> </td> -<td class="td1l2t"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1head">Sections.</td> -<td class="td1head">Themes.</td> -<td class="td1headr">Measures.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt">Introduction.</td> -<td class="td1lt"> On motive from theme I </td> -<td class="td1rt2">1-5</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt">Exposition (A)</td> -<td class="td1lt">First theme, C-minor</td> -<td class="td1rt2"> 6-56</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">Transition consisting of a chord of modulation</td> -<td class="td1r2">58</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> Duality of</td> -<td class="td1l1">Introduction to theme II based on original motive</td> -<td class="td1r2">59-62</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> Harmony</td> -<td class="td1l1">Second theme in E-flat major</td> -<td class="td1r2">63-95</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> <br /> - </td> -<td class="td1l1">Codetta or Conclusion-section consisting of<br /> - Conclusion-theme.</td> -<td class="td1r2"> <br /> -95-119</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1"> Reminiscence of theme I</td> -<td class="td1r2">110-124</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt">Development (B)</td> -<td class="td1lt">Motive from theme I treated</td> -<td class="td1rt2">125-179</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> <br /> - </td> -<td class="td1l1">Introduction to theme II lengthened and treated<br /> - in sequence (G-minor and C-minor)</td> -<td class="td1r2"> <br /> -179-195</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> Plurality of<br /> - Harmony</td> -<td class="td1l1">Half note phrase pass the same extended into long <br /> - passage finally losing its contour and retaining only its rhythm</td> -<td class="td1r2"> <br /> -195-240</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt">Recapitulation (A)</td> -<td class="td1lt">Further treatment of theme I</td> -<td class="td1rt2">240-252</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">First theme, C-minor</td> -<td class="td1r2">253-300</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">Transition leading to C-major </td> -<td class="td1r2">302</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> Unity of</td> -<td class="td1l1">Introduction to theme II </td> -<td class="td1r2">303-306</td> -</tr> - - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> Harmony </td> -<td class="td1l1">Second theme in C-major</td> -<td class="td1r2">307-346</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">Conclusion—theme C-major </td> -<td class="td1r2">346-374</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt">Coda </td> -<td class="td1lt">Theme I treated </td> -<td class="td1rt2">374-397</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">Introduction to theme II with new counterpoint</td> -<td class="td1r2">398-406</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">Motive from the same in diminution (basses)</td> -<td class="td1r2">406-415</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1"> Motive from theme II treated</td> -<td class="td1r2">416-469</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lb"> </td> -<td class="td1lb">Motive from theme I treated</td> -<td class="td1r2b"> 469-502</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p>The foregoing table should be compared with those in -Chapters VIII and IX in order to get a comprehensive -view of the gradual development of sonata-form. It -will be seen that Beethoven destroys nothing, but that -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> -the changes he makes in the older models are changes such -as the nature of his themes and the length of the movement -demand. The chief difference in themes is that the first -theme is less lyric than those of Mozart, and more suited -to development; a better contrast between themes I and II -is thereby provided. The coda is extended far beyond that -of the old model, and becomes an important part of the -structure—important, because at this stage of the development -of sonata form (audiences having become accustomed -to listening to long pieces of pure music) the repetition of -the whole first section (A) is a little too obvious, and the -introduction of a dramatic coda after the recapitulation -section provides fresh interest at the point where it is most -needed.</p> - -<p>Sir Hubert Parry<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> writes of Beethoven's innovations in -this phase of musical development as follows: "It was his -good fortune that the sonata-form had been so perfectly -organized and that the musical public had been made so -perfectly familiar with it, that they were ready to follow -every suggestion and indication of the principle of form; -and even to grasp what he aimed at when he purposely -presumed on their familiarity with it to build fresh subtleties -and new devices upon the well known lines; and even -to emphasize the points by making progressions in directions -which seemed to ignore them."</p> - -<p>But most important of all is the close reasoning (if we -may use the term) displayed throughout this movement. -There is hardly a single note in it that has not some direct -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> -bearing on the subject matter, the two chords in the transitions -being the only portions not derived from the themes -proper. With all these elements of strength, and the added -cohesion resulting from the similarity of themes, this movement -stands as a model of what a symphonic first movement -should be.</p> - - -<h3>III. <small>THE DRAMATIC ELEMENT IN BEETHOVEN'S MUSIC.</small></h3> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 370px;"> -<img src="images/pag185_score1.jpg" width="370" height="94" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>a</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag185_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag185_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag185_score2.jpg" width="550" height="162" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>b</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag185_score2.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag185_score2.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag185_score3.jpg" width="550" height="186" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>c</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag185_score3.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag185_score3.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE LIII.</p> - -<p>We have referred in Chapter VIII to that process of -development whereby a theme becomes gradually changed, -losing its physiognomy little by little until it is only a shadow -of its former self. In the quotation in Figure LIII this process -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> -might almost be said to be the opposite of development, since -the theme is gradually denuded of its melodic curve, until -nothing but its rhythm remains; but the effect, at least, is -to produce something quite new out of a germinal motive, -and to relieve, for a moment, that insistence on melody -that characterizes the first section. The device is a favorite -one with Beethoven, and in this movement he makes -interesting use of it. The passage begins at measure -195 ((<em>a</em>) in the figure) with the phrase used to introduce the -second theme, as if it intended going on with the theme as -before, but instead there enters a long passage of half-notes, -(<em>b</em>), in which the <em>outline</em> of the half-note phrase is preserved -for a while, after which the rhythm only is retained, and the -passage becomes a series of chords floating mysteriously, -and dimly outlined as in a cloud ((<em>c</em>) in the figure). The -original motive crashes through (measure 228) for a -moment, the soft chords sound again, and then the whole -orchestra rushes rapidly to the end of the section.</p> - -<p>The effect of this cessation of the rapid movement -that has thus far animated the music is very dramatic, -and the startling interruption of its peaceful flow by the -loud chords at measures 228-231—as if they were impatient -to begin the turmoil again—gives the whole passage a -peculiarly vivid effect. This device is analogous to that -employed in the novel when the author prepares his readers, -by a page or two of peaceful narrative, for his most dramatic -episode. The significance of this passage is, of -course, due to its connection with the introductory phrase -from which it sprang, but it should be noted that the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> -whole passage is a re-creation from the original motive and -not a restatement of it in another key. And its position -in the movement is exactly at the point where some relief -is needed from what might otherwise be a too great insistence -on the first theme, and just before the beginning -of the recapitulation, where the first theme is to appear in -its original form. It will be found that such passages are -usually placed in this position.</p> - -<p>The themes in Beethoven's finest works are not only -hammered out, as it were, from the rough metal, but we -may say of them—as we cannot say of those of Haydn's -and Mozart's—that they are pregnant with possibilities -which are not fully realized until the composition is finished. -With Haydn and Mozart the development section is usually -a string of different versions of the original theme—as -is the latter's G-minor symphony, first and last movements. -With Beethoven the development section reveals -what was latent in the original theme, but what had not -been before realized. In the development section of the -Fifth Symphony he not only convinces us by his logic, but -overpowers us by the sweep of his eloquence.</p> - - -<h3>IV. <small>THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FIRST MOVEMENT OF<br /> -THE FIFTH SYMPHONY.</small></h3> - -<p>It is impossible to express in words the significance -of this music, but it runs almost the complete gamut of -human feeling. The opening theme is so incisive and -has such a tremendous energy that it takes us into a new -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> -world. If we compare it with Mozart's first movement -themes we realize at once that it deals with things that -music had never attempted to express before. The second -theme is not by any means a fine melody, being made up -of a constantly reiterated phrase, but it has an appealing -beauty of its own that we would not exchange for perfection. -Occasionally the terrible asserts itself, as in those -ominous chords with empty fifths in the coda (measures -481-482), while the whole movement seems to have been -struck off at white heat.</p> - -<p>That this was not the case, however, but that on the -contrary even the first theme itself took its present shape -only after a laborious effort of the composer's mind, we -know from the evidence of his sketch-book. The theme -first appears there in the following form.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag188_score1.jpg" width="550" height="324" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag188_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag188_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE LIV.</p> - -<p>This commonplace theme evidently lay generating in -Beethoven's mind for a long period. Various sketches on -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> -it appear from time to time, and it was only after much -thought that it finally emerged in its permanent form. -This was always his method of composition. Unlike -Mozart, who wrote music with the utmost fluency and -rapidity, Beethoven rewrote his themes many times before -they satisfied him, and the process caused him actual mental -agony. With him composing was a struggle, a fight; -he stamped, and sang, and shouted over the composition -of some of his larger works, and finally emerged from his -solitude exhausted.</p> - -<p>There is no doubt but that Beethoven was affected by -the prevailing social unrest of his time—by the revolutionary -ideas that were then stirring. Although we cannot -attempt to translate into words the significance of the fifth -symphony, there is no mistaking its language as that of -independence and freedom from conventional shackles. -"Writing in a period of revolution," says Mr. Hadow,<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> -"himself an ardent revolutionary, he broke in upon the -politeness of the Austrian court with an eloquence as tempestuous -as that of Mirabeau or Danton." So that, looking -at his music as a whole, we are not only struck by its -significance, but by the close relation in which it stands to -the life of Beethoven's period. Never before had music -been so untrammeled, so free. The medium itself—harmony, -melody, rhythm—had become more plastic, and -the old incubus of tradition had been thrown off. Not -only that, but the various elements in composition -were fused for the first time in Beethoven's music. Polyphony -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> -takes its place as a means and not an end; pure -melody—even folk-melody—becomes a part of the larger -scheme in which its beauty is set off against contrasting -elements—and is thereby enhanced; rhythm becomes a -means of expression in itself, and not merely a vehicle; harmony -is made an important part of the general design, and -its latent possibilities as a means of expression are realized.</p> - -<p>All these threads were gathered together by Beethoven, -and woven into the complex fabric of his music. Great -men are usually born at just the right moment, and Beethoven -was no exception to the rule; for he found the art at -just the point where a master spirit was needed to take its -various elements and fuse them. Under his hands all the -inessential parts dropped away, and the essentials were -placed in such relation to each other that a completely -organic work of art resulted.</p> - - -<p class="center">S<small>UGGESTIONS FOR</small> C<small>OLLATERAL</small> R<small>EADING</small>.</p> - -<p><cite>"Oxford History" Vol. III: Chapters X and XI. Grove's -"Beethoven and His Nine Symphonies." Grove's "Dictionary -of Music and Musicians:" articles "Beethoven," -"Symphony," and "Form." Mason's "Beethoven and His -Forerunners," Chapters VII, VIII, and IX.</cite></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<div class="footnotes"><p class="p4 center">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> An examination of any one of the best folk-songs quoted in Chapter II, or the melodies -of Bach, Handel, Haydn or Mozart quoted in succeeding chapters, will show how important -an element of melody is this curve or outline.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> The themes in the minuet and finale of Haydn's "Emperor" quartet have a slight -similarity of contour.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> Published for piano, two or four hands, by Peters, Leipzig. For convenience of -reference, number all measures and parts of measures consecutively.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> The presence of measure 389—which is silent—has been a subject of discussion -among musicians: it is sometimes omitted in performance.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> "Evolution of the Art of Music," Chapter XII.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> "Oxford History of Music."</p></div></div> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span></p> -</div> - - -<h2>CHAPTER XIII.<br /> - -<small>BEETHOVEN—III.</small></h2> - - -<h3>I. <small>THE SLOW MOVEMENT BEFORE BEETHOVEN.</small></h3> - -<p>The slow movements of the sonatas and symphonies -of Haydn and Mozart were essentially lyric pieces in which -the composer relied for his effect on the beauty of his -melodies. These melodies, usually two in number, were -varied by being presented in different keys and by being -ornamented with passing-notes, scale passages, trills, etc. -Each section was clearly separated from the others by -cadence chords, so that the total effect was of a series of -separate divisions, each, as it were, independent and complete -in itself. There are, of course, exceptions to this -method of procedure, particularly in the string quartets -of Haydn and Mozart, which are more highly developed -than is usual in their piano sonatas, but as a general rule -this was their way of treating slow movements.</p> - -<p>This lyric, sectional form of slow movement served -as a foil to the more involved first movement. The -lovely, serene melodies were not disturbed by passion, -nor sacrificed for picturesque effect of any kind. In the -string quartets and symphonies they were enlivened by a -certain amount of polyphony (see Chapter X), and in the -piano sonatas they occasionally departed from the simple -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> -regular form, but they seldom dealt with tragedy and -seldom presented any evidence of that idiosyncrasy and -intense individuality that marks the slow movement of -later times.</p> - - -<h3>II. <small>THE SLOW MOVEMENTS OF BEETHOVEN'S EARLY SYMPHONIES.</small></h3> - -<p>The early sonatas and symphonies of Beethoven are -largely constructed on the old model. The first piano -sonata, referred to in Chapter XII, has a sectional slow -movement that might almost have been written by Mozart. -The slow movement of the first symphony is simplicity -itself, both in form and content; and even the adagio of -the Pathétique Sonata (see Chapter XI) is a straightforward -sectional piece with a lyric melody presented several -times, with varying accompaniment, and with the usual -contrasting middle section.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag192_score1.jpg" width="550" height="86" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>a</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag192_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag192_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag192_score2.jpg" width="550" height="232" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>b</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag192_score2.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag192_score2.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag193_score1.jpg" width="550" height="192" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>c</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag193_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag193_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag193_score2.jpg" width="550" height="371" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>d</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag193_score2.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag192_score2.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag193_score3.jpg" width="550" height="176" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>e</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag193_score3.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag193_score3.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag194_score1.jpg" width="550" height="215" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>f</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag194_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag194_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag194_score2.jpg" width="550" height="185" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>g</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag194_score2.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag194_score2.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE LV.</p> - -<p>In Figure LV is shown the first theme of the -andante of the first symphony, (<em>a</em>) themes from the larghetto -of the second symphony, (<em>b</em>) and (<em>e</em>) and portions -of the middle section of the same (<em>c</em>), (<em>d</em>), (<em>f</em>), and (<em>g</em>). -Each of these themes is distinctly strophic; each has -perfect phrase balance, charm of contour or outline, and -simplicity of harmonization. Not so highly organized as -the theme from the Pathétique Sonata (see Chapter XI, -Figure XLVII) they resemble the themes of the older -masters, but bear, nevertheless, some evidence of the individuality -that so fully characterizes Beethoven's later -music. But in the treatment of the theme from the -second symphony that individuality is clearly manifested. -Instead of a mere restatement varied by new harmonization -or by elaboration of the theme itself, there is a free -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> -play of fancy, one or two short motives from the first theme -being tossed about in the orchestra from one instrument to -another in delightful by-play.</p> - -<p>All sorts of devices are resorted to to keep the interest -of the listener at its height. The chief motive (Figure LV, -(<em>b</em>)) passes from calm serenity to playfulness, and again to -splendid sonorous grandeur; a phrase from this same -motive becomes the subject of an almost crabbed discussion -(Figure LV, (<em>d</em>)), while the charming secondary -theme (Figure LV, (<em>e</em>)), whose whimsical gayety animates -the early part of the movement, is given a plaintive -quality by a change to minor (Figure LV, (<em>f</em>)) and the -touching contrapuntal phrases that are set against it. A -little later a single phrase from the same theme becomes -the subject of a bit of vigorous by-play between the different -instruments (Figure LV, (<em>g</em>)).</p> - -<p>Thus the slow movement, even in Beethoven's early -works, becomes vivified by his intense individuality. In -his more mature compositions in this form the whole body -of the music pulsates with life—no single part stagnates.</p> - - -<h3>E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 21.</h3> - -<p class="sub"><em>Beethoven: The Fifth Symphony, Slow movement.</em></p> - -<p>We have already pointed out in Chapter X that the slow -movement is usually written in some sectional form. Beethoven -followed the old models in this respect in the majority -of his slow movements, but his enrichment of the content of -the music and his skill in avoiding conventional endings<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> -and other platitudes makes his pieces less rigid in effect -than those of Haydn and Mozart. He was particularly -fond of leaving his listeners until the last moment in doubt -of the ultimate conclusion of a passage, leading them away -from his point and coming back to it by an unexpected -modulation or turn of phrase; he frequently ends the section -of a movement with one or two brusque chords suddenly -inserted after a passage full of sentiment. In short, -his sectional movements are less obvious in design, and -more flowing and continuous, than was the custom before -his day.</p> - -<p>The andante of the Fifth Symphony is in free variation -form, the divisions—unlike those in the variations referred -to in Chapter VII—not being clearly marked nor regular in -form. The theme has two parts, but Beethoven skillfully -avoids that prolixity sometimes evident in Haydn's -"Andante with Variations;" nor does he lengthen his two -themes to such an extent as to make them a little doubtful -as proper subjects for variation treatment, as did Haydn. -Furthermore, although the second part of Beethoven's theme -is a better subject than Haydn's "Trio" theme, being more -terse and more characteristic, Beethoven presents it in -nearly its original form each time it appears, making the -first and more important subject serve as the basis of his -variations. Such changes as do occur in the second theme -will be noted later. The complete movement may be -tabulated as follows:</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span></p> -</div> - -<p class="small2">TABULAR VIEW OF STRUCTURE OF THE ANDANTE OF THE<br /> -FIFTH SYMPHONY.<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></p> - - - -<table class="toc1" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> - -<tr> -<td class="td1lt"> </td> -<td class="td1lt"> </td> -<td class="td1l2t"> </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1cen1bh">Sections.</td> -<td class="td1cen1bh">Themes.</td> -<td class="td1cen2bh">Measures.</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1cen1">1.</td> -<td class="td1l1">Theme I in A-flat major</td> -<td class="td1r2">1-23</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1cen1b"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">Theme II in A-flat and C-major</td> -<td class="td1r2">23-50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1cen1">2.</td> -<td class="td1lt">First variation of theme I, A-flat major</td> -<td class="td1rt2">50-72</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1cen1b"> <br /> - </td> -<td class="td1l1">Second part of theme I as before but with<br /> - more elaborate accompaniment</td> -<td class="td1r2"> <br /> -72-99</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1cen1">3.<br /> - </td> -<td class="td1lt">Second variation of theme I, A-flat major<br /> - (theme given out three times: cellos, violins and basses)</td> -<td class="td1rt2"> <br /> -99-124</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">Episode, founded on initial motive from theme I</td> -<td class="td1r2">124-148</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">Theme II in C-major (first two phrases lengthened)</td> -<td class="td1r2">148-158</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">Episode, founded on motive from theme I</td> -<td class="td1r2">158-167</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1l1"> </td> -<td class="td1l1">Theme I in A-flat minor</td> -<td class="td1r2">167-177</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1cen1b"> </td> -<td class="td1lb">Transition passage leading to return of theme I</td> -<td class="td1r2b">177-186</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1cen1b">4.</td> -<td class="td1lb">Theme I, A-flat major</td> -<td class="td1r2b">186-206</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td class="td1cen1b">5.</td> -<td class="td1lb">Coda</td> -<td class="td1r2b">206-248</td> -</tr> - -</table> - - -<p>The foregoing table may be compared with that of -the Haydn variations in Chapter VII. While the general -scheme is the same—for the two themes are in each case -presented several times—the Beethoven variations are -much more concise, and at the same time much more fully -expressive and illustrative of the original theme. Haydn's -variations are naïve; Beethoven's are conscious. Beethoven -presents his themes from widely different points of view; -Haydn presents charmingly elaborate versions of the same -melodies. "Composers did not for a long while," says -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> -Parry,<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> "find out the device of making the same tune -or 'theme' appear in different lights, so as to make studies -of different aspects of the same story under changing conditions, -as in Robert Browning's <cite>Ring and the Book</cite>."</p> - -<p>These entirely distinct presentations of the original -idea give to this movement an especial charm, placing it -far above any of Haydn's or Mozart's variations.</p> - - -<h3>III. <small>INDIVIDUALITY OF THE ANDANTE OF THE FIFTH SYMPHONY.</small></h3> - -<p>The peculiar charm of this andante lies not so much in -its melodies, beautiful as they are, as in the individuality -of their treatment. The first version of the theme as it -appears in Beethoven's sketch-book is shown in Figure -LVI (<em>a</em>), and at (<em>b</em>) is given the first part of the completed -theme.</p> - - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag198_score1.jpg" width="550" height="102" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>a</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag198_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag198_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag198_score2.jpg" width="550" height="203" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>b</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag198_score2.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag198_score2.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE LVI.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span></p> - -<p>It will be observed that the original idea was somewhat -mechanical in its rhythm, and lacked that variety imparted -to the completed theme by the tied note at the beginning -of measure 3 and at the middle of measure 5. Beethoven's -original intention must have been quite at variance in other -ways with what he finally evolved, for he marks his first -sketch, "Andante quasi Minuetto," <em>i. e.</em> "in the style of the -minuet," and of this there is left no evidence whatever.</p> - -<p>Each variation of this theme is quite distinct from the -original, particularly in its mood. While the original -theme has a calm and even pensive beauty, full of sentiment, -the two variations of it are less serious and, at times, -verge on the humorous and playful (as at measure 108), -or on the grotesque (as at measure 115). But in the episodes -that occur between the variations—in the transitions -or links between the different parts—Beethoven's fancy -has fullest play. He ranges all the way from comedy to -tragedy, from delicate gaiety to lumbering, Brobdingnagian -heaviness. Simple raillery seizes him when, at measure -160, he allows the violin to take up the familiar motive -and toss it to the basses and take it back again, or when he -amuses himself with weaving thirds up and down (134), -crossing and recrossing, spinning out the little three-note -motive into a fine web, which is finally torn apart as the -whole orchestra thunders out the secondary theme (148).</p> - -<p>These two passages (portions of which are shown in -Figure LVII) in their freedom from restraint and their -expression of the composer's idiosyncrasies, are quite beyond -what had ever been attempted before. We see -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> -working here a mind full of resource and capable of -sounding the greatest depths of the subject.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag200_score1.jpg" width="550" height="307" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag200_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag200_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag200_score2.jpg" width="550" height="169" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag200_score2.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag200_score2.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE LVII.</p> - -<p>And this highly imaginative method of treating the -transitions or connecting passages is one of the fundamental -differences between the variations of Haydn and -Mozart and those of Beethoven "<em>A priori</em>,"<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a> -<a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> says Mr. Hadow, -"it would be easy to conjecture that the variation form is -unsatisfactory. It affords little scope for structural organization, -little for episode or adventure, it seems to have -no higher aim than that of telling the same story in the -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> -largest possible number of different words. Indeed, composers -before Beethoven are often in evident straits to -maintain its interest." An examination of any set of -variations by an inferior composer will reveal just the -defects Mr. Hadow refers to. But Beethoven not only -tells the story in quite different words, but finds opportunity -for all sorts of interesting episodes and adventures, -so that the structural weakness of the form is quite lost -sight of. With him the connecting passages skillfully -avoid too great stress on pure melody—with which the -listeners would otherwise be surfeited—and, at the same -time, they never degenerate into unmeaning passages of -empty chords and scales such as often occurred in the -music of Haydn and Mozart.</p> - - -<h3>IV. <small>THE HARMONIC PLAN.</small></h3> - -<p>The recurrence in the same key of the theme in the -variation form gives to it a certain monotony of harmonization -unless the episodes are treated with great harmonic -freedom. As was pointed out in Chapter II, harmony -sometimes becomes an important element of structure, -particularly in the rondo and variation forms, and in Haydn's -and Mozart's variations the harmonic plan is not sufficiently -varied to provide this much needed contrast. Beethoven, -however, always much more free in the use of modulation -than his predecessors, imparts to these variations almost -at the outset great variety of key, and in all his episodes -ranges freely about, unhampered by limitations. In measure -28, for example, he suddenly starts towards the key -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> -of B-flat minor, only to emerge a moment later in C-major. -The passage, beginning at measure 39, not only provides -that relief from too great insistence on melody which we -have already referred to as characteristic of his episodes, -but its harmonies are purposely vague, leaving us in doubt -until the last moment as to their ultimate conclusion. -An interesting and beautiful effect is again produced, at -measures 167-177, by the changes of key, while the scale -passages that follow introduce further harmonic variety. -At measure 206 begins a passage that seems to intend the -key of D-flat, but again our expectations are not realized. -So that the total impression we receive from the harmony -of this movement is of a more complete unity and variety -than is produced by the themes themselves.</p> - -<p>It must also be noted in general that this freedom of -harmony is one of the signs of advancement in the art -of music, and that at the present time the combination of -chords is much less restricted than was the case in Beethoven's -day. And this steady advance has been as -steadily opposed by theorists. When we remember that -Monteverde (1567-1643) was bitterly criticised for introducing -in a chord the unprepared dominant seventh, making -thereby a dissonance almost as familiar to modern ears as is the -simple major triad—we can easily realize how difficult it was -for people in Beethoven's time to understand his far-reaching -modulations. The steady progress is further illustrated by -Wagner's music-dramas, which were considered when they -first appeared as almost cacophonous in their harmonization, -but which now seem perfectly simple and normal.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span></p> - - -<h3>V. <small>THE UNIVERSALITY OF BEETHOVEN'S GENIUS.</small></h3> - -<p>A piece of music like this is a human document. It -embraces so many phases of human feeling, and it places -them all, as it were, in such proper focus that we feel in -listening to it as though we had come in contact with elemental -human experience. This music is not unapproachably -grand; we hear in it echoes of our own strivings, hopes, -and despairs. And it is this sense of proportion, this wideness -of vision, that makes Beethoven's music so universal. -For in the last analysis the effect of any work of art depends -on the artist's sense of values; a fine situation in a novel is -all the finer for being set against a proper background; a -tragedy must have moments of relief; beauty alone, whether -in a painting or a piece of music, soon palls upon us; in the -greatest works of art this sense of values—this feeling for -proportion—is always present to save the situation (whatever -it may be) from the deadly sin of being uninteresting.</p> - -<p>Beethoven continually gives evidence of his mastery -over this important element in composition. The beauty -of his melodies never palls. Before that point is reached -there is some sudden change of feeling, some unexpected turn -of melody or modulation, some brusque expression that shocks -us out of our dream. He is particularly fond of the latter -device, and frequently lulls us into a fancied quiet only to -awaken us abruptly when we least expect it. With him -everything has its proportionate value, so that we get a -clearly defined impression of the whole work, just as in a -fine novel the values are so carefully preserved that we feel -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> -the locality of every incident, and come to know the characters -as we know our own friends.</p> - -<p>One who is thoroughly familiar with the andante of the -Fifth Symphony feels this quality as predominant. We are -not enraptured by the theme itself, as we are by that of -Mozart's andante from the string quartet (referred to in -Chapter X), but we feel the charm of incident and by-play, -we are just as much interested in the connecting passages -as we are in any other part of the piece; and we think of -it all as we do of a finely written play, where one incident -hangs on another, and nothing happens that does not bear -on the plot.</p> - -<p>Thus, judging music from the standpoint of universal -human feeling, Beethoven reaches the highest point in its -development. No other composer, before or since, has -equalled him in this particular, and the more we study -him the more we find in him. Repeated hearings do not -dim the luster of his genius, nor have the great composers -who have followed him had as broad a survey of human -life as he possessed.</p> - - -<p class="center">S<small>UGGESTIONS FOR</small> C<small>OLLATERAL</small> R<small>EADING</small>.</p> - -<p><cite>Hadow: "Oxford History," Vol. V. Parry: "Studies of -Great Composers." Mason: "Beethoven and His Forerunners," -Chapters VII, VIII, and IX.</cite></p> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<div class="footnotes"><p class="p4 center">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Number the measures and parts of measures consecutively from beginning to end—making -248 measures in all.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> "Oxford History," Vol. III, p. 85.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> -"Oxford History of Music," Vol. V, p. 272.</p></div></div> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span></p> -</div> - -<h2>CHAPTER XIV.<br /> - -<small>BEETHOVEN—IV.</small></h2> - - -<h3>I. <small>BEETHOVEN'S HUMOR.</small></h3> - -<p>One of Beethoven's most prominent characteristics, -without a special consideration of which no account of -him would be at all complete, was his humor. In the -three foregoing chapters we have had passing glimpses of -it: we have noted his distaste for the obvious, the trite, -the conventional, and his fondness for breaking in on the -tranquillity of his audience, sometimes in danger of lapsing -into inattentive dullness, with all manner of shocks and -surprises—clashing chords in the midst of soft passages, -unexpected modulations to distant keys, piquant interruptions -of rhythm, long holds, sudden spasms of wild speed. -All such tricks were dear to him as means of avoiding the -monotony which is the one unpardonable sin of an artist, -and of attaining constant novelty and a kaleidoscopic -diversity of effect. None of his predecessors, and perhaps -none of his successors, carried to such lengths as he did -this peculiar kind of musical humor. It is one of the most -essentially "Beethovenish" of all his qualities.</p> - -<p>The particular form of movement in which his humor -attained its freest scope (though it is hardly ever entirely -absent in anything that he wrote) was the minuet of his -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> -earlier, and the scherzo of his later sonatas and symphonies. -The minuet of Haydn and Mozart, which we have discussed -in Chapter VII, though not entirely lacking in the element -of whim and perversity which gives rise to humor, was -primarily stately, formal, and suave. When we listen to a -minuet of this old school, our mind's eye conjures up the -picture of a group of eighteenth century dames and cavaliers, -hoop-skirted and bewigged, gravely going through -the set evolutions of their dance with unfailing dignity and -courtly grace. From such a scene a Beethoven scherzo -whisks us in a moment to some merry gathering of peasants, -where all is wild conviviality, boisterous rejoicing, and -unrestrained high spirits.</p> - -<p>Doubtless this contrast was in some measure due, as -Sir George Grove points out in an interesting passage, -to the differences of the social conditions under which the -composers lived. "The musicians of the eighteenth century," -he says, "were too commonly the domestic servants -of archbishops and princes, wore powder and pigtails, -and swords, and court dresses, and gold lace, dined at the -servants' table, and could be discharged at a moment's -notice like ordinary lackeys. Being thus forced to regulate -their conduct by etiquette, they could not suddenly change -all their habits when they came to make their music, or -give their thoughts and feelings the free and natural vent -which they would have had, but for the habits engendered -by the perpetual curb and restraint of their social position. -But Beethoven had set such social rules and restrictions -at naught. It was his nature, one of the most characteristic -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> -things in him, to be free and unrestrained. Almost -with his first appearance in Vienna he behaved as the -equal of everyone he met, and after he had begun to feel -his own way his music is constantly showing the independence -of his mind."<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a></p> - -<p>Whatever the causes of this mental independence of -Beethoven, whatever part of it was due to changed social -conditions, and what to his purely personal character, -there is ample testimony to its existence in his biography. -The man who could throw a badly cooked stew at the -head of the waiter, who could in a fit of temper publicly -shake his fist under the window of one of his best friends -and patrons, who could haughtily refuse to make the -ordinary salutations to his emperor and empress on a chance -meeting, lest he appear servile, and who when he was -asked whether he were of noble blood answered proudly -that his nobility lay in his head and in his heart, was not -likely to pay exaggerated respect to traditions, whether -in life or in art. Indeed, perhaps the deepest secret of his -greatness was that while, as his sketch-books signally prove, -he spared no pains or labor to conform his work to those -great natural laws which are above all individual wills, -he paid not the slightest respect to mere rules and conventions, -and held especially in contempt the arbitrary codes -of pedants and pedagogues. "It is not allowed?" he -inquired quizzically, when some such dogmatist objected -to a passage he had written: "Very well, then, <em>I</em> allow it."</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag208_score1.jpg" width="550" height="167" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>a</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag208_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag208_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag208_score2.jpg" width="550" height="292" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>b</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag208_score2.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag208_score2.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - - -<p class="small2">FIGURE LVIII.</p> - -<p>Little wonder is it, then, that such a daring spirit, such -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> -a hater of the timid and the droning, such a passionate -lover of the individual, the striking, the bizarre, and even -the grotesque, found a congenial task in infusing humor -and irresponsibility into the classic minuet. This form, -already the lightest part of the sonata and symphony, -already consecrated to the expression of the composer's -gayest and most graceful thoughts, needed only to be made -plastic enough to include fantasy and banter in order to -give free scope to Beethoven's most frolicsome moods. -To the task of thus aerating the symphonic minuet he -applied himself very early. Take, as an instance, the -minuet of the very first piano sonata, opus 2, number 1. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> -As a whole it breathes the polite graciousness of Mozart. -The first cadence, especially, recalls the sweetly formal -manner of the old school. (See Figure LVIII(<em>a</em>).) Yet -a moment later Beethoven begins to play with this very -cadence in true scherzo fashion, like a cat with a mouse, -twice pawing it gently, so to speak, and then pouncing on -it with fury: ((<em>b</em>) in the same figure.)</p> - -<p>In the other two sonatas bearing the same opus number -he adopts the name scherzo—which is an Italian word -meaning "joke" or "jest"—and with it introduces still -more of the playful spirit; and as the sonatas progress we -find this tendency growing, until in opus 26 and opus 28 -we have full-fledged, though rather brief, examples of the -real Beethoven scherzo. Let us look at these more carefully.</p> - - -<h3>II. <small>SCHERZOS FROM BEETHOVEN'S SONATAS.</small><br /> -E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 22.[1]</h3> - -<p><em>Beethoven: Scherzo</em><a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> <em>from the Twelfth Sonata, opus 26.</em></p> - -<p>We note first of all that though the time-signature is -three-four, as in the old minuet, the pace is much more -rapid—"allegro molto"—so that a sense of bustle and -restless activity is substituted for the well-bred deliberateness -of the minuet. This acceleration of time is observable -in most of the scherzos.</p> - -<p>Again, the theme (measures 1-17) is of most energetic -character, which is even further intensified, on its re-entrance - -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span>in the bass at measure 46, by a rushing accompaniment -in eighth-notes.</p> - -<p>A characteristic passage precedes this return of the -theme. To make the excitement more welcome when it -comes Beethoven has one of his "lulls" for sixteen measures -(31-46), during which the motion dies out and all -seems to stagnate for a moment. This sort of quiescence, -in which one takes breath for a new access of energy, is -always consummately managed by Beethoven, who has -made the "lull" a famous device.</p> - -<p>The trio calls for no particular comment. It is in -binary form, while the scherzo itself is ternary.</p> - - -<h3>E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 23.</h3> - -<p class="sub"><em>Beethoven: Scherzo from the Fifteenth Sonata, opus 28.</em></p> - -<p>The tempo is again brisk—"allegro vivace."</p> - -<p>The theme is exceedingly whimsical: long notes jumping -down through four octaves—first single notes, then thirds, -then sixths—followed each time by a quaint little cadence -in which the staccato touch is prominent.</p> - -<p>The section of contrast after the double-bar (measures -33-48) takes the form of a sequence, in which the left -hand part carries the original theme.</p> - -<p>In the return of the theme we find one of those violent -dynamic contrasts so beloved by Beethoven, the theme in -measures 49-53 being sounded in a mild <i lang="it" xml:lang="it">piano</i> and then, -without warning, in measures 58-61, pealed forth <i lang="it" xml:lang="it">fortissimo</i> -in large chords.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span></p> - -<p>The trio is again inconspicuous, save for its charming -harmonization.</p> - -<p>These two scherzos give a good idea of how Beethoven -gives play to his whimsicality in his piano sonatas,<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a> but -to get the Beethoven scherzo at its highest power we must -go to the symphonies. There he has all the wondrous -potentialities of instrumental coloring to fire his imagination, -and a canvas broad enough to afford scope for endless -ingenuity. It is a fascinating study to trace out how he -gradually advanced in the power to utilize all these possibilities.</p> - - -<h3>III. <small>THE SCHERZOS OF BEETHOVEN'S SYMPHONIES.</small></h3> - -<p>The third movement of the first symphony, though -called "Minuetto," is marked "allegro molto e vivace," -and with its spirited theme, fascinating harmonies, and -striking rhythms, is essentially a scherzo. Perhaps the -most interesting single feature of it is the completely -Beethovenish means adopted for getting back to the theme -and the home key of C-major after the section of contrast.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag211_score1andpag212_score1.jpg" width="550" height="355" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag211_score1andpag212_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag211_score1andpag212_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - - -<p class="small2">FIGURE LIX.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span></p> - -<p>The passage is shown in Figure LIX, and merits careful -study. From D-flat major, a key far distant from C, -return is made by imperceptible degrees. At the same -time there is a crescendo of power, until finally the theme -breaks out vigorously in the home-key. It will be noted -that the brief phrases played by the left hand in this passage -are made from the first two notes of the theme itself. -Thus closely does Beethoven stick to his text.</p> - -<p>The forcible syncopated rhythms and dissonant harmonies -near the end of this movement also deserve notice. -They give it a rugged character strangely at variance with -its title of "minuet."</p> - -<p>In the second symphony the name scherzo is adopted, -and the phials of mirth are freely opened. Sudden alternations -of loud and soft are especially conspicuous, as will -be seen by referring to the theme, quoted in (<em>a</em>) in Figure -LX. Each new measure, here, brings something unexpected -and deliciously piquant.</p> - -<p>Violent shifts of accent on to ordinarily unimportant -parts of the measure will be noticed in the twenty-first and -twenty-fifth measures, affording relief from what might -without them become monotonous.</p> - -<p>A little later, after the reappearance of the theme, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> -Beethoven indulges in one of those passages which puzzle -us and pique our curiosity (Figure LX (<em>b</em>).) Where is he -going? we ask ourselves, what will he do next? But after -a few moments' suspense, in which the music seems to -be spinning about in an eddy, so to speak, it falls into the -current again, and all goes cheerfully to the end.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag213_score1.jpg" width="550" height="171" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>a</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag213_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag213_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag213_score2.jpg" width="550" height="291" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>b</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag213_score2.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag213_score2.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - - -<p class="small2">FIGURE LX.</p> - -<p>In the trio, the student should note the whimsicality -of the long hold on an F-sharp through six entire measures, -<i lang="it" xml:lang="it">pianissimo</i>, followed by a sudden loud chord on A.</p> - -<p>Indeed, the prankishness of the entire movement is -inexhaustible.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span></p> - -<p>We do not reach the full stature of the Beethoven scherzo, -however, until we get to that of the third or "Eroica" -symphony. In this wonderful movement we have a perfect -masterpiece of irresistible, tireless, kaleidoscopic humor, -a great epic of irresponsibility which must be ranked with -such unique expressions of the humorous spirit in literature -as Shakespeare's Falstaff plays, Sterne's "Sentimental -Journey," or Stevenson's "New Arabian Nights." Well -may Sir George Grove say of it, that it is "perhaps the -most <em>Beethovenish</em> of all his compositions," and that in it -"the tragedy and comedy of life are startlingly combined."</p> - -<p>It begins with a stealthy, soft succession of staccato -chords in the strings, uniformly pianissimo and yet most -insistent in rhythm. Against this is presently outlined -the most piquant little theme by the oboe ((<em>a</em>) in Figure -LXI); the chords go on again, and then sounds above -them once more this incisive little theme. In the contrast -section after the double-bar comes first more playing with -the rapid soft chords, and then a charming bit of "imitation" -of the theme from one voice to another ((<em>b</em>) in Figure -LXI). The note D is finally reached in this way, and then -Beethoven, instead of making some trite and uninteresting -modulation back to E-flat, whither he wishes to go in order -to begin his restatement, simply goes on sounding D for -ten measures, <i lang="it" xml:lang="it">piano</i>, and then without warning drops -down to B-flat, <i lang="it" xml:lang="it">pianissimo</i>, for four measures, and therewith -proceeds with his theme again. The mystery and -charm of this return to key are indescribable; the persistent -<i lang="it" xml:lang="it">pianissimo</i> adds much to its extraordinary effectiveness.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag215_score1.jpg" width="550" height="68" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>a</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag215_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag215_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag215_score2.jpg" width="550" height="143" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>b</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag215_score2.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag215_score2.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag215_score3.jpg" width="550" height="301" alt="" /> -</div> - - -<p class="small2">(<em>c</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag215_score3.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag215_score3.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag215_score4.jpg" width="550" height="196" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="small2">(<em>d</em>)</p> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag215_score4.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag215_score4.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - - -<p class="small2">FIGURE LXI.</p> - -<p>Now, however, with the return of the theme, we at -last get a good ear-filling fortissimo, the whole orchestra -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> -taking part in a vigorous game of musical tag (the theme -made into a canon—(<em>c</em>) in Figure LXI). A fine climax -is reached in a passage of bold leaping melody in the strings, -in which the accents are dramatically placed on the second -instead of the first beats of the measures, followed and -completed by staccato chords on the wood-wind instruments -((<em>d</em>) in Figure LXI). This is enormously vigorous, -and makes a fitting culmination for this first part of the -movement, besides giving an opportunity for still greater -effect later, as we shall see in a moment. After it, a cadence -is soon reached, though not before the strings and wood-wind -instruments have had a brief whimsical dialogue on -the subject of the staccato chords.</p> - -<p>So far all is bantering merriment, iridescent color, and -energetic high spirits. But in the trio, one of the most -wonderful of all Beethoven's strokes of genius, the mood -changes, and while the quick three-four measure is still -felt underneath, the long notes, and the deep mellow tones -of the horns, give an almost tragic quality to the music. -The theme, given out by three horns alone, with a brief -cadence by the strings, does not reach its full stature until -its recurrence near the end of the trio. In its second phrase -the lowest horn reaches, and holds for two measures, a D-flat -which is of almost unearthly solemnity of effect. This -passage repays careful study, so wonderfully does it use the -simplest means to gain the highest beauty. Sir George -Grove well says of it: "If ever horns talked like flesh and -blood, they do it here."</p> - -<p>The scherzo, on its return, goes on much as at first. -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> -Yet Beethoven still has one last shot in reserve, as we -suggested a moment back. When he comes to that splendidly -proud passage of descending leaps in the strings -(Figure LXI, <em>d.</em>), instead of repeating it, as he did at first, -in the same rhythm, he suddenly transforms it into even -half notes, which crash downwards like an avalanche, -quite irresistible. (See Figure LXII.) The effect is again -indescribable in words; its gigantesque vigor is of a kind -to be found nowhere but in Beethoven, and in him only -in his inspired moments.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag217_score1.jpg" width="550" height="382" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag217_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag217_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - - -<p class="small2">FIGURE LXII.</p> - -<p>In this wonderful movement the Beethoven scherzo first -reaches its full stature. It may be questioned whether he -ever achieved anything finer.</p> - -<p>Yet in its own way the scherzo of the Fifth Symphony<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> -is equally original and characteristic, and as we have already -analyzed two movements of that symphony we will now -make a detailed analysis of this movement too.</p> - - -<h3>E<small>XAMPLE FOR</small> A<small>NALYSIS</small>, No. 24.</h3> - -<p class="sub"><em>Beethoven: Scherzo from the Fifth Symphony.</em></p> - -<p>This scherzo is interlinked with the finale, into which -it is merged by a famous passage derived from the scherzo -itself, and leading up from the softest pianissimo to a grand -outburst of the full orchestra. We shall, however, end -our analysis where this passage begins. The complete -scherzo, therefore, omitting this link-passage, will have -three hundred and thirty measures, which should be numbered -continuously for easy reference (counting the first -partial measure as one, as well as the incomplete measures -at the beginning of the trio).</p> - -<p>The theme is of a very curious character, certainly -nothing like the usual bustling scherzo theme, but on the -contrary mysterious, vague, groping. Berlioz says of it: -"It is as fascinating as the gaze of a mesmerizer." After -seventeen measures of this, a more energetic, rhythmic -theme succeeds (20-45) given out by the horns, fortissimo, -with rugged chords in accompaniment, in which we recognize -a new variant of that motive of three short notes and -a long, which was so prominent in the first movement (see -Chapter XII). The remainder of the scherzo proper is -worked up out of these two contrasting strains, thus: -46-71, from the first, mysterious one; 72-97, from the second, -energetic one; 98-133, beginning softly in mystery -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> -with the first, and later (116) continuing with it a new, -more lively melody (note how the phrase of measures 3 -and 4 persists in the bass all through this part); 134-141, -concluding cadence, on the second strain.</p> - -<p>The trio, measures 142 to 238, is irresistibly ludicrous -in the elephantine antics through which the unwieldy -double-basses are put. They announce (142-148) a scrambling -fugue theme, which is "answered"—in imitation—several -times at higher pitches (measures 148, 154, 156) -by the other and more agile stringed instruments. A -sonorous close is reached at the double bar.</p> - -<p>Then comes a most grotesque and amusing passage, -in which, three several times, these poor lumbering double -basses hurl themselves upon the theme, twice only to give -up in despair after the first measure and pause as if for -breath. The effect of this brave attack and utter failure -to "keep up the pace" is irresistibly comic. But the third -time proverbially never fails, and in the measures following -168 they hold to their effort with bull-dog tenacity, and -succeed in reaching a safe haven in the G of measure 173. -Thereupon the theme enters once more above them, and -is once more carried through an exciting fugal chase, the -entrances, which the student should trace out carefully, -occurring in measures 176, 180, 182, and 184, each time a -little higher up. The cadence is reached in 200, and the -entire passage from the inept onslaughts of the basses is -almost literally repeated (200-227), except that now it -becomes quieter and quieter, and finally leads back to the -mysterious scherzo theme (239-257).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span></p> - -<p>This time the ruggedness of the second strain of the -scherzo has all disappeared, and it remains delicate, almost -ethereal, through measures 258 to 330, with which the -scherzo proper ends. As has been stated, no complete -pause is reached before the finale, but instead of the cadence -we have placed at the end, there is a long passage leading -over into the splendid march-like theme of the last movement. -How this passage is made out of the themes of -the scherzo itself will be seen by referring to Figure LXIII.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag220_score1.jpg" width="550" height="187" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag220_score1.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag220_score1.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> -<img src="images/pag220_score2.jpg" width="550" height="161" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p class="center ebhide"><a href="images/pag220_score2.png">[PNG]</a> [<a href="music/pag220_score2.mp3">Listen</a>]</p> - -<p class="small2">FIGURE LXIII.</p> - -<p>With this scherzo from the Fifth Symphony we may -take our farewell of Beethoven for the present, and also -of the art in which he represents one of the great culminating -points. After him it seemed to musicians for a while -as if the triumphs of organic musical structure could no -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> -further go, and they turned their attention in other directions, -and sought for other kinds of interest. But to follow -them on these new paths is not a part of our present undertaking.</p> - - -<h3>IV. <small>GENERAL SUMMARY.</small></h3> - -<p>We have now followed the continuous and unbroken -course of the development of music from the most primitive -sounds grouped together in rude patterns by savages, up -to the symphonies of Beethoven, which must always remain -among its most wonderful and perfect monuments. We -have seen how all music, which has any beauty or interest, -is based on certain short characteristic groups of tones -called motives, and how these are made to take on variety, -without losing unity, by being "imitated," "transposed," -"restated after contrast," "inverted," "augmented" or -"diminished," "shifted in rhythm," and otherwise manipulated. -We have examined simple cases of this treatment -of musical ideas in representative folk-songs. We -have seen how the polyphonic style of Bach, in which these -bits of melody occur everywhere throughout the tissue of -the music, arose and reached its perfection. We have -studied the simple dances which, adopted by the musicians -of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, were -developed by them and combined in "suites." Then, -proceeding to a higher stage of artistic evolution, we have -examined the various plans which composers devised for -making longer pieces in which variety and unity were still -able to coexist—such forms as the minuet, the theme -and variations, the rondo, and the sonata-form. In conclusion, -<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> -we have analyzed representative examples of -music composed in these typical forms during the great -classical period of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven.</p> - -<p>Yet all this study and analysis, which may often have -seemed to the reader uselessly detailed and dully scientific, -has been made with an ulterior aim in view, and unless -that aim has been in some degree attained, our work has -been futile indeed. The great object of musical analysis -must always be to concentrate the attention of the music-lover, -to focus his mind as well as his ears on the melodies, -and their developments, which he hears, and so eventually -to increase his pleasure in music, and to help him to substitute -for that "drowsy reverie, relieved by nervous thrills," -an active, joyful, vigorous co-operation with composers, -through which alone he can truly appreciate their art.</p> - -<p>That, and that alone, is the object of the analytic study -of music. For what shall it profit a man if he can tell a -second theme from a transition-passage, or a minuet from -a set of variations, if he has not meanwhile, through this -exercise, got into vital contact with the music itself? But -that he can do, no matter how great his natural sensibility -to sound, only by learning how to listen.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<div class="footnotes"><p class="p4 center">FOOTNOTES:</p> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Grove's "Beethoven and His Nine Symphonies," page 35.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> For convenience of reference number the measures and partial measures consecutively. -There will be 69 in the scherzo proper, and 31 in the trio.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> The student should also study the interesting scherzo of the Eighteenth Sonata, which -is not in minuet form but in regular sonata-form. It is carried out with immense spirit.</p></div> - - <div class="footnote"> - -<p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> -The Fourth Symphony has again, like the First, a minuet, though a most active one.</p> - </div> - - </div> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p class="center1">NOVELLO & CO.'S</p> - -</div> - -<p class="p4 center">Music Primers and Educational Series</p> - - - -<p class="center">EDITED BY</p> - -<p class="center1">JOHN STAINER and C. HUBERT H. PARRY</p> -<p class="center"><em>A Complete Library in Itself</em></p> - - - -<table class="toc4" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary=""> - -<tr> -<td align="right">1.</td> -<td align="left">The Pianoforte <em>E. Pauer</em></td> -<td align="right">$1.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">2.</td> -<td align="left">The Rudiments of Music <em>W. H. Cummings</em></td> -<td align="right">.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">3.</td> -<td align="left">The Organ <em>J. Stainer</em></td> -<td align="right">1.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">4.</td> -<td align="left">The Harmonium <em>King Hall</em></td> -<td align="right">1.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">5.</td> -<td align="left">Singing (<em>Paper boards</em>, $2.50) <em>A. Randegger</em></td> -<td align="right">2.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">6.</td> -<td align="left">Speech in Song (<em>Singer's Pronouncing Primer</em>) <em>A. J. Ellis</em>, F. R. S.</td> -<td align="right">1.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">7.</td> -<td align="left">Musical Forms <em>E. Pauer</em></td> -<td align="right">.75</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">8.</td> -<td align="left">Harmony <em>J. Stainer</em></td> -<td align="right">.75</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">9.</td> -<td align="left">Counterpoint <em>J. F. Bridge</em></td> -<td align="right">.75</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">10.</td> -<td align="left">Fugue <em>James Higgs</em></td> -<td align="right">1.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">11.</td> -<td align="left">Scientific Basis of Music <em>W. H. Stone</em></td> -<td align="right">.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">12.</td> -<td align="left">Double Counterpoint <em>J. F. Bridge</em></td> -<td align="right">1.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">13.</td> -<td align="left">Church Choir Training <em>Rev. J. Troutbeck</em></td> -<td align="right">.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">14.</td> -<td align="left">Plain Song <em>Rev. T. Helmore</em></td> -<td align="right">1.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">15.</td> -<td align="left">Instrumentation <em>E. Prout</em></td> -<td align="right">.75</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">16.</td> -<td align="left">The Elements of the Beautiful in Music <em>E. Pauer</em></td> -<td align="right">.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">17.</td> -<td align="left">The Violin <em>Berthold Tours</em></td> -<td align="right">.75</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">18.</td> -<td align="left">Tonic Sol-fa <em>J. Curwen</em></td> -<td align="right">.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">19.</td> -<td align="left">Lancashire Sol-fa <em>James Greenwood</em></td> -<td align="right">.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">20.</td> -<td align="left">Composition <em>J. Stainer</em></td> -<td align="right">1.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">21.</td> -<td align="left">Musical Terms <em>Stainer and Barrett</em></td> -<td align="right">.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">22.</td> -<td align="left">The Violoncello <em>Jules de Swert</em></td> -<td align="right">1.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">23.</td> -<td align="left">Two-part Exercise (396) <em>James Greenwood</em></td> -<td align="right">.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">24.</td> -<td align="left">Double Scales <em>Franklin Taylor</em></td> -<td align="right">.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">25.</td> -<td align="left">Musical Expression <em>Mathias Lussy</em></td> -<td align="right">1.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">26.</td> -<td align="left">Solfeggi (<em>Paper boards</em>, $2.50) <em>Florence Marshall</em></td> -<td align="right">2.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">27.</td> -<td align="left">Organ Accompaniment <em>J. F. Bridge</em></td> -<td align="right">1.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">28.</td> -<td align="left">The Cornet <em>H. Brett</em></td> -<td align="right">1.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">29.</td> -<td align="left">Musical Dictation. Part I. <em>Dr. Ritter</em></td> -<td align="right">.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">30.</td> -<td align="left">Musical Dictation. Part II. <em>Dr. Ritter</em></td> -<td align="right">1.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">31.</td> -<td align="left">Modulation <em>James Higgs</em></td> -<td align="right">1.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">32.</td> -<td align="left">Double Bass <em>A. C. White</em></td> -<td align="right">1.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">32A.</td> -<td align="left">Appendix to Double Bass <em>A. C. White</em></td> -<td align="right">1.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">33.</td> -<td align="left">Extemporization <em>F. J. Sawyer</em></td> -<td align="right">1.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">34.</td> -<td align="left">Analysis of Form <em>H. A. Harding</em></td> -<td align="right">1.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">35.<br /> - </td> -<td align="left">500 Fugue Subjects and Answers <em>A. W. Marchant</em><br /> - (<em>Paper boards</em>, $3.00)</td> -<td align="right">1.50<br /> - </td> -</tr> - - - -<tr> -<td align="right">36.</td> -<td align="left">Hand Gymnastics <em>T. Ridley Prentice</em></td> -<td align="right">.75</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">37.</td> -<td align="left">Musical Ornamentation. Part I. <em>E. Dannreuther</em></td> -<td align="right">2.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">37A. </td> -<td align="left">Musical Ornamentation. Part II. (<em>Paper boards</em>, $3.00) <em>E. Dannreuther</em></td> -<td align="right">2.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">38.</td> -<td align="left">Transposition <em>J. Warriner</em></td> -<td align="right">1.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">39.</td> -<td align="left">The Art of Training Choir Boys <em>G. C. Martin</em></td> -<td align="right">1.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">39A. </td> -<td align="left">Double. (Exercises only) <em>G. C. Martin</em></td> -<td align="right">.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">40.</td> -<td align="left">Biographical Dictionary of Musicians <em>W. H. Cummings</em></td> -<td align="right">1.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">41.</td> -<td align="left">Examples in Strict Counterpoint. Part I. <em>Gordon Saunders</em></td> -<td align="right">1.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">41A. </td> -<td align="left">Examples in Strict Counterpoint. Part II. <em>Gordon Saunders</em></td> -<td align="right">1.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">42.</td> -<td align="left">Summary of Musical History <em>C. H. H. Parry</em></td> -<td align="right">1.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">43.</td> -<td align="left">Musical Gestures <em>J. F. Bridge</em></td> -<td align="right">1.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">43A. </td> -<td align="left">Rudiments in Rhyme <em>J. F. Bridge</em></td> -<td align="right">.35</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">44.</td> -<td align="left">Basses and Melodies <em>Ralph Dunstan</em></td> -<td align="right">1.25</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">45.</td> -<td align="left">First Steps at the Pianoforte. <em>Francesco Berger</em></td> -<td align="right">1.25</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">46.</td> -<td align="left">A Dictionary of Pianists and Composers for the Pianoforte <em>E. Pauer</em></td> -<td align="right">1.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">47.</td> -<td align="left">Organ Pedal Technique. Part I. <em>B. W. Horner</em></td> -<td align="right">1.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">47A. </td> -<td align="left">Organ Pedal Technique. Part II. <em>B. W. Horner</em></td> -<td align="right">1.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">48.</td> -<td align="left">Twelve Trios by Albrechtsberger <em>A. W. Marchant</em></td> -<td align="right">.75</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">49.</td> -<td align="left">Fifty Three-part Studies <em>J. E. Vernham</em></td> -<td align="right">.75</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">50.</td> -<td align="left">Choral Society Vocalisation <em>J. Stainer</em></td> -<td align="right">1.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">50A.</td> -<td align="left">Choral Society, the Exercises arranged and adapted for Female Voices <em>A. W. Marchant</em></td> -<td align="right">.75</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">51. </td> -<td align="left">Two-part Solfeggi <em>James Higgs</em></td> -<td align="right"> .50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">52. </td> -<td align="left">Short History of the Pianoforte <em>A. J. Hipkins</em></td> -<td align="right">1.25</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">53. </td> -<td align="left">Scales and Arpeggios <em>Franklin Taylor</em></td> -<td align="right">1.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">54. </td> -<td align="left">Sonata-Form <em>W. H. Hadow</em></td> -<td align="right">1.25</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">55. </td> -<td align="left">A Dictionary of Violin Makers <em>C. Stainer</em></td> -<td align="right">1.25</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">56.<br /> - </td> -<td align="left">The Forty-eight Preludes and Fugues of J. S. Bach <br /> - (<em>or in 4 parts, 50 cents each</em>) <em>F. Iliffe</em></td> -<td align="right">1.50<br /> - </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">57. </td> -<td align="left">Appendix to "Analysis of Form" <em>H. A. Harding</em></td> -<td align="right">.25</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">58.</td> -<td align="left">Harmonization of Melodies <em>J. E. Vernham</em></td> -<td align="right">.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">59.</td> -<td align="left">"Braille" Music Notation (<em>Boards</em>) <em>E. Watson</em></td> -<td align="right">3.75</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">60. </td> -<td align="left">Five-part Harmony <em>F. E. Gladstone</em></td> -<td align="right">1.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">61. </td> -<td align="left">The Viola <em>Berthold Tours</em></td> -<td align="right">1.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">62. </td> -<td align="left">Harmonics and Resultants <em>C. E. Lowe</em></td> -<td align="right">.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">63.</td> -<td align="left">Breathing for Voice Production (<em>Cloth</em>) <em>H. H. Hulbert</em></td> -<td align="right">1.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">64.</td> -<td align="left">The Choir-boy's Elements of Music <em>G. J. Bennett</em></td> -<td align="right">.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">65. </td> -<td align="left">First Steps for the Violin <em>E. Kreuz</em></td> -<td align="right">.75</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">65A. <br /> - </td> -<td align="left">First Steps for the Violin, Part II.<br /> - The pieces for Violin, with Pianoforte accompaniment <em>E. Kreuz</em></td> -<td align="right">1.25<br /> - </td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">66. </td> -<td align="left">Score-Reading Exercises <em>Emily R. Daymond</em></td> -<td align="right">.75</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">66A. </td> -<td align="left">Ditto. Book II <em>Emily R. Daymond</em></td> -<td align="right">.75</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">67. </td> -<td align="left">A Method of Singing <em>J. Stockhausen</em></td> -<td align="right">2.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">68. </td> -<td align="left">A Treatise on Strict Counterpoint. Part I <em>F. E. Gladstone</em></td> -<td align="right">.75</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">69. </td> -<td align="left">A Treatise on Strict Counterpoint. Part II <em>F. E. Gladstone</em></td> -<td align="right">.75</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">70. </td> -<td align="left">Examination Questions and How to Work Them <em>Cuthbert Harris</em></td> -<td align="right">1.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">71. </td> -<td align="left">Voice Culture for Children. Part I. Instructions <em>James Bates</em></td> -<td align="right">.75</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">72.</td> -<td align="left">Voice Culture for Children. Part 11. Exercises <em>James Bates</em></td> -<td align="right">.75</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">73.<br /> - </td> -<td align="left">Voice Culture for Children. Part III. Appendix <em>James Bates</em><br /> - (The 3 Parts complete) 1.75 <em>Paper Boards</em>, $2.25)</td> -<td align="right">.30<br /> - </td> -</tr> - - -<tr> -<td align="right">73A. </td> -<td align="left">Voice Culture for Children in Tonic Sol-fa Notation <em>James Bates</em></td> -<td align="right">.15</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">74.</td> -<td align="left">The Choir-boy's Guide to the Cathedral Psalter <em>Ernest Newton</em></td> -<td align="right">.35</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">75.</td> -<td align="left">Twelve Elementary Duets for Pianoforte <em>Emma Mundella</em></td> -<td align="right">.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">76.</td> -<td align="left">Harmony for Schools <em>F. E. Gladstone</em></td> -<td align="right">1.25</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">77.</td> -<td align="left">Key to ditto</td> -<td align="right">.75</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">78.</td> -<td align="left">Elementary Score Reading <em>A. H. Peppin</em></td> -<td align="right">.75</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">79.</td> -<td align="left">Figured-Bass Playing <em>J. R. Tobin</em></td> -<td align="right">.75</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">80.</td> -<td align="left">Tenor Voice Exercises <em>E. D. Palmer</em></td> -<td align="right">.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">81.</td> -<td align="left">Three-part Studies <em>Hugh Blair</em></td> -<td align="right">.35</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">82.</td> -<td align="left">Music in its Relation to the Intellect and the Emotions <em>John Stainer</em></td> -<td align="right">.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">83.</td> -<td align="left">A Military Band Primer <em>George Miller</em></td> -<td align="right">1.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">84.</td> -<td align="left">Equal Temperament <em>H. Spain</em></td> -<td align="right">.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">85.</td> -<td align="left">Guide to Solo Singing <em>G. Garcia</em></td> -<td align="right">1.00</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">86.</td> -<td align="left">Theory of Music <em>J. A. O'Neill</em></td> -<td align="right">.50</td> -</tr> - -<tr> -<td align="right">87.</td> -<td align="left">Self-help for Singers <em>D. C. Taylor</em></td> -<td align="right">1.00</td> -</tr> -</table> - -<p><em>Any of the above may be had strongly bound in boards, price 25 cents each extra, -with the exception of Nos. 5, 26, 37, 37a and 56, which are 50 cents each extra, and -Nos. 43a, 47a, 51, 57, 65, 65a, 66, 66a, 73, 77, 79, 80, 81, 84 and 86, which are only -published in paper covers.</em></p> - -<p class="center"><em>School Libraries and Conservatories supplied at a special price.</em></p> - -<p class="p4 center">H. W. GRAY CO., 2 West 45th Street, New York<br /> -<small>SOLE AGENTS FOR</small><br /> -NOVELLO & CO., LIMITED</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<hr class="tb" /> - - -<div class='tnote'> - -<p class='p2 center'>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:</p> - -<p>A number of words in this book have both hyphenated and -non-hyphenated variants. It was also detected that some words have two -different spellings, both of which are correct. For the words with both -variants present the one used more times has been kept.</p> - -<p>Obvious punctuation and other printing errors have been -corrected.</p> - -<p>It was noted that the label FIGURE XXXVIII was used in two -different places in the original book. The label was used in page <a -href="#Page_124">124</a> and in page <a href="#Page_132">132</a> of -the original. In this transcription the latter was changed to FIGURE -XXXVIIIa. The reference made in the text to the latter figure was -consistently changed to take into account the modification made.</p> - -<p>During the formatting process some of the tables have been transposed -from their original lay-out due to their width. This was done to avoid -excessively long lines or unsupported display.</p> - -<p>The musical examples that are discussed in the book can be heard by -clicking on the [Listen] tab. This is only possible in the HTML version -of the book. The scores that appear in the original book have been -included as images.</p> - -<p>In some cases the scores that were used to generate the music -files differ slightly from the original scores. Those differences are -due to modifications that were made during the process of creating the -musical archives. These modifications were made to correct obvious -mistakes in the original scores, to indicate times and to make musical -notation more consistent with criteria currently used. 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