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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 58447 ***












                     A Book of the United States.




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  Illustration: Hall of Representatives ... Washington.

  Illustration: Bridge and Rapids near Falls of Niagara.

  Illustration: (‡ U.S. Presidents)




                                   A
                      BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES.


                            EXHIBITING ITS
          GEOGRAPHY, DIVISIONS, CONSTITUTION, AND GOVERNMENT;

              INSTITUTIONS,           MANNERS AND CUSTOMS,
              AGRICULTURE,            FINE ARTS,
              COMMERCE,               ANTIQUITIES,
              MANUFACTURES,           LITERATURE,
              RELIGION,               MINERALOGY,
              EDUCATION,              BOTANY,
              POPULATION,             GEOLOGY,
              NATURAL CURIOSITIES,    NATURAL HISTORY,
              RAILROADS,              PRODUCTIONS,
              CANALS,                 &c. &c. &c.
              PUBLIC BUILDINGS,


                            AND PRESENTING
                   A VIEW OF THE REPUBLIC GENERALLY,
                              AND OF THE
                          INDIVIDUAL STATES;


                Illustration: View on the Mississippi.


                       TOGETHER WITH A CONDENSED
                         HISTORY OF THE LAND,
             FROM ITS FIRST DISCOVERY TO THE PRESENT TIME.

                             THE BIOGRAPHY
               OF ABOUT TWO HUNDRED OF THE LEADING MEN:

                         A DESCRIPTION OF THE
                      PRINCIPAL CITIES AND TOWNS;
                                 WITH
                          STATISTICAL TABLES,
           RELATING TO THE RELIGION, COMMERCE, MANUFACTURES,
                       AND VARIOUS OTHER TOPICS.


                               EDITED BY
                           GRENVILLE MELLEN


           WITH ENGRAVINGS OF CURIOSITIES, SCENERY, ANIMALS,
                 CITIES, TOWNS, PUBLIC BUILDINGS, &c.


                               HARTFORD:
                   PUBLISHED BY A. C. GOODMAN & CO.
                                 1852.




      Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1839, by
                           GRENVILLE MELLEN,
     in the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of Massachusetts.




                               PREFACE.


IN presenting this volume to the American public, the introductory
remarks in which we shall indulge will be few and general, as the book
is one of that kind that speaks with singular plainness for itself,
and seems to us to require little upon the prefatory page in the way
of explanation, either with reference to its character considered
collectively, or in detail.

The chief object in preparing this work has been to furnish something
which should be found to embrace those subjects which are of abiding
interest and importance to all classes. It has been a wish to present
such matters, as well as could be done in the compass allowed, as are
of interest to all classes of readers, and an acquaintance with which
is desirable for our own citizens especially.

Directed by these intentions, it is hoped that the efforts to bring
a valuable and attractive volume before the public may have proved
successful; and that, viewed with reference to the subjects of which
it treats, this may be called, emphatically, a book for this country,
exhibiting, at one view, a picture of the Republic in its physical,
political, and social conditions, so drawn and colored as to present
in pleasant relief its most striking and peculiar features.

Simplicity was a leading object in the preparation of the work. By
such object it was natural to be guided, when it was remembered that
the pages were designed for the general eye and for all classes. This
quality was allowed to govern, in a great degree, both in the thought
and style; and if, in any case, it may have been carried to a point
beyond the fortunate one, it will be believed, we presume, that the
fault, if it be such, is upon the better side.

In some instances interesting historical accounts are retained
and enlarged upon, from a consideration of the universally popular
character which such accounts generally possess. It is not known,
however, that they are referred to or dwelt upon in such a manner as
to induce the charge of credulity beyond that very pardonable degree
which all well disposed and good natured, and we may add, well informed,
writers and readers are ever ready to meet.

Frequent references are made to able and prominent writers, in
connection with the several important subjects which are here
introduced; and such extracts are given, as, it is thought, will best
illustrate and enforce them. This course, with most readers, is an
acceptable one, and in a work of this nature it is the best that can
be pursued, frequently, to accomplish, within reasonable limits, the
design of the undertaking.

To enlarge would seem to be useless. The volume must speak for
itself, and bear its recommendation within. It is hoped, with the
several sketches of the Republic which it intends to present, under
its different aspects, it may prove an agreeable and instructive one
to the community.

We had intended to have annexed a list of the writers consulted
and extracted from in the course of the volume; but we believe
the references in the pages will supersede the necessity of a more
particular notice. It would be unjust, however, not to mention our
especial obligation to the excellent View of the United States by
Mr. Hinton, of which we have made the freest use throughout the volume.

New York, June, 1839.




                               CONTENTS.


                                PART I.
                          PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

  CHAP. I. Mountains
  CHAP. II. Valleys
  CHAP. III. Prairies and Plains
  CHAP. IV. Rivers
  CHAP. V. Cataracts and Cascades
  CHAP. VI. Lakes
  CHAP. VII. Springs
  CHAP. VIII. Caverns
  CHAP. IX. Islands
  CHAP. X. Capes and Peninsulas
  CHAP. XI. Bays, Harbors, Sounds, and Gulfs
  CHAP. XII. Oceans
  CHAP. XIII. Soil
  CHAP. XIV. Climate
  CHAP. XV. Minerals
  CHAP. XVI. Animals
  CHAP. XVII. Botany
  CHAP. XVIII. Geology
  CHAP. XIX. Natural Curiosities


                               PART II.
                         POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.

  CHAP. I. Political and Geographical Division
  CHAP. II. Cities and Towns
  CHAP. III. Agriculture
  CHAP. IV. Manufactures
  CHAP. V. Commerce
  CHAP. VI. Rail-roads
  CHAP. VII. Canals
  CHAP. VIII. Government
  CHAP. IX. Convention
  CHAP. X. Indian Tribes
  CHAP. XI. American Antiquities
  CHAP. XII. Religion
  CHAP. XIII. Manners and Amusements
  CHAP. XIV. Penitentiary System
  CHAP. XVI. Literature and Education
  CHAP. XVII. Fine Arts
  CHAP. XVIII. Banking System
  CHAP. XIX. Biographical Sketches
  CHAP. XX. History




                      BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES.


                                PART I.
                          PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.




                        CHAPTER I.――MOUNTAINS.


THOUGH embracing in its extent several elevated ranges of great length
and breadth, the territory of the United States cannot be considered
as a mountainous country. The land along the whole line of the seacoast
is level for a considerable distance into the interior. The breadth of
this level tract expands from fifty miles in the north-east extremity,
gradually, as we advance to the south-west, till in the state of
Georgia, it has attained an extent of near two hundred miles. Beyond
this the land gradually rises into mountains, which are much more
remarkable for their length and breadth, than their height. They
sometimes consist of numerous parallel ridges rising successively
behind each other; at other times they run into knots; and sometimes
they recede from their parallel direction into what are called spurs.
These ranges or belts of mountainous country, though receiving a vast
number of different appellations, are most usually known by the name
of the _Alleghanies_. The long continuity of this chain has obtained
it the name of the _Endless Mountains_, from the northern savages. The
French and Spaniards, who first became acquainted with it in Florida,
applied to it through its whole extent the name of _Apalachian_, which
is still retained by a considerable river of that country.

The general course of the Alleghanies is about north-east and
south-west; east of the Hudson they are scattered in irregular groups,
without any very marked direction.

The range of the _Rocky or Chippewan Mountains_ divides the waters
which flow east into the Missouri and Mississippi, from those which
flow west into the Pacific Ocean, and are a continuation of the
Cordilleras of Mexico. Their longitude is about one hundred and twelve
west, and they terminate in about seventy north latitude. Along the
coast of the Pacific is another range which seems to form a step to
the Rocky Mountains. It extends from the Cape of California along
the coast to Cook’s Inlet, generally rising to no great height in the
southern portion. In the northern part, La Perouse states that it is
ten thousand feet high, and at its northern extremity is Mount Elias,
eighteen thousand feet high, and the loftiest peak of North America.

The _White Mountains_ in New England, largely considered, are the
principal ranges running north-east and south-west, projecting from
the main ridge that forms the boundary of the United States, and
separates the waters of the St. Lawrence from those that run south
through the Northern States. The highest ridge is that called the
White Mountain Ridge in New Hampshire, running from south to north,
the loftiest summits of which are Monadnock, a hill of an abrupt
and striking character, Sunapee, Kearsarge, Carr’s Mountain, and
Moosehillock. Towards the north of the state, these eminences rise
to a much higher elevation, and are known specifically by the name of
the White Mountains.

  Illustration: White Mountains.

  Illustration: White Mountains.

These are the loftiest mountains in the United States, east of the
Mississippi. They lie between the Connecticut and Androscoggin rivers
on the north-east and west, and the head-waters of the Merrimack on the
south sixty or seventy miles from the coast; yet their white summits
are visible from many miles at sea. They extend about twenty miles from
south-west to north-east, and their base is eight or ten miles broad.

Mount Washington is the highest of all the White Mountains, being six
thousand two hundred and thirty-four feet above the level of the sea.
Next to Mount Washington in height is Mount Adams, then Jefferson,
then Madison, all more than five thousand feet high; there are several
besides these, though none so elevated. The country around and among
the mountains is very wild and rough, and the mountains themselves
are difficult of access. The east side of Mount Washington rises at an
angle of forty-five degrees. The lower part of the mountain is covered
with thick woods of spruce and fir trees, with deep beds of moss
beneath. Heavy clouds of vapor often rest upon the mountain, and fill
the moss with water, which cannot be exhaled or dried up by the sun
on account of the woods, and therefore it breaks out in numerous
springs which feed the streams from the mountain. The trees are short
and stunted higher up the mountain; soon there are only bushes; then
instead of bushes are vines; the last thing that grows is winter grass
mixed with moss; the summit is entirely bare of vegetation. There is
a plain from which the last height of Mount Washington rises to the
height of fifteen hundred feet. This elevation or pinnacle is composed
of huge grey rocks. Reaching the top much fatigued and out of breath,
the traveller is instantly master of a boundless prospect, noble enough
to pay him for his labor. The Atlantic dimly seen through a distance of
sixty-five miles, the Vermont Mountains on the west, the southern and
northern mountains of New Hampshire, Lake Winnipiseogee, ponds, streams,
and towns, without number, all form a great impressive picture.

The road from the seacoast to the mountains passes along the head
stream of the Saco, which rises among these mountains, and breaks
through them at a place known by the name of the Notch, a narrow defile
extending two miles in length between two large cliffs, apparently rent
asunder by some vast convulsion of nature.

‘The sublime and awful grandeur of this passage baffles all description.
Geometry may settle the heights of the mountains; and numerical figures
may record the measure; but no words can tell the emotions of the soul,
as it looks upward, and views the almost perpendicular precipices which
line the narrow space between them; while the senses ache with terror
and astonishment, as one sees himself hedged in from all the world
besides. He may cast his eye forward or backward, or to either side;
he can see only upward, and there the diminutive circle of his vision
is cribbed and confined by the battlements of nature’s ‘cloud-capped
towers,’ which seem as if they wanted only the breathing of a zephyr,
or the wafting of a straw against them, to displace them, and crush
the prisoner in their fall. Just before our visit to this place, on the
26th of June, 1826, there was a tremendous avalanche, or slide, as it
is there called, from the mountain which makes the southern wall of the
passage. An immense mass of earth and rock, on the side of the mountain,
was loosened from its resting place, and began to slide towards the
bottom. In its course, it divided into three portions, each coming down,
with amazing velocity, into the road, and sweeping before it shrubs,
trees, and rocks, and filling up the road, beyond all possibility
of its being removed. With great labor, a pathway has been made over
these fallen masses, which admits the passage of a carriage. The place
from which the slide, or slip, was loosened, is directly in the rear
of a small, but comfortable dwelling-house, owned and occupied by
a Mr. Willey, who has taken advantage of a narrow, a very narrow
interval,――where the bases of the two mountains seem to have parted
and receded, as if afraid of coming into contact,――to erect his lone
habitation: and, were there not a special Providence in the fall of a
sparrow, and had not the finger of that Providence traced the direction
of the sliding mass, neither he, nor any soul of his family, would ever
have told the tale. They heard the noise, when it first began to move,
and ran to the door. In terror and amazement, they beheld the mountain
in motion. But what can human power effect in such an emergency? Before
they could think of retreating, or ascertain which way to escape, the
danger was passed. One portion of the avalanche crossed the road about
ten rods only from their habitation; the second, a few rods beyond
that; and the third, and much the largest portion, took a much more
oblique direction. The whole area, now covered by the slide, is nearly
an acre; and the distance of its present bed from its former place on
the side of the mountain, and which it moved over in a few minutes,
is from three quarters of a mile to a mile. There are many trees of
large size that came down with such force as to shiver them in pieces;
and innumerable rocks, of many tons’ weight, any one of which was
sufficient to carry with it destruction to any of the labors of man.
The spot on the mountain, from which the slip was loosened, is now
a naked, white rock; and its pathway downward is indicated by deep
channels, or furrows grooved in the side of the mountain, and down one
of which pours a stream of water, sufficient to carry a common saw-mill.

‘From this place to the Notch, there is almost a continual ascent,
generally gradual, but sometimes steep and sudden. The narrow pathway
proceeds along the stream, sometimes crossing it, and shifting from
the side of one mountain to the other, as either furnishes a less
precarious foothold for the traveller than its fellow. Occasionally it
winds up the side of the steep to such a height, as to leave, on one
hand or the other, a gulf of unseen depth; for the foliage of the trees
and shrubs is impervious to the sight. The Notch itself is formed by a
sudden projection of rock from the mountain on the right or northerly
side, rising perpendicularly to a great height,――probably seventy or
eighty feet,――and by a large mass of rock on the left side, which has
tumbled from its ancient location, and taken a position within _twenty
feet_ of its opposite neighbor. The length of the Notch is not more
than three or four rods. The moment it is passed, the mountains seem
to have vanished. A level meadow, overgrown with long grass and wild
flowers, and spotted with tufts of shrubbery, spreads itself before
the astonished eye, on the left, and a swamp or thicket, on the right,
conceals the ridge of mountains which extend to the north: the road
separates this thicket from the meadow. Not far from the Notch, on the
right hand side of the road, several springs issue from the rocks that
compose the base of the mountain, unite in the thicket, and form the
Saco river. This little stream runs across the road into the meadow,
where it almost loses itself in its meandering among the bogs, but
again collects its waters and passes under the rock that makes the
southerly wall of the Notch. It is here invisible for several rods, and
its presence is indicated only by its noise, as it rolls through its
rugged tunnel. In wet seasons and freshets, probably a portion of the
water passes over the fragments of rock, which are here wedged together,
and form an arch or covering for the natural bed of the stream.

‘The sensations which affect the corporeal faculties, as one views
these stupendous creations of Omnipotence, are absolutely afflicting
and painful. If you look at the summits of the mountains, when a cloud
passes towards them, it is impossible for the eye to distinguish, at
such a height, which is in motion, the mountain, or the cloud; and this
deception of vision produces a dizziness, which few spectators have
nerve enough to endure for many minutes. If the eye be fixed on the
crags and masses of rock, that project from the sides of the mountains,
the flesh involuntarily quivers, and the limbs seem to be impelled
to retreat from a scene that threatens impendent destruction. If the
thoughts which crowd upon the intellectual faculties are less painful
than these sensations of flesh and blood, they are too sublime and
overwhelming to be described. The frequent alterations and great
changes, that have manifestly taken place in these majestic masses,
since they were first piled together by the hand of the Creator, are
calculated to awaken “thoughts beyond the reaches of the soul.” If the
“everlasting hills” thus break in pieces, and shake the shaggy covering
from their sides, who will deny that

       “This earthly globe, the creature of a day,
        Though built by God’s right hand, shall pass away?――
        The sun himself, by gathering clouds oppressed,
        Shall, in his silent, dark pavilion rest;
        His golden urn shall break, and, useless, lie
        Among the common ruins of the sky;
        The stars rush headlong, in the wild commotion,
        And bathe their glittering foreheads in the ocean?”

‘Reflection needs not the authority of inspiration to warrant a
belief, that this anticipation is something more than poetical. History
and philosophy teach its truth, or, at least, its probability. The
melancholy imaginings which it excites are relieved by the conviction
that the whole of God’s creation is nothing less

            “Than a capacious reservoir of means,
             Formed for his use, and ready at his will;”

and that, if this globe should be resolved into chaos, it will undergo
a new organization, and be re-moulded into scenes of beauty, and abodes
of happiness. Such may be the order of nature, to be unfolded in a
perpetual series of material production and decay――of creation and
dissolution――a magnificent procession of worlds and systems, in the
march of eternity.’[1]

A few weeks after the slide mentioned in the above description, a
disaster occurred which occasioned the destruction of the interesting
family to which allusion is there made.

The afternoon had been rainy, and the weather continued so till
eleven o’clock in the evening, when it cleared away. About the same
hour, a great noise was heard, at the distance of several miles like
the rushing down of rocks and much water from the mountains. The next
morning, the people, at Conway, could perceive that some disaster, of
no ordinary character, had happened, by the appearance of the mountains
on each side of the road. On repairing to the spot, they found the
house of Mr. Willey, standing near the Notch, unhurt, but destitute of
any of the family. It is supposed that they left it in their fright,
and were instantly swept away, and buried under the rocks and earth
which were borne down by the freshet. This family consisted of Mr.
Willey, his wife, five children, and two hired men, all of whom were
suddenly swept from time to eternity, by this lamentable disaster. Had
they remained in the house, they would probably have been safe.

The central and western parts of Maine are mountainous. The highest
mountains are the Katahdin, situated near the centre of the state, the
Speckled, Bald, Bigelow, and Ebeeme mountains. The range between the
rivers Hudson and Connecticut, and this last and lake Champlain, is
called the _Green Mountains_, an appellation which it has received
from its perpetual verdure, being covered on its western side with
hemlock, pine, spruce, and other evergreens. These mountains are from
ten to fifteen miles wide, much intersected with valleys, and abounding
in springs and streams. Vegetation decreases on approaching their
summits; the trees diminish in size, and frequently terminate in a
shrubbery of spruce and hemlock, two or three feet high, with branches
so interwoven as to prevent all passage through them. The sides of the
mountains are generally rugged and irregular; some of them have large
apertures and caves. Their tops are coated with a compact and firm moss,
which lies in extensive beds, and is sometimes of a consistency to bear
the weight of a man without being broken through. These mosses absorb a
great deal of moisture, and afford wet and marshy places, which in the
warm season are the constant resort of water fowl. The loftiest summits
are Killington Peak, near Rutland; Camel’s Rump, between Montpelier
and Burlington, and Mansfield Mountain, a few miles farther north, all
which are more than three thousand five hundred feet above the level
of the sea. Ascutney, a single mountain near Windsor, is three thousand
three hundred and twenty feet in height.

The range called Green Mountains in Vermont, enters the west part of
Massachusetts from the north, and forms the Hoosac and Tagkannuc Ridges,
which run nearly parallel to each other south, into Connecticut. The
most elevated peaks of the Tagkannuc Ridge are Saddle Mountain in the
north, four thousand feet high, and Tagkannuc Mountain in the south,
three thousand feet. No summits of the Hoosac Ridge much exceed half
these elevations. Mount Holyoke, in the neighborhood of Northampton,
commands a prospect of the highest beauty; the waters of the
Connecticut wind about its base, giving fertility and wealth of
vegetation to the surrounding country. On its top a shanty is erected,
in which refreshments are kept for the visitors who at favorable
seasons make this excursion in great numbers.

There are two distinct chains belonging to the Alleghany range in the
state of New York, the Catskill and the Wallkill. The Catskill, which
is the most northern, is the continuation of the proper Alleghany or
western chain; the eastern is called, by some geographers, Wallkill.

A visit to the Catskill is a favorite excursion of northern travellers,
and several days may be spent very agreeably in examining the grand and
romantic scenery of the neighborhood. Pine Orchard is a small plain,
two thousand two hundred and fourteen feet above the Hudson, scattered
with forest trees, and furnished with an elegant house of great
size. Immediately below is seen a wild and mountainous region, finely
contrasting with the cultivated country beyond, which presents every
variety of hill and valley, interspersed with town, hamlet, and cottage.

The hills of _Weehawken_ are on the west side of the Hudson, nearly
opposite the city of New York.

  Illustration: Weehawken.

The _Highlands_ of the Hudson, or Fishkill Mountains, which first
appear about forty miles from New York, are marked for their sublimity
and grandeur, and interesting from their connection with many great
events of the revolution. This chain is sixteen miles in width, and
extends twenty miles along both sides of the Hudson. The height of
the principal has been estimated at one thousand five hundred and
sixty-five feet. The _Peruvian Mountains_ consist of a lofty tract
in the northern part of New York, being round the sources of the
Hudson, and separating the waters of Lake Champlain from those of the
St. Lawrence. They received their name from the supposition that they
contained mineral treasures. Their loftiest summit, called Whiteface,
is about three thousand feet above the level of Lake Champlain.

  Illustration: Highlands.

The Apalachian chain in Pennsylvania spreads to its widest limits, and
covers with its various ranges more than one half of the state. The
greatest width of the chain equals two hundred miles. It consists of
parallel ridges sometimes little distant from each other, and at other
times with valleys twenty or thirty miles broad lying between them.
The range nearest the coast is called the South Mountain, and is a
continuation of the Blue Ridge of Virginia. This, however, is hardly a
distinct ridge, but only an irregular series of rocky, broken eminences,
sometimes disappearing altogether, and at others spreading out several
miles in breadth. These eminences lie one hundred and fifty or two
hundred miles from the sea, and their height does not exceed one
thousand two hundred feet above the surrounding country. Beyond these
are the Kittatinny or Blue Mountains, which extend from Maryland to New
Jersey across the Susquehanna and Delaware. Farther westward are the
ridges bearing the names of the Sideling Hills, Ragged Mountains, Great
Warrior Mountain, East Will’s Mountain, till we come to the Alleghany
Ridge, the highest range, and from which this whole chain has in common
language received the name of the Alleghany Mountains. The highest
summits are between three and four thousand feet above the level of the
sea. West of the Alleghany are the Laurel and Chesnut Ridges.

These mountains are in general covered with thick forests. The Laurel
Mountains are overgrown on their eastern front with the tree from which
they are named. The wide valleys between the great ridges are filled
with a multitude of hills, confusedly scattered up and down. The tops
of the ridges sometimes exhibit long ranges of table land, two or three
miles broad; some of them are steep on one side, and extend with a long
slope on the other. These mountains are traversed by the great streams
of the Susquehanna chain, and the head-waters of the Ohio.

The _Wallkill_, which crosses the Hudson at West Point, forty miles
below the Catskill, is the continuation of the Blue Ridge, or _Eastern
Chain_, which is the most general appellation for the extensive ridge
which fronts the Atlantic. The eastern and western ranges run parallel
to each other, south-west, till on the frontiers of North Carolina
and Virginia they unite in a knot which has been called the Alleghany
Arch, because the principal chain embraces there in a curve all its
collaterals from the east. A little farther to the south, but still
in North Carolina, a second knot unites all the collateral ridges from
the west, and forms a culminating point of heads of rivers. The second
bifurcation stretches south-west and then west, and the name of the
[2]Cumberland Mountains through the whole state of Tennessee, while
the proper _Alleghany Chain_, left almost alone, continues its course
to the south-west, and completes the boundary of Georgia and the two
Carolinas. From the Alleghany Arch, there are three principal ridges or
ramifications of the Alleghany, running north-east and nearly parallel
to each other, namely, the _Alleghany Proper_, the _North Mountain_,
and the _Blue Ridge_. Of the last ridge the highest summits are the
Otter Peaks. The elevated district of South Carolina presents seven or
eight mountains running in regular directions, the most distinguished
of which is the [3]Table Mountain. Mr. Jefferson, with peculiar
felicity of illustration, called the range of the Alleghanies the spine
of the United States separating the eastern from the western waters,
and the whole of the territory from the Mississippi to the Atlantic
into three natural divisions, materially differing from each other
in climate, configuration, soil, and produce; namely, the coast, the
mountains, and the western territory.

In extent, in elevation, and in breadth, the _Rocky Mountains_ far
exceed the Alleghanies of the Eastern States. Their mean breadth is
two hundred miles, and where broadest, three hundred. Their height must
be very great, since, when first seen by Captain Lewis, they were at
least one hundred and fifty miles distant. On a nearer approach, the
sublimity of the prospect is increased, by the appearance of range
rising behind range, each yielding in height to its successor, till
the most distant is mingled with the clouds. In this lofty region the
ranges are covered with snow in the middle of June. From this last
circumstance, these ranges have been sometimes denominated the _Shining
Mountains_――an appellation much more appropriate than that of the
_Rocky_ or _Stony Mountains_, a property possessed by all mountains,
but peculiar to none. The longitudinal extent of this great chain is
immense, running as far north-west as sixty degrees north latitude,
and perhaps to the Frozen Ocean itself. The snows and fountains of this
enormous range, from the thirty-eighth to the forty-eighth degree of
northern latitude, feed, with never-failing supplies, the Missouri and
its powerful auxiliary streams.

  Illustration: Table lands at the foot of the Rocky Mountains.

In endeavoring to explore these Alpine heights, and the sources of the
Red and Arkansaw rivers, Captain Pike and his party were bewildered
amidst snows, and torrents, and precipices. The cold was so intense,
that several of the party had their limbs frostbitten, and were obliged
to be abandoned to their fate, by Pike and his surviving companions. In
a lateral ridge, separating the valley of the Arkansaw from that of the
Platte river, in north latitude forty-one degrees, is a remarkable peak,
called the _Great White Mountain_; so remarkable, indeed, as to be
known to all the savage tribes for hundreds of miles round, and spoken
of in terms of admiration by the Spaniards of New Mexico, and which
formed the boundary of their knowledge to the north-west. The altitude
of this peak was taken on the base of a mile by Pike, and found to
be ten thousand five hundred and eighty-one feet above the level of
the meadow at its foot; and the height of this latter was estimated
at eight thousand feet above the level of the sea; in all, eighteen
thousand five hundred and eighty-one feet of absolute elevation; being
six thousand feet higher than the peak of Teneriffe, by Humboldt’s
measurement; or two thousand eight hundred and ninety-one feet short
of that of Chimborazo, admitting the elevation of this last to be
twenty-one thousand four hundred and seventy-two feet. Captain Pike
and his companions never lost sight of this tremendous peak, unless in
a valley, for the space of ten weeks, wandering amongst the mountains.
What is the elevation at the sources of the Missouri can only be matter
of mere conjecture. The level of the river, where they left their
canoes, could not be less than six thousand feet above the sea; but how
high the mountains rose above this point the narrative does not inform
us, and hardly gives us any data to decide. The central chain, as usual,
is marked in the map as highest, and covered with snow during the
whole year. The latitude is between forty-five and forty-seven degrees;
and between these parallels, in Europe, the lower limit of perpetual
congelation is fixed at from nine to ten thousand feet above the level
of the sea; and it can hardly be supposed that the summits of this
snowy range were less than eight thousand five hundred or nine thousand
feet high, making a reasonable allowance for the greater coldness of
the American continent. Captain Clarke allows this central range to
be sixty miles across, and that the shortest road across the different
ranges is at least one hundred and forty miles, besides two hundred
miles more, before we can reach a navigable river. In their first
passage across these tremendous mountains, the American party suffered
every thing which hunger, cold, and fatigue, could impose, during three
weeks. They were compelled to melt the snow for their portable soup;
many of their horses (which they used for conveying their baggage, or
for riding,) were foundered by falls from precipices; the men became
feeble through excessive toil, and sickly from want of food, as there
are no wild animals in these inhospitable regions; and, but for an
occasional meal of horse flesh, the whole party must have perished. In
returning home from the mouth of the Columbia, their state was little
better. Having again come in sight of the mountains, in the middle
of May, they attempted to pass them but in vain, on account of the
snow, which lay from six to ten feet deep, and were obliged to return,
and rest in the plains to the twenty-fourth of June. These mountains
are, therefore, a far more formidable barrier to the Pacific, than
the Alleghanies to the back country, and can be passed with great
difficulty only for three months in the year, namely, from the latter
end of June to the latter end of September.

We are indebted to the Missouri Advocate for the following account
of General Ashley’s discoveries in this quarter. He considers it
quite possible to form a route across this formidable barrier to the
Pacific Ocean. The route proposed, after leaving St. Louis, and passing
generally on the north side of the Missouri river, strikes the river
Platte, a short distance above its junction with the Missouri; then
pursues the waters of the Platte to their sources, and, in continuation,
crosses the head-waters of what General Ashley believes to be the
Rio Colorado of the west, and strikes, for the first time, a ridge or
single connecting chain of mountains, running from north to south.
This however presents no difficulty, as a wide gap is found apparently
prepared for the purpose of a passage. After passing this gap, the
route proposed falls directly on a river, called by George Ashley the
Buenaventura, and runs from that river to the Pacific Ocean. The face
of the country, in general, is a continuation of high, rugged, and
barren mountains; the summits of which are either timbered with pine,
quaking-asp, or cedar; or, in fact, almost entirely destitute of
vegetation. Other parts are hilly and undulating; and the valleys and
table-lands (except on the borders of water-courses, which are more
or less timbered with cotton-wood and willows,) are destitute of wood;
but this indispensable article is substituted by an herb, called by
the hunters wild sage, which grows from one to five feet high, and is
found in great abundance in most parts of the country. The sterility of
the country generally is almost incredible. That part of it, however,
bounded by the three ranges of mountains, and watered by the sources
of the supposed Buenaventura, is less sterile; yet the proportion of
arable land, even within those limits, is comparatively small; and
no district of the country visited by General Ashley, or of which he
obtained satisfactory information, offers inducements to civilized
people, sufficient to justify an expectation of permanent settlement.
The river visited by General Ashley, and which he believes to be the
Rio Colorado of the west, is, at about fifty miles from its most
northern source, eighty yards wide. At this point, General Ashley
embarked and descended the river, which gradually increased in width
to one hundred and eighty yards. In passing through the mountains, the
channel is contracted to fifty or sixty yards, and so much obstructed
by rocks as to make its descent extremely dangerous, and its ascent
impracticable. After descending this river about four hundred miles,
General Ashley shaped his course northwardly, and fell upon what he
supposed to be the sources of the Buenaventura; he represents those
branches as bold streams, from twenty to fifty yards wide, forming a
junction a few miles below where he crossed them, and then emptying
into a lake (called Grand Lake,) represented by the Indians as being
forty or fifty miles wide, and sixty or seventy miles long. This
information is strengthened by that of the white hunters, who have
explored parts of the lake. The Indians represent, that at the extreme
west end of this lake, a large river flows out, and runs in a westward
direction. General Ashley, when on those waters, at first thought it
probable they were the sources of the Multnomah: but the account given
by the Indians, supported by the opinion of some men belonging to the
Hudson Bay Company, confirms him in the belief, that they are the
head-waters of the river represented as the Buenaventura. To the north
and north-west from the Grand Lake, the country is represented as
abounding in salt. The Indians west of the mountains are remarkably
well disposed towards the citizens of the United States; the Eutaws
and Flatheads are particularly so, and express a great wish that the
Americans should visit them frequently.

A large number of lateral ranges project to the south-east, east, and
north-east of the main range. Where the Missouri enters the plains,
is the most eastern projection; and from where the Jaune leaves the
snowy range, there is a lateral range, running more than two hundred
miles south-east, which is intersected by the Bighorn river. As these
mountains have not yet been explored by the eye of geological science,
it is impossible to say any thing respecting their component parts;
but, from every thing that we can learn from Pike and Clarke, they seem
to be chiefly granitic. No volcanoes have yet been discovered amongst
them; but strange unusual noises were heard from the mountains, by the
American party, when stationed above the falls of the Missouri. These
sounds seemed to come from the north-west. ‘Since our arrival at the
falls,’ says the narrative, ‘we have repeatedly heard a strange noise
coming from the mountains, a little to the north of west. It is heard
at different periods of the day and night: sometimes when the air is
perfectly still and unclouded, and consists of one stroke only, or of
five or six discharges in quick succession. It is loud, and resembles
precisely the sound of a six pounder at the distance of three miles.
The Indians had before mentioned this noise like thunder, but we had
paid no attention to it. The watermen also of the party say, that the
Pawnees and Ricaras give the same account of a similar noise made in
the Black Mountains, to the westward of them.’ Again, near the same
place, it is afterwards said: ‘They heard, about sunset, two discharges
of the tremendous mountain artillery.’ Not a word more occurs upon the
subject; but we know that similar explosions take place among the
mountains near the head of the Washita, and among the mountains of
Namhi, near the sources of the Red river.

In our present state of ignorance respecting these mountains, it is
impossible to give a solution of this phenomenon, though it may proceed
from some distant volcano, which, like Stromboli, may be in a state
of constant activity, but more irregularly. It is well known that the
sounds of volcanoes are heard at very great distances, as at Guatimala,
where the sound of the volcano of Cotopaxi was distinctly heard, though
more than two hundred and twenty miles distant. Some indications of
volcanoes had been seen by the American party, when ascending the river,
about sixty miles below the mouth of the Little Missouri, where they
passed several very high bluffs on the south side, one of which had
been lately a burning volcano, as the pumice stones lay very thick
around it, and emitted a strong sulphureous smell. Similar appearances
are mentioned by Mackenzie, as taking place among the Rocky Mountains
on their eastern side, in north latitude fifty-six and one hundred and
twenty degrees west longitude. ‘Mr. Mackay,’ says he, ‘informed me,
that in passing over the mountains, he observed several chasms in the
earth that emitted heat and smoke, which diffused a strong sulphureous
stench.’ From all these circumstances combined, it is natural to infer
that the sound proceeds from some very distant and unknown volcano.

On the west side of the Mississippi, and about midway between the Rocky
Mountains and the Alleghanies, lies a broad range of mountains, called
the Ozarks, six or seven hundred miles in length, about one hundred
broad, and having an elevation varying from one to two thousand feet
above the sea. This range of low mountains, which is penetrated by two
branches of the Mississippi, the Arkansas and Red river, was nearly
altogether unknown till within these few years. It is parallel with
the range of the Alleghanies, making an angle of about forty degrees
with the great range of the Andes. As far as the Ozarks have yet been
explored, the granites and older primitive rocks are found at the
lowest part, being surmounted by those of more recent formation. The
reverse of this is observed in the Rocky Mountains. A similar range of
broken and hilly country commences on the Ouisconsin river and extends
north to Lake Superior. It is called the Wisconsin or Ouisconsin Hills.


                     GENERAL REMARKS ON MOUNTAINS.

  Mountains are supposed by naturalists to have different origins,
  and to date their commencement from various periods. Those which
  form a chain, and are covered with snow, are accounted primitive,
  or antediluvian. They greatly exceed all other mountains in
  height; in general their elevation is very sudden, and their
  ascent steep and difficult. They are composed of vast masses of
  quartz, destitute of shells, and of all organized marine matter;
  and appear to descend almost perpendicularly into the body of
  the earth. Of this kind are the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Himmaleh
  ranges, the Atlas, and the Andes. Another class are of volcanic
  origin. These are either detached or surrounded with groups of
  lower hills, the soil of which is heaped up in disorder, and
  consists of gravel and other loose substances. Among these are
  Mount Ætna and Vesuvius. A third class of mountains, whether
  grouped or isolated, are such as are composed of stratified
  earth or stone, consisting of different substances of various
  colors. The interior consists of numerous strata, almost
  horizontally disposed, containing shells, marine productions,
  and fish bones in great quantities. The strata of mountains
  which are lower and of more recent date, sometimes appear to
  rise from the side of primitive mountains which they surround,
  and of which they form the first step in the ascent.

  The mountains in Asia are the most elevated and imposing in
  the world. Of these the Himmaleh chain is the highest; one of
  its peaks, Dhawalaghiri, reaching the altitude of twenty-eight
  thousand and ninety-six feet, and several exceeding twenty-four
  thousand. Africa has some extensive chains of mountains, but
  the altitudes of only a few have been ascertained. Mont Blanc
  is the highest summit of Europe, reaching an elevation of
  fifteen thousand seven hundred and thirty-five feet. The Andes
  of South America present the most striking and stupendous
  features; cataracts, volcanoes, and immense chasms of an almost
  perpendicular descent. Chimborazo, the highest point of the
  Andes, reaches twenty-one thousand four hundred and sixty-four
  feet; in many places the peaks rise to upwards of twenty
  thousand feet, though in others they sink to less than one
  thousand.

  In general, all the chains of mountains in the same continent,
  seem to have a mutual connection more or less apparent; they
  form a sort of frame-work to the land, and appear in the origin
  of things to have determined the shape which it was to assume;
  but this analogy, were we to generalize too much, would lead us
  into error. There are many chains, which have very little, or,
  rather, no affinity to each other. Such are the mountains of
  Scandinavia and of Scotland, mountains as independent as the
  character of the nations who inhabit them.


        TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL ELEVATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES.

   1. Long’s Peak, the highest of the Rocky Mountains,
      Missouri Territory                                        12,000

   2. James’s Peak, of the Rocky Mountains, Missouri Territory  11,500

   3. Inferior peaks of the Rocky Mountains, varying from
      10,700 to                                                  7,200

   4. Mt. Washington, the highest of the White Hills,
      New Hampshire                                              6,234

   5. Inferior peaks of the White Hills, varying from 5,328 to   4,356

   6. Moosehillock Mt., Grafton County, New Hampshire            4,636

   7. Mansfield or Chin Mt., Chittenden County, Vermont          4,279

   8. Camels’ Rump, Chittenden County, Vermont                   4,188

   9. Shrewsbury Peak, Rutland County, Vermont                   4,034

  10. Saddleback Mt., Berkshire County, Massachusetts            4,000

  11. Table Mountain, Pendleton District, South Carolina         4,000

  12. Peaks of Otter, Bedford County, Virginia                   3,955

  13. Killington Peak, Rutland County, Vermont                   3,924

  14. Round Top, the highest of the Catskill Mountains,
      New York                                                   3,804

  15. High Peak, one of the highest of the Catskill Mountains,
      New York                                                   3,718

  16. Grand Monadnock, Cheshire County, New Hampshire            3,718

  17. Manchester Mountain, Bennington County, Vermont            3,706

  18. Ascutney Mountain, Windsor County, Vermont                 3,320

  19. Ozark Mountains, Arkansas Territory, average height        3,200

  20. Wachuset Mountain, or Mount Adams, Worcester County,
      Mass.                                                      2,990

  21. Whiteface Mountain, Essex County, New York                 2,690

  22. Kearsarge Mountain, Hillsborough County, New Hampshire     2,460

  23. Alleghany Mountains, average height                        2,400

  24. Porcupine Mountains, Chippeway County, south of Lake
      Superior                                                   2,200

  25. Cumberland Mountains, average height                       2,200

  26. Moose Mountain, New Hampshire                              2,008

  27. New Beacon, the highest of the Highlands, New York         1,658




                         CHAPTER II.――VALLEYS.


THE _Valley of the Mississippi_ is the largest in the world;
and differs from any other of very great extent, in the peculiar
distinctness of its outline. It is bounded south by the gulf of Mexico,
west by the Rocky Mountains, north by the great lakes of British
America, and east by the Apalachian Mountains. Its general surface
may be classed under three distinct aspects; the thickly timbered,
the barren, and the prairie country. This valley extends from the
twenty-ninth to the forty-ninth parallel of north latitude, and
exhibits every variation of temperature from the climate of Canada to
that of Louisiana. It is a wide extent of level country, in which the
various rivers, inclosed between two chains of mountains three thousand
miles apart, find a common centre, and discharge their waters into the
sea by a single channel. Geologically considered, this immense valley
presents every where the aspect of what is called secondary formation.
Its prevailing rocks are carbonate of lime, disposed in the most
regular lamina, masses of limestone, in which seashells or organic
remains are imbedded, retaining their distinct and original form. At
every step, is presented the aspect of a country once covered by lakes
or seas. The soil, stones, and exuviæ of lake or river formation, are,
to all appearance, of comparatively recent origin. In the alluvial
soils, to the depth of from twenty to an hundred feet, are found
pebbles, smoothed by the evident attrition of waters, having the
appearances of those masses of smoothed pebbles that are thrown on
the seashore by the dashing of the surge. Leaves, branches, and logs
are also found at great distances from the points where wood is seen
at present, and at great depths below the surface. In the most solid
blocks of limestone, split for building, deers’ horns and other animal
exuviæ are found incorporated in the solid stone.

‘From its character of recent formation,’ says Mr. Flint, ‘from the
prevalence of limestone every where, from the decomposition which it
has undergone, and is constantly undergoing, from the prevalence of
decomposed limestone in the soil, probably, results another general
attribute of this valley――its character generally for uncommon
fertility. We would not be understood to assert, that the country is
every where alike fertile. It has its sterile sections. There are here,
as elsewhere, infinite diversities of soil, from the richest alluvions,
to the most miserable flint knobs; from the tangled cane brakes, to the
poorest pine hills. There are, too, it is well known, towards the Rocky
Mountains, wide belts that have a surface of sterile sands, or only
covered with a sparse vegetation of weeds and coarse grass. But of
the country in general, the most cursory observer must have remarked,
that, compared with lands, apparently of the same character in other
regions, the lands here obviously show marks of singular fertility.
The most ordinary, third rate, oak lands, will bring successive crops
of wheat and maize, without any manuring, and with but little care of
cultivation. The pine lands of the southern regions are in many places
cultivated for years, without any attempts at manuring them. The same
fact is visible in the manner in which vegetation in this country
resists drought. It is a proverb on the good lands, that if there
be moisture enough to bring the corn to germinate, and come up, they
will have a crop, if no more rain falls until the harvest. We have a
thousand times observed this crop continuing to advance towards a fresh
and vigorous maturity, under a pressure of drought, and a continuance
of cloudless ardor of sun, that would have burned up and destroyed
vegetation in the Atlantic country.

‘We have supposed this fertility to arise, either from an uncommon
proportion of vegetable matter in the soil; from the saline
impregnations mixed with the earth, as evidenced in the numberless
licks, and springs of salt water, and the nitrous character of the
soil, wherever, as in caves, or under buildings, it is sheltered
from moisture; or, as we have remarked, from the general diffusion
of dissolved limestone, and marly mixtures over the surface. In some
way, spread by the waters, diffused through the soil, or the result
of former decomposition, there is evidently much of the quickening and
fertilizing power of lime mixed with the soil.’

The greatest length of the _Valley of the Missouri_ is twelve hundred
miles, its greatest breadth seven hundred. In the direction of the
western rivers, the inclined plain of the Missouri extends eight
hundred miles from the Chippewayan Mountains, and rather more than
that distance from south to north, from the southern branches of the
Kansas, to the extreme heads of the northern confluents of the valley.
Ascending from the lower verge of this widely extended plain, wood
becomes more and more scarce, until one naked surface spreads on all
sides. Even the ridges and chains of mountains partake of these traits
of desolation.

The celebrated valley called the _American Bottom_ extends along the
eastern bank of the Mississippi to the Piasa Hills, four miles above
the mouth of the Missouri. It is several miles in width, and has a soil
of astonishing fertility. It has all the disadvantages attending tracts
of recent alluvion, the most valuable parts of it being liable to be
swept away by the current of the Mississippi. ‘But the inexhaustible
fertility of its soil,’ says Major Long, ‘makes amends for the
insalubrity of the air, and the inconvenience of a flat and marshy
situation, and this valley is undoubtedly destined to become one of
the most populous parts of America. We were formerly shown here a
field that had been cultivated, without manure, one hundred years in
succession, and which when we saw it, (in August, 1816,) was covered
with a very luxuriant growth of corn.’

The _Ohio Valley_ is divided by the river into two unequal sections,
leaving on the north-west side eighty thousand, and on the south-east
one hundred and sixteen thousand square miles. The river flows in a
deep ravine five hundred and forty-eight miles long in a straight line,
and nine hundred and ninety-eight by the windings of the stream. In its
natural state the Ohio valley, with the exception of the central plain,
was covered with a dense forest. Open savannahs commence as far east
as the sources of the Muskingum. Like the plain itself, those savannahs
expand to the westward, and on the Illinois open into immense prairies.
This valley may be regarded as a great plain inclining from the
Apalachian system of the north-west, obliquely and deeply cut by the
Ohio and its numerous confluents, into chasms from an elevation of four
hundred feet to nearly the level of the streams. On the higher parts of
the valley, the banks of the river rise by bold acclivities which wear
almost a mountainous aspect. This boldness of outline imperceptibly
softens in descending the Ohio, and on approaching the Mississippi, an
extent of level woodland bounds the horizon. Ascending the rivers of
the south-east slope, the scenery becomes more and more rugged, until
it terminates in the ridges of the Apalachian chains: if the rivers
of the north-west slope are followed, on the contrary, we find the
landscape broken and varied near the Ohio, but around their sources
flat and monotonous.

The _Valley of the Hudson_ varies extremely in its width, being in
some places contracted to the immediate neighborhood of the stream;
in others extending forty miles. On the borders of the river the land
is generally elevated. The _Mohawk_ is bordered by two long ranges of
hills presenting little variety of aspect. In the early part of its
course it flows through extensive flats. The valleys of the Susquehanna
and its branches are remarkably irregular. These streams traverse the
whole width of the Apalachian chain of mountains, sometimes flowing
in wide valleys between parallel ranges for fifty or sixty miles in a
direct course, and at other times breaking through the mountain ridges.
The valleys between the different ranges of the great chain extending
throughout Pennsylvania are often twenty or thirty miles in width with
a hilly or broken surface.

  Illustration: Valley of the Mohawk.

The only large valley in North Carolina lies between the Blue Ridge,
and a parallel range called the Iron, Bald, and Smoky Mountains. It
runs north-east and south-west, is one hundred and eighty miles in
length, and from ten to forty in width.

The valleys of the small rivers of Tennessee are singularly beautiful
and fertile, surpassing all others of the same description in the
Western States. The valleys of the Cumberland and Tennessee differ
little from the alluvions of the other great rivers of the west.

The _Valley of the Connecticut_ is one of the most celebrated valleys
of the United States for its fertility and beauty. It is a large tract
of land extending from Long Island sound to Hereford Mountains in
Canada, five miles beyond the forty-fifth degree of latitude. In the
largest sense, it is from five to forty-five miles in width, and its
surface is composed of a succession of hills, valleys and plains. The
interval lands begin about twelve or fourteen miles from the mouth
of the river. These are formed by a long and continued alluvion. The
tributary streams of the Connecticut run every where through a soft and
rich soil, considerable quantities of which, particularly the lighter
and finer particles, are from time to time washed into their channels,
by occasional currents springing from rains and melted snows. Wherever
the stream moves with an uniform current these particles are carried
along with it; but where the current is materially checked, they
are in greater or less quantities deposited. In this manner a shoal
is formed at first, which afterwards rises into dry land; this is
almost invariably of good quality, but those parts which are lowest
are commonly the best, as being the most frequently overflowed, and
therefore most enriched by successive deposits of slime. Of these parts,
that division which is farthest down the river is the most productive,
consisting of finer particles, and being more plentifully covered with
this manure. In the spring these grounds are almost annually overflowed.
In the months of March and April, the snows, which in the northern
parts of New England are usually deep, and the rains, which at this
time of the year, are generally copious, raise the river from fifteen
to twenty feet, and extend the breadth of its waters in some places
a mile and a half or two miles. Almost all the slime conveyed down
the current at this season, is deposited on these lands, for here,
principally, the water becomes quiescent, and permits the earthy
particles to subside; this deposit is a rich manure; the lands dressed
with it are preserved in their full strength, and being regularly
enriched by the hand of nature, cannot but be highly valuable. Nor are
these grounds less distinguished by their beauty. The form of most of
them is elegant; a river passing through them becomes, almost of course,
winding; the earth of which they are composed is of a uniform texture,
the impressions made by the stream upon the border are also nearly
uniform; hence this border is almost universally a handsome arch, with
a neat margin, frequently ornamented with a fine fringe of shrubs and
trees.

Nor is the surface of these grounds less pleasing; their terraced
forms and undulations are eminently handsome, and their universal
fertility makes a cheerful impression on every eye. A great part of
them is formed into meadows which are here more profitable, and every
where more beautiful than lands devoted to any other culture; here
they are extended from five to five hundred acres, and are every where
covered with a verdure peculiarly rich and vivid. The vast fields also
which are not in meadow, exhibit all the productions of the climate,
interspersed in parallelograms, divided only by mathematical lines,
and mingled in a charming confusion. In many places, large and thrifty
orchards, and every where forest trees standing singly, of great height
and graceful figures, diversify the landscape. Through its whole extent
this valley is almost a continual succession of delightful scenery.
The Connecticut is one of the most beautiful rivers in the world;
the purity, salubrity and sweetness of its waters, the frequency and
elegance of its meadows, its absolute freedom from aquatic vegetables,
the enchanting elegance and grandeur of its banks, sometimes consisting
of a smooth and winding beach, here covered with rich verdure, there
fringed with bushes, now crowned with lofty trees, and now formed by
the intruding hill, the rude bluff, and the shaggy mountain; these are
objects which no description can equal.


                      GENERAL REMARKS ON VALLEYS.

  Valleys are formed by the separation of chains of mountains or
  of hills. Those which are formed between high mountains, are
  commonly narrow and long, as if they had originally been only
  fissures dividing their respective chains, or for the passage
  of extensive torrents. The angles of their direction sometimes
  exhibit singular symmetry. In the Pyrenees there are said to
  be valleys whose salient and re-entrant angles so perfectly
  correspond, that if the force which separated them were to act
  in a contrary direction, and bring their sides together again,
  they would unite so exactly that even the fissure would not be
  perceived. There are some highly situated valleys containing
  rivers and lakes which have no outlets or streams. Most high
  valleys have their surface upon a level with the summits of the
  secondary mountains in the neighborhood. The lower valleys widen
  as they recede from the secondary mountains from which they
  originate, and gradually lose themselves in the plains. Their
  opposite angles correspond regularly, but are very obtuse.

  The sort of narrow passage by which we enter into these high
  valleys is called a pass or defile. Between Norway and Sweden
  is one of these passes, formed by several masses of rock cut
  by nature into the shape of long parallelograms, and which have
  between them a passage shut in by perpendicular walls. This
  pass is near Skiærdal; another of the same kind is at Portfeld,
  or the Mountain of the Gate. These openings exactly resemble
  those by which the Hudson passes through successive chains
  of mountains, which seem desirous of checking its course. The
  Cordilleras of the Andes present the most stupendous passes of
  this kind that are known; they are from four to five thousand
  feet deep.

  The valleys of the Hudson and Connecticut are equalled by few
  in the old world for natural beauty and romantic scenery. Of
  the valleys of Europe, that of the Rhine is most celebrated;
  and is only more interesting than the Hudson on account of
  its old historical associations, its populous cities, and the
  picturesque ruins and massive monuments of architecture which
  frown upon its banks.




                  CHAPTER III.――PRAIRIES AND PLAINS.


ONE of the most remarkable features of the western country consists
in its extensive prairies or savannahs, which prevail in all the vast
region between the Alleghany and the Rocky Mountains, and also to the
west of the Rocky Mountains. When seen from the summits of the Mexican
and the Rocky Mountains, they seem absolutely boundless to the view.
They are not to be considered merely as dead flat, but undulating into
gentle swelling lawns, and expanding into spacious valleys, in the
centre of which is always found a little timber, growing on the banks
of the brooks and rivulets of the finest water. Pike, who viewed them
from the summit of the Blue Mountain, under the source of the Arkansaw,
says, ‘the unbounded prairie was overhung with clouds, which seemed
like the ocean in a storm, wave piled on wave, and foaming; while the
sky over our heads was perfectly clear, and the prospect was truly
sublime.’ In these vast prairies the soil is dry, sandy, with gravel;
but the moment we approach a stream, the land becomes more humid,
with small timber. It is probable that these steppes or prairies were
never well wooded, as, from the earliest ages, the aridity of the
soil, having so few water-courses running through it, and these being
principally dry in summer, no sufficient nourishment has been afforded
to the growth of timber. In all timbered land, the annual discharge of
the leaves, with the continual decay of old trees and branches, creates
a manure and moisture, which are preserved from the heat――the sun not
being permitted to direct his rays perpendicularly, but to shed them
only obliquely through the foliage. But in Upper Louisiana, a barren
soil, dried up for eight months in the year, presents neither moisture
nor nutriment for the growth of wood.

These vast plains of Louisiana, near the upper courses of the
Arkansaw, with its tributary streams, and the head-waters of the
Kanzas, White and Grand Osage rivers, may become in time like the sandy
deserts of Africa; ‘for,’ says Pike, ‘I saw in my route, in various
places, tracts of many leagues, where the wind had thrown up the sand
in all the fancied forms of the ocean’s rolling waves, and on which
not a single speck of vegetation appeared.’ From this circumstance Pike
deduces the following remark: ‘From these immense prairies may arise
a great advantage to the United States, namely, the restriction of
our population to some certain limits, and thereby a continuation
of the Union. Our citizens being so prone to rambling, and extending
themselves on the frontiers, will, through necessity, be compelled
to limit their extent on the west to the borders of the Missouri and
Mississippi; while they leave the prairies, incapable of cultivation,
to the wandering and uncivilized aborigines of the country.’ These
prairies, from the borders of the Mississippi, on the east, to the base
of the Mexican Alps on the west, rise with a continually increasing
acclivity for many hundred miles, till, at the base of the mountains,
they attain an elevation of eight thousand feet, as we are informed
by Pike, which is greater than the elevated level of the great desert
of Gobi, on the north-west of China, estimated by Du Halde to be five
thousand five hundred and eleven feet above the level of the sea, or
the great arid desert, to the north of the cape of Good Hope, traversed
by the Orange river, and lately visited by the Rev. Mr. Campbell, the
elevation of which is estimated by Colonel Gordon at six thousand five
hundred and sixty-one feet above the level of the sea. In addition to
the aridity of the Louisiana prairies, they are so impregnated with
nitre, and other salts, as to taint the waters that flow in various
directions. Pike says, that for leagues together, they are covered
with saline incrustations; and a number of tributary streams descending
into the Arkansaw and Kanzas rivers are perfect salines; and beyond the
river Platte, as we are informed by Colonel Lewis, the lands are not
only destitute of timber, but even of good water, of which there is
but a small quantity in the creeks, and even that is brackish. The
same saline incrustations pervade the prairies on the Upper Missouri;
and the same want of timber, little or no dew, with very little rain,
continues till the neighborhood of the mountains.

The calcareous districts, which form the great portion of the region
west of the Alleghanies, present certain tracts entirely divested of
trees, which are called _barrens_, though capable of being rendered
productive. The cause of this peculiarity has not been accurately
examined. Those parts of this region which are elevated three or
four hundred feet, and lie along deeply depressed beds of rivers, are
clothed with the richest forests in the world. The Ohio flows under the
shade of the plane and the tulip tree, like a canal dug in a nobleman’s
park; while the _lianas_, extending from tree to tree, form graceful
arches of flowers and foliage over branches of the river. Passing to
the south, the wild orange tree mixes with the odoriferous and the
common laurel. The straight silvery column of the papaw fig, which
rises to the height of twenty feet, and is crowned with a canopy of
large indented leaves, forms one of the most striking ornaments of
this enchanting scene. Above all these, towers the majestic magnolia,
which shoots up from that calcareous soil to the height of more than
one hundred feet. Its trunk, perfectly straight, is surmounted with
a thick and expanded head, the pale green foliage of which affects a
conical figure. From the centre of the flowery crown which terminates
its branches, a flower of the purest white rises, having the form of a
rose, and to which succeeds a crimson cone. This, in opening, exhibits
rounded seed of the finest coral red, suspended by delicate threads six
inches long. Thus, by its flowers, its fruit, and its gigantic size,
the magnolia surpasses all its rivals of the forest.

The following excellent description of the prairie country is from
the pen of Mr. James Hall. ‘That these vast plains should be totally
destitute of trees, seems to be an anomaly in the economy of nature.
Upon the mind of an American, especially, accustomed to see new lands
clothed with timber, and to associate the idea of damp and silent
forests with that of a new country, the appearance of sunny plains,
and a diversified landscape, untenanted by man, and unimproved by art,
is singular and striking. Perhaps if our imaginations were divested
of those associations, the subject would present less difficulty; and
if we could reason abstractly, it might be as easy to account for the
existence of a prairie as of a forest.

‘It is natural to suppose that the first covering of the earth would
be composed of such plants as arrived at maturity in the shortest
time. Annual plants would ripen, and scatter their seeds many times
before trees and shrubs would acquire the power of reproducing their
own species. In the mean time, the propagation of the latter would be
likely to be retarded by a variety of accidents――the frosts would nip
their tender stems in the winter――fire would consume, or the blasts
would shatter them――and the wild grazing animals would bite them off,
or tread them under foot; while many of their seeds, particularly such
as assume the form of nuts or fruits, would be devoured by animals.
The grasses, which are propagated both by the root and by seed, are
exempt from the operation of almost all these casualties. Providence
has, with unerring wisdom, fitted every production of nature to sustain
itself against the accidents to which it is most exposed, and has given
to those plants which constitute the food of animals, a remarkable
tenacity of life; so that although bitten off, and trodden, and even
burned, they still retain the vital principle. That trees have a
similar power of self protection, if we may so express it, is evident
from their present existence in a state of nature. We only assume that
in the earliest state of being, the grasses would have the advantage
over plants less hardy, and of slower growth; and that when both are
struggling together for the possession of the soil, the former would at
first gain the ascendancy; although the latter, in consequence of their
superior size and strength, would finally, if they should ever get
possession of any portion of the soil, entirely overshadow and destroy
their humble rivals.

‘We have no means of determining at what period the fires began to
sweep over these plains, because we know not when they began to be
inhabited. It is quite possible they might have been occasionally fired
by lightning, previous to the introduction of that element by human
agency. At all events, it is very evident that as soon as fire began to
be used in this country by its inhabitants, the annual burning of the
prairies must have commenced. One of the peculiarities of this climate
is the dryness of its summers and autumns. A drought often commences
in August, which, with the exception of a few showers towards the
close of that month, continues throughout the season. The autumnal
months are almost invariably clear, warm, and dry. The immense mass
of vegetation with which this fertile soil loads itself during summer,
is suddenly withered, and the whole surface of the earth is covered
with combustible materials. This is especially true of the prairies
where the grass grows to the height of from six to ten feet, and being
entirely exposed to the sun and wind, dries with great rapidity. A
single spark of fire, falling any where upon these plains at such a
time, would instantly kindle a blaze, which would spread on every side,
and continue its destructive course as long as it should find fuel.
Travellers have described these fires as sweeping with a rapidity which
renders it hazardous to fly before them. Such is not the case; or it
is true only of a few rare instances. The flames often extend across a
wide prairie, and advance in a long line. No sight can be more sublime
than to behold in the night a stream of fire of several miles in
breadth, advancing across these wide plains, leaving behind it a black
cloud of smoke, and throwing before it a vivid glare which lights
up the whole landscape with the brilliancy of noonday. A roaring and
cracking sound is heard like the rushing of a hurricane. The flame,
which in general rises to the height of about twenty feet, is seen
sinking and darting upwards in spires, precisely as the waves dash
against each other, and as the spray flies up into the air; and the
whole appearance is often that of a boiling and flaming sea, violently
agitated. The progress of the fire is so slow, and the heat so great,
that every combustible object in its course is consumed. Wo to the
farmer whose ripe cornfields extend into the prairie, and who suffers
the tall grass to grow in contact with his fences! The whole labor
of the year is swept away in a few hours. But such accidents are
comparatively unfrequent, as the preventive is simple, and easily
applied.

‘It will be readily seen, that as soon as these fires commenced, all
the young timber within their range must have been destroyed. The whole
state of Illinois, being one vast plain, the fires kindled in different
places, would sweep over the whole surface, with a few exceptions, of
which we are now to speak. In the bottom-lands, and along the margins
of streams, the grass and herbage remain green until late in the autumn,
owing to the moisture of the soil. Here the fire would stop for want of
fuel, and the shrubs would thus escape from year to year, and the outer
bark acquire sufficient hardness to protect the inner and more vital
parts of the tree. The margins of the streams would thus become fringed
with thickets, which, by shading the ground, would destroy the grass,
while it would prevent the moisture of the soil from being rapidly
evaporated, so that even the fallen leaves would never become so
thoroughly dry as the grass of the prairies, and the fire here would
find comparatively little fuel. These thickets grow up into strips of
forests, which continue to extend until they reach the high table-land
of the prairie; and so true is this, in fact, that we see the timber
now, not only covering all the bottom-lands and hill sides, skirting
the streams, but wherever a ravine or hollow extends from the low
grounds up into the plain, these are filled with young timber of more
recent growth. But the moment we leave the level plane of the country,
we see the evidences of a continual struggle between the forest and the
prairie. At one place, where the fire has on some occasion burned with
greater fierceness than usual, it has successfully assailed the edges
of the forest, and made deep inroads; at another, the forest has pushed
out long points or capes into the prairie.

‘It has been suggested that the prairies were caused by hurricanes,
which had blown down the timber and left it in a condition to be
consumed by fire, after it was dried by laying on the ground. A single
glance at the immense region in which the prairie surface predominates,
must refute this idea. Hurricanes are quite limited in their sphere of
action. Although they sometimes extend for miles in length, their track
is always narrow, and often but a few hundred yards in breadth. It is
a well known fact, that wherever the timber has been thus prostrated,
a dense and tangled thicket shoots up immediately, and, protected by
the fallen trees, grows with uncommon vigor.

‘Some have imagined that our prairies have been lakes; but this
hypothesis is not tenable. If the whole state of Illinois is imagined
to have been one lake, it ought to be shown that it has a general
concavity of surface. But so far from this being true, the contrary
is the fact; the highest parts of the state are in its centre. If we
suppose, as some assert, that each prairie was once a lake, we are met
by the same objection; as a general rule, the prairies are highest in
the middle, and have a gradual declivity towards the sides; and when
we reach the timber, instead of finding banks corresponding with the
shores of a lake, we almost invariably find valleys, ravines, and
water-courses depressed considerably below the general level of the
plain.

‘Wherever hills are found rising above the common plane of the country,
they are clothed with timber; and the same fact is true of all broken
lands. This fact affords additional evidence in support of our theory.
Most of the land in such situations is poor; the grass would be short,
and if burned at all, would occasion but little heat. In other spots,
the progress of the fire would be checked by rocks and ravines; and
in no case would there be that accumulation of dry material which is
found on the fertile plain, nor that broad, unbroken surface, and free
exposure, which are necessary to afford full scope to the devouring
element.

‘By those who have never seen this region, a very tolerable idea may
be formed of the manner in which the prairie and forest alternate, by
drawing a colored line of irregular thickness, along the edges of all
the water-courses laid down on the map. This border would generally
vary from one to five or six miles, and often extend to twelve. As
the streams approach each other, these borders would approach or come
in contact; and all the intermediate spaces not thus colored would be
prairie. It would be seen that in the point formed by the junction of
the Ohio and Mississippi, the forest would cover all the ground; and
that, as these rivers diverge, and their tributaries spread out, the
prairies would predominate.’

Between the Platte river, and the head-waters of the Colorado and
Sabine rivers, there is an extensive desert tract, which has been
called the _Great American Desert_, stretching from the Ozark Mountains
to the Chippewan. Over this desert the members of Long’s expedition
travelled nearly a thousand miles. The intense reflection of light and
heat, from this tract, added much to the fatigue and suffering of their
journey. ‘We often met with extensive districts covered entirely with
loose and fine sand, blown from the adjacent hills. In the low plains
along the river where the soil is permanent, it is highly impregnated
with saline substances, and too sterile to produce any thing except
a few stinted carices and rushes. As we approached the mountains, we
felt or fancied a very manifest change in the character of the weather,
and the temperature of the air. Mornings and evenings were usually calm,
and the heat more oppressive than in the middle of the day. Early in
the forenoon, a light and refreshing breeze often sprung up, blowing
from the west or south-west, which again subsided on the approach of
night. This phenomenon was so often observed, that we were induced
to attribute it to the operation of the same local cause, which in
the neighborhood of the sea produces a diurnal change in the winds,
which blow alternately to and from the shore. The Rocky Mountains
may be considered as forming the shore of that sea of sand, which is
traversed by the Platte, and extends northward to the Missouri above
the great bend. The rarefaction of the air over this great plain, by
the reverberation of the sun’s rays during the day, causes an ascending
current, which is supplied by the rushing down of the condensed air
from the mountains. * * * * For several days the sky had been clear,
and in the morning we had observed an unusual degree of transparency in
every part of the atmosphere. As the day advanced, and the heat of the
sun began to be felt, such quantities of vapor were seen to ascend from
every part of the plain, that all objects at a little distance appeared
magnified, and variously distorted. An undulating and tremulous
motion in ascending lines was manifest over every part of the surface.
Commencing soon after sunrise it continued to increase in quantity
until the afternoon, when it diminished gradually, keeping an even
pace with the intensity of the sun’s heat. The density of the vapor
was often such as to produce the perfect image of a pool of water in
every valley upon which we could look down at an angle of about ten
degrees. This aspect was several times seen so perfect and beautiful
as to deceive almost every one of our party. A herd of bisons, at the
distance of a mile, seemed to be standing in a pool of water, and what
appeared to us the reflected image was as distinctly seen as the animal
itself.[4] Illusions of this kind are common in the African and Asiatic
deserts, as we learn from travellers and from the language of poets.’

The _Pine Plains_ are a district of sandy alluvion, bounded by the
gravelly soil of Guilderland and Duanesburgh on the south-west, and by
the river alluvions of Niskayuna and Watervliet, on the north-east, and
covering an area of about seventy square miles. This tract is included
in a triangle formed by the junction of the Mohawk with the Hudson,
and of which the Helleberg, a lofty chain of highlands, visible from
the plains at the distance of twenty miles, forms the south-western
boundary. Situated near the centre of a state, computed at forty
thousand square miles, and containing a population of nearly two
million souls, this tract presents the topographical novelty of an
unreclaimed desert, in the heart of one of the oldest counties in the
state, and in the midst of a people characterized for enterprise and
public spirit. Several attempts have lately been made to bring this
tract into cultivation, and from the success which has attended the
introduction of gypsum, and other improved modes of agriculture,
it is probable the whole will, at some future period, be devoted to
the cultivation of the various species of grasses, fruit trees, and
esculent roots; three branches of agriculture to which its sandy soil
seems admirably adapted.


                GENERAL REMARKS ON PLAINS AND PRAIRIES.

Plains like valleys are of two classes; the high plains, which are
found between two chains of mountains, are frequently of great extent,
and are placed as it were upon the shoulders of secondary mountains;
such are the elevated plains of Tartary, of Persia, and probably of the
interior of Africa. The plains of Quito are twelve thousand feet above
the level of the sea; those of Karakorum, in Chinese Mongolia, are
probably as elevated. The low plains, whose soil is composed of sand,
gravel and shells, seem formerly to have been the basins of interior
seas. Such are the plains on the north side of the Caspian, the large
plain to the south of the Baltic, and that through which the river of
the Amazon flows; the Tehama of Arabia, the Delta of Egypt, and others
of a similar nature, which seem to have been once covered by the waters
of the ocean and its gulfs. The immense plains covered with grass,
called _prairies_ in the United States, are the _steppes_ of Asia, and
the _pampas_ of South America.




                         CHAPTER IV.――RIVERS.


ALL the rivers of the United States, of the first magnitude, have their
sources, either in the Rocky Mountains, or in elevated spurs projecting
from the sides of that range. Many of the rivers which descend from the
western sides of the Alleghanies are of inconsiderable volume, and by
no means remarkable for the rapidity or the directness of their course.
Those which flow from the eastern and southern sides of these mountains
are worthy of extended description, even in the same pages with the
great tributaries of the Mississippi. They afford the advantages of a
good inland navigation to most parts of the states.


              I. RIVERS WHICH FLOW INTO THE MISSISSIPPI,
                        AND THE GULF OF MEXICO.

The _Mississippi_ with its branches drains the great central basin
which lies between the Alleghany and the Rocky Mountains. This river
has its rise in the table-lands within the territories of the United
States, in north latitude forty-seven degrees and forty-seven minutes,
at an altitude of thirteen hundred and thirty feet above the Atlantic,
though the country at its source appears like a vast marshy valley.
Mr. Schoolcraft fixes it in Cassina Lake, which is situated seventeen
degrees north of the Balize on the gulf of Mexico, and two thousand
nine hundred and seventy-eight miles, pursuing the course of the river.
Estimating the distance to Lake La Beesh, its extreme north-western
inlet at sixty miles, we have a result of three thousand and
thirty-eight miles as the entire length of this wonderful river.
Mr. Schoolcraft, in his very interesting Journal of Travels observed
that he believed there was no one then living, beside himself who had
visited both the sources and the mouth of this celebrated stream. As
the description furnished by this gentleman is the clearest and most
complete that we find, we have taken the liberty to transfer it to our
pages, without mutilation:――

‘In deciding upon the physical character of the Mississippi, it
may be advantageously considered under four natural divisions, as
indicated by the permanent differences in the color of its waters――the
geological character of its bed and banks,――its forest trees and other
vegetable productions,――its velocity,――the difficulties it opposes to
navigation,――and other natural appearances and circumstances.’

‘Originating in a region of lakes, upon the table-lands, which
throw their waters north into Hudson’s Bay,――south into the gulf of
Mexico,――and east into the gulf of St. Lawrence――it pursues its course
to the falls of Peckagama, a distance of two hundred and thirty miles,
through a low prairie, covered with wild rice, rushes, sword grass, and
other aquatic plants. During this distance, it is extremely devious as
to course and width, sometimes expanding into small lakes, at others,
narrowing into a channel of about eighty feet. It is about sixty feet
wide on its exit from Red Cedar or Cassina Lake, with an average depth
of two feet; but from the junction of the Leech Lake fork, increases
to a hundred feet in width, with a corresponding increase of depth.
Its current, during this distance is still and gentle; and its mean
velocity may be estimated at a mile and a half per hour, with a descent
of three inches per mile. This is the favorite resort of water-fowl,
and amphibious quadrupeds.

‘At the falls of Peckagama, the first rock stratum, and the first
wooded island, is seen. Here the river has a fall of twenty feet; and
from this to the falls of St. Anthony, a distance of six hundred and
eighty-five miles, exhibits its second characteristic division. At
the head of the falls of Peckagama, the prairies entirely cease; and
below, a forest of elm, maple, birch, oak, and ash, overshadows the
stream. The black walnut is first seen below Sandy Lake river, and the
sycamore below the river De Corbeau. The river, in this distance, has
innumerable well wooded islands, and receives a number of tributaries,
the largest of which is the river De Corbeau, its great south-western
fork. The Pine, Elk, Sac, and Crow rivers, also enter on the west,
and the St. Francis and Missisawgaiegon, on the east. The course of
the river, although serpentine, is less so, than above the falls of
Peckagama, and its bends are not so short and abrupt. Its mean width
may be estimated at three hundred feet until the junction of the De
Corbeau, and below that at two hundred and fifty yards. Its navigation
is impeded, agreeably to a memorandum which I have kept, by thirty-five
rapids, nineteen ripples, and two minor falls, called the Little and
the Big Falls, in all of which the river has an aggregate descent
of two hundred and twenty-four feet in fourteen thousand six hundred
and forty yards, or about eight miles. The mean fall of the current,
exclusive of the rapids, may be computed at six inches per mile, and
its velocity at three miles per hour. In the course of this distance it
receives several small turbid streams, and acquires a brownish hue, but
still preserves its transparency, and is palatable drink-water. A few
miles above the river Corbeau, on the east side, we observe the first
dry prairies, or natural meadows, and they continue to the falls of
St. Anthony. These prairies are the great resort of the buffalo, elk,
and deer, and are the only parts of the banks of the Mississippi where
the buffalo is now to be found. Granite rocks appear at several of the
rapids, in rolled pieces, and in beds; and in some places attain an
elevation of one or two hundred feet above the level of the water, but
the banks of the river are generally alluvial.

‘At the falls of St. Anthony, the river has a perpendicular pitch of
forty feet, and from this to its junction with the Missouri, a distance
of eight hundred and forty-three miles, it is bounded by limestone
bluffs, which attain various elevations from one to four hundred feet,
and present a succession of the most sublime and picturesque views.
This forms the third characteristic change of the Mississippi. The
river prairies cease, and the rocky bluffs commence precisely at the
falls of St. Anthony. Nine miles below it receives the St. Peter’s from
the west, and is successively swelled on that side by the Ocano, Iowa,
Turkey, Desmoines, and Salt rivers, and on the east by the St. Croix,
Chippeway, Black, Ouisconsin, Rock, and Illinois. One hundred miles
below the falls of St. Anthony, the river expands into a lake, called
Pepin, which is twenty-four miles long and four in width. It is, on
issuing from this lake, that the river first exhibits, in a striking
manner, those extensive and moving sandbars, innumerable islands and
channels, and drifts and snags, which continue to characterize it to
the ocean. Its bends from this point onward are larger, and its course
more direct; and although its waters are adulterated by several dark
colored and turbid streams, it may still be considered transparent. The
principal impediments to navigation in this distance are the Desmoines,
and Rock river rapids. The latter extends six miles, and opposes an
effectual barrier to steam-boat navigation, although keel-boats and
barges of the largest classes, may ascend. This rapid is three hundred
and ninety miles above St. Louis.

‘The fourth change in the physical aspect of this river is at the
junction of the Missouri, and this is a total and complete one,
the character of the Mississippi being entirely lost in that of the
Missouri. The latter is, in fact, much the larger stream of the two,
and carries its characteristic appearances to the ocean. It should
also have carried the name, but its exploration took place too long
after the course of the Mississippi had been perpetuated in the written
geography of the country, to render an alteration in this respect,
either practicable or expedient. The waters of the Mississippi at its
confluence with the Missouri, are moderately clear, and of a greenish
hue. The Missouri is turbid and opake, of a grayish white color, and
during its floods, which happen twice a year, communicates, almost
instantaneously, to the combined stream its predominating qualities,
but towards the close of the summer season, when it is at its lowest
stage of water, the streams do not fully incorporate for twenty or
thirty miles, but preserve opposite sides of the river; and I have
observed this phenomenon at the town of Herculaneum, forty-eight miles
below the junction.

‘The water in this part of the river cannot be drank until it has
been set aside to allow the mud to settle. The distance from the mouth
of the Missouri to the gulf of Mexico is one thousand two hundred and
twenty miles, in the course of which it receives from the west, the
Merrimac, St. Francis, White, Arkansas, and Red rivers; and from the
east, the Kaskaskia, Great Muddy, Ohio, Wolf, and Yazoo. This part
of the river is more particularly characterized by snags and sawyers,
falling-in banks and islands, sand-bars and mud-banks; and a channel
which is shifting by every flood, and of such extreme velocity, that
it was formerly thought it could not be navigated by vessels propelled
with sails. Subsequent experience has shown this conjecture to be
unfounded, although a strong wind is required for its ascent. It is
daily navigated in ships of from four hundred to eight hundred tons
burden, from the Balize to New Orleans, a distance of one hundred
miles, and could be ascended higher were it necessary; but the commerce
of the river above New Orleans is now carried on, in a great measure,
by steam-boats. The width of the river opposite St. Louis is one mile;
it is somewhat less at New Orleans, and still less at its disembochure.
A bar at its mouth prevents ships drawing more than eighteen feet
water from entering. This river is occupied by different bands of
the Chippeway Indians from its sources, to the Buffalo Plains in the
vicinity of the upper St. Francis, the precise limit being a matter
of dispute, and the cause of the long war between them and the Sioux.
The Sioux bands claim from thence to the Prairie des Chiens, and the
Foxes and Sacs to the river Desmoines. From this vicinity to the gulf
of Mexico the Indian title has been extinguished by the United States’
government, either through purchase, treaty, or conquest, and we have
now the complete control of this river and all its tributary streams,
with the exception of the upper part of Red river. The wild rice is
not found on the waters of the Mississippi south of the forty-first
degree of north latitude, nor the Indian reed, or cane, north of the
thirty-eighth. These two productions characterize the extremes of
this river. It has been observed by McKenzie, that the former is
hardly known, or at least does not come to maturity, north of the
fiftieth degree of north latitude. The alligator is first seen below
the junction of the Arkansas. The paroquet is found as far north as
the mouth of the Illinois, and flocks have occasionally been seen as
high as Chicago. The name of this river is derived from the Algonquin
language, one of the original tongues of our continent, which is
now spoken nearly in its primeval purity by the different bands of
Chippeways.’

The navigation upon this river is very great. Ships seldom ascend
higher than Natchez. It is navigable for boats of the largest size
as far as the Ohio. The number of steam-boats upon the Mississippi
is about three hundred. Their size is from five hundred and forty
tons downwards. The passage from Cincinnati to New Orleans and back
has been made in nineteen days. From New Orleans to Louisville the
shortest passage has been eight days and two hours, the distance being
one thousand six hundred and fifty miles, and against the current.
The steam-boats have generally high-pressure power, and many fatal
explosions have happened upon these waters. The first steam-vessel
here was built in 1810.[5]

The _Missouri_ rises in the Rocky Mountains in nearly the same parallel
with the Mississippi, and about a mile distant from the head-waters
of the Columbia. The most authentic information we have yet had of
the sources of this mighty river is from its first intrepid American
discoverers, Lewis and Clarke. What may properly be called the Missouri,
seems to be formed by three considerable branches, which unite not
far from the bases of the principal ranges of the mountains. To the
northern they gave the name of Jefferson, to the middle Gallatin, and
to the southern Madison. All these streams run with great velocity,
throwing out large volumes of water; their beds are formed of smooth
pebble and gravel, and their waters are perfectly transparent. One
hundred and a half miles beyond the forks of the Missouri are the
forks of Jefferson river; two subordinate branches of which are called
Wisdom and Philanthropy, one coming from the north-west, and the former
from the south-east. Wisdom river is fifty yards wide, cold, rapid,
and containing a third more water than the Jefferson; it seems to be
the drain of the melting snows on the mountains, but is unnavigable
on account of its rapidity. One hundred and forty-eight miles farther
up is the extreme navigable point of the river in north latitude
forty-three degrees thirty minutes and forty-three seconds. Two
miles beyond this is a small gap or narrow entrance, formed by the
high mountains which recede on each side, at the head of an elevated
valley, ten miles long and five broad, so as to form a beautiful cove
several miles in diameter. From the foot of one of the lowest of these
mountains, which rises with a gentle ascent of half a mile, issues the
remotest water of the Mississippi. At the source, we are told that the
weather is so cold at the end of August, that water standing in vessels
exposed in the night air has been frozen to the depth of a quarter of
an inch.

After the junction of the three branches before mentioned, the river
continues a considerable distance to be still a foaming mountain
torrent. It then spreads into a broad and comparatively gentle stream
full of islands. Precipitous peaks of blackish rock frown above the
river in perpendicular elevations of a thousand feet. The mountains
whose bases it sweeps are covered with pines, cedars and firs; and
mountain sheep are seen bounding on their summits where they are
apparently inaccessible. In this distance the mountains have an aspect
of inexpressible loneliness and grandeur. In the meadows and along the
shore the tree most common is the cotton-wood, which with the willow
forms almost the exclusive growth of the Missouri.

About forty-seven miles below the spot where the Missouri issues
from the mountains to the plains, a most sublime and extraordinary
spectacle presents itself, emphatically denominated the _Gates of the
Rocky Mountains_. In ascending the stream it increases in rapidity,
depth, and breadth, to the mouth of this formidable pass. Here the
rocks approach it on both sides, rising perpendicularly from the edge
of the water to the height of one thousand two hundred feet. Near
the base they are composed of black granite; but above, the color is
of a yellowish, brown, and cream color. Nothing can be imagined more
tremendous than the frowning darkness of these rocks, which project
over the river, and menace the passenger with instant destruction.
For the space of five miles and three quarters, the rocks rise to the
above degree of elevation, and the river, three hundred and fifty yards
broad, seems to have forced its channel down the solid mass; or, to
use Volney’s expression respecting the falls of Niagara, literally to
have sawed a passage through this body of hard and solid rock, near six
miles in length, being incased as it were, during all this distance,
between two walls of one thousand and two hundred feet high. During
the whole distance the water is very deep, even at the edges; and
for the first three miles, there is not a spot, except one of a few
yards, in which a man could stand between the water and the towering
perpendicular precipice of the mountain.

The river, for the distance of about seventeen miles, becomes almost
a continued cataract. In this distance its perpendicular descent is
three hundred and sixty-two feet. The first fall is ninety-eight feet;
the second, nineteen; the third, forty-seven; the fourth, twenty-six.
Next to the Niagara these falls are the grandest in the world. The
river continues rapid for a long distance beyond, but there is not
much variation in its appearance till near the mouth of the Platte.
That powerful river throws out vast quantities of coarse sand, which
contribute to give a new face to the Missouri, which is now much more
impeded by islands. The sand, as it is drifted down, adheres in time
to some of the projecting points from the shore, and forms a barrier
to the mud which at length fills to the same height with the sand-bar
itself. As soon as it has acquired a consistency, the willow grows
there the first year, and by its roots gives solidity to the whole;
with further accumulations the cotton-wood tree next appears, till the
soil is gradually raised to a point above the highest freshets. Thus
stopped in its course, the water seeks a passage elsewhere, and as
the soil on each side is light and yielding, what was only a peninsula
becomes gradually an island, and the river compensates the usurpation
by encroaching on the adjacent shore. In this way the Missouri, like
the Mississippi, is continually cutting off the projections of the
shore, and leaving its ancient channel, which may be traced by the
deposits of mud and a few stagnant ponds.[6]

During the whole length of the Missouri below the Platte, the soil
is generally excellent, and although the timber is scarce, there is
still sufficient for the purpose of settlers. But beyond that river,
although the soil is still rich, yet the almost total absence of
timber, and particularly the want of good water, of which there is
but a small quantity in the creeks, oppose very powerful impediments
to its occupancy. The prairies for many miles on each side of the river
produce abundance of good pasturage.

Above the mouth of the Osage, the immediate valley of the Missouri
gradually expands, embracing some wide bottoms in which are many
settlements gradually increasing in the number of inhabitants. The
Manito Rocks, and some other precipitous cliffs, are the terminations
of low ranges of hills, running in quite to the river. These hills
sometimes occasion rapids, and opposite the Manito rocks a small group
of islands stretches obliquely across the river, separated by narrow
channels in which the current is stronger than below. This group is
called the Thousand Islands. Some of the channels are obstructed by
collections of floating trees, which usually accumulate about the heads
of islands, and are here called rafts. After increasing to a certain
extent, portions of these rafts become loosened, and float down the
river, covering nearly its whole surface, and greatly impeding and
endangering the progress of the ascending boats.

Council Bluffs, the seat of an important military establishment of the
United States, about six hundred miles up the Missouri, is a remarkable
bank, rising abruptly from the brink of the river to an elevation of
one hundred and fifty feet. From the hill tops, a mile in the rear
of the Bluffs, is presented a most extensive and beautiful landscape.
On the east side of the river, the Bluffs exhibit a chain of peaks,
stretching as far as the eye can reach. The river is here and there
seen meandering in serpentine folds along its broad valley, chequered
with woodlands and prairies, while, at a nearer view, you look down on
an extensive plain, interspersed with a few scattered copses or bushes,
and terminated at a distance by the Council Bluffs.

Taken in connection with the Mississippi into which it flows, this
river is the longest on the globe.[7] Its whole course, from its mouth
in the gulf of Mexico to its source in the Rocky Mountains, is four
thousand four hundred and twenty-four miles, including its windings;
and for four thousand three hundred and ninety-six miles of this course
it is navigable. From the point of its confluence with the Mississippi
to fort Mandan, it is one thousand six hundred and nine miles; to
the foot of the rapids at Great Falls two thousand five hundred and
seventy-five miles; two thousand six hundred and sixty-four to where it
issues from the mountains; two thousand six hundred and ninety to the
Gates of the Mountains; three thousand and ninety-six to the extreme
navigable point of Jefferson river; and three thousand one hundred
and twenty-four miles to its remotest source. In this immense course
it receives upwards of fifty large rivers, and one hundred and fifty
smaller streams. Its principal tributaries are the Roche Jaune, or
Yellowstone, the Kansas, Platte, Osage, Gasconade, Little Missouri,
Running Water, Charaton, White, and Milk rivers.

The _Yellowstone_ is the largest of these tributaries. Its sources are
in the Rocky Mountains, near those of the Missouri and the Platte, and
it may be navigated in canoes almost to its head. It runs first through
a mountainous country, but in many parts fertile and well timbered; it
then waters a rich, delightful land, broken into valleys and meadows,
and well supplied with wood and water, till it reaches near the
Missouri open meadows and low grounds, sufficiently timbered on its
borders. In the upper country its course is said to be very rapid,
but during the two last and largest portions, its current is much
more gentle than that of the Missouri. On the sand-bars and along the
margin of this river grows the small leafed willow; in the low grounds
adjoining are scattered rose bushes three or four feet high, the
red-berry, service-berry and redwood. The higher plains are either
immediately on the river, in which case they are generally timbered,
and have an undergrowth like that of the low grounds, with the addition
of the broad leafed willow, gooseberry, purple currant and honeysuckle;
or they are between the low grounds and the hills, and for the most
part without wood, or any thing except large quantities of wild hyssop,
a plant which rises to the height of about two feet, and, like the
willow of the sand-bars, is a favorite food of the buffalo, elk, deer,
grouse, porcupine, hare, and rabbit.[8]

The _Platte_ is in fact much more rapid than the Missouri, and
drives the current on the northern shore, on which it is constantly
encroaching. At some distance below the confluence, the Missouri is two
miles wide, with a rapid current of ten miles an hour in some parts,
the rapidity increasing as we approach the mouth of the Platte; the
velocity of which, combined with the vast quantity of rolling sands
which are drifting from it into the Missouri, renders it completely
unnavigable, unless for flats or rafts, though the Indians pass it in
small flat canoes made of hides, and the Americans have contrived to
navigate it by means of keel-boats, which, being constructed to draw
but little water, and built upon a small keel, are remarkably well
adapted for sailing up rapid and shallow streams. The Platte runs a
course of fifteen degrees of longitude, from west to east, or more than
eight hundred miles.

The _Kansas River_ has a considerable resemblance to the Missouri,
but its current is more moderate, and its water less turbid, except
at times of high floods. Its valley, like that of the Missouri, has a
deep and fertile soil, bearing forests of cotton-wood, sycamore, and
other trees, interspersed with meadows; but in ascending, trees become
more and more scattered, and at length disappear almost entirely, the
country at its sources being one immense prairie.

The _River Osage_, so called from the well known tribe of Indians
inhabiting its banks, enters the Missouri one hundred and thirty-three
miles above its confluence with the Mississippi. Its sources are in
the Ozark Mountains. Flowing along the base of the north-western slope
of a mountainous range, it receives from the east several rapid and
beautiful tributaries. In point of magnitude this river ranks with
the Cumberland and Tennessee. It has been represented as navigable
for six hundred miles, but this Major Long considers an exaggeration,
on account of the great number of shoals and sand-bars in its current.
In the lower part of its course it traverses broad and fertile
bottom-lands, bearing heavy forests of sycamore and cotton trees.

_Charaton River_ is seventy-five yards wide at its mouth, and
navigable at high water one hundred and fifty miles. Half a mile from
its confluence with the Missouri, it receives the _Little Charaton_,
also a considerable stream, and navigable for many miles. The Charaton
has its source near the De Moyen river of the Mississippi, and
traverses a country which is of great importance, both on account
of the fertility of its soil, and its inexhaustible mines of gold.

The _Arkansas River_ rises in the Rocky Mountains in north latitude
forty-two degrees, near the borders of the territory of the United
States and Mexico. It is about two thousand miles in length, running
in a direction east south-east. Tributary streams are little known;
they are remarkable for being deeply impregnated with salt. That part
of Arkansas that traverses the Missouri territory is skirted, in great
part, by extensive prairies. Spurs of the Masserne Mountains often
reach the river. It may be remarked as singular, that to the extent of
upwards of three hundred miles in the lower part of the Arkansas, its
valley is confined merely to the stream of the river; the waters of the
Washita on one side, and White river on the other, rising almost from
the very margin of the Arkansas. The land upon the Arkansas, in the
Missouri territory, is in great part alluvial; and where not subject to
overflow, excellent. The timber corresponds nearly to that of the state
of Mississippi, in similar relative situations.

_Red River_ rises about one hundred miles north-east of Santa Fé, in
Mexico, at the base of a range of the Rocky Mountains, called the Caous,
and after a very serpentine course of about two thousand five hundred
miles, enters the Mississippi in thirty-one degrees fifteen minutes
north latitude. There are many streams rising in the same mountains,
flowing separately for three or four hundred miles, and then uniting to
form the Red river. Of the regions in which the upper waters of these
streams lie, but little is known. They are principally inhabited by
the Pawnees. When the river enters Louisiana, its south bank is for
a long distance the boundary between the United States and Texas. A
great part of its course is through delightful prairies of a rich red
soil, covered with grass and vines which bear delicious grapes. About a
hundred miles above Natchitoches commences what is called the _Raft_; a
swampy expansion of the alluvion to the width of twenty or thirty miles.
The river divides into a great number of channels, many of them shallow;
and for ages these channels have been becoming clogged with a mass of
fallen timber carried down from the upper parts of the river.

At this place its navigation is effectually obstructed, except in a
high stage of water, when keel-boats of ten or fifteen tons burden
may pass it through devious channels, or bayoux, and ascend several
miles above. That part of the river situated above the Raft is rendered
impassable for boats of burden, by shoals and sand-bars in a moderate
stage of water.[9]

The _Washita_, tributary to Red river, is navigable many miles.
That portion of it situated within the valley of the Mississippi,
denominated Black river, admits of constant navigation for boats of
burden. White river is navigable in a moderate stage of water between
three and four hundred miles. Of the rivers tributary to the Missouri,
it is remarkable, that their mouths are generally blocked up with mud,
after the subsiding of the summer freshet of that river, which usually
takes place in the month of July. The freshets of the more southerly
tributaries are discharged early in the season, and wash from their
mouths the sand and mud previously deposited therein, leaving them free
from obstructions. These freshets having subsided, the more northerly
branches discharge their floods, formed by the melting of the snow, at
a later period. The Missouri being thus swollen, the mud of its waters
is driven up the mouth of its tributaries. These streams having no more
freshets to expel it, their mouths remain thus obstructed till the
ensuing spring.[10]

The _St. Peter_ has its rise in a small lake about three miles in
circumference, at the base of a remarkable ridge, distinguished by the
name of Coteau des Prairies. It enters the Mississippi nine miles below
the falls of St. Anthony. Its length in all its windings is about five
hundred miles. Its course is exceedingly serpentine, and is interrupted
by several rocky ridges, extending across the bed of the river and
occasioning falls of considerable descent. During the times of spring
freshets and floods, this river is navigable for boats from its mouth
to the head of Big Stone Lake about fifteen miles from its sources.
For a distance of about forty miles on the lower part of the river,
it is from sixty to eighty yards only wide, and navigable for pirogues
and canoes in all stages of the water; higher up, its navigation is
obstructed in low water by numerous shoals and rapids. The aggregate
descent of the St. Peter may be estimated at about one hundred and
fifty feet, the general level of the country at its source having
an elevation of about fifty feet above the river. The chief of its
tributaries is the Blue-earth river, which flows in from the south a
hundred miles west of the Mississippi by a mouth fifty yards in width.
It is chiefly noted for the blue clay which the Indians procure upon
its banks, and which is much employed in painting their faces and other
parts of their bodies. The river St. Peter’s enters the Mississippi
behind a large island, which is probably three miles in circumference,
and is covered with the most luxuriant growth of sugar-maple, elm,
ash, oak, and walnut. At the point of embouchure it is one hundred and
fifty yards in width, with a depth of ten or fifteen feet. Its waters
are transparent, and present a light blue tint on looking upon the
stream. From this circumstance the Indians have given it the name of
Clear-water river.

_Red River_ of the north rises near the sources of the St. Peter’s; and
by a northern and winding course runs nearly two hundred miles in our
territorial limits; and then passes into the British dominions of Upper
Canada, and empties into Lake Winnepeck. Its principal branches are Red
Lake river and Moose river, the latter of which streams rises within
a mile of fort Mandan on the Missouri. Red river is a broad, deep, and
very interesting stream, abounding with fish, and the country along its
banks with elk and buffaloes.

The name _Ohio_ is an Indian appellation, signifying ‘the beautiful
river.’ This epithet is not bestowed upon it for the whole of its
course, but commences at the confluence of the two principal streams,
at Pittsburg; above the junction it is called the _Alleghany_. The
remotest source of the _Alleghany_ is in the state of Pennsylvania,
in north latitude forty-one degrees and forty-five minutes, and west
longitude seventy-eight degrees. It is composed of two small streams.
At Pittsburg, the Alleghany being joined by the _Monongahela_, the
confluent stream receives the appellation of the Ohio. The Monongahela
is formed by the confluence of two streams, both rising from the
Alleghany chain, in the north-west angle of Virginia, and running
parallel to each other for sixty miles in a direct line. The absolute
course of the Monongahela is more than two hundred miles, but not above
one hundred and thirty in a direct line from south to north. It seems
a larger and deeper stream at Pittsburg than the Alleghany, which
in the dry season has not above seven feet water where deepest. The
waters of the Alleghany are always clear and limpid, while those of
the Monongahela, on the contrary, become muddy and turbid, whenever
there are a few days of successive rain in that part of the Alleghany
Mountains where it rises. Each of the streams is four hundred yards
wide at the conflux; and after the junction, the united stream is more
enlarged in depth than in breadth.

The Ohio, formed by the junction of the Monongahela and Alleghany,
appears to be rather a continuation of the former than the latter,
which arrives at the confluence in an oblique direction. From Pittsburg
to the mouth of the Ohio is one thousand and thirty-three miles by the
course of the stream. It receives a vast number of tributary streams on
both sides, in its progress to the Mississippi. For the space of three
hundred miles below Pittsburg, the Ohio runs between two ridges of
hills, rising from three hundred to four hundred feet in height. These
appear frequently undulated at their summits, but at other times seem
to be perfectly level. They sometimes recede, and sometimes approach
the banks of the river, and have their direction parallel to that of
the Alleghany chain. These ridges gradually recede farther down the
river, till they disappear from the view of those who descend the Ohio.
It is not till this river has burst its passage through a transverse
chain, at the rapids, near Louisville, that it rolls its waters,
through a level and expanded country, as far as the Mississippi.
The general appearance of the river is beautiful, placid, gentle and
transparent, except in the times of high water. There are two seasons
of periodical inundations; namely, winter and spring. According to
some, the vernal inundations of this river commence in the latter end
of March, and subside in July; and, according to others, they commence
early in February, and subside in May. It must be observed, however,
that this period is forwarded or retarded as the rivers thaw sooner or
later, which may reconcile these apparently discordant statements.

The Ohio is then swelled to a prodigious height, varying in different
places, as it is more or less expanded in breadth. It is a favorable
circumstance for the country in the upper course of the Ohio, that it
has very high and steep banks; having gradually hollowed out for itself
a deep and comparatively narrower bed, being, like all its southern
tributary streams, inclosed as it were in a groove between them, which
prevents the general level of the land from being overflowed for many
miles, and thereby rendered marshy and unwholesome, as in the lower
Missouri, and in the lower part of the Ohio. Yet high as these banks
are, the Ohio is both a dangerous and troublesome neighbor to the towns
which are not sufficiently far removed from them. That part of the town
of Marietta situated at the junction of the Muskingum with the Ohio,
though elevated forty-five feet above the ordinary level of the stream,
has been twice inundated, and consequently abandoned by the inhabitants.
The town of Portsmouth, at the mouth of the Great Sciota, and two
hundred and eighteen miles below Marietta by water, though elevated
sixty feet above the usual surface of the river, is also subjected to
the same misfortune, which has materially affected the prosperity of
the place. At Cincinnati, the breadth of the river is five hundred and
thirty-five yards, and the banks fifty feet in perpendicular height,
yet these are annually overflowed. The winter floods commence in
the middle of October, and continue to the latter end of December.
Sometimes, in the course of the summer, abundant rains fall among the
Alleghany Mountains, by which the Ohio is suddenly raised, but such
occurrences are rare. In the times of these two periodical floods,
which taken together last for near half the year, ships drawing twelve
feet water may sail with perfect ease from Pittsburg to New Orleans, a
distance of near two thousand and two hundred miles. In these seasons
the passage to the falls may be accomplished in nine or ten days, but
it is generally effected in twelve days. The difficulty of navigating
the Ohio during the dry season, is only confined to the upper part of
its course, or between Pittsburg and Limestone, a space of four hundred
and twenty-five miles by water; and this, not so much owing to the
shallowness of the stream, as to its being divided by islands; for
the depth of the Monongahela branch of the Ohio alone, at Pittsburg,
is twelve feet. Michaux counted no less than fifty of these islands
in the distance of three hundred and ninety miles; some of them only
containing a few acres, and others exceeding a mile in length.

The _Tennessee_ rises in the Alleghany Mountains, traverses East
Tennessee, and almost the whole northern limit of Alabama, re-enters
Tennessee, and crosses almost the whole width of it, into Kentucky,
and passes into Ohio, fifty-seven miles above its junction with
the Mississippi. It is near twelve hundred miles in length, and is
the largest tributary of the Ohio. It has numerous branches, and is
navigable for boats one thousand miles; most of the branches rise among
the mountains, and are too shallow for navigation, except during the
floods, which take place occasionally, at all seasons of the year, and
admit flat boats to be floated down to the main stream.

The Muscle Shoals are about three hundred miles from its entrance into
the Ohio. At this place the river spreads to the width of three miles,
and forms a number of islands. The passage by boats is difficult and
dangerous, except when the water is high.

From these shoals to the place called the _Whirl_ or _Suck_, two
hundred and fifty miles, the navigation all the way is excellent, to
the Cumberland Mountain; where the river breaks through. This mountain
is sometimes so steep, that even the Indians cannot ascend it on foot.
In one place, particularly, near the summit of the mountain, there is
a remarkable ledge of rocks, of about thirty miles in length, and two
hundred feet high, with a perpendicular front facing the south-east,
more noble and grand than any artificial fortification in the known
world, and apparently equal in point of regularity. The Whirl, as it
is called, is about latitude thirty-four degrees. It is considered a
greater curiosity than the bursting of the river Potomac through the
Blue Ridge.

The river, which above is half a mile wide, is here compressed to one
hundred yards, or eighteen rods. Just at the entrance of the mountain,
a large rock projects from the northern shore, in an oblique direction,
which renders the channel still narrower. This causes a sudden bend, by
which the waters are thrown with great force against the opposite shore.
From thence they rebound about the point of the rock, and produce a
whirl of eighty yards, or two hundred and forty feet in circumference.
By the dexterity of the rowers, canoes drawn into this whirl have
sometimes escaped without damage. In less than a mile below the whirl,
the river spreads to its common width, down to Muscle Shoals; and
thence runs in a regular and beautiful stream to its confluence with
the Ohio.

The _Wabash_ rises in the north-eastern part of Indiana, and flows
south-westerly nearly across the state, when it turns to the south, and
flows into the Ohio, forming towards its mouth the western boundary.
Its length, from its mouth to its extreme source, exceeds five hundred
miles. It is navigable for keel-boats, about four hundred miles, to
Ouitanon, where there are rapids. From this village small boats can
go within six miles of St. Mary’s river; ten of Fort Wayne; and eight
of the St. Joseph’s of the Miami-of-the-lakes. Its current is gentle
above Vincennes; below the town there are several rapids, but not of
sufficient magnitude to prevent boats from ascending. The principal
rapids are between Deche and White rivers, ten miles below Vincennes.
White river and Tippecanoe river are branches of the Wabash.

The _Cumberland_ rises in the Cumberland Mountains in Kentucky, and
after a course of nearly two hundred miles in that state, passes into
Tennessee, through which it makes a circuit of two hundred and fifty
miles, when it re-enters Kentucky and falls into the Ohio, about fifty
miles above the entrance of that river into the Mississippi. From the
source of this river to its conflux with the Ohio, the distance in a
direct line is three hundred miles, but by the course and windings of
the stream, it is near six hundred miles, five hundred of which it is
navigable for batteaux of fourteen or fifteen tons burthen.

The _Muskingum_ rises in the north-eastern part of Ohio, and flows
southerly into the Ohio river. It is two hundred miles in length, and
is navigable for boats one hundred miles. It is connected by a canal
with Lake Erie. The _Sciota_ rises in the western part, and flows
southerly into the Ohio. It is about two hundred miles long, and is
navigable one hundred and thirty. There are rich and beautiful prairies
on the river, and its valley is wide and fertile. A canal passes along
this valley, and extends north-easterly to Lake Erie. The _Licking_ and
_Kentucky_ rivers take their rise in the Cumberland Mountains, and flow
north-westerly into the Ohio. They are each about two hundred miles in
length. The latter is navigable for one hundred and fifty miles, and
has a width of one hundred and fifty yards at its mouth. The current
is rapid, and the shores are high. For a great part of its course, it
flows between perpendicular banks of limestone. The voyager passing
down this stream experiences an indescribable sensation on looking
upwards to the sky from a deep chasm hemmed in by lofty parapets. Among
the other tributaries of the Ohio are the Great and Little Miami,
Saline,[11] Green river, Big Sandy, Kanhawa.

The _Illinois_ rises in the north-eastern parts of the state of that
name, not more than thirty-five miles from the south-western extremity
of Lake Michigan, and interlocking by a morass with the river Chicago,
which empties into that lake. Its two main head-branches are Plein and
Kankakee. Thirty miles from the junction of these rivers, enters Fox
river from the north. Between this and the Vermilion, enter two or
three inconsiderable rivers. The Vermilion is a considerable stream,
which enters the Illinois from the south, two hundred and sixty miles
above the Mississippi. Not far below this river, and two hundred and
ten miles above the Mississippi, commences Peoria lake, which is no
more than an enlargement of the river, two miles wide on an average,
and twenty miles in length. Such is the depth and regularity of the
bottom, that it has no perceptible current whatever. It is a beautiful
sheet of water, with romantic shores, generally bounded by prairies;
and no waters in the world furnish finer sport for the angler.

On the north side of the Illinois, the rivers that enter on that shore
have their courses, for the most part, in mountainous bluffs, which
often approach near the river. For a great distance above its mouth,
the river is almost as straight as a canal; has in summer scarcely a
perceptible current, and the waters, though transparent, have a marshy
taste to a degree to be almost unfit for use. The river is wide and
deep; and, for the greater part of its width, is filled with aquatic
weeds, to such an extent, that no person could swim among them. Only
a few yards width, in the centre of the stream, is free from them. It
enters the Mississippi through a deep forest, by a mouth four hundred
yards wide. Perhaps no river of the western country has so fine a
boatable navigation, for such a great distance; or waters a richer and
more luxuriant tract of country.

_Rock River_ is one of the most clear and beautiful tributaries of the
Mississippi. It has its source beyond the northern limits of Illinois,
and in a ridge of hills that separates between the waters of the
Mississippi and those of Lake Michigan. On its waters are extensive
and rich lead mines. Its general course is south-west, and it enters
the Mississippi, not far above the commencement of the military bounty
lands. Opposite the mouth of this river, in the Mississippi, is the
beautiful island, called from the name of the river, and on which is a
military station of the United States.

_Kaskaskia River_ rises in the interior of Illinois, nearly
interlocking with the waters of Lake Michigan. It has a course, in a
south-west direction, of between two and three hundred miles, for the
greater part of which course, in high stages of water, it is boatable.
It runs through a fine and settled country, and empties into the
Mississippi a few miles below the town of the same name.

The _Ouisconsin_ is the largest river of the North-West territory
that flows into the Mississippi. It rises in the northern interior of
the country, and interlocks with the Montreal of Lake Superior. It has
a course of between three and four hundred miles, has a shallow and
rapid current, which is, however, navigable by boats in good stages
of the water, and is eight hundred yards wide at its mouth. There is
a portage of only half a mile between this and Fox river. It is over
a level prairie, across which, from river to river, there is a water
communication for periogues in high stages of the water. _Fox River_
has a course of two hundred and sixty miles. It runs through Winnebago
lake. It has a fine country on its banks, with a salubrious climate.
_Chippeway_ is a considerable river of the Mississippi, and enters it
just below Lake Pepin. It is half a mile wide at its mouth, and has
communications by a short portage with Lake Superior. The other chief
rivers of this territory, tributary to the ‘father of waters,’ are
St. Croix, Rum, St. Francis, and Savanna.

Among the smaller tributaries to the Mississippi are the Obian, Forked
Deer, Big Hatchet, and Wolf rivers, all of which flow into it from
Tennessee; and the Yazoo and Big Black, from the state of Mississippi.
The last named rivers are only navigable for boats.

Beside the rivers which flow into the Mississippi, and are thus emptied
into the Gulf of Mexico, there are a few small streams which disembogue
immediately into the gulf. The _Alabama River_ rises in the mountainous
parts of Georgia, in two head-streams named the Coosa and Tallapoosa,
and running south-westerly through the centre of the state of Alabama,
unites with the Tombeckbee; both the streams then take the name of
Mobile, and flowing south for a short distance fall into Mobile Bay.
The _Tombeckbee_ is formed of two main branches rising in the mountains
of the Mississippi. It has a boat navigation in the lower part of its
course. The Alabama has a boat navigation for one hundred and fifty
miles from the bay. _Pearl River_ rises near the centre of the state of
Mississippi. A number of branches unite to form the main river, which
is afterwards increased by the Chuncka and other streams. It passes
through a pleasant and fertile country, and derives much importance
from being one of the chief points of communication between the state
through which it flows and the Gulf of Mexico. The _Pascagoula_ rises
in latitude thirty three degrees, and after travelling for two hundred
and fifty miles a tract of pine country, broadens at its mouth into
an open bay, on which, at a town of its own name, is a resort for the
inhabitants of New Orleans during the sickly months. Most of the rivers
of Florida which flow into the gulf have their sources in Georgia. The
most important of these is the _Appalachicola_. The topography of this
country is as yet very imperfect, and the very numerous streams which
intersect it have borne a variety of names. Most of them are barred at
their mouth with sand.


               II. RIVERS WHICH FLOW INTO THE ATLANTIC.

The _River St. Croix_ forms a part of the eastern boundary of Maine,
and is little navigable except by rafts; most of it consists of a chain
of small lakes. From Calais to the sea, thirty miles, its navigation is
unobstructed.

The _River Penobscot_ is the largest in the state of Maine. It rises in
the highlands separating Maine from Lower Canada. Between the junction
of its two upper branches is Moosehead lake, about forty miles long,
and fifteen wide. From the _Forks_, as they are called, the Penobscot
Indians pass to Canada, up either branch, principally the west, the
source of which is said to be not more than twenty miles from the
waters which fall into the St. Lawrence. The whole navigable course of
the river for sloops, is forty-six miles from the head of the bay, to
near the head of the side; and from the Forks to the sea is one hundred
and thirty-four miles. This river has very numerous branches, navigable
by rafts and abounding in mill sites.

The _Saco_ rises in the White Mountains of New Hampshire, enters Maine
at Fryeburg, and flows in an irregular course south-east to the sea;
it is one hundred and sixty miles long, and has numerous falls which
afford excellent mill sites and manufacturing stations.

The _Androscoggin_ rises in Umbagog lake, among the highlands which
form the north-west boundary of Maine, and descending through a
succession of lakes enters New Hampshire at Errol; it re-enters Maine
at Gilead, and flows east and south till it joins the Kennebec at
Merrymeeting bay. Its length is one hundred and forty miles; the whole
course is broken by rapids and falls, which prevent the transportation
of any thing except timber and logs.

The _Kennebec_ also rises in the highlands, near the sources of the
Androscoggin, and flows nearly south to the sea; falls and rapids
render the navigation difficult above the tide at Augusta, from
which place it is navigable for vessels of one hundred tons, and from
Hallowell and Gardiner for ships to the sea. The country watered by the
Kennebec generally consists of excellent land; it is one of the best
grazing districts in New England; and there are upon the banks of the
river a number of flourishing and handsome towns.

The _Merrimack_ rises in New Hampshire, and has two principal branches:
one of them being the outlet of lake Winnipiseogee. The north or longer
branch is called the Pemigewasset, and has its source near the Notch of
the White Mountains. At its junction with the outlet of the lake this
stream takes the name of Merrimack, and flows south seventy-eight miles
to Chelmsford, where it enters Massachusetts, through which it runs
east to the sea. Its whole course is about two hundred miles. There are
numerous falls in the New Hampshire portion. Though not equal to the
Connecticut for fine scenery, the Merrimack is a noble and beautiful
stream. Its waters are pure and salubrious, and on its borders are
many flourishing towns. Its name in the Indian language signifies a
_sturgeon_. Its width varies from fifty to one hundred and twenty rods;
it receives many minor streams and rivers, which form the outlet of
several small lakes. Its obstructions have been partly remedied by
locks at different places, and there is a good navigation for vessels
of two hundred tons to Haverhill. Two chain bridges cross the river at
Newburyport, and Salisbury.

The _Piscataqua_ has its rise and its whole course in New Hampshire.
It is formed by the junction of several small streams in a wide and
deep bed; the longest of these streams is Salmon Fall river, which
forms part of the boundary between New Hampshire and Maine.

The _Connecticut_ is the largest river of the New England States.
It rises beyond the high-lands which separate the states of Vermont
and New Hampshire from Lower Canada. It has been surveyed to the head
spring of its northern branch, about twenty-five miles beyond the
forty-fifth degree of latitude, from which to its mouth it flows
upwards of three hundred miles through a well inhabited country. Its
navigation is much interrupted by falls. It receives several rivers, as
the Chicapee, Deerfield, Miller’s, and Farmington. At Hartford it meets
the tide, whence it passes on in a winding course, till it falls into
Long Island sound, between Saybrook and Lyme. This river is navigable
for sloops, as far as Hartford, fifty miles distant from its mouth; and
the produce of the country, for two hundred miles above it, is brought
thither in flat-bottomed boats, which are so light us to be portable in
carts.

The _Hudson_, or the _North River_, is formed by the confluence of
the _Hudson proper_ and the _Mohawk_, which unite below Waterford,
ten miles above Albany. The Hudson takes its rise in the forty-fourth
degree of north latitude, from the foot of the mountains which separate
the waters of the St. Lawrence from those of Lake Champlain, and the
Mohawk in the table-land surrounding Oneida lake. The Mohawk river
rises to the north-east of Oneida lake, about eight miles from Sable
Water, a stream of Lake Ontario. It runs first twenty miles south to
Rome; then south-east one hundred and thirty-four miles; and, after
receiving many tributary streams in its course, falls into the Hudson
by three mouths. It is a large stream of water; and is now navigable
for boats from Schenectady to Rome, one hundred and four miles distant.
From Albany to Schenectady is a portage of sixteen miles, on account of
the falls and rapids, which render the river unnavigable. These falls
and rapids, denominated the _Cohoes_, are three miles from the junction
of the Mohawk with the Hudson. The river is one thousand feet wide
at these falls; the rock over which the stream descends is forty feet
perpendicular height; and the whole height of the cataract, including
the descent above, is seventy feet. Properly speaking, the North river
is no other than a narrow gulf of the sea, entering inland at New York,
and penetrating across the double chain of the Alleghany Mountains, as
far as the confluence of the above mentioned streams, one hundred and
seventy miles from the sea. This is what distinguishes the Hudson from
all other rivers in the United States. In no other does the tide ascend
beyond the first range; but in the North river, it crosses the first
chain at West Point, sixty miles north of New York; and the second
at Catskill, after having burst the beds of granite which opposed
its passage, and cut them into a thousand different shapes. Hence the
deep valley of the Hudson has derived a most singular and magnificent
aspect; the western bank being, in some places, five hundred feet of
perpendicular height above the level of the river.[12]

Along the shore of the Hudson, a mural precipice extends twenty miles.
It commences at Weehawken, four miles north of the city of Jersey,
gradually rising towards the north, and mostly occupied by forests. It
is known by the name of the Palisadoes.

  Illustration: Palisadoe Rocks.

_Raritan River_, in the northern part of New Jersey, is formed by two
branches which unite about twenty miles above New Brunswick. It becomes
navigable two miles above that city, at a place called Brunswick
Landing. Flowing by New Brunswick, and gradually becoming broader and
deeper, it passes Amboy and then widens into Raritan bay, which is
immediately connected with the ocean. It is navigable for sloops of
eighty tons as far as New Brunswick, seventeen miles.

The _Delaware_ issues by two streams, called the _Coquago_ and the
_Rappadon_, the union of which, forty miles in a direct line from their
sources, form the Delaware, from the Katskill Mountains, in the county
of Delaware, state of New York. Running first south, it next turns to
the south-east, forming, for the space of sixty miles, the boundary
between Pennsylvania and New York; and thence, forms again the line of
separation between the former state and that of New Jersey, for upwards
of one hundred miles more to Trenton, where there are falls, but of no
great height. Thence, with increased breadth, it pursues a course of
thirty-six miles farther, to Philadelphia, where it is a mile broad.
Thence it proceeds to Newcastle, forty miles below Philadelphia, where
it is two miles broad. Thence it spreads out into a spacious bay, and
falls into the Atlantic seventy miles below Newcastle, by an outlet
of twenty-five miles. The whole course of the river, from the Atlantic
to its source, is three hundred and fifty miles; and two hundred
and eighty from the head of Delaware bay, including the windings. Its
two chief tributary streams are the _Lehigh_ and _Schuylkill_. The
navigation betwixt the Delaware and Chesapeak is now improved by means
of a canal.

The River _Susquehannah_, of all those of the eastern states, most
resembles the Mississippi and the St. Lawrence, on account of its
numerous and distant branches. The north-east branch, which is the
remotest source, is formed by the junction of two small streams that
issue from the lakes of Camadebago, Ustavantho, and Otsego, in the
state of New York. It runs south and south-west in such a winding
course, (receiving in its progress the _Unadilla_ and _Chenango_
rivers from the north,) that it crosses the boundary line between New
York and Pennsylvania no less than three times. It forms a junction
with the _Tioga_, in forty-one degrees and fifty-seven minutes north
latitude; and thence pursues a south-east course of seventy miles
to Wyoming; whence, making a sudden bend at a right angle, it runs a
south-west course of eighty miles, and unites with the west branch at
Northumberland. The river, now increased to the breadth of half a mile,
flows south through the mountains, a course of forty miles, to its
junction with the _Juniata_, when, turning to the east for ten miles,
it emerges from the mountains above Harrisburg, and after a south-east
course of eighty miles, falls into Chesapeak bay. The western branch
of the Susquehannah is formed by many streams, beyond the Alleghany
Mountains; and its most southern source is within a very few miles
of the _Conemaugh_, or _Kiskeminitas_, which falls into the Alleghany
a little above Pittsburg. After running a very winding course of two
hundred miles, principally among the mountains, it joins with the
east branch at Northumberland. The _Juniata_ rises in the Alleghany
Mountains, and, pursuing an eastern and very serpentine and mountainous
course, falls into the Susquehannah, after running two hundred miles.
The whole course of the Susquehannah, from Chesapeak bay to the head of
the north-east branch, is four hundred and fifty miles; and, including
all its branches, it waters a tract of forty thousand square miles.
Where it falls into the sea it is fully a mile broad; at Harrisburg it
is nearly of the same breadth, and from three to five feet deep. There
are seven falls in this river, which, with the numerous islands and
rocks, render it navigable only for a few miles by large vessels.

The _River Potomac_ rises on the north-west side of the Alleghany
Mountains, and after running a north-east course of sixty miles to
Cumberland, is joined eighteen miles below, by a branch coming from the
south-west. Thence fifty-four miles farther, it receives the waters of
_Licking Creek_, and passes the north mountain into a fine limestone
valley, which it waters in a very winding course of forty-five miles
in a south-east direction. Here it receives a considerable number of
tributary streams, particularly the _Conecocheague_ at Williamsport,
and the _Shenandoah_ at the extremity of the valley, and just above the
Blue Ridge, through which the combined stream has effected a singularly
magnificent passage. About thirty miles farther, it descends one
hundred and forty feet in the course of eight or ten miles, to the
level of tide-water, which it meets at Georgetown. It is here a quarter
of a mile wide; but expands to a mile opposite Washington, and enters
the Chesapeak bay by a passage seven and a half miles broad. This is
one of the most important of the Atlantic rivers. It is navigable for
vessels of any burden to Alexandria, one hundred miles distant; and
from thence, for ships of considerable burden, to Georgetown. A lock
navigation has been constructed round the first falls, of which there
are four in the whole. The largest of these falls is at Matilda, six
miles above Georgetown, where the stream, nine hundred feet broad,
after flowing through a valley skirted with hills wild as those of
the Rhone in Vivari, (says Volney,) falls at once, like the Niagara,
from the height of seventy-seven feet, into a deep chasm of solid
micaceous granite. From this it escapes, several miles farther down,
by a widening of the valley in the lower country. The whole course of
the Potomac is three hundred and forty miles.

  Illustration: Passage of the Potomac through the Blue Ridge.

_York River_ is formed by the junction of the _Mattapony_ and _Pamunky_.
Beyond the junction, the Mattapony is navigable for seventy miles; and
thirty miles higher up is its source in the Blue Mountains. The Pamunky
is formed by the junction of the _North_ and _South Anna_ rivers, which
rise in the north-west about fifty miles distant. The mouth of this
river is three miles wide; and at high tide there is four fathoms water,
twenty-five miles above Yorktown, where it is a mile and a half wide in
the wet season, but has a channel of only seventy-five fathoms in the
dry season.

_James’ River_ is one of the most important rivers in the state
of Virginia. It rises in the Alleghany Mountains, near two hundred
miles to the west of Richmond; and, after widening and contracting
alternately in a very winding course, it enters Chesapeak bay fifteen
miles west of Cape Henry; its whole length being three hundred miles.
Its principal tributary streams are the Rivanna, the Appomatox,
the Chickahomany, the Nansemond, and the Elizabeth, on which last
is situated the town of Norfolk. This river, anciently called the
_Powhatan_, affords harbor for vessels of any burden, in Hampton Road,
seventy miles below Richmond. Vessels of two hundred and fifty tons may
go up to Warwick; and those of one hundred and fifty to within a mile
of Richmond.

The _Roanoake_ is formed by the junction of the _Dan_ and _Staunton_.
It runs one hundred and twenty-five miles south-east till it enters
Albemarle sound. Its whole course is two hundred miles. It is navigable
by sloops sixty miles; the low lands on the banks are subjected to
annual inundations.

_Cape Fear River_ is the largest in North Carolina. It rises one
hundred miles above Fayetteville; and thence running two hundred miles
eastward, falls into the Atlantic ocean at Cape Fear, where it is three
miles wide, and eighteen feet deep at high tide. It is navigable by
vessels drawing ten feet water, up to Wilmington, a little below the
confluence of its two principal streams.

The _Great Pedee_ rises in the Blue Mountains, on the borders of North
Carolina and Virginia, where it has the name of _Yadkin_ river. Its
whole course is upwards of three hundred miles, half of which is in
North Carolina. It is navigable by ships to Georgetown; and for smaller
vessels, one hundred miles higher up.

The _Santee_ is the largest river in the state of South Carolina, and
is formed by the junction of the _Congaree_ and _Wateree_ rivers. The
whole course of the Santee, including that of the Catawbaw or Wateree,
is three hundred and fifty miles. It is navigable up to the point of
junction by ships of burden.

The _Savannah River_ which forms the boundary between South Carolina
and Georgia, is a bold and deep stream, and is formed by the junction
of the _Keowee_ and _Tugeloo_, two small streams issuing from the Blue
Ridge, two hundred and fifty miles from the sea. It runs in a straight
south-east course all the way to its mouth, seventeen miles below
Savannah. It is navigable for ships of any burden to within three miles
of Savannah; for vessels of two hundred and fifty tons to Savannah; and
for boats of one hundred feet keel, to Augusta, above which the rapids
commence; after passing them, the river can be navigated in small boats,
eighty miles higher, to the junction of the tributary rivers.


            III. RIVERS OF THE PACIFIC AND THE GREAT LAKES.

The waters that rise on the western declivities of the Rocky Mountains
flow into the Columbia, the Multnomah and the Lake Bueneventura.
_Columbia_ or _Oregon_ river rises within a mile of the head-waters
of the Missouri. It collects its tribute for a wide extent along the
western dividing ridges of the mountains, and on emerging from them
becomes at once a broad and deep stream. After receiving Clark’s and
Lewis’ rivers, each a large stream, from the east, it widens to nine
hundred and sixty yards, and forms a great southern bend through the
second chain of mountains. One hundred and thirty-six miles below, are
the great falls, where the river descends in one rapid, fifty-seven
feet. Below these falls, it winds first to the north-west and then to
the south-west, and passes through the third chain of mountains, where
it is again compressed to the width of one hundred and fifty yards.
Below this rapid, at one hundred and eighty miles from the sea, it
meets the tide, beyond which it has a broad estuary to the sea. Sixty
miles below the rapids, _Multnomah_, a very large and unexplored
tributary, falls in from the north-east. The mouth of the river is in
latitude forty-six degrees and twenty-four minutes, and the tide there
rises eight feet and a half. The Columbia and its tributaries abound
in the finest salmon, which is said to form the principal food of the
savages west of the Rocky Mountains. Seals and other aquatic animals
are taken in this river in great numbers, and the skins shipped to
China constitute the chief article of trade from this great river. A
number of the head streams of the Missouri interlock with the waters
of the Columbia. The whole course of the river is about one thousand
five hundred miles. As this river waters an immense territory which
has recently become a subject of great interest, we have subjoined, in
a note, a partial account of its navigation, from the interesting work
of Mr. Ross Cox.[13]

The rivers which flow into the great lakes are, for the most part,
small and unimportant. A permanent communication between their waters
and those of the Mississippi might be formed by means of a short canal
from the Fox or Chicago rivers, both of which empty into Lake Michigan.
The _Fox_ river rises near the _Ouisconsin_ branch of the Mississippi,
and afterwards flows within one and a half miles of its channel,
separated from it only by a short portage over a prairie. During the
season of high water, the intervening ground is overflowed, so that
loaded boats may pass over it.

_Saganaw River_ is a large and deep stream, with bold shores, and
numerous tributaries, which water a large extent of very delightful
and fertile country. The banks of this stream are inhabited by detached
bands of Chippeway and Ottaway Indians, who have long derived an easy
subsistence from the abundance of game and fish to be found in their
neighborhood. The Saganaw empties into a fine bay of the same name,
which is by far the largest of the numerous inlets which indent the
very irregular shores of Lake Huron.

The _Gennessee_ rises in Pennsylvania, and runs north across the west
part of New York into Lake Ontario. Five miles from its mouth, at
Rochester, are falls of ninety-six and seventy-five feet in descent;
above these falls the stream is navigable for boats nearly seventy
miles, where two other falls occur, of sixty and ninety feet, one of
which is formed by the slope of land which extends from Lewiston on
Niagara river. _Black River_ receives its name from the color of its
water. It rises in the highlands, north of the Mohawk, and its branches
interlock with those of the Hudson; it pursues a northerly course
of one hundred and twenty miles, and falls into Lake Ontario, near
its outlet. It is a deep but sluggish stream, and the navigation is
interrupted by falls; a series of which, called the _Long Falls_,
extend fourteen miles. The land upon this stream is generally a rich,
dark colored mould. The _Oswegatchie_ consists of two branches, which
unite four miles above their entrance into the St. Lawrence. The east
branch is about one hundred and twenty miles long, and the west nearly
one hundred; they are very crooked streams. The _Oswego_ issues from
Oneida Lake, and runs north-westerly into Lake Ontario; it is about
forty miles long and is a rapid stream; its navigation is assisted
by locks and canals. The _Maumee_ rises in the north-eastern part of
Indiana, and flows through the north-western part of Ohio into Lake
Erie; it is broad and deep, but has an obstruction from shoals and
rapids thirty-three miles above its mouth. The _Sandusky_ rises in the
northern part of Ohio, and flows northerly into Lake Erie; it is one
hundred miles in length, and is navigable.


                      GENERAL REMARKS ON RIVERS.

  The beds of rivers are the lowest parts of great chasms, formed
  by the same revolutions which produced the mountains. Running
  waters unceasingly wear away their beds and banks in places
  where their declivity is very rapid; they hollow out and deepen
  their channels in mountains composed of rocks of moderate
  hardness; they draw along stones, and form accumulations of
  them in the lower part of their course; and thus their beds are
  often gradually elevated in the plains, while they are deepened
  and depressed in the mountains. But these changes, though
  continually going on for thousands of years, could only give
  form to the banks of rivers; they in no wise created the banks
  themselves. Many great rivers flow with an almost imperceptible
  declivity. The river of the Amazons has only ten feet and a
  half declivity upon two hundred leagues of its course, making
  one twenty-seventh of an inch for every thousand feet. When a
  river is obstructed in its course by a bank of solid rocks, and
  finds beneath them a stratum of softer materials, its waters
  wear away the softer substance, and thus open for themselves a
  subterraneous passage, more or less long. Such are the causes
  which have formed the magnificent Rock Bridge in Virginia, an
  astonishing vault uniting two mountains, separated by a ravine
  two hundred and seventy feet in depth, in which the _Cedar
  Creek_ flows. In Louisiana, trees, or rather whole forests,
  have been observed to fall on a river, covering it nearly with
  vegetable earth; and thus giving rise to a natural bridge which
  for leagues has hid the course of the river.

  Rivers in running into the sea present a great variety of
  interesting phenomena; many form _sand-banks_, as the Senegal
  and the Nile; others, like the Danube, run with such force into
  the sea, that one can for a certain space distinguish the waters
  of the river from those of the sea. The waters of the little
  river Syre in Norway are discernable for a considerable distance
  in the sea. It is only by a very large mouth, like that of
  the Loire, the Elbe, or the Plata, that a river can peacefully
  mingle with the sea. Rivers even of this nature, however,
  sometimes experience the superior influence of the sea, which
  repels the waters into their bed. Thus the Seine forms at its
  mouth a _bar_ of considerable extent; and the Garonne, unable
  to discharge with sufficient rapidity the waters which it
  accumulates in a kind of gulf between Bordeaux and its mouth,
  exhibits this aquatic mountain, stopped by the flow of the tide
  rolling backwards, inundating the banks, and stopping vessels
  in their progress both up and down. This phenomenon, termed the
  _Mascaret_, is only the collision of two bodies of water moving
  in opposite directions. The most sublime phenomenon of this kind
  which presents itself is that of the giant of rivers Orellana,
  called the river of the Amazons. Twice a day it pours out its
  imprisoned waves into the bosom of the ocean. A liquid mountain
  is thus raised to the height of one hundred and eighty feet;
  it frequently meets the flowing tide of the sea, and the shock
  of these two bodies of water is so dreadful that it makes all
  the neighboring islands tremble; the fishermen and navigators
  fly from it in the utmost terror. The next day, or the second
  day after every new or full moon, the time when the tides are
  highest, the river also seems to redouble its power and energy;
  its waters and those of the ocean rush against each other like
  the onset of two armies. The banks are inundated with their
  foaming waves; the rocks drawn along like light vessels, dash
  against each other, almost upon the surface of the water which
  bears them on. Loud roarings echo from island to island. It has
  been said that the Genius of the River and the God of the Ocean
  contended in battle for the empire of the waves. The Indians
  call this phenomenon _Pororoca_.


             COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE RIVERS OF THE WORLD.

                            NORTH AMERICA.

                      _Names._        _Length._
                      Missouri            4,400
                      Mississippi         3,000
                      Arkansas            2,100
                      St. Lawrence        2,000
                      Mackenzie           2,000
                      Del Norte           2,000
                      Nelson              1,500
                      Columbia            1,500
                      Red River           1,500
                      Platte              1,500
                      Ohio                1,350
                      Kansas              1,200
                      White River         1,200
                      Tennessee           1,100
                      Alabama               650
                      Savannah              600
                      Potomac               550
                      Connecticut           410
                      Hudson                324
                      Delaware              300

                            SOUTH AMERICA.

                      Maranon             4,500
                      La Plata            3,000
                      Madeira             2,500
                      Orinoco             1,800
                      Tocantins           1,800
                      Ucayale             1,600
                      St. Francisco       1,500
                      Paraguay            1,400
                      Xingu               1,400
                      Topajos             1,300

                                EUROPE.

                      Volga               2,040
                      Danube              1,710
                      Don                 1,050
                      Dnieper             1,080
                      Kemi                  780
                      Rhine                 670
                      Elbe                  570
                      Loire                 540
                      Vistula               500
                      Dniester              480
                      Tagus                 580
                      Dwina                 480

                                AFRICA.

                      Nile                2,687
                      Senegal               950
                      Orange                900
                      Gambia                700

                                 ASIA.

                      Yangtse Kian        3,300
                      Lena                2,470
                      Amour               2,360
                      Obi                 2,260
                      Yenisei             2,150
                      Ganges              2,040
                      Burrampooter        2,040
                      Irrawaddy           2,040
                      Cambodia            2,000
                      Euphrates           1,820
                      Hoang Ho            2,900
                      Meinam              1,600




                  CHAPTER V.――CATARACTS AND CASCADES.


THE Falls of Niagara have been very frequently and minutely described,
though it must be acknowledged, as has been well said by the celebrated
Audubon, that all the pictures you may see, all the descriptions you
may read of these mighty falls, can only produce in your mind the faint
glimmer of a glow-worm compared with the overpowering glory of the
meridian sun. ‘What!’ said he, ‘have I come here to mimic nature in her
grandest enterprise, and add _my_ caricature of one of the wonders of
the world to those which I here see? No.――I give up the vain attempt.
I will look on these mighty cataracts, and imprint them where they
alone can be represented,――on my mind!’ The following very full and
accurate description by Mr. Schoolcraft, is the best with which we are
acquainted.

‘On the first of May, I visited the celebrated Falls of Niagara.[14]
Keeping the American shore, the road lies over an alluvial country,
elevated from ten to twenty feet above the water of the river, without
a hill or a ledge of rocks, and with scarce an undulation of surface,
to indicate the existence, or prepare the eye for the stupendous
prospect which bursts, somewhat unexpectedly, into view. The day was
clear and warm, with a light breeze blowing down the river. We stopped
frequently on our approach to listen for the sound of the Fall, but
at the distance of fifteen, ten, eight, and even five miles, could not
distinguish any, even by laying the ear to the ground. It was not until
within three miles of the precipice, where the road runs close to the
edge of the river, and brings the rapids in full view, that we could
distinctly hear the sound, which then, owing to a change in the wind,
fell so heavily upon the ear, that in proceeding a short distance, it
was difficult to maintain a conversation as we rode along. On reaching
the Falls, nothing struck me with more surprise, than that the Baron
La Hontan, who visited it in August, 1688, should have fallen into so
egregious a mistake, as to the height of the perpendicular pitch, which
he represents at seven or eight hundred feet. Nor does the narrator
of the discoveries of the unfortunate La Salle, Monsieur Tonti,
approach much nearer the truth, when he states it at six hundred feet.
Charlevoix, whose work is characterized by more accuracy, learning,
and research, than those who had preceded him, and who saw the Falls in
1721, makes, on the contrary, an estimate which is surprising for the
degree of accuracy he has attained. “For my own part,” he says, “after
examining it on all sides, where it could be viewed to the greatest
advantage, I am inclined to think we cannot allow it less than a
hundred and forty or fifty feet.” The latter, (one hundred and fifty,)
is precisely what the Fall on the Canadian side is now estimated at.
There is a rapid of two miles in extent above, and another of seven
miles, extending to Lewiston, below the Falls. The breadth across, at
the brink of the Fall, which is serrated and irregular, is estimated
at four thousand two hundred and thirty feet, or a little more than
three fourths of a mile. The Fall on the American shore is one hundred
and sixty-four feet, being the highest known perpendicular pitch of
so great a volume of water. The fall of the rapid above, commencing at
Chippewa, is estimated at ninety feet, and the entire fall of Niagara
river from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, a distance of thirty-five miles,
at three hundred feet. Goat Island, which divides the water into two
unequal sheets, has recently been called _Iris_, (in allusion to the
perpetual rainbows by which it is characterized) by the commissioners
for settling the boundaries of the United States, acting under the
treaty of Ghent.

‘In approaching this cataract from Lewiston, the elevated and rocky
description of country it is necessary to cross, together with the
increased distance at which the roar is heard in that direction, must
serve to prepare the mind for encountering a scene which there is
nothing to indicate on approaching from Buffalo; and this impression
unquestionably continues to exercise an effect upon the beholder,
after his arrival at the Falls. The first European visiters beheld it
under this influence. Following the path of the _Couriers de Bois_,
they proceeded from Montreal up the St. Lawrence, to Fort Caderacqui,
and around the shores of Lake Ontario, to the alluvial tract which
stretches from the mouth of Niagara river, to the site of Lewiston.
Here the Ridge, emphatically so called, commences, and the number of
elevations which it is necessary to ascend in crossing it, may, without
a proper consideration of the intermediate descents, have led those who
formerly approached that way into error, such as La Hontan and Tonti
fell into. They must have been deprived also of the advantages of the
view from the gulf at the foot of the Falls, for we are not prepared to
admit the possibility of a descent without artificial stairs, or other
analogous laborious and dangerous works, such, as at that remote period,
must have been looked upon as a stupendous undertaking; and could not,
indeed, have been accomplished, surrounded as the French then were, by
their enemies, the jealous and ever watchful Iroquois. The descent at
the present period, with every advantage arising from the labors of
mechanical ingenuity, cannot be performed without feeling some degree
of personal solicitude.

‘It is in this chasm that the sound of the water falls heaviest upon
the ear, and that the mind becomes fully impressed with the appalling
majesty of the Fall. Other views from the banks on both sides of the
river, and from the Island of Iris in its centre, are more beautiful
and picturesque; but it is here that the tremulous motion of the
earth, the clouds of irridescent spray, the broken column of falling
water, the stunning sound, the lofty banks of the river, and the wide
spreading ruin of rocks, imprint a character of wonder and terror upon
the scene, which no other point of view is capable of producing. The
spectator, who, on alighting at Niagara, walks hastily to the brink,
feels his attention imperceptibly riveted to the novel and striking
phenomenon before him, and at this moment is apt either to overrate
or to underrate the magnitude of the Fall. It is not easy to erect a
standard of comparison; and the view requires to be studied, in order
to attain a just conception and appreciation of its grandeur and its
beauties. The ear is at first stunned by the incessant roar, and the
eye bewildered in the general view. In proportion as these become
familiarized, we seize upon the individual features of the landscape,
and are enabled to distinguish between the gay and the sombre, the bold
and the picturesque, the harsh and the mellow traits, which, like the
deep contrasted shades of some high wrought picture, contribute to give
effect to the scene.

‘It was some time before I could satisfy myself of the accuracy of
the accredited measurements of the height of the Fall, and not until
after I had made repeated visits, and spent a considerable time in the
abyss below. There appears a great disproportion between the height
and the width of the falling sheet, but the longer I remained, the more
magnificent it appeared to me; and hence it is, that with something
like a feeling of disappointment, on my first arrival, I left the
Falls after a visit of two days, with an impression of the scene which
every thing I had previously read, had failed to create. At the time
of my visit, the wind drove the floating ice out of Lake Erie, with
the drift-wood of its tributary rivers, and these were constantly
precipitated over the Falls, but we were not able to discover any
vestiges of them in the eddies below. Immediately in front of the sheet
of falling water on the American side, there was also an enormous bank
of snow, of nearly an hundred feet in height, which the power of the
sun had not yet been fierce enough to dissolve, and which, by giving
an Icelandic character to the landscape, produced a fine effect. It
appeared to me to owe its accumulation to the falling particles of
frozen spray.

‘What has been said by Goldsmith, and repeated by others, respecting
the destructive influence of the rapids[15] above to ducks and other
water fowl, is only an effect of the imagination. So far from being
the case, a wild duck is often seen to swim down the rapid to the brink
of the Falls, and then fly out, and repeat the descent, seeming to take
a delight in the exercise. Neither are small land-birds affected on
flying over the Falls, in the manner that has been stated. I observed
the blue-bird and the wren, which had already made their annual visit
to the banks of the Niagara, frequently fly within one or two feet of
the brink, apparently delighted with the gift of their wings, which
enabled them to sport over such frightful precipices without danger.
We are certainly not well pleased to find that some of the wonderful
stories we have read of the Falls, during boyhood, do not turn out
to be the truth; but, at the same time, a little attention is only
necessary to discover that many interesting facts and particulars
remain unnoticed, which fully compensate for others that have been
over-strained or misstated. Among these, the crystalline appearances
disclosed among the prostrate ruins, and the geological character of
the Fall itself, are not the least interesting.

  Illustration: Bridge and Rapids above the Falls.

‘The scenes where nature has experienced her greatest convulsions, are
always the most favorable for acquiring a knowledge of the internal
structure of the earth. The peaks of the highest mountains, and the
depths of the lowest ravines, present the greatest attractions to the
geologist. Hence this cataract, which has worn its way for a number of
miles, and to a very great depth, through the stony crust of the earth,
is no less interesting for the geological facts it discloses, than for
the magnificence of its natural scenery. The chain of highlands, called
the Ridge, originates in Upper Canada, and running parallel with the
south shore of Lake Ontario, forms a natural terrace, which pervades
the western counties of New-York, from north to south, affording, by
its unbroken chain, and the horizontal position of its strata, the
advantages of a natural road, and terminates in an unexplored part
of the county of Oswego, or thereabout. It is in crossing this ridge,
that the falls of the Niagara, of the Gennessee, and of the Oswego
rivers, all running into Lake Ontario, are produced; together with
those of an infinite number of smaller streams and brooks. Through
this, the Niagara has cut its way for a distance of seven miles, and
to a depth of more than two hundred feet, disclosing the number, order
of stratification, and mineral character, of the different strata of
secondary rocks, of which it is composed.

‘These rocks, (sandstone, slate, and limestone,) however their
properties may be found modified by future discoveries, will probably
be found, with a proper allowance for local formations and disturbances,
to pervade all that section of country, which lies between the Niagara
and Seneca rivers, between lakes Ontario and Seneca, and between the
Alleghany river and the south shore of Lake Erie, as general boundaries.
All this section of country appears to be underlayed by a stratum of
red sandstone, such as appears at the Gennessee Falls, but which is
imbedded at various depths, as the country happens to be elevated
above, or depressed below the level of the Niagara stratum, in which
no inclination is visible. No order of stratification could have been
effected by nature, which would have afforded greater facilities to the
wasting effects of falling water, so visible as these Falls. The slate
which separates the calcareous from the sandstone rock, by a stratum
of nearly forty feet in thickness, is continually fretting away, and
undermining the superincumbent stratum of limestone, which is thus
precipitated in prodigious masses into the abyss below. The most
considerable occurrence of this kind, that has recently taken place,
is that of the _Table Rock_,[16] on the Canadian shore, which fell
during the summer of 1818, disclosing a number of those crystallized
substances, which have already been alluded to. By these means, the
Falls, which are supposed by the most intelligent visitors to have been
anciently seated at Lewiston, have progressed seven miles up the river,
cutting a trench through the solid rock, which is about half a mile
in width, and two hundred feet in depth, exclusive of what is hidden
by the water. The power, capable of effecting such a wonderful change,
still exists, and may be supposed to operate with undiminished activity.
The wasting effects of the water, and the yielding nature of the rocks,
remain the same, and manifest the slow process of a change, at the
present period, as to position, height, form, division of column,
and other characters, which form the outlines of the great scene; and
this change is probably sufficiently rapid in its operation, if minute
observations were taken, to imprint a different character upon the
falls, at the close of every century.’

The _Great Falls of the Missouri_ are the grandest in all North America,
those of Niagara excepted, and though inferior to these in volume of
water, depth of descent, and awful grandeur, yet they are far more
diversified and beautiful. These Falls are within sixty geographical
miles of the easternmost range of the Rocky Mountains. Here the river,
two hundred and eighty yards, or eight hundred and forty feet wide,
is pressed in by a perpendicular cliff on the left, one hundred feet
high, and extending for a mile up the river; on the right, the bluff,
or high steep bank, is also perpendicular for three hundred yards above
the falls. For ninety or one hundred yards from the left cliff, the
water falls in one smooth even sheet over a precipice of eighty-seven
feet eight inches, according to Captain Lewis; but ninety-eight feet,
according to Cass, and Captain Clarke. The remaining part of the river
precipitates itself with a more rapid current; but being received as
it falls by the irregular and projecting rocks below, forms a splendid
prospect of perfectly white foam, two hundred yards in length, and
eighty in perpendicular elevation. This spray is dissipated into a
thousand different shapes; sometimes flying up in columns of fifteen
or twenty feet, which are then oppressed by larger masses of the
white foam, on all which the sun impresses the brightest colors of the
rainbow. As it rises from the fall, it beats with fury against a ledge
of rocks extending across the river, at one hundred and fifty yards
from the precipice. From the perpendicular cliff on the north, to the
distance of one hundred and twenty yards, the rocks rise only a few
feet above the surface of the water; and when the river is high, the
stream finds a passage across them; but between the southern extremity
of this ledge and the perpendicular cliff on the south, the whole body
of water runs with great rapidity. At the distance of three hundred
yards is a second abutment of solid perpendicular rock, sixty feet high,
projecting at right angles from the small plain on the north for one
hundred and thirty-four yards into the river. Below this, the Missouri
regains its usual breadth of three hundred yards, but there is a
continued succession of rapids and cascades. At the second grand fall,
the river, four hundred yards wide, precipitates itself, for the space
of three hundred yards, to a depth of nineteen feet perpendicular, and
so irregularly, that Captain Lewis termed it the _Crooked Fall_.

Above this fall, the Missouri bends suddenly to the northward, where,
four hundred and seventy-three yards wide, it is suddenly stopped by
one shelving rock, which without a single niche, and with an edge as
straight and regular as if it had been formed by art, stretches itself
across from one side of the river to the other. Over this the Missouri
precipitates itself in one even, uninterrupted sheet, of four hundred
and seventy-three yards broad to the perpendicular depth of forty-seven
feet eight inches; whence, dashing against the rocky bottom, it rushes
rapidly down, leaving behind it a spray of the purest foam across the
river. At the distance of less than half a mile, another of a similar
kind is presented. Here a cascade stretches across the whole river,
for a quarter of a mile, with a descent of fourteen feet seven inches,
though the perpendicular pitch is only six feet seven inches. For the
space of one thousand one hundred and seventy-seven yards above this
cascade the river descends fifteen feet. Immediately above this, one
of the largest springs in America falls into the river. Its water
is cold, of the most perfect clearness, and of a bluish color, which
it preserves, even for half a mile after falling into the Missouri,
notwithstanding its rapidity. This fountain rises in the plain,
twenty-five yards from the river, on the south side. In its course to
the river, it falls over some steep, irregular rocks, with a sudden
descent of eight feet perpendicular, in one part of its progress.
The water boils up from among the rocks, and with such force near
the centre that the surface seems higher than the earth on the sides
of the fountain, which is a handsome turf of green grass. The water
is pleasant to the taste, not being impregnated with lime or any
adventitious substance. For the space of a mile and one thousand one
hundred and sixty-six yards above the mouth of this spring, the descent
of the river is thirteen feet six inches.

During the upper part of its course, this river is remarkable for
a succession of rapids, cascades, and cataracts, and in a course of
about three miles it has a descent of no less than three hundred and
fifty-two feet.

On the _Mississippi River_ are several sets of rapids. One called _Les
Rapides des Moines_, is eleven miles long, and consists of successive
ledges and shoals, extending from shore to shore across the bed of the
river. One hundred miles higher up is another, about eighteen miles in
length, and consisting of a continued chain of rocks, over which the
water flows with turbulent rapidity.

About thirty miles from its source, the Mississippi, after winding
through a dismal country, covered with high grass meadows, with pine
swamps in the distance, which appear to cast a deeper gloom on its
borders, is suddenly pent up in a channel about eighty feet wide, where
it has a descent of twenty feet in three hundred yards. This fall is
called _Peckagama_. Immediately at the head of the falls is the first
island noticed in the river. It is small, rocky, covered with spruce
and cedar, and divides the channel nearly in its centre.

_St. Anthony’s Falls_ are situated on the Mississippi river, more than
two thousand miles above its mouth. Above the falls, the river has a
width of five or six hundred yards. Immediately below, it contracts
to a width of two hundred yards; and there is a strong rapid for a
considerable distance below. This beautiful spot in the Mississippi is
not without a tale to hallow its scenery, and heighten the interest,
which, of itself, it is calculated to produce. In the narrative of
Long’s Second Expedition, we find the following romantic story, related
by an old Indian, whose mother was an eye-witness to the transaction:

  Illustration: St. Anthony’s Falls.

‘An Indian of the Dacota nation had united himself early in life to a
youthful female, whose name was Ampota Sapa, which signifies the _Dark
Day_; with her he lived happily for several years, apparently enjoying
every comfort which the savage life can afford. Their union had been
blessed with two children, on whom both parents doated with that depth
of feeling which is unknown to such as have other treasures besides
those that spring from nature. The man had acquired a reputation as a
hunter, which drew around him many families, who were happy to place
themselves under his protection, and avail themselves of such part of
his chase as he needed not for the maintenance of his family. Desirous
of strengthening their interest with him, some of them invited him to
form a connection with their family, observing, at the same time, that
a man of his talent and importance required more than one woman to wait
upon the numerous guests whom his reputation would induce to visit his
lodge. They assured him that he would soon be acknowledged as a chief,
and that, in this case, a second wife was indispensable.

‘Fired with the ambition of obtaining high honors, he resolved to
increase his importance by an union with the daughter of an influential
man of his tribe. He had accordingly taken a second wife without ever
having mentioned the subject to his former companion; being desirous to
introduce his bride into his lodge in the manner which should be least
offensive to the mother of his children, for whom he still retained
much regard, he introduced the subject in these words: “You know,” said
he, “that I can love no woman so fondly as I doat upon you. With regret
have I seen you of late subjected to toils which must be oppressive
to you, and from which I would gladly relieve you, yet I know no other
way of doing so, than by associating with you in the household duties,
one who shall relieve you from the trouble of entertaining the numerous
guests, whom my growing importance in the nation collects around me.
I have, therefore, resolved upon taking another wife, but she shall
always be subject to your control, as she will always rank in my
affections second to you.”

‘With the utmost anxiety, and the deepest concern, did his companion
listen to this unexpected proposal. She expostulated in the kindest
terms, entreated him with all the arguments which undisguised love and
the purest conjugal affections could suggest. She replied to all the
objections which his duplicity led him to raise. Desirous of winning
her from her opposition, the Indian still concealed the secret of
his union with another, while she redoubled all her care to convince
him that she was equal to the task imposed upon her. When he again
spoke on the subject, she pleaded all the endearments of their past
life; she spoke of his former fondness for her, of his regard for
her happiness and that of their mutual offspring; she bade him beware
of the consequences of this fatal purpose of his. Finding her bent
upon withholding her consent to this plan, he informed her that all
opposition on her part was unnecessary, as he had already selected
another partner, and that if she could not receive his new wife as a
friend, she must receive her as a necessary incumbrance, for he had
resolved that she should be an inmate in his house.

‘Distressed at this information, she watched her opportunity, stole
away from the cabin with her infants, and fled to a distance where her
father was. With him she remained until a party of Indians with whom he
lived, went up the Mississippi on a winter hunt. In the spring, as they
were returning with their canoes loaded with peltries, they encamped
near the Falls. In the morning as they left it, she lingered near the
spot, then launched her light canoe, entered into it with her children,
and paddled down the stream, singing her death-song. Too late did her
friends perceive it; their attempts to prevent her from proceeding
were of no avail; she was heard to sing in a doleful voice the past
pleasures which she had enjoyed, while she was the undivided object
of her husband’s affection; finally her voice was drowned in the
sound of the cataract; the current carried down her frail bark with an
inconceivable rapidity; it came to the edge of the precipice, was seen
for a moment enveloped in spray, but never afterwards was a trace of
the canoe or its passengers seen. Yet it is stated by the Indians, that
often in the morning a voice has been heard to sing a doleful ditty
along the edge of the fall, and that it dwells ever on the inconstancy
of her husband. Nay, some assert that her spirit has been seen
wandering near the spot with her children wrapped to her bosom. Such
are the tales or traditions which the Indians treasure up, and which
they relate to the voyager, forcing a tear from the eyes of the most
unrelenting.’

There are many other falls in the United States, which have been
the subject of no extended descriptions, but which would excite
admiration in any quarter of the world. In New York, the Great Falls
of the Genesee, about half a mile below Rochester, are ninety feet
perpendicular, and a few rods above is another of five feet, surmounted
by a rapid. On the same river are several other falls. _Trenton Falls_
are on West Canada Creek, a tributary of the Mohawk, fourteen miles
north of Utica; they consist of several grand and beautiful cascades,
some of them forty feet in descent. The river here passes through
a rocky chasm four miles in length, presenting the greatest variety
of cascades and rapids, boiling pools and eddies. The rock is a dark
limestone, and contains abundance of petrified marine shells. _Glen’s
Falls_ are upon the Hudson, eighteen miles above Saratoga, and are
a grand rapid, falling sixty-seven feet in a course of one hundred
and seventy yards. _Jessup’s Falls_ and _Hadley Falls_ are beautiful
cataracts on the same stream, a few miles above. _Claverack Falls_ are
upon a stream near the city of Hudson; they descend down a precipice
of dark rocks into a deep chasm shaded with forest trees. The cataracts
near _Ithaca_ comprise four hundred and thirty-eight feet of descent in
a mile; the fall of the Cohoes on the Mohawk is seventy feet.

At _Bellows Falls_, five miles from the town of Walpole, on the
Connecticut, the whole descent of the river, in the space of half a
mile, is forty-four feet; and it includes several pitches, one below
another, at the highest of which a large rock divides the stream into
two channels, each about ninety feet wide. When the water is low, the
eastern channel is dry, being crossed by a solid rock, and the whole
stream falls into the western channel, where, being contracted to the
breadth of sixteen feet, it flows with astonishing force and rapidity.
A bridge has been built over these falls, from which an advantageous
view is had of their interesting and romantic scenery. Some years
ago a canal, over half a mile long, was dug through the rocks
around the falls, for the passage of flat-bottomed boats and rafts.
Notwithstanding the velocity of the current, salmon used to pass up the
fall in great numbers. _Amoskeag Falls_, in the Merrimack, consist of
three successive pitches, falling nearly fifty feet. The _Housatonic
Falls_, in the north-west part of Connecticut, are the finest in New
England.

The _Passaic Falls_, in Paterson, New Jersey, twenty-two miles
north-west of New York, are highly picturesque and beautiful. The
river Passaic rises in the northern part of New Jersey, and after a
circuitous course, falls into Newark Bay. At the town of Paterson,
about twenty miles from its mouth, is the Great Fall, where the river,
about one hundred and twenty feet wide, and running with a very swift
current, reaches a deep chasm, or cleft, which crosses the channel, and
falls perpendicularly about seventy feet, in one entire sheet. One end
of the cleft is closed up, and the water rushes out at the other with
incredible rapidity, in an acute angle to its former direction, and is
received into a large basin. It thence takes a winding course through
the rocks, and spreads again into a very considerable channel. The
cleft is from four to twelve feet in breadth, and is supposed to have
been produced by an earthquake. When this cataract was visited by a
late British traveller, the spray refracted two beautiful rainbows,
primary and secondary, which greatly assisted in producing as fine a
scene as imagination can conceive. It was also heightened by the effect
of another fall, of less magnificence, about ninety feet above.

  Illustration: Source of Passaic Falls.

The spirit of utility, in its stern disregard of the picturesque,
has diverted the current of the Passaic into so many channels for the
supply of manufactories, that the cascade is now an object of interest
only during the wet season.

The Potomac, which forms the boundary between the states of Maryland
and Virginia, is navigable to the city of Washington; above which it is
obstructed by several falls, of which the most remarkable are _Little
Falls_, three miles above Washington, with a descent of thirty-seven
feet: _Great Falls_, eight and a half miles further up, with a descent
of seventy-six feet; which have been made navigable by means of
five locks: _Seneca Falls_, six miles above, descending ten feet:
_Shenandoah Falls_, sixty miles higher up the river, where the Potomac
breaks through the Blue Ridge at Harper’s Ferry: _Houre’s Falls_, five
miles above the Shenandoah.

In addition to the cataracts above enumerated, we may notice the
_Falling Spring_, in Bath county, Virginia, which forms a beautiful
cascade, streaming from a perpendicular precipice, two hundred feet
high; and the _Tuccoa Fall_, in Franklin county, Georgia, which, though
one of the most beautiful that can be conceived, is scarcely yet known
to geographers. It is one hundred and eighty-seven feet in height, and
the water is propelled over a perpendicular rock. When the stream is
full, it pours over the steep in one expansive magnificent sheet, amid
clouds of spray, on which the prismatic colors are reflected with a
most enchanting effect.

The cascades of the Catskill Mountains are very romantic and beautiful.
The Kasterskill is formed by the union of two branches, one rising
in two lakes, about one and a half miles east of the western cascade,
the other about half the distance in a northerly direction. The best
view of the western fall is from below, the foliage above being so
thick as in a great measure to obscure it. Below the fall the banks
of the stream, which are nearly three hundred feet in height, rise
almost perpendicularly from the surface of the water. The following
description is from the pen of Mr. H. E. Dwight.

‘The rocks on each side of the stream project so as partially to
eclipse the sides of the fall. They have fallen from time to time,
in such a manner as to form seventeen natural steps, rising one above
another. We stationed ourselves on these steps, to enjoy the scenery
around us. Before us the stream fell in a beautiful sheet, exhibiting
its transparent waters, when, striking the inclined plane, it rushed
down with headlong fury, bearing on its surface a foam of silvery
whiteness. On the right and left, the banks rose over our heads in
silent grandeur, as if on the point of detaching their projecting
masses into the ravine where we were standing, while below us, the
water was visible for about thirty rods, descending in the form of a
rapid, when, bending around the point of a projection of the mountain,
it disappeared from our view. The spray was so thick as to make a
dense cloud, on which the sun, shining with great brilliancy, and being
nearly vertical, imprinted a perfect rainbow. This bow, which was not
more than eight feet in diameter, formed a circle around us slightly
elliptical, near the centre of which we stood. As we approached the
fall, the spray thickened, the splendor of the colors increased, and
the shrubs, the rocks, and the water, were tinged with its choicest
hues. To complete the view, a small rivulet, caused by the late
rains, fell about two hundred feet, in the form of a cascade, down the
precipice, on the southern bank of the stream, displaying its crystal
waters through the green foliage which adorned it. We remained here
enjoying the prospect for some minutes, when, drenched with spray, we
reluctantly bade it adieu, with all those emotions which the sublimity
and beauty of such a scene would naturally awaken.

  Illustration: Catskill Falls.

‘I visited the eastern cascade immediately after viewing the western
fall on the Kaaterskill, when the column of water was swollen to
eight or ten times its common size, and shall describe it, as it then
appeared. The rock over which the water descends, projects in such a
manner that the cascade forms part of a parabolic curve. After striking
a rock below, it runs down an inclined plane a few rods in length, when
it rushes over another precipice of one hundred feet. The column of
water remained entire for two thirds the descent, and its surface was
covered with a rich sparkling foam, which, as it fell, presented to the
eye a brilliant emanation. Here it was broken, and formed a continued
succession of showers. Large globules of water, of a soft, pearly
lustre, enriched with a prismatic reflection, shot off in tangents
to the curve of the cascade, and being drawn by the attraction of
gravitation, united again with the stream. The sun, shining through a
clear atmosphere, imprinted on it his glittering rays, appearing like
a moving column of transparent snow. The spray, rising to the height
of several hundred feet, was continually agitated by a strong wind,
which gave birth to a number of rainbows. They were elevated one above
the other, and increased in brilliancy towards the base of the cascade,
where, as well as at the lower fall, an iris spread its arch of glory,
tinging the rocks and foliage with its brightest colors.

‘The ground below these cascades continued descending at an angle of
forty-five degrees, forming a hollow like an inverted cone, of one
thousand feet in depth. This was lined with lofty trees, whose verdant
tops, varying from the dark hemlock to the light maple, were bending
with the wind. Through this waving forest the cascade appeared at
various distances, sparkling with the rays of the sun, and forming a
fine contrast to the sombre rocks which surrounded it. From this cavity,
at the distance of several miles, a peak rose to an elevation of two
thousand feet, while the mountains on the right and left, impressed
their bold outlines on the sky beyond them.

‘The best view of this scene, is a few rods from the base of the lower
fall. These cascades are both of them in a direct line, and by standing
in this position can be united in one. By raising your eyes, a fall
of four hundred feet appears precipitated from the precipices above,
apparently ready to overwhelm you, while the rocks above overhang the
abyss in wild sublimity, threatening you with destruction.

‘The appearance of the upper cascade, in the middle of winter, is very
interesting. The rock over which the stream descends, projects in such
a manner, that the icicles, which form in that season, meet with no
interruption in their descent towards the base of the fall. The water,
which strikes the rocks below, begins to congeal and rise (between the
column of water and the rock) towards the icicles above. These project
towards the base, increasing in magnitude from day to day, while the
column from below is greatly enlarged by the water and the spray,
which, immediately congealing, in a short time surround the stream. A
column of ice, resembling a rude cone, of between two and three hundred
feet, is thus formed, through the centre of which the stream pours
its current, dwindled, by the congelation of its waters, to one tenth
its common size. When illumined by the rays of the sun, it presents a
transparent column glowing with brilliancy, reflecting and refracting
its rays in such a manner as to present all the colors of the prism.
It remains some weeks, a striking example of the power of hoary
frost, when, partly dissolved by the genial warmth of spring, it falls,
scattering its thousand fragments on the rocks around it.’


              GENERAL REMARKS ON CATARACTS AND CASCADES.

  Rivers which descend from primitive mountains into the
  secondary lands often form _cascades and cataracts_. Such are
  the cataracts of the Nile, of the Ganges, and some other great
  rivers, which, according to Desmarets, evidently mark the limits
  of the ancient land. Cataracts are also formed by lakes, and
  of this description are the Falls of Niagara; but the most
  picturesque falls are those of rapid rivers, bordered by trees
  and precipitous rocks. Sometimes we see a body of water, which,
  before it arrives at the bottom, is broken and dissipated into
  showers, like the Staubach; sometimes it forms a watery arch,
  projected from a rampart of rock, under which the traveller may
  pass dry shod, as the Falling Spring of Virginia; in one place,
  in a granite district, we see the Trolhetta, and the Rhine not
  far from its source, urge on their foaming billows amongst the
  pointed rocks; in another, amidst lands of calcareous formation,
  we see the Czettina, and the Kerka, rolling down from terrace to
  terrace, and presenting sometimes a sheet and sometimes a wall
  of water. Some magnificent cascades have been formed, at least
  in part, by the hands of man: the cascades of Velino, near Terni,
  have been attributed to Pope Clement VIII.; other cataracts,
  like those of Tunguska in Siberia, have gradually lost their
  elevation by the wearing away of the rocks, and have now only a
  rapid descent. The Falls of Staubach are the highest ever known,
  being nine hundred feet according to trigonometrical measurement.




                          CHAPTER VI.――LAKES.


_Lake Superior_ is the largest body of fresh water in the world, being
four hundred miles in length, one hundred at its greatest breadth, and,
according to the most moderate computation, over twelve hundred miles
in circumference. Its shores are rocky and uneven, and it has a rocky
bottom. Its waters are pure and transparent, and it has been remarked,
that, although during the summer, the waters on its surface be warm,
nevertheless, by letting a cup down about a fathom, water may be taken
up nearly as cold as ice. It abounds in fish, particularly sturgeon and
long trout, many of which are from fifty to seventy pounds weight, and
constitute the principal food of the Algonquin Indians on its borders.
This lake has five large islands,[17] one of which, called _Isle Royal_,
is not less than a hundred miles in length, and in some places forty
in breadth. More than forty rivers discharge themselves into it, the
two largest called the Nipegon and the Michipicooton, from the north
and north-east sides. A small river which runs into it, not far from
the Nipegon, falls from the top of a mountain more than six hundred
feet perpendicular; appearing at a distance, to use Mr. Carver’s homely
comparison, like a white garter suspended in the air. On the banks of
one of the rivers which fall into its south side, virgin copper has
been found. The storms which occur on this lake are felt as severely
as on the Atlantic, the waves run equally high, and the navigation
is perhaps more dangerous.[18] When the wind blows from the east, the
waters are driven against the high rocks of the northern and western
shores, where they form a thick vapor resembling rain; and this action
of the wind creates an irregular ebb and flow. This never exceeds ten
or twelve inches; but the strong traces of the water on the rocks of
the shore show, that, at no very remote period, they were elevated six
feet above the present level. Mackenzie states, that some years ago the
waters suddenly withdrew near the Great Portage; then rushed back with
great velocity above the common mark; and, after rising and falling
during several hours, they settled at their usual level.

Notwithstanding its being fed by so many rivers, Lake Superior has
but one outlet by the Straits of St. Mary. At the upper end of these
straits, there is a rapid which cannot be ascended, but has sometimes
been descended, although the descent requires both skill and caution,
and perhaps not a little good fortune. A canal has been cut by the
North-West Company, along the northern banks, for the purpose of
facilitating their commerce, and they have here a considerable
establishment; but their chief fort and storehouses are situated at
Kamenestiquia, on the banks of a river which flows into Lake Superior,
on the north-west side, and affords an easy communication with the
interior. The Strait of St. Mary, it is supposed, does not discharge
one tenth of the waters which the lake receives from its numerous
rivers; part of the remainder escapes by evaporation, but how the
whole is discharged is yet a secret. It does not appear, however, that
an exact calculation has hitherto been made, either of the quantity
discharged or the quantity received. This lake lies between forty-six
and fifty degrees north latitude, and eighty-four and ninety-three
degrees west longitude.

_Lake Huron_, into which you enter by the Straits of St. Mary, is
next in magnitude to Lake Superior. It lies between forty-three and
forty-six degrees north latitude, and between eighty and eighty-five
degrees west longitude; in shape it is nearly triangular, and its
circumference is about a thousand miles. On the Canada side of this
lake is an island one hundred miles in length, and no more than eight
in breadth; it is called Manataulin, signifying a place of spirits,
and is considered as sacred by the native Indians. About the middle of
the south-west side of the lake is Saginaw Bay, about eighty miles in
length, and twenty broad; Thunder Bay, so called from the continual
thunder heard there, lies about half way between Saginaw Bay and the
north-west corner of the lake: it is about nine miles across either
way. The fish are the same as in Lake Superior. The promontory that
separates this lake from Lake Michigan is a vast plain, more than one
hundred miles long, and varying from ten to fifteen miles in breadth.
At the north-east corner, this lake communicates with Lake Michigan by
the Straits of Michilimackinac. It is very remarkable, that although
there is no daily flood or ebb to be perceived in the waters of these
straits, yet from an exact attention to their state, a periodical
alteration in them has been discovered. It has been observed that they
rise by gradual, but almost imperceptible degrees, till in seven years
and a half they had reached the height of about three feet; and in the
same space of time they gradually fell to their former state; so that
in fifteen years they had completed this revolution. This, however, is
not well established.[19]

_Lake Michigan_, formerly called _Lake Illinois_, and _Lake Dauphin_,
extends from the western angle of Lake Huron in a southerly direction,
and is separated from Lake Superior by the tongue of land which is
described above. It lies wholly within the territory of the United
States, between the parallels of forty-two and forty-six degrees.
Its waters are said to be unfathomable. At the southern extremity of
Lake Michigan is _Chicago Creek_, by which, in the rainy season, the
head-waters of the Illinois communicate with the lake; but the bar at
the mouth of the creek does not admit boats drawing above two feet of
water. A number of streams flow into the lake, on both the western and
the eastern sides. It abounds, like the others, with excellent fish.

‘Lake Michigan,’ says Mr. Schoolcraft, ‘from its great depth of water,
its bleak and unguarded shores――and its singular length and direction,
which is about four hundred miles from north to south, appears to be
peculiarly exposed to the influence of the currents of the atmosphere,
to whose agency we may attribute, at least in part, the appearances of
a tide, which are more striking upon the shores of this, than of any of
the other great lakes. The meteorological observations which have been
made, in the _Transalleghanian states_, indicate the winds to prevail,
either north or south, through the valley of the Mississippi; but
seldom across it, so that the surface of this lake would be constantly
exposed to agitation, from the atmosphere. These winds would almost
incessantly operate, to drive the waters through the narrow strait of
Michilimackinac, either into Lake Huron or Lake Michigan, until, by
their natural tendency to an equilibrium, the waters thus pent, would
react, after attaining a certain height, against the current of the
most powerful winds, and thus keep up an alternate flux and reflux,
which would always appear more sensibly in the extremities and bays of
the two lakes; and with something like regularity, as to the periods of
oscillation; the velocity of the water, however, being governed by the
varying degrees of the force of the winds.’

_Lake St. Clair_ lies about half way between Lakes Huron and Erie, and
is about ninety miles in circumference. It receives the waters of the
three great lakes, Superior, Michigan, and Huron, and discharges them
through the river or strait called Detroit, into Lake Erie. It is of
a circular form, and navigable for large vessels, except a bar of sand
toward the middle, which prevents loaded vessels from passing.

_Lake Erie_ is situated between forty-one and forty-three degrees of
north latitude, and between seventy-nine and eighty-three degrees west
longitude. It is two hundred and eighty miles long; opposite Cleveland,
in the state of Ohio, it is about sixty miles broad, to the eastward
it is above seventy. The average breadth is from fifty to sixty miles;
and its medium depth from forty to one hundred and twenty feet. The
water is pure and wholesome, and abounds with fish; such as sturgeon,
white-fish, trout, and perch. The lake does not freeze in the middle,
but is frequently frozen on both sides; and sometimes in winter, when
the wind is variable, the ice exhibits a singular phenomenon; a south
wind blows it all to the Canada shore, and a north wind again dislodges
it, and brings it back to the American side. There are a number of
islands in the west end of the lake, containing from eight hundred to
two thousand acres of land, and the scenery amongst them is charming;
but all these islands are so infested with snakes, that in the height
of summer it is really dangerous to land. This is the more to be
regretted, as the fine timber which grows upon them indicates that
the soil must be uncommonly fertile. But, in defiance of the snakes,
many of the islands are rapidly settling, and are found to be very
healthy and agreeable places of residence. This and the other lakes are
navigated by vessels of from seventy to eighty tons, which carry goods
and provisions as far as the head of Lake Superior, and bring back
furs and peltry. The navigation is good through the whole distance,
except in Lake St. Clair, where the water is shallow, and vessels are
sometimes obliged to lighten.

_Lake Ontario_ is situated between forty-three and forty-four degrees
of north latitude, and between seventy-six and eighty degrees west
longitude. It is about two hundred miles in length and forty in width;
its form nearly oval, and its circumference about six hundred miles.
It abounds with fish of an excellent flavor, among which are the
Oswego bass, weighing three or four pounds. Near the south-east part
it receives the waters of the Oswego river, and on the north-east it
discharges itself into the St. Lawrence. It is never entirely closed by
ice, and is computed from some soundings to be five hundred feet deep.
The _Ridge Road_, or _Alluvial Way_, is a remarkable ridge extending
along the south shore of this lake, from Rochester on the Gennessee
to Lewiston on the river Niagara, eighty-seven miles. It is composed
of common beach sand and gravel stones worn smooth, and these are
intermixed with small shells. Its general width is from four to eight
rods, and it is raised in the middle with a handsome crowning arch,
from six to ten feet. Its general surface preserves a very uniform
level, bring raised to meet the unevenness of the ground which it
covers. At the rivers Gennessee and Niagara, its elevation is about
one hundred and twenty or thirty feet; and this is its elevation above
Lake Ontario, from which it is distant between six and ten miles. There
seems to be no way of accounting for this ridge, without supposing that
the surface of Lake Ontario was one hundred and thirty feet higher at
some former period than it is at present. There is a similar ridge for
one hundred and twenty miles, on the south side of Lake Erie.

_Lake Champlain_ lies between the states of New York and Vermont,
and communicates with Lower Canada by the river Sorelle, which falls
into the St. Lawrence forty-five miles below Montreal. It is about one
hundred and twenty miles in length, and of various breadths: for the
first thirty miles, that is, from South river to Crown Point, it is
nowhere above two miles wide; beyond this, for the distance of twelve
miles, it is five or six miles across, it then narrows, and again
at the end of a few miles expands. That part called the Broad Lake,
commences about twenty-five miles north of Crown Point, and is eighteen
miles across in the widest part. Here the lake is interspersed with a
great number of islands, the largest of which, named _South Hero_, is
fifteen miles in length, and averages four in breadth. The soil of this
island is very fertile, and more than seven hundred people are settled
upon it. The Broad Lake is nearly fifty miles in length, and gradually
narrows till it terminates in the river Sorelle. Lake Champlain, except
at the narrow parts at either end, is in general very deep; in many
places sixty and seventy, and in some even a hundred fathoms. The
scenery along various parts of the lake is extremely beautiful, the
shores being highly ornamented with hanging woods and rocks, and the
mountains on the western side rise up in ranges, one behind the other,
in the most magnificent manner.

Remains of Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point, important positions
during the old French wars, are found at two great bends of this lake.
On the 11th of September, 1814, Commodore McDonough, commander of the
American fleet, gained a complete victory over the British fleet in
Cumberland Bay, directly in front of the town of Plattsburg.

This lake opens a ready communication between New York and the country
bordering on the St. Lawrence. Through the town of Whitehall, which
stands at the head of the lake, a considerable trade is carried on
across Champlain with Lower Canada. On the British end of the lake,
one hundred and fifty miles from Whitehall, stands the garrison town
of St. John’s.

_Lake George_, which discharges itself into Lake Champlain, is the most
beautiful sheet of water in the whole country. It is thirty-six miles
long, and from two to four broad. It is situated in the eastern part of
the state of New-York. Its waters are deep and remarkably transparent,
and from their extreme limpidness, the French gave them the name of the
Lake of the Holy Sacrament. The shores consist of abrupt and shelving
points, and are bounded by two long ranges of mountains,[20] sometimes
rising boldly from the water, and at others ascending with a gentle
and graceful sweep, exhibiting naked and weather-beaten cliffs and wild
forests, intermixed with fine cultivated fields, lawns and pastures.
The village of Caldwell stands on the south-eastern side of the lake,
and is much visited by travellers who come to enjoy the fine scenery in
the neighborhood. A steam-boat plies upon the lake in summer.

The islands of the lake are said to be three hundred and sixty-five
in number. They are of every form and size, and contribute greatly
to the romantic beauty of its surface. Some of them are covered with
trees, others are thinly wooded, and others are abrupt and craggy rocks.
Diamond Island abounds in crystals of quartz. Long Island contains
one hundred acres, and is under cultivation. At a place called the
Narrows, the lake is contracted, and its surface is covered with a most
beautiful cluster of islands which extends for several miles. Some of
them are covered with trees, some show little lawns or spots of grass,
heaps of barren rocks, or gently sloping shores; and most of them are
ornamented with pines, hemlocks, and other tall trees, solitary or
in groups, and disposed with the most charming variety. Sometimes an
island will be found just large enough to support a few fine trees,
or perhaps a single one, while the next may appear like a solid mass
of bushes and wild flowers; near at hand, perhaps, is a third, with a
dark grove of pines, and a decaying old trunk in front of it; and thus,
through every interval between the islands, as you pass along, another
and another labyrinth is opened to view, among little isolated spots
of ground, divided by narrow channels, from which it seems impossible
for a man who has entered them ever to find his way out. Some of the
islands look almost like ships with their masts; and many have an air
of lightness, as if they were sailing upon the lake.

After passing the Narrows, the lake widens again, and the retrospect is
for several miles through that passage with ranges of rounded mountain
summits appearing at a great distance between them. The lake contains
abundance of the finest perch, bass, and other fish; trout are found
in a stream flowing into the southern part. Near the southern shore,
are the ruins of Fort William Henry and Fort George, celebrated in the
early wars of the French.

The state of New-York contains a vast number of small lakes. There
is scarcely a stream in the northern part of this state, but that has
its source in one of these, or runs through several in its progress,
whether to the great lakes or to Hudson’s river. _Seneca Lake_, in
the western part of the state, is about thirty-five miles in length,
from two to four in breadth, and of great depth. The water of this
lake has a gradual periodical rise and fall, once in several years, the
cause of which has never been ascertained. The view from the height of
land between Seneca and the adjacent lakes is extensive and agreeable.
_Cayuga Lake_ is thirty-eight miles long from north to south, and
from one to four miles wide; in some places the shore of this lake
is precipitous, but in general it is a gentle declivity from the
surrounding country to the water. The waters are somewhat shallow, but
sufficient for navigation. Several steam-boats ply upon them, and are
often crowded by water parties in the fine season. A bridge of a mile
in length crosses the north end of the lake.

_Oneida Lake_ is a beautiful sheet of water, twenty miles long and
four broad. It is famous for the abundance and excellence of its
fish. ‘I made a small excursion along the border of this lake,’ says
Mr. Schultz, ‘and although the shore was low, yet I found a firm, dry,
white, sandy beach to walk upon; some other parts of it, however, I
was informed, were low and swampy. I was much amused in the evening
by a singular illumination upon the lake, which I was at first wholly
unable to account for. The water at this part of the lake, it seems, is
very shallow for nearly half a mile from the shore, and being perfectly
transparent, and the bottom a white sand, the smallest object may be
readily distinguished. The Indians have a method of taking salmon and
other fish by means of an iron frame fixed in the bow of the canoe,
projecting forward three or four feet, and elevated about five; upon
this they kindle a bright fire of pine knots, and while one person sits
in the stern with a paddle to impel the boat forward, another stands
in the bow with a sharp spear ready to strike the fish who play about
the light. Ten or twelve of these canoes moving about irregularly on
the lake, on a fine calm evening, with the reflection of their lights,
like so many lines of fire, extending from each object to a centre on
which you stand, afford a most pleasing prospect, and far exceeds in my
opinion the most brilliant display of artificial fireworks.’

Among the smaller lakes of New York are _Onondago, Skeneatiles, Owasco,
Canandaigua, Otsego, Caniadebago, Oswegatchie, Cross, Hemlock, Hanyaga,
Canesus, Crooked, and Chatauque_. The latter is the most western of
all these lakes, near the north-east extremity of Lake Erie; it is only
eight miles distant from its shore, and the descent to Lake Erie is by
an easy slope. From this small lake issues one of the branches of the
Alleghany river, called Conewango, which is navigable for small craft
in all its extent.

New Hampshire contains several fine lakes, the largest of which
is Winnipiseogee, situated east of the centre of the state, and
towards the west side of Strafford county. It is a picturesque sheet
of water, of irregular form, twenty-two miles in length, and varying
in breadth from one to ten miles. Several long capes stretch into
it from both sides, almost dividing it into several parts. From the
southern extremity of this lake to the north-west corner, there is good
navigation in the summer, and generally a good road in the winter; the
lake is frozen about three months in the year, and many sleighs and
teams, from the surrounding towns, cross it on the ice.

Dr. Dwight has described this lake, as it appears from the top of
Red Mountain, with his usual felicity. ‘Immediately at the foot of
the height on which we stood, and in the bottom of the immense valley
below, spread south-eastward the waters of the Winnipiseogee in
complete view; except that one or two of its arms were partially
concealed by intervening peninsulas. A finer object of the same nature
was perhaps never seen. The lakes, which I had visited in my northern
and western excursions, were all of them undivided masses, bordered by
shores comparatively straight. This was, centrally, a vast column, if
I may be allowed the term, twenty-three miles in length, and from six
to eight in breadth, shooting out with inimitable beauty a succession
of arms, some of them not inferior in length to the whole breadth of
the lake. These were fashioned with every elegance of figure, bordered
with the most beautiful winding shores, and studded with a multitude of
islands. Their relative positions, also, could scarcely be more happy.

  Illustration: Winnipiseogee Lake

‘Many of the islands are large, exquisitely fashioned, and arranged
in a manner not less singular than pleasing. As they met the eye, when
surveyed from this summit, they were set in groups on both sides the
great channel, and left this vast field of water unoccupied between
them. Their length was universally at right angles to that of the lake;
and they appeared as if several chains of hills originally crossing the
country in that direction, had, by some convulsion, been merged in the
water so low, that no part of them was left visible, except the oblong
segments of their summits. Of those, which, by their size and situation,
were most conspicuous, I counted forty-five, without attempting to
enumerate the smaller ones, or such as were obscured. The points, which
intrude into this lake, are widely different from those of Lake George;
bold, masculine bluffs, impinging directly upon the water. These, in
several instances, were spacious peninsulas, fitted to become rich and
delightful residences of man, often elevated into handsome hills, and
sloping gracefully into the lake.’

_Umbagog Lake_ is situated partly in the north-east corner of the
state, and is next in size to Winnipiseogee; it lies chiefly in Maine.
The others of New Hampshire are _Ossipee_, _Sanapee_, _Squam_, and
_Newfound_.

There are several large, and a vast number of small lakes in the state
of Maine. _Moosehead Lake_, the largest in New England, is the source
of the east branch of the Kennebeck, and is fifty miles in length by
ten or fifteen in breadth. _Sebago Lake_, in Cumberland county, is
twelve miles long. _Chesuncook Lake_ is twenty miles long and three
broad. In Vermont, besides Lake Champlain, which separates this state
from New York on the west, there are other lakes of minor importance,
deserving of notice. _Lake Memphremagog_, thirty-five miles in length
and three wide, lies chiefly in Canada, and communicates with the
St. Lawrence by the river St. Francis. _Willoughby Lake_, six miles
long and one wide, discharges its waters into Memphremagog by the
river Barton. This lake furnishes fish resembling bass, of an excellent
flavor, weighing from ten to thirty pounds.

A number of small lakes occur towards the sources of the Mississippi.
_Lake Pepin_ is an expansion of this mighty river, about one hundred
miles below the Falls of St. Anthony. It has been very fully and
beautifully described by Mr. Schoolcraft.

‘It is twenty-four miles in length, with a width of from two to
four miles, and is indented with several bays, and prominent points,
which serve to enhance the beauty of the prospect. On the east shore,
there is a lofty range of limestone bluffs, which are much broken
and crumbled, sometimes run into pyramidal peaks, and often present a
character of the utmost sublimity. On the west, there is a high level
prairie, covered with the most luxuriant growth of grass, and nearly
destitute of forest trees. From this plain several conical hills
ascend, which, at a distance, present the appearance of vast artificial
mounds or pyramids, and it is difficult to reconcile their appearance
with the general order of nature, by any other hypothesis. This lake
is beautifully circumscribed by a broad beach of clean washed gravel,
which often extends from the foot of the surrounding highlands, three
or four hundred yards into the lake, forming gravelly points, upon
which there is a delightful walk, and scalloping out the margin of the
lake with the most pleasing irregularity. In walking along these, the
eye is attracted by the various colors of the mineral gems, which are
promiscuously scattered among the water-worn debris of granitic and
other rocks, and the cornelian, agate, and chalcedony, are met with at
every step. The size of these gems is often as large as the egg of the
partridge, and the transparency and beauty of color is only excelled
by the choicest oriental specimens. There is no perceptible current
in the lake, during calm weather, and the water partakes so little
of the turbid character of the lower Mississippi, that objects can be
distinctly seen through it, at the depth of eight or ten feet.

‘In passing though Lake Pepin, our interpreter pointed out to us a
high precipice, on the east shore of the lake, from which an Indian
girl, of the Sioux nation, had, many years ago, precipitated herself
in a fit of disappointed love. She had given her heart, it appears, to
a young chief of her own tribe, who was very much attached to her, but
the alliance was opposed by her parents, who wished her to marry an
old chief, renowned for his wisdom and his influence in the nation. As
the union was insisted upon, and no other way appearing to avoid it,
she determined to sacrifice her life in preference to a violation of
a former vow, and while the preparations for the marriage feast were
going forward, left her father’s cabin, without exciting suspicion, and
before she could be overtaken threw herself from an awful precipice,
and was instantly dashed to a thousand pieces. Such an instance of
sentiment is rarely to be met with among barbarians, and should redeem
the name of this noble-minded girl from oblivion. It was Oola-Ita.’

_Cassina_ or _Red Cedar Lake_ derives some importance from having been
designated as the true source of the Mississippi river. It is about
eight miles long and six in breadth, and presents a beautiful sheet of
transparent water. On its banks are elm, maple, and pine trees, fields
of Indian rice, rushes and reeds; in other places there is an open
beach of clean pebbles. Pike, carp, trout and cat-fish are caught in
its waters. Towards its western extremity is an island covered with
trees, from which it derives its name, though no red cedar is found
around its shores.

_Turtle Lake_, _Little Winnepeg Lake_, _Leech Lake_, _Swan Lake_,
_Sandy Lake_, _Muddy Lake_, _Lake Peckagama_, and _White Fish Lake_,
are all near the source of the Mississippi. A narrow belt of high land
separates Turtle Lake, the most northern source of the Mississippi,
from _Red River Lake_, one of the sources of the Red river which runs
into Hudson’s Bay. _Otter Tail Lake_ is the most southern source of Red
river; and from thence is a portage of only half a mile to a branch of
Raven river, which falls into the Mississippi. The whole tract of high
country, at the sources of the Mississippi and Red river, is full of
marshes, morasses, and small lakes, whose waters afford never failing
supplies to these streams.

The _Lake of the Woods_ is of a circular figure, with a cluster of
islands in the centre. The navigating course through the lake, is
seventy-five miles; but, in direct distance, it is not above two-thirds
of that extent in diameter. Its scenery is wild and romantic in a
high degree. Its surface is covered with islands. From this lake there
is a long succession of small lakes, and numerous portages, to the
north-west end of Lake Superior, the chief of which is _Rainy Lake_.
Two small lakes, _Lake Biddle_, which gives rise to the Big Horn river,
and _Lake Eustis_, which is the source of the Jaune, or Yellow Stone
river, are situated amongst the Rocky Mountains, in west longitude one
hundred and twelve degrees, and north latitude forty-two degrees.

In the state of Louisiana are the lakes of _Maurepas_ and
_Pontchartrain_. The first of these is of a circular figure, twelve
feet deep, and fourteen miles in diameter. In the time of high floods,
it has a communication with the Mississippi, by means of the river
Amité, or Ibberville; and this inundation, which lasts only four
months annually, occasions what is erroneously called the island of
New Orleans, to be then an island in fact, for at no other time is
it environed with water, the city of New Orleans being situated on a
peninsula.[21] Lake Maurepas communicates with Lake Pontchartrain, by
a stream seven miles long, and three hundred yards wide, and divided
by an island extending from the lake to within a mile of Pontchartrain,
into two branches, of which the southern is the safest and deepest.
Lake Pontchartrain is nearly of a circular form, forty miles in its
greatest length, and thirty miles in its greatest breadth, and eighteen
feet deep. From this lake to the sea is ten miles, by a passage called
the _Regolets_, four hundred yards wide, and lined with marshes on each
side.

On the west side of the Mississippi are the lakes of _Great_ and
_Little Barataria_. The _Catahoola Lake_, sixteen miles long, and four
broad, is the source of a stream of the same name, which, uniting with
the Washita and Bayou Tenza rivers, form the Black river. This lake,
during the dry months, is covered with the most luxuriant herbage;
and is then the residence of immense herds of deer, and water-fowl,
which feed on the grass and grain. The other lakes of Louisiana are
_Calcasin_, _Borgne_, and _Bistineau_.


                       GENERAL REMARKS ON LAKES.

  Extensive accumulations of water, surrounded on all sides by the
  land, and having no direct communication with the ocean, or with
  any sea, are called lakes. Lakes are of four distinct kinds. The
  first class comprehends those which have no issue, and which do
  not receive any running water. These are generally very small,
  and do not merit much attention. The second class comprises those
  lakes which have an outlet, but which do not receive any running
  water. These lakes are fed by a multitude of springs; they are
  naturally on great elevations, and are sometimes the sources
  of great rivers. The third class of lakes is very numerous,
  consisting of all such as receive and discharge streams of water.
  Each of the lakes of this class may be looked upon as forming a
  basin for receiving the neighboring waters; they have in general
  only one opening, which almost always takes its name from the
  principal river which flows into it. These lakes have often
  sources of their own, either near the borders, or in their bottom.
  The great lakes of North America are of this class, which in point
  of extent resemble seas, but which, by the flow of a continual
  stream of fresh river water, preserve their clearness and
  sweetness. The fourth class of lakes present phenomena much more
  difficult to explain. We mean those lakes which receive streams of
  water and often great rivers, without having any visible outlet.
  The most celebrated of these is the Caspian Sea; Asia contains
  a great many others besides. South America contains the Lake
  Titicaca, which has no efflux, though it is the receiver of
  another lake. These collections of water appear to belong to the
  interior of great continents; they are placed on elevated plains,
  which have no sensible declivity towards the sea, and thus afford
  no outlet. With respect to those situated in a hot climate,
  evaporation is sufficient to carry off their excess of water.

  The physical phenomena which certain lakes present, have
  always excited the astonishment of the multitude. Those of
  the _periodical lakes_ are the most common. In Europe these are
  nothing but pools, but between the tropics these pools sometimes
  cover spaces of several hundred leagues in length and breadth.
  Such are the famous lakes of Xarages and Paria, inscribed on maps
  of America, and expunged from them by turns; it is probable that
  Africa contains a great many of this description. The depth of
  lakes varies infinitely, and cannot form a subject of general
  physical geography. The popular opinion, however, that there
  are lakes without a bottom, is erroneous. Those which have been
  considered as such, owe this character solely to the existence
  of currents which carry along with them the lead attached to the
  sounding line. The waters of lakes, being derived from springs and
  rivers, partake of their different qualities. There are some lakes,
  whose waters are extremely limpid, such as the lake of Geneva,
  and that of Wetter in Sweden; in the latter, a farthing may be
  perceived at the bottom of the lake, at one hundred and twenty
  feet depth; but the lakes whose waters are motionless, saline, or
  bituminous, may be looked upon as equally unwholesome with those
  of marshes.

            COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE MOST CELEBRATED LAKES.

                          WESTERN HEMISPHERE.

                                                 _Square
                        _Surface._               miles._
              Lake Superior                       22,400
              Lake Michigan                       12,600
              Lake Huron                          15,800
              Lake Erie                            4,800
              Lake Ontario                         4,450
              Great Slave Lake                    12,000
              Great Bear Lake                      4,000
              Winnepeg Lake                        7,200
              Lake Maracaibo                       6,000
              Athabasca Lake                       3,200
              Lake Titicaca                        5,400
              Lake St. George                        340
              Lake Champlain                         350
              Lake of the Woods                    1,600


                          EASTERN HEMISPHERE.

              Lake Tchad, Africa                  11,600
              Lake Ladoga, Russia                  5,200
              Lake Onega, Russia                   3,300
              Wetter Lake, Sweden                    945
              Lake of Constance, Switzerland         456
              Geneva Lake, Switzerland               400
              Loch Lomond, Scotland                   27
              Windermere Lake, England                11
              Killarney Lake, Ireland                 14
              Loch Leven, Scotland                     6




                        CHAPTER VII.――SPRINGS.


                           I. SALT SPRINGS.

IN the United States, salt springs are very numerous. They sometimes
flow naturally, but are generally formed by sinking wells in those
places where salt is known to exist, as in marshes, salt licks, and
other similar places. The country on the Arkansas river furnishes some
salt; it differs however, from most other places in the United States,
by existing in pools, and forming incrustations on the soil of plains
and prairies. There is no salt obtained in Arkansas by boring, the
usual mode of procuring it in other localities. There are numerous salt
springs in Missouri; the working of many of them, however, has been
suspended or relinquished, on account of the reduced price of salt.
Large quantities of the article are still made at Boon’s Lick, and near
St. Genevieve and Herculaneum.

Salt springs are worked at Sciota; the quantity yielded, however, is
comparatively small. There are no salt-works on the Tennessee river;
but on the Holston, one of its tributaries, are extensive salt springs,
situated near Abingdon, Virginia, and known by the name of King’s and
Preston’s salt-works. These springs yield a considerable quantity of
salt. Preston’s works have been rendered less productive, by being
diluted by a spring of fresh water flowing into the midst of the salt.

Salt springs are very numerous in Kentucky, Ohio, and Virginia. Springs
holding salt in solution are common in various parts of the bituminous
coal region of Pennsylvania. They are generally weak near the surface,
but deep springs, disclosed by boring, are often strong. One of these,
which contains as much salt as the ordinary water of Salina, was
discovered by boring, about twenty miles from Montrose, bordering on
the state of New-York. The most considerable saline springs are on
the banks of the Conemaugh and Kiskeminitas, about thirty miles east
of Pittsburg. These rivers for many miles wind through rocky ravines,
bordered by hills of three and four hundred feet in height, that rise
with steep acclivities, presenting mural precipices of grey sand-stone,
in places jutting over the road and torrent. Large quantities of salt
are made at these springs.

In the town of Salina, in the state of New-York, about one hundred
and thirty miles west of Albany, are situated the most extensive works
in the United States for the manufacture of salt from natural brine.
The indications of that substance along the margin of Onondaga Lake
are supposed to have been similar to those found on the salt licks,
so common in the interior of the country, and the knowledge of their
existence was derived from the aborigines.

‘One of the earliest settlers in the county of Onondaga,’ says a
writer in Silliman’s Journal, ‘has informed me, that to procure salt
for his family, about forty years since, he, with an Indian guide in
a canoe, descended a small river that discharges into the lake at its
south-eastern termination, along the shore of which he passed, a short
distance to the right, and, ascending a rivulet (now Mud Creek) a few
rods, arrived at the spring or natural discharge of salt water, which
was obtained by lowering to the bottom, then four or five feet beneath
the surface of the fresh water of the lake, an iron vessel, which,
filling instantly with the heavier fluid, was drawn up and the brine
poured out. In this way, he got enough to make on the spot, by boiling,
and without any separation of the earthy impurities that were held with
the salt in solution, a small quantity of brownish colored and very
impure salt. Since that time other springs have been discovered at
various and almost opposite points on the shores of the lake, and many
wells have been sunk to procure brine for the manufactories at the
villages of Liverpool, Salina, Syracuse, and Geddesburg. The wells
did not exceed eighteen feet in depth, and in the strength of the
water which they respectively afforded there was great difference,
which varied much with the seasons, with this remarkable circumstance,
that it sometimes diminished fifteen to twenty per cent., and in some
instances, one third, as the adjoining lands, on the advance of summer,
became drained; and the lake, which in the spring overflowed the wells,
had subsided six or eight feet.’ The salt springs of Salina are found
on the margin of an extensive marsh.[22]


                         II. MINERAL SPRINGS.

The mineral springs in the state of New York, in excellence and
variety, are unsurpassed in any part of the world. The most famous are
called by the general name of the _Saratoga_ and _Ballston Springs_,
and are embraced in an extent of about twelve miles in the county
of Saratoga. The first spring discovered in the neighborhood of
Ballston stands on a flat. It formerly flowed out of a common barrel,
sunk around it, without any other protection from the invasion of
cattle, who often slacked their thirst in its fountain. Afterwards the
liberality of the citizens was displayed in a marble curb and flagging,
and a handsome iron railing. The curb and flagging were finally removed,
leaving the railing, which still serves the purposes of ornament and
protection. The spring flows now, probably from the place where it
originally issued, some feet below the surrounding surface, which has
been elevated by additions of earth, for the purpose of improving the
road in which it stands.

Near this spring, in boring about six or eight years ago, an excellent
mineral fountain was discovered at a considerable depth beneath the
surface. Its qualities are said to be superior to those of the spring
already mentioned, and, by many, its waters are preferred to any other
in the village.

The _United States’ Spring_ is situated at the east end of the
village. Near this fountain, a large and commodious bathing-house has
been erected, to which, not only the waters of this, but of a number
of other adjacent springs, are tributary, for the purpose of bathing.
Between the springs already mentioned, there was discovered in the
summer of 1817, a mineral spring, called the Washington Fountain. This
latter spring rose on the margin of the creek in front of the factory
building; it flowed through a curb twenty-eight feet in length, sunk
to the depth of twenty-three feet, and was liberated at the top in the
form of a beautiful _jet d’eau_; but the spring disappeared in 1821.
Numerous attempts have since been made to recover it, but they have
proved fruitless. The principal ingredients of these waters consist
of muriate of soda, carbonate of soda, carbonate of lime, carbonate
of magnesia, and carbonate of iron; all of which, in a greater or less
degree, enter into the composition of the waters, both here and at
Saratoga.

The justly celebrated springs of Saratoga are about six miles
north-east of Ballston Spa. They are situated on the border of a
valley, which bounds the village on the east, and form the continuation
of a series of springs which first appear in Ballston about twelve
miles to the south, and extend easterly in a semicircular line to the
Quaker village. In the immediate neighborhood are about a dozen springs,
the most celebrated of which are the Congress, the High Rock, the Flat
Rock, the Hamilton, the Washington, the Columbian and the President. A
cluster, known by the name of the Ten Springs, is found at the distance
of a mile to the eastward.

The _Congress Spring_ is situated at the south end of the village. It
was first discovered about thirty years since, issuing from a crevice
in the rock, a few feet from its present location. Here it flowed for
a number of years, until an attempt to improve the surface around it
produced an accidental obstruction of its waters, which afterwards made
their appearance at the place where they now flow. It is inclosed by
a tube sunk into the earth to the distance of twelve or fourteen feet,
which secures it from the water of the stream, adjoining to which it
is situated. Besides a handsome inclosure and platform for promenading,
the proprietor has thrown an awning over the spring for the convenience
of visitors.

The _High Rock_ is situated on the west side of the valley, skirting
the east side of the village, about half a mile north of the Congress.
The rock inclosing this spring is in the shape of a cone, nine feet
in diameter at its base, and five feet in height. It seems to have
been formed by a concretion of particles thrown up by the water, which
formerly flowed over its summit, through an aperture of about twelve
inches in diameter, regularly diverging from the top of the cone to its
base. This spring was visited in the year 1767 by Sir William Johnson,
but was known long before by the Indians, who were first led to it,
either by accident or by the frequent footsteps of beasts, attracted
thither by the saline properties of the water. A building was erected
near the spot previous to the revolutionary war, afterwards abandoned,
and again resumed; since which, the usefulness of the water has, from
time to time, occasioned frequent settlements within its vicinity.
The water now rises within two feet of the summit, and a common notion
prevails that it has found a passage through a fissure of the rock,
occasioned by the fall of a tree; since which event, it has ceased to
flow over its brink.

Between the Red spring in the upper village, and the Washington in
the south part of the lower village, are situated most of the other
mineral springs in which this place abounds. At three of the principal
springs, the Hamilton, Monroe and Washington, large and convenient
bathing-houses have been erected, which are the constant resort for
pleasure as well as health, during the warm season.

The mineral waters, both at Ballston and Saratoga, are supposed to be
the product of the same great laboratory, and they all possess nearly
the same properties, varying only as to the quantity of the different
articles held in solution. They are denominated acidulous saline and
acidulous chalybeate. Of the former, are the Congress, (which holds
the first rank,) the Hamilton, High Rock, and President, at Saratoga;
and of the latter, are the Columbian, Flat Rock, and Washington,
at Saratoga, and the Old Spring and United States, at Ballston. The
waters contain muriate of soda, hydriodate of soda, carbonate of soda,
carbonate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, oxide of iron, and some of
them a minute quantity of silica alumina. Large quantities of carbonic
acid gas are also contained in the waters, giving to them a sparkling
and lively appearance. The Congress, in particular, the moment it is
dipped, contains nearly one half more than its bulk of gas; a quantity
unprecedented in any natural waters elsewhere discovered.

Doctor Steel, in his geological report of the county of Saratoga,
published a few years since, remarks, that ‘the temperature of the
water in all these wells is about the same, ranging from forty-eight
to fifty-two degrees on Fahrenheit’s scale; and they suffer no sensible
alteration from any variation in the temperature of the atmosphere;
neither do the variations of the seasons appear to have much effect
on the quantity of water produced.

‘The waters are remarkably limpid, and when first dipped sparkle with
all the life of good champaigne. The saline waters bear bottling very
well, particularly the Congress, immense quantities of which are put up
in this way and transported to various parts of the world; not, however,
without a considerable loss of its gaseous property, which renders its
taste much more insipid than when drank at the well. The chalybeate
water is likewise put up in bottles for transportation, but a very
trifling loss of its gas produces an immediate precipitation of its
iron; and hence this water when it has been bottled for some time,
frequently becomes turbid, and finally loses every trace of iron; this
substance fixing itself to the walls of the bottle.

‘The most prominent and perceptible effects of these waters, when
taken into the stomach, are _cathartic_, _diuretic_, and _tonic_. They
are much used in a great variety of complaints; but the diseases in
which they are most efficacious, are, jaundice and bilious affections
generally, dyspepsia, habitual costiveness, hypochondriacal complaints,
depraved appetite, calculous and nephritic complaints, phagedenic or
ill-conditioned ulcers, cutaneous eruptions, chronic rheumatism, some
species or states of gout, some species of dropsy, scrofula, paralysis,
scorbutic affections and old scorbutic ulcers, amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea,
and chlorosis. In phthisis, and indeed all other pulmonary affections
arising from primary diseases of the lungs, the waters are manifestly
injurious, and evidently tend to increase the violence of the disease.

‘Much interest has been excited on the subject of the source of
these singular waters; but no researches have as yet unfolded the
mystery. The large proportion of common salt found among their
constituent properties, may be accounted for without much difficulty;
all the salt springs of Europe, as well as those of America, being
found in geological situations exactly corresponding to these. But
the production of the unexampled quantity of carbonic acid gas, the
medium through which the other articles are held in solution, is yet,
and probably will remain, a subject of mere speculation. The low and
regular temperature of the water seems to forbid the idea, that it is
the effect of subterranean heat, as many have supposed, and the total
absence of any mineral acid, excepting the muriatic, which is combined
with soda, does away the possibility of its being the effect of any
combination of that kind. Its production is therefore truly
unaccountable.’[23]

At Albany, in the summer of 1826, in boring for pure water for a
brewery, a mineral spring was accidentally opened. The sensible
qualities of this water have a great resemblance to those of the
Congress Spring at Saratoga, but those who are acquainted with it,
think it by no means so stimulating. Its temperature is uniformly
from fifty-one to fifty-two degrees of Fahrenheit, at all seasons
of the year; its specific gravity, when taken with great care, and
after repeated trials, was found to be as one thousand and ten to one
thousand. The taste of the water is purely saline, somewhat pungent,
and not at all disagreeable; it has no sensible chalybeate taste, and
no perceptible smell, which could lead to the suspicion of its holding
sulphuretted hydrogen gas in solution.

_New Lebanon Spring_ is situated in Columbia county, New-York about
twenty-four miles south-east of Albany. It is a very remarkable
fountain, issuing from a high hill. The water boils up in a space of
ten feet wide by three and a half deep, and is so perfectly clear that
the smallest objects may be seen at the bottom of the spring. Much
gas issues from the pebbles and sand, and keeps the water in constant
and pleasing agitation. The fountain is very copious, and more than
eighteen barrels of water are discharged in a minute. This supply is
not only sufficient to furnish the baths abundantly, but turns the
wheels of several mills. The quantity of water does not perceptibly
vary at any season; its temperature is uniformly seventy-three degrees
of Fahrenheit. The water is without taste or odor, is very soft, is
used for all culinary and domestic purposes, and differs but little
from pure mountain water, except in its remarkable temperature. It is
found very useful in salt rheums, and other cutaneous affections; it
augments the appetite, and sometimes acts as a cathartic. For those who
wish to enjoy fine rural scenery, bold, picturesque, and beautiful, and
such advantages to health as this copious fountain presents, nothing
can be better in its kind than New Lebanon.

The _Bedford Springs_ rise near a romantic and frequented village
of that name, situated among the mountains in the southern part of
Pennsylvania. They rise from a limestone rock at the base of a hill.
The water is pleasant and cold, and without any perceptible odor;
the iron, lime, and magnesia, with which it is impregnated, render it
useful in chronic and cutaneous disorders. Mineral springs abound among
the mountains in the central parts of Virginia. The _Yellow Springs_,
near the falls of the Little Miami, in Ohio, are esteemed for their
medicinal properties; the water is a strong chalybeate. The country
about them possesses much attraction in point of scenery, and is
unusually salubrious.

Florida is remarkable for the large number of its springs; a substratum
of soft and cavernous stone appearing to extend over the whole country,
admitting the courses of subterraneous brooks, which burst out at
frequent intervals in the form of springs. The most remarkable of these
is the fountain of Walkulla river, twelve miles from Tallahassee. It is
so large as to be navigable by boats directly below its sources. About
a mile from its head-waters the channel becomes choked with weeds, but
suddenly breaks on our view in the shape of a circular lake, that has
been sounded with a line of two hundred and fifty fathoms. It is clear
as crystal, and has the cerulean tinge which mark the waters of the
gulf. This hue is attributed to the presence of the sulphuret of lime.

‘To a person placed in a skiff,’ says Mr. Flint, ‘in the centre
of this splendid fountain basin, the appearance of the mild azure
vault above, and the transparent depth below, on which the floating
clouds and the blue concave above are painted, and repeated with an
indescribable softness, create a kind of pleasing dizziness, and a
novel train of sensations, among which the most distinguishable is a
feeling, as if suspended between two firmaments. The impression only
ceases, when the boat approaches the edge of the basin near enough to
enable you to perceive the outlines of the neighboring trees pictured
on the margin of the basin. It has been asserted, that limestone
water, in its utmost purity, has less refractive powers for light, than
freestone water. The water of this vast spring, even in this sultry
climate, has a coldness almost like ice-water. The water, probably
from the pressure of the sulphuret of lime, is slightly nauseous to
the taste. Beautiful hammock lands rise from the northern acclivity of
this basin. It was the site of the English factory in former days. Here
resided the famous Ambrister. The force, which throws up this vast mass
of waters from its subterranean fountains, may be imagined, when we
see this pellucid water swelling up from the depths, as though it were
a cauldron of boiling water. It is twelve miles from St. Marks, and
twenty from the ocean.’


                         III. BURNING SPRINGS.

Burning springs, or springs of water charged with inflammable gas,
are found in many places in the western part of the state of New-York,
chiefly near Canandaigua Lake. Their positions are known by little
hillocks of a dark bituminous mould, through which an inflammable
gas escapes to the surface. The following description is taken from
a Canandaigua Journal.

‘These springs are found in Bristol, Middlesex, and Canandaigua. The
former are situated in a ravine on the west side of Bristol Hollow,
about half a mile from the north Presbyterian meeting-house. The ravine
is formed in clay slate, and a small brook runs through it. The gas
rises through fissures of the slate, from both the margin and the
bed of the brook. Where it rises through the water, it is formed into
bubbles, and flashes only when the flame is applied; but where it rises
directly from the rock, it burns with a steady and beautiful flame,
which continues until extinguished by storms, or by design.

‘The springs in Middlesex are situated from one to two miles
south-westerly from the village of Rushville, along a tract of nearly
a mile in length, partly at the bottom of the valley called Federal
Hollow, and partly at an elevation of forty or fifty feet on the south
side of it.

‘The latter have been discovered within a few years, in a field which
had been long cleared, and are very numerous. Their places are known
by little hillocks of a few feet in diameter, and a few inches high,
formed of a dark bituminous mould, which seems principally to have been
deposited by the gas, and through which it finds its way to the surface,
in one or more currents. These currents of gas may be set on fire, and
will burn with a steady flame. In winter they form openings through
the snow, and being set on fire, exhibit the novel and interesting
phenomenon of a steady and lively flame in contact with nothing
but snow. In very cold weather, it is said, tubes of ice are formed
round these currents of gas, (probably from the freezing of the water
contained in it,) which sometimes rises to the height of two or three
feet, the gas issuing from their tops; the whole, when lighted in a
still evening, presenting an appearance even more beautiful than the
former.

‘Experiments made with the gas seem to prove, that it consists
principally of a mixture of the light and heavy carburetted hydrogen
gases, the former having greatly the preponderance; and that it
contains a small proportion of carbonic acid gas. It seems also to hold
a little oily or bituminous matter in solution. It burns with a lambent,
yellowish flame, scarcely inclining to red, with small scintillations
of a bright red at its base. It has the odor of pitcoal. It produces
no smoke, but deposits, while burning, a small quantity of bituminous
lampblack. It is remarkable that the hillocks, through which the
gas rises, are totally destitute of vegetation. Whether the gas is
directly deleterious to vegetable life, or indirectly, by interrupting
the contact of the air of the atmosphere, it is certain that no plant
can sustain life within the circle of its influence.

‘It is well known that this gas is found abundantly in coal mines; and
being accidentally set on fire, mixed as it is in those mines with the
air of the atmosphere, has many times caused terrible and destructive
explosions. The writer cannot learn that it has ever been known to be
generated in the earth, except in the presence of coal; and hence the
inference is strong that it proceeds from coal.’

There is a burning spring much resorted to by travellers, at the
distance of about two miles from Niagara Falls. At Dunkirk, on Lake
Erie, there are marshy spots which emit gas, that has been used for
lighting some of the houses in the village.


                       IV. WARM AND HOT SPRINGS.

The _Warm Springs_ of Arkansas territory are among the most interesting
curiosities of the country. They are in great numbers. One of them
emits a vast quantity of water. The ordinary temperature is that of
boiling water. When the season is dry, and the volume of water emitted
somewhat diminished, the temperature of the water increases. The waters
are remarkably limpid and pure; and are used by the people, who resort
there for health, for culinary purposes. They have been analyzed,
and exhibit no mineral properties beyond common spring water. Their
efficacy then, for they are undoubtedly efficacious to many invalids,
that resort there, results from the shade of adjacent mountains, and
from the cool and oxygenated mountain breeze; the conveniences of warm
and tepid bathing; the novelty of fresh and mountain scenery; and the
necessity of temperance, imposed by the poverty of the country, and
the difficulty of procuring supplies. The cases in which the waters are
supposed to be efficacious, are those of rheumatic affection, general
debility, dyspepsia, and cutaneous complaints. The common supposition,
that they are injurious in pulmonary complaints, seems to be wholly
unfounded. It is a great and increasing resort for invalids from the
lower country, Arkansas, and the different adjoining regions. During
the spring floods of the Washita, a steam-boat can approach within
thirty miles of them. At no great distance from them is a strong
sulphur spring, remarkable for its coldness. In the wild and mountain
scenery of this lonely region, there is much of grandeur and novelty,
to fix the curiosity of the lover of nature.

The _Warm Springs_ near Green Valley, in Virginia, are used for bathing,
and are esteemed valuable in rheumatic complaints. The temperature of
these springs is about ninety-six degrees, and sufficient water issues
from them to turn a mill. The _Bath_, or _Hot Spring_, is about five
miles distant. The stream is small, but the temperature is much greater
than that of the Warm Springs, being one hundred and twelve degrees.
These springs flow into the Jackson, a source of the James river.

The Warm Springs of Buncome county, in North Carolina, are found upon
the margin of a river called the French Broad, about thirty-two miles
from Ashville, and five and a half miles from the Tennessee line.
Several springs have already been discovered, at various distances from
each other, within the extent of a mile. They are generally so near the
bank, that in moderate freshets the river enters them, and it is said
that at a particular spot in the bed of the stream, about ten yards
from the usual bank, there is a constant jet of warm water. The depth
of the river varies from ten to fifteen feet, and in some places it is
even shoaler. The supply of water in all of them is very abundant.

‘The original proprietor of these springs,’ says a writer in the
Journal of Science, ‘informed me, that he supposed the first discovery
of them to have been made about forty years since, at which time this
part of the country was altogether uninhabited, and the persons who
resorted to the waters, had to encamp in their vicinity. He has been
personally acquainted with them, for upwards of twenty years, and made
the first and lowest establishment for bathing, near to a ferry, which
is opposite to his residence. Mr. Nelson further states, that he has
known sundry cases of palsy, rheumatism, and cutaneous affections, &c.
greatly benefited by the internal and external use of the waters. The
large establishment, and the one that is now principally visited, is
seated about half a mile higher up the river, and has at the present
time two large baths, whose temperature at the boils of the springs
is one hundred and four degrees of Fahrenheit; but at the surface the
temperature of the old bath, which is very near to the river, is one
hundred degrees, while that of the new, which is higher up the bank, is
but ninety-four degrees. I was informed that this temperature was much
increased when there was a considerable swell in the river, but I had
no opportunity of witnessing the fact.

‘A smaller stream of water, which is usually limpid and shallow, comes
into the French Broad on its southern side, and separates the first
bathing establishment from that which is now used. The stream affords
the conveniences of a saw, and grist-mill, within a very short distance
of the establishment, and without the necessity of a mill-pond. The
whole are situated in a beautiful and romantic spot upon a large flat,
contiguous to the water, and embosomed in lofty mountains, among which
the river winds, while the valley in this spot appears not to exceed a
mile in width, and is much narrower in all others, both above and below.

‘These mountains seem to consist principally of rocks, of which a
considerable proportion in the immediate vicinity are compact limestone,
both blue and gray. About six miles above the springs there is said to
be a vein of the sulphate of barytes, a specimen of which was given me;
and in the vicinity of the ferry below, there is a cavern of limestone,
which may be penetrated with convenience for thirty yards, and from
the roof of which stalactites are pendant. Near to this cave there is
another, containing a large quantity of yellow ochre.

‘There are said to be mines of cobalt, copper, and iron in the
neighboring mountains, but these are lofty and not very accessible. I
found that there was, from the local circumstances of the establishment,
considerable humidity during the mornings and evenings, and a pretty
high temperature for several hours of the day. There were also sudden
and frequent thunder showers, but these were generally of short
duration. These meteorological observations will perhaps lead to the
conclusion, that this watering-place would not be advisable for persons
laboring under pulmonic or dropsical affections, and I did not learn
that any such had been benefited by their residence.

‘Persons using these waters, are in the habit of drinking from three
to four quarts in a day, and also of bathing twice. They generally
remain in the bath from a half hour to an hour, and find it so pleasant
they are loth to leave it. It was stated to me by a very respectable
gentleman, who has resorted to this watering-place for several summers
past, that after drinking the water freely for several days, it
generally had a brisk cathartic effect for a day or two, and after that
produced no sensible result. This gentleman is afflicted with chronic
rheumatism, and has always obtained decided relief from the long
continued use of the waters, both internally and externally. Upon the
record book of the establishment there are sundry interesting cases
of benefit, imparted to persons laboring under rheumatism, palsy, or
loss of motion from other causes. I am inclined to believe that long
continued bathing in water of such an elevated and constant temperature,
must produce some effect in such cases as have been alluded to,
independent of the mineral ingredients, and, conjoined with them, it
will probably be more efficacious. The healthy, cheap, and plentiful
country, in which the Buncome Springs are situated, the novel and
mountainous scenery and variety of company, present many attractions
to the invalid, the idler, and the curious.’


                      GENERAL REMARKS ON SPRINGS.

  The most common ingredient of mineral and medicinal springs,
  is iron under a variety of forms. But they also often contain
  magnesia, glauber salt, carbonic acid gas, and other substances,
  which, from their combinations, give great diversity to the waters.
  Springs impregnated with sulphur are also common in the vicinity
  of volcanoes, and in countries subject to earthquakes. They are
  usually warm, and the heat is sometimes accompanied by a violent
  ebullition which frequently projects the water to a great height.
  Iceland, the Azores, and various other places, afford striking
  examples of this kind. The celebrated fountain called the _Geyser_,
  in the first of these islands, often propels its contents the
  height of one hundred feet, and sometimes to double that height.

  There are also springs which are inflammable without being hot.
  This generally arises from a quantity of inflammable gas, or
  oily matter, which floats on the surface of the water; as in the
  instance of a brook in the vicinity of _Bergerac_, in the south
  of France, the surface of which may be set on fire by a lighted
  straw. Others, being mixed with bitumen, which often floats on the
  surface, will easily take fire, as at _Baku_, and other places in
  Persia.

  The waters of some springs and lakes have a petrifying, and
  others an incrusting quality. The former is impregnated with
  extremely fine silicious particles, which penetrate the pores of
  the substances immersed in them, and change their nature. This
  property is possessed by Lough Neagh. The Danube and the Pregel
  have also the same quality, but in a less degree. The waters
  which possess the incrusting property operate in a more rapid and
  manifest manner, by depositing the earthy particles they hold in
  solution, on the surfaces of bodies submitted to their action.
  This effect is produced by both hot and cold springs, particularly
  by the former. The matter deposited is usually calcareous, but in
  the instance of the Great Geyser it is silicious.

  Waters holding salt in solution, or muriated waters, as they
  are commonly called, are perhaps the most common of all; but
  they are rarely found in a state of purity. Among the Uralian
  and Carpathian mountains, they are frequent, and in general in
  the zone comprised between the parallels fifty and thirty north
  latitude. More to the north they are rarely found; farther toward
  the south crystallized salt is abundant in certain regions, as in
  the great desert of Africa; but we find only a few salt springs
  there.




                        CHAPTER VIII.――CAVERNS.


THE most celebrated cave in the United States, is that in Rockingham
county, Virginia, known by the name of _Madison’s Cave_. It is in the
heart of a mountain, about two hundred feet high, which is so steep
on one side, that a person standing on the top, might easily throw a
pebble into the river which flows round the base; the opposite side of
it is, however, very easy of ascent, and on this side the path leading
to the cavern runs, excepting for the last twenty yards, when it
suddenly turns along the steep part of the mountain, which is extremely
rugged, and covered with immense rocks and trees from top to bottom.
The mouth of the cavern, on this steep side, about two thirds of the
way up, is guarded by a huge pendant stone, which seems ready to fall
every instant; it is impossible to stoop under it and not reflect with
a degree of awe, that, were it to drop, nothing could save you from
perishing within the dreary walls of that mansion to which it affords
an entrance. The description which follows, is from the Travels of
Mr. Weld.

‘Preparatory to entering, the guide, whom I had procured from a
neighboring house, lighted the ends of three or four splinters of pitch
pine, a large bundle of which he had brought with him: they burn out
very fast, but while they last are most excellent torches. The fire he
brought along with him, by the means of a bit of green hickory wood,
which, when once lighted, will burn slowly without any blaze, till the
whole is consumed.

‘The first apartment you enter is about twenty-five feet high, and
fifteen broad, and extends a considerable way to the right and left,
the floor ascending toward the former; here it is very moist, from the
quantity of water continually trickling from the roof. Fahrenheit’s
thermometer, which stood at sixty-seven degrees in the air, fell to
sixty-one degrees in this room. A few yards to the left, on the side
opposite to you on entering, a passage presents itself, which leads
to a sort of anti-chamber, from whence you proceed to the sound room,
so named from the prodigious reverberation of the sound of a voice
or musical instrument on the inside. This room is about twenty feet
square; it is arched at the top, and the sides of it as well as of
the apartment which you first enter, are beautifully ornamented with
stalactites. Returning from hence into the anti-chamber, and afterwards
taking two or three turns to the right and left, you enter a long
passage about thirteen feet wide, and, perhaps, about fifteen feet
in height, perpendicularly; but if it was measured from the floor to
the highest part of the roof obliquely, the distance would be found
much greater, as the walls on both sides slope very considerably, and
finally meet at the top.

‘This passage descends very rapidly, and is, I should suppose,
about sixty yards long. Towards the end it narrows considerably, and
terminates in a pool of clear water, about three or four feet deep.
How far this pool extends, it is impossible to say. A canoe was once
brought down by a party for the purpose of examination, but they said,
that after proceeding a little way the canoe would not float, and they
were forced to return. Their fears most probably led them to fancy so.
I fired a pistol with a ball over the water, but the report was echoed
from the after part of the cavern, and not from the part beyond the
water, so that I should not suppose the passage extended much farther
than could be traced with the eye. The walls of this passage consist
of a solid rock of limestone on each side, which appears to have been
separated by some convulsion. The floor is of a deep sandy earth, and
it has repeatedly been dug up for the purpose of getting salt-petre,
with which the earth is strongly impregnated. The earth, after being
dug up, is mixed with water, and when the grosser particles fall to
the bottom, the water is drawn off and evaporated; from the residue
the salt-petre is procured. There are many other caverns in this
neighborhood; and also farther to the westward in Virginia; from all
of them great quantities of salt-petre are thus obtained. The gunpowder
made with it, in the back country forms a principal article of commerce,
and is sent to Philadelphia in exchange for European manufactures.

‘About two thirds of the way down this long passage just described, is
a large aperture in the wall on the right, leading to another apartment,
the bottom of which is about ten feet below the floor of the passage,
and it is no easy matter to get down into it, as the sides are very
steep and extremely slippery. This is the largest and most beautiful
room in the whole cavern; it is somewhat of an oval form, about sixty
feet in length, thirty in breadth, and in some parts nearly fifty feet
high. The petrifactions formed by the water dropping from above are
most beautiful, and hang down from the ceiling in the form of elegant
drapery, the folds of which are similar to what those of large blankets
or carpets would be, if suspended by one corner in a lofty room. If
struck with a stick, a deep hollow sound is produced, which echoes
through the vaults of the cavern.

‘In other parts of this room the petrifactions have commenced at the
bottom, and formed in pillars of different heights; some of them reach
nearly to the roof. If you go to a remote part of this apartment, and
leave a person with a lighted torch moving about amidst these pillars,
a thousand imaginary forms present themselves, and you might almost
fancy yourself in the infernal regions, with spectres and monsters on
every side. The floor of this room slopes down gradually from one end
to the other, and terminates in a pool of water, which appears to be on
a level with that at the end of the long passage; from their situation,
it is most probable that they communicate together. The thermometer
which I had with me stood in the remotest part of this chamber, at
fifty-five degrees. From hence we returned to the mouth of the cavern,
and on coming to the light it appeared as if we had really been in the
infernal regions, for our faces, hands, and clothes were covered with
soot from the smoke of the pine torches which are so often carried in.
The smoke from the pitch-pine is particularly thick and heavy. Before
this cave was much visited, and the walls blackened with smoke, its
beauty, I was told by some of the old inhabitants, was great indeed;
for the petrifactions on the roof and walls are all of a dead white
kind.’

_Wyer’s Cave_ is situated in the same county with the preceding, and
is equally remarkable. Its entrance is narrow and difficult, and when
first discovered was impeded by perpendicular columns of stalactites,
which have since been removed. After advancing at first in a horizontal
course, we descend into an echoing cavern, by a ladder fifteen or
twenty feet in length. Over our heads hang silvery white stalactites,
while we are surrounded by pillars of stalagmites, and rugged walls
incrusted with a beautiful brown spar. The floor is composed of ledges
of rocks, and presents rather an uneven pathway.

Advancing through a narrow passage in the rocks, we enter still other
apartments, resembling the first in the beauty of their formations,
but of different shape and extent. The sparry incrustations assume a
thousand fantastic figures, sparkling with light, and more like the
wonders of fairy land, than the original productions of nature. This
cave is a mile and a half in extent, varying in perpendicular height
from three to forty feet, and in breadth from two to thirty. Its
dividing branches are numerous. Blue limestone is the base of the
whole cave; every where covered with incrustations of carbonates.
In some places the uneven sides of the rocks are quite covered with
white crystals of the carbonate of lime, and appear like banks of salt.
Sometimes the pavement sparkles as a floor of diamonds; and again the
pathway is pebbled, and resembles the deserted bed of a river. It is
impossible to convey any idea of the number and variety of shapes which
the stalactites assume; resembling every thing in nature, and in the
worlds of imagination, they are still unlike every thing but themselves.

The _Nicojack Cave_ is situated in the Cherokee country, at Nicojack,
the north-western angle in the map of Georgia. We believe it was first
fully described by the Rev. E. Cornelius. It is twenty miles south-west
of the Look-Out Mountain, and half a mile from the south bank of the
Tennessee river. The Raccoon Mountain, in which it is situated, here
fronts to the north-east. Immense layers of horizontal limestone form a
precipice of considerable height. In this precipice the cave commences;
not however with an opening of a few feet, as is common; but with a
mouth fifty feet high, and one hundred and sixty wide. Its roof is
formed by a solid and regular layer of limestone, having no support
but the sides of the cave, and as level as the floor of a house. The
entrance is partly obstructed by piles of fallen rocks, which appear
to have been dislodged by some great convulsion. From its entrance,
the cave consists chiefly of one grand excavation through the rocks,
preserving for a great distance the same dimensions as at its mouth.

What is more remarkable than all, it forms for the whole distance
it has yet been explored, a walled and vaulted passage for a stream
of cool and limpid water, which, where it leaves the cave, is six
feet deep and sixty feet wide. A few years since, Col. James Ore, of
Tennessee, commencing early in the morning, followed the course of this
creek in a canoe, for three miles. He then came to a fall of water, and
was obliged to return, without making any further discovery. Whether
he penetrated three miles of the cave or not, it is a fact he did not
return till the evening, having been busily engaged in his subterranean
voyage for twelve hours. He stated that the course of the cave, after
proceeding some way to the south-west, became south; and south-east by
south, the remaining distance.

There is a remarkable cave or grotto, situated on a bluff of limestone,
on the south bank of the Holston river, in East Tennessee, which has
been well described by Mr. Kain, in an article in Silliman’s Journal.
The bluff is perhaps one hundred feet high, and fifty wide. The grotto
is a large natural excavation of the rock, sixty feet high and thirty
feet wide. It is very irregular, and to the very top bears marks of the
attrition of waves. The river to have been so high, must have covered
the valley through which it now winds its quiet way. The excavation
gradually diminishes in size as you proceed backward, till one hundred
feet from the entrance it terminates. A remarkable projection of the
rock divides the back part into two stories.

This grotto, whose walls are hung with ivy, and the bluff crowned with
cedars, and surrounded by an aged forest, on which the vine clambers
most luxuriantly, viewed from the river which winds slowly around it,
and reflects its image, is more than beautiful: it is even venerable.
But what renders it most interesting to many visitors, is a number of
rude paintings, which were, as tradition reports, left on it by the
Cherokee Indians. These Indians are known to have made this cave a
resting place as they passed up and down the river Holston. These
paintings are still distinct, though they have faded somewhat within
my remembrance. They consist of representations of the sun and moon, of
a man, of birds, fishes, &c. They are all of red paint, and resemble,
in this respect, the paintings on Paint Rock, near the warm springs.

_Mammoth Cave_ is situated near the Green river in Kentucky, the
entrance to which is by a pit forty feet deep, and one hundred and
twenty in circumference. At the bottom of this pit is the mouth of
the cave, which is open to the north, and is from forty to fifty feet
in height, and thirty in width, for upwards of forty rods, when it
becomes not more than ten feet wide and five feet high. ‘However,’
says Dr. Wood, ‘this continues but a short distance, when it expands to
thirty or forty feet in width, and is about twenty feet in height, for
about one mile, until you come to the first _hopper_, where salt-petre
is manufactured. Thence it is about forty feet in width, and eighty in
height, till you arrive at the second hopper two miles from the mouth.
The loose limestone has been laid up into handsome walls on either side,
almost the whole distance from the entrance to the second hopper. The
road is hard, and as smooth as a flag pavement. The walls of the cavern
are perpendicular in every passage that I traversed; the arches are
regular in every part, and have bid defiance even to earthquakes. As
you advance into the cave, the avenue leads from the second hopper west
one mile, then south-west to the chief city, which is six miles distant
from the entrance. This avenue is from sixty to one hundred feet high,
and about the same broad, the whole distance from the second hopper,
until you come to the cross-roads or chief city; and is nearly upon
a level, the floor or bottom being covered with loose limestone and
salt-petre earth. When I reached the immense area, (chief city,)
containing upward of eight acres, without a single pillar to support
the arch, which is entire over the whole, I was struck dumb with
astonishment, and can give but a very faint idea of its splendor.
Nothing under heaven can be more sublime and grand than this place,
covered with one solid arch, at least one hundred feet in height, and
to all appearance entire. After entering the chief city, I perceived
five avenues leading out of it from sixty to one hundred feet in width,
and from forty to eighty in height. The walls (all of stone) are arched,
being from forty to eighty feet of perpendicular height, before the
arch commences.

‘The next avenue which I traversed, after cutting arrows on the
stones under our feet, pointing to the mouth of the cave, was one that
led us in a southerly direction for more than two miles. We then left
it, and took another that led us east, then north, more than two miles
farther; and at last, in our windings, were brought out by another
avenue into the chief city again, after having traversed more than
five miles through different avenues. We rested ourselves for a few
minutes on some limestone strata near the centre of this gloomy area,
and having refreshed ourselves, and trimmed our lamps, again took our
departure through an avenue almost due north, and parallel with the
avenue leading from the chief city to the mouth of the cave, which
we continued for more than two miles, when we entered the second city.
This is covered with one arch nearly two hundred feet high in the
centre, and very similar to the chief city, except in the number of
avenues leading from it, this having but two. We passed through it over
a very considerable rise in the centre, and descended through an avenue
bearing to the east about three hundred rods, when we came upon a third
area, about one hundred feet square and fifty in height, which had a
pure and delightful stream of water, issuing from the side of the wall,
about thirty feet high, and which fell upon some broken stones, and
was afterwards entirely lost to our view. After passing this beautiful
sheet of water a few yards, we came to the end of this passage.

‘We then returned about one hundred yards, and entered an avenue
(over a considerable mass of stone) to our right, which led us south,
through an uncommonly black avenue, something more than a mile, when
we ascended a very steep eminence, about sixty yards, which carried us
within the walls of a fourth city, which is not inferior to the second
city, having an arch that covers at least six acres. In this last
avenue, the farther end of which must be at least four miles from the
chief city, and ten from the mouth of the cave, are twenty large piles
of saltpetre earth on one side of the avenue, and broken limestone
heaped up on the other, evidently the work of human hands. I had
expected, from the course of my needle, that this avenue would have
carried us round to the chief city; but was sadly disappointed, when I
found the end a few hundred yards from the fourth city, which caused us
to retrace our steps; and not having been so particular in marking the
different entrances as I ought, we were very much bewildered, and once
completely lost for fifteen or twenty minutes.

‘At length we found our way, and, weary and faint, entered the chief
city at ten at night; however, much fatigued as I was, I determined to
explore the cavern as long as my lights held out. We now entered the
fifth and last avenue from the chief city, which carried us south-east
about nine hundred yards, when we entered the fifth city, whose arch
covers upwards of four acres of level ground, strewed with broken
limestone. Fire beds of uncommon size, with brands of cane lying around
them, are interspersed throughout this city. We crossed over to the
opposite side, and entered an avenue that carried us east about two
hundred and fifty rods; when, finding nothing remarkable in this
passage, we turned back, and crossed a massy pile of limestone in the
mouth of a large avenue, which I noticed but a few yards from this
last-mentioned city as I came out of it. After some difficulty in
passing over this mass of limestone, we entered a large avenue, whose
walls were the most perfect of any that we had seen, running almost due
south for five hundred rods, and very level and straight. When at the
end of this avenue, and while I was sketching a plan of the cave, one
of my guides, who had been some time groping among the broken stones,
called out, requesting me to follow him. I gathered up my papers and
compass, and also giving the guide who sat with me orders to remain
where he was, until we returned, and moreover to keep his lamp in
good order, I followed after the first, who had entered a vertical
passage just large enough to admit his body. We continued to step
from one stone to another, until at last, after much difficulty, from
the smallness of the passage, which is about forty feet in height,
we entered upon the side of a chamber eighteen hundred feet in
circumference, and whose arch is one hundred and fifty feet high in
the centre. After having marked arrows, pointing downwards, upon the
slate-stones around the little passage through which we had winded, we
walked nearly to the centre of this area. It was past midnight when I
entered this chamber of eternal darkness, where “all things are hushed,
and nature’s self lies dead.” I must acknowledge I felt a shivering
horror at my situation, when, I looked back upon the different avenues
through which I had passed, since I entered the cave at eight in
the morning; and “at time of night, when church-yards groan,” to be
buried several miles in the dark recesses of this awful cavern, the
grave, perhaps, of thousands of human beings――gave me no very pleasant
emotions. With the guide who was now with me, I took the only avenue
leading from this chamber, and traversed it for the distance of a mile
in a northerly direction, when my lamps forbade me going any farther,
as they were nearly exhausted. The avenue, or passage, was as large as
any that we had entered; and how far we might have entered, had our
lights held out, is unknown.

‘It is supposed that Green river, a stream navigable several hundred
miles, passes over three branches of this cave. It was nearly one
o’clock in the morning, when we descended the passage of the chimney,
as it is called, to the guide who sat on the rocks. He was quite
alarmed at our long absence, and was heard by us a long time before we
reached the passage to descend to him, hallooing with all his might,
fearing we had lost our track in the ruins above. Very near the
vertical passage, and not far from where I had left my guide sitting,
I found some very beautiful specimens of soda, which I brought out with
me. We returned over piles of saltpetre earth and fire beds, out of one
avenue into another, until at last, with great fatigue and a dim light,
we entered the walls of the chief city; where, for the last time, we
trimmed our lamps, and entered the spacious avenue that lends to the
second hopper. I found, when in the last-mentioned large avenue, or
upper chamber, many curiosities; such as Glauber salts, Epsom salts,
flint, yellow ochre, spar of different kinds, and some petrifactions,
which I brought out together with the mummy, which was found at the
second hopper. We happily arrived at the mouth of the cave at five
in the morning, nearly exhausted and worn down with nineteen hours’
continued fatigue. I have described to you hardly one half of the cave,
as the avenues between the mouth of the cave and the second hopper
have not been named. There is a passage in the main avenue, about sixty
rods from the entrance, like that of a trap-door. By sliding aside a
large flat stone, you can descend sixteen or eighteen feet into a very
narrow defile, where the passage comes upon a level, and winds about
in such a manner us to pass under the main passage, without having
any communication with it; and at last opens into the large passages,
just beyond the second hopper. It is called the Glauber salt room, from
salts of that kind being found there. There is also the sick room, the
bat room, and the flint room, all of which are large, and some of them
quite long. The last that I shall mention is a very winding avenue,
which branches off at the second hopper, running west, and south-west,
for more than two miles. This is called the haunted chamber, from
the echo of the sound made in it. The arch of this avenue is very
beautifully incrusted with limestone spar; and in many places the
columns of spar are truly elegant, extending from the ceiling to the
floor. I discovered in this avenue a very high dome, in or near the
centre of the arch, apparently fifty feet high, hung in rich drapery,
festooned in the most fanciful manner for six or eight feet above the
hangings, and in colors the most rich and brilliant. The columns of
spar, and the stalactites in this chamber, are extremely romantic in
their appearance, with the reflection of one or two lights. There is a
cellar formed of this spar, called Wilkins’s armed chair, which is very
large, standing in the middle of the avenue, and is encircled with many
smaller ones. Columns of spar, fluted and studded with knobs of spar
and stalactites, drapery of various colors, superbly festooned and hung
in the most graceful manner, are shewn with the greatest brilliancy
from the reflection of lamps.

‘A part of the haunted chamber lies directly over the bat room,
which passes under it, without having any connection with it. I was
led into a very narrow defile on the left side of this chamber, and
about a hundred yards from Wilkins’s armed chair, over the side of
a smooth limestone rock, ten or twelve feet, which we passed with
much precaution, for had we slipped from our hold, we had gone to that
“bourne whence no traveller returns,” if I may judge from a cataract of
water, whose dismal sound we heard at a very considerable distance in
this pit, and nearly under us. However, we crossed in safety, clinging
fast to the wall, and winding under the haunted chamber, and through
a very narrow passage for thirty or forty yards, when our course was
west, and the passage twenty or thirty feet in width, and from ten
to eighteen feet high, for more than a mile. The air was pure and
delightful in this, as well as in other parts of the cave. At the
farther end of this avenue, we came upon a reservoir of water, very
clear and delightful to the taste, apparently having neither inlet
nor outlet. Within a few yards of this reservoir of water, on the
right hand of the cave, there is an avenue leading to the north-west.
We had entered it but forty feet, when we came to several columns of
the most brilliant spar, sixty or seventy feet in height, and almost
perpendicular, which stand in basins of water, that comes trickling
down their sides, then passes off silently from the basin, and enters
the cavities of stone, without being seen again. These columns of spar,
and the basins they rest in, for splendor and beauty, surpass every
similar work of art I ever saw. We passed by these columns, and entered
a small but beautiful chamber, whose walls were about twenty feet apart,
and the arch not more than seven feet high, white as white-wash could
have made it; the floor was level as far as I could see, which was not
a great distance, as I found many pit-holes in my path, that appeared
to have been lately sunk, and which induced me to return. We returned
by the beautiful pool of water, which is called the pool of Clitorius,
after the _Fons Clitorius_ of the classics, which was so pure and
delightful to the taste, that, after drinking of it, a person had no
longer a taste for wine. On our way back to the narrow defile, I found
some difficulty in keeping my lights, for the bats were so numerous
and continually in our faces, that it was next to impossible to get
along in safety. I brought this trouble on myself, by my own want
of foresight, for as we were moving on, I noticed a large number of
these bats hanging by their hind legs to the arch, which was not a foot
higher than my head. I took my cane and gave a sweep the whole length
of it, when down they fell; but soon, like so many imps, they tormented
us until we reached the narrow defile, when they left us. We returned
by Wilkins’s armed chair, and back to the second hopper, where I found
the mummy before-mentioned, and which had been placed there by Mr.
Wilkins, for preservation in another cave.’

_Indiana Cave._――In the southern part of Indiana there is a remarkable
cave, which abounds in Epsom Salts, and which is thus described by
Mr. Adams.――‘The hill in which it is situated, is about four hundred
feet high, from the base to the most elevated point, and the prospect
to the south-east, in a clear day, is exceedingly fine, commanding an
extensive view of the hills and valleys bordering on Big Blue river.
The top of the hill is covered principally with oak and chesnut.
The side to the south-east is mantled with cedar. The entrance is
about midway from the base to the summit, and the surface of the cave
preserves in general about that elevation; although I must acknowledge
this to be conjectural, as no experiments have been made with a view
to ascertain the fact. It is probably owing to this middle situation
of the cave, that it is much drier than is common.

‘After entering the cave by an aperture twelve or fifteen feet wide,
and in height, in one place, three or four feet, you descend with easy
and gradual steps into a large and spacious room, which continues about
a quarter of a mile pretty near the same in appearance, varying in
height from eight to thirty feet, and in breadth from ten to twenty. In
this distance the roof is in some places arched, in others a plane, and
in one place, particularly, it resembles an inside view of the roof of
a house. At the distance above-named the cave forks, but the right hand
fork soon terminates, while the left rises by a flight of rocky stairs
nearly ten feet high, into another story, and pursues a course at this
place nearly south-east. Here the roof commences a regular arch, the
height of which from the floor varies from five to eight feet, and the
width of the cave from six to twelve feet――which continues to what is
called the Creeping Place, from the circumstance of having to crawl
ten or twelve feet into the next large room. From this place to the
Pillar, a distance of about one mile and a quarter, the visitor finds
an alternate succession of large and small rooms variously decorated;
sometimes mounting elevated points by gradual or difficult ascents,
and again descending as far below; sometimes travelling on a pavement,
or climbing over huge piles of rocks, detached from the roof by some
convulsion of nature, and thus continues his route until he arrives at
the _Pillar_.

‘The aspect of this large and stately white column, as it heaves in
sight from the dim reflection of the torches, is grand and impressive.
Visitors have seldom pushed their inquiries further than two hundred
or three hundred yards beyond this pillar. This column is about fifteen
feet in diameter, from twenty to thirty feet in height, and regularly
reeded from the top to the bottom. In the vicinity of this spot are
some inferior pillars of the same appearance and texture.

‘I have thus given you an imperfect sketch of the mechanical structure
and appearance of the cave. It only remains to mention its productions.

‘The first in importance is sulphate of magnesia, or Epsom salts,
which, as has been before remarked, abounds throughout this cave in
almost its whole extent, and which, I believe, has no parallel in the
history of that article. This neutral salt is found in a great variety
of forms, and in many different stages of formation, sometimes in lumps,
varying from one to ten pounds in weight. The earth exhibits a shining
appearance, from the numerous particles interspersed through the huge
piles of dirt collected in different parts of the cave. The foregoing
remark applies with truth, not only to the surface, but to three feet
below it. This is the greatest distance hitherto examined. The walls
are covered in different places with the same article, and reproduction
goes on rapidly. With a view to ascertain this fact, I removed from a
particular place every vestige of the salt, and in four or five weeks
the place was covered with small needle-shaped crystals, exhibiting the
appearance of frost.

‘The quality of the salt in this cave is inferior to none, and, when
it takes its proper stand in regular and domestic practice, must be
of national utility. With respect to the resources of this cave, I
will venture to say that every competent judge must pronounce them
inexhaustible. The worst earth that has been tried will yield four
pounds of salt to the bushel, and the best from twenty to twenty-five
pounds.

‘The next production is the nitrate of lime, or saltpetre earth. There
are vast quantities of this earth, and equal in strength to any that
I have ever seen; and when potassium can be more conveniently obtained
than at present, the manufacture of saltpetre must be a lucrative
pursuit. There are also large quantities of the nitrate of allumina
or nitrate of argyl, which will yield as much nitrate of potassium or
saltpetre, in proportion to the quantities of earth, as the nitrate of
lime.

‘The three articles above enumerated are first in quantity and
importance; but there are several others, which deserve notice as
subjects of philosophical curiosity. The sulphate of lime, or plaster
of Paris, is to be seen variously formed; ponderous, crystallized, and
impalpable, or soft, light, and rather spongy. Vestiges of the sulphate
of iron, are also to be seen in one or two places. Small specimens of
the carbonate, and also the nitrate of magnesia, have been found. The
rocks in the cave principally consist of carbonate of lime, or common
limestone.

‘I had almost forgotten to state, that near the forks of the cave are
two specimens of painting, probably of Indian origin. The one appears
to be a savage, with something like a bow in his hand, and furnishes
the hint that it was done when that instrument of death was in use.
The other is so much defaced, that it is impossible to say what it was
intended to represent.’

_Carver’s Cave._――‘About twelve miles below the new garrison at
St. Peter’s,’ says Mr. Schoolcraft, ‘we stopped to examine a remarkable
cavern, on the east banks of the Mississippi, called _Wakon-teebe_, by
the Narcotah or Sioux Indians, but which, in compliment to the memory
of its first European visitor, should be denominated Carver’s Cave.
It is situated in a rock of the most beautiful white sand-stone, at
the head of a small valley about four hundred yards from the banks of
the river. Its mouth is about sixty or seventy feet wide and twenty
in height, but the former soon decreases to about twenty feet, and the
latter to seven. This width gradually lessens as you advance during the
first hundred yards, but the height remains nearly the same, so that
a man can walk without stooping. Then it tapers into a narrow passage,
where it is necessary to creep, which suddenly opens into a spacious
chamber. From this a narrow crevice continues as far as it has been
explored. Some of our party pursued it four hundred yards by the light
of wax candles. It is very damp and chilly. There is a handsome stream
of pure water running from its mouth. The temperature of the air in
the cave was fifty-four degrees, that of the water forty-seven. As it
is situated in sand-stone rock, it affords no stalactites, or spars.
Some parts of the rock at the mouth are colored green, probably by the
carbonate of copper. The bed of the brook is composed of a crystalline
sand of the most snowy whiteness, originating from the disintegration
of the surrounding walls. Scattered over this are a number of small
pebbles, of so intensely black a color, as to create a pleasing
contrast, when viewed through the medium of a clear stream. These, on
examination, proved to be masses of limestone, granite, and quartz,
colored externally by a thin deposit of earthy matter, and I conclude
the color to proceed from the gallic acid, with which the water,
percolating into the cavern, through the beds of oak leaves of the
superincumbent forest, may be partially saturated. This cave has been
visited by most persons who have passed up the Mississippi, if we may
judge from the number of names found upon the walls. Among them, we
were informed, was that of Captain Carver, who visited it in 1768, but
we did not observe it. His grant of land from the Indians is dated in
this cave, but the cave itself appears to have undergone a considerable
alteration since that period, for he says that “about twenty feet from
the entrance begins a lake, the water of which is transparent, and
extends to an unsearchable distance.” As the rock is of a very friable
nature, and easily acted upon by running water, it is probable that the
lake has been discharged, thus enlarging the boundaries of the cave.
He also remarks, “at a little distance from this dreary cavern, is
the burying-place of several bands of the Nawdowessie (Sioux) Indians.
Though these people have no fixed residence, living in tents, and
abiding but a few months in one spot, yet they always bring the bones
of their dead to this place; which they take the opportunity of doing
when the chiefs meet to hold their councils, and to settle the public
affairs for the ensuing summer.” We noticed no bones or traces of
interment about the cave, but perhaps a further examination of the
adjacent region would have led to a discovery.’

In Kentucky and Tennessee, caves are numerous, which appear to have
been used for burial-places. In the county of Ulster, in New York, is
a cave three quarters of a mile in length, caused by a stream running
under ground. The rock which constitutes the roof and sides of the
cave is a dark colored limestone, containing impressions of shells,
calcareous spar, and beautiful white and yellow stalactites. At one
end is a fall of water, the depth of which has not been fathomed. At
Rhinebeck, near the Hudson, is a cave in which a narrow entrance leads
to several spacious rooms, abounding with columns of stalactites.
At Chester, in Warren county, there is a stream which passes under
a natural bridge, and among many deep caverns; the waters enter in
two streams, unite in the subterranean passage, and issue in a single
current under a precipice sixty feet in height.

In the Laurel Mountain, in Pennsylvania, is a cavern with a very narrow
entrance, and various winding passages, which has been traversed two
miles. It is formed of a soft sandstone, and its roof is covered with
millions of bats. At Durham in Bucks county, on the Delaware, is a cave
in the limestone rock, abounding with pools and rivulets of water. At
Carlisle is another somewhat similar, in which human bones have been
discovered.


                       GENERAL REMARKS ON CAVES.

  Caves or grottoes are natural fissures in the solid crust of
  the earth, with walls and a natural roof. They are sometimes of
  immense extent and depth, and frequently the first excavation
  is only the vestibule to another much larger and deeper. Eldon
  Hole, in Derbyshire, has been sounded with a line of more than
  nine thousand six hundred feet, but without reaching its bottom.
  A cavern near Frederickshall, Norway, has been estimated at eleven
  thousand feet in depth. Many caverns are remarkable for various
  natural curiosities. The most interesting are those in which the
  dropping of water has caused the formation of stalactites, either
  suspended from the vaults of the caverns in the shape of long
  crystals, or assuming fantastic forms on the floor and along
  the wall. Antiparos and Peak caves in Derbyshire, England, owe
  their celebrity to those formations. Other caves are strewed with
  petrified bones, and have evidently been the burial-places of
  generations of human beings.

  There are caverns which contain deep pits of water, or wells,
  of such an extent as to acquire the name of subterranean lakes.
  In some are the sources, and in others the receptacles, of
  large streams. In Norway you may sometimes walk upon an arched
  calcareous floor, and hear the roar of torrents under your feet.
  In Russia, many caverns have been evidently formed by means of
  water, and even masses of ice.

  Fingal’s Cave in the Isle of Staffa, on the western coast of
  Scotland, is the grandest in the known world. Its sides are formed
  of majestic columns of basalt, which are almost as regular as if
  they had been formed by art. These columns support a lofty roof,
  under which the sea rolls its waves, while the vastness of the
  entrance admits the light of day to the recesses of the cave. The
  origin of these basaltic formations is uncertain.

  The caves of Kirkdale, in England, and Gailenreuth, in Germany,
  are remarkable for the quantities of bones of the elephant,
  rhinoceros, and hyena found in them. The mine of fluor spar, in
  Castleton, Derbyshire, passes through several stalactic caverns.
  Other caverns in England contain subterraneous cascades. In the
  Rock of Gibraltar there are a number of stalactic caverns, of
  which the principal is called St. Michael’s, and is one thousand
  feet above the sea. The most famous caves of Germany are those of
  Bauman and Bielstein, in the Hartz.

  Caves sometimes exhale poisonous vapors. Of these, the most
  remarkable is near Naples, named the Grotto del Cane. In Iceland,
  there are many formed by the lava from its volcanoes. In the
  volcanic country near Rome, are many natural cavities of great
  extent and coolness, which form pleasant places of resort in
  the hot weather. The grottoes in the Cevennes Mountains, in
  France, are both numerous and extensive, and abound in objects
  of curiosity. In South America is the cavern of Guacharo, which
  is said to extend for leagues.




                         CHAPTER IX.――ISLANDS.


MOST of the coast of Maine is thickly strewn with islands. The
largest is _Mount Desert_, on the west side of Frenchman’s Bay; it
is fifteen miles long, and twelve broad. Many fine islands lie in
Penobscot Bay, as _Long Island_, on which is the town of Islesborough;
the _Fox Islands_, containing the town of Vinalhaven; and _Deer Isle_,
on the east side of the bay, about eight miles from Castine.

The _Isles of Shoals_ belong partly to New Hampshire, and partly to
Maine. They lie about eight miles out at sea, between Portsmouth and
Newburyport, and are hardly more than a cluster of rocks rising above
the waters; but they are, on many accounts, worthy of notice. They have
but a thin and barren appearance, yet for more than a century previous
to the revolution they were quite populous, containing at one time
six hundred inhabitants, who found there an advantageous situation
for carrying on fisheries. To this day the best cod in the world are
those which are known in the market as _Isle of Shoals dun fish_.
These islands were discovered by the celebrated Captain Smith in
1614, and called at first Smith’s Isles. The New Hampshire portion
now constitutes the town of Gosport.

In all of them are chasms in the rocks apparently caused by
earthquakes. There is a remarkable chasm on Star Island, where one of
the female inhabitants secreted herself when the islands were invaded,
and the people carried into captivity by the Indians. The largest is
named Hog Island, and contains three hundred and fifty acres; Star
Island has one hundred and fifty, Hayley’s one hundred; they are in
all seven. The inhabitants are about one hundred; they live solely by
fishing, and in connection with those of the shore in their immediate
neighborhood, who follow the same mode of life, are the most rude and
uncivilized beings in New England, except the Indians. They supply the
markets of Newburyport with fish, and have long been known there by the
name of _Algerines_. Efforts have recently been made to improve their
social condition.

In the northern part of Massachusetts, at the mouth of the Merrimack,
lies _Plum Island_, nine miles long and one wide. On the side towards
the ocean it consists of sand hills twenty or thirty feet high, thrown
into a thousand fantastic shapes like snow drifts in a storm. These
hills are covered with low bushes bearing the beach plum, a fruit about
the size of a musket ball, and of a pleasant taste; wild cherries and
grapes also grow in different parts. In autumn it is much frequented
by parties of pleasure from the neighborhood. At the northern extremity
are two lighthouses and a hotel.

_Nantucket_, twenty miles south of the main land at Cape Cod, is an
island of triangular form, about fifteen miles long and eleven broad
in the widest part, containing twenty-nine thousand three hundred and
eighty acres. It is removed at least twenty miles from the nearest
land, and, during some parts of the winter, the water is frozen around
it as far as the eye can reach, for a number of weeks. The climate is
comparatively of an equal temperature. Springs of water on the island
below a certain level have a peculiar taste, and are disagreeable
to those unused to them. The frequency of dense and heavy fogs has
frustrated the attempts made here, to manufacture salt by evaporation
from sea-water.

The inhabitants of this island are a robust and enterprising race,
chiefly seamen and mechanics; and those employed in the whale fishery
are said to be superior to all others; the island, being sandy and
barren, is calculated only for such people as are willing to depend
almost entirely on the ocean for subsistence.[24] The people are mostly
of the society of Friends, and are warmly attached to their island; few
wishing to remove to a more desirable situation.

There is a sand-bar at the entrance of the harbor of Nantucket,
which effectually excludes large vessels, deeply laden. Some attempts
have been recently made to remove this bank, and an appropriation of
twenty-eight thousand dollars was made by government for this purpose;
but the sand removed in summer was more than supplied in winter, and
the project was abandoned. Ships now unlade at Edgartown, Martha’s
Vineyard, and their cargoes are taken in small vessels to the island.
Some months in the year, they can unload at the bar. South-east of the
island, and out of sight of land, lie Nantucket Shoals, a dangerous
reef of sand, fifty miles in extent.

_Martha’s Vineyard_, west of Nantucket, and lying nearer the
continent, is twenty miles long, and ten broad. This island has a
good soil, and in the western part is somewhat elevated; it has many
productive farms, and contains the town of Edgartown, which has a good
harbor. Holmes’s Hole is a safe and commodious harbor in the north
part of the island, much frequented during the winter by inward bound
vessels. The _Elizabeth Islands_ are a chain of sixteen small islands
lying north-west of Martha’s Vineyard, and forming the south-east
side of Buzzard’s Bay; a part of them only are inhabited. They were
discovered by Bartholomew Gosnold, in 1602. A multitude of islands
lie in Boston Bay, many of them very beautiful, but none of sufficient
importance to merit particular description.

_Rhode Island_, in Narraganset Bay, is fifteen miles long from
north-east to south-west, and averages two and a half in width. In its
most flourishing state it was called by travellers the Eden of America.
It has a good soil well cultivated, and an agreeably varied surface,
but it is destitute of trees, the whole island having been laid waste
by the British in the revolutionary war. A mine of anthracite coal has
been wrought to some extent in the north part of the island, but is not
now much esteemed. The town of Newport, in the south-west part, is a
fashionable summer resort.

_Conanicut_ is an island lying on the west side of Rhode Island;
it is eight miles long and about one in breadth. This is also a
beautiful island, and has a fertile soil. At the southern extremity
is a lighthouse. In the same part may be seen the ruins of an ancient
circular fortification, which once defended the passage of the bay.

_Prudence Island_, farther up Narraganset Bay, is six miles in length.
_Block Island_ lies ten miles out at sea, and is eight miles long and
from two to four broad; it has an uneven surface, but produces maize
and other grain. A lighthouse stands upon it. Among the other islands
in Narraganset Bay are Patience, Hope, Dyers’ and Hog Island.

_Long Island_ extends along the coast of Connecticut, but belongs
wholly to New-York. It is one hundred and forty miles long from east
to west, and its average breadth is about ten miles. It is of alluvial
formation, but there is a rocky ridge or spine, extending lengthwise
through it, which presents summits of considerable elevation. On the
south side of the island is Hempstead Plain, an extensive tract of
wild savanna, fifteen miles in length and four in breadth. In favorable
years, the best parts of the island have yielded thirty or forty
bushels of wheat to the acre. In the western parts are many fine
orchards. Deer are found in great numbers in the centre of the island;
the shores abound with the finest oysters.

_Shelter Island_ lies off the east end of Long Island. It contains
about eight thousand acres of varied surface, with a soil generally
light and sandy, but in some parts rich, level, and well cultivated.
_Fisher’s Island_ lies near the east extremity of Long Island; it is
twelve miles long and one wide; the surface is broken, but it affords
a good farm, and its dairies are very fine. _Gardiner’s Island_ is on
the north side of Long Island, and contains about three thousand acres
of valuable land.

_Staten Island_ lies at the mouth of New-York harbor; it is about
eighteen miles long, and eight wide. The surface is generally rough
and hilly, but on the south is a level tract of good land. This island
forms the county of Richmond.[25]

_Manhattan Island_, the seat of the city of New York, is fifteen
miles long, and one and a half in its average breadth. It is washed
on the western side by the Hudson, and separated from the continent
and Long Island on the east by narrow channels. It is generally level
in the lower part, and the soil here rests upon a granite rock. At
the northern extremity, the granite is succeeded by limestone, which
affords excellent marble, and extends for some distance into the
country. In the northern part, the shores are rocky, and the face
of the island strongly marked by abrupt crags and ravines, hills and
valleys, insulated rocks and marshy inlets. The gneiss rock, which is
much used for side-walk pavements and the foundations of buildings, is
found in abundance here. Small quantities of porcelain clay have also
been found upon the island.

The Bay of Chesapeak contains many islands within the limits of
Maryland. _Kent Island_, on the east side of the bay, opposite
Annapolis, is twelve miles long. The _Tangier Islands_ lie farther
down the bay. On the seacoast is the island of _Assatiegue_, twenty
miles long and two broad.

The coast of North Carolina is skirted by a range of low, sandy
islands, thrown up by the sea. They are long and narrow, and inclose
several bays or sounds. They are generally barren. The southern part
of South Carolina exhibits a similar range, separated from the main
land by narrow channels, which afford a steam-boat navigation. These
islands, like the neighboring continent, are low and flat, but are
covered with forests of live oak, pine, and palmetto. Before the
cultivation of cotton, many of them were the haunts of alligators, and
their thick woods and rank weeds rendered them impenetrable to man.
At present, they are under cultivation and well inhabited; and as the
voyager glides along their shores in a steam-boat, he is enchanted with
the prospect of their lively verdure, interspersed with thick clumps of
palmettoes, live oak, and laurel, and flowering groves of orange trees.
The long sandy beaches which border these islands towards the sea, are
covered with thousands of water-fowl. Georgia is also bordered with a
range of small islands and marshy tracts, intersected by channels and
rivulets which are navigable for small vessels. These islands consist
of a rich gray soil called _hammoc land_. In their natural state,
they are covered with forests of live oak, pine, and hickory, but
under cultivation they produce the best cotton in the world, called
_Sea-Island_ cotton. There are many small islands scattered along the
coast of Florida; and off the southern extremity, at some distance from
the land, lies a cluster, on one of which, Key West, the United States
have established a naval station.

The _Chandeleur Islands_ lie on the eastern coast of Louisiana; they
are little more than heaps of sand, covered with pine forests. West of
the Mississippi are many others scattered along the coast. Here is the
island of _Barataria_, formerly noted as a nest of pirates. It lies in
a bay which receives the waters of a lake of the same name. The soil of
these islands is generally rich; most of them are low and level. There
are some very fertile islands in the _Mississippi_,[26] and in the
Great Lakes.

The Island of _Michilimackinac_, in the strait connecting Lake Huron
and Lake Michigan, is important in a political point of view, being the
Gibraltar of the north-west. It is of an elliptical form, about seven
miles in circumference, rising gradually to the centre; its figure
suggested to the mind of the Indians its appropriate name, _Michi
Mackina_,[27] (Great Turtle.) The greater part of the island is almost
an impenetrable thicket of underwood and small trees, which contribute
materially to the defence of the garrison. Fort Holmes stands on a
summit of the island, several hundred feet above the level of Lake
Huron, and is now one of the most formidable positions in the western
country. The French were the first settlers, and their descendants, to
a considerable number, reside near the Fort.

_Maniton Island_ is situated near the eastern coast of Lake Michigan;
it is six miles long and four wide, and is held sacred by the Indians.
The _Castor Islands_ are a chain of islets, extending from Grand
Traverse Bay nearly across the lake; they are low and sandy, but afford
a shelter for light boats in their passage to Green Bay. _Grosse Isle_
is a valuable alluvion of several thousand acres, being five miles
long, and from one to two wide.


                      GENERAL REMARKS ON ISLANDS.

  It has been well observed, that a large island is a continent in
  miniature, with its chains of mountains, its lakes, rivers, and
  not unfrequently its surrounding islets. The smaller islands are
  found single, or in groups. Among the low or flat islands, there
  are some which are only banks of sand, scarcely raised above the
  surface of the water; sometimes they consist of masses of shells
  or petrifactions, as the Isles of Lachof to the north of Siberia,
  which are nothing but masses of ice, sand, and the bones of the
  mammoth. The Pacific contains a great many islands formed of
  coral reefs, which are sometimes covered with sand, and afford
  nourishment to a few plants.

  Among the more elevated islands we find very many which owe their
  foundation, in a great measure, to volcanic agencies. Submarine
  islands, as they have been sometimes called, or immense sand-banks,
  covered with shoal water, are not unfrequent. Chains of islands
  in the neighborhood of continents seem to be often formed by the
  action of the waters washing away the less solid parts, which
  once occupied the spaces between the mountains and rocks. In this
  manner were probably formed the islands along the coast of the
  United States, which still appear above the surface of the waves.

  One of the chief advantages that islands derive from their
  situation is, that the climate is generally rendered mild and
  salubrious, from the vapors of the surrounding sea, which
  generally moderate the violence of heat and cold, both of which
  are sensibly less than on the continent in the same latitude.
  Another advantage is found in their accessibility on every side,
  by which islands are open to receive and export commodities, and
  at times when the ports of the continent are closed. An island
  has on all sides the most extensive and effectual frontier,
  subsisting forever without repairs and without expense; and, which
  is still more, derives from this very frontier, a great part of
  the subsistence of its inhabitants, and a valuable article in its
  commerce, from fisheries.

  The island of Acroteri, famous in ancient history, is represented
  to have risen from the sea, in a violent earthquake; its surface
  is composed of pumice-stone incrusted with a covering of fertile
  earth. Four neighboring islands have been attributed to a similar
  cause, and yet the sea about them cannot be fathomed by any
  sounding line. These have risen at different periods, the last in
  1573, the first long before the birth of Christ. Similar eruptions
  of islands have occurred in the group of the Azores. Thus in
  December, 1720, a violent shock of an earthquake was felt at
  Tercera. During the night, the top of a new island appeared, which
  ejected a huge column of smoke. The pilot of a ship who attempted
  to approach it sounded on one side of the new formed island,
  but could not reach bottom with a line of sixty fathoms. On the
  opposite side, the sea was deeply tinged with various colors,
  white, blue and green, and was very shallow. This island gradually
  diminished in size, and finally altogether disappeared.

  History abounds with accounts of floating islands, but they are
  either false or much exaggerated. These islands are generally
  found in lakes, and are composed of the light matter floating
  on the surface of the water in cakes, forming, with the roots of
  plants, collections of different sizes, which, not being fixed
  in any part to the shore, are driven about by the winds. In the
  course of time, some of them arrive at considerable size. The
  floating islands, however, mentioned by the old writers, have now
  disappeared or become fixed.




                   CHAPTER X.――CAPES AND PENINSULAS.


_Cape Ann_, the northern limit of Massachusetts Bay, is a rocky
promontory, fifteen miles in length, containing several good harbors.
The peninsula of _Cape Cod_, in the south-east part of Massachusetts,
is about sixty-five miles long, and from one to twenty miles broad;
its shape is nearly that of a man’s arm bent inward at the elbow and
wrist. The greater part of the peninsula is a barren desert; in the
south-western portion the land, though sterile, is under some little
cultivation; but the northern part consists almost wholly of hills of
white sand. The houses are built upon stakes driven into the ground,
with open spaces between for the sand to drift through. The cape
is well inhabited, notwithstanding its sterility, and supports a
population of twenty-eight thousand, who derive their subsistence
chiefly from the fisheries. The coast is beset with numerous shoals,
and has long been the dread of mariners. At the first settlement of the
country, there was an island east of the cape, about nine miles out at
sea, which was twenty acres in extent, and covered with savin and cedar
trees; for a century this island has been entirely submerged, and the
water is above six fathoms deep.

The peninsula of _Nahant_, a few miles north of the harbor of Boston,
is connected with the main land by Lynn beach, a smooth and level floor
of sand two miles in length. It is divided into Great Nahant, Little
Nahant, and Bass Neck: the two former being connected by a delightful
beach ninety rods long. These beaches are hard and smooth, and of
sufficient width at low water to accommodate thousands with a pleasant
walk or ride. Great Nahant contains three hundred and five acres
of land. The shores of this peninsula are bold and rocky. On its
southern side is a large and curious cavern called the Swallows’ House,
inhabited by a great number of swallows, which here make their nests.
On the northern shore is a chasm thirty feet deep, called the Spouting
Horn, into which, at about half-tide, the water rushes with great
violence and a tremendous sound.

Nahant presents some of the most striking sea views in the world. After
an easterly storm, the violent dashing of the huge waves against the
rocks presents a spectacle possessing all the elements of the sublime.
During the heat of summer, Nahant is a favorite place of resort for
invalids, and people of fashion, on account of its cool and refreshing
breezes.

_Cape May_, on the coast of New Jersey, and the northern point of
the mouth of Delaware Bay, is the termination of a range of low,
sandy, barren coast, commencing at Shrewsbury. It is eighteen miles
north-east of _Cape Henlopen_, a point on the southern coast of the
entrance to the same bay. On this cape is a lighthouse of an octagon
form, handsomely built of stone, one hundred and fifteen feet high, and
on a foundation nearly as much above the level of the sea. _Cape Henry_
is the southern salient point at the mouth of Chesapeak Bay; and its
northern salient point, twelve miles distant to the north, is the
promontory of _Cape Charles_.

_Cape Hatteras_, the most remarkable and dangerous cape on the coast
of North American, is situated in latitude thirty-five degrees and
twelve minutes, and has occasioned the destruction of many a fine
vessel, and the loss of hundreds of valuable lives. The water is very
shoal at a great distance from the cape, which is remarkable for sudden
and violent squalls of wind, and for the most severe storms of thunder,
lightning, and rain, which happen almost every day for one half the
year. The shoals lie about fourteen miles south-west of the cape, and
are nearly five or six acres in extent, with about ten feet water. Here,
at times, the ocean breaks in a tremendous manner, spouting as it were
to the clouds, from the violent agitation of the Gulf Stream, which
touches the edge of the banks.

_Cape Fear_ and _Cape Lookout_ are dangerous capes on the coast of
North Carolina. The former is the southern extremity of Smith’s Island,
at the mouth of the river of the same name. About sixty years ago,
Cape Lookout afforded an excellent harbor, capacious enough for a large
fleet in good deep water; but the basin is now filled up. _Roman_ is
the name of a cape on the coast of South Carolina, and of one on the
western coast of East Florida. _Cape Cannaveral_ is on the Atlantic
coast of Florida, being the projecting point of a long, narrow and
low sandy island between Indian river and the ocean. _Cape Florida_
is a promontory of the south-eastern coast of Florida, projecting to
the south, and inclosing on the north-east the Bay of Biscino. _Cape
Sable_ is the extreme point of Florida. Every part of the coast of the
Southern States is low and flat, without a single lofty headland to
warn the navigator of his approach to the land. The peninsula of East
Florida may be considered an immense cape, and much the largest in
the United States. The Mississippi has formed at its mouth, by the mud
brought down in its waters, a cape forty miles in extent, the extreme
point of which is called the _Balize_, through the whole length of
which the river passes into the Gulf of Mexico.


               GENERAL REMARKS ON CAPES AND PENINSULAS.

  Parts of continents which shoot into the sea, and are connected
  with the main land by only a small portion of their circumference,
  are named peninsulas, and their figures often correspond with
  those of gulfs and inland seas. When such masses of land are
  attached to the continent by a greater extent of line than
  one fourth of their circumference, they are not considered as
  peninsulas. If the projection of land reach but a short distance,
  they are called capes, promontories, or simply points. The most
  remarkable capes in the world are, Cape Horn, St. Roque, Blanco,
  Cod, Verd, Good Hope, Gardafui, North, Comorin, and Taymour.




            CHAPTER XI.――BAYS, HARBORS, SOUNDS, AND GULFS.


                         I. BAYS AND HARBORS.

THE seacoast of Maine is indented with numerous bays. Of these the
largest is _Penobscot Bay_, which forms the estuary of the river of
that name, is about thirty miles in length, and eighteen in width at
its entrance between the isle of Holt and Owl’s Head. It incloses Fox,
Haut, Long, and Deer islands, besides a number of small islands and
rocks. On a fine peninsula in this bay the British, in the late war,
built a fort, and made a settlement, which is now the shire town of the
county of Hancock, and is a very commodious place for the lumber trade.
_Broad Bay_ is situated about twelve miles westwardly, and is bounded
by Pleasant-point on the east, and Pemaquid-point on the west, the
latter of which projects considerably into the sea. _Casco Bay_ lies
between Cape Elizabeth and Cape Smallpoint, and averages twenty-five
miles in width by fourteen in length; it forms the entrance into
Sagadahok river, and has sufficient depth of water for vessels of any
burden. This is a very handsome bay, and contains not less than three
hundred small islands, some of which are inhabited, and nearly all
more or less cultivated; the land on these islands, and on the opposite
coast, being the best for agriculture of any near the seashore of this
part of the country. _Wells Bay_ lies between Cape Porpoise and Neddick,
which are twenty-one miles apart. _Passamaquoddy Bay_, forming a part
of the boundary between Maine and New Brunswick, is six miles long and
twelve wide; it contains many islands, and receives the St. Croix river.
Small harbors are numerous, and the shores are rocky and bold. Besides
the bays here described, are the _Saco_ and _Machias_ bays.

_Massachusetts Bay_ is about forty miles in extent, lying between
Cape Ann on the north and Cape Cod on the south. Within this lies
_Boston Bay_, comprising the space between Nahant on the north and
Point Alderton on the south, and including the harbors of Boston,
Lynn, Dorchester, Quincy, and Hingham, with Nantucket and President
Roads, and the numerous islands within the Boston lighthouse. The most
noted of these are Governor’s Island, and Castle Island, on both of
which fortifications are erected; they lie about two and a half miles
easterly from Boston, at the distance of about a mile from each other,
dividing the inner from the outer harbor. The only channel for large
ships passes between them. This harbor is of sufficient extent, and its
water is sufficiently deep to admit five hundred ships of the largest
class to ride at anchor in safety; while its entrance is so narrow as
scarcely to admit two ships abreast.

In the south of Massachusetts Bay is _Cape Cod Bay_, fifteen or twenty
miles in extent, lying between Cape Cod and Plymouth; within this are
Barnstable and Plymouth Bays. In the south of the state is _Buzzard’s
Bay_, on the south-west side of Cape Cod, twenty miles deep, and
inclosing the harbor of New Bedford. ‘Buzzard’s Bay,’ says a recent and
entertaining tourist, ‘has much that is interesting on its extensive
shores. A beautiful little spot called _Naushaw_, will not fail to
attract the attention of the voyager on his way to Nantucket. Parts
of it are thickly covered with woods. From its centre, on an eminence,
rises a picturesque spot, which was built by an English gentleman of
wealth, for his summer residence. Some time previous to his death,
he became impressed with the belief that, at the expiration of twenty
years after his decease, he should return and resume the occupations
of life. He accordingly gave orders that the house with its furniture,
should remain unmolested until the expiration of that time, when he
should again return to occupy it. Every thing remained as he would
have it for some time after his death. But eventually the house and
furniture were sold, and passed into other hands. Thirty or forty
summers have reinvigorated the turf of his grave, but he has not yet
returned, to claim his property, or to reinhabit the decaying mansion.’
The boat passes from the bay into the sound, through a narrow passage
called Wood’s Hole, a place very intricate and difficult of navigation.
Breakers run out from the shore in all directions; so that a straight
course through, would be impossible. The boat in passing through this
miniature Hurl Gate, makes a course in the form of the letter _s_.

_Narraganset Bay_ intersects the state of Rhode Island, and is about
twenty-eight miles long and ten miles broad. It contains fifteen
islands; it has many excellent harbors, and affords great advantages
for navigation. Newport harbor, in the channel between Conanicut and
Rhode Island, is one of the finest in the world, being safe, deep,
capacious, and easily accessible. Its entrance is defended by Fort
Wolcott on Goat’s Island, and Fort Adams on Rhode Island; the latter
is a large stone castle of great strength. The banks of this bay are
covered with fine settlements, the view of which from the water is
highly pleasing and picturesque.

The seacoast of New York is nearly all comprised within the shores
of Long Island, which contain a few harbors and inlets, but none that
are much frequented by shipping. The bay or harbor of New York is very
safe and capacious; its boundaries towards the sea are Long Island and
Staten Island; it extends nine miles below the city, and is from a mile
and a half to five miles broad; inclosing several small islands, on
which are fortifications. The Hudson enters this bay from the north.
The East river, or channel between New York Island and Long Island,
communicates with Long Island Sound on the east. The Kills, a strait
between Staten Island and the Jersey shore, communicates with Newark
Bay and the river Raritan on the west; and the Narrows open into the
Atlantic towards the south. At low water, the entrance by the Narrows
is somewhat difficult for large ships, and the entrance from the Sound
is obstructed by the rocky strait of Hell Gate. There are several
harbors on Lake Ontario, the most noted of which is Sacket’s Harbor,
toward the east end of the lake; it is deep and safe, and was an
important naval station during the war of 1812.

New Jersey has a long line of seacoast, but it is quite deficient in
good harbors. _Newark Bay_ is rather a small lake, communicating by
long outlets with the sea. The Bay of _Amboy_, between Staten Island
and Sandy Hook, affords little shelter for vessels. There is a long
bay, formed by a beach four or five miles from the shore, extending
along the coast from Manasquan river, in Monmouth county, almost to
Cape May. Through this beach are a number of inlets, by which the bay
communicates with the ocean. _Delaware Bay_ lies between the states
of Delaware and New Jersey, formed by the mouth of Delaware river and
several other smaller ones. It is sixty-five miles long, and in the
centre about thirty miles across, and about eighteen at its mouth, from
Cape May to Cape Henlopen. This bay has many shoal places, but is in
general deep and favorable to navigation. A breakwater and dike are now
constructing by the United States’ government at the entrance of the
bay. The anchorage ground is formed by a cove in the southern shore,
directly west of the pitch of Cape Henlopen and the seaward, and of
an extensive shoal called the _Shears_: the tail of which makes out
from the shore about five miles up the bay, near the mouth of Broadkill
Creek, from whence it extends eastward, and terminates at a point about
two miles to the northward of the shore at the cape. The breakwater
consists of an insulated dike or wall of stone, formed in a straight
line from east south-east to west north-west, and twelve hundred yards
in length. At the distance of three hundred and fifty yards from the
western end of the breakwater, a similar dike of five hundred yards in
length is projected in a direct line, west by south, one half south,
forming an angle of one hundred and forty-six degrees fifteen minutes
with the breakwater. This part of the works is more particularly
designed as an ice-breaker. The whole length of the two dikes above
described, is seventeen hundred yards. The entrance to the harbor is
six hundred and fifty yards in width, between the north point of the
cape and the east end of the breakwater. At this opening, the harbor
will be accessible during all winds coming from the sea.[28]

The _Chesapeak Bay_ is a deep gulf opening from the Atlantic ocean,
between capes Henry and Charles, and lying in the states of Maryland
and Virginia. It is one hundred and eighty-five miles in length,
extending northwardly, and its entrance is sixteen miles wide. Its
general breadth varies from seven to twenty miles, and its average
depth is nine fathoms; it affords a safe and easy navigation, and many
fine harbors. Among these may be mentioned that of Norfolk, in the
southern part of the bay near the mouth of the James. The embouchure
of this river forms a spacious haven, called Hampton Roads.

The channel which leads in from the capes of Virginia to _Hampton
Roads_, is, at Old Point Comfort, reduced to a very narrow line. The
shoal water, which, under the action of the sea, and re-acted upon by
the bar, is kept in an unremitting ripple, has given the name of Rip
Raps to this place. When the bar is passed, Hampton Roads afford the
finest anchorage in the world, and in them all its navies might ride
with perfect safety. With a view of making this a secure retreat for
ships of war and for our commerce, in any future contest with a naval
power, Fort Monroe was built on the point, on the right side of the
channel at the entrance of the Roads; and the Castle of the Rip Raps
is directly opposite the point, at the distance of about one thousand
nine hundred yards. The two forts will completely command the channel,
and it will be impossible for a single ship of war to pass without the
permission of the power holding the fortresses. They are so constructed,
as to present immense batteries of cannon upon an approaching ship,
from the moment she comes in reach, from the capes, and throughout all
the bendings of the channel.[29]

_Chesapeak Bay_, and its tributary streams, have been known from their
discovery as the great place of resort for water-fowl in the United
States. This is attributed to the great abundance of their favorite
food, which is found on the immense flats or shoals near the mouth of
the Susquehanna, the whole length of North, East, and Elk rivers, and
on the shores of the Bay as far south as York and James rivers.

The harbors of North and South Carolina are generally bad. That of
Charleston is obstructed at its entrance by a dangerous sand-bar;
that of Georgetown will admit only small craft. The harbor of Beaufort
or Port Royal is the best in the state, but is little frequented.
The largest bays of Florida are those of Apalachicola, St. Andrew’s,
Ochlockney, and Pensacola. Alabama has but about sixty miles of
seacoast, containing the spacious Bay of Mobile, which extends thirty
miles inland. It has two principal entrances, one of which has eighteen
feet depth of water. To the west it communicates by a shallow passage
with the Bay of Pascagoula, which lies within a number of islands, on
the coast of this state and Mississippi.


                              II. SOUNDS.

_Long Island Sound_ is an extensive gulf or channel, from three to
twenty-five miles broad, and about one hundred and forty in length,
extending the whole length of Long Island, and dividing it from
Connecticut. It is narrow at the eastern entrance, and expands in the
middle; it communicates with the ocean at both ends. Towards the west
it contracts gradually, till it joins the harbor of New York by a
narrow and crooked strait. It admits of a free navigation throughout
its whole extent for the largest ships, except at the celebrated
passage called _Hell Gate_,[30] situated near the west end of this
sound, about eight miles from the city of New York. It is a very
singular strait, about three or four hundred yards in breadth, having
a ledge of sunken rocks across it in an angular direction, which
occasions many whirlpools and cross currents in the water. These, at
certain periods of the tide, make a tremendous noise, and render a
passage impracticable; but at other times the water is smooth, and the
navigation easy.

_Pamlico Sound_ is a kind of a lake or inland sea, from ten to thirty
miles broad, and seventy miles in length. It is separated from the
Atlantic ocean, in its whole length, by a beach of sand hardly a mile
wide, generally covered with trees or bushes. Through this bank are
several small inlets, by which boats may pass; but Ocrecock Inlet is
the only one that will admit vessels of burden. This inlet communicates
with _Albemarle Sound_, which is also a kind of inland sea, sixty miles
in length, and from four to fifteen in breadth, lying north of Pamlico
Sound. _Core Sound_ lies south of Pamlico, and has a communication with
it. These sounds are so large, when compared with their inlets from the
sea, that no tide can be perceived in any of the rivers which empty
into them, nor is the water salt, even in the mouths of these rivers.


                              III. GULFS.

_Gulf of Mexico._――The Gulf of Mexico washes the shores of Florida,
Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, on the side of the United States.
It extends between the eighteenth and thirtieth parallels of north
latitude, and is nearly of a circular form, but somewhat elongated from
east to west. In the latter direction it is one thousand one hundred
and fifty miles long; in the transverse direction it is about nine
hundred and thirty. It opens in a south-east direction, between the
peninsula of Yucatan and Florida, or the capes Catoche and Sable, which
are about four hundred and sixty-five miles distant from each other.
The Island of Cuba divides this opening into two channels: the one to
the south-west, communicating with the Sea of the Antilles, and the
other to the north-east with the Atlantic, by means of the Straits of
Bahama or Florida. South from the mouth of the Rio del Norte, round
about the mouth of the Rio Alvarado, an extent of six hundred miles,
this gulf does not present a single good port, as Vera Cruz is merely
a bad anchorage amidst shallows. The Mexican coast may be considered
a sort of dike, against which the waves, continually agitated by the
trade-winds blowing from east to west, throw up the sands carried by
the violent motion. The rivers descending from the Sierra Madre, have
also contributed to increase these sands, and the land is gaining on
the sea. No vessels, says Humboldt, drawing more than twelve and a half
inches water, can pass over these sand-bars without danger of grounding.

The Mississippi is the principal tributary of the Gulf of Mexico, and
carries down with it, besides its vast body of waters, a prodigious
quantity of organic and unorganic debris. The town of New Orleans, near
the mouth of this river, is the principal commercial station along the
whole gulf. In the middle of the gulf the winds blow regularly from the
north-east; but they vary considerably on approaching the shore. From
the Mississippi, along the Florida coast, the south-west wind blows
violently in the months of August, September, and October; the north
wind prevails during the other nine months. Between the Mississippi
and San Bernardo, the wind generally blows in the morning from the
south-east or east-south-east, and in the evening from the south-west.
Between Catoche and Campeachy the reigning wind, during a great part
of the year, blows from the north-east; but from the end of April to
September, it comes from the opposite direction. The most remarkable
current in the gulf, is that called the _Gulf Stream_, described in the
following chapter.


                       GENERAL REMARKS ON BAYS.

  Many portions of the land and sea extend reciprocally the one
  into the other. If the sea penetrate into the interior of any
  continent, it forms there a _mediterranean_, or inland sea, almost
  surrounded by land, and having only a narrow opening into the
  sea. If the extent of such seas be less, and the opening larger,
  they are called _gulfs_ or _bays_, two terms which geographical
  writers have wished to distinguish, but which customary language
  more frequently confounds. The still smaller portions of sea,
  surrounded as it were by land, and which afford a shelter for
  ships, are called ports, creeks, or roads. The first term means
  a secure asylum; the second is applied to places or ports of much
  smaller size, and which, when improved or completed by artificial
  aid, are styled harbors, and roads afford only a temporary
  anchorage and security from certain winds. The principal bays in
  the world are Baffin’s, Hudson’s, James’s, Fundy, Massachusetts,
  Narraganset, Delaware, Chesapeak, Campeachy, Honduras, Bristol,
  All Saints, Cardigan, Donegal, Galway, Biscay, Bengal, Walwich,
  Table, False, Angola, Natal, Saldanha, and Botany. The principal
  gulfs are St. Lawrence, Mexico, Amatique, California, Panama,
  Guayaquil, St. George, Bothnia, Finland, Riga, Genoa, Naples,
  Taranto, Venice, Salonica, Persian, Ormus, Siam, Tonquin, Corea,
  Obi, and Guinea. The principal sounds are Long Island, Albemarle,
  Pamlico, Prince William’s, Queen Charlotte’s and Nootka.




                         CHAPTER XII.――OCEANS.


THE United States are washed by the _Atlantic Ocean_ on nearly the
whole of their eastern coast, and by the _Pacific_ on a large portion
of their western boundary.

Under the name of the _Atlantic_, is comprised that mass of water
between the eastern coast of America and the western coast of Europe
and Africa. In its narrowest part, between Europe and Greenland, it is
one thousand miles wide, and opening thence to the south-west with the
general range of the bounding continents, spreads under the northern
tropic to a breadth of sixty degrees of longitude, or four thousand
one hundred and seventy miles, without estimating the Gulf of Mexico.
The general phenomena on the two opposing sides of the Atlantic have
great resemblance. The Atlantic coast of the United States presents
an elliptic curve in its entire extent, with three intermediate and
similar curves; the first extending seven hundred miles from Cape
Florida to Cape Hatteras, the second from Cape Hatteras five hundred
miles to the outer capes of Massachusetts, and the third formed by
the coasts of Massachusetts, New Hampshire and Maine. Opposite to the
United States, the Atlantic admits soundings in every place near the
shores, always deepening very gradually. We have not found an exact
comparison of the natural history of the Atlantic with that of other
oceans. The chief phenomenon that marks it along the coast of the
states is the Gulf Stream.

Besides the regular periodical currents produced in the ocean by the
tides, various others arise from different causes.[31] The waters of
the sea may be put in motion by an external impulse, by a difference
in temperature and saltness, by the periodical meeting of the polar
ice, or by the inequality of evaporation that takes place in different
latitudes. Sometimes several of these causes concur in producing the
same effect; at others, their actions are opposed to one another, and
their effects wholly or partially destroyed. Some of those currents
constantly follow the same direction, others are subject to periodical
changes, whilst a third class are more accidental. The most regular and
extensive current on the globe is that which constantly flows from east
to west, between the tropics, and extends on each side of the equator
to about the thirtieth degree of latitude.

This vast current necessarily results from the attraction of the
heavenly bodies, the diurnal motion of the earth, and the direction
of the trade winds. Its existence is incontestibly proved by the
fact, that vessels sailing to the westward, are always ahead of their
reckoning; that is, their real situation, as determined by observations
of the heavenly bodies, is always found to be west of that estimated
from the rate of which the vessel is supposed to sail, as impelled
by the wind alone. This difference of situation is occasioned by
the general movement of the waters in the same direction, and is,
consequently, the proper measure of the current. This is the reason
why navigators, in sailing from Europe to America and the West India
Islands, make the latitude of the Canaries, and then shape their course
in the direction of the wind and current across the Atlantic.

A general current also flows from the poles towards the equator. This
arises from the increased evaporation in the equatorial regions, and
the augmented temperature of the waters, which render them specifically
lighter than those of the ocean in higher latitudes, as well as from
the increased supplies produced by the melting of the polar ice; all
of which render these currents necessary to maintain the equilibrium
of this perpetually circulating fluid. Their existence and effects are
fully attested by the enormous masses of polar ice, which they convey
into the more temperate regions of the ocean, and which sometimes float
as low as forty degrees of latitude.

These general currents are greatly modified, and changed into
various directions by the obstacles they encounter in their progress.
The coast of America, and the numerous islands with which it is
flanked, intercept the general current of the Atlantic, and create
what navigators call the _Gulf Stream_. This great current enters the
Gulf of Mexico, and, sweeping round the shores of that gulf, issues
with accelerated velocity towards the north, by the channel between
the southern point of Florida and the Bahama Islands.[32] It then
rolls along the shore of North America, diminishing in velocity, but
increasing in breadth, till it reaches the great bank of Newfoundland.
There it suddenly turns towards the east and south-east, and flows with
still decreasing velocity, towards the shores of Europe, the Azores,
and the coasts of Africa. Navigators readily distinguish this current
by the high temperature of its waters, their great saltness, their
indigo color, and the shoals of sea-weed[33] that cover their surface.

Humboldt, in May, 1804, observed its velocity in the twenty-seventh
degree of latitude, and found it about eighty miles in twenty-four
hours, though the north wind blew very strongly at the time of the
observation. When it issues from the Gulf of Florida, its velocity
resembles that of a torrent, and is sometimes five miles an hour, but
at others not more than three. Between the nearest point of Florida,
and the bank of Bahama, the breadth is only fifteen leagues, but a few
degrees further north, it is seventeen; in the parallel of Charleston
it is from forty to fifty leagues in breadth, and in latitude forty
degrees and twenty-five minutes, this is increased to nearly eighty
leagues. The waters of the torrid zone, being thus forcibly impelled
towards the north-east, preserve their high temperature to such a
degree, that, in latitude forty and forty-one degrees, it has been
found to be seventy-two degrees of Fahrenheit, while out of the current
the temperature of the water was only sixty-three degrees.

In the parallel of New York the temperature of the Gulf Stream is
equal to that of the sea in latitude eighteen degrees. When the current
reaches the western islands of the Azores, where the breadth is about
one hundred and sixty leagues, the waters still preserve a part of
the impulsion they receive in the Gulf of Florida, nearly one thousand
leagues distant. Hence the current proceeds to the Canaries and the
coast of Africa, and in the latitude of Cape Blanco, where the waters
flow towards the south-west, they mingle with the current of the
tropics, and recommence their tour from east to west.

From this it appears that the waters of the Atlantic, between the
eleventh and forty-third degrees, are constantly drawn by currents
into a kind of whirlpool; and if a drop of these waters be supposed
to return precisely to the place from which it commenced its motion,
Humboldt has calculated, from the known velocity of the current, that
it would require two years and ten months to complete its circuit of
three thousand eight hundred leagues.

‘A boat,’ he observes, ‘which may be supposed to receive no impulsion
from the winds, would require thirteen months from the Canary Islands,
to reach the coast of Caraccas, ten months to make the tour of the Gulf
of Mexico and reach the Tortoise Shoals, opposite the port of Havana,
while forty or fifty days might be sufficient to carry it from the
straits of Florida to the bank of Newfoundland. Estimating the velocity
of the water at seven or eight miles in twenty-four hours, in their
progress from this bank to the coast of Africa, it would require ten or
eleven months for this last distance. Such are the effects of this slow
but regular motion, which agitates the waters of the ocean.’ The Gulf
Stream furnished to Christopher Columbus indications of the existence
of land to the west. This current had carried upon the Azores the
bodies of two men of an unknown race, and pieces of bamboo of an
enormous size. In latitude forty-five or fifty degrees, near Bonnet
Flamand, an arm of the Gulf Stream flows from the south-west to the
north-east, towards the coast of Europe. It deposits upon the coasts
of Ireland and Norway, trees and fruits belonging to the torrid zone.
Remains of a vessel burnt at Jamaica were found upon the coast of
Scotland. It is likewise this river of the Atlantic which annually
throws the fruits of the West Indies upon the shore of Norway.

The _Pacific_ is also one of the great boundaries of the United States.
By treaties with Spain and Russia our government possesses sovereignty
along the Pacific ocean from latitude forty-two degrees to fifty-four
degrees and forty minutes, which is equal to about eight hundred and
eighty statute miles. This great ocean extends from Beering’s Straits
to the antarctic circle, a distance of three thousand two hundred
leagues, and from Asia and New Holland to America. It is separated from
the Atlantic and Antarctic oceans only by imaginary lines. Its extreme
breadth, a little north of the equator, is four thousand five hundred
and fifty leagues; between South America and New Holland, latitude
thirty degrees south, it is two thousand nine hundred and seventy
leagues. It contains an immense number of islands spread over its
surface, particularly between latitude thirty degrees north and fifty
degrees south, to which modern geographers have given the general
appellation of _Oceanica_. It was first called the _South Sea_ by
the European navigators who entered it from the north. Magellan gave
it the name of Pacific, on account of the prevalence of calms which
he experienced in it; but it by no means deserves the name, as it is
remarkable for the fury of its storms, and the agitation of its waters.
The trade-winds, which constantly blow between the tropics, render
the passage from the western coast of America to Asia very short; but
the return is proportionately difficult. The Portuguese were the first
Europeans who entered the Pacific, which they did from the east. Balboa,
in 1513, discovered it from the summit of the mountains which traverse
the Isthmus of Darien. Magellan sailed across it from east to west in
1521.[34]

The Pacific, by its general motion, retreats from the coast of America,
and flows from east to west; and this motion is very powerful in the
vast and uninterrupted extent of that sea. Near Cape Corriantes, in
Peru, the sea appears to flow from the land by this single cause. Ships
are carried with rapidity from the port of Acapulco, in Mexico, to the
Philippine Islands. But in order to return, they are obliged to go to
the north of the tropics, to seek the polar current, and the variable
winds. On the other side, the south polar current, finding no land to
impede it, carries along with it the polar ice even to the latitude
where the motion of the tropical current begins to be felt. This is the
reason why, in the southern hemisphere, floating pieces of ice are met
with at fifty and even at forty degrees.

In its motion towards the west, the Pacific is impeded by an immense
archipelago of flats, islands, submarine mountains, and even land of
considerable extent; it penetrates into this labyrinth, and there forms
one current after another. The direction which the principal of these
currents observe, is conformable to the general motion towards the
west. But, as might be expected, the inequalities of the basin of the
sea, the coasts, and the chains of submarine mountains, sometimes turn
these currents toward the north or south. We may easily conceive that
a strong repercussion of the waters of the ocean, in consequence of
their meeting with a large mass of land, (as New South Wales,) may
even produce a counter current, which will return towards the east,
and which, by breaking, will also produce other currents, adverse and
dangerous to navigators, and such as were encountered by Cook and La
Perouse.

The Pacific Ocean is bounded on the east by Asia. Beering’s Straits
connects it with the Arctic Ocean, and the line which indicates the one
hundred and forty-seventh eastern meridian, arbitrarily separates it
from the Indian Ocean. Geographers divide the Pacific into the northern
and southern, the equator being the line of demarcation. This ocean
occupies fifty millions of square miles; nearly one fourth part of the
surface of the globe. It covers three times the extent of the Indian,
and twice the extent of the Atlantic Ocean.


                      GENERAL REMARKS ON OCEANS.

  The bed of the ocean is diversified by the same inequalities
  that are exhibited on the surface of the land. Its greatest depth
  that has been ascertained by experiment, is seven thousand two
  hundred feet. Its mean depth is a little over three thousand feet,
  about the same as the mean heights of the continents and islands
  above its surface. Parts of the sea differ in saltness, but
  the difference is slight. Though more bitter than that at a
  considerable depth, it has been ascertained that the water of
  the surface is less salt. Inland seas are less salt than the main
  ocean, on account of the large volumes of fresh water emptied
  into them. The coldness of the polar seas occasions a more rapid
  deposit of the saline substances, and renders them more salt than
  those of the equator. Various theories have been formed to account
  for the saltness of the sea; one attributes it to the existence
  of primitive beds of salt at its bottom, another to the corruption
  of vegetable and animal matter carried into it by rivers. A third
  theory considers the ocean as the residue of a primitive fluid,
  which, after depositing all the substances of which the earth is
  composed, retained the saline principle. Sea-water is freed from
  its salt only by distillation.

  In the open ocean, the prevailing color is a deep greenish
  blue; other shades observed in the different seas seem to be
  owing to local causes. In shoal places the water takes a lighter
  hue. The luminous appearance of the sea by night is a magnificent
  phenomenon, that has not yet been entirely explained. The great
  divisions of the sea are inhabited by their peculiar fish, and
  frequented by peculiar species of birds. The level of the sea is,
  generally speaking, every where the same; though exceptions to
  this rule are sometimes found in land-locked bays and gulfs, where
  the waters become accumulated and stand higher than in the open
  ocean.




                         CHAPTER XIII.――SOIL.


EVERY variety of soil is found within the territory of the United
States, and an accurate general estimate is not of course to be
formed. We will first describe that portion of the country known as
the Atlantic Slope. Next to the ocean are salt meadows or marshes, but
little elevated above the water, towards which, their surface has a
very slight inclination. They are covered with a peculiar reddish grass,
from six to twelve inches in height, growing very thick, and forming
with its roots a compact turf or sward, which is only cut with a sharp
instrument and by considerable force. These meadows are overflowed by
the salt water a few inches deep, several times every spring, and to
this their peculiar character is attributed; for when the water is kept
from them by dikes, the upland grasses take root, the turf loses its
tenacity and crumbles, and in a few years their appearance is entirely
changed. A slope of about six feet in two or three rods lies between
these meadows and low water mark; this is covered with a coarse tall
grass called sedge, which requires the returns of the daily tides to
bring it to maturity.

Adjoining the salt meadows, and on the same level, at the
farthest extent of the overflowing of the spring tides, fresh meadows
immediately commence, which generally extend to the upland; sometimes,
however, there is an interval of wet ground covered with bushes, or a
swamp between them and the upland. They are wet, and usually too soft
to bear a wagon. Similar meadows are sometimes found several miles from
any salt meadows or salt water, and generally at the heads of rivers,
where the face of the country is level. These meadows bear a general
resemblance, all being covered with wild grass, varying in height from
twelve to thirty-six inches, according to the quantity of water in
the soil; the more water there is, the more rank becomes the growth of
the grass, until flags and rushes take its place. The meadows are much
lower than the upland, and were evidently formed by the agency of water,
depositing an alluvion composed of the fine particles from the high
grounds, and decayed vegetable matter. When drained by means of ditches,
they become hard, will produce cultivated grass, and even trees, and
will in a few years lose all their former features, except their low
situation and level aspect.

The soil of this section is to a great extent sandy; very light
therefore, and sometimes barren, more especially near the coast, where
there are much marsh land, and extensive swamps. In many places these
swamps are covered with an impenetrable growth of timber, especially
of the cypress, and some species of the pine, which are favored by the
deep clayed soil, with its rich annual deposit; Louisiana, towards the
sea, exhibits a great breadth of this country through its whole extent.
Along the rivers a rich clay is found in considerable quantities;
many fertile spots are likewise interspersed among the sands, and the
land generally improves as it approaches the mountains. The best soil
is in the central portions of the slope. In the alluvial district
of Louisiana the soil is, for the most part, deep and rich; it is
also strong and vigorous on the Red river. Along the range of the
Apalachian Mountains a thin and poor soil prevails, mingled, however,
with many rich and productive valleys. In the northern portion of it is
a considerable extent of hilly, flinty, and consequently barren land.

When we cross the mountains, and come to the slope descending to the
Mississippi, we survey a large extent of country almost universally
fertile, and divided, as we have before mentioned, into the thickly
timbered, the barren, and the prairie country. In the first division
every traveller remarks a grandeur in the form and size of the trees,
a depth of verdure in the foliage, and a luxuriance of growth of every
sort, that distinguish this country from other regions. The trees
are large, tall, and rise aloft free from branches, like columns.
In the richer lands they are generally wreathed with a drapery of
ivy, bignonia, grape vines, or other creepers. Intermingled with the
foliage of the trees are the broad leaves of the grape vines, with
trunks occasionally as large as the human body. Sometimes the forests
are entirely free from undergrowth; at others, the only shrub is the
graceful and splendid papaw; but often, particularly in the richer
alluvions of the south, beneath the trees, are impenetrable cane brakes,
and a tangle of brambles, briars, vines, and every sort of weed.

The country denominated barrens has a very distinct and singular
configuration. It has usually a surface gently undulating, in long and
uniform ridges. The soil is generally of a clayey texture, of a reddish
or grayish color, covered with tall, coarse grass. The trees are thinly
scattered, seldom either large or dwarfish. They are chiefly oaks, and
have an appearance peculiar to the region they inhabit. The general
quality of the land seldom exceeds the third rate; but in the proper
latitudes, it is favorable to the growth of wheat and fruit trees. On
the little elevations of the barrens, trees and grass grow; but grass
and weeds are the only occupants of the low grounds. The soil of the
barrens is alluvial to a greater or less depth, though on some of
the highest points there is very little; and the lower the ground the
deeper the alluvion. On the elevations, when there is no alluvion,
a stiff blue clay is found, without pebbles. On the little ridges,
where the dampness is not too great, the oak or the hickory has taken
possession, and there grows to a moderate height in clusters; on the
low lands the soil is too wet and the grass too thick for such a growth.

The barrens then are natural meadows, covered with tall coarse grass,
varying in extent and figure, with here and there a piece of elevated
ground, decked with a cluster of trees; add to this, a reddish stream
running through ground but little lower than the surrounding plain,
and you have the picture complete. There are large districts of this
description in Kentucky, Tennessee, and Alabama; they are common in
Illinois and Missouri, and are found more or less over the whole valley
of the Mississippi. This region and the bushy prairies, abound in those
singular cavities called sink-holes, which are generally in the shape
of inverted cones, from ten to seventy feet in depth, and at the top
from sixty to three hundred feet in circumference. Willows and other
aquatic vegetables grow at the sides and bottom. There is little doubt
that these cavities are caused by running waters, which find their way
through the limestone cavities beneath the upper stratum of the soil.

The remaining surface is that of the prairies, and this is by far the
most extensive. These may be classed under three general divisions,
though they have great diversity of aspect; the heathy, or bushy; the
alluvial, or wet; and the dry, or rolling prairies. The bushy prairies
seem to be intermediate between the barrens and the alluvial prairies.
They have springs, abound in bushes and shrubs, with grape vines, and
in the summer with a great variety of flowers; the bushes are often
overtopped with the common hop vine. Prairies of this description are
very common in Illinois, Mississippi, and Indiana, and they occur among
the other prairies to a considerable distance towards the Chippewayan
Mountains. The dry prairies are for the most part without springs, and
destitute of all vegetation except weeds, flowering plants, and grass.
To the sight they are nearly level, but their inclination is proved by
the quick motion of the water courses. This class of prairies is by far
the most extensive. Here are the haunts of the buffaloes, and here the
traveller may wander for days without wood or water, and the horizon on
every side sinking to contact with the grass.

The alluvial or wet prairies form the last and smallest division.
They occur generally on the margins of water courses, though they are
sometimes found with all their distinctive peculiarities, far from the
points where waters run at present. They are commonly basins, and their
outline is strongly marked; their soil is black, deep, friable, and
wonderfully rich. Native grasses spring on them in singular luxuriance,
rising to a great height, but they are too loamy for the cultivated
grasses. In proper latitudes they are excellent for wheat and maize.
Still more than the rolling prairies, they appear to the eye a dead
level, though they have slight inclinations and depressions; yet from
the general equality, and immense amount of vegetation, small ponds and
bayous are formed there, which fill from the rivers and rains, and are
only exhausted during the intense heats of summer, by evaporation.

In the alluvial prairies that are connected with the rivers, these
ponds are filled in the season of high waters with fish of various
kinds; as the water becomes low, and their course connecting with the
river become dry, the fish are taken by cartloads among the high grass,
where the water is three or four feet deep. When the waters evaporate,
the fish die, and thousands of buzzards are unable to prevent them from
polluting the air. This decayed matter seriously affects the salubrity
of the climate.

Along these rich plains, herds of deer are seen, flying with the
rapidity of the wind, or feeding quietly with the domestic cattle. In
the spring and autumn, water-fowl in innumerable flocks hover about
the ponds and lakes of these prairies, to feast on the oily seeds of
the plants and grasses. During the months of vegetation, the richer
prairies are blooming with flowers, of whose variety, number, forms,
hues, and odors, description can furnish no adequate idea. Most of the
prairie plants have tall and arrowy stems, with spiked or tassellated
heads, and the flowers have great size, gaudiness and splendor, without
much delicacy or fragrance. In the spring their prevailing color is
bluish purple; in mid-summer, red mingled with yellow; in autumn, the
flowers are large, generally of the helianthus shape, and of a rich
golden color.

The northern shores of Lake Ontario and Erie, the western shore of
Lake Huron, and the general surface of the valleys of the Ohio, the
Illinois, and the Mississippi, afford a highly productive soil. More to
the southward, the extended valley of the Tennessee is one of the most
fertile portions of the republic; and the same fertility extends itself
beyond the Mississippi below the Missouri, until it is checked by the
Ozark Mountains, whose productive portion is confined to the valleys.
To the west of these mountains, and of the Missouri, the soil becomes
less and less fertile, till we reach the Great American Desert, which
has already been described. The eastern shores of Lake Michigan, and
the southern coast of Lake Superior, are either sandy or rocky, and
generally barren.

Among the Rocky Mountains are sheltered and fertile valleys, though
their summits are of course rocky, sterile, and covered with snow the
greater part of the year. The timber in the mountains is pine, spruce,
fir, and other terebinthines. Though deficient in timber, the terrace
plains below have generally a fine soil. The prairies, like those in
the Mississippi valley, are covered with coarse grass and a variety
of beautiful flowers. Among the prairie plants are two or three kinds
of roots, which furnish food to the savages. Wild sage is found in
abundance; it grows of the size and height of a small tree, and on
these extensive plains is one of the principal articles of fuel. For a
considerable distance into the interior, the seashore is skirted with
deep and thick forests of evergreen. On the whole, it is believed that
few countries on the earth have a more fertile soil, than the valleys
west of the Rocky Mountains.

‘In estimating the quality of new lands in America,’ says Dr. Dwight,
‘serious errors are very commonly entertained, from want of due
attention to the following fact: Wherever the forest has been
undisturbed by fire, they have accumulated, by shedding their foliage
through a long succession of ages, and by their own decay, a covering
of vegetable mould from six to twelve inches deep, and sometimes from
eighteen to twenty-four. This mould is the best of all soils, and
eminently friendly to every species of vegetation. It is, indeed,
no other than a mere mass of manure, and that of the very best kind,
converted into mould; and so long as it remains in considerable
quantities, all grounds produce plentifully. Unless a proper allowance
be made, therefore, when we are forming an estimate of the quality of
soils, for the efficacy of this mould, which, so far as my observation
has extended, is not often done, those on which it abounds will be
of course overrated. On the contrary, where it does not abound, the
quality of the soil will, in a comparative view, be underrated. Hence
all maple lands which, from their moisture, are incapable of being
burnt, are considered as more fertile than they ultimately prove; while
oak, and even pine lands, are, almost of course, regarded as being
less fertile. The maple lands in Ballston are found to produce wheat
in smaller quantities, and of a worse quality, than the inhabitants,
misled by the exhuberance of their first crops, expected. Their pine
lands, on the contrary, yield more and better wheat than, till very
lately, they could have been induced to believe. The same things
severally are true, as I have already observed, of the oak and maple
lands in the county of Ontario.

‘From this source it has arisen that all the unburnt new lands in
the northern, middle, southern, and western states, have been, and
still are, uniformly valued beyond their real worth. When the tract on
the mountains in Massachusetts was first settled, the same luxuriant
fertility was attributed to it which has since characterized Kentucky.
About the same time it was ascribed to the Valley of Housatonic,
in the county of Berkshire. From these tracts it was transferred to
the lands in New Hampshire and Vermont, on the Connecticut; and from
thence to those in Vermont, on the western side of the Green Mountains.
From these regions the paradise has travelled to the western part of
the state of New York, to New Connecticut, to Upper Canada, to the
countries on the Ohio, to the south-western territory, and is now
making its progress over the Mississippi into the newly purchased
regions of Louisiana. The accounts given of all these countries,
successively, were extensively true, but the conclusions which were
deduced from them were, in a great measure, erroneous. So long as this
mould remains, the produce will be regularly great, and that with very
imperfect cultivation,――for the mould in its native state is so soft
and light, as scarcely to need the aid of the plough. But this mould,
after a length of time, will be dissipated. Where lands are continually
ploughed, it is soon lost; on those which are covered with grass from
the beginning, it is preserved through a considerable period. At length,
however, every appearance of its efficacy, and even of its existence,
vanishes.

‘The true object of inquiry, whenever the quality of a soil is to be
estimated, is the nature of the earth immediately beneath the vegetable
mould, for this, in every case, will ultimately be the soil. If this is
capable of being rendered, by skilful cultivation, regularly productive,
the soil is good; if not, it is poor. With this object in view, I
have formed the opinion expressed above, concerning the country under
discussion. Throughout most of this tract, the earth beneath the mould
is an excellent soil. The mould itself will speedily be gone. It is
wisely and kindly provided by the Creator, to answer the immediate
calls of the first settlers. These are of course few and poor,――are
embarrassed by many wants and difficulties, and need their time and
labor to build their houses, barns, and inclosures, as well as to
procure, with extreme inconvenience, many articles of necessity and
comfort, which are obtained in older settlements without labor or time.
To them it is a complete and ample manure, on which whatever is sown
springs with vigor, and produces, almost without toil or skill, a
plentiful harvest. But it was not intended to be permanent; it is not
even desirable that it should be. To interrupt, or even to slacken,
the regular labor of man materially, is to do him an injury. One of the
prime blessings of temperate climates is this, that they yield amply
to skilful labor, and without it yield little or nothing. Where such
is the fact, energy and effort will follow, and all their inestimable
consequences. Where countries are radically barren, man will despair.’

We will now give a brief description of the soil of each of the states,
commencing with the north-eastern divisions. The soil of Maine in
general, when properly fitted to receive the seed, is friendly to the
growth of Indian corn, rye, barley, oats, peas, hemp, and flax, as well
as to the production of almost all kinds of culinary roots and plants;
wheat is also grown, but not in large quantities. Excellent potatoes
are raised in great quantities. For the most part, the lands are easily
cleared, having very little underwood. The natural productions consist
of white pine and spruce trees in large quantities, suitable for masts,
boards, and shingles; and also of maple, beech, white and grey oak,
and yellow birch. The land between the Kennebec and Penobscot rivers
is well adapted to the purposes of agriculture, and is excellent for
grazing. With good cultivation, land of average quality yields forty
bushels of maize to the acre, from twenty to forty bushels of wheat,
and from one to three tons of hay. Apple, pear, plum, and cherry trees,
flourish; the peach tree does not thrive.

The soil of New Hampshire, near the seacoast, is in many places sandy;
on the banks of the rivers it is generally good, and in the valleys
among the mountains, which are rich on the brows, and usually covered
with timber. The river land is most esteemed, producing every kind
of grain in the utmost perfection; but it is not so good for pasture
as the uplands. In the uncultivated parts of the state, the soil is
distinguished by the various kinds of timber which grow upon it; thus,
white oak land is hard and stony, the undergrowth consisting of brakes
and fern; black and yellow birch, white ash, elm, and alder, are
indications of a good soil, deep, rich and moist, which will admit
grass and grain without ploughing; red oak and white birch are signs
of strong land. Agriculture is, and always will be, the chief business
of the people of New Hampshire. Apples and pears are fruits the most
commonly cultivated, and no husbandman thinks his farm complete without
an orchard.

A large portion of Vermont state is fertile, and adapted to the
various purposes of agriculture. The soil is generally deep, rich,
moist, of a dark color, loamy, and seldom parched with drought. On
the border of the stream it is alluvial, and the richest in the state;
though some of the uplands almost equal it in fertility. Wheat is
extensively cultivated, particularly on the west side of the mountains.
Barley, rye, oats, peas, flax, and potatoes, flourish in all parts
of the state. Indian corn also thrives, and apples are abundant. Much
of the land among the mountains is excellent for grazing, and great
numbers of cattle are annually sent out of the state for sale.

No extensive alluvial tracts occur in Massachusetts; although limited
patches of this stratum are sometimes found on the banks of every
stream, and, with the adjoining elevated woodland and pasture ground,
constitute many of the richest farms in the state. There are numerous
uncultivated swamps, however, for ages the reservoir of rich soil, that
may be reclaimed with considerable labor and expense, which they will
amply repay by their singular fertility. The soil of Massachusetts is
chiefly diluvial, of all soils the most unfriendly to rich vegetation,
though capable of being made rich by clearing away its stone, and
the extensive use of manure. The diluvium is most abundant in the
south-east parts of the state, almost entirely overspreading the
counties of Plymouth, Barnstable, Duke’s and Nantucket. Toward the
extremity of Cape Cod, and on the Island of Nantucket, this stratum is
composed almost entirely of sand. The most extensive tertiary formation
in the state is found in the valley of the Connecticut. Here also are
found tracts, from which the diluvium and tertiary have been swept
away, and which exhibit the reddish aspect that characterises the
red sand-stone formation. This soil is of a superior quality, and
peculiarly well adapted for fruit.

The soil of Rhode Island is various, and a great part of it good;
though better adapted for grazing than for grain. The north-western
parts of the state are rocky and barren; but the tract in the
neighborhood of Narraganset Bay is excellent pasture land, and is
inhabited by wealthy farmers, who raise some of the finest neat cattle
in America. The ground is well cultivated, and produces Indian corn,
rye, barley, oats, wheat, (though not enough for home consumption,)
fruits and vegetables, in great abundance. The soil of Connecticut
is generally rich and well watered, and the whole state resembles a
cultivated garden. In the central valley of the Connecticut river,
and in the valleys of its tributary streams, large accumulations of
alluvial deposit have formed extensive plains and meadows. The soil is
adapted to Indian corn, rye, wheat, and flax; orchards are numerous,
and of late years, tobacco has also been raised in not inconsiderable
quantities. Much of the land, however, is better for grazing than
tillage; and the beef, pork, butter and cheese, of Connecticut, are
equal to any in the world. The meadows on the banks of the river are
uncommonly rich.

The soil of the southern and eastern parts of New York, is dry and
gravelly, intermixed with loam; the mountainous districts are well
adapted for grazing, and there are many rich valleys on the rivers.
The northern and western parts are generally rich and fertile. In the
valley of the Gennessee[35] is some of the best wheat country in the
world; and the alluvial flats of the valley of the Mohawk are highly
fertile. Around Lake Champlain is an extensive district of clayey
soil, extending to the hills that skirt the Peruvian Mountains. West
of Albany are extensive sandy plains interspersed with marshes. A
large part of New York is under excellent cultivation; particularly the
western end of Long Island, and the counties of Westchester and Duchess.

The soil of Pennsylvania is of many various kinds. To the east of
the mountains it is generally good, and a considerable part of it is
bedded on limestone. Among the mountains, the land is rough, and much
of it poor, in some parts quite barren; but there are a great many
rich and fertile valleys. In the neighborhood of York and Lancaster,
the soil consists of rich, brown, loamy earth; and proceeding in a
south-westerly course, parallel to the Blue Mountains, the same kind
of soil is met with as far as Fredericktown, in Maryland. West of the
mountains the country improves, and about the head-waters of the Ohio
it is generally fertile. Pennsylvania has a soil much better adapted to
grazing than tillage.

The southern parts of New Jersey are sandy and flat, sometimes marshy,
almost perfectly sterile, though occasionally producing shrub oaks,
and pines: the northern half of the state is well adapted either for
grazing or tillage. A part of Delaware abounds with swamps and stagnant
waters, which render it alike unfit for the purposes of agriculture,
and injurious to the health of the inhabitants. At the southern
extremity of the state is the Cypress Swamp, a morass twelve miles in
length and six in breadth, including an area of nearly fifty thousand
acres of land; the whole of which is a high and level basin, very wet,
though undoubtedly the highest land between the sea and the bay. The
swamp contains a great variety of trees, plants, wild beasts, birds,
and reptiles. In the northern parts, along the Delaware river and bay,
and from eight to ten miles into the interior, the soil is generally
a rich clay, in which a great variety of the most useful productions
can be conveniently and plentifully reared; from thence to the swamps
before noticed, the soil is light, sandy, and of an inferior quality.
In the central parts of the state, there is a considerable mixture of
sand; and in the southern part it, renders the soil almost totally
unproductive.

In the western part of Maryland, the soil is somewhat strong, and in
other parts are tracts of thin, unproductive land. It is generally,
however, a red clay or loam; much of it is excellent, and producing
large crops. Wheat and tobacco are the staple commodities, but on the
uplands of the interior, hemp and flax are raised in considerable
quantities.

The soil in the low part of Virginia is sandy or marshy, except on the
banks of the rivers, where it is very rich. This territory is alluvial,
and under its surface every where exhibits bones and marine shells.
Between the head of tide-waters and the mountains, it exhibits a great
variety, and a considerable portion is good. Among the mountains there
is a great deal of poor land, but it is interspersed with rich valleys.
In the valley between the Blue Ridge and the Alleghany, we come to a
country lying upon a bed of limestone. Here the soil is a deep clayey
earth, well suited to the culture of small grain and clover, and
produces abundant crops. Beyond the mountains the surface is broken,
with occasional fertile tracts, but the soil is generally lean.

North Carolina, from the seacoast to sixty miles inward, is a level
tract, of a lean and sandy soil, interspersed with swamps, and covered
with pine forests. In the mountainous parts, and to the west of the
mountains, the soil is moist and fertile. On the banks of some of the
rivers, particularly the Roanoke, it is remarkably rich. It has been
estimated that there are two millions five hundred thousand acres of
swampy land within the state, capable of being drained at a trifling
cost, and adapted to the purposes of agriculture. They have a clayey
bottom, overlaid with a vegetable compost, and when drained have proved
exceedingly fertile. One of these tracts is known by the name of the
Dismal Swamp; it is thirty miles long and ten broad, overgrown with
pine, juniper, and cypress trees. In the midst of it is a lake seven
miles in length. The Alligator, or Little Dismal Swamp, lies to the
south of Albemarle Sound, and incloses a lake eleven miles long and
seven broad. This swamp has been partly drained by means of a canal,
and many productive rice plantations occupy the reclaimed lands.

The soil of South Carolina may be divided into five classes: first,
the pine barren, which is valuable only for its timber; interspersed
among these barrens, are tracts destitute of every kind of growth
except grass, called _savannas_, and forming a second kind of soil,
good for grazing. The third, is that of the swamps and low grounds on
the rivers, which is a mixture of black loam and rich clay, producing
naturally canes in great plenty, cypress, and bays. In these swamps
rice is cultivated. The high lands, commonly known by the name of oak
and hickory lands, constitute the fourth kind of soil; this tract is
comparatively small, and is situated in the north-western extremity of
the state. The fifth class is that of the salt marsh, which borders on
the seacoast and has been much neglected.

The greater part of the soil of Georgia is alluvial. On the islands
which line its coast the soil is very fertile, and produces cotton of a
superior quality. The soil of the main land, adjoining the marshes and
creeks, is similarly fertile. This is succeeded by the pine barrens,
which abound with swampy tracts. On the banks of the rivers are the
valuable rice plantations. The soil between the rivers, after leaving
the borders of the swamps, at the distance of twenty or thirty miles,
changes from a gray to a red color, and is covered with oak, hickory,
and pine. In some places it is gravelly, but fertile, and so continues
for a number of miles, gradually deepening the reddish color of the
earth, till it changes into what is called the _mulatto soil_, which
is composed of black and red earth. These mulatto lands are generally
strong, and yield large crops. To this kind of land succeeds by turns a
soil nearly black and very rich. This succession of the different soils
continues uniform and regular, though there are some large veins of all
the different soils intermixed.

The soil of East Florida is generally poor, and circumstances have
prevented the settlement and cultivation of the small proportion of
really good lands. The parts on the western seashore are barren and
sandy, abounding with marshes and lagoons. In the northern districts,
gentle elevations of fertile land, supporting a vigorous growth of
oaks and hickories, are found in the midst of marshes and pine barrens.
Sugar cane is raised here with great facility, and a superior quality
of long and short staple cotton.

In the lower parts of Alabama are extensive swamps, cypress land,
and cane brakes. The central region is covered with gentle elevations,
having a thin soil with a substratum of clay that cultivation will
render productive. At present these hills are covered with pine, and,
while there are tracts of rich land, will be held in little estimation;
they include more than one half the surface of the state. On the banks
of the Alabama and Tombeckbee there are wide and fertile alluvions, and
the region between these rivers is the richest and best in Alabama. The
French emigrants represent the soil of the slopes and hammoc lands of
this state to be suitable for the vine.

In the northern section of Mississippi the land rises in regular
undulations, and the soil is black, fertile, and deep, covered with
high cane brake. The valleys north-west of the Yazoo are well watered
and exceedingly rich. In the western parts of the state, the lands are
unfortunately exposed to inundation; but, in other respects, the soil
does not much differ from that of Alabama. The southern tract is a
level alluvion.

A region of Louisiana, comprising about five millions of acres, is
annually overflowed by the waters of the Mississippi. Of this tract
a large portion is, in its present state, unfit for cultivation. This
immense tract embraces soil of various descriptions; cypress swamps,
sea marsh, small elevated prairie lands of great fertility, and a
tract covered with cane brake, rank shrubbery, and a heavy growth of
timber.[36] The best soil of Louisiana is found in the region called
the _coast_, which is that part of the bottom of the Mississippi
commencing with the first cultivation above the Balize, and comprising
forty miles below New Orleans, and one hundred and fifty above. This
fertile belt, which varies in width from one to two miles, is secured
from inundation by an embankment, broad enough to furnish a fine
highway, from six to eight feet in height. In the northern part of
this state, bordering on Arkansas, is a considerable extent of hilly,
flinty, barren land.

Arkansas territory exhibits every variety and quality of soil.
The cultivated belt below the Post of Arkansas bears some outward
resemblance to the _coast_ in Louisiana; though its soil is not so
fertile, and needs manuring to produce large crops. Large prairies
interspersed with forest bottoms, and large tracts of excellent soil,
are found five or six hundred miles from the mouth of Arkansas river.
Mount Prairie, which lies on the Washita, has a black soil of extreme
richness. On the White river are some of the healthiest and most
fertile situations in this country. The other parts of this territory
are vast tracts of sterile and precipitous ridges, sandy prairies, and
barrens.

The soil of Tennessee, in the valleys of its creeks and streams,
is rich beyond any of the same description elsewhere in the western
country. In East Tennessee it derives its fertility from the quantities
of dissolved lime, and nitrate of lime that are mixed with it. In West
Tennessee the strata are arranged in the following order: first, a
loamy soil, or mixtures of clay and sand; next, yellow clay; then comes
a mixture of red sand and red clay; and lastly, a white sand. In the
southern parts of this state immense banks are found of uncommonly
large oyster shells, situated on high table-grounds remote from any
water-course.

Missouri contains a large proportion of friable, loamy, and sandy soil.
The uplands are rich, and of a darkish gray color: excepting the region
of the lead mines, where the soil is bright and reddish. The prairies
are generally level, and of an intermediate character between the rich
and the poorer uplands, the latter of which have a light, yellow soil,
stiff and clayey. The bottoms of the great rivers and smaller streams
of this state have uncommon fertility. On the upper Mississippi are
rich uplands, interspersed with flinty knobs two or three hundred feet
high. In the south-west part of the state are sterile tracts, covered
with yellow pine, and scattered with hilly and rocky country.

Kentucky abounds in large bodies of fertile land, but even here are
tracts too sterile for cultivation. Nothing can exceed in richness
the great valley of which Lexington is the centre. A tract one hundred
miles by fifty in extent is found in the centre of the state, with a
substratum of limestone, which dissolves and so mingles with the soil
as to impart to it great richness and vigor. Much of the soil is of
that character known as mulatto land. An extensive tract of barrens
occurs between the Rolling Fork and Green river, and between the latter
and Cumberland river, in the northern and eastern parts of the state.
Here the soil is generally good, and affords fine pasturage.

Illinois has but few elevations, and those of inconsiderable extent;
it is generally a region perfectly level. Though containing tracts
of barrens and rough lands, not to be easily cultivated, it perhaps
includes a greater proportion of land of the best quality than any
other state. This region was called by the French the Terrestrial
Paradise; and its soil is said to be the richest in the world. ‘Our
road,’ says a recent traveller, ‘passed through the prairie ground, of
which above two thirds of the whole state of Illinois is composed, most
beautiful at all times, but especially at this season, owing to the
brilliancy of the flowers now in blossom. Plantations we saw here and
there, but the general appearance of the country was that of a fine
waving surface of strong grass, covered with strawberry plants, and
the finest flowers, and with wood on the high grounds and hollows, and
occasional dropping trees, and clumps or islets of wood. In general,
there was quite enough of wood in the view, and far more happily
disposed than if the trees had been planted by the hand of man.’

Indiana contains large tracts of excellent soil; and is generally
level and fertile. The prairies bordering the Wabash, are particularly
rich; wells have been sunk in them, where the vegetable soil was
twenty-two feet deep, under which was a stratum of fine white sand;
yet the ordinary depth is from two to five feet. Many of the prairies
and intervals are too rich for wheat. The northern part of the state
contains much good land, but is intersected by long narrow bogs and
swamps, with a soil of stiff blue clay.

In Ohio, the land bordering on the river of the same name is hilly and
broken; but most of these hills have a deep rich soil, and are capable
of being cultivated to their very summits. The bottoms of the Ohio are
of very unequal width; the bases of some of the hills approach close to
the river, while others recede to the distance of two or three miles.
There are usually three bottoms, rising one above the other like the
glacis of a fortification; and they are heavily timbered with such
trees as denote a very fertile soil. In such parts of these bottoms as
have been cleared and settled, the soil is uniformly fertile in a high
degree; producing in great abundance wheat, Indian corn, rye, oats,
and barley, and apples and peaches of excellent quality. In the western
counties, and in the north-western and northern portions of the state,
there is a leveller surface, and a moister soil, interspersed with
tracts of dry prairie, and forests of a sandy or gravelly soil. The
north-western corner of the state contains a considerable district of
level, rich land, too wet and swampy to admit of healthy settlements:
the soil is a black, loose, friable loam, or a vegetable mould, watered
by sluggish and dark-colored streams.

That part of the territory of Michigan, which forms the peninsula
lying between the great lakes, is generally level. In its centre,
however, is a ridge of table-land about three hundred feet above the
lakes, running north and south, and dividing the waters emptying into
Erie and Huron from those running to the westward. This peninsula is
divided into about equal proportions of grass prairies and forests.
Along the southern shore of Lake Michigan is a sandy and barren tract
of country, bleak and desolate. But much of the soil of this country
is excellent, and its productions are similar to those of the state of
New York. The North-West territory has not yet been much explored. That
portion of it situated between the Fox and Wisconsin rivers, and the
western shore of Lake Michigan, has a rich, black, alluvial soil, and
is well watered. The face of the country is unbroken by hills of any
magnitude.

The most striking feature of the vast Missouri territory is its ocean
of prairies. A belt of partially wooded country extends from two to
four hundred miles west of the Mississippi and its waters. The immense
extent of country west of the two great rivers is generally level, and
is covered with grass plains, and sand deserts. On the banks of the
streams there is usually a line of rich soil, but as we leave them
it becomes barren and dry. Much of this country is as sterile as the
deserts of Arabia, though in the most sandy parts there is a thin sward
of grass and herbage. The Missouri, the Platte and the Yellow-stone run
through a rich soil; but in its upper courses the Arkansas waters only
a barren prairie.


                       GENERAL REMARKS ON SOIL.

  The productiveness of soils is influenced by the nature of the
  sub-soil, or the earthy or stony strata on which they rest, and
  this should be attended to in all plans for their improvement.
  Thus sandy soil may owe its fertility to the power of the sub-soil
  to retain water; and an absorbent clay soil may occasionally be
  prevented from being barren by the influence of a substratum of
  sand and gravel. Those soils that are most productive of corn,
  contain always certain proportions of aluminous or calcareous
  earth in a finely divided state, and a certain quantity of
  vegetable or animal matter.

  ‘In cases,’ says Sir Humphrey Davy, ‘where a barren soil is
  examined with a view to its improvement, it ought, in all cases,
  if possible, to be compared with an extremely fertile soil in
  the same neighborhood, and in a similar situation; the difference
  given by their analyses would indicate the methods of cultivation,
  and thus the plan of improvement would be founded upon accurate
  scientific principles.

  ‘If the fertile soil contained a large quantity of sand, in
  proportion to the barren soil, the process of amelioration would
  depend simply upon a supply of this substance; and the method
  would be equally simple with regard to soils deficient in clay or
  calcareous matter. In the application of clay, sand, loam, marl,
  or chalk, to lands, there are no particular chemical principles to
  be observed; but, when quicklime is used, great care must be taken
  that it is not obtained from the magnesian limestone; for in this
  case, as has been shown by Mr. Pennant, it is extremely injurious
  to land. The magnesian limestone may be distinguished from the
  common limestone by its greater hardness, and by the length of
  time that it requires for its solution in acids; and it may be
  analyzed by the process for carbonate of lime and magnesia.

  ‘When the analytical composition indicates an excess of vegetable
  matter as the cause of sterility, it may be destroyed by much
  pulverization and exposure to air, by paring and burning, or the
  agency of lately made quicksilver; and the defect of animal and
  vegetable matter must be supplied by animal or vegetable manure.
  The general indications of fertility and barrenness, as found
  by chemical experiments, must necessarily differ in different
  climates, and under various circumstances. The power of soils to
  absorb moisture, a principle essential to their productiveness,
  ought to be much greater in warm and dry countries, than in cold
  and moist ones; and the quantity of fine aluminous earth they
  contain should be larger.

  ‘From the great difference of the causes that influence the
  productiveness of lands, it is obvious, that, in the present
  state of the science, no certain system can be devised for their
  improvement, independent of experiment; but there are few cases
  in which the labor of analytical trials will not be amply repaid
  by the certainty with which they denote the best methods of
  melioration; and this will particularly happen when the defect of
  composition is found in the proportions of the primitive earths.
  In supplying animal or vegetable manure, a temporary food only is
  provided for plants, which is in all cases exhausted by means of
  a certain number of crops; but when a soil is rendered of the best
  possible constitution and texture with regard to its earthy parts,
  its fertility may be considered as permanently established. It
  becomes capable of attracting a very large portion of vegetable
  nourishment from the atmosphere, and of producing its crops with
  comparatively little labor and expense.’




                      CHAPTER XIV.――CLIMATE.[37]


THE United States are most desirably situated. Placed in the northern
temperate zone, they occupy just that portion of it, which is most
likely to yield a healthy climate and rich soil. Happily removed from
the parching heat of the torrid, and eternal frosts of the frigid zone,
the republic is nevertheless of such an extent as almost to touch upon
both. The climate of a country, stretching through twenty degrees of
latitude, cannot but be of great diversity. In this respect it has been
divided into five regions, which may be denominated the _very cold_,
the _cold_, the _temperate_, the _warm_, and the _hot_.

1. The _very cold_, in the north-east, may be defined by running a line
from St. Regis, on the St. Lawrence, along the high land in the state
of New York to Tioga Point, in Pennsylvania; thence to Stony Point
on Hudson’s river, and thence to Cape Cod in Massachusetts. In this
region the summers continue from June through August, and the winters
from November to the middle of April. The extremes of heat and cold
are great, and the changes sudden, but the country is, notwithstanding,
healthy. To the westward, north of a line drawn from the southern
extremity of Lake Huron to the Rocky Mountains, the climate is also
very cold, and the northern extremity in the winter is excessively so.

The winters of Maine are long and severe, with clear settled weather,
which generally continues from the middle of December, till the latter
end of March; during which time, the ponds and fresh water rivers are
passable on the ice. There is scarcely any spring season; the summer is
short, and warm; but autumn is in general pure, healthy, and pleasant.

The climate of New Hampshire is highly favorable to health; but the
winters are long and severe. Cattle are housed about the first of
November. Snow lies on the ground from four to five months, and the use
of sleighs during that period is general. The spring is rapid, and the
heat of summer great, but of short duration; autumn is very pleasant.
Morning and evening fires are needed as early as the first of September,
and as late as the first of June.

The climate of Vermont differs little from that of New Hampshire, and
is extremely healthy. The earth is generally covered with snow from
the middle of December till the end of March; but the winter seasons
may be said to continue from the beginning of November till the middle
of April, during which, the inhabitants enjoy a serene sky and a keen
cold air. The ground is seldom frozen to any great depth, being covered
with a great body of snow, in some high lands to the depth of four or
five feet, before the severe frosts begin. In this way the earth is
enriched and moistened, and in the spring vegetation advances with
great rapidity.

The climate of Massachusetts is perhaps more variable than that of
any other of the New England states; not having the steady winter
cold of those to the north, nor the general mildness in summer of
those immediately south. Fires are necessary from November to May; and
there are days, even in June, when they are not only comfortable, but
indispensable for comfort. Cattle are housed in November. In winter,
travelling is not often impeded by great falls of snow; though heavy
and severe snow storms occur. The rivers and ponds are frozen three
months in the year; and the harbors are usually closed a week or
fortnight, and sometimes for a much longer time. As there are many
cold days in summer, so also there are many warm days in winter; and
the field which is at night soft enough to receive the plough, may be
chained with frost and buried in snow before morning. Winter sets in
late; frequently not till December, but, recently, it has gone quite
through the spring months. Indeed, the most disagreeable portion of
the year, is during March and April and part of May, when the east are
prevailing winds. In autumn there is much weather truly delightful.
Apples and pears flourish well in Massachusetts, peach trees sometimes
suffer from the late spring and the early autumnal frosts. It is
difficult to find an accurate description of so variable a climate;
as no tolerably correct account of it could be given, except in the
details of a meteorological table.

The climate of Rhode Island and Connecticut does not differ very
materially from that of Massachusetts. In the southern parts of
these states, summer may set in a few days earlier, and the winter be
generally a little more temperate, but the change of climate is slight.

In the very cold tract are included the eastern and northern parts
of New York, being the mountainous country, and the region lying to
the east of it. Here the winters are long and severe, being more so as
you proceed to the north. The climate of this region may be generally
described as similar to that of the New England states, which lies in
the same latitude. In the parts of Michigan territory, lying within
this region, the climate resembles that of Canada.

In the region we have called _very cold_, the range of the thermometer
is from thirty degrees below zero to ninety-eight above it; including
great extremes both of heat and cold.

2. The _cold region_ comprehends a great and very unequal range of
country. In the eastern division it extends from the foregoing line,
to Lakes Ontario and Erie, westward; and south, on the Atlantic coast,
to about Cape Henlopen on the Delaware. Hence a line may be protracted
to Washington, and along by the foot of the first mountains in Virginia
to about Morgantown, North Carolina; thence through the mountains to
Kenaway river, and north-east on the west side of the mountains to
the upper part of Chesnut Ridge, in Pennsylvania. In the westward,
the southern boundary of the very cold region before-mentioned, may be
assumed as the northern boundary of the cold; and the southern boundary
of the cold may be protracted westward from the head of Chesnut Ridge
to the high lands, dividing the waters falling into the Ohio from
those falling into the great lakes, and along in a northern and western
direction, crossing the Mississippi about thirty miles below Praire des
Chiens, thence south and west, crossing the Missouri about thirty miles
below the Platte river; thence southward to the west of the Great Osage
village, and then eastward to the Arkansas river, above the Hot Springs.
In this division the winters commence in December and end in March, and
the heat of summer commences in May and ends in September. The heat and
cold here also go to great extremes; but the weather is very changeable,
particularly in winter, so that neither severe heat nor severe cold
lasts long at a time. The country in this division is also generally
healthy.

In this division are comprehended the south-eastern and western parts
of New York, New Jersey, the northern and eastern parts of Pennsylvania,
most of Delaware and Maryland, the central and mountainous parts of
Virginia, the southern portion of Michigan territory, the northern
extremities of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, and portions of the
Missouri and Arkansas territories.

In the south-eastern parts of New York the prevailing winds, during
the summer, are southerly; the weather is variable, and the change of
temperature sudden and frequent. The mild and damp sea air penetrates
far inland; indeed, as far as the Highlands, the climate differs
little from that of the seacoast. In the parts of New York west of the
mountains, the average temperature is about three degrees higher than
in the same latitude farther east. South-westerly winds prevail through
most of the year; and the chill easterly wind is nearly unknown.[38]

The climate of Pennsylvania is very various. On the east side of the
Alleghany Mountains it differs little from that of Connecticut. It is,
like the other countries east of the mountains, subject to great and
sudden changes; but on the west side, it is much more agreeable and
temperate, with a greater portion of cloudy weather, and winters milder
and more humid than on the Atlantic. The winter season commences about
the twentieth of December, and the spring sets in about two weeks
earlier than in the eastern parts of New York. There is frost almost
every month in the year in some places, and the extremes of heat and
cold are considerable. The keenness of the north-west wind in winter
is excessive, but the state is, upon the whole, extremely healthy, and
numerous instances of longevity occur.

The climate of New Jersey is dissimilar in different sections of the
state. In the northern parts, there is clear, settled weather, and
the winters are exceedingly cold; but the whole is very healthy. In
the districts towards the south, particularly near the extremity, the
weather approaches more nearly to that of the southern states, and
is subject to very sudden changes. The climate of Delaware is much
influenced by the face of the country; for the land being low and flat,
the waters stagnate, and the inhabitants are consequently subject to
intermittent fevers and agues. The northern parts, however, are much
more agreeable and healthy than those to the south.

Among the mountains of Virginia the summers are delightful, and
the heat is never found to be so oppressive as it is in the Atlantic
districts; the winters are so mild in general, that snow seldom lies
three days together on the ground. The salubrity of the climate, also,
is equal to that of any part of the United States; and the inhabitants
have, in consequence, a healthy, ruddy appearance. Perhaps there is
no part of North America possessing a more agreeable climate, than
that section of Virginia which lies west of the Blue Ridge; and,
in particular, the fertile county of Bottetourt, which is entirely
surrounded by mountains. Here the frost in winter is regular, but not
severe. In summer the heat is great; but there is not a night in the
year that a blanket is not found comfortable. Before ten o’clock in the
morning the heat is greatest; at that hour a breeze generally springs
up from the mountains, and renders the air agreeable the whole day.
Fever and ague are disorders unknown here, and persons who come hither
afflicted with them from the low country, get rid of them in a very
short time. Except in the neighborhood of stagnant waters, Virginia
has, upon the whole, a healthy climate.

The climate of Maryland is various in different districts, but
for the most part mild and agreeable, well suited to agricultural
productions, and particularly fruit trees. The eastern parts are
similar to Delaware, having large tracts of marsh, which, during the
day, load the atmosphere with vapor, that falls in dew in the close
of the summer and autumn, which are unhealthy, and during which the
inhabitants are much exposed to fever and ague. In the interior hilly
country the climate improves very much, and among the mountains it is
delightful and healthy; the summers being cooled by fine breezes, while
the winters are tempered by a southern latitude, which renders them
much milder than to the northward.

In the southern portions of Michigan territory, the winters are not
severe, and the spring sets in as early as in any other part of the
state which lies in the same latitude. In 1820, at Detroit, the mean
heat of December was twenty-seven degrees, and of July sixty-nine. The
temperature of this territory is rendered milder by the neighborhood of
such large bodies of water, and by the absence of great elevations. The
portions of the Missouri and Arkansas territories, that lie within the
boundaries of the cold region, partake of the character of the climate
already described. As the country in these territories is open and
generally level, the temperature depends chiefly on the latitude.

The northern and north-eastern parts of Illinois are cold in the
winter; the air from the great lake is chill and bleak, and sensibly
affects the country exposed to its influence. In the region of Ohio,
sloping towards the lakes, the snow falls to a very considerable depth,
and lies long; sleighs and sledges are much used. The transitions
during the winter are violent and frequent. That part of Indiana
contiguous to Lake Michigan is often exposed to heavy falls of rain,
and is consequently marshy and unhealthy.

3. The _temperate_ region is situated between the cold, and a line
drawn from Morgantown, North Carolina, south-westward along the foot of
the mountains to their termination in Georgia, thence in a north-west
direction by Florence, in Alabama, and crossing the Mississippi river
about the upper part of the Chickasaw Bluffs, thence north-west to the
Delaware towns on White river, and thence south-west to the Arkansas,
above the Hot Springs. The region described within these limits lies
in the very heart of the country, the whole being on a considerable
elevation. It comprehends Kentucky and Missouri, with nearly the
whole of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Tennessee, the south part of
Pennsylvania, the western part of Virginia, and small portions of North
Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama. This climate is distinguished from
the foregoing by an earlier spring, and by greater serenity, and fewer
changes.

The climate of Tennessee forms a medium between the warmth of the
south and the cold of the north; it may be correctly viewed as the
middle climate of the United States, and proves peculiarly congenial
to northern constitutions. There is no country in America where
diseases are so rare, where physicians have so little practice, and
where children are more robust and healthy. Snow falls in winter, and
sometimes to a considerable depth; but the summer, particularly in the
higher ground, is mild, and accompanied with excessive heat. Apples,
pears, and plums are raised here in great perfection; and in sheltered
situations it is thought that the fig might be cultivated to advantage.
Maize is planted early in April; cotton is the staple of agriculture.
Within the limits of this state, most of the forest trees of the
western country are found in abundance.

In Kentucky the climate is not so mild as that of Tennessee. It is
however mild and temperate. Grape vines flourish here of prodigious
size. All the grains, pulses, garden vegetables, and fruits of the
temperate climate abound. The wheat of Kentucky is excellent, but hemp
and tobacco are her staples.

The climate of Missouri is temperate, though variable. Winter
continues in its severity for about two months, from the latter part of
December to the last of February; but even during this interval there
are many warm and pleasant days. Snow seldom remains on the ground
more than sixty hours; and its maximum depth is generally about six
inches. Frequently the rivers are for weeks frozen sufficiently hard
for the passage of loaded teams. Trees sometimes blossom in March,
and the spring months with occasional cold, have days as pleasant
as those of summer. From the sandy and warm texture of the soil, and
the openness of the country, the heat in summer is very great, and
would be oppressive, except for the prevalence of agreeable breezes.
Another characteristic of the Missouri climate, is its extreme dryness;
evaporation is rapid, and the average amount of rain falling in the
year is estimated at eighteen inches. Long and steady rains so common
in the eastern states, seldom occur; the summer rains are generally
thunder showers. The autumn months are delightful, serene, temperate,
and salubrious.

The part of Ohio lying within this division of climate is moderate
in respect to climate; suffering neither from excessive cold or the
reverse. Along the banks of the Ohio river it is more mild than in the
central and mountainous regions; and the difference is owing to the
difference of latitude and elevation. The winters vary in severity,
being sometimes quite mild; in other years the rivers are frozen for
eight or nine weeks. Severe cold generally continues from the last week
in December through the first in February. Summer heat in the valley
of the Ohio is oppressive, but of short duration. Autumn is temperate,
pleasant, and healthy. Nowhere in the world, says Mr. Flint, is the
grand autumnal painting of the forests, in the decay of vegetation,
seen in more beauty than in the beech forests of Ohio. The richness
of the fading colors, and the effect of the mingling hues baffles all
description. On the whole, a great farming community, like that of Ohio,
could scarcely desire a better climate for themselves, their cattle,
and stock of all kinds; or one, in which a man can work abroad, with
comfort, a greater number of days in the year.

Indiana has much the same temperature with Illinois and Missouri.
The winters are mild, and seldom last in their severity more than six
weeks; during this period, the slower streams are generally frozen, and
afford a safe passage on the ice. In the middle and southern parts of
the state snow seldom falls to a greater depth than six inches. Trees
begin to be green early in April, and the peach blossoms in March. A
large number of shrubs put forth their flowers before the leaves, and
from this the spring vegetation is singularly beautiful. Illinois has
in general the same climate with Missouri, and its productions are
the same as those of that state; being, however, somewhat lower,
it is more subject to inundation, and consequently the air is more
humid. The portions of Pennsylvania, Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia
and Alabama, comprehended within this division, partake the general
character of climate with those we have particularly described.

4. The region possessing a _warm_ climate lies between the
temperate, and a line drawn from Cape Henry in a circular direction,
and passing above Tarboro, and through Fayetteville, Columbia, Augusta,
Milledgeville and Fort Jackson in Alabama, and thence a little south
of west across the Mississippi, and on to the Sabine river, in the
latitude of Nacogdoches, in Texas. In this region the winters continue
from about the first of January to the first of March; and the summers
from the first of May to the middle of October. The weather is pretty
settled and steady, and, except in swampy or marshy situations, the
country is generally healthy. This region includes the interior and
central parts of North Carolina, the northern and western parts of
South Carolina, the northern parts of Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi,
and Louisiana.

In the northern and western parts of South Carolina, the land is
mountainous, and the climate generally salubrious. The air is dry, and
in winter cold; but it is generally mild and delightful. The highlands
of North Carolina that lie within this district are healthy and
pleasant; the days in summer are hot, but the nights are refreshed by
cool breezes. The northern and hilly region of Georgia is as healthy as
any part of the states. Winter continues from the middle of December to
the middle of February. The northern parts of Alabama, in the districts
of hills, springs, and pine forests, are generally healthy. In winter
the still waters often freeze; and the summers are not much hotter than
they are many degrees farther to the north.

The climate of the northern part of Mississippi, in places removed from
stagnant waters, is healthy. Heat in summer is intense; and during the
latter month of that season and the first of autumn, even the residents
in the healthy districts are exposed to severe bilious attacks. In
compensation, however, they are free from the pulmonary affections
which occasion so much destruction in the more northern regions. The
productions of this state are the same with those of Louisiana.

5. The _hot_ region extends from the southern extremity of the warm, to
the Atlantic Ocean, and the Gulf of Mexico. It comprises all Florida,
and the southern parts of the Carolinas,[39] Georgia, Alabama, and
Mississippi, with the greater portion of Louisiana.

The climate of Florida may be considered in some respects as a tropical
climate. From the first of July to the first of October, the air is
sultry, and the heat exceedingly oppressive. This may be considered
the unhealthy season, during which fevers are prevalent, but even at
this time the climate of St. Augustine is salubrious and pleasant, and
is a place of resort for those who are desirous of avoiding sickness.
During this period the range of the thermometer is between eighty-four
and eighty-eight degrees, and it sometimes rises above one hundred.
Even in winter, the influence of the clear vertical sun is always
uncomfortable; in the peninsular parts, water never freezes, though
there are sometimes slight frosts. In this climate the most delicate
orange trees flourish and bear delicious fruits; the air is generally
pure and mild, and the breeze pleasant. Heavy dews fall, and the
night air is exceedingly humid. The rainy season commences early
in winter; in February and March there are severe thunder storms by
night, followed by days of great clearness and beauty. The peninsula
is visited by tornadoes, and at the time of the autumnal equinox,
hurricanes and destructive gales occur.

In the southern and eastern portions of the Carolinas, the summers
are very hot, sultry, moist and unhealthy. The extensive and rapid
decomposition of vegetable matter engenders exhalations, which unite
with the miasmata of the swamps, and create an atmosphere loaded with
the most deleterious qualities. Intermittent and bilious fevers are
frequent and severe. In the low country the summer lasts seven or
eight months; and though the winter frost is sometimes severe enough
to kill the tender plants, it seldom lasts more than three or four
days, or penetrates the ground above two inches. Spring commences about
the middle of February, and green peas are often in the market by the
middle of March; but the weather varies very much till about the first
of May, when it becomes steadily warm, and continues increasing in heat
till September, when it begins to moderate. Almost every person whose
circumstances permit, removes to a more healthy situation during this
period, and a vast number go to the northern states in the summer,
and return in the fall. The period of going north is mostly from
the middle of May to the middle of July, and of returning, from the
middle of October to the middle of November. The anxiety that prevails
during that period is extreme, and when it is over, the inhabitants
congratulate one another with the full prospect of ten or eleven months
being added to their lives.

The climate of Georgia differs little from that already described of
the Carolinas. The rice swamps, and the low country in general, are
very unhealthy, and the planters are obliged, during the sickly season,
to retire to the elevated parts of the state. A near approach to the
tropical temperature is found in some portions of Georgia, where the
cane, the olive, and sweet orange flourish luxuriantly. The climate
of the southern part of Alabama, and of Mississippi, resembles that of
Georgia and South Carolina in the same latitudes. In the thirty-first
degree of latitude, the thermometer stands in spring water at
sixty-nine degrees, which is nearly the mean temperature of the year.
A series of thermometrical observations is mentioned by Mr. Flint,
which gave the following result. The warmest part of the warmest
day in April, gave eighty-two degrees; mean heat of July of the same
year, eighty-six; coldest in January, fifty-four; coldest in February,
forty-three; warmest in March, eighty-five degrees. In the same year,
trees even in swamps, where the vegetation is most tardy, were in full
leaf by the second of April; at which time peach blossoms were gone.
Peas were in pod by the twelfth of April; when peaches were of the size
of a hazel-nut, and the fig trees in full leaf. Green peas were on the
table, and strawberries ripe by the second of May, and on the sixteenth
of the same month, mulberries, dewberries, and whortleberries were ripe.

The climate of Louisiana bears a general resemblance to that of Florida.
All the northern fruits come to perfection here, with the exception
of apples. The pumpkin and melon tribe flourish, and the common garden
vegetables are cultivated in abundance. Figs of different kinds might
be extensively raised for exportation, but are much neglected. On the
rich alluvial lands maize thrives wonderfully; but wheat and rye do not
flourish. In the region of the sugar-cane, along the whole shore of the
gulf, and on the lower courses of the rivers of Louisiana, the orange
tree flourishes and bears a delicious fruit. In the year 1822, a severe
frost destroyed these trees while in full bearing, but the roots have
thrown out new trees. The cultivated grape, and various wild grapes
abound. Berries are neither common nor good. Cotton grows to the height
of six feet; and tobacco of the first quality is extensively raised.

                   *       *       *       *       *

In addition to the views of climate already given, we may add the
following description of that of Mississippi Valley, for which we have
been indebted to the industrious observation of Mr. Flint. ‘We may
class four distinct climates, between the sources and the outlet of the
Mississippi. The first, commencing at its sources, and terminating at
Prairie du Chien, corresponds pretty accurately to the climate between
Montreal and Boston; with this difference, that the amount of snow
falling in the former is much less than in the latter region. The mean
temperature of a year would be something higher on the Mississippi. The
vegetables raised, the time of planting, and the modes of cultivating
them, would, probably, be nearly the same. Vegetation will have nearly
the same progress and periodical changes. The growing of gourd seed
corn, which demands an increase of temperature to bring it to maturity,
is not planted in this region. The Irish potatoe is raised in this
climate in the utmost perfection. Wheat and cultivated grasses succeed
well. The apple and the pear tree require fostering, and southern
exposure, to bring fruit in perfection. The peach tree has still
more the habits and the fragile delicacy of a southern stranger, and
requires a sheltered declivity, with a southern exposure, to succeed
at all. Five months in the year may be said to belong to the dominion
of winter. For that length of time, the cattle require shelter in the
severe weather, and the still waters remain frozen.

‘The next climate includes the opposite states of Missouri and
Illinois, in their whole extent, or the country between forty-one and
thirty-seven degrees. Cattle, though much benefited by sheltering,
and often needing it, seldom receive it. It is not so favorable for
cultivated grasses, as the preceding region. Gourd seed corn is the
only kind extensively planted. The winter commences with January, and
ends with the second week in February. The ice, in the still waters,
after that time thaws. Wheat, the inhabitant of a variety of climates,
is at home, as a native, in this. The persimon and the papaw are found
in its whole extent. It is the favored region of the apple, the pear,
and peach tree. Snows neither fall deep, nor lie long. The Irish potato
succeeds to a certain extent, but not as well, as in the former climate;
and this disadvantage is supplied by the sweet potato, which, though
not at home in this climate, with a little care in the cultivation,
flourishes. The grandeur of vegetation, and the temperature of March
and April, indicate an approach towards a southern climate.

‘The next climate extends from thirty-seven to thirty-one degrees.
Below thirty-five degrees, in the rich alluvial soils, the apple tree
begins to fail in bringing its fruit to perfection. We have never
tasted apples worth eating, raised much below New Madrid. Cotton,
between this point and thirty-three degrees, is raised, in favorable
positions, for home consumption; but is seldom to be depended upon for
a crop. Below thirty-three degrees commences the proper climate for
cotton, and it is the staple article of cultivation. Festoons of long
moss hang from the trees, and darken the forests. The palmetto gives
to the low alluvial grounds a grand and striking verdure. The muscadine
grape, strongly designating climate, is first found here. Laurel trees
become common in the forest, retaining their foliage and their verdure
through the winter. Wheat is no longer seen, as an article of
cultivation. The fig tree brings its fruit to full maturity.

‘Below this climate, to the gulf, is the region of the sugar-cane and
the sweet orange tree. It would be, if it were cultivated, the region
of the olive. Snow is no longer seen to fall, except a few flakes in
the coldest storms. The streams are never frozen. Winter is only marked
by nights of white frost, and days of north-west winds, which seldom
last longer than three days in succession, and are followed by south
winds and warm days. The trees are generally in leaf by the middle of
February, and always by the first of March. Bats are hovering in the
air during the night. Fireflies are seen in the middle of February.
Early in March the forests are in blossom. The margins of the creeks
and streams are perfumed with the meadow pink, or honeysuckle, yellow
jessamine, and other fragrant flowers. During almost every night a
thunder-storm occurs. Cotton and corn are planted from March to July.
In these regions the summers are uniformly hot, although there are days
when the mercury rises as high in New England, as in Louisiana. The
heat, however, is more uniform and sustained, commences much earlier,
and continues much later. From February to September thunder-storms are
common, often accompanied with severe thunder, and sometimes with gales,
or tornadoes, in which the trees of the forest are prostrated in every
direction, and the tract of country, which is covered with the fallen
trees, is called a ‘hurricane.’ The depressing influence of the summer
heat results from its long continuance, and equable and unremitting
tenor, rather than from the intensity of its ardor at any given time.
It must however be admitted, that at all times the unclouded radiance
of the vertical sun of this climate is extremely oppressive.――Such are
the summers and autumns of the southern divisions of this valley.

‘The winters, in the whole extent of the country, are variable, passing
rapidly from warm to cold, and the reverse. Near the Mississippi, and
where there is little to vary the general direction of the winds, they
ordinarily blow three or four days from the north. In the northern and
middle regions, the consequence is cold weather, frost more or less
severe, and perhaps storm, with snow and sleet. During these days the
rivers are covered with ice. The opposite breeze alternates. There is
immediately a bland and relaxing feeling in the atmosphere. It becomes
warm; and the red-birds sing in these days, in January and February,
as far north as Prairie du Chien. These abrupt and frequent transitions
can hardly fail to have an unfavorable influence upon health. From
forty to thirty-six degrees the rivers almost invariably freeze,
for a longer or shorter period, through the winter. At St. Louis on
the Mississippi, and at Cincinnati on the Ohio, in nearly the same
parallels, between thirty-eight and thirty-nine degrees, the two rivers
are sometimes capable of being crossed on the ice for eight weeks
together.

‘Although the summers over all this valley must be admitted to be
hot, yet the exemption of the country from mountains and impediments
to the free course of the winds, and the circumstance, that the greater
proportion of the country has a surface bare of forests, and, probably,
other unexplained atmospheric agents, concur to create, during the
sultry months, almost a constant breeze. It thence happens, that
the air on these wide prairies is rendered fresh, and the heats are
tempered, in the same manner, as is felt on the ocean.’

The annual and mean quantity of rain that falls in the United States
is much greater than in most countries of Europe, certain mountainous
regions and heads of gulfs excepted. This has been ascertained by
numerous and accurate observations made on different parts of the
Atlantic coast. It is said, on the authority of tabular views, that,
on a medium, one third less rain falls in Europe than in the United
States; yet Dr. Holyoke mentions, in his memoir on the climate of the
United States, twenty cities in Europe, which, at a mean of twenty
years, have had one hundred and twenty days of rain; while Cambridge
has had but eighty-eight days, Salem ninety-five days of rain, and
Philadelphia seventy-six days, at a medium of twenty years. The mean
annual quantity of rain at Philadelphia is very little more than the
mean annual quantity at Glasgow for a term of thirty years preceding
1790. The above greater quantity of rain, in fewer days, in America,
indicates the rain to be much heavier there than in Europe. On the
other hand, it is equally well ascertained, that the evaporation
of these rains proceeds much quicker in America than in Europe; and
that, consequently, the air is habitually drier, and less calm, unless
Charleston be taken as an exception. It has been found, that the
mean annual quantity of evaporation at Cambridge, near Boston, was
fifty-six inches, for a term of seven years; while in seven German
and Italian cities, on a mean of twenty years, the annual evaporation
was forty-nine inches, or seven of difference; although the Italian
cities are in a much more favorable situation for evaporation than the
vicinity of Boston, adjacent to the Atlantic ocean. The same fact of
greater evaporation was also observed to take place in Upper Louisiana,
and along the higher Missouri, as far as the Rocky Mountains, by
Captain Lewis.

The habitual dryness of the American climate increases, as we advance
west and north-west from the Missouri, where there frequently is not
a drop of rain for six months. This is owing to the great distance
from any sea, the superior elevation, and the comparative want of
timber, combined with the greater intensity and longer duration of
the north-west wind, which sweeps with unobstructed force over the
naked plains. It appears, then, that more rain falls in fewer days,
in America, than in Europe; and that there are fewer cloudy days, more
fair days, and quicker evaporation. It is to this last circumstance we
must ascribe those immense dews, unknown in European climates, which
occur in America, and which are so copious in summer, as to resemble
heavy showers of rain. But it must also be observed, that dews are
comparatively unknown in the tract watered by the Upper Missouri; and
which, in all probability, is owing to the want of timber, wood being
limited to the banks of the rivers, which are commonly bordered with
trees.


                      GENERAL REMARKS ON CLIMATE.

  It is the opinion of Professor Leslie, that all the varieties of
  climate are reducible to two causes; distance from the equator,
  and height above the level of the sea. ‘Latitude and local
  elevation form, indeed,’ says he, ‘the great basis of the law of
  climate, and any other modifications have only a partial and very
  limited influence.’

  Climate is generally treated of under four divisions: the cold
  and humid; cold and dry; warm and humid; hot and dry. But these
  climates do not always exist according to the full import of
  the terms by which they are designated. They are subject to
  modifications, principally of two kinds; the one arising from
  the alternation of two different climates in the same region, the
  other from the greater or less prevalence of either of the four
  elements. Thus when heat, dryness, and humidity are duly combined,
  they render the climate comparatively temperate. In Egypt, for
  instance, the combinations of heat and humidity, during the
  inundation of the Nile, and of heat and dryness during the rest of
  the year, temper a climate, without which these alternations would
  be insupportable. In Holland the cold humidity of the autumn is
  succeeded by frost, which increases the salubrity of the climate,
  that would not otherwise be so healthy.

  The sea exercises an important equalizing influence on the
  temperature of the globe. In the tropical regions a large
  extent of ocean spreads coolness on every side, and affords a
  perpetual succession of refreshing breezes. Islands are always,
  comparatively, of more temperate climates than continents, and
  those scattered over the expanse of the Pacific may be said to
  enjoy almost a perpetual spring. The influence of the winds is
  also very important; particularly that of the trade-winds. Blowing
  from east to west across the sands of Africa, the latter produce,
  on its western coast, a most intense heat, much greater than
  is experienced on the eastern. In passing the Atlantic they are
  considerably cooled; and though their temperature is again raised
  in traversing South America, yet, before reaching the opposite
  coast, they meet the tremendous snow-clad Andes, which stop their
  progress and diffuse a wide coolness.

  Again, the mountain ranges of the earth not only present and
  retain on their sides a refreshing coolness, but, by the mighty
  rivers to which they give rise, diffuse a great amelioration of
  the temperature through extensive regions. They are particularly
  of this character, and give rise to the largest rivers in the
  torrid and burning zones of the earth. In the temperate climate,
  and those approaching to the poles, mountains are of moderate
  elevation, are almost always barren, and give rise to few
  considerable streams.

  It appears probable that the climates of European countries were
  more severe in ancient times than they are at present. Cæsar says
  that the vine could not be cultivated in Gaul on account of its
  winter cold. The reindeer, now found only in the zone of Lapland,
  was then an inhabitant of the Pyrenees. The Tiber was frequently
  frozen over, and the ground about Rome covered with snow for
  several weeks together, which very rarely happens in our time.
  The Rhine and the Danube, in the time of Augustus, was generally
  frozen over for several months of winter. The barbarians who
  overran the Roman empire a few centuries afterwards, transported
  their armies and wagons across the ice of these rivers. Though the
  fact is well established, the causes of this change of climate do
  not seem to be satisfactorily explained.




                        CHAPTER XV.――MINERALS.


IN the ordinary mineral productions, such as brick-earth, stone adapted
to building, as well as for any kind of workmanship, and in sand of all
qualities, the resources of the United States are inexhaustible. The
same may be said of many minerals of less universal occurrence, that
may seem to merit a more particular description. To begin with the
precious metals. The gold region commences in Virginia, and extends
south-west through North Carolina, along the northern part of South
Carolina, thence north-westwardly into Alabama, and to its termination
in Tennessee. In 1825, Professor Olmsted published a particular account
of the gold region of North Carolina, as it was then explored; it has
since been found to be vastly more extensive, but the richest mines
are still worked in the region which he described, in the counties of
Mecklenburg, Rowan, Cabarras, Anson, and Davidson. This account, which
is quite minute and interesting, we present slightly abridged in the
following pages:

A geographical description of the gold country, would present little
that is interesting. The soil is, for the most part, barren, and the
inhabitants generally poor and ignorant. The traveller passes a day
without seeing a single striking or beautiful object, either of nature
or of art, to vary the tiresome monotony of forest and sand-hills, and
ridges of gravelly quartz, either strewed coarsely over the ground,
or so comminuted as to form gravel. These ridges have an appearance
of great natural sterility, which is, moreover, greatly aggravated
by the ruinous practice of frequently burning over the forests, so
as to consume all the leaves and undergrowth. The principal mines are
three――the Anson mine, Reed’s mine, and Parker’s mine.

The _Anson Mine_ is situated in the county of the same name, on the
waters of Richardson’s creek, a branch of Rocky river. This locality
was discovered by a ‘gold hunter,’ one of an order of people, that
begin already to be accounted a distinct race. A rivulet winds from
north to south between two gently sloping hills that emerge towards
the south. The bed of the stream, entirely covered with gravel, is
left almost naked during the dry season; the period which is usually
selected by the miners for their operations. On digging from three
to six feet into this bed, the workman comes to that peculiar stratum
of gravel and tenacious blue clay, which is at once recognised as
the repository of the gold. The stream itself usually gives the
first indications of the richness of the bed through which it passes,
by disclosing large pieces of the precious metal shining among its
pebbles and sands. Pieces unusually large were found by those who first
examined Anson’s mine, and the highest hopes were inspired. On inquiry,
it was ascertained that part of the land was not held by a good title,
and parcels of it were immediately entered; it has since been the
subject of a constant litigation, which has retarded the working of
the mine.

_Reed’s Mine_, in Cabarras, is the one which was first wrought; and at
this place, indeed, were obtained the first specimens of gold that were
found in the formation. A large piece was found in the bed of a small
creek, which attracted attention by its lustre and specific gravity;
but it was long retained in the hands of the proprietor, through
ignorance whether or not it was gold. This mine occupies the bed of a
branch of Rocky river, and exhibits a level between two hillocks, which
rise on either side of the creek, affording a space between from fifty
to an hundred yards in breadth. This space has been thoroughly dug over,
and exhibits at present numerous small pits, for a distance of about
one fourth of a mile on both sides of the stream. The surface of the
ground, and the bed of the creek, are occupied by quartz, and by sharp
angular rocks of the greenstone family. The first glance is sufficient
to convince the spectator, that the business of searching for gold
is conducted under numerous disadvantages, without the least regard
to system, and with very little aid from mechanical contrivances.

Large pieces of gold are found in this region, although their
occurrence is somewhat rare. Masses weighing four, five, and sometimes
six hundred pennyweights are occasionally met with, and one mass was
found that weighed in its crude state twenty-eight pounds avoirdupois.
This was dug up by a negro at Reed’s mine, within a few inches of the
surface of the ground. Marvellous stories are told respecting this
rich mass; as that it had been seen by gold hunters at night reflecting
so brilliant a light, when they drew near to it with torches, as to
make them believe it was some supernatural appearance, and to deter
them from further examination. No unusual circumstances, however, were
really connected with its discovery, except its being found unusually
near the surface. It was melted down and cast into bars soon after its
discovery. The spot where it was found has been since subject to the
severest scrutiny, but without any similar harvest.

Another mass, weighing six hundred pennyweights was found on the
surface of a ploughed field in the vicinity of the Yadkin, twenty
miles or more north of Reed’s mine. Specimens of great beauty are
occasionally found, but, for want of mineralogists to reserve them
for cabinets, they have always been melted into bars. Mr. Reed found
a mass of quartz, having a projecting point of gold, of the size of
a large pin’s head. On breaking it open, a brilliant display of green
and yellow colors was presented. The gold weighed twelve pennyweights.
Mineralogists may perhaps recognise, in this description, a congeries
of fine crystals, but on that point the proprietor was uninformed.
Although fragments of greenstone, and of several argillaceous minerals,
occur among the gravel of the gold stratum yet, in the opinion of
the miners, it is never found attached to any other mineral than
quartz. Indeed, it is seldom attached to any substance, but is commonly
scattered promiscuously among the gravel. Its color is generally yellow,
with a reddish tinge, though the surface is not unfrequently obscured
by a partial incrustation of iron or manganese, or adhering particles
of sand. The masses are flattened and vascular, having angles rounded
with evident marks of attrition.

_Parker’s Mine_ is situated on a small stream, four miles south of the
river Yadkin. As in the instance already mentioned, excavations were
numerous in the low grounds adjacent to the stream; but the earth for
washing, which was of a snuff color, was transported from a ploughed
field in the neighborhood, elevated about fifty or sixty feet above
the stream. The earth at this place, which contained the gold, was of
a deeper red than that of either the other mines. The gold found here
is chiefly in flakes and grains. Occasionally, however, pieces are met
with that weigh one hundred pennyweights, and upwards; and one mass
has been discovered that weighed four pounds and eleven ounces. This
is said to have been found at the depth of ten feet.

The mines have given some peculiarities to the state of society in the
neighboring country. The precious metal is a most favorite acquisition,
and constitutes the common currency. Almost every man carries about
with him a goose quill or two of it, and a small pair of scales in
a box like a spectacle case. The value, as in patriarchal times, is
ascertained by weight, which, from the dexterity acquired by practice,
is a less troublesome mode of counting money than one would imagine.

The greatest part of the gold collected at these mines is bought up,
by country merchants, at ninety or ninety-one cents a pennyweight.
They carry it to market-towns, as Fayetteville, Cheraw, Charleston,
and New York. Much of this is bought up by jewellers; some remains in
the banks; and a considerable quantity has been received at the Mint of
the United States. Hence it is not easy to ascertain the precise amount
which the mines have afforded. The value of that portion received at
the mint, before the year 1820, was forty-three thousand six hundred
and eighty-nine dollars. It is alloyed with a small portion of silver
and copper, but is still purer than standard gold, being twenty-three
carats fine.

Since the year 1827, the gold mines of Virginia have attracted
considerable attention. The belt of country in which they are found
extends through Spotsylvania and some neighboring counties. The gold
region abounds in quartz, which contains cubes of sulphuret of iron.
These cubes are often partly or totally decomposed; and the cells
thus created are sometimes filled with gold. The gold is found on the
surface and in the structure of quartz; but in the greatest abundance
resting upon slate and in its fissures. It is diffused over a large
extent, and has not yet been found sufficiently in mass, except in a
few places, to make mining profitable. The method of obtaining the
metal is by filtration, or washing the earth, and by an amalgam of
quicksilver. The average value of the earth yielding gold, is stated
at twenty cents a bushel.

Habersham and Hall counties are the chief seat of the gold mines of
Georgia, and its discovery there has been very recent. The search was
commenced by a gentleman of the name of Wilhero, and proved eminently
successful; deposits of gold were found in the counties mentioned,
and discovery followed discovery. In the Cherokee nation, which was
separated by the Chestetee river, the indications of gold were not
strong, but report exaggerated them, and this unfortunate nation was
intruded upon as a common; at one time, about five thousand adventurers
were engaged in digging up the face of the country. The owners of the
gold lands in Habersham and Hall counties were many of them poor and
destitute, and, with the exception of a few deposits, the most valuable
tracts were sold to speculators. Many of these have frequently changed
owners at increased prices, and four companies have regularly commenced
mining operations.[40]

Silver and its ores are not of frequent or extensive occurrence
in the United States. Doctor Dana states the curious fact, that a
mass three or four inches in diameter, composed principally of native
silver in filaments, was found on the top of a wall near Portsmouth,
New Hampshire; the surrounding hills are chiefly greenstone. Mercury,
which has been found native in Kentucky, occurs more plentifully as
a sulphuret in Ohio and the Michigan territory, more particularly on
the shores of lakes Michigan, Huron, St. Clair, Detroit river, and Lake
Erie, to the mouth of Vermilion river. It occurs in the soil in the
form of a black and red sand, but is usually more abundant in banks of
fine ferruginous clay. Near the mouth of Vermilion river, it is in the
form of a very fine powder, or in grains and small masses, disseminated
in clay. It yields by distillation about sixty per cent. of mercury.

Copper, in various forms, is found in the United States, but the ores
do not appear to be brought into use. It is not found on the shores
of Lake Superior so abundantly as was anticipated; but many specimens
of copper ore have been found at different points in the Mississippi
valley. Specimens of pure and malleable copper have been obtained; one
of which, said to have been found in Illinois, weighed three pounds.
Iron ores are abundant in the United States. Those hitherto worked are
chiefly the magnetic oxide, brown hematite, and the argillaceous oxide,
particularly bog ore. The more important ores are the following, viz.:
in New Hampshire, the magnetic oxide; in Vermont, brown hematite and
bog ore; in Massachusetts, bog ore; in Rhode Island, brown hematite;
in Connecticut, brown hematite and bog ore; in New York, the magnetic,
specular, and argillaceous oxides; in New Jersey, the magnetic and
argillaceous oxides; in Pennsylvania, and the states south and west,
the magnetic oxide, brown hematite, and the argillaceous oxide.

To these may now be added the carbonate of iron, which has
recently been successfully smelted, and which produces iron having the
carbonaceous impregnation of steel, whence it has been called steel
ore. In New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania, the ore is found in
abundance, and of a quality not exceeded in Sweden. The Connecticut
and Virginia iron is highly esteemed.

Ores of lead are extensively found in the territories; and in Ohio
it is said to have been met with native, forming slips, or slender
prismatic masses, in crystallized galena. This mineral is found in
various places, from the Arkansas river to the North-West territory,
the precise line of the Ozark and Shawnee Mountains, a tract which
seems to constitute one of the most important and extensive deposits of
lead hitherto known. On the Arkansas, the ore is smelted by the Osage
Indians for bullets. To the northward, some valuable mines at Prairie
du Chien are imperfectly worked by the proprietors of the soil. But
the most important mines are those of Cape Girardeau district, commonly
known as the lead mines of Missouri. The mining district is situated
between two prominent ridges of sandstone which bound the valley of
Grand river, or the basin of Potosi. These ridges diverge in their
course northward, and are intercepted by the Merameg, which receives
the waters of Grand river, and forms a boundary to the mining district
in that direction.

In Illinois are the richest lead mines in the world. The district
which furnishes the ore, lies in the north-west part, and extends
beyond the limits of the state. It comprises a tract of above two
hundred miles in extent. The ore is inexhaustible. It lies in beds
or horizontal strata, varying in thickness from one inch to several
feet. It yields seventy-five per cent. of pure lead. For many years
the Indians and hunters were accustomed to dig for the metal; they
never penetrated much below the surface, but obtained great quantities
of the ore, which they sold to the traders. The public attention was
drawn to this quarter, and, from 1826 to 1828, the country was filled
with miners, smelters, merchants, speculators, and adventurers. Vast
quantities of lead were manufactured; the business was overdone, and
the markets nearly destroyed. At present, the business is reviving,
and in 1830, there were eight million three hundred and twenty-three
thousand nine hundred and ninety-eight pounds of lead made at the mines.
The whole quantity obtained, from 1821 to 1830, was forty million
eighty-eight thousand eight hundred and sixty pounds. The principal
mines are in the neighborhood of Galena.

Coal is found in the United States in great quantities, though the
abundance of wood has hitherto impeded the working of the mines to
their full capability. The coal found at different localities has
been classed by Professor Eaton under the following heads: first, the
genuine anthracite, or glance coal, found in the transition argillite,
as at Worcester in Massachusetts, and Newport in Rhode Island; also in
small quantities in the north and south range of argillites along the
bed and banks of the river Hudson. Second, coal destitute of bitumen,
usually called anthracite, but differing greatly in its character from
the anthracite found in argillite. It may be called anasphaltic coal.
This is embraced in slate rock, being the lowest of the lower series
of secondary rocks. This coal formation is equivalent to the great
coal measures of Europe. The principal localities of this coal are
in the state of Pennsylvania; as at Carbondale, Lehigh, Lackawanna,
and Wilkesbarre. Third, the proper bituminous coal, as at Tioga and
Lyocoming. This coal is embraced in a slate rock, which is the lowest
of the series of upper secondary rocks. The fourth formation is the
lignite coal, which is found in a very extensive stratum in the state
of New Jersey, along the south shore of the Bay of Amboy.

The anthracite of Pennsylvania is found in the Wyoming and
Lackawanna valley, situated between the Blue Ridge and the Susquehanna.
The coal district is chiefly occupied by mountains which run parallel
to the Blue Ridge, and are fifteen hundred feet high. But little of
this surface, with the exception of a few narrow valleys, invites
cultivation. These mountains are mostly in a wild state, and offer a
secure retreat to cougars, wolves, bears, and other animals.

The rocks of the above described region are of a transition class,
and present little diversity. Gray wacke slate occurs in abundance,
loose on the surface and in ledges. It is sometimes based on old red
sand-stone, and surmounted by unstratified rock, and aggregate of
quartz, pebbles of various dimensions, with a cement principally
silicious. In the Blue Ridge, in addition to the above described rock,
a silicious gray wacke, resembling fine grained granular quartz, is
common. It appears in some places massive, but is often slaty. Its
cement is chiefly silicious; some alumine, however, is indicated in
its composition.

The beds and veins of anthracite range from north-east to south-west,
and may often be traced for a considerable distance by the compass.
The veins have the inclination of the adjacent strata of gray wacke,
with which they often alternate, usually between twenty and forty-five
degrees. In a few places they are horizontal and vertical. The beds and
veins of anthracite have narrow strata of dark colored, fine grained,
argillaceous schist, for the roof and floor. This slate generally
contains sulphuret of iron, and disintegrates on exposure to the air.
The sulphates of iron and alumine are often observed in the schist, and
it frequently presents impressions of plants and sometimes of marine
shells. Impure pulverulent coal is usually connected with this slate,
and is said to be a good material for printers’ ink.

Anthracite has been found in the greatest quantity in sections of
coal regions most accessible by water. Extensive beds and veins range
from the Lehigh to the Susquehanna, crossing the head-waters of the
Schuylkill and Swatara, about ten miles north-west of Blue Ridge, and
it abounds contiguous to the Susquehanna and Lackawanna. But in no part
of the district does anthracite occur in such apparently inexhaustible
beds, or is so abundantly raised, as in the vicinity of Mauch Chunk, a
village situated on the Lehigh, thirty-five miles from Easton, and one
hundred and eight by water from Philadelphia.

The coal is there excavated on the flat summit of a mountain that rises
nearly fifteen hundred feet above the ocean. It is of good quality, and
presents beds of unparalleled extent; is disclosed for several miles on
the summit, wherever excavations have been made, and is indicated in
many places by coal slate in a pulverulent state, on the surface. The
mountain rises with a steep acclivity, particularly on the north-west
side, and when penetrated at various altitudes, discloses coal at
about the same distance from the surface. Strata of grey wacke slate,
containing mica, sometimes rest on the coal, parallel with the mountain
side. In the deep excavations made on the summit, no termination of the
coal bed has been found, and it is not improbable that the anthracite
forms the nucleus of the mountain for a considerable distance.

This coal mountain range is described as extending in a south-west
direction to the Susquehanna. To the north-east, beyond the Lehigh, it
is connected with the Broad Mountain, the first considerable elevation
west of the Blue Ridge. The Lehigh from Mauch Chunk to the water gap,
eleven miles, winds between rocky mountains, with a brisk current, but
presents no falls. The road usually runs near the stream, and sometimes
at a considerable elevation above, on the side of the steep mountain.
In its passage through the Kittetany, or Blue Ridge, the river has
a tranquil but slightly inclined course. On the adjacent elevation,
yellow pine, hemlock, and spruce, are interspersed with deciduous
trees. From the water gap to the Delaware, the river pursues its course
in a deep ravine, seldom with alluvial borders of much extent. In
this district of country, the soil generally rests on limestone sinks,
indicating caves; and fissures in the rocks are often observed, that
must, in some places, render canalling difficult. From the confluence
of the Lehigh with the Delaware to tide-water, the descent is one
hundred and fifty feet.

The village of Mauch Chunk is situated on the western bank of the
Lehigh, in a deep romantic ravine, between rocky mountains that rise
in some parts precipitously to eight hundred or one thousand feet
above the stream. Space was procured for dwellings, by breaking down
the adjacent rocks and filling up a part of the ravine of Mauch Chunk
Creek. A portion of this stream has been transferred to an elevated
railway, and is used to propel a grist-mill. Within a few years the
Lehigh Company have erected, and are proprietors of, a large number
of dwellings and buildings of every description, including a spacious
hotel, a store, furnaces, grist-mills, and several saw-mills: about
eight hundred men are employed by the company.[41]

Next to Mauch Chunk, Mount Carbon, or Pottsville, as it is now called,
situated at the head of the Schuylkill canal, has been the principal
source of the supply of anthracite. Many large veins are worked within
three miles of the landing; and some have been opened seven miles to
the north-east; in the direction of the Lehigh beds.

On almost every eminence adjacent to Pottsville, indications of coal
are disclosed. The veins generally run in a north-east direction, with
an inclination of about forty-five degrees, and are from three to nine
feet in thickness; commencing at or near the surface they penetrate to
an unknown depth, and can often be traced on hills for a considerable
distance, by sounding in a north-east or south-west direction. Some
veins have been wrought to the depth of two hundred feet without the
necessity of draining; the inclined slate roof shielding them from
water.

Where the ground admits, it is considered the best mode of working
veins, to commence at the back of a coal eminence, or as low as
possible, and work up, filling the excavation with slate and fine coal,
leaving a horizontal passage for the coal barrows. A section of a wide
vein near Pottsville, has been wrought by this mode several hundred
feet into the hill. The same vein is explored from parts of the summit
by vertical and inclined shafts. The coal and slate handled, are raised
by horse-power, in wagons by a rail-way that has the inclination of
the vein. Veins of coal alternate with gray wacke slate in the hill.
Vegetable impression sometimes occur in the argillaceous schist that
forms the roof of the Pottsville coal veins.

The western part of Pennsylvania is abundantly supplied with bituminous
coal, as the eastern is with anthracite. It is found on the rivers
Conemaugh, Alleghany, and Monongahela, and in numerous places to the
west of the Alleghany ridge, which is generally its eastern boundary;
it occurs on this mountain at a considerable elevation, and elsewhere,
in nearly a horizontal position, alternating with gray sand-stone
that is often micaceous and bordered by argillaceous schist. The veins
are generally narrow, rarely over six feet in width. This mineral is
abundant and of good quality near Pittsburg, where it is valuable for
their extensive manufactures. Beds of bituminous coal are reported as
occurring in Bedford county, in the north-west part of Luzerne, and in
Bradford county. In the last county, nine miles from the Susquehanna,
there is an extensive bed of coal, regarded as bituminous. It has been
penetrated thirty feet without fathoming the depth of the strata.

Bituminous coal is abundant in Tioga county, state of New York. The
summit level is forty-four feet above the river, and upwards of four
hundred above the lake. It occurs on the Tioga, and on the Chemung, a
branch of that river. Bituminous coal exists on the numerous streams
that descend the western side of the extensive peninsula, situated
between the north and west branches of the Susquehanna.

The appearance of the Tioga, or bituminous coal, differs but little
from the best Liverpool or Newcastle coal. Its color is velvet black,
with a slight resinous lustre, its structure is slaty or foliated, and
its layers as in the best English coal, divided in prismatic solids,
with bases slightly rhomboidal; it is easily frangible, and slightly
soils the finger. It burns with a bright flame and considerable smoke,
with a slight bituminous smell, a sort of ebullition taking place, and,
as the heat increases, an appearance of semi-fusion leaving a slight
residue or scoria.

Graphite or plumbago, commonly but improperly called black lead, occurs
extensively in primitive and transition rocks; from that which is
obtained in New York, excellent pencils have been made. There are also
numerous localities of petroleum, or mineral oil. It usually floats
on the surface of springs, which in many cases are known to be in the
vicinity of coal. It is sometimes called Seneca or Gennessee oil. In
Kentucky, it occurs on a spring of water in a state sufficiently liquid
to burn in a lamp; it is collected in considerable quantities.

Salt appears to be abundant in the United States, but it has not been
found in the mass. It is principally obtained from the springs which
have been noticed in another part of the work. Professor Eaton has
suggested doubts whether masses of salt really exist. He conceives
that an apparatus for the spontaneous manufacture of salt may be
found within the bosom of the earth, in those rocks which contain the
necessary elements, and in this opinion he is supported by experiment.
Subsequently, however, Mr. Eaton had reason to think that salt has
existed in a solid state in cubical crystals, the hollow forms of which
he discovered abundantly in the lias and saline rocks of the west,
and it seems still to be highly probable that masses of salt exist
in the neighborhood of the salt springs. The brine contains, besides
the muriate of soda, a considerable proportion of muriate of lime and
magnesia. Recently, also, bromine has been detected in the brine of
salina, by Dr. Silliman. Saltpetre is abundant in the west, being found
in numberless caves along the Missouri; and the shores of the Arkansas
are almost covered with nitre. The testimony of Mr. Schoolcraft, in
relation to the recent formation of quartz crystals, is very striking.
They have been found, it appears, upon the handle of a spade, and
the edge of some old shoes, which had been left for some years in
an abandoned lead mine of the Shawnee Mountains. Crystals of great
beauty and dimensions have been found in numerous localities. Many
minerals which are rare in Europe, are found abundantly, and often in
finer forms, in the United States; some, which have subsequently been
detected elsewhere, were first discovered here, and not a few may still
be claimed as the peculiar treasure of our country.


                     GENERAL REMARKS ON MINERALS.

  It is observed by Dr. Mead, that a general resemblance can be
  traced between the minerals of North America, and those which
  have been found in the north of Europe, particularly in Norway
  and Sweden. This resemblance is stated to exist, not merely in
  the properties of the minerals themselves, but in the geological
  character, and geognostic situation throughout the whole series.
  It is observed more particularly in those specimens which are
  found to accompany the primitive formation at Arendal, in Norway;
  it is not confined, however, to the primitive range of mountains
  alone, as the same resemblance can be frequently traced, on
  comparing American minerals with those of Piedmont, and even of
  the Hartz Mountains. Among the principal minerals of the north of
  Europe, there are none of more importance than the ores of iron
  for which Norway and Sweden are so remarkable; and every variety
  of this mineral which has been met with there, has been found in
  the same class of rocks in America in the greatest abundance,
  and of equally good quality. Titanium is one of those metals
  which have been found more particularly in the north of Europe.
  It is said to occur frequently in those primitive aggregates
  which contain beds of magnetic iron ore, associated with augite,
  scapolite, epidote and hornblende, precisely the same rocks in
  which we find it in this country. There is scarcely any part of
  Europe where a greater variety of augites are found than in Norway
  and Sweden; nor can there be any class of minerals in which the
  similitude between the specimens from those countries and America
  is more striking.

  Mineralogy, considered as a pure science, is of very recent date.
  Early observations related merely to the usefulness of minerals
  to the purposes of society, and it was not before the lapse of
  many ages that they came to be investigated on account of their
  great variety, and the beautiful arrangements of which they
  are susceptible. No attempt was made to classify them before
  the introduction of alchemy into Europe by the Arabians; and to
  Avicenna belongs the merit of the first arrangement. He divided
  minerals into stones, metals, sulphurous fossils, and salts. In
  1774, Werner published his great work on the External Properties
  of Minerals, which was of eminent service in first calling the
  attention of naturalists to the only correct method of arriving
  at a knowledge of this department of nature. The study of minerals
  has received considerable attention during the last twenty years
  in the United States.




                        CHAPTER XVI.――ANIMALS.


                            I. QUADRUPEDS.

The _Black Bear_ (ursus Americanus) is found in considerable numbers
in the northern districts of America. In size and form he approaches
nearest to the Brown Bear; but his color is a uniform shining jet
black, except on the muzzle, where it is fawn colored; on the lips and
sides of the mouth it is almost gray. The hair, except on the muzzle,
is long and straight, and is less shaggy than in most other species.
The forehead has a slight elevation, and the muzzle is elongated,
and somewhat flattened above. The young ones, however, are first of a
bright ash color, which gradually changes into a deep brown, and ends
by becoming a deep black.

  Illustration: Black Bear.

The American Black Bear lives a solitary life in forests and
uncultivated deserts, and subsists on fruits, and on the young shoots
and roots of vegetables. Of honey he is exceedingly fond, and as he
is a most expert climber, he scales the loftiest trees in search of
it. Fish, too, he delights in, and is often found in quest of it on
the borders of lakes and on the seashore. When these resources fail, he
will attack small quadrupeds, and even animals of some magnitude. As,
indeed, is usual in such cases, the love of flesh in him grows with the
use of it.

As the fur is of some value, the Indians are assiduous in the chase
of the creature which produces it. ‘About the end of December, from
the abundance of fruits they find in Louisiana and the neighboring
countries, the bears become so fat and lazy that they can scarcely run.
At this time they are hunted by the American Indians. The nature of the
chase is generally this: the bear chiefly adopts for his retreat the
hollow trunk of an old cypress tree, which he climbs, and then descends
into the cavity from above. The hunter, whose business it is to watch
him into this retreat, climbs a neighboring tree, and seats himself
opposite to the hole. In one hand he holds his gun, and in the other
a torch, which he darts into the cavity. Frantic with rage and terror,
the bear makes a spring from his station; but the hunter seizes the
instant of his appearance, and shoots him.’

The black bear, says Godman, like all the species of this genus,
is very tenacious of life, and seldom falls unless shot through the
brain or heart. An experienced hunter never advances on a bear that
has fallen, without first stopping to load his rifle, as the beast
frequently recovers to a considerable degree, and would then be a
most dangerous adversary. The skull of the bear appears actually
to be almost impenetrable, and a rifle ball, fired at a distance of
ninety-six yards, has been flattened against it, without appearing
to do any material injury to the bone. The best place to direct blows
against the bear is upon his snout; when struck elsewhere, his dense
woolly coat, thick hide, and robust muscles, render manual violence
almost entirely unavailing.

When the bear is merely wounded, it is very dangerous to attempt to
kill him with such a weapon as a knife or tomahawk, or indeed any thing
which may bring one within his reach. In this way hunters and others
have paid very dearly for their rashness, and barely escaped with their
lives; the following instance may serve as an example of the danger of
such an enterprise:

‘Mr. Mayborne, who resides in Ovid township, Cayuga county, between the
Seneca and Cayuga lakes, in the state of New-York, went one afternoon
through the woods in search of his horses, taking with him his rifle
and the only load of ammunition he had in the house. On his return home,
about an hour before dusk, he perceived a very large bear crossing his
path, on which he instantly fired, and the bear fell, but immediately
recovering his legs, made for a deep ravine a short way onwards. Here
he tracked him awhile by the blood, but night coming on, and expecting
to find him dead in the morning, he returned home. A little before
daybreak the next morning, taking a pitchfork and hatchet, and his
son, a boy of ten or eleven years of age, with him, he proceeded to
the place in quest of the animal. The glen or ravine into which he
had disappeared the evening before, was eighty or ninety feet from the
top of the bank to the brook below; down this precipice a stream of
three or four yards in breadth is pitched in one unbroken sheet, and,
forming a circular basin or pool, winds away among the thick underwood.

‘After reconnoitering every probable place of retreat, he at length
discovered the bear, who had made his way up the other side of the
ravine, as far us the rocks would admit, and sat under a projecting
cliff, steadfastly eyeing the motions of his enemy. Mayborne, desiring
his boy to remain where he was, took the pitchfork, and, descending
to the bottom, determined from necessity to attack him from below. The
bear kept his position until the man approached within six or seven
feet, when on the instant, instead of being able to make a stab with
the pitchfork, he found himself grappled by the bear, and both together
rolled towards the pond, at least twenty or twenty-five feet, the bear
biting on his left arm, and hugging him almost to suffocation. By great
exertion he thrust his right arm partly down his throat, and in that
manner endeavored to strangle him, but was once more hurled headlong
down through the bushes, a greater distance than before, into the
water. Here, finding the bear gaining on him, he made one desperate
effort, and drew the animal’s head partly under water, and repeating
his exertions, at last weakened him so much, that calling to his boy,
who stood on the other side, in a state little short of distraction
for the fate of his father, to bring him the hatchet, he sunk the edge
of it by repeated blows into the brain of the bear. This man, although
robust and muscular, was scarcely able to crawl home, where he lay
for nearly three weeks, the flesh of his arm being much crushed, and
his breast severely mangled. The bear weighed upwards of four hundred
pounds.’

_Grisly Bear._――This animal, like the species just described,
inhabits the northern part of America; but, unlike him, he is, perhaps,
the most formidable of all bears in magnitude and ferocity. He averages
twice the bulk of the black bear, to which, however, he bears some
resemblance in his slightly elevated forehead, and narrow, flattened,
elongated muzzle. His canine teeth are of great size and power. The
feet are enormously large; the breadth of the fore foot exceeding nine
inches, and the length of the hind foot exclusive of the talons, being
eleven inches and three quarters, and its breadth seven inches. The
talons sometimes measure more than six inches. He is, accordingly,
admirably adapted for digging up the ground, but is unable to climb
trees, in which latter respect he differs wholly from every other
species. The color of his hair varies to almost an indefinite extent,
between all the intermediate shades of a light gray and a black brown;
the latter tinge, however, being that which predominates. It is always,
in some degree, grizzled, by intermixture of grayish hairs, only the
brown hairs being tipped with gray. The hair itself is, in general,
longer, finer, and more exuberant than that of the black bear.

The neighborhood of the Rocky Mountains is one of the principal
haunts of this animal. There, amidst wooded plains, and tangled copses
of bough and underwood, he reigns as much the monarch as the lion is
of the sandy wastes of Africa. Even the bison cannot withstand his
attack. Such is his muscular strength, that he will drag the ponderous
carcass of the animal to a convenient spot, where he digs a pit for its
reception. The Indians regard him with the utmost terror. His extreme
tenacity of life renders him still more dangerous; for he can endure
repeated wounds which would be instantaneously mortal to other beasts,
and, in that state, can rapidly pursue his enemy. So that the hunter
who fails to shoot him through the brain, is placed in a most perilous
situation.

One evening, the men in the hindmost of one of Lewis and Clark’s
canoes, perceived one of these bears lying in the open ground about
three hundred paces from the river; and six of them, who were all good
hunters, went to attack him. Concealing themselves by a small eminence,
they were able to approach within forty paces unperceived; four of
the hunters now fired, and each lodged a ball in his body, two of
which passed directly through the lungs. The bear sprang up and ran
furiously with open mouth upon them; two of the hunters, who had
reserved their fire, gave him two additional wounds, and one breaking
his shoulder-blade, somewhat retarded his motions. Before they could
again load their guns, he came so close on them, that they were obliged
to run towards the river, and before they had gained it, the bear had
almost overtaken them. Two men jumped into the canoe; the other four
separated, and concealing themselves among the willows, fired as fast
as they could load their pieces. Several times the bear was struck, but
each shot seemed only to direct his fury towards the hunter; at last he
pursued them so closely, that they threw aside their guns and pouches,
and jumped from a perpendicular bank twenty feet high into the river.
The bear sprang after them, and was very near the hindmost man, when
one of the hunters on the shore shot him through the head and finally
killed him. When they dragged him on shore, they found that eight balls
had passed through his body in different directions.

On another occasion, the same enterprising travellers met with the
largest bear of this species they had ever seen; when they fired he
did not attempt to attack, but fled with a tremendous roar, and such
was his tenacity of life, that although five balls had passed through
the lungs, and five other wounds were inflicted, he swam more than half
across the river to a sand-bar, and survived more than twenty minutes.

Mr. John Dougherty, a very experienced and respectable hunter, who
accompanied Major Long’s party during their expedition to the Rocky
Mountains, several times very narrowly escaped from the grizzly bear.
Once, while hunting with another person on one of the upper tributaries
of the Missouri, he heard the report of his companion’s rifle, and when
he looked round, beheld him at a short distance endeavoring to escape
from one of these bears, which he had wounded as it was coming towards
him. Dougherty, forgetful of every thing but the preservation of his
friend, hastened to call off the attention of the bear, and arrived
in rifle shot distance just in time to effect his generous purpose.
He discharged his ball at the animal, and was obliged in his turn to
fly; his friend relieved from immediate danger, prepared for another
attack by charging his rifle, with which he again wounded the bear,
and saved Mr. D. from further peril. Neither received any injury from
this encounter, in which the bear was at length killed.

_The Raccoon._――This animal continues to be frequently found even in
the populous parts of the United States. Occasionally their numbers are
so much increased, as to render them very troublesome to the farmers
in the low and wooded parts of Maryland, bordering on the Chesapeak
Bay. Being peculiarly fond of sweet substances, they are sometimes
destructive to plantations of sugar-cane, and of Indian corn. While
the ear of this corn is still young and tender, it is very sweet, and
at that time troops of raccoons frequently enter fields of maize, and
in a single night commit the most extensive depredations.

  Illustration: Raccoon.

The size of the raccoon varies with the age and sex of the individual.
When full grown, the male is about a foot in length, or a few inches
longer; the highest part of the back is about a foot from the ground,
whilst the highest part of the shoulder is ten inches. The head is
about five inches, and the tail rather more than eight. The general
color of the body is a blackish gray, which is paler on the under
part. The feet have five toes each, terminated by strong curved and
pointed claws; and each foot is furnished with five thick and very
elastic tubercles beneath. The fur of the raccoon forms an article
of considerable value in commerce, as it is extensively used in the
manufacture of hats.

‘The raccoon,’ says Godman, ‘is an excellent climber, and his strong
sharp claws effectually secure him from being shaken off the branches
of trees. In fact, so tenaciously does this animal hold to any surface
upon which it can make an impression with its claws, that it requires
a considerable exertion of a man’s strength to drag him off; and as
long as even a single foot remains attached, he continues to cling with
great force. I have had frequent occasion to pull a raccoon from the
top of a board fence, where there was no projection which he could
seize by; yet, such was the power and obstinacy with which the points
of his claws were stuck into the board, as repeatedly to oblige me to
desist for fear of tearing his skin, or otherwise doing him an injury
by the violence necessary to detach his hold.’

‘Water seems to be essential to their comfort, if not of absolute
necessity for the preparation of their food. I have had for some time,
and at the moment of writing this have yet, a male and female raccoon
in the yard. Their greatest delight appears to be dabbling in water,
of which a large tub is always kept for their use. They are frequently
seen sitting on the edge of this tub, very busily engaged in playing
with a piece of broken china, glass, or a small cake of ice. When they
have any substance which sinks, they both paddle with their fore feet
with great eagerness, until it is caught, and then it is held by one,
with both paws, and rubbed between them; or a struggle ensues for the
possession of it, and when it is dropped the same sport is renewed. The
coldest weather in winter does not in the least deter them from thus
dabbling in the water for amusement; nor has this action much reference
to their feeding, as it is performed at any time, even directly after
feeding till satiated. I have frequently broken the ice on the surface
of their tub, late at night, in the very coldest winter weather, and
they have both left their sleeping place with much alacrity, to stand
paddling the fragments of ice about, with their fore legs in the water
nearly up to the breast. Indeed, these animals have never evinced the
slightest dislike to cold, or suffered in any degree therefrom; they
have in all weathers slept in a flour-barrel thrown on its side, with
one end entirely open, and without any material of which to make a
bed. They show no repugnance to being sprinkled or dashed with water,
and voluntarily remain exposed to the rain or snow, which wets them
thoroughly, notwithstanding their long hair, which, being almost erect,
is not well suited to turn the rain. These raccoons are very fond of
each other, and express the greatest delight on meeting, after having
been separated for a short time, by various movements, and by hugging
and rolling one another about on the ground.’

‘My raccoons are, at the time of writing this, more than a year old,
and have been in captivity for six or eight months. They are very
frolicsome and amusing, and show no disposition to bite or injure
any one, except when accidentally trodden on. They are equally free
from any disposition to injure children, as has been observed of
other individuals. We frequently turn them loose in the parlor, and
they appear to be highly delighted, romping with each other and the
children, without doing any injury even to the youngest. Their alleged
disposition to hurt children especially, may probably be fairly
explained by the fact above mentioned, that they always attempt to bite
when suddenly hurt, and few children touch animals without pinching or
hurting them. They exhibit this spirit of retaliation, not only to man,
but when they accidentally hurt themselves against an inanimate body;
I have many times been amused to observe the expression of spite with
which one of them has sprung at and bit the leg of a chair or table,
after knocking himself against it so as to hurt some part of his body.

‘These animals may be tamed while young, but as they grow to maturity,
most generally become fierce and even dangerous. I have had one so
tame as to follow a servant about through the house or streets, though
entirely at liberty; this was quite young when obtained, and grew so
fond of human society as to complain very loudly, by a sort of chirping
or whining noise, when left alone. Nothing can possibly exceed the
domesticated raccoon in restless and mischievous curiosity, if suffered
to go about the house. Every chink is ransacked, every article of
furniture explored, and the neglect of servants to secure closet doors,
is sure to be followed by extensive mischief, the evil being almost
uniformly augmented by the alarm caused to the author of it, whose
ill-directed efforts to escape from supposed peril, increase at the
same time the noise and the destruction.’

The _Puma_, or American Lion was once spread over the new world,
from Canada to Patagonia, but it is not now common in any part of the
United States, except the unsettled districts. It is usually called
the panther, or painter by the common people. It is also called the
catamount. The progress of civilization has, however, circumscribed
his range, and has rooted him out in many places. Notwithstanding his
size and strength, he is cowardly; and, like almost all cowards, he is
sanguinary. If he find a flock of sheep unprotected, he will destroy
the whole, merely that he may enjoy the luxury of sucking their blood.
He has a small rounded head, a broad and rather obtuse muzzle, and a
body which, in proportion, is slenderer and less elevated than that
of his more dignified namesake. ‘The upper parts of his body,’ says
Mr. Bennett, ‘are of a bright silvery fawn, the tawny hairs being
terminated by whitish tips: beneath and on the inside of the limbs he
is nearly white, and more completely so on the throat, chin, and upper
lip. The head has an irregular mixture of black and gray; the outside
of the ears, especially at the base, the sides of the muzzle from
which the whiskers take their origin, and the extremity of the tail,
are black.’ The fur of the cubs has spots of a darker hue, which are
visible only in certain lights, and disappear when the animal is full
grown. Both the sexes are of the same color.[42]

  Illustration: The Puma, or Cougar.

_American Wild Cat._ This animal bears a strong resemblance to the
domestic cat, and its motions are very similar. It stands high upon its
legs, and has a short curved tail. Its principal food consists of birds,
squirrels, and other small animals which abound in the woody districts
it inhabits. Though common in the western states, the wild cat is
seldom found in New England.

_The Moose._――This animal, which in Europe is called the elk, is an
inhabitant of the northern parts of America, but is found in no part of
the United States excepting Maine, where it is now met with but seldom.
Its figure is ungraceful and clumsy. During summer, the moose frequents
swampy or low grounds, on the borders of lakes, in which it is fond
of bathing, and whose plants form a favorite article of its food. In
winter, the moose seeks the depths of the forest for shelter, and a
herd of fifteen or twenty take possession of a tract of about five
hundred acres, where they subsist on the tender twigs and the mosses of
the trees. To these places the Indians give the name of ‘moose-yards.’
Like other northern animals, the moose is much vexed by insects, which
deposit their eggs in different parts of his body, and at certain
seasons of the year render his skin worthless to the hunter. At other
times, the skin is very valuable, and serves the Indians for clothing
and tent covers. This species is much hunted, and has so rapidly
diminished within a few years, that there are fears it will become
extinct.

  Illustration: Moose.

The moose is hunted generally in March, when the snow is of sufficient
depth and hardness to sustain the weight of a dog. Five or six hunters
generally join in the pursuit and carry provisions to last them nearly
a week. The chase is commenced at daybreak, when the dogs are set on,
and the hunters who wear snow-shoes follow as closely as possible.
When started and attacked by the dogs, the moose attempts to escape by
flight. The crust of ice covering the snow breaks at every step, and
the poor creature cuts his legs so severely that he is obliged to stand
at bay, and endeavors to defend himself against his assailants by means
of his fore feet. In this situation he is despatched by the rifle ball
of the hunter.

_The Elk._――The elk is still occasionally found in the remote and
thinly settled parts of Pennsylvania, but the number is small; it is
only in the western wilds that they are seen in considerable herds.
They are fond of the great forests, where a luxuriant vegetation
affords them an abundant supply of buds and tender twigs; or of
the great plains, where the solitude is seldom interrupted, and all
bounteous nature spreads an immense field of verdure for their support.

The elk is shy and retiring; having acute senses, he receives early
warning of the approach of any human intruder. The moment the air is
tainted by the odor of his enemy, his head is erected with spirit, his
ears rapidly thrown in every direction to catch the sounds, and his
large dark glistening eye expresses the most eager attention. Soon as
the approaching hunter is fairly discovered, the elk bounds along for
a few paces, as if trying his strength for flight, stops, turns half
round, and scans his pursuer with a steady gaze, then, throwing back
his lofty horns upon his neck, and projecting his taper nose forwards,
he springs from the ground and advances with a velocity which soon
leaves the object of his dread far out of sight.[43]

This animal appears to be more ready to attack with his horns than any
other species of deer. When at bay, and especially if slightly wounded,
he fights with great eagerness, as if resolved to be revenged. The
following instance from Long’s Expedition to the Rocky Mountains, will,
in some degree, illustrate this statement.

A herd of twenty or thirty elk were seen at no great distance from the
party, standing in the water or lying upon the sand beach. One of the
finest bucks was singled out by a hunter, who fired upon him, whereupon
the whole herd plunged into the thicket and disappeared. Relying upon
the skill of the hunter, and confident that his shot was fatal, several
of the party dismounted and pursued the elk into the woods, where the
wounded buck was soon overtaken. Finding his pursuers close upon him,
the elk turned furiously upon the foremost, who only saved himself
by springing into a thicket, which was impassable to the elk, whose
enormous antlers becoming so entangled in the vines as to be covered
to their tips, he was held fast and blindfolded, and was despatched by
repeated bullets and stabs.

_Black-tailed Deer._――The habits of this animal are similar to those
of its kindred species, except that it has a manner of bounding along,
instead of running at full speed. It is found in prairies and open
grounds, west of the Rocky Mountains, and but seldom in the woodlands.
It is larger than the common deer, and its flesh is considered inferior;
its eye is larger, and the hair coarse. The ears are very long, being
half the length of the whole antler. It was first observed by the
members of Lewis and Clarke’s expedition, and was described by Say.

_Common Deer._――This species, sometimes called the Virginia Deer, is
found throughout the United States, with such varieties in its size
and coloring, as naturally arise from variety of climate. Its form is
slender and delicate, and its whole appearance indicates a degree of
feebleness, which is counteracted only by the agility of its movements,
and the animation of its eye. Its sense of hearing and seeing is
wonderfully acute; and the hunter must approach his intended victim
with the utmost caution, for he is discovered by the slightest noise.
The resort of this species is in the forests and plains adjacent to
rivers, where they feed chiefly on buds and twigs, and sometimes on
grass. They are headed by one of the largest and strongest bucks,
who appears to be the guardian of the general safety and directs his
followers to combat or retreat. Though generally shy and timid, the
males are much disposed to battle during the season of the sexual
passion, and are almost always inclined to fight when wounded or
brought to bay. At this time they fight with their fore feet, as
well as their horns, and inflict severe wounds by leaping forward
and striking with the edges of their hoofs. If a hunter misses his
aim when attempting to despatch a wounded deer with his knife, he is
placed in great peril. To serpents, of every description, the deer is
particularly hostile, and it seems to have an instinctive horror of the
rattlesnake. To destroy this enemy, the deer leaps into the air, and
comes down on him with its four feet closed in a square, repeating its
violent blows until the reptile is killed.

  Illustration: Virginia Deer.

The males frequently engage in combats, in which their horns sometimes
become so interlocked that neither can escape, and they then remain
engaged in fruitless struggles till they perish of famine, or become
the prey of the wolf or the hunter. Heads of deer which have thus
perished are frequently found, and there is scarcely a museum in this
country which has not one or more specimens. The following instance
is given by Say in Long’s Expedition to the Rocky Mountains. ‘As the
party were descending a ridge, their attention was called to an unusual
noise proceeding from a copse of low bushes, a few rods from the path.
On arriving at the spot, they found two buck deer, their horns fast
interlocked with each other, and both much spent with fatigue, one in
particular being so much exhausted as to be unable to stand. Perceiving
that it would be impossible that they should extricate themselves, and
must either linger in their present situations or die of hunger, or be
destroyed by the wolves, they despatched them with their knives, after
having made an unavailing attempt to disentangle them. Beyond doubt,
many of these animals must annually thus perish.’

_Prong-horned Antelope._――This species was first described by the
leaders of the first American expedition to the west of the Rocky
Mountains. It is shy and timorous, wonderfully fleet, and with great
acuteness of sight and smell. When once startled, they fly with the
rapidity of the wind, and baffle all pursuit. In one instance, captain
Lewis, after various fruitless attempts, by winding around the ridges,
succeeded in approaching a party of seven that stood upon an eminence
towards which the wind was unfortunately blowing. The only male of the
party frequently encircled the summit of the hill, as if to announce
any danger to the group of females which stood upon the top. Before
they saw captain Lewis, they became alarmed by the scent, and fled
while he was at the distance of two hundred yards. He immediately ran
to the spot where they had stood; a ravine concealed them from him, but
at the next moment they appeared on a second ridge, at the distance of
three miles. He could not but doubt whether these were the same he had
alarmed, but their number and continued speed convinced him they were
so, and he justly infers that they must have run with a rapidity equal
to that of the most celebrated race horse.

‘The chief game of the Shoshonees,’ say Lewis and Clarke, ‘is the
antelope, which when pursued retreats to the open plains, where the
horses have full room for the chase. But such is its extraordinary
fleetness and wind, that a single horse has no possible chance of
outrunning it, or tiring it down; and the hunters are therefore
obliged to resort to stratagem. About twenty Indians, mounted on fine
horses, armed with bows and arrows, left the camp; in a short time
they descried a herd of ten antelopes; they immediately separated into
squads of two or three, and formed a scattered circle round the herd
for five or six miles, keeping at a wary distance, so as not to alarm
them till they were perfectly inclosed, and usually selecting some
commanding eminence as a stand. Having gained their positions, a small
party rode towards the herd, and with wonderful dexterity the huntsman
preserved his seat, and the horse his footing, as he ran at full speed
over the hills and down the steep ravines, and along the borders of the
precipices.

‘They were soon outstripped by the antelopes, which, on gaining
the other extremity of the circle, were driven back and pursued by
the fresh hunters. They turned and flew, rather than ran, in another
direction; but there too they found new enemies. In this way they
were alternately pursued backwards and forwards, till at length,
notwithstanding the skill of the hunters, (who were merely armed with
bows and arrows) they all escaped; and the party, after running for
two hours, returned without having caught any thing, and their horses
foaming with sweat. This chase, the greater part of which was seen from
the camp, formed a beautiful scene, but to the hunters is exceedingly
laborious, and so unproductive, even when they are able to worry the
animal down and shoot him, that forty or fifty hunters will sometimes
be engaged for more than half a day, without obtaining more than two or
three antelopes.’

_Rocky Mountain Goat._――This species is nearly the size of a common
sheep, and has a shaggy appearance. Its hoofs and horns are black; the
latter project but little, and are slightly curved. Great numbers of
this goat are found about the head-waters of the north fork of Columbia
river, where they are much hunted by the natives, and form an abundant
though somewhat unsavory article of food. They are seldom seen far from
the mountains, and are more numerous on their western than on their
eastern slopes. The skin is thick and spongy, and is used for moccasins.
The fleece is said to be as fine as that of which the celebrated
cashmere shawls are manufactured.

  Illustration: Rocky Mountain Goat.

_Argali._――The argali is found in the Rocky Mountains, from about
the fiftieth degree of north latitude to California. Here troops of
twenty or thirty are seen together, feeding on the most precipitous
tracts, and bounding with wonderful agility from rock to rock. During
the summer months, the color of this animal is a grayish fawn, with a
reddish line across the back. The male has very large twisted horns,
fixed near the eyes; its ears are straight, broad and pointed, and its
tail quite short. This is said to be the species from which all the
varieties of our domestic sheep are descended.

_Bison._――This animal is found in herds in the prairies in the
neighborhood of the Rocky Mountains: it is continually receding before
the advance of man, and will soon be entirely banished to the far west.
Schoolcraft says that the species is confined to the regions situated
between the thirty-first and forty-ninth degrees of north latitude,
and west of the Mississippi river. The only part of the country east
of this river, where the bison now remains, is that included between
the falls of St. Anthony and Sandy Lake, a range of about six hundred
miles.

‘Being now in the region of buffalo,’ says Mr. Schoolcraft, ‘we
concluded to land, in the course of the day, at some convenient place
for hunting them. This we were soon invited to do by seeing one of
these animals along the shore of the river, and on ascending the bank,
we observed, upon a boundless prairie, two droves of them, feeding upon
the grass. All who had guns adapted for the purpose, sallied forth in
separate parties upon the prairie, while those who felt less ambition
to signalize themselves upon the occasion, or were more illy accoutred
for the activities of the chase, remained upon an eminence which
overlooked the plain, to observe the movements of this animal while
under an attack of musketry, and to enjoy the novel spectacle of a
buffalo-hunt. The grass was so tall as to allow an unobserved approach
towards the spot where they remained feeding, but the first fire proved
unsuccessful, at the same time that it scattered the herd, which were
now seen running in all directions across the prairie, and an incessant
fire of random shots was kept up for about two hours; during which
three buffaloes were killed, and a great number wounded, which made
their escape.

‘While thus harrassed, they often passed within a few yards of us,
and we enjoyed a fine opportunity of witnessing their form, size,
color, and speed. The buffalo has a clumsy gait, like the domestic ox,
which it also resembles in size and general appearance. Unlike the ox,
however, this animal exhibits no diversity of color, being a uniform
dark brown, inclining to dun. It is never spotted, with black, red, or
white. It has short black horns growing nearly straight from the head,
and set at a considerable distance apart. The male has a hunch upon its
shoulders, covered with long flocks of shaggy hair, extending to the
top of the head, from which it falls over the eyes and horns, giving
the animal a very formidable appearance. The hoofs are cloven like
those of the cow, but the legs are much stouter, and altogether, it is
more clumsy and ill-proportioned. The tail is naked till towards the
end, where it is tufted, in the manner of the lion.

‘The general weight of this animal is from eight hundred to a thousand
pounds; but they sometimes attain an enormous size, and have been
killed upon the Mississippi prairies weighing two thousand pounds. The
skin of a buffalo bull, when first taken off, is three fourths of an
inch in thickness, and cannot be lifted by the strongest man. A hundred
and fifty pounds of tallow have been taken from one animal, and it is
highly esteemed by the Indians in preparing their hommony. Instances of
excessive fatness are, however, rare, and such over-fed animals become
so unwieldy that they often fall a prey to wolves; particularly if they
happen to stray a distance from the herd. The buffalo is a timid animal,
and flies at the approach of man. It is however asserted by the hunters,
that when painfully wounded, it becomes furious, and will turn upon its
pursuers.

‘There is a particular art in killing the buffalo with a rifle, only
known to experienced hunters, and when they do not drop down, which is
often the case, it requires a person intimately acquainted with their
habits, to pursue them with success. This has been fully instanced
in the futile exertions of our party, upon the present occasion; for
out of a great number of shots, few have reached the object, and very
few proved effectual, and the little success we met with is chiefly
attributable to the superior skill of the Indians who accompanied
us. Unless a vital part is touched, the shot proves useless. It also
requires a larger ball than the deer and elk. Lieutenant Pike thinks
that in the open prairies, the bow and arrow could be used to better
advantage than the gun, particularly on horseback, for you might ride
immediately along side the animal and strike it where you pleased.
The Indians employ both the rifle and arrow, and in the prairies of
Missouri and Arkansas, pursue the herds on horseback; but on the upper
Mississippi, where they are destitute of horses, they make amends for
this deficiency by several ingenious stratagems.

‘One of the most common of these is the method of hunting with fire.
For this purpose, a great number of hunters disperse themselves around
a large prairie where herds of buffalo happen to be feeding, and
setting fire to the grass encompass them on all sides. The buffalo,
having a great dread of fire, retire towards the centre of the prairie
as they see it approach, and here being pressed together in great
numbers, many are trampled under foot, and the Indians rushing in
with their arrows and musketry, slaughter immense numbers in a short
period. It is asserted that a thousand animals have been killed by
this stratagem in one day. They have another method of hunting by
driving them over precipices, which is chiefly practised by the bands
inhabiting the Missouri. To decoy the herds, several Indians disguise
themselves in the skins of the buffalo, taken off entire, and by
counterfeiting the lowing of this animal in distress, they attract the
herds in a certain direction, and when they are at full speed, suddenly
disappear behind a cleft in the top of a precipice, when those animals
which are in front on reaching the brink, are pushed over by those
pressing behind, and in this manner great numbers are crushed to death.
These practices are less common now than formerly, the introduction
of fire arms, among most of the tribes, putting it into the power
of almost every individual to kill sufficient for the support of his
family.

‘By a very bad policy, however, they prefer the flesh of the cows,
which will in time destroy the species. Few of the native animals of
the American forest contribute more to the comforts of savage society
than the buffalo. Its skin, when dressed by a process peculiar to
them, forms one of the principal articles of clothing. The Sioux tribes
particularly excel in the method of dressing it, and are very much
in the habit of ornamenting their dresses with porcupine quills, and
paints. The skin, dressed with the hair on, supplies them with blankets,
and constitutes those durable and often beautiful sleigh-robes which
are now in such universal use in the United States and the Canadas. The
tallow of this animal, as well as the beef, has also become an article
of commerce, particularly in the south-western states and territories,
and its horns are exported for the manufacture of powder-flasks. The
tongue is considered superior in flavor to that of the domestic cow,
and the animal is often hunted for no other purpose. I have seen
stockings and hats manufactured from its wool, with a little addition
of common wool, or of cotton. This practice is very common among the
white hunters of Missouri and Arkansas. The flesh of the buffalo is not
equal, in its fresh state, to that of the cow or ox, but is superior
when _dried_, which is the Indian mode of preserving it.

‘The attempts which have been made to domesticate this animal, have not
been attended with success. Calves which have been taken in the woods
and brought up with the tame breed, have afterwards discovered a wild
and ungovernable temper, and manifested their savage nature by breaking
down the strongest enclosures, and enticing the tame cattle into the
woods. The mixed breed is said to be barren, like the mule. The period
of gestation is ascertained to be twelve months, whereas that of the
cow is nine. A remarkable proof of the little affinity existing between
it, and the domestic breed of cattle, was exhibited a few years ago in
Canada, where the connexion resulted in the death of the cows submitted
to the experiment.’

_American Wolf._――The common wolf of America is considered as the
same species with the wolf of Europe. Richardson remarks that he has
travelled over thirty degrees of latitude in America, and has never
seen there any wolves which had the gaunt appearance, the comparatively
long jaw and tapering nose, the high ears, long legs, slender loins,
and narrow feet of the Pyrenean wolf. He adds, that the American animal
has a more robust form than the European wolf. Its muzzle is thicker
and more obtuse, its head larger and rounder, and there is a sensible
depression at the union of the nose and forehead. He notices six
varieties of the wolf in North America: common gray wolf, white, pied,
dusky, black, and prairie. There is little reason to doubt that all the
wolves of America are of one species; and the variations of size, color,
and habits, are to be referred to diversities of climate which have
been gradually impressed upon these animals.

_Prairie Wolf._――This species is found in large numbers in the prairies
to the west of the Missouri, and also occurs in the vicinity of the
Columbia river. Its general color is gray, mixed with black; the ears
are erect, rounded at the tip, and lined with gray hair. It is about
three feet and a half in length, and bears a very strong resemblance
to the domestic dog, so common in the Indian villages. Its bark is also
similar to that of the dog. It resembles the other species of wolves
in rapacity and cunning, being very suspicious and mistrustful and
shunning pitfalls and snares with intuitive sagacity.[44]

_Horses._――The number of horses among the various tribes on the
Columbia, and its tributary streams, differs with the circumstances of
the country. Among the Flat-heads, Cootonais, and Spokans, whose lands
are rather thickly wooded, there are not more than sufficient for their
actual use, and every colt, on arriving at the proper age, is broken in
for the saddle. But in the countries inhabited by the Wallah Wallahs,
Nez Percés, and Shoshonés, which chiefly consist of open plains, well
watered and thinly wooded, they are far more numerous, and thousands
are allowed to go wild. Their general height is about fifteen hands,
which they seldom exceed; and ponies are very scarce. Those reared in
the plains are excellent hunters, and the swiftest racers; but are not
capable of enduring the same hardships as those bred in the vicinity of
the high and woody districts. Seven hundred or a thousand wild horses
are sometimes seen in a band; and it is said that in parts of the
country belonging to the Snake Indians, bands varying from three to
four thousand are frequently seen; and further to the southward, they
are far more numerous.

  Illustration: Wild Horses.

The Indian horses are never shod; and owing to this circumstance,
their hoofs, particularly of such as are in constant work, are nearly
worn away before they are ten or eleven years old, after which they are
unfit for any labor except carrying children. They are easily managed,
and are seldom vicious. An Indian horse is never taught to trot. The
natives dislike this pace, and prefer to it the canter or light gallop.
They are hard taskmasters; and the hair-rope bridles, with the padded
deer-skin saddles which they use, lacerate the mouths and backs of
the unfortunate animals in such a manner as to render them objects of
commiseration. In summer they have no shelter from the heat, in winter
no retreat from the cold; and their only provender throughout the year
is the wild loose grass of the prairies, which, in the latter season,
is generally covered with snow, and in the former is brown and arid,
from the intense heat of the sun.

_Foxes._――The Gray Fox is found in great numbers throughout the country,
and ventures more boldly than any other species into the neighborhood
of human habitations. It exhibits different colors at different seasons
and ages; its general color is grizzly, growing gradually darker from
the fore shoulders to the hinder part of the back. The inferior parts
of the body are white, tinged slightly with faint reddish brown. The
tail is thick and bushy. The _Red Fox_ is a very beautiful species,
and abounds in the middle and southern states, where it proves very
troublesome to poultry-yards. In summer, its fur is long, fine, and
brilliant; in winter, it becomes longer and more thick. The length of
this species is about two feet, and of its tail, nearly a foot and a
half. Its fur is valuable, and much used. When caught young, the red
fox is very playful, and may be domesticated to a considerable degree;
we have known it to live in perfect friendship with a number of dogs,
and to take much pleasure in tumbling about and sporting with them.[45]

The _Black Fox_ bears a striking resemblance to the common fox, from
which it has nothing to distinguish it but its abundant and beautiful
black fur. Its color is rich and lustrous, having a small quantity
of white mingled with the prevailing black on different parts of its
body. It is found throughout the northern parts of America, but no
where in great numbers. The _Swift Fox_ is a very interesting species,
inhabiting the open plains which stretch from the base of the Rocky
Mountains towards the Mississippi.

  Illustration: Black Fox.

_Opossum_.――This animal is found in the southern parts of the
United States, and is easily distinguished from all others by two
peculiarities: the first is that the female has a cavity under the
belly in which she receives and suckles her young; the second is, that
the male and the female have no claws on the great toe of the hind feet,
which is separated from the others as a man’s thumb is separated from
his fingers. The opossum produces often, and a great number of young at
a time. It walks awkwardly, and seldom runs; but it climbs trees with
great facility, and hangs from the branches by means of a very flexible
and muscular tail. Though voracious and greedy of blood, it also feeds
on reptiles, insects, sugar-canes, potatoes, and even leaves and bark
of trees. It may be easily domesticated; but its smell is strong and
offensive, though its flesh is eatable, and much liked by the Indians.
So tenacious is it of life, that it has given rise to a saying in North
Carolina, that if a cat has nine lives, an opossum has nineteen. The
general color of the opossum is a whitish gray; the tail is thick and
black, for upwards of three inches at its base, and is covered by small
scales, interspersed with white, short, rigid hairs. It is a timid
and nocturnal animal, depending for its safety more on cunning than
strength.

  Illustration: Virginia Opossum.

_American Hare._――This species, improperly called rabbit, is found
throughout the states, and in some parts is exceedingly common. Its
flesh is much esteemed as an article of food. During the summer it is
tough, but after the first frosts of autumn, it is fat and delicate. In
the north, during winter the hare feeds on the twigs of pine and fir,
and is fit for the table during the season. It never burrows in the
ground, but in the day time remains crouched, within its form, which is
a mere spot of ground cleared of grass and sheltered by an overhanging
plant. Sometimes it lives in the trunk of a hollow tree, or under a
pile of stones. It wanders out at night, and makes sad havoc among the
turnip and cabbage fields, and the young trees in nurseries. It is not
hunted in this country as in Europe, but is caught in a trap, or roused
by a dog and shot.

_Varying Hare._――This animal appears to inhabit a great portion of
North America, as it has been found in Virginia, and as far north as
fifty-five degrees, whilst eastward it is found on the great plains of
the Columbia. It appears generally to frequent plains and low grounds,
where it lives like the common hare, never burrowing, but not resorting
to the thick woods. The _variabilis_ of Europe, on the contrary,
is described as always inhabiting the highest mountains, and never
descending into the plains, except when forced to seek for food,
when the mountains are covered with snow. The American species is
remarkably swift, never taking shelter when pursued, and capable of
most astonishing leaps; Captain Lewis measured some of these, and found
their length to be from eighteen to twenty feet. From the middle of
November to the middle of April, this animal is of a pure white, with
the exception of the black and reddish brown of the ears. During the
rest of the year, the upper parts of the body are of a lead color; the
under parts white, with a light shade of lead color.

_Beaver._――The general appearance of the beaver is that of a large rat,
and seen at a little distance, it might be readily mistaken for the
common musk-rat. But the greater size of the beaver, the thickness and
breadth of its head, and its horizontally flattened, broad, and scaly
tail, render it impossible to mistake it for any other creature when
closely examined. In its movements, both on shore and in the water, it
also closely resembles the musk-rat, having the same quick step, and
swimming with great vigor and celerity, either on the surface or in the
depths of the water.[46]

  Illustration: Beaver.

_Musk-Rat._――This animal is closely allied in form and habits to the
beaver, and is found in the same parts of America as that animal, from
thirty to sixty-nine or seventy degrees of latitude. But it is more
familiar in its habits, as it is to be found only a short distance from
large towns. The musk-rat is a watchful, but not a very shy animal. It
may be frequently seen sitting on the shores of small muddy islands,
not easily to be distinguished from a piece of earth, till, on the
approach of danger, it suddenly plunges into the water. It forms
burrows on the banks of streams and ponds, the entrance to which is in
deep water. These burrows extend to great distances, and do extensive
injury to the farms, by letting in the water upon the land. In some
situations, these animals build houses of a conical form, resembling
those of the beaver, formed of mud, grass and reeds, plastered together.
They feed upon the roots and tender shoots of aquatic plants and on
the leaves of grasses. They are excellent swimmers, dive well, and can
remain for a long time under water. It is rare to have an opportunity
of seeing the animal during the day, as it then lies concealed in its
burrow, and it is not till night, that it issues forth for food or
recreation. It does not, like the beaver, lay up a store of provision
for the winter; but it builds a new habitation every season.

This animal is common in the Atlantic states, and its fur being
valuable for hats, it is much hunted. The Indians kill them by spearing
them through the walls of their houses. Between four and five thousand
skins are annually imported into Great Britain from North America.

_The American Badger_, as compared with the European, is smaller and
lighter, with different markings on its fur, and with a head less sharp
towards the nose. It frequents the prairies and sand plains at the base
of the Rocky Mountains, as far north as latitude fifty-eight degrees.
It abounds on the plains watered by the Missouri. Timid and slow, the
badger, on being pursued, takes to the earth like a mole, and makes
his way with great rapidity. It is caught in spring, when the ground
is frozen, by filling its hole with water, when the tenant is obliged
to come out.

_The Ermine Weasel_ is known in the middle and eastern states, by
the name of weasel: farther north, it is called stoat in summer, and
ermine in its winter dress. In its habits it resembles the common
weasel of Europe. It is courageous, active, and graceful. His long
and slender body, bright and piercing eye, sharp claws and teeth, and
great strength, indicate that he is dangerous and destructive to the
smaller animals, which he can follow into their smallest hiding places,
from his peculiar flexibility of body. This animal frequents barns and
out-houses, and is the particular enemy of mice, and other depredators
upon the granary. To compensate for the service he thus renders the
farmer, he helps himself without ceremony to a number of his fowls, and
the henroost sometimes exhibits a sad proof of the value he sets upon
his labors, in exterminating the mice. In winter, the fur of the weasel
is much longer, thicker and finer, than in summer.

_Pennant’s Marten_ is found in various parts of North America, from
the state of Pennsylvania, to as far north as the Great Slave Lake,
where it was seen by captain Franklin. It is easily domesticated,
becomes fond of tea leaves, is very playful, and has a pleasant musky
smell. This species is not very scarce, as Pennant says that five
hundred and eighty skins were sent in one year from the states of New
York and Pennsylvania; and Sabine remarks that the Hudson’s Bay Company
sent eighteen hundred skins to England in one year.

The length of this marten is from twenty-four to thirty inches without
the tail, which is from thirteen to seventeen inches long. The feet are
very broad, and covered with hair, which conceals the sharp, strong,
white claws. The fur on the head is short, but gradually increases
in length towards the tail, and its color changes, losing much of the
yellowish, and assuming a chestnut hue. The tail is full, bushy, black
and lustrous, being smallest at the end.

_The Maryland Marmot_, or _Woodchuck_, is common in all the temperate
parts of America. It does great injury to the farmers, as the quantity
of herbage it consumes is really surprising. It burrows in the ground
on the sides of hills, and these extend to great distances under ground,
and terminate in various chambers. Here the marmot makes himself a
comfortable bed of dry leaves, grass, and any soft rubbish, where he
sleeps from the close of day, till the next morning is far advanced.

The Maryland marmot eats with great greediness, and in large quantities.
It is fond of cabbage, lettuce, and other garden vegetables. When in
captivity, it is exceedingly fond of bread and milk.

At the commencement of cold weather, the marmot goes into winter
quarters, blocks up the door within, and remains torpid till the warm
season. It is about the size of a rabbit, and of a dark brown color.

_The Prairie Marmot_, commonly called Prairie Dog, builds his
dwelling in the barren tracts of the western country, and may often be
seen sitting by the small mounds of earth, which indicate his abode,
in an attitude of profound attention. Whole acres of land are occupied
by these little tenants, and villages are found, containing thousands
of inhabitants. Near the Rocky Mountains, these villages are found
to reach several miles. The burrow extends under ground, but to what
distance has not been determined.

This marmot, like the rest of the species, remains torpid during the
winter. It is very much annoyed in its habitation by owls, rattlesnakes,
lizards, and land tortoises, who appropriate these comfortable
dwellings for their own use, and frequently destroy the young marmots.

The _Fox Squirrel_ is found throughout the southern states, where it
frequents the pine forests in considerable numbers, and derives its
principal subsistence from the seed of the pine. Its color varies from
white to pale gray and black, and is sometimes mottled, with various
shades of red. The _Cat Squirrel_ is one of the largest species, and is
found in great abundance in the oak and chesnut forests of this country.
It is a very heavy animal, and is slow in its movements, seldom leaping
from tree to tree, unless it is alarmed or closely pursued. It is found
of almost every variety of color. The _Black Squirrel_ is very common,
but is often confounded with the black varieties of the squirrels
before described. In the winter, this animal is of a pure black; in
the summer, it is of a grayish black, intermingled with a dark reddish
brown. It is found in the United States, and inhabits the northern
shores of Lakes Huron and Superior.

  Illustration: Black Squirrel.

The _Common Gray Squirrel_ is remarkable for its beauty and activity,
and is common throughout the United States. It is generally found in
hickory and chesnut woods, where it feeds on nuts, and lays up a hoard
for the winter. It is very easily domesticated, and in captivity is
very playful and mischievous. The _Great-tailed Squirrel_, so called
from the length of its tail, is common on the Missouri. It is of a
grayish black color, and is very graceful and active. The _Line-tail
Squirrel_ inhabits the Missouri country, where it builds its nest
in the holes and crevices of rocks. It is fond of the naked cliffs,
where there are but few bushes, and very rarely ascends a tree. It
feeds on the buds, leaves, and fruits of plants. It is of an ash
color, intermixed with white hairs. Its fur is coarse, and the tail,
which is very long, is marked with three black lines on each side.
The _Four-lined Squirrel_ is found on the Rocky Mountains. Its nest
is composed of a great quantity of the branches of different kinds of
trees, and of other vegetable productions. It does not ascend trees by
choice.

The _Columbian Pine Squirrel_ was seen by Lewis and Clarke on the banks
of the Columbia river, but is supposed by Richardson to be a variety of
the Hudson’s Bay Squirrel, its habits being similar.

The _Common Red Squirrel_ is abundant in most parts of North America.
It is one of the most lively and nimble of the squirrel race. It digs
burrows at the roots of large trees, to which it forms four or five
entrances. It does not leave its tree in cold and stormy weather, but
when it is sporting in the sunshine, if any one approaches, it conceals
itself, and makes a loud noise, similar to a watchman’s rattle. From
this circumstance it has received the name of Chickaree. When pursued,
it makes long leaps from tree to tree, and seeks for shelter as soon
as possible in its burrow. The skin of this animal is of no value. It
is of a reddish brown color, shaded with black. The tail is long and
beautiful.

The _Ground_ or _Striped Squirrel_ is abundant in all our woods. It is
sometimes called Harkee, and, in New England, is usually denominated
the Chip Squirrel. It differs very much from other squirrels in its
habits. It never makes its nest in the branches of trees, but burrows
in the ground near the roots. These burrows extend a considerable
distance under ground, and are always provided with two openings.
The general color of this animal is of a reddish brown. The _Common
Flying Squirrel_[47] is very abundant in the United States, and is
much admired for the softness of its fur, and the gentleness of its
disposition. The skin of the sides is extended from the fore to the
hind limbs, so as to form a sort of sail, which enables it to descend
swiftly from a great height, in the easiest and most pleasant manner,
often passing over a considerable space. This squirrel is small, of
an ash color above, and white beneath, with large, prominent black
eyes. It builds its nest in hollow trees. The _Rocky Mountain Flying
Squirrel_ lives in thick pine forests, and seldom leaves its retreats
except at night.

The _Urson_, or _Canada Porcupine_, exhibits none of the long and
large quills which are so conspicuous and formidable in the European
species, and the short spines or prickles which are thickly set over
all the superior parts of its body, are covered by a long coarse hair,
which almost entirely conceals them. These spines are not more than
two inches and a half in length, yet form a very efficient protection
against every other enemy but man. This animal dislikes water, sleeps
very much, and chiefly feeds upon the bark of the juniper. His flesh
is eaten by the savages and American traders. He is still found in the
remote and unsettled parts of Pennsylvania, but south of this state is
almost unknown. It was formerly found, but very rarely, in Virginia.
The porcupine is much prized by the aborigines, both for its flesh,
and quills, which are used as ornaments to their pipes, weapons, and
dresses. A large collection of dresses, thus ornamented, is exhibited
in the Philadelphia Museum.

The _Mink_ is found throughout the country, from Carolina to Hudson’s
Bay, and in its habits and appearance strongly resembles the otter. It
lives in the neighborhood of mill-seats, or farm-houses, frequenting
holes near the water, or in the ruins of old walls. It feeds upon frogs
and fish, and, like the weasel, sometimes pays an unwelcome visit to
the poultry-yard. The length of this animal is about twenty inches; its
feet are broad, webbed, and covered with hair. Hats are made of its fur.

The _Skunk_ is of a brown color, marked sometimes with two white
stripes. The faculty this animal possesses, of annoying its enemies
by the discharge of a noisome fluid, causes it to be rather shunned
than hunted, which the value of its skin would otherwise be sure to
occasion. The smallest drop of this fluid is sufficient to render a
garment detestable for a great length of time. Washing, smoking, baking,
or burying articles of dress, seems to be equally inefficient for its
removal. The skunk is generally found in the forests, having its den
either in the stump of an old tree, or in an excavation in the ground.
It feeds on the young of birds, and upon small quadrupeds, eggs, and
wild fruits. It also does much mischief in the poultry-yard.

The _American Otter_ is about five feet in length, including the tail,
the length of which is eighteen inches. The color of the whole of the
body, (except the chin and throat, which are dusky white) is a glossy
brown. The fur throughout is dense and fine. The differences between
this species and the European otter, are thus pointed out by Captain
Sabine: ‘The neck of the American otter is elongated, not short, and
the head narrow and long in comparison with the short, broad visage of
the European species; the ears are consequently much closer together
than in the latter animal. The tail is more pointed and shorter, being
considerably _less_ than one half of the length of the body, whilst the
tail of the European otter is _more_ than half the length of its body.’
The fur of the otter is much valued by the hatters and other consumers
of peltries, and this animal must ultimately become as rare in North
America as the kindred species has long since become in Europe.


                              II. BIRDS.

The Ornithology of the United States is exceedingly rich and
interesting. For their beauty of plumage, variety and melody of song,
diversity of form, habits, disposition and faculties, our birds well
merit the industrious observation which has been bestowed upon them.
They have been highly fortunate in their historians, for no department
of our animal kingdom has been so thoroughly investigated as this;
and the indefatigable labor, science and genius of such men as Wilson,
Audubon, Bonaparte, and Nuttall, have left us but little to expect from
future researches.

The vulture called _Turkey Buzzard_, is found in large numbers in
the southern states, where he is protected by law, on account of his
services in the removal of carrion. This bird has never been known
to breed in any of the Atlantic states north of New Jersey. In the
southern cities, during the winter, they pass the night on the roofs
of houses, and are fond of warming themselves in the smoke that issues
from the chimneys. This bird is about two and a half feet in length,
and six in breadth; the upper plumage is glossed with green and bronze,
the fore part of the neck is bare. The _Black Vulture_ is smaller,
and flies in flocks; the range of this bird is confined by very narrow
limits to the southern states. The _Condor_ is not uncommon in the
Rocky Mountains; but his peculiar residence is among the precipitous
cliffs of the majestic Andes.

The _Common_ or _Wandering Falcon_ lives along the seacoast of the
country, and is said to breed in the cedar swamps of New Jersey. The
_American Sparrow Hawk_ is found principally in the warmer parts of
the states, and builds its nest in a hollow or decayed tree, on some
elevated place. In the winter it becomes familiar, and approaches to
the neighborhood of man; at this time it lives on such small game as
it can find in the way of mice or lizards. The flight of this bird is
irregular. It perches on the top of a dead tree or pole in the middle
of a field, and sits there in an almost perpendicular position for
an hour together, reconnoitering the ground below in every direction
for the favorite articles of its food. The bluejays have a particular
antipathy to this bird, who punishes their enmity by occasionally
making a meal of one of them.

  Illustration: American Sparrow Hawk.

The _American Fish Hawk_ is a formidable, vigorous-winged, and
well-known bird, which subsists altogether on the fishes that swarm
in our bays rivers, and creeks. It is doubtless the most numerous of
its genus in the United States, and besides lining our seacoast from
Georgia to Canada, it penetrates far into the interior.

  Illustration: Fish Hawk.

‘The motions of the fish hawk,’ says Mr. Audubon, ‘in the air are
graceful, and as majestic as those of the eagle. It rises with ease
to a great height by extensive circlings, performed apparently by mere
inclinations of the wings and tail. It dives at times to some distance
with the wings partially closed, and resumes its sailing, as if these
plunges were made for amusement only. Its wings are extended at right
angles to the body, and when thus flying, it is easily distinguishable
from all other hawks by the eye of an observer, accustomed to note the
flight of birds. Whilst in search of food, it flies with easy flappings
at a moderate height above the water, and with an apparent listlessness,
although in reality it is keenly observing the objects beneath. No
sooner does it spy a fish suited to its taste, than it checks its
course with a sudden shake of its wings and tail, which gives it the
appearance of being poised in the air for a moment, after which it
plunges headlong with great rapidity into the water, to secure its
prey, or continue its flight, if disappointed by having observed the
fish sink deeper.

‘When it plunges into the water in pursuit of a fish, it sometimes
proceeds deep enough to disappear for an instant. The surge caused
by its descent is so great as to make the spot around it present the
appearance of a mass of foam. On rising with its prey, it is seen
holding it in the manner represented in the plate. It mounts a few
yards into the air, shakes the water from its plumage, squeezes the
fish with its talons, and immediately proceeds towards its nest, to
feed its young, or to a tree, to devour the fruit of its industry in
peace. When it has satisfied its hunger, it does not, like other hawks,
stay perched until hunger again urges it forth, but usually sails about
at a great height over the neighboring waters.

‘The fish hawk has a great attachment to the tree to which it carries
its prey, and will not abandon it, unless frequently disturbed, or shot
at whilst feeding there. It shows the same attachment to the tree on
which it has built its first nest, and returns to it year after year.’

_The Swallow-tailed Hawk._――This beautiful kite breeds and passes the
summer in the warmer parts of the United States, and is also probably
resident in all tropical and temperate America, migrating into the
southern as well as the northern hemisphere. In the former, according
to Viellot, it is found in Peru, and as far as Buenos Ayres; and though
it is extremely rare to meet with this species as far as the latitude
of forty degrees in the Atlantic states, yet, tempted by the abundance
of the fruitful valley of the Mississippi, individuals have been
seen along that river as far as the Falls of St. Anthony, in the
forty-fourth degree of north latitude. Indeed, according to Fleming,
two stragglers have even found their devious way to the strange climate
of Great Britain.

  Illustration: Swallow-tailed Hawk.

They appear in the United States about the close of April or beginning
of May, and are very numerous in the Mississippi territory, twenty
or thirty being sometimes visible at the same time, often collecting
locusts and other large insects, which they are said to feed on from
their claws while flying; at times also seizing upon the nests of
locusts and wasps, and like the honey-buzzard, devouring both the
insects and their larvæ. Snakes and lizards are their common food in
all parts of America. In the month of October they begin to retire to
the south, at which season Mr. Bartram observed them in great numbers
assembled in Florida, soaring steadily at great elevations for several
days in succession, and slowly passing towards their winter quarters
along the Gulf of Mexico.[48]

Other hawks in the United States are the _Sharp-shinned_, the
_Great-footed_ or _Duck_, the _Pigeon_, _Cooper’s White-tailed_,
_Red-tailed_, _Broad-winged_, _Mississippi Kite_, _Black_, _Marsh_,
_Stanley’s_, _Red-shouldered_, _Ash-colored_, and _Slate-colored Hawks_.

_Washington Eagle._――For the first accurate observation of this bird,
we have been indebted to the untiring study and genius of Audubon, who
first noticed it in the year 1814. He is three feet and seven inches
long; the extent of his wings is ten feet two inches. His plumage is
compact and glossy, the upper parts being of a dark, shining coppery
brown; the throat, breast and belly of a bright rich cinnamon color.
He lives in the neighborhood of the seashore, lakes and rivers, and
subsists chiefly on fish. ‘The name which I have chosen for this new
species of eagle,’ says its great discoverer, ‘the “Bird of Washington,”
may, by some, be considered as preposterous and unfit; but as it is
indisputably the noblest bird of its genus that has yet been discovered
in the United States, I trust I shall be allowed to honor it with the
name of one yet nobler, who was the savior of his country, and whose
name will ever be dear to it. To those who may be curious to know
my reasons, I can only say, that, as the new world gave me birth and
liberty, the great man who insured its independence is next to my
heart. He had a nobility of mind and a generosity of soul, such as
are seldom possessed. He was brave, so is the eagle; like it, too, he
was the terror of his foes; and his fame, extending from pole to pole,
resembles the majestic soarings of the mightiest of the feathered tribe.
If America has reason to be proud of her Washington, so has she to be
proud of her great eagle.’

  Illustration: Washington Eagle.

_White-headed_ or _Bald Eagle_.――This bird is abundant in all the
latitudes of the United States, but shows a predilection for the warmer
climates. He lives near the seacoast, where he usually selects some
lofty pine or cypress for his eyry, which he builds of large sticks,
sods, moss, reeds, pine tops and other coarse materials, arranged in a
sort of level bed. This breeding place is never deserted as long us the
tree lasts. Fish constitutes the chief article of food of this bird,
and he usually obtains it by cunning and rapine, seldom by the exercise
of honest industry. His principal occupation is to rob the osprey of
the fruits of his labor, and he has sometimes been known to attack the
vulture, and oblige him to disgorge his carrion.[49]

  Illustration: White-headed or Bald Eagle.

_Royal_ or _Golden Eagle_.――This bird is found in all the cold
and temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. It is supposed to
live for a century, and is about three years in gaining its complete
growth and permanent plumage. The neighborhood of Hudson’s Bay is more
frequented by this eagle than any part of the United States, but it
is not uncommon in the great plains of the larger western rivers. ‘The
lofty mountains of New Hampshire,’ says Mr. Nuttall, ‘afford suitable
situations for the eyry of this eagle, over whose snow-clad summits
he is seen majestically soaring in solitude and grandeur. A young bird
from this region, which I have in a state of domestication, showed
considerable docility. He had, however, been brought up from the nest,
in which he was found in the month of August; he appeared even playful,
turning his head about in a very antic manner, as if desirous to
attract attention; still his glance was quick and fiery. When birds
were given to him, he plumed them very clean before he began his meal,
and picked the subject to a perfect skeleton.’

The _Ring-tailed Eagle_ is now found to be the young of this bird,
as has been long supposed. Its tail feathers are highly valued by the
aborigines as they serve for ornamenting their calumets.

  Illustration: Ring-tailed Eagle.

_Owls._――One of the most common species of this bird in the United
States is the _Little Screech Owl_, which is found throughout the
country. It is noted for the melancholy wailing, which is heard in the
evenings in autumn and the latter part of summer. On clear moonlight
nights, they answer each other from the various parts of the fields or
orchards, roost during the day in thick evergreens, and are rarely seen
abroad during the sunshine. They construct their nests in the hollow of
a tree, frequently in an orchard.

The _Great-horned Owl_ is also an inhabitant of every part of the
country. ‘All climates are alike,’ says Mr. Nuttall, ‘to this eagle
of the night, the king of the nocturnal tribe of American birds. The
aboriginal inhabitants of the country dread his boding howl, dedicating
his effigies to their solemnities, and, as if he were their sacred
bird of Minerva, forbid the mockery of his ominous, dismal, and almost
supernatural cries. His favorite resort, in the dark and impenetrable
swampy forests, where he dwells in chosen solitude secure from the
approach of every enemy, agrees with the melancholy and sinister traits
of his character. To the surrounding feathered race he is the Pluto of
the gloomy wilderness, and would scarcely be known out of the dismal
shades where he hides, but to his victims, were he as silent as he is
solitary. Among the choaking, loud, guttural sounds which he sometimes
utters, in the dead of night, and with a suddenness which always alarms,
because of his noiseless approach, is the _’waugh ho! ’waugh ho!_ which,
Wilson remarks, was often uttered at the instant of sweeping down round
his camp fire. Many kinds of owls are similarly dazzled and attracted
by fire-lights, and occasionally finding, no doubt, some offal or flesh,
thrown out by those who encamp in the wilderness, they come round the
nocturnal blaze with other motives than barely those of curiosity.’

The _Burrowing Owl_ differs essentially from all others in his habits
and manners. Instead of hiding his head in the daylight, he fearlessly
flies abroad in search of prey, in the broadest glare of the sun; and
far from seeking abodes of solitude and silence, he lives in company
with animals in the recesses of the earth, where they all enjoy the
pleasures of fellowship and good harmony. The mounds of the prairie dog
or marmot, which are thrown up in such numbers near the Rocky Mountains,
are about eighteen inches in height. The entrance is by a passage
two feet in length, which terminates in a comfortable cell composed
of dry grass, where the marmot takes up his winter abode. Around these
villages, the burrowing owls may be seen moving briskly about, singly
or in small flocks. They seem to have very little fear of man; either
soaring to a distance when alarmed, or descending into the burrows,
where it is very difficult to come at them. In countries where the
marmot is not found, this owl is said to dig a hole for himself. Their
food appears to consist entirely of insects. Its note is similar to the
cry of the marmot, which sounds like _cheh, cheh_, pronounced in rapid
succession.

The burrowing owl is nine inches and a half long. The general color
of the plumage is a light burnt umber, spotted with whitish. The under
parts are white, banded with brown.[50]

Other birds of this species found in the limits of the states are the
_Great Gray_ or _Cinereous Owl_, the _Long-eared Owl_, the _Short-eared
Owl_, the _Acadian Owl_, and the _White_ or _Barn Owl_.

The _Baltimore Oriole_ is a gay, lively, and beautiful bird, which
passes its summers among us, but retreats for the winter to South
America. The most remarkable instinct of this bird is the ingenuity
exhibited in building its nest, which is a pendulous cylindric pouch,
from five to seven inches in depth, and usually suspended from the
extremities of high and drooping branches of a tree. The leaves, as
they grow out over the top, form a protection from the sun and rain
for the young. Though naturally shy and suspicious, this bird usually
selects his building place in the neighborhood of farm-houses, and
along frequented roads. He is easily domesticated, becomes playful and
attached, and sings in confinement.

  Illustration: The Baltimore Oriole.

The _Orchard Oriole_ is a smaller and plainer species, of similar
habits. The _Red-winged Blackbird_ is an inhabitant of all North
America, but is migratory in the northern states. This bird commits
great depredations on the unripe corn, and on the rice fields. He
is known by a variety of names. His flesh is tough, and but little
esteemed. The _Cow Blackbird_ is passing from one part of the states to
another, and lives in winter in the warmer parts. In the latter part of
March, he appears in Pennsylvania, and as the weather becomes milder,
he gradually advances into Canada.[51] The _Rice Bunting_ is a small
bird of beautiful plumage and musical song, and as much of a favorite
with the sportsman and gourmand, as of an enemy to the farmer and
planter. They are found in immense numbers in the middle states, where
they do great damage to the barley, Indian corn, and early wheat.

  Illustration: The Rice Bunting.

_Blackbirds._――The _Great Crow Blackbird_ is found only in the
southern parts of the union, where it appears early in February. It is
gregarious, omnivorous, and its note is said sometimes to resemble a
watchman’s rattle. The _Common Crow Blackbird_ appears in every part
of the country, at different seasons, and commits great havoc among
the fields of maize. It is easily domesticated, and may be taught to
articulate a few words. The numbers in which this species are found
are almost beyond belief; and the damage they do to the crops is
astonishing. Other birds of this genus are the _Slender-billed_ and
the _Rusty Blackbird_.

The _Raven_ is found in greater numbers in the western than in the
eastern part of the union; it is a resident, however, in almost every
country in the world. He has been too often described to require
extended notice. The _Crow_ is also an inhabitant of nearly every
region. In most of the settled districts of North America, he is
frequently met with, and is as little liked as he is often seen. He is
smaller than the raven, and is of a deep black color, with brilliant
reflections. Easily domesticated, and quite intelligent, he becomes
attached to his master, and learns a variety of amusing tricks, though
he is apt to be thievish, and is sometimes noisy and disagreeable. The
_Fish Crow_ resembles the rook; it is peculiar to this country, and is
met with along the coast of Georgia, and as far north as New Jersey.
The _Columbian Crow_ is another variety frequenting the shores of
Columbia river.

The _Magpie_ is found in the western parts of America, and is very
numerous to the west of the Rocky Mountains. He is a restless, active,
and impudent bird, bold, and easily domesticated. Like the crow, he is
artful and thievish. His nest is built with great ingenuity and labor,
in a place inaccessible to man. The body of it is composed of hawthorn
branches, the thorns sticking outwards; it is lined with fibrous roots,
wool, and long grass, and then nicely plastered with mud and clay. A
canopy of sharp thorns is then built over the nest, so woven together
as to deny all entrance except at the door. Here the male and female
bring up their young brood in perfect security.

  Illustration: Magpie.

The _Blue Jay_ is peculiar to North America, and is distinguished
as a kind of beau among the feathered tenants of our woods, by the
brilliancy of his dress, and, like most other coxcombs, makes himself
still more conspicuous by his loquacity and the oddness of his tones
and gestures. He is an almost universal inhabitant of the woods,
frequenting the thickest settlements as well as the deepest recesses
of the forest, where his squalling voice often alarms the deer, to the
great disappointment of the hunter. He appears to be among his fellow
musicians, what the trumpeter is in a band, some of his notes bearing
no distant resemblance to the tones of that instrument. These he has
the faculty of changing through a great variety of modulations. When
disposed for ridicule, there is scarcely a bird to whose peculiarities
of song he cannot tune his notes. When engaged in the blandishments
of love, they resemble the soft chatterings of a duck, and are scarce
heard at some paces distant; but no sooner does he discover your
approach, than he sets up a sudden and vehement outcry, flying off
and screaming with all his might. His notes a stranger might readily
mistake for the repeated creakings of an ungreased wheelbarrow. All
these he accompanies with various nods, jerks, and other gesticulations,
for which the whole tribe of jays are so remarkable.[52] Other jays are
the _Columbia_, _Canada_, and _Florida_.

  Illustration: Blue Jay.

The _Meadow Lark_ is a well-known agreeable bird, living in meadows,
and is found throughout the states. There are two species of titmouse,
the _Tufted_, and the _Black-capt Titmouse_. The _Cedar Bird_ is a
small and very beautiful creature, with a soft silky plumage, and crest
of a bright brownish gray; it feeds on cherries, and whortle-berries,
and late in the season on persimmons, small winter grapes, and other
fruits.

The _Great American Shrike_ is common in the northern parts of the
continent, but sometimes summers in New England and Pennsylvania. He
feeds on grasshoppers, spiders, and small birds, and after satisfying
hunger, impales his remaining victims on thorns. When his supply of
fresh game is abundant, he leaves his stores to dry up and decay. He is
fearless, and will attack even the eagle in defence of his young. The
_Loggerhead Shrike_ is a species strongly resembling the one described.

  Illustration: Great American Shrike.

The _Tyrant Flycatcher_, or _Kingbird_, is the field martin of Maryland
and some of the southern states, and the kingbird of Pennsylvania and
several of the northern districts. The trivial name king, as well as
tyrant, has been bestowed on this bird for its extraordinary behavior
in breeding time, and for the authority it assumes over all other
birds. His extreme affection for his mate, nest, and young, makes him
suspicious of every bird that comes near his residence, so that he
attacks every intruder without discrimination; his life at this season
is one continued scene of broils and battles; in which, however, he
generally comes off conqueror. Hawks and crows, the bald eagle, and the
great black eagle, all equally dread a rencontre with this merciless
champion, who, as soon as he perceives one of these last approaching,
launches into the air to meet him, mounts to a considerable height
above him, and darts down on his back, sometimes fixing there to the
great annoyance of his sovereign, who, if no convenient retreat be
near, endeavors by various evolutions to rid himself of his merciless
adversary; but the kingbird is not so easily dismounted. He teazes the
eagle incessantly, sweeps upon him and remounts that he may descend on
his back with greater violence; all the while keeping up a shrill and
rapid twittering. The purple martin, however, is sometimes more than a
match for him. The general color of this bird is a dark slaty ash, the
throat and lower parts are pure white; the plumage on the head, though
not forming a crest, is frequently erected, and discovers a rich bed of
orange color, called by the country people his crown; when the feathers
lie close, this is concealed.

The other principal Flycatchers are, the _Great-crested_, _Arkansas_,
_Fork-tailed_, _Swallow-tailed_, _Says_, _Pewit_, and _Olive-sided_;
the last first described by Mr. Nuttall in his valuable work, from a
specimen obtained at Mount Auburn, now the celebrated cemetery in the
neighborhood of Boston.

The _Mocking Bird_ is peculiar to the new world, and is found in much
larger numbers in the southern than the northern states of the Union.
A warm climate and low country seem to be most congenial to its nature.
It feeds on berries and insects. ‘The mocking bird,’ says Wilson, whose
description has never been surpassed, ‘builds his nest in different
places, according to the latitude in which he resides. A solitary
thorn bush; an almost impenetrable thicket; an orange tree, cedar,
or holly bush, are favorite spots. Always ready to defend, but never
over anxious to conceal his nest, he very often builds within a small
distance of a house; and not unfrequently in a pear or apple tree,
rarely higher than six or seven feet from the ground. The nest is
composed of dry twigs, weeds, straw, wool and tow, ingeniously put
together, and lined with fine fibrous roots. During the time when the
female is sitting, neither cat, dog, man, or any animal can approach
the nest without being attacked. But the whole vengeance of the bird
is directed against his mortal enemy the black snake. Whenever this
reptile is discovered, the male darts upon it with the rapidity of
an arrow, dextrously eluding its bite, and striking it violently and
incessantly against the head, where it is very vulnerable. The snake
soon becomes sensible of his danger, and seeks to escape; but the
intrepid bird redoubles his exertions, and as the snake’s strength
begins to flag, he seizes and lifts it up from the ground, beating it
with his wings, and when the business is completed, he returns to his
nest, mounts the summit of the bush, and pours out a torrent of song
in token of victory.

  Illustration: Mocking Birds.

‘The plumage of the mocking bird has nothing gaudy or brilliant in
it, but that which so strongly recommends him, is his full, strong
and musical voice, capable of almost every modulation, from the mellow
tones of the woodthrush, to the savage screams of the bald eagle. In
his native groves, mounted on the top of a tall bush, in the dawn of
a dewy morning, while the woods are already vocal with a multitude of
warblers, his admirable song rises pre-eminent over every competitor.
The ear can listen to his music alone. Nor is the strain altogether
imitative. His own native notes are bold and full, and varied seemingly
beyond all limits. They consist of short expressions of two, three,
or five and six syllables, generally interspersed with imitations, all
of them uttered with great emphasis and rapidity, and continued for
an hour at a time with undiminished ardor; his expanded wings and tail
glistening with white, and the buoyant gaiety of his action arresting
the eye, as his song most irresistibly does the ear. He sweeps round
with enthusiastic ecstasy――he mounts and descends as his song swells or
dies away――and, as Mr. Bartram has beautifully expressed it, “he bounds
aloft with the celerity of an arrow, as if to recover or recall his
very soul, expired in the last elevated strain.” While thus exerting
himself, a bystander would suppose that the whole feathered tribes had
assembled together on a trial for skill――so perfect are his imitations.

‘The mocking bird loses little of the power and energy of his song by
confinement. In his domesticated state, when he commences his career
of song, it is impossible to stand by uninterested. He whistles for the
dog; Cæsar starts up, wags his tail, and runs to meet his master. He
squeaks out like a hurt chicken, and the hen hurries about with hanging
wings and bristling feathers, clucking to protect her injured brood.
The barking of the dog, the mewing of the cat, the creaking of the
passing wheelbarrow, follow with great truth and rapidity. He repeats
the tune taught him by his master, though of considerable length, fully
and faithfully. He runs over the quiverings of the canary, and the
clear whistlings of the Virginia nightingale, or red bird, with such
superior execution and effect, that the mortified songsters feel their
own inferiority, and become silent, while he seems to triumph in their
defeat by redoubling his exertions.’

_Warblers._――The _Summer Yellow Bird_, or _Warbler_, is a brilliant and
common species, found in every part of the American continent; he is
about five inches in length, with an upper plumage of greenish yellow,
and wings and tail deep brown, edged with yellow. He is a lively and
familiar bird, and a great ornament to the gardens and orchards. His
nest is built with great neatness in the fork of a small shrub. It
is composed of flax or tow, strongly twisted round the twigs, and
lined with hair and the down of fern. This interesting little bird will
feign lameness to draw one from his nest, fluttering feebly along, and
looking back to see if he is followed. His notes are few and shrill,
hardly deserving the name of a song. There is a very great variety
belonging to the family of warblers, of which we can only allude to the
_Prairie_, _Hemlock_, _Pine-swamp_, _Blue-mountain_, _Chesnut-sided_,
_Mourning_, and _Blue-winged Warbler_.

_Ferruginous Thrush._――This is the Brown Thrush or Thrasher of the
middle and eastern states, and the French Mocking-Bird of Maryland,
Virginia, and the Carolinas. It is the largest of all our thrushes,
and is a well-known and distinguished songster, and from the tops
of hedge rows, apple or cherry trees, he salutes the opening morning
with his charming song, which is loud, emphatical and full of variety.
These notes are not imitative, but solely his own. He is an active and
vigorous bird, flying generally low from one thicket to another, with
his long broad tail spread out like a fan; he has a single note or
chuck when you approach his nest.

  Illustration: Ferruginous Thrush.

There is a very numerous variety of thrushes in the states, of
which the best known are the _Cat Bird_, _Robin_, _Wood_, _Little_ or
_Hermit_, _Wilson’s_, and the _Golden-crowned Thrush_.

_Wren._――The _House Wren_, throughout the states, is a well-known and
familiar bird, who builds his nest sometimes under the eaves, or in a
hollow cherry tree; but most commonly in small boxes fixed on a pole,
for his accommodation. He will even put up with an old hat, and if
this also is denied him, he will find some hole or crevice, about the
house or barn, rather than abandon the dwellings of man. A mower once
hung up his coat, under a shed near a barn; two or three days elapsed
before he had occasion to put it on; thrusting his arm up the sleeve,
he found it completely filled with some rubbish as he expressed it,
and on extracting the whole mass, found it to be the nest of a wren,
completely finished and lined with a large quantity of feathers. In his
retreat he was followed by the forlorn little proprietors, who scolded
him with great vehemence, for thus ruining the whole economy of their
domestic affairs.

The immense number of insects which this sociable little bird removes
from the garden and fruit trees ought to endear him to every cultivator;
and his notes, loud, sprightly and tremulous, are extremely agreeable.
Its food is insects and caterpillars, and while supplying the wants
of its young it destroys, on an average, many hundreds a day. It is a
bold and insolent bird against those that venture to build within its
jurisdiction; attacking them without hesitation, though twice its size,
and compelling them to decamp. Even the blue bird, when attacked by
this little impertinent, soon relinquishes the contest: with those of
his own species, also, he has frequent squabbles. The varieties of the
wren are very numerous.

The _Blue Bird_, is a familiar favorite throughout the continent. It
is migratory, and his return is hailed in the northern states as the
first presage of spring. ‘Towards autumn,’ says Mr. Nuttall, ‘in the
month of October, his cheerful song nearly ceases, and is now changed
into a single plaintive note. Even when the leaves have fallen, and the
forest no longer affords a shelter from the blast, the faithful blue
bird still lingers over his native fields, and only takes his departure
in November, when, at a considerable elevation, in the early twilight
of the morning, till the opening of the day, they wing their way in
small roving troops to some milder regions in the south.’

_Tanagers._――The _Tanagers_ are gaudy birds, which annually visit the
republic from the torrid regions of the south. The _Scarlet Tanager_
is perhaps the most showy. He spreads himself over the United States,
and is found even in Canada. He rarely approaches the habitations
of man, unless perhaps in the orchard, where he sometimes builds; or
in the cherry trees in search of fruit; the depth of the wood is his
favorite abode. Among all the birds that inhabit our woods, there is
none that strikes the eye of a stranger, or even a native, with so much
brilliancy as this. Seen among the green leaves, with the light falling
strongly on his plumage, he is really beautiful. Another species, the
summer red bird, delights in a flat sandy country, covered with wood,
and interspersed with pine trees; and is, consequently, more numerous
towards the shores of the Atlantic than in the interior.

  Illustration: Tanager.

_Finches._――The _Song Sparrow_ is the most generally diffused over
the United States, and is the most numerous of all our sparrows; and it
is far the earliest, sweetest, and most lasting songster. Many of them
remain during the whole winter in close-sheltered meadows and swamps.
It is the first singing bird in spring. Its song continues through the
summer and fall, and is sometimes heard even in the depths of winter.
The notes or chant are short but very sweet, and frequently repeated,
from a small bush or tree, where it sits chanting for an hour together.
It is fond of frequenting the borders of rivers, meadows and swamps;
and, if wounded and unable to fly, will readily take to the water, and
swim with considerable rapidity. There are other familiar species of
sparrows, as the _Chipping_, _Field_, and _Tree_, _Yellow-winged_, and
_White-throated_ sparrows.

The _Indigo Bird_ is numerous in the middle and eastern states,
and in the Carolinas and Georgia. Its favorite haunts are about
gardens, fields of clover, borders of woods, and road sides, where it
is frequently seen perched on fences. In its manners it is extremely
neat and active, and a vigorous and pretty good songster. It mounts to
the tops of the highest trees, and chants for half an hour at a time.
Its song is not one continued strain, but a repetition of short notes,
commencing loud and rapid, and falling by slow gradations till they
seem hardly articulate, as if the little minstrel were quite exhausted;
but after a pause of half a minute, it commences again as before.
Notwithstanding the beauty of his plumage, and the vivacity of his song,
the indigo bird is seldom seen domesticated. Its nest is built in a low
bush among rank grass, grain, or clover, suspended by two twigs, one
passing up each side, and is composed of flax, and lined with grass.
This bird is five inches long, the whole body of a rich sky-blue,
deepening in color toward the head, and sometimes varying to green.

The _Yellow Bird_, or _Goldfinch_, bears a great resemblance to the
canary, and in song is like the goldfinch of Britain, but it is in
general weak. In the spring, they associate in flocks, to bask and
dress themselves in the morning sun, singing in concert for half an
hour together; the confused mingling of their notes forming a kind
of harmony not at all unpleasant. Their flight is not direct, but
in alternate risings and sinkings, twittering as they fly at each
successive impulse of the wings. They search the gardens in numbers,
in quest of seeds, and pass by various names, such as lettuce-bird,
sallad-bird, thistle-bird, yellow-bird. They are very easily tamed.

The goldfinch is four inches and a half in length: the male is of a
rich lemon color. The wings and tail are black, edged with white. In
the fall, this color changes to a brown olive, which is the constant
color of the female. They build a nest in the twigs of an apple tree,
neatly formed of lichen and soft downy substances.

The _Cardinal Grosbeak_ is one of our most common cage birds, and is
very generally known both in this country and in Europe. Numbers of
them have been carried to England and France, in which last country
they are called Virginia nightingales. They have great clearness and
variety of tones; many of which resemble the clear notes of the fife,
and are nearly as loud. They begin in the spring at daybreak, and
repeat a favorite passage twenty or thirty times. The sprightly figure
and gaudy plumage of this bird, with his vivacity and strength of voice,
must always make him a favorite.

The _Crossbill_ is an inhabitant of almost all the pine forests
situated north of forty degrees, from the beginning of September to
the middle of April. The great pine swamp in Pennsylvania appears to
be their favorite rendezvous. They then appear in large flocks, feeding
on the seeds of the hemlock and white pine; have a loud, sharp, and
not unmusical note; chatter as they fly; alight during the prevalence
of the deep snows before the door of the hunter, and around the house,
picking off the clay with which the logs are plastered, and searching
in corners where any substance of a saline nature had been thrown. At
such times, they are so tame as only to settle on the roof of the cabin
when disturbed, and a moment after, descend to feed as before. They are
then easily caught in traps. When kept in a cage, they have many of the
habits of the parrot, often climbing along the wires, and using their
feet to grasp the cones in, while taking out the seeds.

_Carolina Parrot._――This is the only species of parrot found native
within the territory of the United States. The vast luxuriant tracts
lying within the torrid zone seem to be the favorite residence of
those noisy, numerous and richly plumaged tribes. The Carolina parrot
inhabits the interior of Louisiana and the shores of the Mississippi
and Ohio, east of the Alleghanies. It is seldom seen north of Maryland.
Their private places of resort are low, rich, alluvial bottoms along
the borders of creeks; deep and almost impenetrable swamps filled with
sycamore and cypress trees, and the _salines_ or _licks_ interspersed
over the western country. Here too is a great abundance of their
favorite fruits. The seeds of the cypress tree and beech nuts are
eagerly sought after by these birds.

  Illustration: Carolina Parrot.

The flight of the Carolina parrot is very much like that of the wild
pigeon, in close compact bodies, moving with great rapidity, making a
loud and outrageous screaming, like that of the red-headed woodpecker.
Their flight is sometimes in a direct line, but most usually circuitous,
making a great variety of elegant and easy serpentine meanders, as
if for pleasure. They generally roost in the hollow trunks of old
sycamores, in parties of thirty or forty together. Here they cling fast
to the sides of the tree, holding by their claws and bills. They appear
to be fond of sleep, and often retire to their holes during the day,
probably to take their regular _siesta_. They are extremely social and
friendly towards each other.

The _Yellow-billed Cuckoo_ is not abundant any where; but it is
found far north, though preferring a residence in the southern states.
It feeds on berries and insects of various kinds. ‘In autumn,’ says
Mr. Audubon, ‘they eat many grapes, and I have seen them supporting
themselves by a momentary motion of their wings opposite a bunch, as if
selecting the ripest, when they would seize it and return to a branch,
repeating their visits in this manner, until satiated. They now and
then descend to the ground, to pick up a wood-snail or a beetle. They
are extremely awkward at walking, and move in an ambling manner, or
leap along sidewise, for which the shortness of their legs is an ample
excuse. They are seldom seen perched conspicuously on a twig, but on
the contrary are generally to be found amongst the thickest boughs and
foliage, where they emit their notes until late in autumn, at which
time they discontinue them.’ It is shy and cowardly, robbing small
birds of their eggs.

_Woodpeckers._――The _Red-headed Woodpecker_ is universally known
from his striking and characteristic plumage, and the frequency of his
depredations in the orchards and corn-fields. Towards the mountains,
particularly in the vicinity of creeks and rivers, these birds are
extremely abundant, especially in the latter part of the summer.
Wherever you travel in the interior at that season, you hear them
screaming from the adjoining woods, rattling on the dead limbs of trees,
or on the fences, where they are perpetually seen flitting from stake
to stake on the roadside before you. Wherever there are trees of the
wild cherry, covered with ripe fruit, there you see them busy among the
branches; and in passing orchards, you may easily know where to find
the sweetest apples, by observing those trees on or near which this
bird is skulking; for he is so excellent a connoisseur in fruit, that
wherever an apple or pear is found broached by him, it is sure to be
among the ripest and best flavored. When alarmed, he seizes a capital
one by sticking his open bill deep into it, and bears it off to the
woods. When the Indian corn is in its ripe, succulent, and milky
state, he attacks it with great eagerness, opening a passage through
the numerous folds of the husk, and feeding on it with voracity. The
girdled or leadened timber, so common among the corn-fields in the
back settlements, are his favorite retreats, whence he sallies out
to make his depredations. He is fond of the ripe berries of the sour
gum, and pays regular visits to the cherry trees, when loaded with
fruit. Towards fall, he often approaches the barn or farm house, and
raps on the shingles and weather-boards. He is of a gay and frolicsome
disposition; and half a dozen of the fraternity are frequently seen
diving and vociferating round the high dead limbs of some tree,
pursuing and playing with each other, amusing the passenger with their
gambols. Their note or cry is shrill and lively, and so much resembles
that of a species of tree-frog, which frequents the same tree, that it
is sometimes difficult to distinguish the one from the other.

  Illustration: Red-headed Woodpecker.

The _Ivory-billed Woodpecker_ breeds in the Carolinas, and in
strength and magnitude stands at the head of the tribe. He lives in
the cypress swamps, seeking the tops of the most towering trees; his
bill is like polished ivory, and his crest a superb carmine. His eye
is brilliant and daring, and his manners are said to be dignified and
noble. Among the other American birds of this tribe are the _Pileated_,
_Yellow-bellied_, _Golden-winged_, and _Red-bellied Woodpeckers_.

_Nuthatch._――The _White-breasted Nuthatch_ is found almost every where
in the woods of North America; his whole upper plumage is light-blue
or lead, the under parts are white, and the crown of the head, black.
Ants, seeds, insects, and larvæ, form his principal subsistence. There
are two other species of this bird found in the United States.

The _Ruby-throated Humming Bird_ is the only species of the genus found
in the limits of the states, though there are upwards of one hundred in
America. Its approach to the north is regulated by the advance of the
season. He is extremely fond of tubular flowers, particularly of the
blossoms of the trumpet flower. When arrived before a thicket of these,
that are full blown, he suspends himself on wing for the space of two
or three seconds, so steadily that his wings become almost invisible;
the glossy golden green of his back, and the fire of his throat,
dazzling in the sun, form altogether an interesting spectacle. When he
alights, he prefers the small dead twigs of a bush, where he dresses
and arranges his plumage with great dexterity. His flight from flower
to flower greatly resembles that of a bee, but is infinitely more
rapid. He poises himself on wing, while he thrusts his long slender
tongue into the flowers in search of food. He sometimes enters a room
by the window, examines the bouquets of flowers, and passes out by the
opposite door or window. He feeds on the honey extracted from flowers,
and on insects.

‘The old and young,’ says Mr. Nuttall, ‘are soon reconciled to
confinement. In an hour after the loss of liberty, the little cheerful
captive will often come and suck diluted honey, or sugar and water,
from the flowers held out to it; and in a few hours more, it becomes
tame enough to sip its favorite beverage from a saucer, in the interval
flying backwards and forwards in the room for mere exercise, and then
resting on some neighboring elevated object. In dark or rainy weather,
they seem to pass the time chiefly dozing or on the perch. They are
also soon so familiar as to come to the hand that feeds them. In cold
nights, or at the approach of frost, the pulsation of this little
dweller in the sunbeam becomes nearly as low as in the torpid state of
the dormouse; but on applying warmth, the almost stagnant circulation
revives, and slowly increases to the usual state.’

_Belted Kingfisher._――This is the only species of its tribe found
within the United States, where it frequents the banks of all the
fresh water rivers from Maine to Florida. His voice is loud, rattling,
and sudden. His flight is rapid, and is sometimes prolonged to very
considerable distances. He follows up the course of the rivers to their
very fountains, and his presence is a sign of abundant fish. Mill-ponds,
where the water is calm, are favorite resorts of this bird, and its
eggs are generally found in places not far from a mill worked by water.
The kingfisher, for many successive years, returns to the same hole to
breed and roost. Its flesh is oily and disagreeable.

  Illustration: Belted Kingfisher.

_Swallows._――The beautiful _Purple Martin_ is a great favorite of man
in all parts of the country. The farmer prepares a little house for
him, the Indian hollows a calabash, and as either mansion is to him
indifferent, so is he equally acceptable to the husbandman and the
hunter. Year after year he returns to the same mansion. In the middle
states, the martins prepare their nest about the third week in April,
and they rear two broods in the season. There are several other species,
such as the _Barn_, _Cliff_, _White-bellied_, and _Chimney_.

_Night-Hawks._――The _Whip-poor-will_ is a remarkable nocturnal bird
migratory through nearly the extent of the states. It is well known
for its sad and peculiar song. The _Chuck-will’s Widow_ is seldom found
north of Virginia, and is particularly numerous in the vast forests
of the Mississippi. Its note is strikingly different from that of the
whip-poor-will. In sound and articulation it seems plainly to express
the words which have been applied to it, pronouncing every syllable
leisurely, and distinctly, putting the principal emphasis on the last
word. In a still evening it may be heard at the distance of nearly a
mile; the tones of its voice being strong and full.

The flight of this bird is slow, skimming about the surface of the
ground, frequently settling on old logs or on the fences, and from
thence sweeping around in pursuit of various insects that fly in the
night. Like the whip-poor-will, it prefers the declivities of glens,
and other deeply shaded places, making the mountains resound with
echoes the whole evening.

_Pigeons._――The _Passenger Pigeon_ is the most remarkable American
species. The head, throat, and upper parts of the body are ash colored;
the sides of the neck are of a glossy variable purple; and there is a
crimson mark round the eyes. These birds visit the different parts of
North America in immense flocks. The most important facts connected
with their habits relate to their extraordinary associations and
migrations. No other species known to naturalists is more calculated
to attract the attention of either the citizen or the stranger, as he
has opportunity of viewing both of these characteristic habits while
they are passing from north to south, east and west, and, _vice versa_,
over and across the whole extent of the United States of America. These
migrations are owing entirely to the dire necessity of providing food,
and not merely to escape the severity of a northern latitude, or seek a
southern one for the purpose of breeding. They consequently do not take
place at any fixed period or season of the year. Indeed, it happens
sometimes that a continuance of a sufficient supply of food in one
district will keep these birds absent from another for years.

  Illustration: Passenger Pigeon.

Their rapidity of flight is wonderful. Pigeons have been killed in the
neighborhood of New York, with their crops full of the rice they must
have collected in the plantations of the Carolinas, or Georgia, and the
flight necessary to account for this circumstance has been estimated at
a mile a minute. Another well-known bird of this tribe is the _Carolina
Pigeon_.

_Wild Turkey._――This splendid bird is found from the North-West
territory to the isthmus of Panama. They abound in the forests and
unsettled parts of the Union, but are very rare in the northern and
eastern parts. They were formerly abundant in Canada; but as their
places of resort become settled and thickly peopled, they retire and
seek refuge in the remotest recesses of the interior. In New England,
it appears to have been destroyed many years ago; but it is still found
in the eastern parts of Pennsylvania and New Jersey.

  Illustration: Wild Turkey.

These birds do not confine themselves to any particular food, but eat
corn, berries, grapes, barley, tadpoles, young frogs and lizards. Their
favorite food, however, is the pecan nut and acorn. Where there is an
abundant crop of acorns, numerous flocks of turkeys may be expected.
In the fall, they direct their courses in vast numbers to the rich
lands on the borders of the Ohio and Mississippi. Before crossing a
river, they assemble on the highest eminences, and remain there as if
in consultation for a day or two. At length, after due preparation, the
leader gives a signal note, and they all wing their way to the opposite
shore. Some of the young and weak fall into the water, and many perish.
It is observed that after these journeys, the turkeys are so familiar,
that they fearlessly enter the plantations, in search of food. Great
numbers are killed at this time, and kept in a frozen state to be sent
to distant markets.

  Illustration: Wild Turkeys.

The flesh of the wild turkey is of excellent flavor, being more
delicate and juicy than that of the domestic turkey; the Indians value
it so highly, that they term it, when roasted, ‘the white man’s dish.’
The male of the wild turkey is nearly four feet in length; the female
is only three feet and a quarter long. The plumage of the male is
very brilliant, and of a variety of hues; that of the female is not
so beautiful.[53]

_The Quail._――The American quail is found throughout the union;
and though in form and general appearance it somewhat resembles the
European quail, the two birds differ very widely in their habits. The
food of the quail consists of grain, seed and insects, but buckwheat
and Indian corn are its favorites. The flight of this bird is
accompanied with a loud whizzing sound, occasioned by the shortness of
their wings and the rapidity with which they move. During winter, they
often suffer severely from the inclemency of the weather, and whole
coveys are found frozen in spots where they had endeavored to shelter
themselves.

  Illustration: Quail.

_Grouse._――The Ruffed Grouse is the partridge of the eastern states,
and the pheasant of Pennsylvania and the southern districts. It is
known in almost every quarter of the United States, and appears to
inhabit a very extensive range of country. Its favorite places of
resort are high mountains covered with the balsam, pine, hemlock, and
such like evergreens. Unlike the pinnated grouse, it always prefers
the woods; is seldom or never found in open plains, but loves the
pine-sheltered declivities of mountains near streams of water. In the
lower parts of Georgia, Carolina, and Florida, they are very seldom
observed; but as we advance inland to the mountains, they again make
their appearance. The _Sharp-tailed Grouse_, the _Dusky Grouse_, and
the _Cock of the Plains_, are other species of this tribe.

The _Woodcock_, in its general figure and habits, greatly resembles
the woodcock of Europe, but is considerably less, and very differently
marked. This bird is universally known to our sportsmen. During the
day they keep to the woods and thickets, and at the approach of evening
seek the springs and open watery places to feed in. In hot weather,
they descend to the marshy shores of our rivers, their favorite springs
and watery recesses inland being dried up. To the former of these
retreats they are pursued by sportsmen, flushed by dogs, and shot down
in great numbers. The woodcock is properly a nocturnal bird, feeding
chiefly at night, and seldom stirring about till after sunset; at such
times he rises by a kind of spiral course to a considerable height
in the air, uttering at times a sudden quack, till having gained his
utmost height, he hovers round in a wild irregular manner, making a
sort of murmuring sound, then descends with rapidity as he rose.

_Ducks._――The _Canvass-back Duck_ is peculiar to this country, and a
witty gourmand of England, who made the tour of the states, thinks it
the only production of nature or art of which America can with reason
be proud. It was known to the epicure, long before it was described by
the naturalist. Arriving in the United States from the north, about the
middle of October, its chief place of resort is about the waters which
flow into Chesapeak bay. On its first arrival it is lean, but from
the abundance of its favorite food, it soon becomes fat. This bird is
sometimes found in numbers so great as to cover acres.[54]

  Illustration: Canvass-Back Duck.

Among the American birds of this tribe are the _Eider Duck_, _Black_ or
_Surf Duck_, _Ruddy Duck_, _Golden-eye_, _Buffel-headed Duck_, _Tufted
Duck_, _Teal_ and some others. The _Wood_ or _Summer Duck_, is the most
beautiful bird of its kind in the world. Its head is adorned with a
beautiful crest, and its plumage is most beautifully variegated. Its
favorite places of resort are the border of ponds and lakes; but it
passes the summer in the woods. It nestles in hollow trees, and when
taken may be easily tamed.

  Illustration: Summer Duck.

_Wild Goose._――The common wild goose is well known over the whole
of the United States, and its periodical migrations are sure signs
of returning spring or approaching winter. Its flight is heavy and
laborious. When in good order this bird weighs from ten to fourteen
pounds, and yields about half a pound of feathers. Mr. Wilson relates
the following interesting anecdote.

  Illustration: Wild Geese.

‘Mr. Platt, a respectable farmer on Long Island, being out shooting in
one of the bays which in that part of the country abound in water-fowl,
wounded a wild goose. Being unable to fly, he caught it, and brought
it home alive. It proved to be a female, and turning it into the yard
with a flock of tame geese, it soon became quite familiar, and in a
little time its wounded wing entirely healed. In the following spring,
when the wild geese migrate to the northward, a flock passed over
Mr. Platt’s barn yard, and just at that moment, their leader, happening
to sound his bugle note, our goose, in whom its new habits had not
quite extinguished the love of liberty, and remembering the well-known
sound, spread its wings, mounted into the air, joined the travellers,
and soon disappeared. In the succeeding autumn, the wild geese, as
usual, returned from the northward, in great numbers, to pass the
winter in our bays and rivers. Mr. Platt happened to be standing in
his yard, when a flock passed directly over his barn. At that instant,
he observed three geese detach themselves from the rest, and after
wheeling round several times, alight in the middle of the yard. Imagine
his surprise and pleasure, when, by certain well-remembered signs,
he recognised in one of the three his long-lost fugitive. It was she
indeed! She had travelled many hundred miles to the lakes; had there
hatched and reared her offspring; and had now returned with her little
family, to share with them the sweets of civilized life.’

_Wild Swan._――This bird is found widely spread over the whole of the
northern continent. During the winter, great numbers of them resort to
the Chesapeak bay, and whilst there, form collections of from one to
five hundred on the flats near the western shore. These birds are so
exceedingly vigilant, that if but three of them are feeding together,
one will generally be on guard, and when danger approaches, the alarm
is given. While feeding and dressing, they make much noise, and through
the night their vociferations can be heard for several miles. Their
notes are extremely varied; some resembling the deepest base of the
common tin horn, others running through the various modulations of the
clarionet. The swan is five or six years in reaching its perfect growth.
The aborigines employ the skin of this bird in making dresses for their
women of rank, and the feathers as ornaments for the head.[55]

  Illustration: Wild Swan.

_Rail._――This bird belongs to a genus of which naturalists enumerate
about thirty species, distributed over almost every region of the earth.
Their general character is every where the same. They run swiftly, fly
slowly, and usually with the legs hanging down, are fond of concealment,
and become at seasons extremely fat. The common American rail is
migratory. It is feeble and delicate in every thing but the legs, which
are strong and vigorous; their bodies are so remarkably thin that they
are enabled to pass between the reeds like rats. They disappear on the
first severe frost, from their usual residence along the reedy shores
of the Delaware, and so sudden is their departure that no one knows how
or when it is made.

  Illustration: American Rail.

_Plovers._――The _Black-bellied Plover_ is known in some parts of this
country by the name of the large whistling field plover; the gunners
along the coast call them the black-bellied plover. In Pennsylvania,
this bird frequents the countries towards the mountains; seems
particularly attached to newly ploughed fields, where it forms its nest,
of a few slight materials, as slightly put together. It is an extremely
shy and watchful bird, though clamorous during breeding time.

The _Kildeer Plover_ is known to almost every inhabitant of the
United States, being a common and pretty constant resident. During
the severity of winter, when snow covers the ground, it retreats to
the seashore, where it is found at all seasons; but no sooner have the
rivers broken up than its shrill note is again heard, either soaring
about high in the air, tracing the shore of the river, or running
amidst the watery flats and meadows.

_Flamingo._――This bird is common on the south frontiers of the states,
and the peninsula of East Florida. When the Europeans first came to
America, they found this bird on several shores on either continent
gentle, and no way distrustful of mankind. When the fowler had killed
one, the rest of the flock, far from attempting to fly, only regarded
the fall of their companion in a kind of fixed astonishment: another
and another shot was discharged; and thus the fowler often levelled the
whole flock, before one of them began to think of escaping.

But at present it is very different in that part of the world; and the
flamingo is not only one of the scarcest, but one of the shyest birds
in the world, and the most difficult of approach. They chiefly keep
near the most deserted and inhospitable shores; near salt water lakes
and swampy islands. When seen by mariners in the day, they always
appear drawn up in a long close line, of two or three hundred together;
and present, at the distance of half a mile, the exact representation
of a long brick wall. This line, however, is broken when they seek
for food; but they always appoint one of the number as a watch, whose
only employment is to observe and give notice of danger while the rest
are feeding. As soon as this trusty sentinel perceives the remotest
appearance of danger, he gives a loud scream, with a voice as shrill
as a trumpet, and instantly the whole cohort are upon the wing.

Their time of breeding is according to the climate in which they reside:
in North America, they breed in summer; on the other side of the line,
they take the most favorable season of the year. They build their nests
in extensive marshes, and where they are in no danger of a surprise.

_Herons._――The _Great Egret Heron_ is often seen in summer in our low
marshes and inundated meadows; yet on account of its extreme vigilance,
it is very difficult to be procured. It is found in Guiana, and
probably beyond the line, to New York. It enters the territories of the
United States late in February. The high inland parts of the country it
rarely or never visits. Its favorite haunts are vast inundated swamps,
rice fields, the low marshy shores of rivers, and such like places;
where from its size and color it is very conspicuous even at a distance.
The plumage of this elegant bird is of a snowy whiteness; the bill of
a rich orange yellow; and the legs black.

The _Great Heron_ is a constant inhabitant of the Atlantic coast from
New York to Florida. They breed in the Carolinas and New Jersey, in the
gloomy solitudes of the cedar swamps. Their nests are constructed of
sticks and placed on the tallest trees.

The _Louisiana Heron_ is a rare and delicately formed species,
occasionally found on the swampy river shores of South Carolina, but
more frequently along the borders of the Mississippi, particularly
below New Orleans. In each of these places it is migratory, and in
the latter builds its nests on trees amidst the inundated woods. Among
the species of this tribe, are the _Green Heron_, _Blue Heron_, _Night
Heron_, _Yellow-crowned Heron_, the _Bittern_, and several others.

  Illustration: Night Heron.

The _Whooping Crane_ is the tallest and most stately species of all
the feathered tribes of the United States; the watchful inhabitant
of extensive salt marshes, desolate swamps, and open morasses, in the
neighborhood of the sea. Its migrations are regular, and of the most
extensive kind, reaching from the inundated shores and tracts of South
America to the arctic circle. In these periodical journeys, they pass
at such a prodigious height in the air as to be rarely observed. They
wander along the marshes and muddy flats of the seashore, in search of
marine worms; sailing occasionally from place to place with a loud and
heavy flight. At times they utter a loud and piercing cry, which may
be heard at a great distance. They have various modulations of this
singular note, from the peculiarity of which they derive their name.

The _Sand-hill Crane_ is a fine stately bird, taller than a swan, and
in the water, said to be quite as majestic. They abound in countless
numbers on the Missouri and Mississippi rivers, appearing at a distance
like great droves of sheep. They migrate in company with the pelicans.

_Pelican._――To those who have visited the estuaries of the Florida
coast, the demure and awkward attitude of this bird is perfectly
familiar. In that portion of our country, this species occurs in
large flocks, and they are often to be seen along the shores of
the Mississippi and Missouri, imparting a peculiar character to the
otherwise solitary scene; their solemn and quiet demeanor being in
strict unison with the stillness of the uninhabited plains which
surround them. They build in societies, and are seldom found except in
flocks. When they are disturbed, they rise in much confusion, but soon
form in regular order, usually flying in long lines, though sometimes
in a triangle, like geese, with their long bills resting on their
breasts.

The _Wood Ibis_ is found in the southern parts of the United States, in
watery savannas and inland swamps, where it feeds on fish and reptiles.
The neck, body, and lower parts of this bird are white; the bill is
nearly nine inches long. The _White Ibis_ is numerous in the same
latitudes. The _Scarlet Ibis_ frequents the borders of the sea, and
the shores of the neighboring rivers, feeding on small fry, shell-fish,
sea-worms, and crabs. The _Purple Gallinule_ is sometimes met with in
Georgia, but is a native of the southern continent.

The _Roseate Spoonbill_ is an inhabitant of our southern seashore, and
is sometimes found in the Mississippi in the summer. It wades about in
search of shell-fish, marine insects, small crabs and fish, in pursuit
of which it occasionally swims and dives. The _Black-bellied Darter_,
or _Snake Bird_, is common in the Carolinas. Its head, neck, and breast
are light brown; the belly and tail deep black. It sits on the shrubs
that overhang the water, and often terrifies the passengers by darting
out its long and slender neck, which bears strong resemblance to that
of a serpent.


                             III. FISHES.

The natural history of American fishes is yet to be written, as very
little progress has yet been made in the scientific observation of this
interesting order of animals. The fishes which fill the bays and coasts
of the United States are generally of the same species with those on
the coasts of the opposite continent. Along the shores of New England
they are particularly abundant, though there is no other bank that
equals that of Newfoundland in extreme richness. Shad and salmon are
fine fish abounding in the Atlantic rivers, and beautiful trout are
taken in the mountain streams of the northern states. Among the fish
of the western waters, probably in a great measure common to them and
other rivers, are noticed several varieties of perch, one of which,
the buffalo perch, derives its name from the singular grunting noise
which it makes, and which is familiar to every one who has been much on
the Ohio. It is a fine table fish, weighing from ten to thirty pounds.
There are, also, varieties of the bass, the hog-fish, and the sun-fish,
and sixteen species of minny found in these waters, besides trout,
false herring, and shad. Of all the inhabitants of the western rivers,
the brown buffalo-fish is, perhaps, as much esteemed as any; it is
quite abundant, and is found from two to three feet in length. In
the lower waters of the Ohio and Mississippi, we meet with the black
buffalo-fish, sometimes weighing half a hundred. A larger buffalo,
resembling the shad of the Atlantic states, is taken in immense numbers
in the lakes and meadows of the Mississippi.

The trout of Florida and Louisiana is not identical with the beautiful
fish of that name that is a tenant of the cold and swift streams of
the northern Atlantic country; it is of the perch class, and takes
the bait with a spring like the trout, and is beautifully marked with
golden stripes. It is a sound, hard fish, with a pleasant flavor, and
weighs from one to four pounds. ‘We have never witnessed angling,’ says
Mr. Flint, ‘that could compare with that of this fish, in the clear
pine-wood streams of the southern divisions of this country. With fresh
bait a barrel may be taken in a few hours.’ Twelve species of cat-fish
have been observed in the Ohio, and it is indeed the most common
fish in the western waters. They are of all colors and sizes, without
scales, and easily taken with a hook. Their English name is derived
from the noise which they make when at rest, which is very similar to
the purring of a cat. In the Mississippi, this fish is found of the
weight of an hundred pounds.

The Ohio ‘toter’ is two or three inches in length; its name is derived
from the barbarism ‘tote,’ meaning to ‘carry,’ because this fish makes
itself a cell by surrounding a place with pebbles. Pike, pickerel, and
jack-fish, weighing from six ounces to twenty pounds, are found in the
western rivers. Of the gar-fish there are also numerous varieties. The
alligator-gar is sometimes eight feet long, and is voracious, fierce
and formidable, even to the human species. Its dart in rapidity equals
the flight of a bird. Its mouth is long, round, and pointed, thickset
with sharp teeth; its body is covered with scales so hard as to be
impenetrable by a rifle-bullet, and, when dry, answer the purposes
of a flint in striking fire from steel. Its weight is from fifty to
two hundred pounds, and its appearance is hideous. It is, in fact,
the shark of rivers, and is considered far more formidable than the
alligator himself. The devil-jack-diamond fish is another monster of
the rivers. One has been caught that weighed four hundred pounds; its
usual length is from four to ten feet.

Eels vary in length from two to four feet. The best species for the
table is the yellow eel. Of sturgeon there are six species in these
rivers, some of them four feet in length; some of them are said to form
a palatable food. The Mississippi saw-fish varies in length from three
feet to six; it has twenty-six long teeth on either side, in the form
of a saw. There is also a spotted horn-fish from two to three feet long,
the horn being one quarter the length of the body. The beautifully
striped bar-fish go in shoals in the southern streams; they weigh from
one to three pounds, and are taken with a hook. The shovel-fish is
found in the muddy lakes of the middle region of the valley; it weighs
from ten to fifty pounds, is without scales, and has in front of the
mouth a bony substance between six and twelve inches long, and two or
three inches wide, with which it turns up the mud in search of its food.
It is exceedingly fat, and is taken for its oil.

‘We have never remarked this fish in any museum,’ says Mr. Flint,
‘although to us the most strange and whimsical-looking fish we
have seen. We have seen one instance of a horribly deformed animal,
apparently intermediate between the class _testudo_ and fishes. We saw
it in a water of the Washita, and had not a fair opportunity to examine
it. It is called toad-fish, has a shell like a tortoise, but in every
thing else resembles a fish. It is said to be sufficiently strong
to bear a man on its back; and, from the account of those who have
examined it, this animal must be a _lusus naturæ_.’

The rock fish,[56] drum and sheep’s-head are large fish, taken in
saline lakes in the neighborhood of the gulf of Mexico. In size they
correspond to the cod and haddock of the Atlantic, and are among the
most common fish in the market of New Orleans. The fish of the gulf
shore partake of the character both of salt and fresh water fish; this
arises from their being taken in shallow lakes principally composed of
fresh water, but having outlets in the gulf, through which in strong
south winds the sea-water is forced in such quantities that they become
salt. There are a vast number of craw-fish every where in the marshy
grounds and shallow waters. By penetrating the bank of the Mississippi,
they have more than once made perforations which have imperceptibly
enlarged to crevices, by which the inundation of the river has been let
in upon the country.

The fish of the western rivers are generally less esteemed than
those of the Atlantic waters; and in truth, fresh-water fish generally
will not vie with those of the sea. The fishes of the Mississippi
and its tributary rivers are for the most part coarse, tough, large
and unpleasant in their flavor. ‘Except the trout, the small yellow
cat-fish, the pike, the bar-fish and the perch,’ says Mr. Flint, ‘we
do not much admire the fish of the western waters.’

Dr. Mitchell gives the following account of a gigantic fish of the
ray kind, which he calls the oceanic vampire. It had been taken near
the entrance of the Delaware Bay, by the crew of a smack which had been
fitted out for the express purpose of capturing some sea-monster. After
an absence of about three weeks, the adventurers returned with the
animal to which we refer. It was killed after a long and dangerous
encounter. The weight was so considerable, that after it had been
towed to the shore, three pair of oxen aided by a horse and twenty-two
men could not drag it to the dry land; the weight was supposed to be
between four and five tons. Its length was seventeen feet and three
inches, from the tip of the head to the tip of the tail. The breadth
from the extremity of one pectoral fin or wing to the other, measuring
along the line of the belly, was sixteen feet; when measured over the
convexity of the back, eighteen feet.

On each side of the mouth there was a vertical fin two feet and six
inches long, twelve inches deep, and two inches and a half thick in
the middle, whence it tapered towards the edges, which were fringed
before with a radiated margin. The fin or organ thus constituted was
so flexible as to bend in all directions, and be made in many respects
to perform the function of a hand. The wings, flaps, or pectoral
fins, were of very curious organization; they bore more resemblance
to the wings of a bird than to any thing else, and were yet so
different as to manifest a remarkable variety of mechanism, in organs
intended substantially for the same use. Fish of the kind now under
consideration may be aptly denominated submarine birds; for they fly
through the water, as birds fly through the air.


                             IV. REPTILES.

Reptiles, or animals of the serpent, turtle, and lizard class, are
found in various parts of the United States; and in some in pernicious
abundance. All varieties of the rattlesnake[57] are seen; of these, the
largest is the yellow rattlesnake. This is sometimes seen from six to
nine feet in length, and as large as a man’s leg. A species of small
rattlesnake is numerous on the prairies; in the far west, they are
said to live in the same burrows with the prairie dogs. The snapper,
or ground rattlesnake, is very troublesome; it travels by night, and
frequents house paths and roads. The copper head is a snake supposed to
be more venomous even than the preceding, but is less frequently found.
It is of a dirty brown color; but when it has recently shed its skin,
some parts of its body resemble burnished copper.

There are three or four varieties of the moccasin snake inhabiting
the southern country. The upland moccasin somewhat resembles the
rattlesnake, but is still more disgusting in its appearance. The
largest variety of the moccasin snake is similar to the water snake of
the Atlantic country. It is a serpent of the largest size, exceedingly
venomous, with a very large flat head, lazy, and unobservant of man.
There is another species of the moccasin seldom seen on shore, of a
brilliant copper color, striped with gray rings. The brown viper, or
hissing snake, is from six to eight inches long, terminating in a sharp
tail; when angry, the color of its back changes, its head flattens and
dilates to twice its usual extent, and its hiss resembles that of a
goose. It is extremely venomous, and of a very repulsive aspect. One
that was confined by a stick across its back, instantly bit itself in
two or three places; and when released, it soon become swollen and died.

Mr. Flint expresses his conviction that the Mississippi valley presents
a greater number of serpents, and is more infested by them than the
Atlantic shore, excepting perhaps its southern border. Wherever the
population becomes dense, the swine prey upon them, and they quickly
disappear. Their most permanent and dangerous resorts are near the
bases of precipitous and rocky hills, about ledges and flint knobs,
and in the southern countries along vast swamps and stagnant waters.
The bite of these serpents is venomous, and the person that is bitten
often becomes blind. During the latter part of the summer, the serpents
themselves become blind; the popular belief on this subject is, that
this blindness arises from the absorption of their own poison into the
system. During this period, though their aim is less certain, their
bite is most dangerous. Death seldom occurs, however, from this cause.

The country has the usual varieties of harmless serpents, such as the
green garter, chicken, and coach-whip snakes. The glass snake is often
seen with a body of the utmost brilliancy. A stroke across the back
separates the body into several pieces, each of which continues for
some time to exercise the powers of locomotion. The bull or prairie
snakes are of hideous appearance and of large size; they inhabit holes
in the ground, and run at the traveller with a loud hiss, but instantly
retreat if he stands and faces them. They are believed to be perfectly
harmless, but their aspect is such as to excite great horror.

Ugly animals of the lizard kind are seen in all the climates in a
greater or less number; they are found under rotten logs, and are
dug out of alluvions, the last description being lazy and disgusting.
They appear to be harmless. Common small lizards are frequent in the
southern districts, and also varieties of small chameleons. These
will change in half an hour to all the colors of the rainbow. ‘We
have placed them on a handkerchief,’ says Mr. Flint, ‘and they have
gradually assumed all its colors. Placed on a black surface, they
become brown; but they evidently suffer while under this color, as is
manifested by uneasy movements, and by strong and quick palpitation,
visible to the eye. They are very active and nimble animals, three or
four inches in length.’ Some lizards of a larger class and with flatter
heads, are called scorpions; they are ugly animals, and are considered
poisonous. When attacked, they show the angry manner of the serpent,
vibrating a fiery and forked tongue, and biting with great fury at the
stick which arrests them.

Of this class, the most terrible is the alligator. The description of
this animal by Mr. Audubon is so interesting, and so strongly marked
by the agreeable peculiarities of his attractive and original style,
that we shall transfer it to our pages with but slight abridgment. This
distinguished naturalist, by his eminent services in the cause to which
he has been so zealously devoted, has erected an eternal monument; and
posterity will read the name which it records for ages, after every
trace of the great warriors and ambitious politicians of our time has
faded from the pages of history.

‘In Louisiana, all our lagoons, bayous, creeks, ponds, lakes and
rivers, are well stocked with alligators; they are found wherever there
is a sufficient quantity of water to hide them, or to furnish them with
food; and they continue thus, in great numbers, as high as the mouth
of the Arkansas river, extending east to North Carolina, and as far
west as I have penetrated. On the Red river, before it was navigated
by steam vessels, they were so extremely abundant that, to see hundreds
at a sight along the shores, or on the immense rafts of floating or
stranded timber, was quite a common occurrence, the smaller on the
backs of the larger, groaning and uttering their bellowing noise,
like thousands of irritated bulls about to meet in fight, but all so
careless of man that, unless shot at, or positively disturbed, they
remained motionless, suffering boats or canoes to pass within a few
yards of them, without noticing them in the least. The shores are
yet trampled by them in such a manner, that their large tracts are
seen as plentiful as those of sheep in a fold. It was on that river
particularly, thousands of the largest size were killed, when the mania
of having shoes, boots, or saddle-seats, made of their hides, lasted.
It had become an article of trade, and many of the squatters and
strolling Indians followed for a time no other business. The discovery
that their skins are not sufficiently firm and close-grained to prevent
water or dampness long, put a stop to their general destruction, which
had already become very apparent. The leather prepared from these
skins was handsome and very pliant, exhibiting all the regular lozenges
of the scales, and able to receive the highest degree of polish and
finishing.

‘The usual motion of the alligator, when on land, is slow and sluggish;
it is a kind of labored crawling, performed by moving alternately each
leg, in the manner of a quadruped when walking, scarce able to keep up
their weighty bodies from dragging on the earth, and leaving the track
of their long tail on the mud, as if that of the keel of a small vessel.
Thus they emerge from the water, and go about the shores and the woods,
or the fields in search of food, or of a different place of abode,
or one of safety to deposit their eggs. If, at such times, when at
all distant from the water, an enemy is perceived by them, they droop
and lie flat, with the nose on the ground, watching the intruder’s
movements with their eyes, which are able to move considerably round,
without affecting the position of the head. Should a man then approach
them, they do not attempt either to make away or attack, but merely
raise their body from the ground for an instant, swelling themselves
and issuing a dull blowing, not unlike that of a blacksmith’s bellows.
Not the least danger need be apprehended: then you either kill them
with ease, or leave them. But to give you a better idea of the slowness
of their movements and progress of travels on land, when arrived at
a large size, say twelve or fifteen feet, believe me when I tell you,
that having found one in the morning, fifty yards from a lake, going
to another in sight, I have left him unmolested, hunted through the
surrounding swamps all the day, and met the same alligator within five
hundred yards of the spot when returning to my camp at dusk. On this
account they usually travel during the night, they being then less
likely to be disturbed, and having a better chance to surprise a litter
of pigs or of land tortoises, for prey.

‘The power of the alligator is in his great strength; and the chief
means of his attack or defence is his large tail, so well contrived by
nature to supply his wants, or guard him from danger, that it reaches,
when curved into half a circle, his enormous mouth. Woe be to him who
goes within the reach of this tremendous thrashing instrument; for no
matter how strong or muscular, if human, he must suffer greatly, if
he escapes with life. The monster, as he strikes with this, forces all
objects within the circle towards his jaws, which, as the tail makes a
motion, are opened to their full stretch, thrown a little sideways, to
receive the object, and, like battering-rams, to bruise it shockingly
in a moment.

‘The alligator, when after prey in the water, or at its edge, swims so
slowly towards it as not to ruffle the water. It approaches the object
sideways, body and head all concealed, till sure of his stroke; then,
with a tremendous blow, as quick as thought, the object is secured, as
I described before.

‘When alligators are fishing, the flapping of their tails about the
water may be heard at half a mile; but to describe this in a more
graphic way, suffer me to take you along with me, in one of my hunting
excursions, accompanied by friends and negroes. In the immediate
neighborhood of Bayou-Sarah, on the Mississippi, are extensive shallow
lakes and morasses; they are yearly overflowed by the dreadful floods
of that river, and supplied with myriads of fishes of many kinds,
amongst which trouts are most abundant, white perch, cat fish, and
alligator-gars, or devil fish. Thither, in the early part of autumn,
when the heat of a southern sun has exhaled much of the water, the
squatter, the planter, the hunter, all go in search of sport. The lakes
are then about two feet deep, having a fine sandy bottom; frequently
much grass grows in them, bearing crops of seed, for which multitudes
of water-fowl resort to those places. The edges of these lakes are
deep swamps, muddy for some distance, overgrown with heavy large
timber, principally cypress, hung with Spanish beard, and tangled
with different vines, creeping plants, and cane, so as to render them
almost dark during the day, and very difficult to the hunter’s progress.
Here and there in the lakes are small islands, with clusters of the
same trees, on which flocks of snake-birds, wood-ducks, and different
species of herons, build their nests. Fishing-lines, guns, and rifles,
some salt, and some water, are all the hunters take.

‘At last, the opening of the lake is seen: it has now become necessary
to drag one’s self along through the deep mud, making the best of the
way, with the head bent, through the small brushy growth, caring about
nought but the lock of your gun. The long narrow Indian canoe kept
to hunt those lakes, and taken into them during the fresh, is soon
launched, and the party seated in the bottom, is paddled or poled in
search of water game. There, at a sight, hundreds of alligators are
seen dispersed over all the lake; their head, and all the upper part of
the body, floating like a log, and in many instances, so resembling one
that it requires to be accustomed to see them to know the distinction.
Millions of the large wood-ibis are seen wading through the water,
mudding it up, and striking deadly blows with their bills on the fish
within. Here are a hoard of blue herons――the sand-hill crane rises
with hoarse note――the snake-birds are perched here and there on the
dead timber of the trees――the cormorants are fishing――buzzards and
carrion-crows exhibit a mourning train, patiently waiting for the
water to dry and leave food for them――and far in the horizon, the eagle
overtakes a devoted wood-duck, singled from the clouded flocks that
have been bred there.

‘It is then that you see and hear the alligator at his work,――each
lake has a spot deeper than the rest, rendered so by those animals who
work at it, and always situate at the lower end of the lake, near the
connecting bayous, that, as drainers, pass through all those lakes,
and discharge sometimes many miles below where the water had made its
entrance above, thereby insuring to themselves water as long as any
will remain. This is called by the hunters the alligators’ hole. You
see them there lying close together. The fish that are already dying
by thousands, through the insufferable heat and stench of the water,
and the wounds of the different winged enemies constantly in pursuit
of them, resort to the alligators’ hole to receive refreshment, with
a hope of finding security also, and follow down the little currents
flowing through the connecting sluices: but no! for, as the water
recedes in the lake, they are here confined. The alligators thrash them
and devour them whenever they feel hungry, while the ibis destroys all
that make towards the shore. By looking attentively on this spot, you
plainly see the tails of the alligators moving to and fro, splashing,
and now and then, when missing a fish, throwing it up in the air. The
hunter, anxious to prove the value of his rifle, marks one of the eyes
of the largest alligator, and, as the hair trigger is touched, the
alligator dies. Should the ball strike one inch astray from the eye,
the animal flounces, rolls over and over, beating furiously about him
with his tail, frightening all his companions, who sink immediately,
whilst the fishes, like blades of burnished metal, leap in all
directions out of the water, so terrified are they at this uproar.
Another and another receives the shot in the eye, and expires; yet
those that do not feel the fatal bullet, pay no attention to the death
of their companions till the hunter approaches very close, when they
hide themselves for a few moments by sinking backwards.

‘So truly gentle are the alligators at this season, that I have waded
through such lakes in company of my friend Augustin Bourgeat, Esq.
to whom I owe much information, merely holding a stick in one hand
to drive them off, had they attempted to attack me. When first I saw
this way of travelling through the lakes, waist-deep, sometimes with
hundreds of these animals about me, I acknowledge to you that I felt
great uneasiness, and thought it fool-hardiness to do so: but my friend,
who is a most experienced hunter in that country, removed my fears by
leading the way, and, after a few days, I thought nothing of it. If you
go towards the head of the alligator, there is no danger, and you may
safely strike it with a club, four feet long, until you drive it away,
merely watching the operations of the point of the tail, that, at each
blow you give, thrashes to the right and left most furiously.

‘The drivers of cattle from the Appelousas, and those of mules from
Mexico, on reaching a lagoon or creek, send several of their party
into the water, armed merely each with a club, for the purpose of
driving away the alligators from the cattle; and you may then see men,
mules, and those monsters, all swimming together, the men striking the
alligators, that would otherwise attack the cattle, of which they are
very fond, and those latter hurrying towards the opposite shores, to
escape those powerful enemies. They will swim swiftly after a dog, or
a deer, or a horse, before attempting the destruction of man, of which
I have always remarked they were afraid, if the man feared not them.

‘Although I have told you how easily an alligator may be killed with
a single rifle-ball, if well aimed, that is to say, if it strike
either in the eye or very immediately above it, yet they are quite as
difficult to be destroyed if not shot properly; and, to give you an
idea of this, I shall mention two striking facts.

‘My good friend Richard Harlan, M.D. of Philadelphia, having
intimated a wish to have the heart of one of these animals to study
its comparative anatomy, I one afternoon went out about half a mile
from the plantation and, seeing an alligator that I thought I could put
whole into a hogshead of spirits, I shot it immediately on the skull
bone. It tumbled over from the log on which it had been basking, into
the water, and, with the assistance of two negroes, I had it out in a
few minutes, apparently dead. A strong rope was fastened round its neck,
and, in this condition, I had it dragged home across logs, thrown over
fences, and handled without the least fear. Some young ladies there,
anxious to see the inside of his mouth, requested that the mouth should
be propped open with a stick put vertically; this was attempted, but
at this instant the first stunning effect of the wound was over, and
the animal thrashed and snapped its jaws furiously, although it did
not advance a foot. The rope being still round the neck, I had it
thrown over a strong branch of a tree in the yard, and hauled the poor
creature up swinging, free from all about it, and left it twisting
itself, and scratching with its fore feet to disengage the rope. It
remained in this condition until the next morning, when finding it
still alive, though very weak, the hogshead of spirits was put under
it, and the alligator fairly lowered into it with a surge. It twisted
about a little; but the cooper secured the cask, and it was shipped to
Philadelphia, where it arrived in course.

‘Again, being in company with Augustin Bourgeat, Esq., we met an
extraordinary large alligator in the woods whilst hunting; and, for
the sake of destruction I may say, we alighted from our horses, and
approached with full intention to kill it. The alligator was put
between us, each of us provided with a long stick to irritate it; and,
by making it turn its head partly on one side, afford us the means of
shooting it immediately behind the fore leg and through the heart. We
both discharged five heavy loads of duck-shot into its body, and almost
all into the same hole, without any other effect than that of exciting
regular strokes of the tail, and snapping of the jaws at each discharge,
and the flow of a great quantity of blood out of the wound, and mouth,
and nostrils of the animal; but it was still full of life and vigor,
and to have touched it with the hand would have been madness; but as we
were anxious to measure it, and to knock off some of its larger teeth
to make powder charges, it was shot with a single ball just above the
eye, when it bounded a few inches off the ground, and was dead when
it reached it again. Its length was seventeen feet; it was apparently
centuries old; many of its teeth measured three inches. The shot taken
were without a foot only of the circle that we knew the tail could form,
and our shots went _en masse_.

‘As the lakes become dry, and even the deeper connecting bayous
empty themselves into the rivers, the alligators congregate into the
deepest hole in vast numbers; and, to this day, in such places, are
shot for the sake of their oil, now used for greasing the machinery
of steam-engines and cotton mills, though formerly, when indigo was
made in Louisiana, the oil was used to assuage the overflowing of the
boiling juice, by throwing a ladleful into the kettle whenever this
was about to take place. The alligators are caught frequently in nets
by fishermen; they then come without struggling to the shore, and are
killed by blows on the head given with axes.

‘When autumn has heightened the coloring of the foliage of our woods,
and the air feels more rarefied during the nights and earlier part of
the day, the alligators leave the lakes to seek for winter quarters, by
burrowing under the roots of trees, or covering themselves simply with
earth along their edges. They become then very languid and inactive,
and, at this period, to sit or ride on one would not be more difficult
than for a child to mount his wooden rocking-horse. The negroes, who
now kill them, put all danger aside, by separating, at one blow with an
axe, the tail from the body. They are afterwards cut up in large pieces,
and boiled whole in a good quantity of water, from the surface of which
the fat is collected with large ladles. One single man kills oftentimes
a dozen or more of large alligators in the evening, prepares his fire
in the woods, where he has erected a camp for the purpose, and by
morning has the oil rendered.

‘I have frequently been very much amused when fishing in a bayou, where
alligators were numerous, by throwing a blown bladder on the water
towards the nearest to me. The alligator makes for it, flaps it towards
its mouth, or attempts seizing it at once, but all in vain. The light
bladder slides off; in a few minutes many alligators are trying to
seize this, and their evolutions are quite interesting. They then put
one in mind of a crowd of boys running after a football. A black bottle
is sometimes thrown also, tightly corked; but the alligator seizes this
easily, and you hear the glass give way under its teeth as if ground
in a coarse mill. They are easily caught by negroes, who most expertly
throw a rope over their heads when swimming close to shore, and haul
them out instantly.’

The _Tortoise_ is found in considerable numbers and variety. In
the lakes west of the Mississippi, and near New Orleans, a soft
shelled mud-tortoise is found, which epicures declare to be not much
inferior to the sea-turtle of the West Indies. The gouffre is an animal
apparently of the tortoise class, and is abundant in the pine barrens
of the south-western states. Its shell is large and thick, and it
burrows to a great depth in the ground; its strength and power are
wonderful, and in many respects it is similar to the logger-head turtle.
The siren is nearly two feet in length, and a very singular animal; it
somewhat resembles the lamprey. It is amphibious, penetrates the mud
easily, and seems to be of an order between fish and lizards. The whole
of the republic is prolific in toads, frogs, and reptiles of that class;
but they are found in the greatest number and variety in the regions of
the warmest temperature.


                              V. INSECTS.

The insects of the United States are numerous, and many of them
beautiful; many of the species are entirely new, and science has been
much indebted to Mr. Say for additions of no inconsiderable importance
to entomology. The moths and butterflies are exceedingly splendid, and
one of them, the atlas moth, is the largest hitherto known. Among the
spiders, is a huge species called the tarantula, supposed to inflict
a dangerous bite. The annoyance inflicted by moschetos in hot weather
is well known; by these and other stinging insects, damp and low
situations are rendered very disagreeable during the summer. The fire
flies, which glitter especially in the southern forests, are very
interesting. The copper colored centiped, a creature of cylindrical
form, and as long as a man’s finger, is dreaded as noxious; a family is
said to have been poisoned by taking tea in which one of them had been
accidentally boiled.

One insect, the _ægeria exitiosa_, has committed great ravages
among the peach trees. The larva begins the work of destruction about
the beginning of October, by entering the tree, probably through the
tender bark under the surface of the soil; thence it proceeds downwards,
within the tree, into the root, and then turns its course upwards
towards the surface, where it arrives about the commencement of the
succeeding July. They voraciously devour both the alburnum and the
liber, the new wood and the inner bark. The insects deposit from one
to three hundred eggs within the bark of the tree, according to its
capacity to support their progeny.

The United States are not free from the scourge of the locust. The
males have under each wing a ribbed membrane as thin as a gossamer’s
web, which, when inflated, constitutes their musical organ. The female
has a sting or drill, the size of a pin, and near half an inch in
length, of a hard and brittle substance, which lies on the under
surface of the body; with this the insect drills a hole into the small
limbs of trees, quite to the pith; there it deposits through this
hollow sting or drill some dozen or two of small white eggs. The time
required to drill the hole and deposit the egg is from two to five
minutes. When undisturbed, they make some half dozen or more insertions
of their drill in the same limb, perhaps an inch apart, and these
punctures usually produce speedy death to the end of the limb. They
sometimes swarm about the forests in countless multitudes, making
‘melancholy music,’ and causing no less melancholy desolation.


                      GENERAL REMARKS ON ZOOLOGY.

  The zoology of the United States opens a wide and interesting
  field of observation: it is more peculiar and striking than
  either the mineralogy or botany. The following general view of
  the mammiferous animals inhabiting North America is given by Dr.
  Harman. The number of species now ascertained is one hundred and
  forty-six, in which we do not include man; of these twenty-eight
  are cetacea, and one hundred and eighteen are quadrupeds. Among
  the quadrupeds, Dr. Harman reckons eleven species, of which no
  living trace is found in any part of the world; which cannot of
  course be considered as forming a part of our present zoology. The
  number of living species of quadrupeds is therefore one hundred
  and seven. The comparative numbers of the several orders are
  stated as follows, omitting man:

                          Carnivora        60
                          Glires           37
                          Edentata          6
                          Pachydermata      2
                          Ruminantia       13
                          Cetacea          28

  We may here introduce from Dr. Harman a statement of the number of
  North American quadrupeds, which he conceives to be common both to
  the new and old world.

                         _Species._
                        1   Mole.
                        2   Shrew.
                        1   Bear.
                        1   Glutton.
                        1   Otter.
                        2   Wolf.
                        2   Fox.
                        2   Seal.
                        2   Weasel.
                        1   Beaver.
                        1   Field-mouse.
                        1   Campagnol (rat.)
                        1   Squirrel.
                        2   Deer.
                        1   Sheep.

  The whole number of common species is twenty one; leaving
  eighty-six species as peculiar to North America, though not all of
  them to the United States.

  Charles Lucien Bonaparte has arranged the birds of the United
  States in twenty-eight families, eighty-one genera, and three
  hundred and sixty-two species, viz.: two hundred and nine land,
  and one hundred and fifty-three water-birds. Of the eighty-one
  genera, sixty-three are common to Europe and America, while
  eighteen have no representatives in Europe.




                        CHAPTER XVII.――BOTANY.


The vegetation of the United States is as various as the climate
and soil. In Florida and the southern states, the superb magnolia,
the majestic tulip tree and the deciduous cypress charm the traveller
by their grandeur and beauty. The lofty oak, the stately fir and the
gracefully-waving elm of the north, present a different and still a
highly interesting study to the naturalist. As a general observation,
the trees of the United States are larger, taller, and more generally
useful for timber than those of Europe. As to height, it is observed
by Michaux, that, while in France only thirty-seven species of trees
arrive at thirty feet, in the transatlantic republic, one hundred and
thirty exceed that elevation. A general idea of the American forest
having thus been given, we will now notice, as largely as our limits
will permit, the most remarkable trees.

_Oak._――The _White Oak_ is found throughout the United States,
though it is by no means equally diffused. It abounds chiefly in the
middle states, particularly in that part of Pennsylvania and Virginia
which lies between the Alleghanies and the Ohio, a distance of about
one hundred and fifty miles, where nine tenths of the forests are
frequently composed of these trees, whose healthful appearance evinces
the favorable nature of the soil. East of the mountains, this tree is
found in every exposure, and in every soil which is not extremely dry
or subject to long inundations; but the largest stocks grow in humid
places. In the western districts, where it composes entire forests,
the face of the country is undulated, and the yellow soil, consisting
partly of clay with calcareous stones, yields abundant crops of wheat.

The white oak attains the elevation of seventy or eighty feet, with a
diameter of six or seven feet; but its proportions vary with the soil
and climate. Soon after their unfolding, the leaves are reddish above
and white and downy beneath; when fully grown, they are smooth and of
a light green on the upper surface. In autumn, they change to a bright
violet color, and form an agreeable contrast with the surrounding
foliage which has not yet suffered by the frost. This is the only
oak on which a few of the dried leaves remain till the circulation is
renewed in the spring. By this peculiarity and by the whiteness of the
bark, from which it derives its name, it is easily distinguishable in
the winter. This tree puts forth flowers in May, which are succeeded by
acorns of an oval form, large, very sweet, contained in rough, shallow,
grayish cups, and borne singly or in pairs, by peduncles eight or ten
lines in length, attached, as in all species of annual fructification,
to the shoots of the season. The fruit of the white oak is rarely
abundant, and frequently, for several years in succession, a few
handfuls of acorns could hardly be collected in a large forest where
the tree is multiplied. Some stocks produce acorns of a deep blue color.

Of all the American oaks, this is the best and the most generally used,
being strong, durable, and of large dimensions. It is less employed
than formerly in building, only because it is scarcer and more costly.
Among the uses of this wood, the most important is in ship-building. In
all the dock yards of the northern and middle states, except Maine, it
is almost exclusively employed for the keel, and always for the lower
part of the frame and the sides: it is preferred for the knees, when
sticks of a proper form can be found. In the smaller ports south of New
York, the upper part of the frame is also made of white oak; but such
vessels are less esteemed than those constructed of more durable wood.
The medicinal properties of oak bark depend on its astringency, and
that again on its tannin. The inner bark of the small branches is the
strongest, the middle bark next, and the outer bark is almost useless.

The _Gray Oak_, _Water Oak_, _Bear Oak_, _Upland_, _Willow Oak_, and
_Bartram Oak_ are interesting varieties. The _Laurel Oak_ is a stranger
north of Philadelphia, and is rare in the more southern states. It is
most abundant in the open savannas of Illinois. Rising to the height
of forty or fifty feet, clad in a smooth bark, and for three fourths of
its height laden with branches, it presents an uncouth appearance when
bared by the winter blasts, but in the summer with its thick tufted
foliage is really beautiful. The _Black Oak_ is found throughout the
country, with the exception of the northern part of New England. It is
one of the loftiest of the American forest trees, rising to the height
of eighty or ninety feet, with a diameter of four or five feet. The
wood is reddish and coarse-grained, with empty pores, but is esteemed
for strength and durability. It furnishes excellent fuel, and the bark
is largely used for tanning. Other varieties of the oak are numerous.

_Walnut._――The _Black Walnut_ is met with in large numbers in the
forests in the vicinity of Philadelphia, and with the exception of the
lower parts of the southern states, where the soil is too sandy, or too
wet as in the swamps, it is met with to the banks of the Mississippi
throughout an extent of two thousand miles. East of the Alleghanies in
Virginia, and in the upper parts of the Carolinas and Georgia, it is
chiefly confined to the valleys where the soil is deep and fertile,
and which are watered by creeks and rivers. On the banks of the Ohio
and on the islands of this beautiful river, the black walnut attains
the elevation of sixty or seventy feet, with a diameter of three to
seven feet. Its powerful vegetation clearly points out this, as one of
the largest trees of America. When it stands insulated, its branches,
extending themselves horizontally to a great distance, spread into
a spacious head, which gives it a very majestic appearance. The bark
is thick, blackish, and on old trees deeply furrowed. The leaves when
bruised emit a strong aromatic odor.

When the wood of this tree is freshly cut, the sap is white and the
heart of a violet color, which, after a short exposure to the air,
assumes an intenser shade, and becomes nearly black: hence probably is
derived the name _Black Walnut_. There are several qualities for which
its wood is principally esteemed: it remains sound for a long time,
even when exposed to the influences of heat and moisture; but this
observation is only applicable to the heart, the sap speedily decays:
it is very strong and very tenacious: when thoroughly seasoned, it is
not liable to warp and split; and its grain is sufficiently fine and
compact to admit of a beautiful polish. It possesses, in addition to
these advantages, that of being secure from worms. On account of these
excellencies, it is preferred and successfully employed in many kinds
of work. East of the Alleghanies, its timber is not extensively used
in building houses, but, in some parts of Kentucky and Ohio, it is
split into shingles which serve to cover them: sometimes also this
timber enters into the composition of the frame. But it is chiefly in
cabinet-making, that this wood is employed wherever it abounds.

There are several other species of the walnut. The _Shell-bark Hickory_
sometimes grows to the height of eighty or ninety feet, with a diameter
of less than two feet; the trunk is destitute of branches, regularly
shaped, and almost of a uniform size for three fourths of its length.
The _Butternut_ is found in all the New England states, and in the
middle states.

_Maple._――The _Sugar Maple_, called also rock maple, has leaves
five-parted, and yellowish green flowers, and is one of the loftiest
trees in our forests. Its trunk is usually straight and entire, to the
height of from forty to eighty feet, where it suddenly unfolds into a
dense top, crowded with rich foliage. The bark of the older trees is
gray, and marked with numerous deep clefts. The wood is firm and heavy,
though not durable. It is much used by cabinet-makers, and when cut
at the right season forms excellent fuel. Michaux says, that it grows
in its greatest perfection, between the forty-third and forty-sixth
degrees of north latitude.

The _White Maple_, sometimes called silver maple, is distinguished by
having its leaves five-parted, and white beneath; its flowers reddish
yellow, without flower-stalks. The trunk frequently divides near the
ground, so as to appear like several trunks close together. These
divisions diverge a little as they rise, and often at the height of
from eight to twenty feet the top commences. This is generally larger
in proportion to the trunk, than the top of any other tree. It blossoms
earlier than the sugar maple. The fruit is larger than that of any
other species: it advances with great rapidity towards perfection,
ripens and falls about June in Georgia, and May in Pennsylvania. The
fruit of the sugar maple does not ripen until October. The white maple
is principally found on the banks of rivers, and on the banks of such
only as have a clean gravelly bottom and clear water. It is most
luxuriant on flats which are subject to annual inundations, and is
usually the first settler on alluvial deposits. ‘The banks of the
Sandy river, in Maine,’ says Michaux, ‘and those of the Connecticut in
Windsor, Vermont, are the most northerly points at which I have seen
the white maple. It is found more or less on all the rivers of the
United States, flowing from the mountains to the Atlantic, but becomes
scarce in South Carolina and Georgia. In no part of the United States
is it more multiplied than in the western country, and no where is its
vegetation more luxuriant than on the banks of the Ohio, and of the
great rivers that empty into it. There, sometimes alone, and sometimes
mingled with the willow, which is found all along these waters, it
contributes singularly by its magnificent foliage to the embellishment
of the scene. The brilliant white of the leaves beneath, forms a
striking contrast with the bright green above, and the alternate
reflection of these two surfaces in the water, heightens the beauty
of this wonderful moving mirror, and aids in forming an enchanting
picture, which during my long excursions in a canoe, in these regions
of solitude and silence, I contemplated with unwearied admiration.’

The _Red-flowering Maple_ is a beautiful tree, and in the swamps of
New Jersey and Pennsylvania, it is found to the height of sixty or
seventy feet, with a diameter of three or four. It blossoms earlier in
the spring than any other tree, and flowers from the middle to the last
of April. The blossoms, of a beautiful purple or deep red, unfold more
than a fortnight before the leaves. This tree furnishes wood adapted
to a variety of purposes; it is much used in making domestic wares
and agricultural implements. Furniture of great richness and lustre
is also made of it. It is not good fuel. The _Mountain_, _Striped_ and
_Ash-leaved Maples_ are all beautiful trees.

_Birch._――The _Black Birch_ abounds in New England and the middle
states; farther south it is confined to the summits of the Alleghanies.
It often exceeds seventy feet in height. At the close of winter, the
leaves, during a fortnight after their birth, are covered with a thick,
silvery down, which soon after disappears. When bruised, the leaves and
bark diffuse a very agreeable odor, and as they retain this property
when dried and carefully preserved, they afford a pleasant infusion,
with the addition of a little sugar and cream. The wood is applied to
a variety of useful purposes; it is of a rosy hue, which deepens on
exposure to the light. The _Yellow_, _Canoe_, _White_, and _Red Birch_
are found in various localities throughout the country.

_Pines._――The pines constitute a large and interesting class of
American forest trees. The most valuable species is that which is known
in England and the West Indies as the _Georgia Pitch Pine_; and which,
in the United States, is variously called yellow pine, pitch pine,
broom pine, southern pine, red pine, and long-leaved pine, a name which
is adopted by Michaux. Towards the north, the long-leaved pine makes
its appearance near Norfolk, in Virginia, where the pine-barrens begin.
It seems to be especially assigned to dry sandy soils; and it is found,
almost without interruption, in the lower part of Carolinas, Georgia,
and the Floridas, over a tract more than six hundred miles long, from
north-east to south-west, and more than a hundred miles broad, from the
sea towards the mountains. Immediately beyond Raleigh, it holds almost
exclusive possession of the soil, and is seen in company with other
pines only on the edges of swamps, enclosed in the barrens; even there
not more than one stock in a hundred is of another species, and with
this exception, the long-leaved pine forms the unbroken mass of woods
which covers this extensive country.

The mean stature of the long-leaved pine is sixty or seventy feet, with
a uniform diameter of fifteen or sixteen inches for two thirds of this
height. Some stocks, favored by local circumstances, attain much larger
dimensions, particularly in East Florida. The timber is very valuable,
being stronger, more compact, and more durable, than that of all the
other species of pine: it is besides fine grained, and susceptible of
high polish. Its uses are diversified, and its consumption great. But
the value of the long-leaved pine does not reside exclusively in its
wood; it supplies nearly all the resinous matter used in the United
States in ship-building, with a large residue for exportation; and in
this view, its place can be supplied by no other species, those which
afford the same product being dispersed through the woods, or collected
in inaccessible places. In the northern states, the lands, which at
the commencement of their settlements were covered with pitch pine,
were exhausted in twenty-five or thirty years, and for more than half a
century have ceased to furnish tar. The pine-barrens are of vast extent,
and are covered with trees of the forest growth; but they cannot all be
rendered profitable, from the difficulty of communicating with the sea.

Among the varieties which we can only enumerate, without an attempt at
description, are the _New Jersey_, _Table Mountain_, _Gray_, _Pond_,
and _White Pine_.

_Spruces._――The _American Silver Fir_ is found in the colder regions
of the states; towards the south, it is found only on the tops of the
Alleghanies. It flourishes best in a moist, sandy loam. Its height
rarely exceeds forty feet, with a diameter of twelve or fifteen inches.
The trunk tapers from a foot in diameter at the surface of the ground
to seven or eight inches at the height of six feet. When standing alone
and developing itself naturally, its branches, which are numerous and
thickly garnished with leaves, diminish in length in proportion to
their height, and form a pyramid of perfect regularity. The bark is
smooth and delicate. The leaves are six or eight lines long, and are
inserted singly on the sides and on the top of the branches; they are
narrow, rigid and flat, of a bright green above, and a silvery white
beneath; whence probably is derived the name of the tree. The flowers
appear in May, and are followed by cones of a fragrant odor, nearly
cylindrical, four or five inches long, an inch in diameter, and always
directed upwards. The seeds are ripe in autumn, and if permitted to
hang late will fall apart and scatter themselves. The wood of the
silver fir is light and slightly resinous, and the heart is yellowish.

The _Hemlock Spruce_ inhabits a similar tract of country, though moist
ground appears not to be the most favorable to its growth. It arrives
at the height of seventy or eighty feet, with a circumference of six or
nine feet, and is uniform for two thirds of its length. The _White_ and
_Black Spruce_ are varieties of this genus.

_Cypresses._――The _Cypress_ is a very interesting tree, from its
extraordinary dimensions, and the varied application of its wood.
Its northern boundary is Indian river, in Delaware, in latitude about
thirty-nine degrees. In proceeding southward, it becomes more abundant
in the swamps, and in Louisiana those parts of the marshes where
the cypress grows almost alone are called cypress swamps, and they
sometimes occupy thousands of acres. In the swamps of the southern
states and the Floridas, on whose deep, miry soil a new layer of
vegetable mould is every year deposited by floods, the cypress attains
its utmost developement. The largest stocks are one hundred and twenty
feet in height, and from twenty-five to forty feet in circumference,
above the conical base, which at the surface of the earth is three or
four times as large as the continued diameter of the trunk: in felling
them, the negroes are obliged to raise themselves upon scaffolds five
or six feet from the ground. The base is usually hollow for three
fourths of its bulk.

Amidst the pine forests and savannas of the Floridas is seen here
and there a bog filled with cypresses, whose squalid appearance, when
they exceed eighteen or twenty feet in height, proves how much they are
affected by the barrenness of a soil which differs from the surrounding
only by a layer of vegetable mould, a little thicker upon the quartzous
sand. The summit of the cypress is not pyramidical like that of the
spruce, but is widely spread and even depressed upon old trees. The
foliage is open, light, and of a fresh agreeable tint; each leaf is
four or five inches long, and consists of two parallel rows of leaflets
upon a common stem. The leaflets are small, fine, and somewhat arching,
with the convex side outwards. In autumn they change from a light green
to a dull red, and are shed soon after. This tree blooms in Carolina
about the first of February.

Among the resinous trees of the United States, the _White Cedar_ is one
of the most interesting for the varied utility of its wood. North of
the river Connecticut, it is rare and little employed in the arts. In
the southern states, it is not met with beyond the river Santee, but it
is found, though not abundantly, on the Savannah: it is multiplied only
within these limits and to the distance of fifty miles from the ocean.
The white cedar is seventy or eighty feet high, and sometimes more
than three feet in diameter. When the trees are close and compressed,
the trunk is straight, perpendicular and destitute of branches to the
height of fifty or sixty feet. When cut, a yellow transparent resin
of an agreeable odor exudes, of which a few ounces could hardly be
collected in a summer from a tree of three feet in circumference.
The foliage is evergreen: each leaf is a little branch numerously
subdivided, and composed of small, acute, imbricated scales.

The _White Ash_ is one of the most interesting among the American
species for the qualities of its wood, and the most remarkable for
the rapidity of its growth and for the beauty of its foliage. A cold
climate seems most congenial to its nature. It is everywhere called
_White Ash_, probably from the color of its bark, by which it is easily
distinguished. The situations most favorable to this tree are the banks
of rivers and the edges and surrounding acclivities of swamps. The
white ash sometimes attains the height of eighty feet, with a diameter
of three feet, and is one of the largest trees of the United States.
The trunk is perfectly straight and often undivided to the height of
more than forty feet. On large stocks the bark is deeply furrowed, and
divided into small squares from one to three inches in diameter. The
leaves are twelve or fourteen inches long, opposite and composed of
three or four pair of leaflets surmounted by an odd one. The leaflets
are three or four inches long, about two inches broad, of a delicate
texture and an undulated surface. Early in the spring they are covered
with a light down, which gradually disappears, and at the approach
of summer they are perfectly smooth, of a light green color above and
whitish beneath. It puts forth white or greenish flowers in the month
of May, which are succeeded by seeds that are eighteen lines long,
cylindrical near the base, and gradually flattened into a wing, the
extremity of which is slightly notched. They are united in bunches
four or five inches long, and are ripe in the beginning of autumn.
The shoots of the two preceding years are of a bluish gray color and
perfectly smooth: the distance between their buds sufficiently proves
the vigor of their growth.

_Elm._――The _White Elm_ inhabits an extensive tract of the states,
being found from Nova Scotia to the extremity of Georgia. It is also
found on the banks of the western rivers; growing in low, moist and
substantial soils. In the middle states, this tree stretches to a great
height, but does not approach the magnificence of vegetation which it
displays in the countries peculiarly adapted to its growth. In clearing
the primitive forests, a few stocks are sometimes left standing;
insulated in this manner, it appears in all its majesty, towering to
the height of eighty or one hundred feet, with a trunk four or five
feet in diameter, regularly shaped, naked, and insensibly diminishing
to the height of sixty or seventy feet, where it divides itself into
two or three primary branches. This species differs from the red and
European elm in its flowers and seeds; it blooms in the month of April,
previous to the unfolding of the leaves; the flowers are very small, of
a purple color, supported by short, slender footstalks, and united in
bunches at the extremity of the branches. The _Wahoo_ and the _Red Elm_
are interesting species.

The _American Chesnut_ sometimes attains the height of seventy or
eighty feet, with a circumference of fifteen or sixteen feet. Though
this tree nearly resembles that of Europe in its general appearance,
its foliage, its fruit and the properties of its wood, it is treated
by botanists as a distinct species. Its leaves are six or seven inches
long, one and a half broad, coarsely toothed, of an elongated oval
form, of a fine, brilliant color and of a firm texture, with prominent
parallel nerves beneath. It flowers in June. The fruit is spherical,
covered with fine prickles, and stored with two dark brown seeds or
nuts, about as large as the end of the finger. They are smaller and
sweeter than the wild chesnuts of Europe. They are ripe about the
middle of October. The wood is strong, elastic and capable of enduring
the succession of dryness and moisture.

_Buttonwood_ or _Sycamore_.――Among trees with deciduous leaves,
none in the temperate zones, either in the old or new continent,
equal the dimensions of the planes. The species which we are about
to describe is not less remarkable for its amplitude, and for its
magnificent appearance, than the plane of Asia, whose majestic form
and extraordinary size were so much celebrated by the ancients.
In the Atlantic states, this tree is commonly known by the name of
_Buttonwood_, and sometimes in Virginia, by that of _Water Beach_. On
the banks of the Ohio, and in the states of Kentucky and Tennessee,
it is most frequently called _Sycamore_, and by some persons _Plane
Tree_. This tree, in no part of the United States, is more abundant
and vigorous than along the rivers of Pennsylvania and Virginia; though
in the more fertile valleys of the west, its vegetation is still more
luxuriant, especially on the banks of the Ohio and of the rivers that
flow into it.

On the margin of the great rivers of the west, the buttonwood is
constantly found to be the loftiest and largest tree of the United
States. Often with a trunk of several feet in diameter, it begins to
ramify at the height of sixty or seventy feet, near the summit of
other trees; and often the base divides itself into several trunks,
equally vigorous and superior in diameter to any of the surrounding
trees. On a little island in the Ohio, fifteen miles above the mouth
of the Muskingum, Michaux mentions a buttonwood which, at five feet
above the ground, was forty feet and four inches in circumference, and
consequently more than thirteen feet in diameter. The American species
is generally thought, in Europe, to possess a richer foliage, and
to afford a deeper shade than the Asiatic plane: its leaves are of
a beautiful green, alternate, from five to fifteen inches broad, and
formed with more open angles than those of the plane of the eastern
continent.

_Beech._――The species of _Red Beech_ is almost exclusively confined to
the north-eastern parts of the United States. In the state of Maine,
New Hampshire and Vermont, it is so abundant as often to constitute
extensive forests, the finest of which grow on fertile, level or gently
sloping lands which are proper for the culture of corn. The red beech
equals the white species in diameter, but not in height; and as it
ramifies nearer the earth and is more numerously divided, it has a
more massy summit and the appearance of more tufted foliage. Its leaves
are equally brilliant, a little larger and thicker, and have longer
teeth. Its fruit is of the same form, but is only half as large, and
is garnished with firmer and less numerous points.

The _White Beech_ is one of the tallest and most majestic trees of
the American forests. It grows the most abundantly in the middle and
western states. On the banks of the Ohio, the white beech attains the
height of more than one hundred feet, with a circumference of eight to
eleven feet. In the forests, where these trees vegetate in a deep and
fertile soil, their roots sometimes extend to a great distance even
with the surface, and being entangled so as to cover the ground, they
embarrass the steps of the traveller and render the land peculiarly
difficult to clear. This tree is more slender and less branchy than
the red beech; but its foliage is superb, and its general appearance
magnificent.

_Poplar_ or _Tulip Tree_.――This tree, which surpasses most others of
North America in height and in the beauty of its foliage and of its
flowers, is one of the most interesting from the numerous and useful
applications of its wood.

In the Atlantic states, especially at a considerable distance from the
sea, tulip trees are often seen seventy, eighty and one hundred feet
in height, with a diameter of eighteen inches to three feet. But the
western states appear to be the natural soil of this magnificent tree,
and here it displays its most powerful vegetation. M. Michaux mentions
a tulip tree, near Louisville, on the Ohio, which at five feet from
the ground was twenty-two feet six inches in circumference, and whose
elevation he judged to be from one hundred and twenty to one hundred
and forty feet. The flowers bloom in June or July. They are large,
brilliant, and on detached trees very numerous, variegated with
different colors: they have an agreeable odor, and produce a fine
effect. The fruit is composed of a great number of thin, narrow scales,
attached to a common axis, and forming a cone two or three inches in
length. Each cone consists of sixty or seventy seeds, of which never
more than a third part are productive. For ten years before the tree
begins to yield fruit, almost all the seeds are unproductive, and on
large trees, those from the highest branches are the best.

_Catalpa._――In the Atlantic states, the _Catalpa_ begins to be found
in the forests, on the banks of the river Savannah, and west of the
Alleghanies, on those of the Cumberland, between the thirty-fifth and
thirty-sixth degrees of latitude. Farther south it is more common,
and abounds near the borders of all the rivers which empty into the
Mississippi, or which water West Florida. In the regions where it grows
most abundantly, it frequently exceeds fifty feet in height, with a
diameter from eighteen to twenty-four inches. It is easily recognised
by its bark, which is of a silver-gray color, and but slightly furrowed,
by its ample leaves, and by its wide-spreading summit, disproportioned
in size to the diameter of its trunk. It differs from other trees also
by the fewness of its branches. The flowers which are collected in
large bunches at the extremity of the branches, are white, with violet
and yellow spots, and are beautiful and showy.

_Magnolia Grandiflora._――‘Bartram and others,’ says Mr. Flint, ‘by
overrating the beauty of this tree, have caused, that when strangers
first behold it, their estimation of it falls too low. It has been
described, as a very large tree. We have seen it in Florida, where
Bartram saw it. We have seen it in its more congenial position for
full developement, the rich alluvions of Louisiana; and we have never
seen it compare with the sycamore, the cotton wood, or even the ash,
in point of size. It is sometimes a tall tree; often graceful in form;
but ordinarily a tree of fourth or fifth rate in point of comparative
size in the forest, where it grows. Its bark is smooth, whitish, very
thick, and something resembles that of the beech. The wood is soft,
and for aught we know, useless. The leaves strongly resemble those of
the orange tree, except in being larger, thicker, and having a hoary
yellowish down upon the under side. The upper side has a perfect
verdure, and a feel of smoothness, as if it was oiled. The flowers
are large, of a pure white, nearest resembling the northern pond lily,
though not so beautiful; and are, ordinarily, about twice the size. The
fragrance is indeed, powerful, but to us rather sickly and offensive.
We have felt, and we have heard others complain of feeling a sensation
of faintness, in going into a room, where the chimney place was filled
with these flowers. The tree continues to put forth flowers for two
months in succession, and seldom displays many at a time.

‘We think, few have been in habits of examining flowering trees more
attentively than ourselves, and we contemplated this tree for years in
the season of flowers. Instead of displaying, as has been represented,
a cone of flowers, we have seldom seen a tree in flower, which did not
require some attention and closeness of inspection, to discover where
the flowers were situated among the leaves. We have not been led to
believe, that others possessed the sense of smell more acutely, than
ourselves. In advancing from points, where these trees were not, to
the pine forest, on the water courses of which they are abundant,
we have been warned of our approach to them by the sense of smell,
at a distance of something more than half a mile; and we question,
if any one ever perceived the fragrance much farther, except by the
imagination. The magnolia is a striking tree, and an observer, who
saw it for the first time, would remark it, as such. But we have been
unable to conceive whence the extravagant misconceptions, respecting
the size, number, fragrance and beauty of its flowers, had their origin.

‘There are six or seven varieties among the laurels of the
magnolia tribe, some of which have smaller flowers than those of
the _grandiflora_, but much more delicate, and agreeably fragrant.
A beautiful evergreen of this class is covered in autumn with berries
of an intense blackness, and we remarked them in great numbers about
St. Francisville. The holly is a well-known and beautiful tree of this
class. But that one, which has struck us, as being the handsomest of
the family, is the laurel almond. It is not a large tree. Its leaves
strongly resemble those of the peach; and it preserves a most pleasing
green through the winter. Its flowers yield a delicious perfume. It
grows in families of ten or fifteen trees in a cluster. Planters of
taste in the valley of Red river, where it is common, select the place
of their dwelling amidst a cluster of these trees.’

The _Bow Wood_ is a very striking tree, found about the upper courses
of the Washita, the middle regions of Arkansas, and occasionally on
the northern limits of Louisiana. Its leaves are large and beautiful,
and its fruit, which somewhat resembles a large orange, is of a most
inviting appearance, but is ‘the apple of Sodom to the taste.’ It is
considered by many the most splendid of all forest trees.

The _China Tree_ is much cultivated in the south-western region of the
states, as an ornamental shade tree. Its leaves are long and spiked,
set in correspondence on each side of the stem. The verdure is deep
and brilliant. When in full flower, the top is one tuft of blossoms.
The tree is of most rapid growth, and its beautiful color imparts
delightful freshness to the landscape. After the fall of its leaves,
a profusion of reddish berries remain, and give at a little distance
the appearance of continuing in flower. This berry is a narcotic, and
stupefies the birds that eat of it.

The _Papaw_ is seldom found north of the river Schuylkill, and is
extremely rare in the low, maritime parts of the southern states. It
is not uncommon in the bottoms which stretch along the rivers of the
middle states; but it is most abundant in the rich valleys intersected
by the western waters, where at intervals, it forms thickets
exclusively occupying several acres. In Kentucky and in the western
part of Tennessee, it is sometimes seen also in forests where the soil
is luxuriantly fertile; of which its presence is an infallible proof.

It seldom exceeds thirty feet in height, and a diameter of six or eight
inches, though it generally stops short at half this elevation. The
trunk is covered with a silver-gray bark, which is smooth and finely
polished. The leaves are alternate, five or six inches in length, and
of an elongated form, widening from the base to the summit. They are of
a fine texture, and the superior surface is smooth and brilliant. The
flowers are pendent, and of a purple hue. When the fruit is ripe, which
takes place towards the beginning of August, it is about three inches
long, one and a half thick, of a yellowish color, and of an oval form,
irregular and swelling into inequalities. Its pulp is soft, and of an
insipid taste, and it contains several large, triangular stones.

_Persimon._――The banks of the river Connecticut, below the
forty-second degree of latitude, may be uniformly considered as the
northern limit of this tree; but it is rendered rare in these parts by
the severity of the winter, while in New Jersey it is common, and still
more so in Pennsylvania, Maryland, and the southern states; it abounds,
also, in the western forests. The persimon varies surprisingly in size
in different soils and climates. In New Jersey it is not more than
half as large as in the more southern states, where, in favorable
situations, it is sometimes sixty feet in height, and eighteen or
twenty inches in diameter. The trunk of a full-grown tree is covered
with a deeply-furrowed blackish bark, from which a greenish gum exudes,
without taste or smell. The leaves are from four to six inches in
length, oblong, entire, of a fine green above; in autumn they are
often variegated with black spots. This tree belongs to the class
of vegetables whose sexes are confined to different stocks. Both the
barren and fertile flowers are greenish and not strikingly apparent.
They put forth in June or July. The ripe fruit is about as large as the
thumb, of a reddish complexion, round, fleshy, and furnished with six
or eight semi-oval stones, slightly swollen at the sides, and of a dark
purple color. It is not eatable till it has been touched with frost, by
which the skin is shrivelled, and the pulp, which before was hard and
extremely harsh to the taste, is softened and rendered palatable. The
fruit is so abundant in the southern states, that a tree often yields
several bushels. In the south, it adheres to the branches long after
the shedding of the leaf, and when it falls, it is eagerly devoured by
wild and domestic animals.

_Dogwood_ and _Red Bud_.――These are plants between shrubs and trees.
The former has a heart-shaped leaf, and an umbrella-shaped top. In
spring, it adorns itself with brilliant, white flowers, and in autumn
with fine scarlet berries. The latter is the first blossoming shrub on
the Ohio; and its blossoms there resemble those of the peach tree. They
are scattered every where through the wood, and impart a charm to the
whole descent of the ‘beautiful river.’ The two are the most common, as
they are the most beautiful shrubs of the great western valley.

_Mountain Laurel._――This is a large shrub, which indifferently bears
the name of _Mountain Laurel_, _Laurel_, _Ivy_, and _Calico Tree_. It
abounds in New Jersey and Pennsylvania. Proceeding thence south-west,
it is found along the steep banks of all the rivers which rise in the
Alleghanies; but it is observed to become less common in following
these streams from their source, towards the Ohio and Mississippi on
one side, and towards the ocean on the other. It is rare in Kentucky
and in West Tennessee, and in the southern states it disappears
entirely when the rivers enter the low country, where the pine-barrens
commence.

In favorable situations, this shrub grows to the height of eighteen
or twenty feet, with a diameter of three inches. The flowers put forth
from May to July, are destitute of odor, and disposed in clusters at
the extremity of the branches: in general they are of a beautiful rose
color, and sometimes of a pure white. They are always numerous, and
their brilliant effect is heightened by the richness of the surrounding
foliage.

The _Palmetto_ inhabits the southern states, as far north as Cape
Hatteras. It is from forty to fifty feet in height, crowned with a
tufted summit, which gives it a beautiful and majestic appearance. The
_Coral Tree_ is a brilliant and gaudy shrub, native of the open forests
of the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida; it grows to the height of two
or three feet. The _Snow Berry_ is an ornamental shrub, inhabiting the
banks of the upper Missouri. In the autumn, when the large bunches of
ivory or wax-like berries are matured, the appearance is said to be
extremely beautiful.

_Fruit Trees._――The _Chickasaw Plum_ is common from thirty-four degrees
north latitude, to the gulf of Mexico. It is found in great abundance.
Prairie plums are found in great quantities on the hazel prairies of
Illinois and Missouri. When cultivated under favorable circumstances,
the Osage plum is delicious. Crab apple shrubs are found in great
quantities in the middle regions of the central valley. Their blossoms
resemble those of the cultivated apple tree, and the tree is useful
as a stock in which the cultivated apple and pear may be grafted. The
_Mulberry_ is rare in the Atlantic states, but abounds in every part of
the Mississippi valley. Its wood is valuable, and scarcely less durable
than that of the locust.

_Vine._――The common grape vine is diffused through all the climates.
It frequently happens that we see, in the rich lands, vines of the size
of a man’s body, perpendicularly attached at the top to branches sixty
or eighty feet from the ground, and at great lateral distance from
the trunk of the tree. It is common to puzzle a man first brought into
these woods, by asking him to account for the manner in which a vine
of prodigious size has been able to rear itself to such a height. There
can be no doubt that the vine in this case is coeval with the tree;
that the tree, as it grew, supported the vine; and that the vine was
carried from the trunk with the projection of the lateral branch, until,
in the lapse of years, this singular appearance is the result. In many
bottoms, half the trees are covered with these vines. In the deep
forest, on the hills, in the barrens, in the hazel prairies, and in the
pine woods, every form and size of the grape are found.

Of the plants of the winter grape, which so generally clings to the
trees in the alluvial forests, probably not one in fifty bears any
fruit at all. The fruit when produced is a small circular berry not
unlike the wild black cherry. It is austere, sour, and unpleasant,
until it has been softened by the winter frosts; but it is said, when
fermented by those who have experience in the practice, to make a
tolerable wine. The summer grape is found on the rolling barrens and
the hazel prairies. It is more than twice the size of the winter grape,
is ripe in the first month in autumn, and, when matured under the full
influence of the sun, is a pleasant fruit. It grows in the greatest
abundance, but is too dry a grape to be pressed for wine. The muscadine
grape is seldom seen north of thirty-four degrees. More southerly, it
becomes abundant, and is found in the deep alluvial forests, clinging
to tall trees. The fruit grows in more scanty clusters than that of
other grapes. Like other fruits, they fall as they ripen, and furnish
a rich treat to bears and other animals that feed on them; they are of
the size of a plum, of a fine purple black, with a thick tough skin,
tasting not unlike the rind of an orange; the pulp is deliciously sweet,
but is reputed unwholesome. The pine woods grape has a slender, bluish
purple vine, that runs on the ground among the grass. It ripens in the
month of June; is large, cone-shaped, transparent, with four seeds,
reddish purple, and is fine fruit for eating.

_Cane._――The _Cane_ grows to the height of twenty or thirty feet on the
lower courses of the Mississippi, Arkansas and Red rivers. Its leaves
are dagger-shaped, long and narrow, and of a beautiful green. It grows
in masses so compact that the smallest sparrow would find it difficult
to fly in the intervals. A man could not make his way through a cane
brake, at a rate more rapid than three miles a day.

_Flax._――A species of flax was found by Lewis and Clarke growing in
the valleys of the Rocky mountains, and on the banks of the Missouri.
The bark possesses the same kind of tough fibres as the common flax,
and the Indians are in the habit of making lint and gun-waddings of it.

_Berries._――The gooseberry is indigenous to the United States, and
in the western parts grows to great size. The red raspberry is also
indigenous. Whortleberries, and blackberries high and creeping, are
found in prodigious abundance; many of the prairies are red with
strawberries. The cranberry is a native of the country, growing in
morasses and rich bottom through its whole extent. Large cranberry
swamps occur in New Jersey.

_Other Plants._――There are many annual and evergreen creepers in the
United States, of various kinds, form and foliage. The grasses are
various and luxuriant. In the prairies they are rank and coarse; the
Atlantic country is covered with a fine sward. The rush is a useful
herbaceous plant, which grows on bottoms of an elevation between that
of the cane brakes and the deeply-flooded lands. The pea-vine covers
the richer soil of the forest lands; it is small and fibrous. The wild
rice is a plant of great importance, found on the marshy margins of the
northern lakes, and in the shallow waters of the upper courses of the
Mississippi. One of the most striking of the forest productions is the
wax-plant, which is nearly entirely of a snow-white, and resembles the
most delicate wax preparation. It grows in rich shady woods, and is
much prized.

The common kinds of water-plants are found in the marshy grounds
and ponds; particularly a very beautiful and fragrant lily. This
closely resembles the European water-lily. One of this genus is said
to be unrivalled for size and beauty. Dr. Barton considers it to be
the same as the sacred bean of Judea, and mentions it as abundant in
Philadelphia, but rare otherwise, and refusing propagation. Mr. Flint
found it in the southern states, and says that it attains great
splendor on the lakes and stagnant waters of the Arkansas. There is a
large variety of parasitic plants in the states, the most remarkable of
which is the long moss.

It will be observed that in these chapters on the natural history
of the United States, we have only intended to describe the most
conspicuous objects, without reference to scientific arrangement. A
mere scientific catalogue of the natural productions of our country
would occupy all the space we have devoted to the subject, and possess
no interest or attraction for the general reader.


                      GENERAL REMARKS ON BOTANY.

  Botany, the science of plants, is generally divided into two
  branches, one of which describes their internal structure and
  organic action, and the other their external appearance. At the
  revival of learning, hardly fifteen hundred plants were known from
  the descriptions of the ancients. More than fifty thousand, at
  a reasonable estimate, have been described. Linnæus founded his
  system exclusively on the sexual relations of plants; dividing
  them all into two general divisions, one of which has, and the
  other has not, visible sexual parts. This division is generally
  adopted as the basis of elementary instruction, but many
  objections have been brought against it.

  The second general division of this science begins with the
  anatomy of plants, or an investigation of their internal structure.
  This study has been recently cultivated to a great extent,
  particularly by the Germans. With this division is connected
  chemical botany, which investigates the constituent parts, the
  various changes, and the different combinations of the liquid and
  solid parts of plants. From these we rise to the laws of vegetable
  life, which are generally the same with those of animal life; the
  physiology of plants and of animals is thus of course intimately
  connected.

  Of the two general divisions of botany, the physiological, or
  philosophical is the elder. It was created by Theophrastus of
  Eresus. Historical botany was founded by the Germans. In the
  seventeenth century, the foundation of botanical anatomy was laid
  by Grew and Malpighi; botanical chemistry was founded by Homberg,
  Dodart, and Mariotte: and the difference of sex was discovered by
  Grew, Morland and Camerarius.




                       CHAPTER XVIII.――GEOLOGY.


The first important attempt toward a scientific view of the
character and relations of the strata in the United States was
made by Mr. Maclure, but a short time previous to the year 1812.
His work was small and general, but has proved a valuable guide
to subsequent inquirers. In order to obtain a view of the general
geological formation of the territory of the states, it will be well to
recapitulate its chief geographical features; the Apalachian mountains
on the east, with the slope to the Atlantic ocean; the Rocky mountains
to the west, with the valleys intervening between them and the Pacific
ocean; and the extended valley between these elevated ranges, with
the Ozark mountains dividing it in the centre, and the Black mountains
occupying its north-western angle.

The summits of the Rocky mountains are formed entirely of primitive
rocks, chiefly of granite itself. A red and saline sandstone rests on
this granite, through the whole chain, as far as it has been explored.
But few traces of that animal and vegetable life are found, which
in other countries has reared mountains of limestone, clay-slate,
and those other aggregates which are so often composed of the exuviæ
of living beings. The western boundary of this sandstone formation
corresponds to the side of the easternmost granite ranges. From the
Platte toward the south, the sandstone increases in width, and on
the Canadian it extends more than half the distance from the sources
of that river to its confluence with the Arkansas. It consists of
two members; red sandstone, and argillaceous or gray sandstone. This
formation was at one time probably horizontal and uniform; it is now
found in a state of entire disruption and disorder. This tract abounds
in scenery of an interesting and majestic character. The angle of
inclination of the strata varies from forty-five to ninety degrees.
Though not very recent, the sandstone along the base of the mountains
contains the relics of marine animals and plants, and embraces
extensive beds of pudding stone.

South of the Arkansas are rocks of basaltic origin, overlaying the
red sandstone. By the vastness and broken character of their masses,
and their dark color, they present a striking contrast to the light,
smooth and fissile sandstone on which they rest. Sometimes they are
compact and apparently homogeneous in their composition, and in many
particulars of structure, form and hardness, more analogous to the
primitive rock than to those recent secondary aggregates with which
they are associated. In other instances, dark and irregular masses of
porous and amygdaloidal substances are seen scattered about the plain,
or gathered in conical heaps, but having no immediate connection with
the strata on which they rest. Most of the rocks of this class were
observed in the neighborhood of the sources of the Canadian; and may
be distinguished into two kinds, referable to the two divisions called
greenstone and amygdaloid.

The valley immediately east of the Rocky mountain range is composed
of an extensive accumulation of sand, seemingly the debris of the
mountains. To an unknown depth, the soil is made up of rounded
fragments of granite, varying in dimension from a grain of sand to a
six pound shot. This accumulation has evidently been washed from the
mountains, and slopes gradually from their base. The small particles
derived from the quartzose portions of the primitive aggregates, being
least liable to decomposition, have been borne to the greatest distance,
and of these the eastern margin of the great sandy desert is almost
entirely composed; the central portions are of coarser sand, intermixed
with particles of mica and feldspar; nearer the mountains, boulders and
pebbles occur abundantly, and at length cover almost the entire surface
of the country.

In many other respects besides geological structure, the Apalachian
range of mountains differs from that we have just been considering.
The whole of their eastern front is composed of primitive rocks,
comprehending both the granitic family and its associated strata
of clay-slate and limestone. In New England, rocks of this class
constitute the seacoast, and with some exceptions extend inwards
towards the St. Lawrence. South of the Hudson, the edge of the
primitive follows the general contour of the mountains, at a variable
distance from the sea to their termination, and until it meets more
recent deposits at the extremity of the mountain range. The breadth of
this primitive belt is very unequal. In passing through the states of
Pennsylvania and Maryland, it occupies but a small part of the country;
in Virginia it increases in breadth, and proportionably in height,
composing the greatest mass as well as the most elevated points of the
mountains in Georgia and North Carolina. Besides this range, there is a
great mass of primitive on the west side of lake Champlain.

In general, the primitive rocks run from a north and south to
a north-east and south-west direction, and dip generally to the
south-east at an angle of more than forty-five degrees with the
horizon; their highest elevation is towards their north-western limit.
The mountains of this formation consist generally of detached masses,
with rounded flat tops and a circular waving outline. Granite in large
masses constitutes but a small part of this formation, and is found
indifferently in the plains and on the tops of mountains. Gneiss
extends perhaps over a half of this formation, and includes in a great
many places beds from three to three hundred feet thick. These beds are
mixed, and alternate occasionally in the same gneiss with the primitive
limestone, the beds of hornblende and hornblende slate, serpentine,
magnetic iron ore, and feldspar rocks. In short, there are scarcely any
of the primitive rocks that may not occasionally be found included in
the gneiss formation.

The breadth of the transition district, like that of the primitive,
is variable. Narrow towards the gulf of Mexico, it gradually widens
towards the north-east, till it reaches the river Hudson. From its
upper portion it sends off a considerable arm, which penetrates for
several hundred miles into the granitic region, overlaying it, but
running parallel with the principal body. After the primitive, it forms
some of the highest mountains in the range, and seems to be both higher
and wider to the west in Pennsylvania, Maryland and part of Virginia,
where the primitive is least extended and lowest in height. It contains
all the varieties of rocks found in the same formation in Europe.

It varies in breadth from twenty to one hundred miles. In the limestone
of this formation there are many and extensive caves, some of which
extend for miles under ground, and contain the bones of animals. It is
the lowest, and is considered the most ancient of the rocks containing
organized remains, which are those of cryptogamous plants, and animals
without sight. The graywacke has been observed to contain impressions
of organized remains, but they are usually those of zoophytic animals,
and are exceedingly unlike those found so abundantly in the coal
formations. Its colors are variable; it is, however, most commonly
bluish, black, or dark brown. The graywacke seems to form the
connecting link between the clay-slate and a rock which has been called
the old red sandstone, and is usually found intimately blended either
with the one or the other. This sandstone occurs throughout the whole
extent of the transition formation, and evidently belongs to the oldest
depositions of that rock. It is for the most part distinctly stratified,
and in all cases its stratification is inclined.

Of the rocks thus described, the limestone occurs extensively all along
the north-western side of the primitive strata. It is probable that
transition limestone is the foundation through their whole extent of
the Alleghany mountains of Pennsylvania, Maryland and the western parts
of Virginia, on a level with the surface at the base of their eastern
declivities. The clay-slate occurs in the central portions of that
extensive field of transition, which skirts the western margin of the
primitive of New York and New England, and forms the great body of the
Catskill mountains. The old red sandstone in the transition district,
along the whole range of mountains, is perhaps more abundant than any
other aggregate. This region has also a considerable mixture of trap.
Various large bodies of transition rock are thrown to a considerable
distance into the primitive region; while in many instances, secondary
rocks are found running along the valleys far into the bosom of the
mountains.

With the edge of the transition strata, we approach the western
summits of the Apalachian mountains, or the line from whence they
begin to fall toward the Mississippi valley. Along this line commences
a series of secondary rocks, stretching westward to an immense extent
towards the Mississippi and the lakes, and constituting one of the most
interesting and important geological formations in the United States.
This secondary region extends unbroken across the whole country to the
shores of the lakes, being bounded on the west probably by the river
Wabash, and in descending the Mississippi by the more recent formations
through which that river flows. It consists generally of various strata
of sandstone, limestone and clay. Immense beds of secondary limestone,
of all shades from light blue to black, sometimes intercepted by
extensive tracts of sandstone and other secondary aggregates, appear
to constitute the foundation of this formation, which extends from the
head waters of the Ohio, with some interruptions, all the way to the
waters of the Tombigbee, accompanied by slaty clay and freestone with
vegetable impressions; but in no instance yet ascertained, covered by
or alternating with any rock resembling basalt, or indeed any of those
called the newest floetz trap formation. A grand peculiarity of this
secondary region is the uniform, horizontal direction of the strata.

We will now briefly examine the region which occupies the centre of the
Mississippi valley. The Ozark mountains consist chiefly of secondary
and transition rocks; but there are two points at which the primitive
makes its appearance. About fifteen miles south-east from the hot
springs, near the Washita, granite is found _in situ_. It is very soft,
and disintegrates rapidly when exposed to the air. It is compounded
of greyish-white quartz, yellowish-white feldspar, and an unusually
large proportion of mica in variously and brilliantly-colored masses.
This granite, if of secondary formation, is much more extensive than
any of the kind hitherto known. ‘We are ignorant,’ says Dr. James, ‘of
the manner of its connection with any other rock, nor do we know of
any formation of primitive granite from which it could, by the action
of water, have been derived: one can have no hesitation, however, in
considering the Ozark mountains as a separate system within themselves,
and having no immediate connection with either the Apalachian or the
Chippewayan mountains.’ Mr. Schoolcraft mentions another granite region
as occurring in the north-eastern extremity of the Ozark range, in the
mining district of Potosi.

In connection with the granite of the Washita is found a stratum of
clay-slate, and another of transition sandstone, but neither of them of
great extent. The hot springs of the Washita issue from the clay-slate,
and it is supposed that a very large mass of clay-slate is interposed
between the surface of the granite and the point at which the springs
rise. The slate-rock about the hot springs is highly inclined, often
flinty in its composition, and, as far as it has been hitherto examined,
contains no organic remains. It is traversed by large upright veins,
usually filled with white quartz. The mountains contain vast beds of
secondary limestone, which from its peculiar crystalline appearance
might be easily mistaken for the primitive. These vast beds of sparry
limestone, almost exclusively made up of deposits from chemical
solution, would seem to have been formed during periods of great
tranquillity in the waters. The sandstones of this small group of
mountains appear under almost every variety of character. A region
similar in mineralogical character to the Ozark mountains extends
northward from the confluence of the Missouri, to the Ouisconsin and
Ontonagon rivers of lake Superior. The sandstones, limestones and
other rocks have a striking resemblance. Of the Black mountains in
the north-western part of the Mississippi valley, but little is known;
they appear to be composed of sandstone lying horizontally, and to
be destitute of valuable minerals. Between these mountains and the
central district, is a wide alluvial tract containing the course of the
Missouri. The same appellation has been given by Dr. James to a space
between the Ozark mountains and the Chippewayan sands, and to the
country on both sides of the lower Mississippi.

We must now turn our attention to the region which lies to the
eastward of the Apalachian mountains. The eastern front of this range
is composed of primitive rocks, which reach the sea as far south as
the Hudson; from this point they take an inland course, and leave a
considerable tract of land between them and the ocean all the way to
the Mississippi. On this side, there is no appearance of any rocks
of the transition class; the primitive terminates abruptly, and is
skirted through its whole length by an extensive series of beds of
shell-limestone, marl, clay, sand and gravel, constituting what has
been described as the Atlantic slope. This class of strata begins at
Long island, and gradually widens in its extent through the middle
and southern states, forms the whole of Florida, and crossing the
Mississippi, meets the secondary formation of that valley, and sends up
a tongue for a considerable distance along the sides of that river. We
may here notice one of the most peculiar features of our geology. This
is the ridge of granite which forms the boundary between the primitive
and secondary regions, and is conjectured to have been the ancient line
of the seacoast. It commences in Georgia and extends as far north as
New York, whence it seems to pass into Long island and under the sound
into Connecticut.

The entire region to the eastward of the primitive was long considered
as alluvial; but it has been found to comprehend secondary, as well as
a large extent of tertiary formations. Decisive evidence of this fact
has been furnished by the investigations of Dr. Morton of Philadelphia.
The secondary strata are not, however, calcareous, but consist of beds
of sand and clay analogous to the iron sand, green sand, and chalk marl
or galt of England. Dr. Morton calls it the ferruginous sand formation.
In Maryland commences a vast deposit of sand and clay, extending
along the coast to the Mississippi; this tract abounds with tertiary
fossils, which appear chiefly to belong to the upper marine formation
of European geologists. The secondary strata are occasionally met with
beneath it, and sometimes approach so near the surface as to be readily
identified by their fossils. It is therefore reasonable to suppose,
that the beds of ferruginous sand extend nearly the whole length of the
Atlantic frontiers, of the states south of Long island. One of the most
abundant mineral productions of these beds is lignite, which is found
at the deep cut of the Chesapeak and Delaware canal, in almost every
variety, from charred wood to well-characterized jet. It sometimes
occurs in small fragments, and sometimes in large masses, presenting
the trunks and limbs of trees thirty feet in length.

Though occurring largely on the Atlantic slope, the tertiary formations
are by no means confined to it; they overlay the secondary strata to
a great extent on both sides of the mountain chains. Of all visible
strata, marly clay is one of the most universal; it is the common clay
of all North America. In this clay, sulphate of magnesia frequently
occurs, and sometimes muriate of soda. Bagshot sand and crag are next
in extent to the marly clay, and generally overlie it. The plastic
clay formation is stated to appear very distinctly on the west side
of lake Champlain, and at various points from Martha’s Vineyard to the
eastward of Long island, to Florida and the Mississippi. The silicious
limestone of Georgia is asserted to be decidedly contemporaneous with
the _calcaire silicieuse_ of the Paris basin. In Virginia, the marly or
London clay is found, and the sands of the upper marine formation are
conceived to occur in the same state and in Staten island.

Of the geology of the region west of the Chippewayan mountains, nothing
certain is known. The chains which stretch nearer to the Pacific are
lofty, and are presumed to be primitive. Mr. Scrope represents the
mountains which border the Pacific ocean as volcanic.

From the importance which fossil remains have recently assumed in
geological science, much interest is naturally attached to those
contained in the strata of the western world. It will be long before so
vast a field of inquiry is fully explored, and with Mr. Maclure in 1812,
we may still say that it has not yet been examined with that accuracy
of discrimination necessary to form just conclusions. We derive such
knowledge as is possessed on the subject from various sources. The
fossils of the transition strata consist of the ancient coralline and
encrinital families, and generally resemble those of similar rocks in
other parts of the globe. Organic remains in the coal formations are
found at Westfield, Connecticut; at Sunderland, Massachusetts; and it
is said also in some other places. At Westfield they were found, in
exploring for coal, lying upon bituminous shale.

The following information is furnished in an article by Mr. Caleb
Atwater. ‘In the vicinity of the Ohio river, and on the waters of the
Muskingum, I have carefully examined not a few of the fossil trees
there existing. Among them I noticed the following, viz. black oak,
black walnut, sycamore or button wood, white birch, sugar maple, the
date or bread-fruit tree, cocoanut-bearing palm, the bamboo and the
dogwood; and I have in my possession the perfect impression of the
cassia and the tea leaf. Of ferns, I have beautiful impressions of the
leaves, and of the bread-fruit tree flowers, fully expanded, fresh, and
entire. I have specimens so perfect, and so faithful to nature, as to
dispel all doubts as to what they once were. The larger trees are found
mostly in sandstone, although the bark of the date tree, much flattened,
I ought to say perfectly so, is found in shale covering coal. The date
is a large tree, not very tall, and having numerous wide-spreading
branches. Nine miles west of Zanesville, the body of a bread-fruit tree,
now turned to sandstone, may be seen; it is exactly such sandstone as
that in which M. Brongniart found tropical plants imbedded in France.
It contains a considerable quantity of mica in its composition. The
cassia was found in such sandstone in the Zanesville canal. The bamboo
is mostly impressed upon ironstone, especially the roots, and the
trunk and leaves are found in the micaceous sandstone. The ironstone
is sometimes apparently made of bamboo leaves, the leaves of fern, and
bamboo roots. It happens frequently that the trunks of small trees and
plants are flattened by pressure, and the bark of them partially turned
into coal. Thus the shale often contains a bark, now become coal, and
a stratum of shale in succession, alternately, for several inches in
thickness.’

Some further interesting particulars respecting fossil and other
remains will be found in the following description of them by Mr.
Atwater, as occurring in the state of Ohio. ‘I am credibly informed,
that in digging a well at Cincinnati, in this state, an arrow-head
was found more than ninety feet below the surface. At Pickaway plains,
while several persons were digging a well several years since, a human
skeleton was found seventeen feet six inches below the surface. This
skeleton was seen by several persons, and among others, by Doct. Daniel
Turney, an eminent surgeon; they all concurred in the belief, that it
belonged to a human being. Pickaway plains are, or rather were, a large
prairie, before the land was improved by its present inhabitants. This
tract is alluvial to a great depth; greater, probably, than the earth
has ever been perforated, certainly than it ever has been by the hand
of man. The surface of the plain is at least one hundred feet above the
highest freshet of the Scioto river, near which it lies. On the surface
is a black vegetable mould, from three, to six, and nine feet in depth;
then we find pebbles, and shells imbedded among them: the pebbles are
evidently rounded and smoothed by attrition in water, exactly such as
we now see at the bottom of rivers, ponds, and lakes.

‘I have examined the spot where this skeleton was found, and am
persuaded that it was not deposited there by the hand of man, for
there are no marks of any grave, or of any of the works of man; but the
earth and pebbles appear to lie in the very position in which they were
deposited by the water. On the north side of a small stream, called
Hargus creek, which at this place empties itself into the Scioto, in
digging through a hill composed of such pebbles as I have described in
Pickaway plains, at least nine feet below the surface, several human
skeletons were discovered, perfect in every limb. These skeletons were
promiscuously scattered about, and parts of skeletons were sometimes
found at different depths below the surface. This hill is at least
fifty feet above the highest freshets in the Scioto, and is a very
ancient alluvion, where every stratum of sand, clay, and pebbles has
been deposited by the waters of some stream. Other skulls have been
taken out of the same hill, by persons who, in order to make a road
through it, were engaged in taking it away. These bones are very
similar to those found in our mounds, and probably belonged to the
same race of men; a people short and thick, not exceeding generally
five feet in height, and very possibly they were not more than four
feet six inches. The skeletons, when first exposed to the atmosphere,
are quite perfect, but afterwards moulder and fall into pieces. Whether
they were overwhelmed by the deluge of Noah, or by some other, I know
not; but one thing appears certain, namely: that water has deposited
them here, together with the hill in which, for so many ages, they have
reposed. Indeed, this whole country appears to have been once, and for
a considerable period, covered with water, which has made it one vast
cemetery of the beings of former ages. Fragments of antique pottery,
and even entire pots of coarse earthen ware, have been found likewise
in the excavations of the Illinois salt-works, at the depth of eighty
feet and more from the surface. One of these was ascertained to hold
from eight to ten gallons, and some were alleged to be of much greater
capacity. This fossil pottery is stated not to differ materially from
that which frequently occurs in the mounds supposed to have been formed
by the aboriginal Indians.’

The largest and most interesting fossils of this country are the
remains of the mastodon, an enormous creature of an extinct race,
nearly allied to the elephant, and long considered identical with it,
but now allotted to a distinct genus under the name of mastodon. For a
minute and detailed account of these remains, we must refer our readers
to the valuable work of Godman. The size of the living animal may be
conjectured when it is stated, that the head at the posterior part
is thirty-two inches across, the lower jaw two feet ten inches long,
and the tusks ten feet seven inches long, and seven inches and three
fourths in diameter at the base. It is wonderful to reflect that
but for the accidental preservation of a few bones, we should never
have known the existence of an animal so huge in its dimensions, and
necessarily of such vast strength and power.

We know not where, better than in the present connection, to introduce
a circumstance hitherto unexplained, if not altogether inexplicable.
There have been found, it appears beyond all question, in naked
limestone of the elder secondary formation, close on the western margin
of the Mississippi at St. Louis, the prints of human feet. The prints
are those of a man standing erect, with his heels drawn in, and his
toes turned outward, which is the most natural position. They are not
the impressions of feet accustomed to a tight shoe, the toes being very
much spread, and the foot flattened in the manner that happens to those
who have been habituated to go a great length of time without shoes.
The prints are strikingly natural, exhibiting every muscular impression
and swell of the heel and toes, with great precision and faithfulness
to nature. The length of each foot, as indicated by the prints, is ten
inches and a half, and the width across the spread of the toes, four
inches, which diminishes to two inches and a half at the swell of the
heels, indicating, as it is thought, a stature of the common size.

Every appearance seems to warrant the conclusion that these impressions
were made at a time when the rock was soft enough to receive them by
pressure, and that the marks of feet are natural and genuine. ‘Such was
the opinion of Governor Cass and myself,’ says Mr. Schoolcraft, ‘formed
upon the spot, and there is nothing that I have subsequently seen to
alter this view: on the contrary, there are some corroborating facts
calculated to strengthen and confirm it.’ At Herculaneum, in the same
neighborhood, similar marks have been found, as well as on some of
the spurs of the Cumberland mountains, always in similar limestone. In
the latter case it is stated that the impressions are elongated, as of
persons slipping in ascending a slimy steep. Opinions are much divided
as to the origin and import of these impressions. Should similar
observations multiply, important inferences may perhaps be drawn
from them; at present it seems impossible to speak respecting them
decisively or satisfactorily.

The following extraordinary facts, respecting what may be termed living
fossils, appear to be well authenticated. During the construction
of the Erie canal, while the workmen were cutting through a ridge of
gravel, they found several hundred of live molluscous animals. ‘I have
before me,’ says Professor Eaton, ‘several of the shells from which
the workmen took the animals, fried and ate them. I have received
satisfactory assurances that the animals were taken alive from the
depth of forty-two feet.’ In addition to this discovery in diluvial
deposits, mention is made of a similar one in a much older formation.
In laying the foundation of a house at Whitesborough, the workmen had
occasion to split a large stone from the millstone grit. ‘It was
perfectly close-grained and compact. On opening it, they discovered a
black, or dark brown spherical mass, about three inches in diameter, in
a cavity which it filled. On examining it particularly, they found it
to be a toad, much larger than the common species and of a darker color.
It was perfectly torpid. It was laid upon a stone, and soon began to
give signs of life. In a few hours, it would hop moderately on being
disturbed. They saw it in the yard, moving about slowly for several
days; but it was not watched by them any longer, and no one observed
its farther movements. They laid one half of the stone in the wall, so
that the cavity may still be seen.

‘The millstone grit,’ says Professor Eaton, who gives this account,
‘in which this toad was found, is the oldest of the secondary rocks.
It must have been formed many years before the deluge. Was this toad
more than four thousand years old? or was it from an egg introduced,
through a minute and undiscovered cleavage, into this cavity or geode,
made precisely to fit the size and form of a toad? I was particular
in my inquiry, and learned that the whole stone was perfectly compact,
without any open cleavage which would admit an egg. Besides, it is well
known that the millstone grit is neither porous nor geodiferous. If
this rock stratum was deposited upon the toad, it must have been in
aqueous, not in igneous solution, and the toad must have been full
grown at the time. Toads are often found in compact, hard, gravelly
diluvial deposits, in situations which demonstrate that they must have
lived from the time of the deluge. I think I am warranted in saying
this without citing authorities, as it is a common occurrence. Then why
may they not have lived a few centuries longer, if we admit them a life
of at least three thousand years?’


                      GENERAL REMARKS ON GEOLOGY.

    Geological researches are made with much greater facility in
    America than in Europe, especially in the region of the secondary
    strata. The immense extent over which they can be traced, the
    undisturbed condition in which they are found, and their generally
    horizontal position, afford great facility for efforts of system
    and generalization. The absence of the newest floetz-trap rocks,
    and of the effects of the violent convulsions, so frequent in
    the vicinity of this disputed formation, unquestionably assist
    geological research. A second and more efficient cause is found in
    the extent of the changes that have been wrought in the different
    classes of rocks on the European continent since their original
    formation, by the effect of water, and the continual action of
    rivers wearing deep beds, and exposing the subordinate strata.
    Rivers also in North America have not generally cut so deep
    into the different strata, either in the mountains, or during
    their course in the level country, as materially to derange the
    stratifications. Broken masses of one formation covering the
    tops of mountains, whose foundations are composed of rocks of a
    different class, seldom occur. A third cause of the facility of
    geological observation in this continent is found in the fact
    that the whole continent east of the Mississippi follows the
    arrangement of one great chain of mountains. Europe, on the
    contrary, is intersected by five or six distinct ranges, which
    follow different laws of stratification, and frequently interrupt
    each other.

    The effect of opening this new field of observation has been
    striking and important. It has been to confound every previous
    effort at the determination and arrangement of general strata.
    European geologists themselves have acknowledged that the general
    strata must be determined in America. The absence of the chalk
    forcibly illustrates this; the chalk being not only a very
    prominent feature in the geological structure of Europe, but
    the grand point of division between the secondary and tertiary
    formations. The English oolite is not found in this country. It
    has been affirmed by Professor Eaton that the old red sandstone
    is not a general stratum, and even the existence of primitive
    clay-slate is questioned; while Mr. Maclure informs us that though
    the primitive formation contains all the variety of rocks contained
    in the mountains of Europe, yet neither their relative situation
    in the order of succession, nor their relative heights in the
    range of mountains, correspond with European observations. The
    order of succession from the clay-slate to the granite, as well as
    the gradually diminishing height of the strata, from the granite
    through the gneiss, mica slate, and hornblende rock, down to
    the clay-slate, is so often inverted and mixed, as to render the
    arrangement of any regular series impracticable.

    It is of course out of the question in these remarks to present a
    detailed account of the general science of geology. For valuable
    and well-digested treatises on this subject, we refer to Cuvier’s
    _Theory of the Earth_, and _Lyell’s Principles of Geology_. The
    volumes of Silliman’s Journal, and Professor Cleaveland’s works,
    abound in important matter on the geology of our continent.




                  CHAPTER XIX.――NATURAL CURIOSITIES.


It is our intention to collect under this general head a few
miscellaneous descriptions, that could not have been properly placed
under any other division. The space that we can devote to this subject
is small, and it is impossible to enter into much detail. Among the
most admired and interesting natural curiosities of our country, are
the Pictured Rocks, of lake Superior, which have been described by an
intelligent traveller to whose observation we have been already largely
indebted.

‘The _Pictured Rocks_,’ says Mr. Schoolcraft, ‘are a series of lofty
bluffs, which continue for twelve miles along the shore, and present
some of the most sublime and commanding views in nature. We had been
told, by our Canadian guide, of the variety in the color and form of
these rocks, but were wholly unprepared to encounter the surprising
groups of overhanging precipices, towering walls, caverns, waterfalls,
and prostrate ruins, which are here mingled in the most wonderful
disorder, and burst upon the view in ever-varying and pleasing
succession. In order to convey any just idea of their magnificence,
it is necessary to premise, that this part of the shore consists
of a sandstone rock of a light gray color internally, and deposited
stratum super-stratum to the height of three hundred feet, rising in
a perpendicular wall from the water and extending from four to five
leagues in length.

  Illustration: Pictured Rocks.

‘This rock is made up of coarse grains of sand, united by a
calcareous cement, and occasionally imbedding pebbles of quartz and
other water-worn fragments of rocks, but adhering with a feeble force,
and, where exposed to the weather, easily crushed between the fingers.
Externally, it presents a great variety of color, as black, red,
yellow, brown, and white, particularly along the most permanent parts
of the shore; but where masses have newly fallen, its color is a light
gray. This stupendous wall of rock, exposed to the fury of the waves,
which are driven up by every north wind across the whole width of lake
Superior, has been partially prostrated at several points, and worn out
into numerous bays and irregular indentations. All these front upon the
lake, in a line of aspiring promontories, which, at a distance, present
the terrible array of dilapidated battlements and desolate towers.

‘Among many striking features, two attracted particular
admiration,――the Cascade La Portaille, and the Doric Arch. The
cascade is situated about four miles beyond the commencement of the
range of bluffs, and in the centre of the most commanding part of it.
It consists of a handsome stream, which is precipitated about seventy
feet from the bluff into the lake at one leap. Its form is that of a
rainbow, rising from the lake, to the top of the precipice. We passed
near the point of its fall upon the surface of the lake, and could
have gone, unwetted, between it and the rocks, as it is thrown a
considerable distance into the lake.

‘The Doric Rock is an isolated mass of sandstone, consisting of
four natural pillars, supporting a stratum or entablature of the same
material, and presenting the appearance of a work of art. On the top
of this entablature rests a stratum of alluvial soil, covered with a
handsome growth of pine and spruce trees, some of which appear to be
fifty or sixty feet in height. To add to the factitious appearance of
the scene, that part of the entablature included between the pillars
is excavated in the form of a common arch, giving it very much the
appearance of a vaulted passage into the court yard of some massy pile
of antiquated buildings. A little to the west of this rock, the Miner’s
river enters the lake by a winding channel, overshadowed with trees,
and intersected by a succession of small rapids.’

_Mineralized Tree._――About half a mile from the village of Chitteningo,
in New York, a fossil or mineralized tree was some years ago discovered.
It lies at the base of the Conasewago mountains, within a few yards
of a branch of the Erie canal, which runs up to the village. The tree
appears to have been blown down or broken off; there are eight or
ten feet of stump remaining, with some part of the large end near the
root; the stump is about three feet in diameter, the bark, the fibrous
texture of the wood and two or three knots are very obvious; there is a
substance very much resembling veins disseminated through what seems to
have once been the sap vessels of the tree. The lower part of the root
is imbedded in the soil, where it probably once grew. Vast quantities
of mineralized wood, both in small and large masses, are scattered in
all directions around this stump; fragments which from their loose and
porous texture, seem to have been petrified, after the wood began to
decay. Indeed so numerous are these fragments, that almost every stone
in this vicinity appears to have been once a living plant.[58]

_The Devil’s Diving Hole._――About four miles below the falls of Niagara,
on the American side, is a very curious place called the Devil’s Diving
Hole, which is nearly one hundred feet deep; the edge of it is so very
near the road that they have taken the precaution to cut down some
trees, so as to form a kind of barricado, in order to prevent cattle or
strangers from falling into it. This hole, as it is called, is, more
properly speaking, the narrow extremity of a considerable ravine, which
has, at some remote period, been formed in the rock; it shelves off as
it descends towards the river, and is in length about two hundred yards
from the road to the river. The top is so overgrown with bushes that
a hasty view would induce many to suppose it to be really a hole; but
a closer examination soon leads their eye along the windings of its
courses, and discovers a very considerable breadth at no great distance.
A hemlock tree, firmly rooted at the bottom, stretches its top almost
to the surface, and is so conveniently fitted to the hole or opening,
that you have only to descend five or six feet, when its branches
afford you a safe and easy step-ladder quite to the bottom, where you
will find a copious spring of excellent water.

An occurrence is traditionally described as having taken place at
this spot during the French war, the circumstances of which were as
follows:――A British detachment, being pursued by a superior French
force, were so hemmed in that their retreat to the road was cut off,
and their escape effectually prevented by this ravine. Seeing their
situation irretrievable, they laid down their arms, and surrendered
themselves prisoners of war. Notwithstanding this surrender, the French
rushed upon them with charged bayonets and precipitated the whole party
down this precipice. Here they perished with the exception of a single
soldier, who was preserved by falling on some of his comrades.

_Natural Bridge._――This wonderful bridge is considered by many the
greatest natural curiosity in this country. It has never been described
so well as by Mr. Jefferson, and though his account of it has been so
frequently reprinted, we have thought best to adopt it.

‘The Natural Bridge, the most sublime of nature’s works, is on the
ascent of a hill, which seems to have been cloven through its length
by some great convulsion. The fissure just at the bridge is by some
admeasurements two hundred and seventy feet deep, by others only two
hundred and five. It is about forty-five feet wide at the bottom, and
ninety feet at the top: this of course determines the length of the
bridge and its height from the water. Its breadth in the middle is
about sixty feet, but more at the ends, and the thickness of the mass
at the summit of the arch, about forty feet. A part of this thickness
is constituted by a coat of earth, which gives growth to many large
trees. The residue, with the hill on both sides, is one solid rock of
limestone.

‘The arch approaches the semi-elliptical form, but the larger axis
of the ellipsis, which would be the chord of the arch, is many times
longer than the transverse. Though the sides of this bridge are
provided, in some parts, with a parapet of fixed rocks, yet few men
have resolution to walk to them and look over into the abyss. You
involuntarily fall on your hands and feet, creep to the parapet, and
peep over it. Looking down from this height about a minute, gave me a
violent headache.

‘If the view from the top be painful and intolerable, that from below
is delightful in an equal extreme. It is impossible for the emotions
arising out of the sublime to be felt beyond what they are here, so
beautiful an arch, so elevated, so light, and springing, as it were,
up to heaven, the rapture of the spectator is really indescribable!

‘The fissure continuing narrow, deep, and straight for a considerable
distance above and below the bridge, opens a short but very pleasing
view of the North mountain on one side, and the Blue ridge on the other,
at the distance each of them of about five miles. This bridge is in the
county of Rockbridge, to which it has given name, and affords a public
and commodious passage over a valley, which cannot be crossed elsewhere
for a considerable distance. The stream passing under it is called
Cedar creek. It is a water of James river, and sufficient in the driest
seasons to turn a grist-mill, though its fountain is not more than two
miles above.’

The description which follows is from another writer. ‘As we stood
under this beautiful arch, we saw the place where visitors have often
taken the pains to engrave their names upon the rock. Here Washington
climbed up twenty-five feet and carved his own name, where it still
remains. Some wishing to immortalize their names have engraved them
deep and large, while others have tried to climb up and insert them
high in this book of fame.

‘A few years since, a young man, being ambitious to place his name
above all others, came very near losing his life in the attempt. After
much fatigue, he climbed up as high as possible, but found that the
person who had before occupied his place was taller than himself,
and consequently had placed his name above his reach. But he was
not thus to be discouraged. He opened a large jacknife, and in the
soft limestone began to cut places for his hands and feet. With much
patience and industry he worked his way upwards, and succeeded in
carving his name higher than the most ambitious had done before him.

‘He could now triumph; but his triumph was short, for he was placed in
such a situation that it was impossible to descend unless he fell upon
the ragged rocks beneath him. There was no house near, from which his
companions could get assistance. He could not remain in that condition,
and, what was worse, his friends were too much frightened to do any
thing for his relief. They looked upon him as already dead, expecting
every moment to see him precipitated upon the rocks below and dashed to
pieces. Not so with himself. He determined to ascend. Accordingly he
plied himself with his knife, cutting places for his hands and feet,
and gradually ascended with incredible labor. He exerted every muscle.
His life was at stake, and all the terrors of death rose before him. He
dared not look downwards lest his head should become dizzy, and perhaps
on this circumstance his life depended.

‘His companions stood at the top of the rock exhorting and encouraging
him. His strength was almost exhausted; but a bare possibility of
saving his life still remained, and hope, the last friend of the
distressed, had not yet forsaken him. His course upwards was rather
oblique, than perpendicular. His most critical moment had now arrived.
He had ascended considerably more than two hundred feet, and had still
further to rise, when he felt himself fast growing weak. He now made
his last effort and succeeded. He had cut his way not far from two
hundred and fifty feet from the water, in a course almost perpendicular;
and in a little less than two hours, his anxious companions reached him
a pole from the top, and drew him up. They received him with shouts of
joy; but he himself was completely exhausted. He immediately fainted
away on reaching the spot, and it was some time before he could be
recovered.

‘It was interesting to see the path up these awful rocks, and to follow
in imagination this bold youth as he thus saved his life. His name
stands far above all the rest, a monument of hardihood, of rashness,
and of folly.’

_Natural Stone Walls._――On the Missouri, at the distance of about one
hundred miles from the Great Falls, are the natural stone walls which
have thus been described by Lewis and Clarke:

‘We came to a high wall of black rock rising from the water’s edge
on the south, above the cliffs of the river: this continued about a
quarter of a mile, and was succeeded by a high open plain, till three
miles further a second wall, two hundred feet high, rose on the same
side. Three miles farther, another wall of the same kind, about two
hundred feet high and twelve thick, appeared to the north. These hills
and river cliffs exhibit a most extraordinary and romantic appearance.
They rise in most places nearly perpendicularly from the water to the
height of between two and three hundred feet, and are formed of very
white sandstone, so soft as to yield readily to the impression of the
water, in the upper part of which lie imbedded two or three horizontal
strata of white freestone insensible to the rain, and on the top is a
dark rich loam, which forms a gradually ascending plain, from a mile to
a mile and a half in extent, when the hills again rise abruptly to the
height of about three hundred feet more.

‘In trickling down the cliffs, the water has worn the soft sandstone
into a thousand grotesque figures, among which, with a little fancy,
may be discerned elegant ranges of freestone buildings, with columns
variously sculptured, and supporting long and elegant galleries, while
the parapets are adorned with statuary. On a nearer approach, they
represent every form of elegant ruins; columns, some with pedestals
and capitals entire, others mutilated and prostrate; and some rising
pyramidically over each other till they terminate in a sharp point.
These are varied by niches, alcoves, and the customary appearances
of desolated magnificence. The illusion is increased by the number of
martins that have built their globular nests in the niches, and hover
over these columns; as in our country they are accustomed to frequent
large stone structures.

‘As we advance, there seems no end to the visionary enchantment that
surrounds us. In the midst of this fantastic scenery are vast ranges of
walls, which seem the productions of art, so regular is the workmanship.
They rise perpendicularly from the river, sometimes to the height of
one hundred feet, varying in thickness from one to twelve feet, being
equally broad at the top as below. The stones of which they are formed,
are black, thick, and durable, and composed of a large portion of
earth, intermixed and cemented with a small quantity of sand, and a
considerable proportion of talc or quartz.

‘These stones are almost invariably regular parallelopipeds of unequal
sizes in the wall, but equally deep, and laid regularly in ranges over
each other like bricks, each breaking and covering the interstice of
the two on which it rests. But though the perpendicular interstice is
destroyed, the horizontal one extends entirely through the work. The
stones, too, are proportioned to the thickness of the wall in which
they are employed, being largest in the thickest walls. The thinner
walls are composed of a single depth of the parallelopiped, while
the thicker ones consist of two or more depths. These walls pass the
river at several places, rising from the water’s edge much above the
sandstone bluffs, which they seem to penetrate; thence they cross in
a straight line, on either side of the river, the plains over which
they tower to the height of from ten to seventy feet, until they lose
themselves in the second range of hills. Sometimes they run parallel in
several ranges near each other; sometimes intersect each other at right
angles, and have the appearance of walls of ancient houses or gardens.’




                               PART II.

                         POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.




           CHAPTER I.――POLITICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS.


UNITED STATES. The territory of the United States extends from
twenty-five to fifty-four degrees north latitude, and from sixty-six
degrees forty-nine minutes to one hundred and twenty-five degrees west
longitude; comprising one million eight hundred and thirty-two thousand
three hundred and fifteen square miles. It is bounded north by Russia
and British America; east by the Atlantic and British America; south
by the Atlantic, the gulf and territory of Mexico, and west by Mexico,
Texas, and the Pacific ocean. This extent of country is divided into
twenty-six states, six territories, and the district of Columbia.
The states are familiarly classed under the Eastern or New England,
the Middle, the Southern, and the Western states. The first division
comprehends Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island,
and Connecticut; the second, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
Delaware and Maryland; the third, Virginia, North and South Carolina,
Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi and Louisiana; the fourth, Tennessee,
Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Arkansas and Missouri.
The territories are Florida, Wisconsin, Iowa, Missouri, Indiana,
and Oregon. There are no territorial governments in the Missouri and
Oregon territories. The whole extent of inhabited country includes more
than eight hundred thousand square miles; and the whole population is
seventeen million sixty-eight thousand one hundred and twelve.


                        I. NEW ENGLAND STATES.

_Maine._――This state is bounded north and north-west by Lower Canada;
east by New Brunswick; west by New Hampshire, and south by the Atlantic
ocean. The north-eastern boundary is yet in dispute. Maine is divided
into 18 counties.[59] The towns are about four hundred in number;
Augusta is the capital. The other principal towns are Portland,
Brunswick, Bath, Wiscasset, Bangor, Castine, Hallowell, York, Saco,
Kennebunk, Eastport, Machias, Belfast, Gardiner, and Waterville.
The chief rivers are the Saco, Penobscot, Androscoggin, Kennebec,
Walloostook and Allagash, head streams of the St. John, and the
St. Croix. Among the mountains are Bald, Ebeeme, Spencer and Katahdin.
The lakes are Moosehead, Umbagog, Chesuncook, and Sebago. Mount Desert
is the largest of the islands with which the coast is strewn. The bays
are Portland, Passamaquoddy, Casco and Penobscot. Population, five
hundred and one thousand seven hundred and ninety-three.

_New Hampshire_ is situated between forty-two degrees forty-one
minutes and forty-five degrees eleven minutes north latitude, and
between seventy degrees forty minutes, and seventy-two degrees
twenty-three minutes west longitude. It is bounded on the north by
Lower Canada; south by Massachusetts; east by Maine and the Atlantic
ocean, and west by Connecticut river, which separates it from Vermont.
Its extreme length from north to south, is one hundred and sixty-eight
miles; and its greatest breadth from east to west, ninety miles;
containing an area of nine thousand four hundred and ninety-one miles.
This state is divided into ten counties. Portsmouth is the largest town,
but Concord is the seat of government. The number of towns in the state
is two hundred and 33, and besides those mentioned the principal are
Dover, Exeter, Amherst, Hanover and Haverhill. The chief rivers are the
Connecticut, Merrimac, and Piscataqua; the mountains are the Monadnock,
Sunapee, Kearsarge, Carr’s, and Moosehillock. The White mountains
are the most elevated in this state, and the highest east of the
Mississippi. The lakes are Winnipiseogee, Squam, Ossipee, Newfound,
Spafford’s, and Connecticut; Umbagog lies partly in this state, and
partly in Maine. The population by the last census was two hundred
eighty-four thousand five hundred and seventy-four.

_Vermont_ is bounded on the west by lake Champlain and New York; south
by Massachusetts; east by the Connecticut river, and north by Lower
Canada. It is situated between forty-two degrees forty-four minutes,
and forty-five degrees north latitude; and between seventy-one degrees
thirty-three minutes, and seventy-three degrees twenty-six minutes
west longitude. It is one hundred and fifty-seven miles in length;
its breadth is ninety miles on the north line, and forty on the south.
It is divided into thirteen counties, and two hundred and forty-five
towns. None of the towns are very large. Montpelier is the seat
of government. Among the chief towns are Middlebury, Bennington,
Montpelier, Brattleboro’, Burlington, and Windsor. The rivers, all of
which are small, are Lamoille, Onion, Otter, White, and Missisque;
the west bank of the Connecticut forms the eastern boundary of the
state. The mountains are Ascutney, Killington’s Peak, Camel’s Rump, and
Mansfield, peaks of the Green mountains. The population in 1840 was two
hundred and ninety-one thousand nine hundred and forty-eight.

_Massachusetts_ is bounded east by the Atlantic; west by New York;
north by Vermont and New Hampshire, and south by Connecticut, Rhode
Island and the Atlantic. It lies between forty-one degrees fifteen
minutes and forty-two degrees fifty-four minutes north latitude; and
between sixty-nine degrees fifty-four minutes and seventy-three degrees
thirty minutes west longitude. It is one hundred and eighty miles long
from east to west; and ninety-six miles broad from north to south. Its
area includes seven thousand and eight hundred square miles. The rivers
are Connecticut, Merrimac, Charles, Concord, Blackstone, Miller’s,
Chickopee, Deerfield, Westfield and Housatonic. The mountains are
Saddle mountain, Tagkannuc, Holyoke, Tom and Wachuset. This state
is divided into fourteen counties and three hundred and seven towns.
Boston is the capital. Salem and New Bedford are next in size and
importance; Lowell, Taunton, Springfield, and Waltham are extensively
engaged in manufactures; Nantucket, Newburyport, Plymouth and
Marblehead are fishing and commercial ports. Worcester, Northampton,
and Pittsfield are pleasant inland towns. The population in 1840 was
seven hundred and thirty-seven thousand six hundred and ninety-nine.

_Connecticut_ is bounded north by Massachusetts; east by Rhode Island;
south by Long Island sound, and west by New York. It lies between
forty-one degrees and forty-two degrees two minutes north latitude; and
between seventy-one degrees twenty minutes and seventy-three degrees
fifteen minutes west longitude. Its length is eighty-eight miles, and
its average breadth about fifty-three; its area is four thousand eight
hundred and twenty-eight miles. It is divided into eight counties.
Hartford, New Haven, Middletown, New London, Norwich and Bridgeport are
incorporated cities; Danbury, Guilford, Killingworth, Newtown, Stamford,
Stonington and Waterbury are boroughs. Hartford and New Haven are the
seats of the state government; and the legislature holds its sessions
alternately at the two places. The principal rivers are the Connecticut,
Housatonic, Thames, Farmington and Naugatuck. The greatest elevations
are a continuation of the Green mountains. The population of this state
is three hundred and ten thousand and fifteen.

_Rhode Island_ is bounded west by Connecticut; south by the Atlantic
ocean; north and east by Massachusetts. It lies between forty-one
and forty-two degrees north latitude; and between seventy-one degrees
eight minutes and seventy-one degrees fifty-two minutes west longitude.
The average length of the state from north to south is about forty-two
miles; its mean breadth about twenty-nine miles; its whole area,
including Narraganset bay, comprises one thousand one hundred and
twenty-five miles. It contains five counties, and thirty-one towns.
Providence is the capital, and in population and wealth the second
town in New England. Newport, Bristol, Pawtucket and Warwick are the
other chief towns. Pawtucket is the only river of any importance; the
Pawtuxet is also the seat of a number of manufactories. The islands are
Rhode Island, Conanicut, Prudence and Block. Narraganset bay extends
more than thirty miles into the state. The population is one hundred
and eight thousand eight hundred and thirty.


                          II. MIDDLE STATES.

_New York_ is bounded east by Vermont, Massachusetts and Connecticut;
north by lake Ontario and the river St. Lawrence; west by Pennsylvania,
lake Erie and Niagara river; south by New Jersey and Pennsylvania.
Its length is three hundred and forty, its breadth three hundred and
four miles; and, including Long island, it contains forty-six thousand
and eighty-five square miles. It is comprised between forty degrees
thirty minutes and forty-five degrees north latitude; and between
seventy-three degrees and seventy-nine degrees fifty-five minutes west
longitude. It is divided into eight districts, which are subdivided
into fifty-six counties. There are seven hundred and sixty-two towns
and cities. The population is 2,428,921. New York city is the largest
in the western world; Albany is the seat of government, and the second
city in the state. Brooklyn, Troy, Hudson, Poughkeepsie, Newburgh,
Catskill, Plattsburgh, Rochester and Buffalo are all important towns.
The mountains are the Peruvian, Catskill and Shawangunk. The Hudson,
Mohawk, Gennessee, Black, Oswegatchie and Susquehannah are the chief
rivers. The lakes are Ontario, Champlain, George, Oneida, Skeneateles,
Owasco, Cayuga, Seneca, Crooked, Canandaigua, and Chatauque. The
islands are Long, Shelter, Grand and Manhattan. The bay of New York is
the only large harbor; there are several harbors on lake Ontario.

_New Jersey_ is bounded north by New York and the Atlantic; south by
the Atlantic; west by Delaware and Pennsylvania. Its length is one
hundred and sixty-three, its breadth fifty-two miles; its area in
square miles is seven thousand four hundred and ninety. It lies between
thirty-eight degrees seventeen minutes and forty-one degrees twenty-one
minutes north latitude; and seventy-five degrees thirty minutes and
seventy-three degrees fifty-three minutes west longitude. The state
is divided into fourteen counties. Trenton is the seat of government.
The other principal towns are Newark, Paterson, Hackensack, Morristown,
Newton, Perth Amboy, Belvidere and Elizabethtown. The chief rivers
are Second, Hackensack, Passaic and Raritan. Raritan bay is a spacious
estuary, on the eastern coast, affording ready access at all seasons to
Perth Amboy, the chief seaport town of the state. The population of New
Jersey is three hundred and seventy-three thousand three hundred and
six.

_Pennsylvania_ is bounded on the north by New York, and the north-west
by lake Erie; on the east by the river Delaware which divides it from
New York and New Jersey; on the south by Virginia, Maryland and a small
portion of Delaware; on the west by Virginia and Ohio. It lies between
thirty-nine degrees forty-three minutes and forty-two degrees north
latitude; and between seventy-four degrees and eighty degrees forty
minutes west longitude. It is divided into the eastern and the western
districts; containing fifty-two counties, and six hundred and fifty-one
townships. The population of the state is one million seven hundred
and twenty-four thousand and thirty-three. Harrisburg is the seat of
government. Philadelphia is the chief city, and the second in the union.
Pittsburg, Reading, Lancaster, Easton and Bethlehem are large towns.
The rivers of this state are the Delaware, Susquehanna, Tioga and
Monongahela. The mountains are the South, Kittatiny, Sideling, Ragged,
Great Warrior, East Wills, Alleghany, Laurel and Chesnut ridges.

_Delaware_ is bounded south and west by Maryland; east by the ocean
and Delaware river and bay, and north by Pennsylvania. Its greatest
width is twenty-three miles, and its length ninety-two miles; it is
the smallest state in the union with the exception of Rhode Island.
It is comprised within thirty-eight degrees twenty-nine minutes and
thirty-nine degrees forty-seven minutes north latitude; and within
seventy-four degrees fifty-six minutes and seventy-five degrees forty
minutes west longitude. Delaware is divided into three counties, which
are subdivided into twenty-four hundreds. Dover is the capital; the
other principal towns are Wilmington and Newcastle. Brandywine and
Christiana creeks are the only streams; Delaware bay forms a large part
of the eastern boundary. The population is seventy-eight thousand and
eighty-five.

_Maryland_ is bounded south and west by Virginia; east by Delaware and
the ocean; north by Pennsylvania. It is divided into nineteen counties.
Annapolis is the seat of government. Baltimore is the third commercial
city in the union; the other important towns are Fredericktown and
Hagerstown. The rivers are the Potomac, Susquehanna, Patapsco, Severn
and Patuxent. The northern half of Chesapeak bay is comprised in this
state, including many small islands. Maryland lies between thirty-eight
degrees and thirty-nine degrees forty-four minutes north latitude;
and between seventy-five degrees ten minutes and seventy-nine degrees
twenty minutes west longitude. It contains thirteen thousand nine
hundred and fifty square miles. Its population is four hundred and
sixty-nine thousand two hundred and thirty-two.


                         III. SOUTHERN STATES.

_Virginia_ is bounded south by North Carolina and Tennessee; north
by Ohio, Pennsylvania and Maryland; east by Maryland and the Atlantic;
and west by Ohio and Kentucky. It lies between thirty-six degrees
forty minutes and forty degrees forty-three minutes north latitude; and
seventy-five degrees twenty-five minutes and eighty-three degrees forty
minutes west longitude. Its mean length from east to west is three
hundred and fifty-five miles; its mean breadth from north to south
is one hundred and eighty-five miles. It is divided into one hundred
and sixteen counties, fifty of which are situated on the west, and
sixty-six on the east of the Blue ridge. Richmond is the capital.
The other principal towns are Norfolk, Petersburg, Fredericksburg,
Lynchburg, Wheeling, Winchester, Shepardstown, Staunton, Martensburg,
Lexington, Fincastle, Williamsburg and Charlottesville. The chief
rivers are the Potomac, Shenandoah, Rappahanock, York and James; these
empty into the Chesapeak bay, and other streams intersect different
portions of the country. The mountains are ranges of the Apalachian
chain; the Alleghany ridge is continued from Pennsylvania; the other
ridges are Greenbriar, North mountain, Broad mountain, Back Bone,
Jackson river mountain, Iron mountain and Great Flat Top. The highest
summits are the Peaks of Otter in the Alleghany ridge. The population
of Virginia is one million two hundred and thirty-nine thousand seven
hundred and ninety-seven.

_North Carolina_ is bounded west by Tennessee; south by South Carolina
and the ocean; east by the ocean; and north by Virginia. It contains
forty-three thousand and eight hundred square miles; extending from
thirty-three degrees fifty minutes to thirty-six degrees thirty
minutes north latitude; and seventy-five degrees forty-five minutes
to eighty-four degrees west longitude. It is divided into sixty-seven
counties. Raleigh is the seat of government; Newbern is the largest
town. The other towns of importance are Fayetteville and Wilmington.
The rivers are the Roanoke, Chowan, Pamlico, Cape Fear and Yadkin; the
mountains, Iron, Bald and Smoky. The sounds are Albemarle and Pamlico;
the coast is skirted by small islands. The population is seven hundred
and fifty-three thousand four hundred and nineteen.

_South Carolina_ is bounded south and west by Georgia; east by the
Atlantic, and north by North Carolina. It is two hundred miles long
and one hundred and twenty-five broad; lying between thirty-two degrees
and thirty-five degrees eight minutes north latitude; and seventy-eight
degrees twenty-four minutes and eighty-three degrees thirty minutes
west longitude. It contains thirty thousand and eighty square miles;
and is divided into twenty-nine districts. Charleston is the chief
city and great commercial port; it was formerly the seat of government.
Columbia is now the capital. Georgetown, Beaufort and Camden are the
other principal towns. The rivers are the Great Pedee, Santee, Edisto
and Savannah. The population of South Carolina is five hundred and
ninety-four thousand three hundred and ninety-eight.

_Georgia_ is bounded west by Alabama; south by Florida; east by South
Carolina and the Atlantic; north by North Carolina and Tennessee. It
extends from thirty degrees thirty minutes to thirty-five degrees north
latitude; and from eighty degrees fifty minutes to eighty-six degrees
six minutes west longitude; its length is two hundred and seventy,
and its breadth two hundred and fifty miles. It is divided into
ninety-three counties. Savannah is the largest town; Milledgeville
is the seat of government. Augusta and Macon are the other principal
towns. The chief rivers are the Savannah, Oakmulgee, Oconee, St. Mary’s,
Alatahama and Chatahoochee. The mountains are the peaks of the southern
extremity of the Blue ridge, and the Lookout mountain. Georgia is
bordered by ranges of small islands. The population, exclusive of
Indians, is six hundred and ninety-one thousand three hundred and
ninety-two.

_Alabama_ is bounded on the south by Florida and the gulf of Mexico;
west by Mississippi; east by Georgia, and north by Tennessee. It lies
between thirty degrees twelve minutes and thirty-five degrees north
latitude; and eighty-five degrees and eighty-eight degrees thirty
minutes west longitude. Its breadth is one hundred and sixty, and its
length two hundred and eighty miles; the whole area including forty-six
thousand square miles. This state is divided into forty-six counties.
Tuscaloosa is the seat of government. Mobile is the great commercial
depot, and the only town of consequence. Among the other towns are
Blakely, St. Stephens’ and Cahawba. In the northern part of this
state is the western extremity of the Apalachian mountains, consisting
chiefly of limestone rocks. Alabama is the longest river; this unites
with the Tombeckbee, and takes the name of Mobile. The population of
Alabama, not including Indians, is five hundred and ninety thousand
seven hundred and fifty-six.

_Mississippi_ is bounded south by Louisiana; west by Louisiana and the
state of Arkansas; north by Tennessee, and east by Alabama. Its breadth
is one hundred and fifty, and its length three hundred and thirty-five
miles; it contains forty-five thousand seven hundred and sixty square
miles. It lies between thirty degrees ten minutes and thirty-five
degrees north latitude; between eighty degrees thirty minutes and
eighty-one degrees thirty-five minutes west longitude. It is divided
into forty-three counties. Natchez is the only large town in the state.
Jackson is the seat of government. Monticello, Warrenton and Vicksburgh
are considerable places. The rivers that water this state are the
Tombeckbee, Pascagoula, Pearl, Yazoo and Big Black. The Mississippi
washes the western limit. The population is three hundred and
seventy-five thousand six hundred and fifty-one.

_Louisiana_ is bounded east by Mississippi, and the gulf of Mexico;
west by Texas; south by the gulf, and north by the state of Arkansas
and Mississippi. It is divided into the Eastern and Western districts;
which are subdivided into thirty-three parishes. New Orleans is
the seat of government, and the commercial mart of all the western
country. Donaldsonville, Baton Rouge, St. Francisville, Point Coupee,
Alexandria and Natchitoches are considerable places. The rivers are
the Mississippi, Red, Washita, and Sabine. The lakes are Maurepas,
Pontchartrain, and Borgne. The Chandeleur islands are mere heaps of
sand; Barataria has been of some note as a resort for pirates. The
population of Louisiana is three hundred and fifty-two thousand four
hundred and twenty-two.


                          IV. WESTERN STATES.

_Tennessee_ is bounded south by Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi; west
by the river Mississippi, separating it from Missouri and Arkansas;
east by North Carolina, and north by Kentucky. Its breadth is one
hundred and four, and its length is about four hundred and thirty miles;
its area is forty thousand square miles. It lies between thirty-five
and thirty-six degrees thirty-six minutes north latitude; and between
eighty-one degrees thirty minutes and ninety degrees ten minutes west
longitude. It is divided into East and West Tennessee; the former
has twenty-two counties, and the latter forty. Nashville is the seat
of government, and the largest town. Knoxville, Murfreesborough and
Memphis are growing settlements. The mountains are the Laurel, Stone,
Yellow, Iron, Bald and Unaka, peaks of a continued chain; Welling’s
and Copper Ridge, Church, Powell’s and Bay’s mountains are in the
north-east. The Cumberland Ridge intersects the state, running from
north-east to south-west. The rivers are the Tennessee, Cumberland,
Obian, Forked Deer, Big Hatchee and Wolf. The population of Tennessee
is eight hundred and twenty-nine thousand two hundred and ten.

_Kentucky_ is bounded west by Missouri and Illinois; east by Virginia;
south by Tennessee; north by Indiana and Ohio. Its length is three
hundred miles, its mean breadth one hundred and fifty; its area
includes about forty thousand square miles. It lies between thirty-six
degrees thirty minutes and thirty-nine degrees ten minutes north
latitude; and between eighty-one degrees fifty minutes and eighty-nine
degrees twenty minutes west longitude. It is divided into eighty-four
counties. Frankfort is the seat of government. Lexington, Louisville,
Maysville, Washington, Paris, Georgetown and Versailles are the chief
towns. The rivers that water this state are the Ohio, Mississippi,
Cumberland, Tennessee, Licking, Kentucky, Green and Big Sandy. The
population is seven hundred and eighty thousand two hundred and
ninety-seven.

_Ohio_ is bounded north by the state of Michigan and lake Erie; east
by Pennsylvania: south-east by the Ohio river, which separates it
from Virginia, and west by Indiana. Its length is two hundred and ten
miles, its mean breadth two hundred; its area includes forty thousand
square miles. It lies between thirty-eight degrees thirty minutes and
forty-one degrees nineteen minutes north latitude; and between eighty
degrees thirty-five minutes and eighty-four degrees forty-seven minutes
west longitude. It is divided into seventy-four counties. Cincinnati
is the largest city; Columbus is the seat of government. Zanesville,
Steubenville, Chilicothe, Dayton, Marietta and Circleville are
flourishing towns. The chief rivers are the Ohio, Muskingum, Scioto,
Great Miami, Little Miami, Maumee, Sandusky and Cuyahoga. The
population one million five hundred and ten thousand four hundred and
sixty-seven.

_Indiana_ is bounded north by the lake and state of Michigan; south
by the Ohio, which divides it from Kentucky; east by Ohio, and west
by Illinois. Its breadth is one hundred and fifty, and its length
two hundred and fifty miles. It lies between thirty-seven degrees
forty-seven minutes and forty-one degrees fifty minutes north latitude;
and eighty-four degrees forty-two minutes and eighty-seven degrees
forty-nine minutes west longitude. It is divided into eighty-five
counties. Indianapolis is the seat of government. Vincennes, New Albany,
Jeffersonville, Vevay, and Madison are flourishing settlements. The
rivers that water this state are the Ohio, Wabash, White Water and
Tippecanoe. The population is six hundred and eighty-five thousand
eight hundred and sixty-six.

_Illinois_ is bounded north by Wisconsin, east by Lake Michigan
and Indiana, south by Kentucky, and west by Missouri and Iowa. It
extends from 37° to 42° 37′ north latitude, and from 87° 17′ to 81° 15′
west longitude. It is 380 miles in length, and 160 in mean breadth,
and contains 59,000 square miles. It is divided into 87 counties.
Springfield is the seat of government. Chicago, situated on Lake
Michigan, at the mouth of the river Chicago, which forms a fine harbor
and connects with the Illinois and Mississippi rivers by canal, offers
great advantages for trade. Alton, on the Mississippi river, enjoys
advantages only second to Chicago. Quincy, Galena, Peoria, Kaskaskia,
Jackson, Cairo, and Shawneetown, are also thriving places. Nauvoo, the
city of the Mormons, is in the western part of this State. The rivers
are the Mississippi, Illinois, Rock, Kaskaskia, and Little Wabash.
Population, according to the last census, 476,183.

_Missouri_ is bounded south by Arkansas; east by Illinois, Kentucky and
Tennessee; west by Missouri territory and north by Iowa. It contains
about sixty thousand square miles; its length being two hundred and
seventy, and its breadth two hundred and twenty miles. Its limits are
between thirty-six degrees and forty degrees thirty minutes north
latitude; and between eighty-nine degrees and ninety-four degrees ten
minutes west longitude. It is divided into fifty-one counties. The city
of Jefferson, which has been laid out within a few years, is the seat
of government. St. Louis is the largest town. Potosi, St. Genevieve and
Herculaneum are flourishing towns. The chief elevations are the Ozark
and Iron mountains. The rivers are the Mississippi, Missouri, Osage,
Gasconade, Maramec, St. Francis, White, Black, Currant, Grand and
Chariton. The population is three hundred and eighty-one thousand one
hundred and two.

_State of Arkansas._――Arkansas lies in a very compact form between
Louisiana and Missouri, having Zennepee and Mississippi on the east,
and the western territory of Mexico on the west. It is 240 miles in
length; 250 in breadth; and has an area of 54,500 square miles. The
centre of the state is broken and hilly, and the western portion is
even mountainous. In general it is covered with a heavy timber. The
western part is level and marshy.

Arkansas formed a part of Louisiana, and afterward of Missouri
territory, till 1819, when it became a territorial government, and
in 1836 an independent state. It is divided into 34 counties; and its
capital, Little Rock, is a small town. The population is 95,642.

_State of Michigan._――This state consists of two peninsulas, separated
by the waters of Lake Huron and Lake Michigan. The southern division
has Lake Michigan on the west, and Lake Huron, the Detroit river, the
river and Lake St. Clair, and Lake Erie on the east. It is 280 miles
in length, and about 190 in breadth in the southern part, and has an
area of 36,000 square miles. The southern peninsula is between lakes
Michigan and Huron on the south, St. Mary’s river on the east, and Lake
Superior on the North――Montreal river on the west. It is 300 miles long,
and varies in width from 100 to a few miles. Its area is about 20,000
square miles. In fertility the state is not surpassed perhaps in the
world. The northern peninsula has been imperfectly explored, but seems
to be far more hilly than the southern. Lake Michigan is 360 miles long
and has an area of near 26,000 square miles. Some settlements were made
here by the French in the 17th century; and Detroit was an important
trading post at an early period. Michigan passed into English hands
in 1763, and was afterward part of the north-western Territory. It was
made a distinct Territory in 1805, and in 1836 was received into the
Union. Population 212,267.

In 1835 the population of Detroit was estimated at 8,000. It was
beseiged in 1763 by Pontiac a celebrated Ottawa chief. In 1812 it was
surrendered by Hull to the British.

Fort Gratiot is a military post of the United States, at the outlet of
Lake Huron. There is another on the island of Michilimackinac.

_Missouri Territory_ is nine hundred miles in length, and eight
hundred in breadth. It is bounded north by the British possessions;
east by the Iowa territory, Illinois and Missouri; south and south-west
by the territories of the Mexican republic; west by the Rocky mountains.
It lies between thirty-four and forty-nine degrees north latitude; and
ninety and one hundred and twelve degrees west longitude; its area is
estimated at four hundred and seventy thousand square miles. The United
States have two military posts in this territory. The mountains of
this territory are ranges of the Rocky mountains. The rivers are the
Missouri, Rivière de Corbeau, St. Peter’s, Cannon, Ioway, Yellowstone,
La Platte, Kansas, Osage, Runningwater, Arkansas, Negracka, and Grand
Saline. This territory is inhabited by various Indian tribes, whose
numbers are not known.

_Oregon Territory_ is a vast country, whose southern boundary is on
the forty-second parallel to the Pacific; our north-west boundary is
in dispute with Russia; our division from the British possessions is in
the forty-ninth parallel. The Pacific is its western limit; Indiana and
Missouri territories form its eastern. It lies between forty-one and
forty-nine degrees north latitude, and between one hundred and seven
and one hundred and thirty west longitude; it contains about three
hundred thousand square miles. The Rocky mountains, and the unnamed
chain between this range and the Pacific, present great elevations.
The chief rivers are the Oregon and its tributaries. This region is
claimed by the United States on the ground of priority of discovery and
occupation. A settlement called Astoria was formed in 1811 at the mouth
of Oregon or Columbia river, by a number of American citizens. The
number of Indian inhabitants is 140,000.

_Florida Territory_ is bounded north by Georgia and Alabama; south
and west by the gulf of Mexico, and east by the Atlantic. It extends
from twenty-five to thirty-one degrees north latitude; and from eighty
degrees thirty minutes to eighty-seven degrees twenty minutes west
longitude; its length is three hundred and fifty, and its breadth
one hundred and fifty miles. Its area includes about fifty thousand
square miles. It is divided into fifteen counties. St. Augustine
is the largest town; the other considerable places are Pensacola
and Tallahassee. The rivers are the St. Mary’s, St. John’s, and
Appalachicola. The population is fifty-four thousand two hundred and
seven.

_Wisconsin Territory._――This tract stretches from Lake Michigan to
the Mississippi river, and from the northern boundary of Illinois to
British America. It is a lofty table land, and contains the richest
lead deposites in the world. The land is rich and of easy cultivation.
It was erected into a territory in 1836. It is a portion of the tract
known as the Black Hawk purchase, ceded to the United States by the
Sacs and Foxes in 1832.――Population, thirty thousand seven hundred and
fifty-two.

_Iowa Territory._――This is a tract situated between the Mississippi
and Missouri rivers, and reaches from Missouri to British America. This
territory, as to soil and surface, resembles that of Wisconsin. It also
contains rich lead deposites, and was a part of the Black Hawk purchase.
It was erected into a territory in 1837. Population, forty-three
thousand and thirty-five.

_The Western or Indian Territory._――This region, which has been
denominated in official papers the Western Territory, extends from
Red river on the south, to the Running Water river and the north fork
of the Platte on the north. Its greatest width is 600 miles; and its
greatest breadth the same; with an area of 200,000 square miles. It is
an extensive region, set aside by the federal government as a permanent
home for the Indian tribes. It is truly to be hoped that this original
intention of the United States may be carried out in full, both for
the honor of our country, and the improvement and happiness of the rude
races that may thus pitch their tents in a land they may call their own.

It is a noble region, watered by noble rivers; of which the Arkansas
is the chief. It appears by the report of the commissioners on Indian
affairs in 1834, that a considerable portion of the land is as good as
is found in any of the western states.

_The District of Columbia_ is a territory ten miles square, under the
immediate government of Congress. It is divided into two counties and
three cities. The cities are Washington, Alexandria and Georgetown.
This district lies on both sides of the Potomac, one hundred and twenty
miles from its mouth, and was ceded to the general government in 1790,
by Virginia and Maryland, within whose territory it was situated. The
capital at Washington, from which American geographers often compute
their meridian, is in thirty-eight degrees fifty-three minutes north
latitude, and seventy-seven degrees one minute and forty-eight seconds
west longitude from Greenwich. Population 43,712.




                    CHAPTER II.――CITIES AND TOWNS.


_Albany_ is the seat of government for the state of New York, and is
situated on the west side of Hudson’s river, one hundred and forty-four
miles from the city of New York, to which it is next in rank. This
city is unrivalled for situation, being nearly at the head of sloop
navigation, on one of the noblest rivers in the world. It enjoys a pure
air, and is the natural emporium of the increasing trade of a large
extent of country west and north. In the old part of the town, the
streets are very narrow, and the houses mean, being all built in the
Dutch taste, with the gable end towards the street, and ornamented, or
rather disfigured, on the top with large iron weathercocks; but in that
part which has been more recently erected, the streets are commodious,
and many of the houses are handsome.

  Illustration: Albany.

The Capitol stands on an elevation at the end of the main street, and
presents a fine appearance. It is a fine stone edifice, with an Ionic
portico in front, supported by columns thirty-three feet in height. The
public square adjacent is adorned with beautiful walks and avenues.

The Farmers’ and Mechanics’ bank and the Albany bank, both at the foot
of State street, are both of white marble, and are handsome buildings.
There are about sixteen churches in this city. Albany has received more
permanent and evident advantages from the canals than any other place
in the state. Since 1825, the population has increased from fifteen
thousand nine hundred and seventy-one to 33,627. The first settlement
at Albany was made about 1614, when a stockade was built on a spot just
below the steam-boat dock. The charter of the city was granted in 1686,
a few months before that of New York. The city and township are a mile
in breadth, and extend thirteen miles along the river. The neighborhood
of Albany abounds in pleasant villages.

_Alexandria_ is a city and port of entry in the district of Columbia,
on the west bank of the Potomac, six miles below Washington. It is
a place of some business and resort during the session of Congress,
and contains some fine buildings. Of late, Alexandria has not much
increased, notwithstanding it enjoys good commercial advantages. This
city is regularly built, and has good streets, well paved and clean.
The trade is chiefly in flour. Population about eight thousand four
hundred and sixty-two.

_Amherst_ is a town of Hampshire county, Massachusetts, ninety-one
miles west of Boston. It is the seat of a college which was
incorporated in 1821, with the title of Amherst College. This seminary
has professors and tutors. Amherst is the seat also of an academy,
and a school called the Mount Pleasant Institution. Population, two
thousand four hundred and fifteen.

  Illustration: Amherst College.

_Annapolis_, the capital of Anne Arundel county, and the seat of the
government of Maryland, is situated at the mouth of the Severn river,
about two miles from its entrance into Chesapeak bay, thirty miles
south of Baltimore, and forty north-east of the city of Washington.
It is a place of little note in the commercial world; but being in
a pleasant situation, and commanding a beautiful prospect of the
Chesapeak, and the shore on the other side of the bay, it is a very
pleasant residence. The houses are built of brick, and for the most
part large and elegant, denoting great wealth. The state house is one
of the most superb structures in the United States. Here is the seat
of the University of Maryland. Population two thousand six hundred and
twenty-three.

_Augusta_, capital of Maine, stands on the west branch of the Kennebec
river, two miles above Hallowell. It is a pleasant town, and contains
some neat public buildings. The new state house is built of granite,
and is a very handsome edifice. It contains a spacious hall for the
house of representatives, and two smaller ones for the senate and the
council. On the side of the river opposite to the state house is the
United States Arsenal, consisting of about a dozen buildings of stone,
some of which are large and handsome. This place has considerable trade,
and the river below is navigable for vessels of one hundred tons.
Population 5,314.

_Augusta_, capital of the state of Georgia, stands on the south-west
bank of the river Savannah, about one hundred and forty miles from the
sea. It is regularly built of brick upon a level spot, and surrounded
by a fertile country. It has a good trade in cotton, and other
productions of the interior. Population, six thousand three hundred
and forty-one.

 _Baltimore_ is a large city, standing on the north side of the
river Patapsco, in Maryland. The basin on which it stands has only five
or six feet water at high tide, so that the city can be approached only
by small vessels. For large ships, the harbor is at some distance, at
a place called Fell’s point, where wharves have been built, along side
which vessels of six hundred tons burden can lie with perfect safety.
Numbers of persons have been induced to settle on this point on account
of the shipping; and regular streets have been laid out, with a large
market-place. But though these buildings, generally speaking, are
considered as part of Baltimore, yet they are a mile distant from the
other part of the town.

The city is the chief commercial mart for the country upon Chesapeak
bay and its waters. It is finely situated, and regularly built, in
great part of brick; the public buildings and monuments indicate great
enterprise and opulence.

Baltimore was laid out in 1729, on an area of sixty acres, purchased at
forty shillings per acre, and partly paid for in tobacco at a penny a
pound. Its progress was slow and unpromising; and in 1752 it contained
but twenty-five houses. With its population of more than eighty
thousand, it may now be considered the third or fourth city in the
union. According to its re-charter in 1816, Baltimore now includes
ten thousand acres, and contains a lunatic asylum, three theatres,
an exchange, a public library, and forty-five churches.

The Cathedral is built after the Ionic order, on a plan drawn by
the celebrated architect Latrobe. Its width is one hundred and
seventy-seven, its length one hundred and ninety, and its height
to the summit of the cross surmounting the dome, is one hundred and
twenty-seven feet. It contains several fine paintings, and the largest
organ in the United States. The Merchants’ Exchange, built by private
subscription for the accommodation of the citizens, is a spacious and
splendid edifice.

The Battle Monument is an elegant marble structure, fifty-five feet
high, erected in memory of those who fell in defence of the city on
the twelfth and thirteenth of September, 1814. The Washington Monument
is built of white marble, on an elevation in the north part of the
city; it is one hundred and sixty-three feet high, and on its summit
is placed a colossal statue of Washington. This monument is embellished
with bas-reliefs, and other decorations.

  Illustration: Battle Monument, Baltimore.

Baltimore is the greatest flour market in the United States. In its
immediate neighborhood, are above sixty flour mills, a single one of
which has produced thirty-two thousand barrels in a year. Within the
same compass are numerous manufactories of cotton, cloth, powder, paper,
iron, glass, steam engines, and other articles. The Baltimore and Ohio
rail-road extends a distance of three hundred miles, from this city to
the Ohio river at Pittsburgh. The Baltimore and Susquehanna rail-road
is to extend seventy-six miles to York in Pennsylvania. The Chesapeak
and Ohio canal, of the proposed length of three hundred and forty-one
miles was commenced in 1828. The population of Baltimore is one hundred
and two thousand three hundred and thirteen.[60]

_Bangor_ is a flourishing town of Penobscot county, Maine, situated
thirty-five miles above Castine. It is built upon the banks of the
rivers Kenduskeag and Penobscot. The increase of this town within a few
years has been very surprising. Building-lots near the centre of the
town, that in 1832 were held at three hundred dollars, are now valued
at eight hundred or a thousand. Woodlands at three, four, or five
miles distance, that were then sold at five, seven, or ten dollars the
acre, are now selling from twenty to fifty. Rents and all marketable
commodities are proportionably high.

‘Bangor,’ says a correspondent of the Portland Advertiser, ‘has
much the appearance of a hundred villages springing up on the
non-slave-holding side of the Ohio, with this difference, that the
buildings there are chiefly of wood, cheaply built, and hastily thrown
up; and here they are fine blocks of brick with granite fronts, or
handsome white houses that would do credit to any estate in Virginia or
Carolina. I do not remember seeing what can be called a miserable house
in Bangor. The Exchange is a building that would do credit to many of
our large cities. The churches are numerous, and often elegantly built.
Already they are numerous enough for a city; and it is such a spectacle
that distinguishes New England; for no where, not even in the middle
states, are such churches, and so numerous to be seen, as any village
in New England of any size can exhibit.’

The water power in this vicinity is said to be superior to that of
any town in the United States. Its present great source of wealth is
the lumber business, which has been carried on to a very great extent.
Thirty years ago, Bangor was a wilderness; according to the last census,
its population was eight thousand six hundred and twenty-seven.

_Bath_, a town of Maine, on the west side of the Kennebec, twelve miles
from the sea, is at the head of the winter navigation; is pleasantly
situated, and has great advantages for commerce. Ship-building is
carried on here to a large extent; and in 1827 the value of the
shipping of Bath was a million of dollars. This town is almost isolated
by some of the numerous arms of the sea which penetrate that part of
the coast. Population, five thousand one hundred and forty-one.

_Baton Rouge_, a beautiful village on the eastern bank of the
Mississippi, one hundred and fifty miles above New Orleans, is the
capital of a parish of the same name in the eastern district of
Louisiana. It is a small town, situated on the last bluff that is
seen on descending the river, and about thirty or forty feet above
its highest overflow. The village is tolerably compact, and the United
States’ barracks are built in a very handsome style. ‘The town itself,’
says Mr. Flint, ‘especially in the months when the greatest verdure
prevails, when seen from a steam-boat in the river, rising with such
a fine swell from the banks, and with its singularly shaped French
and Spanish houses, and its green square, looks like a finely painted
landscape.’ Population, two thousand eight hundred and sixty.

_Beaufort_, principal town of Beaufort district, South Carolina,
situated on the western bank of Port Royal river, is a pleasant and
healthy place, containing a college, three churches, and seven thousand
six hundred and eighty-seven inhabitants. Its harbour is spacious.

_Belfast_, the capital of Waldo county, Maine, has a fine situation and
good harbor, and is a flourishing town. It is twelve miles north-west
of Castine, from which it is separated by Penobscot river. Its coasting
trade is very considerable. Population, four thousand one hundred and
ninety four.

_Bennington_ is the chief town of the county of the same name in
Vermont. It is situated at the foot of the Green mountains, near the
south-west corner of the state. It has several manufactories, and a
marble quarry, and is celebrated for two victories of General Stark,
over the British, in 1777. It is the largest and oldest town in the
state, having been chartered by Governor Wentworth in 1749, and first
settled by the Separatists under Robinson in 1761. Population, two
thousand six hundred and seventy-one.

_Bethlehem_, in Albany county, New York, includes much rich alluvial
land near Hudson river, inhabited by descendants of early Dutch
settlers. It contains several caverns. Population, 3209.

_Bethlehem_, in Northampton county, Pennsylvania, is situated on a
fine acclivity rising from the Lehigh river. It was founded in 1741
by the United Brethren, or Moravians, under Count Zinzendorf. The same
order still retain the ownership, and have established here a seminary
of considerable note for female education. The houses are neat and
substantial. There is but one place of public worship, in which service
is performed in English and German. The situation of this village is
remarkably picturesque and romantic. There are ten other towns of this
name in the United States. Population, two thousand nine hundred and
eighty-nine.

_Beverly_, town in Essex county, Massachusetts, is a seaport, and
connected with Salem by a bridge. It was formerly a part of Salem. It
is pleasantly situated, and is largely engaged in the fisheries and in
commerce. Population, four thousand six hundred and eighty-six.

_Blakely_ is a seaport of Baldwin county, Alabama, on the Tensa, a
branch of the Mobile. It was founded in 1816, and is a flourishing
place. Its situation is healthy, and it has a commodious harbor.

_Boston_, the capital of Massachusetts, and the chief city of New
England, is situated at the head of Massachusetts bay, on a peninsula
of an uneven surface, about a mile in width, and nearly three miles
long. Its original Indian name was Shawmut, and it was afterwards
called Trimountain; its present name was given in honor of the Rev.
John Cotton, one of its earliest pastors, who emigrated from Boston in
Lincolnshire, England. In the older parts of the city, the streets are
crooked, narrow, and intricate; laid out with no reference to beauty or
order. The more recent streets are wider, straight, and regular; with
edifices of great elegance and large dimensions. The avenues leading
into the adjacent country are the natural isthmus which connects the
city with Roxbury, the mill dam, six bridges and three rail-roads.
There is also a ferry between Boston and Chelsea, with steamboats for
the conveyance of foot passengers and carriages. Of the bridges, four
are thrown over Charles river, connecting the capital with Cambridge
and Charlestown, and two unite it with South Boston.

The harbor has been before described. It is dotted with numerous
islands, and affords ample accommodation for a fleet of five hundred
sail. The approach to the city from the sea is highly picturesque
and beautiful. The wharves and piers are ample, covered with spacious
stores of brick and granite, and presenting as great conveniences for
the transaction of business as are to be found in the world.

The local divisions of Boston are into North Boston, West Boston,
South End, and South Boston. To these we may now add East Boston,
comprehending what was formerly called Noddle’s Island, a tract of
about six hundred acres, purchased by a company in 1832 for the purpose
of extending the city in that direction. The Common is a beautiful
promenade at the west end of the city, containing an extent of nearly
fifty acres, agreeably varied by small eminences, the most prominent of
which still exhibits the vestiges of a fortification thrown up by the
British soldiers during the revolution. A little north of this mound
is a small sheet of fresh water. This spacious green is surrounded by
malls, lined with magnificent elms. On three sides are rows of fine
private dwelling-houses, including some of the most elegant mansions
in the city.

On an eminence overlooking the common stands the State House; a
conspicuous and striking edifice, the view from whose dome is most
interesting and extensive. The broad harbor with its green and
picturesque islands, the adjacent country covered by pleasant villages,
and with a pleasing alternation of hill and valley, interspersed with
orchards and woodland――and at its base, the avenues of a crowded and
busy city, form a combination of beauty that cannot fail to delight
every beholder. Beyond the islands of the bay, the eye stretches
eastward to the waters of the ocean; and to the north lies Charlestown
with the navy-yard, and the monument erecting and soon to be completed
on Bunker hill. To the west is a view of Cambridge, with the various
edifices attached to the university. The state house was erected about
thirty-eight years since. It is of an oblong form, one hundred and
seventy-three feet front, and sixty-one deep; a dome thirty-five feet
in height and fifty-two feet diameter, surmounts the edifice, and
the whole terminates with a circular lantern twenty-five feet high.
The basement story is ornamented with rows of Doric pillars; in an
open chamber projected from the north centre of this story is placed
Chantry’s noble statue of Washington. This building contains the usual
accommodation for the various offices of state, besides the senate
chamber, council chamber and representatives’ hall.

Faneuil Hall is famous in American annals. It is a building of good
proportions, and convenient size, though of no great architectural
pretensions; its history is sacred to the spirit of eloquence, courage
and patriotism. The building has a cupola which presents a good view
of the harbor; the great hall is nearly eighty feet square, and about
twenty-eight feet high. It is decorated with an original full length
painting of Washington, by Stuart, and another of the same size by
Colonel Sargent, representing Mr. Faneuil, the noble donor of the
edifice. Faneuil Hall Market is situated to the east of Faneuil hall.
It is a splendid building of granite, five hundred and thirty-five
feet and nine inches in length. The basement story is occupied by
market stalls; on the second floor is a spacious hall, used for
public assemblies and caucuses, called Quincy Hall, in honor of the
distinguished gentleman in whose mayoralty the edifice was projected
and built.

The City Hall, formerly known as the old state house, was built in
nearly its present form in the year 1747. It stands at the head of
State street, and on the line of Washington street, the principal
avenue of the city. In this building are the post office, the marine
news room, and the merchants’ exchange; from this there is a winding
stair-case leading to the hall of the common council, and that of the
mayor and aldermen together with various public offices connected with
the city administration. Other public buildings, of great beauty to the
city, are the old U. S. Branch Bank, and the Masonic Temple. The latter
building fronts on the common; it is of the Gothic order.

  Illustration: City Hall.

  Illustration: King’s Chapel.

One of the most interesting of the churches of the city is that
known as the King’s Chapel. Its exterior is plain, and in appearance
it is unfinished being built entirely of unhammered stone. It was
first opened for divine service in 1754. The tower is ornamented
by a colonnade of large wooden pillars, and the whole presents the
appearance of massy grandeur suited to distinguish in former days the
place of worship for the public functionaries. In the interior, the
governor’s pew was formerly distinguished above the rest, but was taken
down a few years since. The style of architecture is of the Corinthian
order. There are several monumental marbles, which add to the interest
with which the church is visited. It is now the only house in which
the old fashion of square pews is retained. Brattle street church is
interesting from historical associations. Governors Hancock and Bowdoin
were liberal benefactors of this society. The name of the former was
inscribed on one of the rustic quoins at the south-west corner of the
building. The British soldiery defaced it, and the stone remains in the
condition in which they left it. A similar inscription, unmutilated,
appears on one of the rustic quoins at the south-west corner of the
tower; and on one in the north-west corner, the name of Dr. John
Greenleaf appears, who, with Gov. Bowdoin, advanced the money for
refitting the church, it having been improved as a barrack, during
the siege. A shot, which was sent from the American army at Cambridge,
struck the tower on the night preceding the evacuation of the town.
It was picked up and preserved, and is now fastened in the spot where
it struck. General Gage’s head quarters were in the house opposite.
Trinity church in Summer street is a beautiful granite edifice, built
in 1829. It is one of the chief architectural ornaments of the city;
and for beauty of proportion, strength and solidity, is perhaps
unsurpassed in this country. The number of worshipping assemblies in
this city is between fifty and sixty.

  Illustration: Trinity Church.

The places of public amusement in Boston are not numerous, nor
remarkably well patronized. The Tremont theatre affords the only
dramatic entertainment that is much resorted to by strangers and
people of fashion. It is a handsome building, with a front of Quincy
and Hallowell granite. This front is in imitation of the Ionic order,
with four pilasters and two antœs, one on each angle, supporting an
entablature and pediment, and elevated on a basement seventeen feet.
The Warren theatre is a minor establishment, and is much frequented.
The New England Museum attracts numerous visitors.

Of the hotels of Boston, we can only particularly mention the Tremont
House, a splendid building, in the pleasantest quarter of the city,
and esteemed the best house in the country. ‘Most gratifying is it to a
traveller in the United States,’ says a recent tourist, ‘when, sick to
death of the discomforts of the road, he finds himself fairly housed in
the Tremont hotel. The establishment is on a large scale, and admirably
conducted.’ This stinted approbation is one of the few tokens of
satisfaction that Mr. Hamilton gives in his unsparing though witty
and entertaining volumes; it is not the less acceptable, because it
is extorted.

  Illustration: Tremont House.

In the year 1841, there were thirty-one banks in the city, which
employed a capital of twenty millions one hundred thousand dollars.
The increase, of course, has been in proportion to the increasing
enterprise and prosperity of the city. The oldest is the Massachusetts’
bank, which was incorporated in 1785. There are twenty-four insurance
companies, with an aggregate capital of seven millions and a quarter.
The charitable institutions of the city are numerous. Of these, one
of the most important is the Institution for the Education of the
Blind, recently established under very favorable circumstances. Besides
this are the Asylum for Indigent Boys, the Female Asylum, Charitable
Mechanic Association, Prison Discipline Society, and many others. The
Massachusetts General Hospital is situated in the west part of the town;
it has been pronounced the finest building in the state. The Quarantine
Hospital is situated on Rainsford island, in the harbor, and about six
miles from the city.

The number of periodicals issued in this city is above seventy,
inclusive of dailies and annuals. The first paper published in the
country was the Boston News Letter, commenced in 1704, and continued
for nearly seventy-two years. The oldest surviving journal established
since the revolution is the Columbian Centinel, which was commenced
in 1784.

Boston is celebrated for her public schools, and the great efforts
which have been made by her citizens in the cause of education. The
expenditures for these institutions, during the year ending August,
1833, amounted to over seventy thousand dollars. Social libraries are
numerous. The Boston Athenæum was established in 1806, and contains
above twenty-eight thousand volumes. Though accessible only to men of
fortune, as the price of a share is three hundred dollars, it is still
a useful institution. Annual subscribers are admitted at ten dollars.
This noble establishment is situated in Pearl street, in a fine
building, for the half of which the proprietors were indebted to the
munificence of the late James Perkins, Esq. Attached to the Athenæum is
a gallery of the fine arts, in which is held an annual exhibition that
has hitherto been the source of a considerable income. The American
Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the Massachusetts Historical Society,
are highly respectable institutions which have issued numerous volumes
of great value, and possess considerable libraries. On the whole, the
libraries of Boston are neither so large nor so generally accessible as
might be expected from the wealth and liberality of her citizens.

Middlesex canal unites the water communication between Boston and
the Merrimack river, at the bend in Chelmsford; the company for its
construction was incorporated in 1793. The toll has amounted some years
to about twenty-five thousand dollars. Rail-roads are now complete,
connecting this city with Providence, Worcester, Lowell, Springfield
and Salem. The marine rail-way, which affords facilities for the repair
of large vessels, has been in successful operation since 1826. One
of the greatest improvements of late years has been the building of
Mercantile wharf, which ranges in front of the harbor, between City
wharf and Lewis’s wharf. It has made access to the northern extremity
of the city very convenient from the central parts, and has led to
great improvements.

Since 1822, when the city was incorporated, Boston has been governed by
a mayor, eight aldermen, and a common council of forty-eight members,
chosen annually. With the town of Chelsea, it constitutes the county of
Suffolk, and sends one representative to Congress. As a commercial city,
it holds a second rank among the seaports of the United States. There
are many manufactures in the city, and much wealth of the citizens is
invested in the manufactories of Waltham, Lowell, and other towns.
Population, ninety-three thousand three hundred and eighty-three.[61]

_Bordentown_, a town of New Jersey, in Burlington county, standing
on a steep sand bank on the west side of the Delaware, is chiefly
remarkable for the villa of Joseph Bonaparte, ex-king of Spain. This
is a long white building, with two low square towers at the ends, and
a shot-tower near it by the river. Pop. three thousand four hundred and
thirty-four.

_Brattleboro_ is a pleasant village, in Windham county, Vermont,
on the Connecticut. It is situated on an elevated plain above the
river; at the bridge over the stream are several manufactories, the
chief of which are of paper and machinery, which are made here in
large quantities. The situation of the village is quite romantic and
picturesque. Population, two thousand and six hundred and twenty-four.

_Bridgeport_, in Fairfield county on Long Island sound, maintains an
active intercourse with New York by means of sloops and steamboats, and
furnishes that city with a great amount of produce. The harbor is shoal,
but with a good channel; the town is pleasant and thriving. Population
four thousand five hundred and seventy.

_Brighton_, a town of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, is celebrated
for its annual cattle show and fair which has been held here ever
since the revolution. Vast numbers of cattle for the Boston market
are brought here from all quarters of the country. The soil is good,
and well cultivated. Population, one thousand four hundred and five.

_Bristol_, a thriving town, situated on Narragansett bay, about half
way between Providence and Newport, is distinguished for its pleasant
situation, healthful climate, rich soil, and a commodious, safe harbor.
This town suffered greatly during the revolutionary war, a great part
of it having been destroyed by the British; but it is now in a very
flourishing state, and has a good shipping trade: onions in great
quantities, and a variety of provisions and garden roots, are raised
here for exportation. Mount Hope, celebrated in the early history of
New England as the residence of king Philip, is within the limits of
Bristol; it is a cone-shaped hill, with a pointed summit, and exhibits
a charming prospect. Population, three thousand four hundred and ninety.

_Brooklyn_, a large town on Long Island, separated from the city of New
York by the narrow channel of East river. It is properly a suburb of
that city, and is a place of great business. It is regularly built, and
contains many fine houses, the residence of merchants from the city.
The United States navy yard is in the east quarter, upon a bay called
the Wallabout. Near this town a bloody and disastrous battle was fought
with the British in 1776. The town stands on an eminence, and commands
fine views of the city and bay. A constant intercourse is kept up with
New York by steamboats. It is the third town in the state in regard to
its population, which amounts to 36,221.

_Brookville_ is pleasantly situated in the forks of Whitewater, and is
the seat of justice of Franklin county, Illinois. It was laid out in
the year 1811; but no improvements were made until the succeeding year,
and then but partially, owing to the unsettled state of the frontiers;
its vicinity to the Indian boundary being about fifteen miles. The late
war completely checked the emigration to this country, and consequently
the town ceased to improve; since that period, it has improved and been
noted for the enterprise of its citizens. It is now, however, decaying.
It contains about a hundred houses.

_Brunswick_ is a town of Cumberland county, Maine, situated on the
south side of Androscoggin river, twenty-six miles north-east of
Portland. The river has many falls at this place, on which are situated
numerous mills, and manufactories of cotton and woollen. It is chiefly
distinguished as the seat of Bowdoin college, which was established
here in 1794. This institution is partly supported by funds bequeathed
by governor Bowdoin, of Massachusetts, from whom the college takes its
name. Population of Brunswick, four thousand two hundred and fifty-nine.

_Buffalo_, delightfully situated near the margin of lake Erie, three
hundred and twenty-seven miles from Albany, and twenty-two from the
falls of Niagara, is a place of considerable importance, and the
emporium of the lake commerce. The principal streets are from sixty-six
to one hundred feet wide; these are intersected by others of equal
width, and as many of the houses are of brick, two and three stories
high, they make a neat and handsome appearance. Buffalo, standing
on the great road leading from Albany to Ohio, possesses natural
advantages for trade, equal to any internal place in the United States.

Its harbor is singularly fitted for the two kinds of navigation that
are here brought together, the entrance from the lake being sheltered
by the point on which the light-house is erected, and the two small
rivers which here unite their waters affording every convenience
for landing and re-shipping goods; a number of basins and lateral
canals communicate with the great canal. This harbor is thronged with
steamboats and every kind of water craft; it is one of the most busy
and bustling places in the country.

‘In Buffalo,’ says a recent writer, ‘the miserable descendants of
the Iroquois or Six Nations may constantly be seen in the streets.
The Senecas have three villages within nine miles. If any man wishes
to observe the effect of an intercourse between whites and Indians,
let him go to Buffalo. There he may see red men, reeling drunk in the
streets, begging in the most abject manner for liquor, and the women
in the lowest stage of moral and physical degradation. They are in
some measure civilized, some of them having adopted the costume of the
whites, and living by the cultivation of the soil. Should they continue
to reside in their present dwelling-place, it is to be hoped that the
change will be complete. When the chase will no longer afford them a
subsistence; when they are completely hemmed in by the whites, they
must of necessity have recourse to agriculture for the means of living,
and knowledge must be the attendant of industry――but as long as they
are able to live, no matter how wretchedly, in idleness, they will not
work, and will continue to retrograde.’ Population, eighteen thousand
three hundred and fifty-six.

_Burlington_, in Chittenden county, Vermont, on lake Champlain, is
a flourishing and commercial town. It is situated on the declivity
of a hill, commanding an extensive view of the lake, and a beautiful
prospect of the town. It is the seat of the university of Vermont, and
of several manufactories. Its commerce is considerable. Population,
four thousand two hundred and seventy-one.

_Burlington City_ stands on the banks of the Delaware, eighteen
miles north-east from Philadelphia. The main streets are conveniently
spacious, and mostly ornamented with rows of trees in the fronts of the
houses, which are regularly arranged. The river opposite the town is
about a mile wide, and under shelter of two islands, affords a safe and
convenient harbor; but, though well situated for trade, Burlington is
too near the opulent city of Philadelphia to admit of any considerable
increase of foreign commerce. Population, two thousand six hundred and
seventy.

_Cahokia_, in St. Clair county, Illinois, is situated on a small stream,
about one mile east of the Mississippi, and five miles below St. Louis.
It is pleasantly situated, and is inhabited chiefly by French people.
This town contains a post-office and a Roman catholic chapel, and is
the seat of justice for the county.

_Cambridge_, a town of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, lies west of
Boston, was settled in 1631. It is a fine village, containing many very
pleasant residences, and is divided into three distinct portions. East
Cambridge is a suburb of Boston, with which it is connected by Cragie’s
bridge; it is flourishing, and has some glass and iron manufactories.
Old Cambridge is about three miles from the city, and is the seat
of Harvard college, the oldest and richest university in the United
States; this institution is fully described in another portion of the
volume. In the western part lies Fresh Pond, a fine sheet of water,
much resorted to in summer by citizens of the neighboring towns. In
the south-westerly part is a beautiful hilly grove called Mount Auburn,
recently devoted to the purposes of a cemetery, and forming one of the
most beautiful burial places in the world.[62] The first printing-press
in America was set up here, and was used by Stephen Day, who printed
the _Freeman’s Oath_. During the siege of Boston, in 1776, the American
army encamped here, and vestiges of some of their intrenchments still
remain in the neighborhood. Population, eight thousand one hundred and
twenty-seven.

  Illustration: Harvard University.

_Camden_, in Kershaw district, South Carolina, on the Wateree, is
the seat of justice for the district. It is chiefly celebrated for the
battles fought in its vicinity during the revolutionary war. Population,
one thousand. A flourishing town of the same name in Oneida county,
New York, has a population of about two thousand.

_Canandaigua_, capital of Ontario county, New York, on the outlet
of the lake of the same name, is one of the pleasantest towns in the
country. The principal street runs along the ridge of a hill, which
rises from the north end of the lake, for the distance of a mile; it
is handsomely planted with trees, and the houses, which are generally
painted white with green blinds, present a very neat appearance. In
the centre of the town is a large square; the neighborhood abounds with
pleasant gardens. Population, five thousand six hundred and fifty-two.

_Castine_, a town of Maine, built on a promontory at the head
of Penobscot bay, is placed in a commanding situation, and has an
excellent harbor. It was taken by the British during the last war,
but was restored in 1815. Population one thousand one hundred and
eighty-eight.

_Catskill_, principal town of Greene county, New York, is situated on
the west bank of the Hudson river, nearly opposite the city of Hudson,
and thirty-one miles south of Albany. It exhibits gentle elevations in
the neighborhood, and the soil is generally good; it is well watered,
has fine meadows, and good mill sites. Population, 5,339.

_Charleston_, the chief city of South Carolina, stands upon a piece
of land projecting into the bay, at the confluence of the Ashley and
Cooper rivers, and has a deep and safe harbor. Ships drawing twenty
feet of water pass the bar. The city is regularly built; the fine
houses are very large, many of them inclosed like the great hotels in
Paris, and all of them covered with verandas, and situated in gardens
neatly dressed, and in summer and fall, not only adorned with the
finest evergreen shrubs, but with a great variety of beautiful roses,
jonquils, and other flowers. On the other hand, many of the streets
are dirty and unpaved, and the houses in some parts of the town have
a filthy appearance. The churches and public buildings are handsome,
especially St. Michael’s church, with its steeple one hundred and
sixty-eight feet high. The post office is a large, handsome building.
Most of the finest buildings here were erected previously to the
revolution. There are many charitable institutions, among which the
Orphan Asylum stands in the first rank.

The society of Charleston is refined, intelligent and hospitable. The
commerce of the place consists chiefly in the export of rice and cotton.
On account of its level character, the city is liable to occasional
inundation; but it is, nevertheless, a fine commercial mart, and highly
prosperous, exhibiting most of the institutions which mark a liberal
and opulent community. This city is celebrated in the history of the
revolution. Population, twenty-nine thousand two hundred and sixty-one.

_Charlestown_, in Middlesex county, Massachusetts, is an irregular town,
containing some fine situations. Here are the United States navy yard,
and the finest dry-dock in the country; the Massachusetts state prison,
an insane hospital, and the Ursuline convent. This town was burnt in
1775, by the British troops. On the eminence of Bunker Hill, a splendid
monument of granite has been for some time in an unfinished state;
but there is every hope of its immediate completion. Population ten
thousand eight hundred and seventy-two.

_Chilicothe_, in Ross county, Ohio, formerly the seat of the state
government, is situated on the west bank of the Scioto, on a beautiful
and extensive plain. It is laid out on a large scale, with a great
number of out-lots attached to it. The plan is regular; the streets
cross each other at right angles, and every square is divided into four
parts. In the vicinity are several mills and manufactories, and the
Grand canal is cut through the town. The town was laid out in 1796,
on the site of an old Indian village. Population, three thousand nine
hundred and seventy-seven.

_Cincinnati_, the largest town in Ohio, is handsomely built, and
surrounded by a range of fine wooded hills, which command a beautiful
prospect. The plain on which it is situated occupies about four square
miles; the height of the rising ground above the alluvial plain is
about fifty feet. The population is much mixed, being composed of
emigrants from all parts of the union, and most of the countries of
Europe. Its progressive increase has been most wonderful. In 1813,
Cincinnati numbered about four thousand inhabitants; in 1820, ten
thousand; in 1840, forty-six thousand three hundred and eighty-two.

It has extensive flour and sawmills, worked by steam, and various
manufactures. The public buildings are twenty-four churches, the
College Athenæum, Medical College, Mechanics’ Institute, four market
houses, a theatre, two museums, a famous and tasteless bazaar, a bank
for the United States branch, court house, and other edifices. The
charitable and religious associations are numerous. There are sixteen
periodical publications. There are three city insurance companies, and
two branches of companies at Hartford, Connecticut. Water is furnished
for the inhabitants from the Ohio river, and is distributed over town
at an average expense of eight dollars for a family.

Vast remains of ancient fortifications, embankments, stone walls,
earthen mounds, the latter containing rude stone coffins filled with
human bones, have been discovered within the precincts of this town;
and many curious articles dug up, composed of jasper, rock crystal,
cannel-coal, copper, sculptural representations on different substances,
altogether tending to prove that this country was formerly inhabited by
a race of men very different from the present American Indians.

_Circleville_, the seat of justice of Pickaway county, Ohio, is
situated on the Pickaway bottom, about half a mile east of the Scioto.
Its site is two mounds of earth, one circular, and the other square,
containing about twenty acres. In the centre of the town is a small
vacant circle. From this focus the streets diverge in regular radii.
The growth of this town has been owing to the wealth of the surrounding
plantations. Population, two thousand three hundred and twenty-nine.

_Columbia_, the capital city of South Carolina, is situated on the
Congaree, one hundred and ten miles north-north-west of Charleston. It
is the seat of the college of the state. The town is regularly built,
and occupies an elevated plain gently sloping on every side. Population,
four thousand two hundred ninety-five. There are eleven other towns
called Columbia in the United States.

_Columbus_, the metropolis of the state of Ohio, is situated on the
east bank of the Scioto, on an elevated plain of several hundred acres.
It is situated near the middle of Franklin county, and within twenty
miles of the centre of the state, in a fine fertile country. It was
founded in 1812, in the midst of a thick forest. It contains a state
house, court house, penitentiary, a classical seminary, three churches,
and an asylum for the deaf and dumb. Population, six thousand and
forty-eight.

_Concord_, a town of Merrimack county, New Hampshire, is the capital
of the state. It is pleasantly situated on both sides of the Merrimack,
along which spread some rich intervals. The chief village is on the
west side, and forms a street two miles in length. It contains a state
house and a state prison, both of granite. It was first settled in 1724,
and twenty years afterwards suffered severely from the Indians. By the
river and Middlesex canal, Concord has a boat navigation to Boston; and
it is a place of considerable trade. Population, four thousand eight
hundred and ninety-eight.

_Concord_, a village of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, is celebrated
as the place of meeting of the first provincial congress in 1774, and
the first opposition to the British arms. Population, one thousand
eight hundred.[63]

_Covington_, a town of Genesee county, New York, has a soil of ordinary
quality, well watered. Population, two thousand four hundred and
thirty-eight.

_Dayton_, chief town of Montgomery county, Ohio, is situated on
the left bank of Great Miami river, near the point where it is met by
the canal. It is a flourishing place, with many mills and factories.
Population six thousand and sixty-seven.

_Detroit_, the capital of Michigan territory, is situated on the bank
of the river of the same name. During the French jurisdiction, it was
the farthest post on the lakes except Macinac. Since 1815, this town
has rapidly improved; before, it was small and of no importance except
in a military view. It is famous for the siege here sustained by Major
Gladwyn against the united tribes of Indians under Pontiac, and for its
surrender to the British forces in the year 1812, by General Hull. The
ground plan of the city of Detroit is laid out like that of Washington,
and the buildings are very much scattered. The jail, state house, and
two churches, constitute the chief public buildings. The Erie canal has
done much to increase the prosperity of this town, and the Ohio canal
will give it an additional impulse. Population nine thousand one
hundred and two.

The streets of Detroit are generally crowded with Indians of one tribe
or other, who collect here to sell their skins; at night, all those
who are not admitted into private houses, and remain there quietly,
are turned out of the town, and the gates shut upon them. The French
inhabitants employed upon the lakes and rivers are very dexterous
watermen, and will navigate a small bark in a rough sea with incredible
skill. They have nothing like enterprise in business, and are very fond
of music, dancing, and smoking tobacco; the women have generally lively
and expressive countenances.

The fort stands on a low ridge, in the rear of the town, at the
distance of about two hundred yards. From the summit of this ridge,
the country gradually subsides to a low swampy plain, from five to nine
miles across, covered with thick groves of young timber. Beyond this
plain commences a surface moderately hilly.

_Dover_, a town of Kent county, Delaware, and capital of the state. It
is handsomely laid out and built on a small stream that runs into the
Delaware. The houses are mostly of brick, and in the centre of the town
is a spacious square surrounded by the public buildings. Population,
3790.

_Dover_, a town of Strafford county, New Hampshire, is situated on
the falls of the Cocheco, a stream running into the Piscataqua. The
falls have several pitches, one of which is forty feet perpendicular,
affording a vast water power, which has been applied to manufacturing
purposes. This town was settled in 1623, and is the oldest in the state.
The greater part of the timber exported from New Hampshire is brought
to Dover. Population, five thousand four hundred and fifty-eight.

_Easton_, a town of Northampton county, Pennsylvania, situated on the
Delaware, at the mouth of the Lehigh, is a handsome town, regularly
laid out with a large square in the centre. The union of three canals
at this point, gives it vast facilities for trade. The scenery of the
neighborhood is remarkably picturesque. The town is laid out at right
angles. Population, five thousand five hundred and ten.

_Eastport_, a town of Washington county, Maine, and the most
eastern point of the United States. It is situated on Moose island in
Passamaquoddy bay, and is favorably situated for an extensive traffic
up the Passamaquoddy and the other rivers falling into the bay of Fundy.
The principal business is afforded by the fisheries and the lumber
trade. Population, two thousand eight hundred and seventy-six.

_Economy_, a beautiful village of Beaver county, Pennsylvania, on the
Ohio, a few miles below Pittsburg. It is inhabited solely by the sect
of Harmonists, under the celebrated Rapp. The village is regularly
built, and the streets are laid out at right angles. Industry is
the characteristic of the inhabitants, who are of German origin. The
property purports to be held in common, though it has been stated that
the legal tenure of it is in the hands of the principal. The grape is
extensively cultivated here; a thriving trade is carried on with the
neighboring country, and the establishment is in a thriving condition.
Population, 1283.

  Illustration: Economy.

_Elizabethtown_, a town of Essex county, New Jersey, situated on
a creek of Newark bay, was originally settled by emigrants from
Connecticut. It has some good gardens, and supplies many agricultural
products for the New York market. Population, four thousand one hundred
and eighty-four.

_Exeter_, a town of Rockingham county, New Hampshire, fourteen miles
south-west from Portsmouth, is situated at the head of the navigation
on Swamscot river, a branch of the Piscataqua. Formerly, ship-building
was carried on here to a great extent, and the vessels were employed
in the West Indian trade; at present, this business is much decreased,
but several manufactories have been established. Here is a celebrated
academy, incorporated in 1781. Population, two thousand nine hundred
and eighty-five.

_Fayetteville_, a village of Cumberland county, North Carolina, is
situated at the head of uninterrupted boat navigation on Cape Fear
river. In 1831, it was desolated by a destructive fire; but it is
rapidly regaining its former flourishing condition. Population, four
thousand two hundred and eighty-five.

_Frankfort_, the metropolis of Kentucky, and chief town of Franklin
county, stands on the east bank of Kentucky river, sixty miles above
its entrance into the Ohio. The river, which is here about one hundred
yards wide, with bold limestone banks, forms a handsome curve, and
waters the southern and western parts of the town. The bottoms on both
sides of the river are very broad, but subject to inundation. Frankfort
is about sixty-two miles from Louisville. Population, 1,917.

_Fredericksburg_, a port of entry, and chief town of Spottsylvania
county, Virginia, situated on the right bank of the Rappahanoc river,
is a flourishing place. It stands at the head of tide water. Population,
three thousand nine hundred and seventy-four.

_Fredericktown_, in Frederick county, Maryland, is situated forty-seven
miles from Baltimore, on the Pittsburg road, and is a flourishing place,
carrying on considerable manufactures, and a brisk inland trade through
a fertile and well-cultivated country. It is the second town in the
state, and increases with rapidity. Population, five thousand eight
hundred and fifty-eight.

_Galena_, a village in Illinois, the centre of a celebrated lead-mining
district, from which it takes its name. It is situated on Fever river,
five miles before it empties into the Mississippi.

_Gardiner_, a flourishing town in Kennebec county, Maine, on the west
bank of the Kennebec river. It has a considerable trade in lumber, and
in manufactures of cotton and iron, and many very valuable mills. In
this town is a Gothic church, built of granite, and considered the
finest specimen of architecture in the state. Population, five thousand
six hundred and forty-four.

  Illustration: Church in Gardiner.

_Georgetown_, city of the district of Columbia, and separated from
Washington only by a small creek, is finely situated on a series of
heights at a bend of the Potomac. It is well laid out, and contains
some good private residences. The Catholic college is an ancient
pile of building, with a large library, and some good paintings. The
Chesapeak and Ohio canal passes through this town. Tobacco and flour
are exported in considerable quantities. Population, seven thousand
three hundred and thirteen.

_Gloucester_, a seaport of Massachusetts, in Essex county, and on the
peninsula of cape Ann, is one of the most considerable fishing towns
in the country. The harbor, which is defended by a battery and forts,
is accessible for large ships. This town suffered severely from fire a
few years ago; but the damage has been nearly repaired. Population, six
thousand three hundred and ninety-four.

_Hagerstown_, in Washington county, Maryland, is a well-built and
flourishing place, surrounded by a fertile country. It is a handsome
town, and the houses are generally of stone or brick. Population, three
thousand four hundred.

_Hallowell_, in Kennebec county, Maine, is one of the most flourishing
and wealthy towns in the state. The river is navigable to this place
for vessels of one hundred and fifty tons. Hallowell granite is
extensively quarried and wrought, and is much esteemed. The commerce
of the place is considerable, confined chiefly to the lumber trade.
Population, four thousand six hundred and fifty-five.

_Hanover_, in Grafton county, New Hampshire, situated on the
Connecticut, is a pleasant village, and the seat of Dartmouth college,
which was established in 1771. It received its name from one of its
principal benefactors, the earl of Dartmouth. This town is crossed from
north to south by Moose mountain. Population, two thousand six hundred
and thirteen.

  Illustration: Dartmouth College.

_Harrisburg_, the seat of government of the state of Pennsylvania, is
in Dauphin county, and situated on the eastern bank of the Susquehanna,
ninety-six miles from Philadelphia. It is regularly built, and has a
handsome state house, and other public edifices. A bridge here crosses
the Susquehanna. Population, six thousand and twenty.

_Hartford_, city, the capital of Hartford county, and, jointly with
New-Haven, the seat of government of Connecticut. It stands on the
western bank of the Connecticut, at the head of sloop navigation. It is
handsomely built, and contains many fine public edifices, among which
are a Gothic church, much admired for its architecture; a state house,
a deaf and dumb asylum, a retreat for the insane, and a seminary called
Washington college. This institution was founded in 1826. Hartford
enjoys a considerable commerce with Boston, New York, and the southern
cities. The bookselling trade is carried on here extensively, and there
is much inland traffic with the towns on the Connecticut, and in the
neighborhood. On the opposite bank of the river is East Hartford, which
is connected with the city by a bridge. The inhabitants point out to
the stranger an ancient oak tree in the southern part of the city,
which bears the name of the Charter Oak, and is interesting on account
of its connection with our early history. Pop. twelve thousand seven
hundred and ninety-three.

  Illustration: Hartford, Conn.

_Haverhill_, in Essex county, Massachusetts, on the Merrimack,
twelve miles above Newburyport. Pop. four thousand three hundred and
seventy-three. This is a pleasantly situated town, and has considerable
ship-building and trade by the river. It was settled in 1640, and
suffered much in the early Indian wars. In 1698, the Indians attacked
and set fire to the town.

_Hudson_, a city of New York, in Columbia county, with considerable
manufacturing business. The streets are spacious, and cross each other
at right angles, and the houses are supplied with water brought in
pipes from a spring two miles distant. The trade is considerable,
and vessels of the largest size can unload here. It is seated on an
eminence, on the east side of Hudson river. It is twenty-eight miles
south of Albany. Population, five thousand six hundred and seventy.

_Indianapolis_, capital of Indiana, situated in Marion county, on the
west bank of White river, in the centre of one of the most extensive
and fertile bodies of land in the world, though recently settled,
promises to be one of the largest towns between Cincinnati and the
Mississippi. The country about it is said by Mr. Flint to be settling
with unexampled rapidity. Population, two thousand six hundred and
ninety-two.

_Jameston_, an ancient town in James City county, Virginia, the first
English settlement in the states, was established in 1608. It stands on
an island in James river, thirty-two miles above its mouth. It is now
in ruins, and almost desolate. Two or three old houses, the ruins of
an old steeple, a church-yard, and faint traces of rude fortifications,
are the only memorials of its former importance.

_Jefferson City_, seat of justice for Cole county, Missouri, and
capital of the state, is situated on the right bank of Missouri river,
about nine miles above the mouth of the Osage. It is a new town,
containing two hundred houses and twelve hundred inhabitants, and,
after Little Rock in Arkansas, is the most western state capital of
the United States.

_Kaskaskia_, an ancient village of Illinois, and seat of justice for
Randolph county, is situated on Kaskaskia river, eleven miles from its
mouth. It was one of the earliest French settlements in the Mississippi,
and once contained seven thousand inhabitants; it is now very much
reduced, numbering only one thousand. The situation of this town is
represented as very beautiful.

_Kennebunk_, a town of York county, Maine, at the mouth of a river
of the same name, has considerable lumber trade. The principal harbor
is obstructed by a sandbar, and in 1820 an appropriation was made by
Congress to build a pier at the mouth of the river. Population, two
thousand three hundred and twenty-three.

_Knoxville_, the chief town of East Tennessee, is situated one hundred
and eighty miles from Nashville, on the north side of Holston river,
where it is three hundred yards wide; on a beautiful spot of ground,
twenty-two miles above the junction of the Holston with the Tennessee.
The college of this town is one of the oldest seminaries in the state.
Population, three thousand.

_Lancaster_, a handsome town of Pennsylvania, and capital of a county
of the same name. It is a pleasant and flourishing place, situate in
a fertile and well-cultivated country, and contains a court house,
a jail, two banks, and nine places of worship. A college was founded
here in 1787; but the buildings are now appropriated to schools. Here
are manufactures of guns and other hardware; and about a mile distant
is a large cotton manufactory. The town has considerable trade, which
increases with the surrounding country. It is seated near Conestoga
creek, which runs into the Susquehanna, sixty-one miles west by north
of Philadelphia. Population, eight thousand four hundred and nineteen.

_Lancaster_, oldest town in Worcester county, Massachusetts, finely
situated on both sides of the Nashua, has manufactories of combs and
cotton, and an extensive engraving and stereotyping establishment. In
beauty of scenery the neighborhood is surpassed by that of few towns in
New England. Population, two thousand and thirteen.

_Lansinburg_, a town of Rensselaer county, New York, is principally
built on a single street parallel with the river. A high hill rises
abruptly behind the town, on which is seen the celebrated diamond rock,
emitting a brilliant lustre in the rays of the sun. Population, three
thousand three hundred and thirty.

_Lexington_, a town of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, will ever be
memorable in American history, for the early revolutionary struggles.
The first battle was fought here between the British troops and the
Americans on the nineteenth of April, 1775. A monument has been erected
on the green at Lexington in commemoration of this event. Pop. 1559.

_Lexington_, capital of Fayette county, Kentucky, is the oldest town
in the state, and was for many years the seat of government. It stands
in a beautiful spot, on a branch of the Elkhorn river, in the centre
of the richest tract in the state. The principal street is a mile and
a quarter in length, spacious and well paved. The buildings are much
superior in size and elegance to those of the other towns in the state,
and may be compared to those of the Atlantic country. The Transylvania
university is established here. The public inns are large and
convenient. The town has manufactories of woolen, cotton, and paper.
The general appearance of the town is neat, and the neighborhood is
adorned with many handsome villas, and finely ornamented rural mansions.
Population, six thousand nine hundred and ninety-seven.

_Litchfield_, capital of Litchfield county, Connecticut, is situated
on an elevated plain, in the midst of a fertile and hilly country. It
contains numerous mills and manufactories. A law school was established
here in 1782, by Judge Reeve, which has been for many years highly
celebrated. Population, four thousand and thirty-eight.

_Little Rock_, the seat of government of Arkansas territory, is
situated on a high bluff on the south bank of the river Arkansas, and
derives its name from the high masses of rock above it. It was laid out
in 1820.

_Lockport_, a town of Niagara county, New York, on the Erie canal.
Here are the most remarkable works on the canal, consisting of ten
locks, overcoming an ascent of sixty feet. Besides these, there is an
excavation through the mountain ridge, for three miles, cut in the rock.
The town is a place of considerable trade. Population, five thousand
eight hundred and seventy-three.

_Louisville_, a city of Jefferson county, Kentucky, on a plain
elevated about seventy feet above the level of the Ohio, opposite
to the rapids or falls, is a handsome town, and the largest in the
state. Eight broad and straight streets run parallel with the river,
and command a pleasant view of the opposite shore. They are paved
with blocks of limestone; the houses are built chiefly of brick. This
is the most commercial city of the west, commanding the trade of a
great extent of country. Manufactures are yet in their infancy. The
Louisville and Portland canal passes through this town, round the falls;
it is about two miles in length, and cut through a limestone rock. It
admits the passage of the largest steamboats, and thus opens a line of
free navigation from Pittsburg to the sea. This canal was finished in
1831. It has been estimated that seventy-five thousand travellers pass
through Louisville annually. The resident population is twenty-one
thousand two hundred and ten.

_Lowell_, a town of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, situated at the
junction of the Concord and Merrimack rivers, is celebrated for its
extensive manufacturing establishments, and for its rapid increase. It
was incorporated in 1826. In 1831, the quantity of cotton manufactured
here was estimated at five million one hundred thousand pounds. The
water power is held and managed by a company possessing a great amount
of real estate, and a capital of six hundred thousand dollars. A
rail-road from Boston to Lowell is in rapid progress. The two largest
companies are the Merrimack, with a capital of a million and a half;
and the Lawrence, with a capital of one million two hundred thousand
dollars. Population twenty thousand nine hundred and eighty-one.

_Lynchburg_, a town of Columbia county, Virginia, is one of the most
flourishing and commercial towns in the state. It has several tobacco
warehouses and factories, cotton and woolen manufactories, and in the
vicinity are extensive flour mills. The surrounding country is rugged
and mountainous. Lynchburg was established in 1786. Population, four
thousand six hundred and twenty-six.

_Lynn_, a town of Essex county, Massachusetts, is noted for its
extensive manufacture of shoes. About a million and a half pair of
women’s shoes are made here every year. There is a mineral spring in
this town, with a hotel in its neighborhood. Population, nine thousand
and seventy five.

_Machias_, on the bay of that name, in Washington county, Maine,
consists of two villages, one at the falls at the east branch of
Machias river, and the other at the falls of the west branch, six and
a half miles apart, each containing a post office. The village at the
east falls is at the head of the tide, two miles above the junction
of the branches, and contains various mills. The village at the west
falls, contains the court house, jail, and various mills; there are
many saw mills in this town, which cut upwards of ten million feet
of boards in a year. The tonnage of the shipping in 1827 amounted to
five thousand two hundred and thirty-six; much of this is employed in
the transportation of plaster from the British territory adjacent to
Passamaquoddy bay. Population, one thousand three hundred and fifty-one.

_Marblehead_, a town of Essex county, Massachusetts, situated on a
peninsula projecting into Massachusetts bay. It is compactly, though
irregularly built; it was settled soon after Salem, and has been very
flourishing and opulent. It suffered severely during the revolution and
the last war. In the fishing business it has greatly excelled all other
towns in the United States. Population in 1810, five thousand eight
hundred; in 1840, five thousand five hundred and thirty-nine.

_Marietta_, in Washington county, Ohio, is finely situated near the
mouth of Muskingum river, in the centre of a fertile neighborhood. It
was one of the earliest settlements of the state; but it has suffered
severely from sickness and inundations of the river. Ship-building was
formerly carried on here, but has been discontinued. The inhabitants
are noted for industry and sobriety. Population, one thousand eight
hundred and fourteen.

_Maysville_, in Mason county, Kentucky, on the Ohio, stands on a
narrow bottom below the mouth of Limestone creek, and has considerable
trade and manufactures. It is the principal commercial depot for the
north-east portions of the state. It is a very busy and flourishing
town. Population, two thousand seven hundred and forty.

_Middlebury_, in Addison county, Vermont, situated on Otter creek,
has a college, two academies, several churches, and manufactures of
cotton, iron, and marble. A quarry of fine marble was discovered here
in 1804, and is now wrought for a variety of purposes. Population,
three thousand one hundred and sixty-two.

_Middletown_, a city of Middlesex county, Connecticut, on the west
bank of the Connecticut river, and thirty-four miles from its mouth,
is a pleasant place, and has considerable trade and manufactures. In
1816, it owned a larger shipping than any other town in the state. In
the neighborhood is a lead mine, which was wrought during the war. A
college, under the name of the Wesleyan University, was opened in this
city in 1831. Population, seven thousand two hundred and ten.

_Milledgeville_, capital of Baldwin county, Georgia, and metropolis of
the state, is situated on the west bank of the Oconee, eighty-seven
miles south-west of Augusta. It is a depot of cotton for the Savannah
and Darien markets. It contains several public buildings, and has four
weekly papers. Population two thousand and ninety-five.

_Mobile_, a city of Mobile county, Alabama, on the west side of
Mobile river, at its entrance into the bay. When this town came into
the possession of the United States, in 1813, it contained about three
hundred inhabitants; it now numbers twelve thousand seven hundred. It
is pleasantly situated on a spot elevated above the overflow of the
river; but the adjacent country is a marsh or a forest. Fire and the
yellow fever have committed great ravages here; but trade has increased
rapidly, and in the cotton business Mobile is inferior only to
Charleston and New Orleans.

_Montpelier_, shire town of Washington county, Vermont, and seat
of government, is situated on the north bank of Onion river, about
ten miles north-east of the centre of the state, and is a great
thoroughfare for travellers. It was incorporated in 1818, contains
a number of public buildings and good seats for manufactories.
Population, 3,725.

_Nantucket_, a town of Massachusetts, of the same extent with the
island and county of that name, contains seven houses of public worship,
two banks, and two insurance offices. It was formerly called Sherburne.
The trade suffered greatly during the late war and the revolution, but
has since been more flourishing. There are extensive spermaceti works
here. Education is well attended to, and the people, who are chiefly
Friends or Quakers, are generally moral and industrious. Population,
nine thousand five hundred and twelve.

_Nashville_, capital of Davidson county, and seat of government of
Tennessee, is regularly built, pleasantly situated on the south side
of Cumberland river, and is much the largest town in the state. It is
a rich and flourishing place. Steamboats from New Orleans ascend the
river to this point. The state penitentiary, a fine stone building, is
here erected. The University of Nashville was incorporated in 1806, and
is now in a very prosperous condition. Pop. eight thousand one hundred
and thirty-three.

_Natchez_, a city of Mississippi, and much the largest town of the
state, stands on a bluff, upwards of one hundred and fifty feet above
the surface of the river. The houses have an air of neatness, though
few are distinguished for elegance or size. To enable the inhabitants
to enjoy the evening air, almost every house has a piazza and balcony.
The soil of the adjoining country is rich, and vegetation of most kinds
attains to uncommon luxuriance; the gardens are ornamented with orange
trees, figs plums, peaches, and grape-vines. Natchez is the principal
town in this region for the shipment of cotton to New Orleans, and at
the business seasons the streets are almost barricadoed with bales. In
this place is the Planters’ bank, with a capital of three millions.

The reputation of Natchez in regard to morals seems to be rather at
a discount. The lower town is said to have a worse character than
any place on the river; and, particularly in the spring, to present
a congregation of the most abandoned and desperate. The following
picture by a recent traveller is probably overcharged: ‘In the evening,
a steamer stops at Natchez to land or take in goods, the passengers
observe several houses lighted up, and hear the sounds of fiddles and
merriment, and they run up to see what is going on; they find men and
women dancing, gambling and drinking; the bell of the steamboat rings
to announce that she is about to continue her voyage, the lights in
the houses of entertainment are immediately extinguished, and the
passengers run out, afraid of being too late for the boat, and run down
toward the landing; ropes are drawn across the road, the passengers
fall heels over head, a number of stout ruffians throw themselves upon
them, and strip them of their money and watches, and they get on board
in doleful plight, and of course never see or hear more of their
plunderers!’ Population, 4,826.

_Natchitoches_, commonly pronounced Nackitosh, a town of Louisiana, is
beautifully situated on the south-west bank of Red river, at the head
of steamboat navigation. The trade between Louisiana and the Mexican
states centres here, and it must eventually become a place of great
size and importance. This town was established more than a hundred
years ago, and its population is a mixture of Americans, French,
Spaniards, and Indians.

_New Albany_, in Floyd county, Indiana, is an industrious and
flourishing village, with a ship-yard for building steamboats. During
the summer, many steamboats are laid up here to be repaired. Population,
four thousand two hundred and twenty-six.

_Newark_, capital of Essex county, New Jersey, is handsomely built,
and finely situated on the west side of Passaic river. It is one of the
most beautiful towns in the country. It has extensive manufactures of
shoes, leather, coaches, and cabinet work. Morris canal passes through
this town. Population, seventeen thousand two hundred and ninety-two.

_New Bedford_, port of entry in Bristol county, Massachusetts, stands
on an arm of Buzzard’s bay, about fifty-two miles south of Boston. ‘We
entered New Bedford,’ says a recent tourist, ‘through Fairhaven, by way
of the ferry. From Fairhaven the town shows to better effect than from
any other point. A stranger, perhaps, might be surprised at the great
apparent extent of New Bedford as seen from this place. Passing through
the villa of Fairhaven (a place of no inconsiderable size by the by,)
it opens before him, with its spires, its shipping and buildings, like
a beautiful panoramic painting of some great city. It appears much
larger, however, than it is. Its population is 12,585. Its commerce is
principally in the whale fishery, employing one hundred and fifty whale
ships. The “county road” displays many elegant mansions, the dwellings
of some of the more wealthy inhabitants. New Bedford is considered
a very wealthy place, and the inhabitants active and enterprising.
A large proportion of them are Quakers.’

_Newbern_, in Craven county, North Carolina, was once the capital,
and is still the largest town of the state. It is situated on the
Neuse, thirty miles above its entrance into Pamlico sound. The river is
navigable to this place, and its commerce is considerable. Population,
three thousand six hundred and ninety.

_New Brunswick_, a city of New Jersey, partly in Middlesex and partly
in Somerset county, on the south-west side of Raritan river, is built
on a low but healthy situation, and has considerable trade. Besides the
other public institutions usually found in towns of similar size, this
has a theological seminary, and a college; both established by the
Dutch Reformed Church. Population, eight thousand seven hundred and
eight.

_Newburgh_, a port of entry in Orange county, New York, is a well-built
village, pleasantly situated on the west bank of the Hudson, commanding
a delightful view of the river and the highlands. The principal streets
are paved. A considerable amount of shipping is owned in this village;
agriculture and manufactures are also extremely flourishing. Population,
five thousand six hundred and sixty-two.

  Illustration: Newburgh.

_Newburyport_, in Essex county, Massachusetts, at the mouth of the
Merrimack, is remarkable for the beauty of its situation, and the
regularity of its streets. It stands upon a gentle declivity sloping
down to the river, the streets are generally straight and at right
angles, and the town lies along the bank of the river for about a mile.
The principal streets pass through the whole width of the town, from
the summit of the declivity to the river. The buildings are generally
handsome, and the streets clean. Few towns in the United States surpass
Newburyport in beauty. It was desolated by a fire, which broke out on
the night of May 31, 1811, and destroyed nearly three hundred buildings.
The place has never recovered from the effects of this calamity; at the
present day, the traveller is struck with the view of a wide heap of
grass-grown ruins, in the heart of a populous town.

The harbor of this place is good, but obstructed at the entrance by a
dangerous bar; attempts are now making to improve it by a break-water
on the south side of the channel. The mercantile enterprise of the
place has latterly been diverted from commerce to the fisheries.
Ship-building is carried on to a considerable extent, and a manufactory
of hosiery has been established in the place. This town has seven
churches, two banks, two insurance offices, and two newspapers. A
handsome chain bridge crosses the river from the centre of the town.
The celebrated preacher, George Whitefield, died in this town in 1760,
and is now entombed in the Presbyterian church in Federal street, where
an elegant monument has been erected recently to his memory. Population,
seven thousand one hundred and twenty-four.

_New Castle_, seat of justice of the county of the same name, in
Delaware, and formerly capital of the state. The village extends
lengthwise along the Delaware river, on a rising plain, and is
tolerably compact and well built. It once enjoyed considerable trade.
Population two thousand seven hundred and thirty-seven.

_New Harmony_, or Harmony, a town in Posey county, in the south-western
part of Indiana, on the Wabash, formerly the seat of the Harmonists,
under the German, Rapp, and more recently of the followers of Owen, of
Lanark. The former establishment was removed to Economy, and the latter
abandoned.

_New Haven_, a city and seaport of Connecticut, in New Haven county,
lies at the head of a bay that runs out of Long Island Sound, and
is situated on a beautiful plain, bordered on the north by bold and
perpendicular eminences. It is regularly laid out and consists of two
parts, the old and new town. The old town is divided into squares of
different extents. The public buildings of the city are handsome and
well situated. The state house is a fine edifice, on the model of
the Parthenon. Several of the churches have a commanding appearance;
two of them are of Gothic architecture, and built of stone. Private
dwelling-houses are mostly of wood, handsome and convenient. The public
square and principal streets are finely ornamented with trees; and
beautiful gardens attached to many of the residences, give the town
a rural and delightful appearance.

  Illustration: New Haven.

The harbor of New Haven is shallow, and gradually filling with mud, but
it is well defended from winds, and the maritime commerce of the port
is greater than that of any other town in Connecticut. Its interior
trade is assisted by the Farmington canal. Packets and steamboats ply
regularly and frequently between this port and New York. The Indian
name of this town was Quinipiack. It was first settled by the English
in 1638, and was the capital of the colony of New Haven, which remained
distinct from that of Connecticut till 1665. The state legislature
meets here and at Hartford alternately. Yale College, one of the most
distinguished literary institutions in America, is established in
this city; connected with this are a theological, a medical, and a
law school. Many academies and smaller seminaries are also established
here. Population, fourteen thousand three hundred and ninety.

_New London_, a city of New London county, Connecticut, in the
south-eastern part of the state, has a fine harbor near the mouth of
the Thames. It is irregularly built, principally at the foot of a hill
facing the east. There are many pleasant sites in the higher parts of
the town, and several of the buildings are handsome; but the general
appearance of the place is not flourishing. The neighboring region is
rocky and sterile, and there are no great channels of communication
with the interior. The recent attention of the merchants to the whale
fisheries has given a considerable impulse to the place, and promises
to restore it to its former importance as a commercial city. Fort
Trumbull is situated at the south of the town, and to the east, on the
opposite side of the river, are the remains of Fort Griswold, which,
during the revolution, was the scene of a well-remembered and fearful
tragedy. Population, five thousand five hundred and twenty-eight.

_New Madrid_, now an insignificant village, though historically
interesting, is situated on the west bank of the Mississippi,
eighty-one miles below the mouth of the Ohio. This town was founded
in 1787, and was intended to become a great commercial city, and
the emporium of the vast tract of fertile country watered by the
Mississippi, the Missouri, and their branches. It was indeed happily
situated for the purpose; but the river has swept away the ground on
which it was originally placed, and the earthquakes of 1812 have sunk
the remainder of the bluff below high-water mark. It is impossible
to visit this spot, knowing any thing of its history, and not be
struck with the air of desolation it now breathes. There was a fine
lake in the rear of the town, on the banks of which public walks
and plantations of trees were planned for the accommodation of its
inhabitants; this is now a heap of sand. As the earthquakes are
occasionally recurring in this neighborhood, even to the present time,
people have been cautious in respect to settling here; but as they
are becoming more assured, New Madrid is gradually emerging from her
prostration.

_New Orleans_, the capital of the state of Louisiana, is situated
directly on the east bank of the Mississippi, one hundred and five
miles from the mouth of the river. In the year 1717, this city was
founded; and at that period, there were not, perhaps, five hundred
white inhabitants in the whole valley of the Mississippi. In the
beginning of 1788, the town contained one thousand one hundred
houses, built of wood; in March of that year, by a fire, the number
of houses was reduced in five hours to two hundred. It has been rebuilt
principally of brick, which is of so soft a nature, that the buildings
are plastered on the outside with a thick coat of mortar, and then
painted or whitewashed. Several warehouses with stone fronts have been
recently erected. The city is regularly laid out, and the streets are
generally forty feet wide, crossing each other at right angles. The
public buildings are generally elegant, commodious and expensive. There
are few churches. The Catholic cathedral is a noble edifice, ninety
feet by one hundred and twenty, with four towers. The _Place des armes_
is a beautiful green, which serves as a parade. Most of the houses
in the suburbs have fine gardens, ornamented with orange groves. The
general style of living is luxurious, and the private dwellings are
elegantly furnished. The markets are plentifully supplied with the
necessaries of life, and the luxuries of every country; but provisions
are dear.

New Orleans will become to the United States the great emporium of
commerce and wealth, if, by the draining of the marshy country in the
neighborhood, it ever becomes a healthy city. The more we contemplate
the present and prospective resourses of New Orleans, the more must
we be convinced of its future greatness. Being built in the form of
a crescent, the curve of the river constitutes a safe and commodious
harbor. Defended on one side by the river, and on the other by a swamp
that no effort can penetrate, the city can only be approached through
a defile three quarters of a mile wide.

New Orleans is gradually becoming more purely American in all its
characteristics; but many of its inhabitants are of French and Spanish
descent, and the French language is more commonly spoken than the
English. The charitable institutions of the city are highly creditable.
Education is not so much attended to as in other parts of the country;
but great improvements have been made in this respect within a few
years. The police is efficient, and scenes of disorder rarely occur.

This city is the grand commercial metropolis of the Mississippi valley.
The tributaries of the great river on which it stands afford an extent
of more than twenty thousand miles, already navigated by steamboats,
and passing through the richest soil and the pleasantest climates.
Steamboats are departing and arriving every hour, and fifty or sixty
are often seen in the harbor at one time; while many hundreds of flat
boats are seen at the levee, laden with the various productions of the
great valley. Measures have been adopted by the state legislature to
have the neighboring country well explored, for the purpose of draining,
raising, and improving it.[64] The streets of the city have been paved,
and gutters are washed by water from the river. Pop. one hundred and
two thousand one hundred and ninety three. New Orleans will probably
become the largest city of America.

_Newport_, a seaport and semi-metropolis of Rhode Island, is pleasantly
situated on the south-west end of the island of Rhode Island, thirty
miles south of Providence. During the summer months it is a place of
fashionable resort, being celebrated for the salubrity of its climate.
It formerly possessed considerable commerce, and contained more than
nine thousand inhabitants; but during the revolution, it was a long
time occupied by the enemy, and suffered severely. The principal street
is a mile in length; the houses have an antique appearance. The harbor
is very safe, sufficiently spacious for a whole fleet, and defended by
three forts. Newport was first settled in 1638. A large stone mill is
still standing here, which was erected before the date of the earliest
records. Population, eight thousand three hundred and thirty-three.

  Illustration: Asylum at Newport.

  Illustration: New York.

_New York_, the largest and most populous city in the United States,
lies in the state of that name, at the head of New York bay, about
sixteen miles from the Atlantic ocean. Manhattan island, on which the
city stands, and which is formed by the Hudson, the Hærlem, and East
rivers, with the bay on the south, is fifteen miles in length, and
from two to three in breadth. On the south-west point of the island,
overlooking the bay, is a fine public promenade, of from five to six
hundred yards in length, and one hundred and fifty in breadth, prettily
laid out in walks, and planted with trees. In the evenings it is
generally crowded with citizens, who assemble to derive the benefit
from a pleasant breeze off the water, or listen to a band that
frequently plays in the Castle garden, which is connected with the
walk by a wooden bridge. The former promenade is called the Battery,
from having, in the olden times of the Dutch settlers, or during the
revolutionary war, mounted a few guns; and the Castle garden, in a
similar manner, possessed no garden, nor could it ever have possessed
one, being a modern stone fort, with twenty-eight embrasures, built
upon a solid rock, which appeared but a short distance above the water.
This being an unprofitable kind of investment of funds, has been let
by the corporation to a publican, who has converted it to a much more
profitable use charging sixpence for admission, and giving a ticket, so
that the visitor may enjoy a stroll upon the upper platform of the fort,
admire the view, and then call for a glass of liquor at the bar. The
battery, nevertheless, is the most pleasant promenade in New York, and
excels any thing else of the kind in America. Governor’s island, about
three quarters of a mile distant in the bay, has a large stone circular
fort, with three tiers of embrasures, and is calculated for more than
one hundred guns at its western extremity.

  Illustration: Castle Garden and Battery.

Of the public buildings of New York, the City Hall, containing the
supreme court, mayor’s court, and various public offices, situated in
the park, a fine and handsome square, is the most remarkable; and being
fronted with white marble, has a beautiful effect when seen through
the trees in the park. The building is upwards of two hundred feet in
length, with a dome and tower surmounted by a statue of justice. The
Merchants’ Exchange, in Wall street, is a fine edifice, of the same
material as the front of the City Hall. The basement story is occupied
by the post-office, and above it the Exchange, eighty-five feet in
length, fifty-five in width, and forty-five in height to the dome, from
which it is lighted. The greater proportion of the other buildings in
the street, are insurance offices, banks, and exchange offices.

‘The churches in New York,’ says Lieutenant Coke, ‘are handsomer
edifices than those in the southern cities I visited, and contain some
interesting monuments. St. Paul’s, in the park, is one of the finest
in the states. In the interior, there is a tablet in the chancel to Sir
Robert Temple, baronet, the first consul general to the United States
from England, who died in the city; and one to the wife of the British
governor of New Jersey, who died during the revolution, from distress
of mind; being separated from her husband by the events of the time. In
the yard, also, there is a large Egyptian obelisk of a single block of
white marble, thirty-two feet in height, erected to Thomas A. Emmett,
an eminent counsellor at law and brother of the Irish orator who
suffered during the rebellion. When I visited New York again, some
months afterwards, one front of it was embellished with an emblematical
representation of his fortunes. Though it was in an unfinished state,
and the canvass had not been removed from before the scaffolding, I
could catch a glimpse of the representation of a hand, with a wreath
or bracelet of shamrock round the wrist, clasping one with a similar
ornament of stars, and the eagle of America sheltering the unstrung
harp of Ireland. Mr. Emmett had emigrated to the states, and settled
in New York, where he had acquired considerable reputation many years
previous to his death. There is also another monument near it, under
the portico of the church, to General Montgomery, who fell in the
unsuccessful attack upon Quebec in 1775. This monument was erected
previously to the declaration of independence by the congress; and
in 1818, when his remains were removed from Quebec to New York, and
interred at St. Paul’s, another tablet was added, recording the event;
though at the time, great doubts were entertained whether they actually
were the general’s remains which were exhumed. The matter was, however,
subsequently set at rest beyond a doubt, by the publication of a
certificate drawn up by the person who had actually buried the general
in the first instance, and who was then living in Quebec, at a very
advanced age, being the only survivor of the army which served under
Wolfe.

  Illustration: Merchants’ Exchange.

‘There is a very handsome monument, near the centre of the church-yard,
erected by Kean, of Drury Lane theatre, to Cooke, the actor. Trinity
church, which is also in Broadway, was the oldest in the city, having
been originally built in 1696, but destroyed by fire eighty years
afterwards, although from the circumstance of a monument in the
church-yard, of 1691, it appears it was used as a burial-ground some
time previously. Though not containing much above an acre of ground,
by a moderate calculation, not fewer than two hundred thousand bodies
have been buried in it. Of late years there have been no burials, and
weeping willows with various trees have been planted, which in time
will make it ornamental to the city. In one corner are the ruins of a
monument, erected but sixteen years since to Captain Lawrence, of the
American navy, who fell defending his ship, the Chesapeak, against
Sir P. Broke, in the Shannon. His body was taken to Halifax, in Nova
Scotia, and buried there with all the honors of war, the pall being the
American ensign supported by six of the senior captains in the royal
navy, then in the harbor. But the Americans immediately after sent a
vessel with a flag of truce to apply for the removal of the body, which
being granted, it was re-buried in Trinity church-yard, and the present
monument, no lasting memorial of his country’s grief, erected upon the
spot. It is a most shabby economical structure, built of brick, and
faced with white marble. The column, of the Corinthian order, is broken
short, with part of the capital lying at the base of the pedestal,
emblematic of his premature death. Owing to the summit being exposed
to the weather, the rain has gained admittance into the interior of
the brick work, and has given the column a considerable inclination
to one side. Some of the marble front also, with two sides of that of
the pedestal, have fallen down and exposed the shabby interior. Surely,
such a man deserved a monument of more durable materials.’[65]

Among the most splendid public buildings is the Masonic hall, a
Gothic edifice, in Broadway, fifty feet wide, and seventy feet high;
it is composed of the eastern gray granite. Of collegiate institutions,
Columbia college is the oldest in New York. It is finely situated on
a square ornamented with majestic trees; and the standard of classical
education here is very high. This institution possesses an estate
valued at four hundred thousand dollars. In 1831, the University of
New York was chartered; it is projected on the broad and liberal plan
of the continental universities, and promises to be of great utility.
Schools of all kinds are numerous; bible and missionary societies
are numerous and well endowed. Literary and scientific institutions
flourish. The most ancient of these is the Society Library, founded
in 1754, and containing upwards of twenty-three thousand volumes. The
Historical society was incorporated in 1809, and has collected a vast
number of important documents in relation to the country in general,
and particularly to New York. The Lyceum for Natural History, the
Clinton Hall association, and the Mercantile Library association, are
flourishing and useful institutions.

  Illustration: Masonic Hall.

The Academy of Arts was chartered in 1808. It has two exhibitions
annually. The library consists of books of views, designs and drawings,
relating chiefly to antique subjects. Among the presidents of this
institution have been Edward Livingston, De Witt Clinton, and John
Trumbull. The National Academy was founded in 1826, and, with a
few exceptions, is altogether composed of artists. Of the dramatic
entertainments of the city, we can say but little. The Park theatre
is the place of most fashionable resort; it is a spacious edifice,
adjoining the park. It is eighty feet long, and one hundred and
sixty-five feet deep. The Bowery theatre is well attended. An opera
house has been recently built.

The number of insurance offices in this city is upwards of forty. In
1827, the total of banking capital amounted to about sixteen millions
of dollars. Several new banks have been since chartered, and this
amount has been much increased. For its advantage of inland and
external commerce, no city in the United States can be compared with
New York. The number of vessels that arrived here from foreign parts
during the first eight months of the year 1833, was thirteen hundred
and forty-five, and the number of passengers was over thirty-two
thousand. In 1832, the number of arrivals from foreign parts during
the whole year, was one thousand eight hundred and ten; in 1829, it was
thirteen hundred and four, being forty-one less in the whole year than
during the first eight months of 1833.

The population of New York in 1697, was four thousand three hundred
and two; in 1756, thirteen thousand and forty; in 1790, thirty-three
thousand and thirty-one; in 1800, sixty thousand four hundred
and eighty-nine; in 1810, ninety-six thousand three hundred and
seventy-three; in 1820, one hundred and twenty-three thousand seven
hundred and six; in 1825, one hundred and sixty-six thousand and
eighty-six; and in 1830, two hundred and seven thousand and twenty-one.
Its present population is three hundred and thirteen thousand six
hundred and twenty-nine.

_Norfolk_, the commercial capital of Virginia, is situated on the
east side of Elizabeth river, immediately below the junction of its
two main branches, and eight miles above Hampton roads. The town lies
low, and is in some places marshy, though the principal streets are
well paved. Among the public buildings are a theatre, three banks,
an academy, marine hospital, athenæum, and six churches. The harbor,
which is capacious and safe, is defended by several forts. One is
on Craney island, near the mouth of Elizabeth river. There are also
fortifications at Hampton roads; the principal of which, Fort Calhoun,
is not yet completed. Population, ten thousand five hundred and
seventy-three.

_Northampton_ is a post and shire town of Hampshire county,
Massachusetts, on the west bank of Connecticut river, and ninety-five
miles from Boston. Its population in 1840 was three thousand six
hundred and seventy-two. It is built chiefly on two broad streets,
in which are situated the churches and county buildings. This town is
very beautiful, consisting of a number of villas of various sizes, and
of pleasing, though irregular architecture, seeming to vie with each
other in the taste and elegance of their external decorations. There
is primitive white limestone in the vicinity, and much of the pavement
and steps are of white marble. The trees in the neighborhood of the
town are single spreading trees, principally elms, and of considerable
age; the roads are wide, and the footpaths are excellent everywhere.
Northampton is surrounded by rising grounds; but mount Holyoke,
situated on the opposite side of the Connecticut river, is the hill
which all strangers ascend, for the sake of the extensive and beautiful
prospect from its summit. The valley that lies at its base, contains
the most extensive and beautiful plain in New England, well cultivated
and populous. The spires of thirty churches are seen from the top of
mount Holyoke, and in a clear day the hills of New Haven are distinctly
visible. Round Hill school, in this town, is an institution of some
note, somewhat on the plan of a German gymnasium. There are two banks
here, woolen manufactories, an insurance office, and a printing office;
the public houses are good, and the town is somewhat a place of summer
resort.

_Norwich_, a city of New London county, Connecticut, situated at
the head of navigation on Thames river, contains three compact
settlements; of which Chelsea Landing, situate at the point of land
between the Shetucket and Yantic rivers, is the principal. Its location
is peculiarly romantic; and it is a place of much enterprise and
business. What is called the town is two miles north-west of Chelsea,
containing the court house, and some other public buildings; and the
third settlement is Bean Hill, in the western part of Norwich. The
city contains a bank, four or five churches, and several manufacturing
establishments. The Yantic falls, one mile from Chelsea, are beautiful,
and afford facilities for mills and manufactories. From a rock seventy
or eighty feet in height, which overhangs the stream, tradition says a
number of Narragansetts once precipitated themselves when pursued by
the Mohegans.

On an elevated bank, north of what is called the cove, and near
the Yantic falls, is the burying-ground of the royal family of the
Mohegans, commonly called ‘the burying-ground of the Uncasses.’ Many
of their graves are still designated by coarse stones; on some of
which are English inscriptions. Uncas was buried here, and many of his
descendants; but his family is now nearly extinct. There are one or two
living who claim a kindred, but who have very little of the magnanimity
or valor for which he was so conspicuous. Population of Norwich, seven
thousand two hundred and thirty-nine.

_Pawtucket_, a town of Bristol county, Massachusetts, four miles
north-east of Providence, Rhode Island. It is finely situated on the
falls of Pawtucket river, near the Blackstone canal, and is one of
the most extensive manufacturing places in the union. It contains
numerous cotton factories, and shops for machinery, and other purposes.
Population, two thousand one hundred and eighty-four.

_Pensacola_, the capital of West Florida, and naval station of the
United States, is situated on the north-west shore of the bay of the
same name. It was founded by a Spanish officer in 1699, and is built
in the form of a parallelogram, nearly a mile in length. The harbor is
safe and commodious, and the anchorage is good, though toward shore the
water is generally shallow. It is regarded as a comparatively healthy
place. Population, about two thousand.

_Petersburg_, a borough and port of entry, in Dinwiddie county,
Virginia, on the south bank of the Appomatox. The river is navigable
to this point for vessels of one hundred tons. In 1815, three hundred
buildings were destroyed by fire. It has since been rebuilt of brick,
and the new houses are generally three stories in height; it is of
the first class of towns in Virginia, and presents an appearance of
enterprise and wealth. Population, eleven thousand one hundred and
thirty-six.

_Philadelphia_, the second city in size and population in the United
States, is situated in a county of the same name, five miles above the
junction of the Schuylkill and Delaware rivers, and, by the course of
the river, about one hundred and twenty miles distant from the Atlantic
ocean. It was founded by William Penn, in 1682, and was originally
laid out in the shape of a parallelogram, two miles in length by one in
breadth. The city now extends from the lower part of Southwark to the
upper part of Kensington, about four miles, and from one river to the
other. For municipal purposes, the legislature has, from time to time,
established corporate governments in different parts of the suburbs,
so that Philadelphia is divided into the following districts: the
corporations of the city of Philadelphia, of the Northern Liberties,
Kensington, Spring Garden, Southwark, and Moyamensing. The municipal
government of the city proper is vested in a mayor, a recorder,
fifteen aldermen, and a select and common council, besides subordinate
executive officers.

‘Philadelphia, the reverse of Lisbon,’ says a recent English traveller,
‘at first presents no beauties; no domes or turrets rise in the air to
break the uniform stiff roof-line of the private dwellings; and, if I
remember right, the only buildings which show their lofty heads above
the rest, are the state house, Christ church, (both built prior to the
revolution,) a presbyterian meeting-house, and a shot tower. The city,
therefore, when viewed from the water, and at a distance, presents any
thing but a picturesque appearance. It is somewhat singular, too, that
there should be such a scarcity of spires, and conspicuous buildings,
there being no fewer than ninety places of worship, besides hospitals,
and charitable institutions in great numbers. In place, too, of noble
piers and quays of solid masonry, which we might reasonably expect
to find in a city containing near one hundred and forty-thousand
inhabitants, and holding the second rank in commercial importance in
North America, there are but some shabby wharves and piers of rough
piles of timber, jutting out in unequal lengths and shapes, from one
end to the other of the river front; and these, again, are backed
by large piles of wooden warehouses, and mean-looking stores. On the
narrow space between them and the water, are hundreds of negro porters,
working at vast heaps of iron bars, barrels of flour, cotton bags, and
all the various merchandise imported or exported, singing, in their
strange broken English tone of voice, some absurd chorus.

‘Fifty paces hence, the stranger enters the city, which possesses an
interior almost unrivalled in the world. On walking through the fine
broad streets, with rows of locust or other trees, which, planted on
the edge of the causeway, form a most delightful shade, and take away
the glare of the brick buildings, he is struck immediately with the
air of simplicity, yet strength and durability which all the public
edifices possess, while the private dwellings, with their neat white
marble steps and window sills, bespeak wealth and respectability. The
neatness too, of the dress of every individual, with the total absence
of those lazy and dirty vagabonds who ever infest our towns, and loiter
about the corners of all the public streets, passing insolent remarks
upon every well-dressed man, or even unattended female, impress a
foreigner with a most pleasing and favorable idea of an American city.

‘The river in front of the town is about a mile wide, but the channel
is considerably contracted by an island, which extends nearly the
full length of the town, and, consequently renders the navigation more
intricate. It is prettily planted with trees, and a ship has been run
ashore at one end and converted into a tavern, a house being raised
upon the upper deck. It was quite a gala day, numerous steam vessels
and rowing boats proceeding up the stream to Kensington (part of the
suburbs,) and we arrived just in time to see a large ship, of six
hundred tons burthen, glide gracefully from the stocks.

‘I now commenced visiting all the public institutions. Of charitable
societies the number is amazing; probably no city in the world, of the
same population, possesses an equal number. It may be truly said, that
it deserves its name of “Philadelphia;” there are upwards of thirty
humane institutions and societies for the relief of the poor and
orphans, besides above one hundred and fifty mutual benefit societies,
on the principle of the English clubs; being associations of tradesmen
and artisans for the support of each other in sickness, each member
contributing monthly or weekly a small sum to the general fund. Of
the public institutions, the “Pennsylvania Hospital” is on the most
extensive scale. It is situated in a central part of the city, near
Washington square, and was founded eighty-two years since, Benjamin
Franklin being its greatest promoter. It contains an excellent
library of about seven thousand volumes; and it is calculated that
about fourteen hundred patients are annually admitted into it, of
which number three fifths are paupers; the remainder paying for the
advantages they derive from the institution. The building occupies
an immense extent of ground, and on three sides of it an open space
is left for a free circulation of air; the west end of the building
is a ward for insane patients, of whom there are generally more than
one hundred. The necessary funds for the support of the hospital are
derived from the interest of its capital stock, and from the exhibition
of West’s splendid painting of Christ healing the sick, which produces
about five hundred dollars per annum and is exhibited in a building on
the northern side of the hospital square.’

The United States bank is a splendid edifice, built on the plan of the
Parthenon at Athens. Its length is one hundred and sixty-one, and its
breadth eighty-seven feet. The main entrance is from Chesnut street,
by a flight of six marble steps, extending along the whole front of
the portico, which is supported by fluted columns four and a half feet
in diameter. In the centre of the building is the banking room, which
is eighty-one feet long, and forty-eight feet wide. The whole body of
the edifice is arched in a bomb-proof manner, from the cellar to the
roof, which is covered with copper. The New Bank of Pennsylvania is
an extensive and elegant edifice of marble of the Ionic order, and
constructed after the model of the ancient temple of the Muses, on the
Ilyssus. There are at present seventeen banking houses within the city
and the incorporated districts, with an aggregate capital of more than
twenty millions of dollars.

The Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb is one of the most conspicuous
edifices in the city. The association was established in April, 1820,
and was incorporated in the following year. Philadelphia now contains
about one hundred churches, few of which are distinguished for size,
extent, or architectural beauty.

  Illustration: Deaf and Dumb Asylum.

The state house, in which the continental congress sat, and from
whence the Declaration of Independence issued, is still standing. It
is located in Chesnut street, is built of brick, comprising a centre
and two wings, and has undergone no material alteration since its first
erection. It has a venerable appearance, and is surmounted by a cupola,
having a clock, the dial of which is glass, and is illuminated at night
until ten or eleven o’clock, showing the hour and minutes until that
time. The front is a considerable distance back from the street, the
walk being paved to the curb-stone with brick, and two elegant rows
of trees extending its whole length. East of the main entrance, in the
front room, the sessions of congress were held, and the question of
independence decided.

The arcade contains Peale’s museum, one of the best in the United
States, comprising the most complete skeleton of the mammoth perhaps
in the world. It is perfect, with the exception of a few bones, which
have been supplied by imitating the others. This skeleton was found in
Ulster county, New York.

The Academy of Arts, in Chesnut street, contains a large number of
paintings, several of which are the property of Joseph Bonaparte. Among
these is one executed by David, representing Napoleon crossing the Alps.
Another is a full-length portrait of Joseph himself, as king of Spain.

  Illustration: Academy of Arts.

It is to Franklin that the city is indebted for its great library,
which now numbers about thirty-five thousand volumes. It was
incorporated in 1742, and in 1790, the present neat edifice was erected
on the east side of Fifth street, opposite the state house square.
The Athenæum is a valuable institution, established in 1814; it has a
collection of about five thousand five hundred volumes, and more than
seventy newspapers and periodical journals are regularly received in
its reading room. The Philosophical society has a collection of six
thousand, and the Academy of Natural Sciences a collection of five
thousand volumes. The University of Pennsylvania is distinguished
for its medical school, which is attended by a class of from four to
five hundred. The United States Mint was established in 1791, and by
successive acts of congress has been continued at Philadelphia. In 1829,
a new building for the mint was commenced in Chesnut street; it has but
recently been completed. It is of the Ionic order, and modelled after
a celebrated Grecian temple.[66]

  Illustration: Franklin Institute.

Of the public works of Philadelphia, there is none of which its
inhabitants are most justly proud than those at Fair Mount, by which
the city is supplied with water of the best quality, in the greatest
plenty. Fair Mount is in the rear of the city upon the bank of the
Schuylkill. The reservoirs are situated on the top of a hill rising
from the river, a part of it perpendicular rock, upwards of one hundred
feet. They contain upwards of twelve millions of gallons, supplying the
city through between fifteen and twenty miles of pipes. The water was
formerly forced to the reservoirs by steam, which is no longer used; it
is now raised by machinery propelled by the Schuylkill. The machinery
is simple, and is turned by large water wheels, whose speed may be
graduated to any required number of revolutions per minute; if all are
in motion, they will raise seven millions of gallons in twenty-four
hours. To turn them, the Schuylkill has been dammed its whole breadth,
by which the water is thrown back into a reservoir lock, whence it is
admitted as required to operate upon the wheels, and is discharged into
the river below the dam. The whole expense of these works, including
estimated cost of works abandoned, was one million seven hundred and
eighty-three thousand. The quantity of water which they disseminate
through the city, is not only sufficient for every family, but is used
to wash the streets. It is of immense service in case of fire, as it
is only necessary to screw the hose to hydrants, which are placed at
convenient distances, to secure a constant stream of sufficient force
to reach an ordinary height.

  Illustration: Fair Mount Water-Works.

There are three prisons in Philadelphia, one in Walnut street, a second
in Arch street, and the Eastern Penitentiary. The latter is situated on
high ground near the city, and is designed to carry the principle of
solitary confinement into effect. The system pursued here will be fully
explained in a different portion of the volume. Ten acres are occupied
by the establishment, inclosed by massive walls of granite, thirty-five
feet high, with towers and battlements.

  Illustration: Eastern Penitentiary.

There are two bridges across the Schuylkill, both of which are
substantial and elegant structures. The Fair Mount bridge consists
of a single arch, of three hundred and forty feet in length. The whole
length of that on Market street, is one thousand three hundred feet,
including abutments and wing walls.

  Illustration: Upper Ferry Bridge.

The public markets form a very striking feature of the city. One
is nearly two thirds of a mile in extent. The harbor of Philadelphia
possesses many natural advantages, though it is more liable to be
impeded by ice than either that of New York or Baltimore. The Delaware
is not navigable for the first class of ships of the line. For the
amount of its commerce, Philadelphia is the fourth city in the United
States.

By the will of the late Stephen Girard, Philadelphia received large
bequests of land and money, to be appropriated to purposes of public
improvement. To the Pennsylvania Hospital he gave thirty thousand
dollars; to the city, for city improvements, five hundred thousand
dollars; for a college for poor white male children, and its endowments,
two millions. He made further donations to the city of unimproved lands
in the western territories, and stock in the Schuylkill navigation
company, valued at the sum of six hundred thousand dollars.

By the census of 1810, the population of Philadelphia was ninety-six
thousand six hundred and sixty-four; in 1840 it was two hundred and
thirty-five thousand.

_Pittsburg_, a city and capital of Alleghany county, Pennsylvania,
two hundred and ninety-seven miles west by north of Philadelphia, is
situated on a beautiful plain at the junction of the Alleghany and
Monongahela rivers. It is built on the old site of the famous fort Du
Quesne, whose ruins are still seen in the neighborhood. The situation
of Pittsburg is as advantageous as can well be imagined; it is the key
to the western country, and, excepting New Orleans and Cincinnati, is
the first town of the whole valley of the Mississippi. It was created
a city by the legislature of Pennsylvania, at the session of 1816.
The principal cause which has contributed, after its fine position, to
ensure the prosperity of, Pittsburg, is the exhaustless mass of mineral
coal that exists in its neighborhood. The beds are 340 feet above
low water level, and about two hundred and ninety above the level of
the town. The great abundance of this valuable material has converted
Pittsburg into a vast workshop, and a warehouse for the immense
country below, upon the Ohio and the other large rivers of the valley.
According to a list recently published in one of the Pittsburg papers,
there are in operation in that city, and in its immediate vicinity,
eighty-nine steam engines, on which there are two thousand one hundred
and eleven hands employed, and coal consumed to the amount of one
hundred and fifty-four thousand two hundred and fifty bushels per month.
The great use of this coal has given a general dinginess of appearance
to the town, arising from the smoke. The inhabitants of Pittsburg
present specimens of almost every nation; they are distinguished for
economy and industry. The Western university was established here in
1820. Among the buildings are three or four banks, a small theatre,
a public library, and houses of worship for various sects. Population,
twenty-one thousand two hundred and ninety-six.

_Pittsfield_, a town of Berkshire county, Massachusetts, situated on a
hill at the junction of the principal branches of the Housatonic river.
It contains a bank, an academy, a medical institution, and several
extensive manufactories, among which is one of muskets, where arms have
been frequently made for the United States. Population, four thousand
and sixty.

_Plattsburg_, capital of Clinton county, New York, situated on a fine
bay on the west side of lake Champlain, is handsomely laid out and
contains a bank and several manufactories. It is celebrated in the
history of the late war with Great Britain. Population, 6,416.

_Plymouth_, a port of entry and shire town of Plymouth county,
Massachusetts, is the oldest town in New England, having been settled
by the pilgrims who landed from the Mayflower, December 22d, 1620. It
stands on a fine harbor of the same name, thirty-six miles south-east
of Boston. Though often divided, the township is still sixteen miles
long, and five broad. The Indian name was Accomack. It is a place of
considerable commerce, and contains some manufacturing establishments.
The harbor is large, but shallow, and in 1832 an appropriation was made
by government to repair it. One of the principal buildings is Pilgrim’s
hall, which was erected by the Pilgrim society. A part of the rock on
which the pilgrims landed, has been conveyed to the centre of the town.
Population, five thousand one hundred and eighty.

_Portland_, a port of entry, and commercial metropolis of Maine, in
Cumberland county, is situated on an elevated peninsula in Casco bay.
It has an excellent and spacious harbor, dotted with numerous islands,
and defended by two forts. The town is well laid out, and neatly built.
Among the public buildings are, that formerly occupied as the state
house, a court house, town hall, a theatre, alms-house, six banks,
fifteen churches, a custom-house, academy, and an athenæum, in which
is a library of about three thousand volumes. Much attention is here
paid to education, and there are many good schools. Portland has
considerable commerce, the chief articles of export being fish and
lumber. Its shipping amounts to about forty-five thousand tons. In
1775, this town, then called Falmouth, was set on fire by the British,
and about two thirds of the houses were destroyed. It was incorporated
under its present name in 1786. Population, fifteen thousand two
hundred and eighteen.

  Illustration: Mariners’ Church, Portland.

_Portsmouth_, in Rockingham county, New Hampshire, is the largest
town in the state, and the only seaport. It is situated on a beautiful
peninsula on the south side of Piscataqua river, three miles from
the sea. Its harbor is one of the best on the continent, having
a sufficient depth of water for vessels of any burden. It is well
protected by fort Constitution and fort M‘Clary; there are also, three
other forts, built for the defence of the harbor, but not garrisoned.
There is a light-house on Great island. This town has a number of
churches and other public buildings, but none of any great pretensions.
It has suffered severely from fires at different periods. The first
settlement was made here in 1623, and, ten years afterwards, the town
was incorporated by charter. The first ship of the line built in the
United States, was built here during the revolution; it was called the
North America. On Navy island, on the side of the Piscataqua, opposite
to the town, is a navy yard of the United States. The amount of
shipping owned in New Hampshire in 1828, amounted to above twenty-six
thousand tons; and of this nearly all must have belonged to Portsmouth.
Population, seven thousand eight hundred and eighty-four.

_Poughkeepsie_, in Dutchess county, New York, seventy-five miles
south of Albany, is situated one mile on the Hudson river, and was
incorporated in 1801. The village is handsomely situated, and a place
of considerable trade. It is laid out in the form of a cross, the two
principal streets cutting each other at right angles. The trade at the
landings employs a number of packets. This town contains the county
buildings, five churches, an academy, a bank, and several factories.
Population, ten thousand and six.

_Providence_, city and seaport in the county of the same name, in
Rhode Island, is situated at the head of tide water of Narragansett
bay, about thirty miles from the Atlantic ocean, and forty miles
south-south-west of Boston. In point of population it is the second
town in New England. The town is built on both sides of what is
commonly called Providence river; and vessels of nine hundred tons
burden can come to the wharves. Many of the private residences in
this town are finely situated, and of beautiful appearance. The chief
public buildings are the state house, the arcade, fourteen houses of
public worship, the halls of Brown university, an asylum, five public
school-houses, and several large manufacturing establishments. The
arcade is a splendid edifice of granite, with two fronts presenting
colonnades of the pure Doric order. The building is two hundred and
twenty-two feet in length, extending from street to street. Brown
university was incorporated in 1769, and, under its present government,
promises to take a high stand as a literary institution. The college
buildings stand on a lofty elevation, and the approach to them is
through a street decorated with fine mansions and elegant gardens.

  Illustration: Providence Arcade.

Providence became early distinguished as a place of commercial
promise. During the first six months of the year 1791, the duties paid
on imports and tonnage amounted to nearly sixty thousand dollars; in
1831, the whole amount collected was about two hundred and twenty-seven
thousand. There are four insurance companies. The aggregate capital of
the banks, which are fifteen in number, is four and a half millions; to
this we may add eight hundred thousand dollars, which form the capital
of the Branch bank of the United States, and one hundred thousand
belonging to the Savings bank. The Blackstone canal, which extends to
Worcester, in Massachusetts, was completed in 1828; its whole cost was
seven hundred thousand dollars. Providence is most distinguished for
its manufactures, which are very numerous, and embrace many varieties
of articles. Capitalists of the city have also about two million of
dollars invested in manufactures of other towns. The settlement of
this place was commenced as early as 1636, by Roger Williams, a puritan
clergyman who had been settled at Salem, but who had been banished
beyond the jurisdiction of Massachusetts, on account of his contending
for entire and unrestricted freedom in matters of religion. The
population of Providence is twenty-three thousand and forty-two.

_Quincy_, in Norfolk county, Massachusetts, was settled in 1625, under
the name of Mount Wollaston. Extensive quarries of fine granite are
wrought here; the first rail-road constructed in America was built for
the purpose of conveying the granite from the quarry to the landing.
This town is very pleasant, and contains many handsome country seats;
among which is that of ex-president Adams. Population, three thousand
three hundred and nine.

_Raleigh_, city and capital of North Carolina, in Wake county, near
the west bank of the river Neuse, is pleasantly situated in an elevated
tract of country. Besides the government buildings, it contains other
convenient and elegant public edifices. In the centre of the town is
a large square, from which extend four wide streets, dividing the town
into quarters. In the centre of this square stood the state house, with
the splendid statue of Washington, by Canova; the edifice was burnt
down in 1831, and the statue almost destroyed. In the neighborhood of
the town is an excellent quarry of granite. Population, one thousand
seven hundred.

_Reading_, the capital of Berks county, Pennsylvania, is a beautiful
town, situated on Schuylkill river, fifty-four miles north-west of
Philadelphia, on the road to lake Erie. It is a flourishing place,
regularly laid out and inhabited chiefly by Germans; it contains the
usual county buildings, an elegant church for German Lutherans, another
for Calvinists, one for Roman Catholics, a meeting-house for Friends,
and other public edifices. In the neighborhood of this town are a
number of fulling mills, and several iron works. Population, eight
thousand seven hundred and fourteen.

_Richmond_, the metropolis of Virginia, and seat of justice for
Henrico county, is situated at the falls of James river, on the north
side, one hundred and fifty miles above its mouth, and contains twelve
thousand inhabitants. The site is very uneven, and the situation is
healthy, beautiful and picturesque. On the opposite side of the river
is Manchester, connected with Richmond by two bridges. The falls and
rapids extend nearly six miles, in which distance the river descends
eighty feet. A canal with three locks is cut on the north side of
the river, terminating at the town in a basin of about two acres.
Few cities situated so far from the sea, possess better commercial
advantages than Richmond, being at the head of tide water, on a river
navigable for batteaux, two hundred and twenty miles above the city.
The back country is fertile, and abundant in the production of tobacco,
wheat, corn, hemp, and coal. Some of the principal buildings are
the capitol, penitentiary, armory, court house, and eight houses of
public worship. The capitol stands on a commanding situation, and is
a conspicuous object to the surrounding country. In 1811, the theatre
at Richmond took fire during an exhibition, and in the conflagration,
seventy-two persons lost their lives, among whom was the governor of
the state. An elegant Episcopal church of brick, styled the Monumental
Church, has been erected on the spot, with a monument in front,
commemorative of the melancholy event. Population, 20,152.

_Rochester_, in Monroe county, in the western part of New York, is
the most populous and important village in the state. Its growth has
been wonderfully rapid. Thirty years ago there was a wild uninhabited
tract, where now is a flourishing population of more than twenty
thousand people. This growth has been owing to the passage of the Erie
canal through the town, thus furnishing a conveyance to the numerous
manufactures which the great water power of the Gennessee enabled them
to carry on. The canal crosses the river three hundred yards above the
falls. For the distance of three quarters of a mile in the village,
the river is walled with hammer-dressed stone, to the height of from
ten to twenty feet. The power which is furnished by this river, in the
course of two miles at this place, at low water, is equal to that of
six hundred and forty steam engines of twenty horse-power each. The
manufactories are very numerous; they consist of sixteen flour mills,
four woolen factories, two of cotton, three marble, and others of
almost every description. There are twelve religious and seventeen
benevolent societies; the literary institutions are numerous, and there
are many well-conducted schools. The receipts of the canal toll office
of this town are larger than those of any town in the state, except
Albany. Population in 1815, three hundred and thirty-one; in 1840,
twenty thousand one hundred and ninety-one.[67]

_Rutland_, seat of justice of Rutland county, Vermont, is a village of
irregular form, and was first settled in 1770. During the revolution,
two picket forts were built here. There are quarries of blue and white
marble, in a range extending from Berkshire county, Massachusetts.
Population, two thousand seven hundred and eight.

_Saco_, port of entry in York county, Maine, is situated at the head of
tide water on Saco river. The falls at this place afford a great water
power, and carry many saw mills; numerous factories might be erected on
the shore. The lumber trade of this town is extensive and profitable.
Population, four thousand four hundred and eight.

_St. Augustine_, city of Florida, situated on the Atlantic shore of
that territory, is the oldest settlement in North America, having been
founded by the Spaniards forty years before the landing of the English
at Jameston, in Virginia. The breakers at the entrance of the harbor
have formed two channels, whose bars have eight feet of water each.
A fort, mounting thirty-six guns, defends the town. When Florida was
ceded to the United States, in 1821, the number of inhabitants was
about two thousand five hundred, and it has not increased.

_St. Genevieve_, a town of Missouri in the county of the same name, is
situated on the second bank of the Mississippi, about one mile from the
river, and twenty-one miles below Herculaneum. It was commenced about
the year 1774, and is a depot for most of the mines in the neighborhood,
and the store-house from whence are drawn the supplies of the miners.
Its site is a handsome plain; the little river Gabourie, whose two
branches form a junction between the town and the river, waters it on
its upper and lower margins. The common field, inclosed and cultivated
by the citizens, contains about six thousand acres. A road runs from
this town to the lead mines, and the greater part of the inhabitants
have an interest in, or are employed in some way in, the lead trade.
Population about one thousand five hundred.

_St. Louis_, the principal town of Missouri stands nearly in the centre
of the Great Valley on the right bank of the Mississippi, seventeen
miles below the mouth of the Missouri, one hundred and seventy-five
above the mouth of the Ohio, one thousand three hundred and fifty
miles from the Gulf of Mexico, and eight hundred and fifty from
Washington. It was founded in 1774, but remained a mere village while
under the French and Spanish colonial governments. It has easy water
communication with the country at the foot of the Rocky Mountains, two
thousand six hundred miles distant, by the course of the river, on one
side, and with Quebec and New-York, between one thousand eight hundred,
and two thousand miles, on the other; and with New-Orleans, one
thousand two hundred and fifty, to the south, and Fort Snelling, eight
hundred and sixty miles to the north. The site of the town rises gently
from the water, and is bounded on the west by an extensive plain. The
buildings mostly occupy several parallel streets beside the river.
Here are a Catholic College, and several other seminaries of learning.
The Catholic Cathedral is a magnificent structure. The hospital, and
orphan asylum, under the care of the sisters of Charity, the convent of
the Sacred Heart, the City Hall, &c., are among the public buildings.
The population is twenty-one thousand, five hundred and eighty five,
including many Germans and French.

The fur-trade, the lead mines, the supplies for the Indians, create a
good deal of business here, and St. Louis is the emporium of the vast
regions on the upper Mississippi and the Missouri.

The manufactures are also extensive and increasing, and the abundance
of coal in the neighborhood, and the mineral wealth of the State, must
make this an important branch of industry.――There is a United States
arsenal just below the city, and five miles distant are _Jefferson
Barracks_, an important military station.

_Salem_, a seaport, and capital of Essex county, Massachusetts, in
proportion to its size, is one of the wealthiest towns in the United
States. The pop. fifteen thousand and fifty-one. It is chiefly built
on a tongue of land formed by two inlets from the sea, called North
and South rivers; over the former of which is a bridge one thousand
five hundred feet long, connecting Salem with Beverly, and the latter
forms the harbor. The situation is low, but pleasant and healthy. The
appearance of the town is irregular, the streets having been laid out
with little regard to symmetry or beauty. The public buildings, among
which are fifteen houses of public worship, are neat, but not splendid.
The private houses have generally the appearance of neatness, comfort,
and convenience, and many of them indicate taste and opulence. The town
was formerly built almost wholly of wood, but a large proportion of the
houses, erected within the last twenty years, are of brick.

The Marine museum is a valuable collection of rare curiosities,
collected from all quarters of the globe, and presented by the members
of the East India society. The number of banks in this town is eight;
there are six insurance companies. Three semi-weekly and two weekly
papers are published. There are sixteen tanneries, eleven rope and
twine factories, two white lead factories, and a chemical laboratory.
Much attention is here paid to education, the schools being very
numerous and well supported. With the exception of Plymouth, Salem
is the oldest settlement in New England. It was founded in 1628. Its
Indian name was Naumkeag, and this name it long retained.

_Salina_, a post township, and seat of justice of Onondaga county, New
York, includes Onondaga lake, and the principal salt springs in the
state. Very extensive works have been established for several years;
the number of manufactories of salt by artificial heat is one hundred
and thirty-five. In 1831, the amount of salt manufactured was nearly a
million and a half of bushels. These waters are owned by the state of
New York, and a duty of twelve and a half cents per bushel is exacted
on all the salt manufactured from them. From sixteen to twenty-five
ounces of salt are obtained from a gallon of water. Most of the salt
hitherto made has been very fine. The price is about twenty-five cents
a bushel. This township includes four considerable villages, which
contain eleven thousand and thirteen inhabitants.

_Saratoga_, in a county of the same name in New York, is a pleasant
town, and presents a surface agreeably diversified with ranges of hills.
It is memorable for the surrender of Burgoyne to General Gates, on the
seventeenth of October, 1777. Population, two thousand six hundred and
twenty-four.

_Saratoga Springs_, an incorporated village in Saratoga county, New
York, and the great fashionable resort during summer, on account of its
mineral waters. The springs are numerous, and the accommodations for
visitors extensive; but the surrounding country has few attractions.
The village is built on a low sandy plain. Population, three thousand
three hundred and eighty-four.

_Saugerties_, a town of Ulster county, New York, crossed by Esopus
creek. One mile west of it is the village, and at its mouth are
extensive manufacturing establishments, supplied with water by a
canal cut deep through a rock round the head of the falls, and leading
into an artificial basin. The creek is navigable for sloops to these
mills. The inhabitants are generally of Dutch descent. Population, six
thousand two hundred and sixteen.

  Illustration: Barclay’s Iron Works, Saugerties.

_Savannah_, in Chatham county, a port of entry, and the principal
emporium of Georgia, is situated on the river of the same name,
seventeen miles from its mouth. It is built on a sandy cliff, elevated
forty feet above low tide. Vessels drawing fourteen feet of water come
up to the city; larger vessels stop three miles below. The city is
regularly laid out, and contains ten squares, that, with the public
walks, are planted with the Pride of China trees, which contribute
much to the salubrity, comfort and ornament of the place. The streets
are unpaved, and very sandy. The principal public buildings are a
court house, exchange, academy, and ten houses of public worship. The
exchange is a brick building of five stories. The new Presbyterian
church is a very elegant and, spacious edifice of stone The city, a
few years ago, was built almost wholly of wood, with very few elegant
houses; but a large proportion of the houses recently erected are
handsomely built of brick. Population, eleven thousand two hundred and
fourteen.

  Illustration: Interior of Presbyterian Church.

_Saybrook_, in Middlesex county, Connecticut, and the spot of the first
settlement in the state, was founded in 1635. The ground was early laid
out for a city, and it was supposed that it would become a place of
commercial importance. Granite quarries near to navigable waters are
found in the vicinity. Population, three thousand four hundred and
seventeen.

_Schenectady_, a city in Schenectady county, New York, about sixteen
miles north-west of Albany, is regularly built, and a pleasant and
flourishing place. The Erie canal passes through it, and communication
with the Hudson is facilitated by the rail-road to Albany; the
rail-road to Saratoga is much travelled during the warm season. Many
lines of stage coaches pass through this city. Union college was
incorporated in 1794, and is a highly respectable institution. This
town was one of the earliest settlements in New York; it was built on
the site of a Mohawk village. Population, six thousand seven hundred
and eighty-four.

_Springfield_, seat of justice in Hampden county, Massachusetts, is
a flourishing town, standing at the foot of a high hill, the side of
which is ornamented with fine buildings, the residences of some of the
wealthier inhabitants, and the top occupied by the United States armory.
This establishment occupies a large space of ground, and commands a
fine view. In 1786, during the rebellion of Shays, he attacked the
armory, at the head of a strong party of undisciplined men. General
Shepard, who had command at the place, attempted to dissuade them from
their attempt, and finally drove them off by firing twice. The first
shot, over their heads, dispersed the raw troops, and the second drove
off the remainder, who, being about two hundred revolutionary soldiers,
did not desist until they had lost a few of their men. This was the
first check the insurrection received, which was put down without much
subsequent trouble.

Besides the usual county buildings, Springfield contains four churches,
and two insurance offices. It is a thriving seat of manufactures, and
in the division of the town called Chickapee village, there are four
large cotton factories, and a bleaching establishment. Three of the
factories give employment to six hundred persons. In this village there
are also iron works. Population of Springfield, eleven thousand and
thirteen.

_Springfield_, the capital of Illinois, near the centre of the State,
and on the border of a beautiful prairie, is the most important town
in the interior. Its principal growth has been within ten years past.
It contains a State house, for the erection of which $50,000 has been
appropriated; a court house; market house, on a fine public square;
a jail, a U. S. land office, 6 churches, 3 academies, and 3 printing
offices. Population 2579.

_Steubenville_, seat of justice of Jefferson county, Ohio, situated on
the first and second banks of the Ohio river, was regularly laid out in
1798. It is a flourishing and pleasant place. Population, 5,203.

_Tallahassee_, seat of government of Florida territory, is situated in
Middle Florida, about twenty-five miles north of Apalachee bay. It was
incorporated as a city in 1825. It is pleasantly situated in a fertile
neighborhood, and on a site considerably elevated. Population, about
one thousand two hundred.

_Taunton_, shire town of Bristol county, Massachusetts, is pleasantly
situated on Taunton river, which is navigable to this place for
sloops. The first settlement was made here in 1637; the Indian name was
Cohannet. It is a handsome and flourishing town, with excellent water
power and numerous manufactories; the nail factories make from eight to
ten tons daily. The first important iron works in America were erected
here. Population, seven thousand five hundred and twenty-four.

_Ticonderoga_, a town of Essex county, New York, ninety-six miles north
of Albany. There is a valuable iron mine in this township. Ticonderoga
fort, famous in the American wars, stands on an elevation on the west
side of lake Champlain, north of the entrance of the outlet from lake
George. Considerable vestiges of the fortress still remain, of which a
description is given in another part of the volume. About a mile south
of the fort, stands mount Defiance, and mount Independence is half a
mile distant on the opposite side of the lake. Population, 2,169.

_Trenton_, city of Hunterdon county, New Jersey, and capital of the
state, is situated on the east bank of the river Delaware, opposite
the falls, thirty-one miles from Philadelphia, and sixty from New York.
It is a handsome town, standing nearly in the centre of the state,
from north to south, and at the head of sloop navigation; the river not
being navigable above the falls, except for boats carrying from five
to seven hundred bushels of wheat. The streets are very commodious,
and the houses neatly built. The public buildings are, the state
house, two banks, and six churches. In the neighborhood are a number
of gentlemen’s seats, finely situated on the banks of the river, and
ornamented with taste and elegance. Trenton bridge, over the Delaware,
is a beautiful structure. It consists of five arches of one hundred
and ninety-four feet span each; the whole length is nine hundred and
seventy feet, the breadth thirty-six. The Delaware and Raritan canal,
extending from Trenton to New Brunswick, crosses the city, and is
joined by the feeder, which enters the river above the falls. There
are several mills and manufactories in the neighborhood. Trenton
is connected with memorable events in our revolutionary history.
Population, four thousand and seven.

_Troy_, a city and capital of Rensselaer county, New York, stands on
the east bank of the Hudson, six miles north of Albany. It is built
on a handsome elevation, is regularly laid out, and contains some
beautiful private residences. Many of the streets are shaded by fine
trees, and the general aspect of the city is attractive and elegant.
The taxable property in 1831 amounted to nearly four millions of
dollars. The situation of the town for trade and manufactures is
very commanding. It enjoys excellent communication with the interior;
large sloops and steamboats ascend the river to this place; and a dam
across the Hudson, with a branch canal, locks, and a basin, opens a
communication with the Erie and Champlain canals. Hourly stages run to
Albany. The water power of the streams which rise in the neighboring
eminences is well employed, and by means of it several manufactories
are carried on. About twenty-five thousand barrels of beer, ninety-five
thousand rolls of paper, seven hundred thousand pounds of tallow and
soap, one hundred thousand pair of boots and shoes, two thousand tons
of nails and spikes, and twenty-five thousand bells, are made here
annually. Large quantities of lumber, flour, grain, beef, pork, wool,
and other articles, besides manufactured goods, are shipped to the
river towns, and to New York, New Jersey, and Boston. There are nine
churches in this town, three banks, two insurance companies, a court
house of Sing-Sing marble, a female seminary of considerable reputation,
and a literary institution for the practical education of young men.
Population, nineteen thousand three hundred and seventy-three.

_Troy_, in Bristol county. Massachusetts, lies on the west side
of Taunton river, and includes Fall River village, an extensive
manufacturing place. In this place are thirteen cotton factories,
a satinet factory, a print factory, large iron works, and machine
shops. This place has been of recent and rapid growth. Population,
six thousand seven hundred and thirty-eight.

_Tuscaloosa_, seat of justice of Tuscaloosa county, and capital of
the state of Alabama, is situated on the left bank of Black Warrior
river, three hundred and twenty miles above Mobile. The name of this
town is the Choctaw word for Black Warrior. The first settlement was
made in 1816–17, and, by the last census, it contained one thousand
nine hundred and forty-nine inhabitants.

_Utica_, city of Oneida county, New York, is pleasantly situated on
the south side of the river Mohawk, and is one of the largest and most
important of the western towns of this state. The river, the great road,
and the Erie canal, all meet, and roads from a variety of directions
concentrate at this point. The canal level is four hundred and
twenty-five feet above the tide water at Albany. The streets are broad,
straight, and commodious; the principal ones are well built, with rows
of brick stores, or elegant dwelling-houses. The chartered institutions
are fifteen, including three banks, two insurance companies, an
aqueduct company, and associations for literary and benevolent purposes.
There are also thirty-three charitable societies not chartered, and
thirty-six private schools. Numerous manufactories are in operation in
the neighborhood. The situation of Utica gives it superior advantages
for trade, and has led to a flourishing business and considerable
wealth. The canal commerce in 1831, yielded tolls to the amount of nine
hundred and thirty-eight thousand dollars. In 1794, Utica contained
nineteen families; its present population is estimated at 12 thousand
674. It was incorporated as a city in 1830; and it is worthy of mention
that its charter expressly prohibits the licensing of shops for the
retail of ardent spirits.

_Vandalia_, in Fayette county, Illinois, late the seat of government,
is situated on a high bank of the river Kaskaskia, eighty miles
north-east by east, from St. Louis. Though founded but a few years
since, it is a place of respectable appearance, and will soon command
an extensive business. Population, about five hundred.

_Vergennes_, a city of Addison county, Vermont, is situated at the
head of navigation on Otter creek. It was incorporated in 1788. In
1814, Commodore M‘Donough’s flotilla was equipped here; and the large
lake steamboats have laid up here for the winter. Some ship-building
is carried on, and the trade of the place is considerable. Population,
one thousand.

_Vevay_, the seat of justice of Switzerland county, Indiana, is
situated on the Ohio river, about forty-five miles below Cincinnati.
The settlement was commenced by a few emigrants from Switzerland, in
the spring of 1805. There has been a gradual accession of numbers to
this interesting colony. As early as 1810, they had eight acres of
vineyard, from which they made two thousand four hundred gallons of
wine. A part of this wine was made out of the Madeira grape. They
have now greatly augmented the number of their vineyards, which, when
bearing, present to the eye of the observer, the most interesting
agricultural prospect, perhaps ever witnessed in the United States.
They also cultivate Indian corn, wheat, potatoes, hemp, flax, and other
articles necessary to farmers, but in quantities barely sufficient
for domestic use. Some of their women manufacture straw hats, made
quite differently from the common straw bonnets, by tying the straws
together, instead of plaiting and sewing the plaits. They are sold
in great numbers in the neighboring settlements, and in the states of
Mississippi and Indiana. Population, about fifteen hundred.

_Vincennes_, the seat of justice for Knox county, Indiana, stands
on the east bank of the Wabash, one hundred and fifty miles from its
junction with the Ohio. The plan of the town is handsomely designed;
the streets are wide, and cross each other at right angles. Almost
every house has a garden in its rear, with high substantial picket
fences. The common field near the town contains nearly five thousand
acres, of excellent prairie soil, which has been cultivated for more
than half a century, and yet retains its pristine fertility. Population
about eighteen hundred. This town was settled in 1735, by French
emigrants from Canada, and, next to Kaskaskia, is the oldest town in
the western world. Of late years, it has rapidly improved, and now
contains three hundred houses, besides churches, and the usual county
buildings.

_Waltham_, in Middlesex county, Massachusetts, on the north side of
Charles river, is a pleasant town, and contains three cotton factories,
among the most extensive and best conducted in the country. These
establishments were commenced in 1814. The proprietors of the factories
support two schools at this place, where gratuitous instruction
is regularly provided. Population, two thousand five hundred and
ninety-three.

_Warwick_, seat of justice of Kent county, Rhode Island, is one of the
most important manufacturing towns in the country. The fisheries are
also extensive. The branches of the Pawtucket river unite here, and
furnish valuable water power. Population, six thousand seven hundred
and twenty-six.

_Washington_, capital of the District of Columbia, and seat of the
general government of the United States, is situated on the left bank
of the Potomac, near the head of tide water, and by the river and bay
two hundred and ninety miles from the Atlantic. It is divided into
three distinct divisions which are built about the navy yard, the
capitol, and the Pennsylvania avenue. The principal streets meet from
all points of the compass, at the capitol, and bear the names of the
older states in the union. Some of the minor streets are distinguished
by the letters of the alphabet, and tracts of ground have been reserved
for public squares. Except during the sessions of congress, when the
city is thronged with strangers from all parts of the country, there is
little to interest one but the public buildings and the navy yard.

The president’s house is a large edifice of white marble, with Grecian
fronts, situated about a mile west of the capitol, and near the public
offices. It is two stories high with a lofty basement, and one hundred
and eighty feet long, by eighty-five in width; it is surrounded by a
wall. The entrance hall leads into the drawing room, where the company
are received at the levees.

  Illustration: President’s House.

The capitol is placed in an area of above twenty acres of ground,
inclosed by an iron railing, and commands, by the sudden declivity of
the ground on one side, a very charming view of the city and adjoining
country, and of the river Potomac. The building is three hundred and
fifty-two feet in front, and the greatest height to the top is one
hundred and forty-five feet.

  Illustration: Capitol.

The chamber of representatives is semi-circular, in the form of the
ancient Grecian theatre. It is surrounded by twenty-four columns of
variegated native marble, from the banks of the Potomac, which stand on
a base of free-stone, and support the magnificent dome. The seats for
the members are conveniently disposed; each member has his fixed place,
a chair, and a small desk. An engraved plan of the house, a copy of
which is easily procured at the door, points out the name and place of
each member, so that by referring to the plan, every member is at once
known.

  Illustration: Interior of the House of Representatives.

The hall of the senate is a good deal smaller than that of the
representatives, and is very elegantly fitted up. It is also
semi-circular, and the president’s chair is in the centre. In another
part of the building is the library of congress; the great hall
contains four national pictures, painted by Colonel Trumbull, and four
relievos in marble, representing scenes connected with various portions
of our history.

The treasury, navy, war, and land offices are all in the vicinity of
the president’s house; as, also, are the residences of the foreign
ministers. The patent office is in the same building with the general
post office, and contains numerous models of inventions, in all
branches of art. There are more than three thousand dwellings in
Washington, and the population is twenty-three thousand two hundred
and three.[68]

  Illustration: Department of State.

_Waterville_, a town of Kennebec county, Maine, on the west side
of the river Kennebec, eighteen miles north by east of Augusta. The
principal village stands at the head of boat navigation, and its trade
is flourishing. The Wesleyan seminary is established here; in this
institution, the students contribute to their support by manual labor.
Population, two thousand nine hundred and thirty-nine.

_Watervliet_, a town of Albany county, New York, six miles north of
Albany, belonging principally, to the manor of Rensselaerwick. At this
place the Erie crosses the Mohawk canal, and descends by double locks
to the Champlain canal. In the west part is Niskayuna, a settlement of
the Shakers. At Gibbonsville, another village of the township, is an
arsenal of the United States. Population, ten thousand one hundred and
forty-one.

_Wethersfield_, in Hartford county, Connecticut, is a very pleasant
town, having broad streets shaded with elms. It was founded in 1634,
and is the oldest settlement on Connecticut river. Rich and extensive
meadows border the river, and a broad and high level tract, at about
a mile distant, affords a fine soil for onions, which are raised here
in large quantities. The state prison at this place has been erected
within a few years, and the discipline pursued here is similar to that
of Auburn. For details on the subject, refer to the chapter on Prison
Discipline. Population, three thousand eight hundred and twenty-four.

_Wheeling_, seat of justice for Ohio county, Virginia, is situated
on a high bank of the river Ohio, ninety-five miles below Pittsburgh.
It is surrounded by bold and steep hills abounding in coal. The great
national road from Baltimore strikes the river at this place. Its
position possesses many advantages, and its growth of late years
has been very rapid. Wheeling fort, built at an early period of the
revolution, was the origin of the settlement. It is a constant resort
for travellers, and promises to be a place of much importance. Pop.
eight thousand seven hundred and ninety-three.

_Williamsburg_, the seat of justice of James City county, Virginia,
situated between York and James rivers, sixty miles south-east by east
of Richmond, was formerly the metropolis of the state, but has greatly
declined. The college of William and Mary was founded here in 1693,
but is now in decay, though attempts are making to revive its former
prosperous condition.

_Williamstown_, in Berkshire county, Massachusetts, is situated in the
north-west corner of the state, one hundred and thirty-five miles north
by west from Boston. It has two congregational churches, and a college.
Williams college was incorporated in 1793. Population, two thousand and
seventy-six.

_Wilmington_, city, and port of entry, of New Castle county, Delaware,
between the Brandywine and Christiana creeks, one mile above their
junction, twenty-eight miles south-west of Philadelphia, is pleasantly
situated on moderately elevated ground. It is mostly built of brick,
and the streets are regularly laid out. The water power in the vicinity
is great, and is employed in saw mills, powder and paper mills, and
a variety of manufactories to a very considerable extent. The finest
collection of flour mills in the United States is at this place.
Population, eight thousand three hundred and sixty-seven.

_Wilmington_, port of entry, and seat of justice of New Hanover county,
North Carolina, is situated on the east side of Cape Fear river, and
has an extensive trade. Most of the exports from the state are from
this town. The entrance to the harbor is rendered difficult by a shoal,
but it admits vessels of three hundred tons. Opposite the town are
three islands, which afford excellent rice-fields. Population, 4,268.

_Windsor_, seat of justice of Windsor county, Vermont, pleasantly
situated on the west bank of the Connecticut, is surrounded by romantic
and picturesque scenery. It contains a state prison, and several
handsome houses, and its manufactures are considerable. Population,
two thousand seven hundred and forty-four.

_Worcester_, seat of justice of Worcester county, Massachusetts,
forty miles west by south of Boston, is one of the most flourishing
towns in New England, and is a great thoroughfare for travellers. It
lies principally on one long and broad street, nearly level, and shaded
with fine trees. It contains the usual county buildings, four churches,
and the Massachusetts Lunatic hospital, a spacious structure of brick,
admirably arranged, and calculated for the accommodation of one hundred
and twenty patients. The American Antiquarian society was founded
and endowed by the late Isaiah Thomas; it has a handsome building,
containing a hall, a valuable cabinet, and a library of eight thousand
volumes, including many ancient and rare works on American history.
There are three printing offices, which issue four weekly newspapers.
The Blackstone canal terminates in this town, and furnishes boat
navigation to Providence. The great western rail road passes through
the place. This town was first settled in 1674, and at an early
period suffered much from the attacks of the Indians. It was called
Quinsigamond by the natives. Population, seven thousand and sixty.

_York_, port of entry, and semi-metropolis of York county, Maine, was
laid out originally for a large city, and is a place of considerable
trade. York river runs through it, and empties into the ocean,
affording a good harbor for vessels of two hundred tons. Population,
three thousand one hundred and eleven.

_Yorktown_, port of entry, and seat of justice, York county, Virginia,
is situated on the south side of York river. The river at this place
affords the best harbor in the state; but the town has not become
populous, nor the trade extensive. Yorktown will always be famous for
the surrender of the British army under Cornwallis, at the close of
the revolutionary war. The number of prisoners was seven thousand one
hundred and seven, and the American contest for independence was thus
happily concluded.

_Zanesville_, a flourishing town, and seat of justice for Muskingum
county, Ohio, is situated on the east bank of Muskingum river,
seventy-four miles west from Wheeling in Virginia. The river has falls
here, which afford water power for a number of factories. The great
Cumberland road passes through the town. Population, 4,766.




                      CHAPTER III.――AGRICULTURE.


OUR sketch of the agriculture of the United States must be brief and
general; as the numerous subjects to be treated in the present volume
do not allow space for very minute details. The vast extent of the
country, and its various soil and climate, afford growth to a great
variety of productions. As a science, agriculture was formerly much
neglected, and it is only of late years that it has received any thing
of the attention it deserves. ‘It is indeed a lamentable truth,’ says
Mr. Watson, ‘that, for the most part, our knowledge and practice of
agriculture, at the close of the revolutionary war, were in a state
of demi-barbarism, with some solitary exceptions. The labors, I may
say, of only three agricultural societies in America, at that epoch,
conducted by ardent patriots, by philosophers, and gentlemen, in New
York state, Philadelphia, and Boston, kept alive a spirit of inquiry,
often resulting in useful and practical operations; and yet these
measures did not reach the doors of practical farmers, to any visible
extent. Nor was their plan of organization calculated to infuse a
spirit of emulation, which county, or state, should excel in the
honorable strife of competition in discoveries and improvements,
in drawing from the soil the greatest quantum of net profits within
a given space; at the same time, keeping the land in an improving
condition, in reference to its native vigor. These results, and
the renovation of lands exhausted by means of a barbarous course of
husbandry, for nearly two centuries, are the cardinal points now in
progression in our old settled countries, stimulated by the influence
of agricultural societies. Nor did their measures produce any essential
or extensive effects in the improvement of the breeds of domestic
animals; much less in exciting to rival efforts the female portion
of the community, in calling forth the active energies of our native
resources in relation to household manufactures. The scene is now
happily reversed in all directions. Perhaps there is no instance, in
any age or country, where a whole nation has emerged, in so short a
period, from such general depression, into such a rapid change in the
several branches to which I have already alluded; in some instances, it
has been like the work of magic.’

The early neglect of agriculture may be traced to very obvious causes.
The first settlements in the country were made along the shores of
the sea, or on the banks of navigable rivers. Population was thin and
scattered, and the ocean with its tributary waters offered by far the
easiest means of subsistence. The fisheries and navigation naturally
attracted their active attention, and the cultivation of the earth was
limited to the supply of the necessaries of life, and a scanty surplus
to answer the humble demands of colonial commerce. The circumstances
of the country, down to the very era of the revolutionary struggle,
were such as tended unavoidably to reduce agriculture below its just
consequence in the scale of useful employments, and to elevate all the
arts connected with navigation above their proper estimation. Capital
was drawn off from the pursuits of agriculture and devoted to the more
lucrative pursuits of commerce. When to this is added the unceasing
drain upon the agricultural population, by the prospects which the
extent of the interior, and the cheapness of lands, opened to their
enterprise, and the consequent effect upon the demand for labor, there
is more cause of surprise that the actual state of cultivation is so
good, than of reproach that it did not receive higher improvement. The
increase of population in the United States, and the long-continued
peace in Europe, by limiting the sphere and diminishing the profits of
commercial speculation, have operated to withdraw capital from the sea,
and invest it in agriculture and manufactures.

The farms of the eastern, northern, and middle states consist,
generally, of from fifty to two hundred acres, seldom rising to more
than three hundred, and generally falling short of two hundred acres.
These farms are inclosed, and divided either by stone walls, or rail
fences made of timber, hedges not being common. The building first
erected on a new lot, or on a tract of land not yet cleared from its
native growth of timber, is what is called a _log-house_. This is a hut
or cabin, made of round, straight logs, about a foot in diameter, lying
on each other, and notched in at the corners. The intervals between the
logs are filled with slips of wood, and the crevices generally stopped
with mortar made of clay. The fire-place commonly consists of rough
stones, so placed as to form a hearth, on which wood may be burned.
Sometimes these stones are made to assume the form of a chimney, and
are carried up through the roof; and sometimes a hole in the roof is
the only substitute for a chimney. The roof is made of rafters, forming
an acute angle at the summit of the erection, and is covered with
shingles, commonly split from pine trees, or with bark, peeled from
the hemlock.

When the occupant or first settler of this new land finds himself in
comfortable circumstances, he builds what is styled a frame house,
composed of timber, held together by tenons, mortises and pins,
and boarded, shingled and clapboarded on the outside, and often
painted white, sometimes red. Houses of this kind generally contain a
dining-room and kitchen, and three or four bed-rooms on the same floor.
They are rarely destitute of good cellars, which the nature of the
climate renders almost indispensable. The farm-buildings consist of a
barn, proportioned to the size of the farm, with stalls for horses and
cows on each side, and a threshing-floor in the middle, and the more
wealthy farmers add a cellar under the barn, a part of which receives
the manure from the stalls, and another part serves as a store-room for
roots, &c. for feeding stock. What is called a _corn-barn_ is likewise
very common, which is built exclusively for storing the ears of Indian
corn. The sleepers of this building are generally set up four or five
feet from the ground, on smooth stone posts or pillars, which rats,
mice, or other vermin cannot ascend.

With regard to the best manner of clearing forest land from its
natural growth of timber, the following observations may be of use to
a first settler. In those parts of the country where wood is of but
little value, the trees are felled in one of the summer months, the
earlier in the season the better, as the stumps will be less apt to
sprout, and the trees will have a longer time to dry. The trees lie
till the following spring, when such limbs as are not very near the
ground should be cut off, that they may burn the better. Fire must be
put to them in the driest part of the month of May, or, if the whole of
that month prove wet, it may be applied in the beginning of June. Only
the bodies of the trees will remain after burning, and some of them
will be burned into pieces. Those which require to be made shorter,
are cut in pieces nearly of a length, drawn together by oxen, piled
in close heaps, and burned, such trees and logs being reserved as may
be needed for fencing the _lot_. The heating of the soil so destroys
the green roots, and the ashes made by the burning are so beneficial as
manure to the land, that it will produce a good crop of wheat or Indian
corn, without ploughing, hoeing, or manuring. If new land lie in such
a situation that its natural growth may turn to better account, whether
for timber or fire-wood, it will be an unpardonable waste to burn the
wood on the ground. But if the trees be taken off, the land must be
ploughed after clearing, or it will not produce a crop of any kind.

The following remarks on this subject are extracted from some
observations by Samuel Preston, of Stockport, Pennsylvania, a very
observing cultivator. They were first published in the New England
Farmer, issued at Boston, and may prove serviceable to settlers on
uncleared lands. Previous to undertaking to clear land, Mr. Preston
advises,――‘1st. Take a view of all large trees, and see which way
they may be felled for the greatest number of small trees to be felled
along-side or on them. After felling the large trees, only lop down
their limbs; but all such as are felled near them should be cut in
suitable lengths for two men to roll and pile about the large trees,
by which means they may be nearly all burned up, without cutting into
lengths, or the expense of a strong team, to draw them together. 2d.
Fell all the other trees parallel, and cut them into suitable lengths,
that they may be readily rolled together without a team, always cutting
the largest trees first, that the smallest may be loose on the top, to
feed the fires. 3d. On hill-sides, fell the timber in a level direction;
then the logs will roll together; but if the trees are felled down hill,
all the logs must be turned round before they can be rolled, and there
will be stumps in the way. 4th. By following these directions, two
men may readily heap and burn most of the timber, without requiring
any team; and perhaps the brands and the remains of the log heaps may
all be wanted to burn up the old, fallen trees. After proceeding as
directed, the ground will be clear for a team and sled to draw the
remains of the heaps where they may be wanted round the old logs. Never
attempt either to chop or draw a large log, until the size and weight
are reduced by fire. The more fire-heaps there are made on the clearing,
the better, particularly about the old logs, where there is rotten wood.

‘The best time of the year to fell the timber, in a great measure,
depends on the season’s being wet or dry. Most people prefer having it
felled in the month of June, when the leaves are of full size. Then,
by spreading the leaves and brush over the ground, (for they should
not be heaped,) if there should be a very dry time the next May, fire
may be turned through it, and will burn the leaves, limbs, and top of
the ground, so that a very good crop of Indian corn and pumpkins may
be raised among the logs by hoeing. After these crops come off, the
land may be cleared and sowed late with rye and timothy grass, or with
oats and timothy in the spring. If what is called a _good burn_ cannot
be had in May, keep the fire out until some very dry time in July or
August; then clear off the land, and sow wheat or rye and timothy,
harrowing several times, both before and after sowing; for, after the
fire has been over the ground, the sod of timothy should be introduced
as soon as the other crops will admit, to prevent briers, alders,
fire-cherries, &c. from springing up from such seeds as were not
consumed by the fire.

‘The timothy should stand four or five years, either for mowing or
pasture, until the small roots of the forest trees are rotten; then it
may be ploughed; and the best mode which I have observed, is to plough
it very shallow in the autumn; in the spring, cross-plough it deeper,
harrow it well, and it will produce a first rate crop of Indian corn
and potatoes, and, the next season, the largest and best crop of flax
that I have ever seen, and be in order to cultivate with any kinds
of grain, or to lay down again with grass. These directions are to be
understood as applying to what are generally called _beech lands_, and
the chopping may be done any time in the winter, when the snow is not
too deep to cut low stumps, as the leaves are then on the ground. By
leaving the brush spread abroad, I have known such winter choppings to
burn as well in a dry time in August, as that which had been cut the
summer before.’[69]

‘The various crops,’ says Mr. Stuart, ‘raised in that part of the state
of New York which I have seen, are very much the same as in Britain,
with the addition of maize, for which the climate of Britain is not
well adapted. Wheat, however, is the most valuable crop. A considerable
quantity of buckwheat and rye is grown. The greater degree of heat is
not favorable for oats and barley. Potatoes, turnips, and other green
crops, are not at all generally cultivated in large fields. Rotation
of crops is far too little attended to. I observe in the magazines and
almanacs, that in the rotations, a crop of turnips, ruta-baga, or other
green plants, is generally put down as one part of the course; but I
have nowhere seen more than the margins or edges of the maize, or other
grain, devoted to the green crop, properly so called. The attention of
the farmers seems chiefly directed to the raising enough of maize for
home consumption, and of wheat for sale; and when you talk to them of
the necessity of manuring, with a view to preserve the fertility of
the soil, they almost uniformly tell you that the expense of labor,
about a dollar a day, for laborers during the summer, renders it far
more expedient for them, as soon as their repeated cropping very much
diminishes the quantity of the grain, to lay down their land in grass,
and make a purchase of new land in the neighborhood, or even to sell
their cleared land, and proceed in quest of a new settlement, than to
adopt a system of rotation of crops, assisted by manure. There is great
inconvenience, according to the notions of the British, in removing
from one farm to another; but they make very light work of it here,
and consider it to be merely a question of finance, whether they shall
remain on their improved land, after they have considerably exhausted
its fertilizing power, or acquire and remove to land of virgin soil. In
a great part of the northern district of the state of New York, there
is still a great deal of land to be cleared; and a farmer may, in many
cases, acquire additions to his farm, so near his residence that his
houses may suit the purpose of his new acquisition; but he is more
frequently tempted to sell at a price from fifteen to thirty dollars
an acre, supposing the land not to be contiguous to any village. If
he obtains land near his first farm, after he has worn it out, he lays
down the first farm in grass, allows it to be pastured for some years,
and breaks it up again with oats.

‘Maize, or Indian corn, which, _par excellence_, is alone in this
country called corn, is a most important addition to the crops which
we are able to raise in Britain. It is used as food for man in a great
variety of ways, as bread, as porridge, in which case it is called mush,
and in puddings. When unripe, and in the green pod, it is not unlike
green peas, and is in that state sold as a vegetable. One species, in
particular, called green corn, is preferable for this purpose. Broom
corn is another species, of the stalks of which a most excellent kind
of clothes brush, in universal use at New York, is made, as well as
brooms for sweeping house floors. Horses, cattle, and poultry, are all
fond of this grain, and thrive well on it. The straw is very nutritive,
and considerable in quantity. The usual period of sowing is from the
fifteenth of May to the first of June, in drills from three and a half
to four and a half feet apart, and the seed from four to six inches
apart. It is harvested in October, sometimes later. The hoe weeding and
cleaning of this crop is expensive, the whole work being performed by
males,――females, as already noticed, never being allowed to work out
of doors. Pumpkins are very generally sown between the rows of corn,
and give the field quite a golden appearance, after the corn itself is
harvested.

‘Thirty-five or forty bushels of corn per acre is considered a good
average crop, on land suited to it, well prepared, and well managed;
but one hundred and fifty bushels have been raised on an acre. Arthur
Young remarks, “that a country whose soil and climate admit the course
of maize, and then wheat, is under a cultivation that perhaps yields
the most food for man and beast that is possible to be drawn from
the land!” That course is frequently adopted here, and with success,
where the soil, lately cleared, is of the best description, and might,
without question, be continued for many years, if a sufficient quantity
of manure was allowed; but where such a course is persisted in without
manure, after the land has been severely cropped, the crops which
follow are inferior in quantity to crops of the same description on
similar soils in Britain. As a cleaning crop, maize is most valuable,
but, being a culmiferous plant, it is, of course, far more exhausting
than the green crops, which, in Britain, in most cases precede wheat.

‘Wheat is sown in the end of September, and some part of it in
spring,――if after maize, it should be sown as soon as possible after
that crop is harvested. It is reaped in July. It is excellent in
quality; if the flour which we have seen in every place where we
have been, and the bread we eat, are tests by which to judge of it.
Thirty-five and forty bushels of wheat is considered a very abundant
crop,――the average produce in that part of the United States in which
wheat is grown, is said not to exceed thirteen bushels, while in
England it is reckoned at twenty-five bushels.

‘Barley or oats very frequently succeed wheat before the land is laid
down in grass, or again bears a crop of maize; but it is not to be
understood that barley, and even oats, do not in many cases follow the
crop of maize immediately, and precede the wheat crop.

‘Oats are sowed in the end of April and beginning of May, and are
reaped in August or the beginning of September. We saw several fields
not cut, but no very great crop in the northern part of this state
in the beginning of September. The average crop is said to be twenty
bushels per acre; but from forty to fifty bushels are often obtained by
good management. The grain is not so plump as in Britain. In 1827, the
premium of one of the agricultural societies was given for fifty-seven
bushels on an acre. Barley is sown at about the same time as oats, and
reaped two or three weeks earlier; the produce about one fifth less
than oats.

‘Potatoes, turnips, ruta-baga, peas, lucern, &c. are all to be seen
here in small quantities, but not so well managed as in well-cultivated
districts of Britain. The high price of labor is the great obstacle
to the management which those crops require. It is not because
the farmer does not understand his business, that such crops are
apparently not sufficiently attended to, but because he in all cases
calculates whether it will not be more profitable for him to remove
his establishment to a new and hitherto unimpoverished soil, than to
commence and carry on an extensive system of cultivation, by manuring
and fallow, or green crops. Such a system may be adopted in the
neighborhood of great towns, where many green crops are easily disposed
of, and where manure can be had in large quantity, and at a cheap rate;
but it is in vain to look for its adoption at all generally, or to
expect to see agricultural operations in their best style, until the
land, even in the most distant states and territories, be occupied, so
that the farmer may no longer find it more for his interest to begin
his operations anew, on land previously uncultivated, than to manage
his farm according to the method which will render it most productive.

‘Prices of grain vary much. Wheat is, of course, the grain which the
farmer chiefly raises for market, and he considers himself remunerated,
if the price is not below a dollar for a bushel. Flour, when wheat is
at a dollar per bushel, is expected to bring somewhat more than five
dollars per barrel of one hundred and ninety-six pounds. Indian corn,
two shillings to two shillings and six pence per bushel; oats, one
shilling and two pence to one shilling and four pence; barley, one
shilling and six pence to one shilling and eight pence.

‘It is difficult to give any precise information as to the wages of
labor. A hired servant gets from ten to twelve dollars a month, besides
his board, which he very frequently has at table with his master,
consisting of animal food three times a day. Laborers hired by the day
for those sorts of farm work in which women are employed in Britain,
such as hoeing, assisting in cleaning grain, and even milking of cows,
get about three quarters of a dollar per day,――in time of hay-making
or harvest work, frequently a dollar besides their board. The workmen
work, or are said to work, from daylight to sunset: but I doubt, from
any thing I have seen, whether the ordinary plan of keeping workmen
employed for ten hours a day be not as profitable to the employer as
to the workman. The days are never so long in summer, nor so short in
winter, as in Britain. The sun rises on the twenty-first of June about
half past four, and sets at half past seven; on the twenty-first of
December, it rises at half past seven, and sets at half past four.

‘Manures are far too little attended to, as has been already noticed;
but there are instances of individuals keeping their land in good heart
with manure, especially where, as in many parts of the state of New
York, gypsum and lime are in the neighborhood. Gypsum is more used
than any other manure, and with great effect, generally in about the
quantity of a ton to ten or fifteen acres. Manure for the villages
is often sold at and under a shilling per ton. The question which the
American settler always puts to himself is, whether it will be more
expedient for him, in point of expense, to remove to a new soil covered
with vegetable mould, or to remain on his cleared land, and to support
its fertility by regularly manuring, and a systematic rotation of crops.

‘The horses and cattle are of mixed breeds, and are always, in
consequence of the abundance of food in this country, and the easy
circumstances of the people, in good order. A starved-looking animal
of any kind is never seen on the one hand, nor very fat pampered
cattle, nor very fine coated, over-groomed horses, on the other. Both
horses and cattle are generally of middling size; the horses of that
description that answer for all sorts of work, the saddle, the wagon,
or the plough. The heaviest are selected for the stages. All carriages
are driven at a trot. Horses are broken with great gentleness, and are,
I think, better and more thoroughly broken than in England. An American
driver of a stage, awkward looking as he appears, manages his team,
as he calls his horses, with the most perfect precision. The law of
the road is to keep to the right side of the road, not to the left as
in Britain. Great exertions are, I observe from the newspapers here,
making to improve the breeds of cattle and horses, by importations
of the Teeswater cattle, and of stud-horses from England. The British
admiral, Sir Isaac Coffin, has displayed great public spirit in sending
over fine cattle and superior horses, from Britain to New England. The
price of beef varies from two pence to five pence per pound, according
to the prices and quality, from which the value of the animal may be
computed. I have nowhere seen any beef equal to the best beef of an
English market, or to the kyloe of the West Highlands of Scotland well
fed; but beef of bad quality is never brought to market, and a great
deal of it is good. I have looked into the markets wherever we have
been. Oxen are much used in ploughing, and are so well trained, that
they are very useful in many operations of carting on farms. The price
of ordinary horses is from sixteen to twenty-five pounds.

‘I observe at the agricultural shows of last year, premiums awarded
for milch cows yielding ten or eleven pounds of butter per week, one of
them yielding thirteen, and twenty-three to twenty-four quarts of milk
per day. One of the breeds of cows is called very appropriately the
“fill-pail.” A premium was also awarded for a cow that calved on the
7th of January,――calf sold in March,――another calf put to her, and sold
in June,――and a third at her side; the price of the three calves forty
dollars.

‘Sheep are not so much attended to as they should be in this country,
where the dryness of the weather preserves them from diseases to which
they are subject in Britain. The merinos, and crosses with the merino,
are those generally seen; but little care is paid to their being well
fed before being killed and brought to market. The mutton is of course
inferior in quality, and the people led to entertain prejudices against
it. Even the slaves in the south are said to object to being fed on
sheep’s meat. I have again and again seen good mutton, but far more
rarely than good beef and pork. Hogs are universal in this country,
and are well fed, frequently, first of all in the woods on chesnuts,
hickory nuts, sometimes on fallen peaches and apples, but almost always,
before being killed, they get a sufficient quantity of meal, either
from Indian corn or barley. Steamed food is also supplied in some
cases. The steam-boiler for food for cattle is well known here. General
La Fayette saw one so well constructed somewhere in this country, that
he had one of the same pattern made for himself and carried to France.

‘Poultry are excellent, well fed everywhere, and in great numbers about
the farm-yards. Turkeys and guinea-fowls abound more than in Britain,
which is not to be wondered at, as their relatively cheap price places
them within the reach of all. The price of geese and turkeys, even at
New York, is frequently not much above half a dollar; ducks and fowls,
about one shilling. Eggs, a dollar for a hundred; cheese very good at
four pence and five pence per pound.

‘Implements of husbandry are, on the whole, well suited to the country.
The two-horse plough, driven by one man, is universally used, unless in
bringing in rough stony land, when four oxen or horses are necessary.
The cradle-scythe is in pretty universal use. A good workman can cut
down an acre of wheat per day. The harvest work being altogether
performed by males, and the crops ripening, and of course reaped, at
seasons differing from each other much more than in England, the
cheerful appearance of the harvest-field all over Britain, filled with
male and female reapers and gleaners, is nowhere seen in this country.
The prices of implements are not higher than in England. The lower
price of wood makes up for the higher price of labor, especially as
carpenters are very expert. Ploughing is well executed, and premiums
given by agricultural societies at their yearly meetings. I observed,
at a late meeting in Massachusetts, sixteen ploughs, drawn by oxen,
started for the competition,――that the ploughs were of the improved
kind, with cast-iron mould-boards, the ploughing five inches deep, and
the furrows not more than ten inches in width. Premiums were at this
meeting awarded for various agricultural implements. Threshing-machines
are not yet so general as in Britain.’[70]

The principal products of the southern states are tobacco, cotton,
rice, and sugar. The first of these is grown largely in Virginia and
other of the middle and southern states, and together with the other
staples of that portion of the country, is chiefly the product of slave
labor. There are at present but two sorts of tobacco raised in the
western states: the one with a long and sharp-pointed leaf,――and the
other with a round and hairy leaf, which is evidently the best tobacco.
The seed is sown in beds well prepared for the purpose, so that in
May it is fit to be transplanted. The plants are then put into another
piece of ground, at intervals of from three to four feet; they are
carefully freed from weeds, and the earth is drawn up to their stems.
When they have obtained a certain growth, the tops are taken off, that
the remaining leaves may acquire a proper size; worms are carefully
removed, and no sucker is allowed to remain. In August, the plants
become spotted, and appear of a brownish color; by these tokens they
are discerned to be ripe, and are therefore immediately pulled. They
lie one night to sweat; next day, they are hung up to dry; when the
tobacco has become sufficiently dry to ensure its preservation, it
is stripped from the stalks, and barrelled up for exportation; or
manufactured into various shapes, for those whom a species of luxury
has taught to look upon it as almost one of the necessaries of life.
Along with six thousand plants, yielding generally one thousand pounds
of tobacco, one person may manage four acres of Indian corn.

There are four kinds of tobacco reared in Virginia, namely, the
_sweet-scented_, which is the best; the _big_ and _little_, which
follow next; then the _Frederick_; and lastly, the _one_ and _all_,
the largest of all, and producing most in point of quantity. The
Virginian tobacco is reckoned superior to any raised in the southern
states; and great care is taken by the regulations of the state, that
no frauds be practised upon the merchants, and that no inferior tobacco
be palmed upon the purchaser. For this purpose, houses of inspection
are established in every district where tobacco is cultivated, whose
regulations are rigorously enforced; this contributes, as much as the
real superiority of the article itself, to keep up its price in the
market. Every person who intends his tobacco for exportation, packs
it up in hogsheads, and thus sends it to one of the inspecting houses.
Here the tobacco is taken from the cask, which is opened for the
purpose; it is examined in every direction, and in every part, in order
to ascertain its quality and its purity; if any defect is perceived,
it is rejected and declared to be unfit for exportation. If no defect
appear, it is pronounced to be exportable. It is then repacked in
the hogshead, which is branded with a hot iron, marking the place of
inspection, and the quality of the contents; and then lodged in the
inspecting storehouses, there to await the disposal of the planter, who
receives a certificate of the particulars, serving at the same time as
an acknowledgment of the deposit. It is by selling this _tobacco note_
to the merchant that the planter sells his tobacco. The purchaser, on
viewing this note, is as well acquainted with the article, as if he had
inspected it himself; and he has only to send the note and transfer to
the store where the tobacco lies, and it is immediately delivered out,
agreeably to his orders. This measure has insured a preference in the
foreign market to the Virginian tobacco, and prevents the deterioration
of the article.

The soil most proper for the cultivation of cotton is found in the
islands lying on the coast. Those belonging to the state of Georgia
produce the best, known in France by the name of _Georgia cotton_, and
in Great Britain by the name of _Sea Island cotton_. This variety of
cotton has a deep black seed, and very fine, long wool, which is easily
separated from the seed by the roller gins, which do not injure the
staple. In the middle and upper country, the green seed or inferior
cotton is produced; this kind is less silky, and adheres so tenaciously
to the seed, that it cannot be separated without the action of a
saw-gin. Though the wool of the green seed, or _bowed_ Georgia cotton,
be cheaper than the other, yet its produce is more luxuriant. An acre,
which will produce one hundred and fifty pounds of black seed cotton,
will generally yield two hundred pounds of the green seed kind. The
packing of the cotton is done in large canvass bags, which must be
wetted as the cotton is put in, that it may not hang to the cloth, and
may slide better down. The bag is suspended between two trees, posts,
or beams; and a negro, with his feet, stamps it down. These bags are
generally made to contain from three hundred and fifty pounds, to four
hundred pounds each.

‘I have been lately favored,’ says Mr. Everett, in his valuable
address before the New York Institute, in October, 1831, ‘with a minute
statement of the average product of five or six cotton plantations in
two of the south-western states, ascertained by putting together the
income of a good and bad year. The result of this statement is, that
the capital invested in these plantations yields from fifteen to twenty
per cent. clear; and the net profit accruing to the proprietor, for the
labor of each efficient hand, is two hundred and thirty-seven dollars
and fifty cents per annum; being a clear gain of four dollars and fifty
cents per week. It further appears that on one of these plantations,
(and the same, though not stated, is believed to hold of the others
in due proportion,) worth altogether, for land, labor, and stock,
ninety-two thousand dollars, the entire amount of articles paying duty
annually consumed, is two thousand three hundred dollars. The average
crop of this plantation, taking a good and bad year, is fourteen
thousand five hundred dollars. Suppose the duties to be thirty-three
and one third per cent. and the whole amount of the duty to be actually
assessed, in the shape of an enhanced price of the article, (the
contrary of which is known to be true, for in several articles the
entire price is little more than the duty,) it would amount to less
than seven hundred and thirty dollars per annum on a clear profit of
fourteen thousand five hundred dollars.’

Rice is extensively cultivated in the southern states. The grains of
this plant grow on little fruit stalks springing from the main stalk.
It is sown in rows, in the bottom of trenches, made entirely by slave
labor. These ridges lie about seventeen inches apart, from centre to
centre. The rice is put in by the hand, generally by women, and is cast
so as to fall in a line. This is done about the seventeenth of March.
By means of floodgates, the water is then permitted to flow over the
fields, and to remain on the ground five days, at the depth of several
inches. The object of this is to sprout the seeds, as it is technically
called. The water is next drawn off, and the ground allowed to dry,
till the rice is between three and four inches in height. This requires
about a month. The fields are then again overflowed, and are allowed to
remain in that state about a fortnight, to destroy the weeds. It is now
about the middle of May, and for two months afterwards the ground is
permitted to continue dry; during this interval it is repeatedly hoed,
and the soil is kept loose and free. The fields are then once more
submerged, in order that the crops may be ripened, and they actually do
ripen while standing in the water. The harvest commences in August, and
extends into October. The plants are then cut by the male slaves, and
tied into bundles by the females. The grains are threshed out by means
of hand flails. The outer husk is detached by passing the rice between
a pair of mill-stones. The film which still envelopes the grain is
removed by trituration under heavy pestles, consisting of upright bars,
shod with iron, which are raised several feet by machinery, and then
allowed to fall upon the rice, the particles of which are thus rubbed
against each other, till the film is removed. When thus thoroughly
winnowed, it is packed in casks holding about six hundred pounds each,
and is ready for exportation.

The sugar cane is cultivated to a great extent in Louisiana, Georgia,
and West Florida. In the first of these states, five kinds of the cane
have been raised. The first is the Creole cane, which is supposed to
have come originally from Africa. The second is the Bourbon cane, from
Otaheite. Besides these, are the riband cane, green and red; the riband
cane, green and yellow; and the violet cane of Brazil. The latter
species was abandoned soon after its introduction, as it proved less
productive in our climate than any of the others. The other species
are the best suited to the nature of the soil. They are all more or
less affected by the variations of the atmosphere, are very sensible
to cold, and are killed in part by the frost every year. Experience has
demonstrated that the cane may be cultivated in a latitude much colder
than was generally supposed; for fine crops are now made in Louisiana,
in places where a few years ago the cane froze before it was ripe
enough to make sugar.

In the process of cultivation, the ground is ploughed as deep as
possible, and harrowed; after it has been thus broken up, parallel
drills or furrows are ploughed at the distance of two feet and a half
to four feet from one another; in these the cane is laid lengthwise,
and covered about an inch with a hoe. Small canals to drain off the
water are commonly dug, more or less distant from each other, and
these are crossed by smaller drains, so as to form squares like a chess
board. These ditches are necessary to drain off the water from rains,
as well as that which filters from the rivers, which would otherwise
remain upon the plantations. The average quantity of sugar that may be
produced upon an acre of land of the proper quality, well cultivated,
is from eight hundred to one thousand pounds, provided that the cane
has not been damaged, either by storms of wind, inundations, or frost.
The strong soil is easiest of cultivation, and most productive, in
rainy seasons. The light soils require less labor, and yield more
revenue, in dry seasons. To these variations, others are to be added,
resulting from the different exposure of the lands, the greater or less
facility of draining, and also from the greater or less quantity of a
weed known by the name of coco or grass nut. Sixty working hands are
necessary to cultivate two hundred and forty acres of cane, planted in
well-prepared land, and to do all the work necessary until the sugar
is made and delivered. The sugar, up to the moment it is delivered
to the merchant, costs the sugar planter about three and a half cents
per pound, for expense incurred, without reckoning the interest on his
capital.

The cultivation of the mulberry tree, and the raising of silk-worms,
have occupied considerable attention in different parts of the United
States. Before the revolution, the production of silk was attempted
in Georgia, but without ultimate success. In Connecticut, and in some
other places, for the last seventy years, an inferior kind of sewing
silk has been manufactured; but its use has been chiefly confined to
the neighborhood in which it has been produced. Of late years, however,
efforts have been made to introduce the important branch of agriculture
that affords the necessary materials for the manufacture of silk.
Societies have been formed in different states for its promotion,
and the national government have thought the subject worthy their
particular attention.

During the year 1829, a series of essays were written by M. D’Homergue,
the son of an eminent silk manufacturer, at Nismes, who had arrived
in Philadelphia at the instance of an association for the promotion of
the culture of silk; they have since been published in a separate form,
and will repay the perusal of those who may feel peculiarly interested
in the subject. The report of the committee of agriculture, who were
instructed to inquire into the expediency of adopting measures to
extend the cultivation of the mulberry tree, and to promote the
cultivation of silk, by introducing the necessary machinery, made to
the house of representatives, March 12, 1830, represents these essays
and the facts contained in them as entitled to high confidence.

‘It appears from them,’ states the report, ‘that American silk is
superior in quality to that produced in any other country;――in France
and Italy, twelve pounds of cocoons are required to produce one pound
of raw silk, whilst eight pounds of American cocoons will produce
one pound of raw silk:――that cocoons cannot be exported to a foreign
market, from several causes,――their bulk, their liability to spoil by
moulding on ship board, and because they cannot be compressed without
rendering them incapable of being afterwards reeled. It is further
demonstrated in these essays, and in a memorial lately presented by
the manufacturers of silk stuffs of Lyons, in France, to the minister
of commerce and manufactures, that the art of filature can only be
acquired by practical instruction, by some one intimately acquainted
with, and accustomed to, that process: that no human skill or ingenuity,
unaided by practical instruction, is capable of acquiring that art to
any profitable extent. It is made manifest that, although the culture
of silk has been carried on for many years in some parts of the United
States, and more particularly in Connecticut, it has been conducted
very unprofitably, compared with what the results might have been,
if the art of filature had been understood. The sewing silk made in
Connecticut is from the best of the silk, and is, after all, quite
inferior to that of France and Italy: in these latter countries, sewing
silk is manufactured from imperfect cocoons, or from refuse silk.

‘It appears also, that unless the silk is properly reeled from the
cocoons, it is never afterwards susceptible of use in the finer fabrics.
It is a gratifying consideration that the benefits from the culture
of silk and the acquisition of the art of reeling the same, will be
common to every part of the United States. The climate of every state
in the union is adapted to the culture of silk: hatching the eggs of
the silk-worms may be accelerated or retarded, to suit the putting
forth the leaves of the mulberry. That tree is easily propagated from
the seed of the fruit, and is adapted to almost any soil. The committee
regard the general culture of silk as a vast national advantage in many
points of view. If seriously undertaken and prosecuted, it will, in a
few years, furnish an article of export of great value: and thus the
millions paid by the people of the United States for silk stuffs will
be compensated for by the sale of our raw silk. The importation of
silk, during the year which ended on the 30th of September, 1828,
amounted to eight million, four hundred and sixty-three thousand, five
hundred and sixty-three dollars, of which, one million, two hundred and
seventy-four thousand, four hundred and sixty-one were exported: but
in the same year, the exportation of bread stuffs from this country
amounted only to five million, four hundred and eleven thousand, six
hundred and sixty-five dollars, leaving the balance against us of
nearly two millions. The committee anticipate that at a period not
remote, when we shall be in possession of the finest material produced
in any country, the manufacture of silk stuffs will necessarily be
introduced into the United States. The culture of silk promises highly
moral benefits, in the employment of poor women and children in a
profitable business, while it will detract nothing from agricultural
or manufacturing labor. The culture of silk will greatly benefit those
states which have abandoned slave labor, the value of whose principal
productions, particularly in the article of cotton, has been depressed
by overproduction.’

The vine grows in most parts of the United States, and yields a
plentiful return for the labor of cultivation. We have already alluded
to the vineyards in the vicinity of Vevay. A large grant of land,
in the territory of Alabama, was made by the general government to a
French association under M. Villar, for the purpose of encouraging the
cultivation of the vine and the olive. About two hundred and seventy
acres had been occupied with vines in 1827, and nearly four hundred
olive trees had been planted. The latter, however, do not thrive, and
it is apprehended that they will not attain an available degree of
perfection in that climate.

Horticulture has not been entirely overlooked in the United States,
though it has not yet received the attention that is paid to it
in other countries. Some idea of the varieties of fruits and of
flowers which the climate will admit of, may be formed from the
following statement of the contents of a garden in the neighborhood
of Philadelphia, which may be relied on as authentic, being extracted
from the report of the committee, appointed by the Pennsylvania
Horticultural society for visiting the nurseries and gardens in the
vicinity of that city: ‘Here are to be found,’ say the committee,
‘one hundred and thirteen varieties of apples, seventy-two of pears,
twenty-two of cherries, seventeen of apricots, forty-five of plums,
thirty-nine of peaches, five of nectarines, three of almonds, six
of quinces, five of mulberries, six of raspberries, six of currants,
five of filberts, eight of walnuts, six of strawberries, and two of
medlars. The stock, considered according to its growth, has in the
first class of ornamental trees esteemed for their foliage, flowers, or
fruit, seventy-six sorts; of the second class, fifty-six sorts; of the
third class, one hundred and twenty sorts; of ornamental evergreens,
fifty-two sorts; of vines and creepers for covering walls and arbors,
thirty-five sorts; of honey-suckle, thirty-sorts; and of roses, eighty
varieties.’




                    CHAPTER IV.――MANUFACTURES.[71]


NECESSITY forced upon the first settlers of this country, at a
very early period, some attention to manufactures. The colony of
Massachusetts was founded in 1630. Between that year and 1640, there
was a great and steady influx of settlers; and the first and most
profitable object of pursuit was the raising of provisions. _We_ can
scarcely conceive of the state of industry in a community, to which
there is every year added, by emigration, a number of individuals equal
to the existing population. Such, however, for a few years, was the
case in New England. So great was the demand, that cattle sold as high
as twenty-five pounds sterling a head. In 1640, the republicans got
possession of the government in England; persecution for religious
non-conformity ceased, and with it the influx of emigrants to this
country. Cattle fell immediately to about five pounds a head. The
effect was distressing, but it put the sagacious colonists upon new
resources. The account of this, contained in the early historian
of the colony, is strongly characterized by the simplicity of elder
times. After describing the check put to emigration, he goes on
as follows:――‘Now the country of New England was to seek, of a way
to provide themselves with clothing, which they could not obtain
by selling cattle, as before; which now were fallen from that huge
price forementioned, first to fourteen pounds sterling and ten pounds
sterling a head, and presently after, at best within the year, to
five pounds a-piece; nor was there at that rate, a ready vent for them
neither. Thus the flood which brought in much wealth to many persons,
the contrary ebb carried all away out of their reach. To help them in
this their exigent, besides the industry that the present necessity
put particular persons upon, for the necessary supply of themselves and
their families, _the general court made order for the manufacture of
woolen and linen cloth_, which, with God’s blessing upon man’s endeavor,
in a little time stopped this gap in part, and soon after another door
was opened by special Providence. For when one hand was shut by way
of supply from England, another was opened by way of traffic, first
to the West Indies and Wine islands, whereby among other goods, much
_cotton wool_ was brought into the country from the Indies, which the
inhabitants learning to spin, and breeding of sheep and sowing of hemp
and flax, they soon found out a way to supply themselves of [cotton]
linen, and woolen cloth.’

In 1645, an iron foundery was established at Lynn, in the state of
Massachusetts; but the same historian tells us that ‘instead of drawing
out bars of iron for the country’s use, there was hammered out nothing
but contentions and lawsuits.’ In the same year, the general court of
the colony granted to a company, of which governor Winthrop’s son was
the head, as an encouragement to undertake the iron manufacture, three
thousand acres of land, a monopoly for twenty-one years, the liberty
to use any place containing ore, in the public domain not already
granted, a tract of land three miles square in the neighborhood of
each establishment, and freedom from taxation. These liberal acts of
encouragement show the necessity which was felt in the very infancy of
the country, of giving a legislative protection to manufactures.

But to understand the history of the industry of the country, we must
bear in mind, that America was a colonial possession, and that the
growth and welfare of the mother country was the avowed object of
colonial policy. Great Britain, if she wished America to prosper,
wished it to be on the principles, not of national, but of colonial
prosperity; to furnish her such agricultural products as she did not
raise herself, to employ her shipping, and to consume her manufactures.
As it soon appeared that the Dutch, at that time the most expert
navigators in Europe, were getting possession of no small part of the
carrying trade of the world, and pursuing a profitable commerce with a
part of the colonial possessions of Great Britain, the navigation law
of 1650 was passed, under the auspices of Cromwell. It was among the
few laws of the commonwealth, which were re-enacted at the restoration.
The object of this law,――in the opinion of Sir William Blackstone, ‘the
most beneficial for the trade and commerce of these kingdoms,’――was,
in the words of the same accomplished jurist, ‘to mortify our sugar
islands, which were disaffected to the parliament, and still held out
for Charles II., by stopping the gainful trade, which they then carried
on with the Dutch, and at the same time to clip the wings of these
our opulent and aspiring neighbors.’ Although aimed particularly at
the West Indies, this law, of course, extended its provisions to all
the other British colonies, and among them to those established on
the American coast. By them, however, it was generally resisted as
an encroachment on their rights. Ineffectual attempts were made for
a century, to enforce it; and in this struggle were sowed the seeds
of the revolution.

Nor did the humble attempts of the colonies in manufactures fail
to awaken the jealousy of the mother country. Sir Josiah Child,
although a more liberal politician than many of his countrymen, in his
discourse on trade, published in 1670, pronounces New England ‘the most
prejudicial plantation of Great Britain;’ and gives for this opinion
the singular reason, that they are a people ‘whose frugality, industry,
and temperance, and the happiness of whose laws and institutions
promise to them long life, and a wonderful increase of people, riches,
and power.’

After many fruitless attempts, on the part of the executive authority
of Great Britain, to keep down the enterprise and industry of the
country, in those departments of industry which were disallowed
by the laws of trade, recourse was had to parliament. The house of
commons took up the subject in 1731, and called upon the board of
trade and plantations to make a report ‘with respect to any laws made,
manufactures set up, or trade carried on in the colonies, detrimental
to the trade, navigation and manufactures of Great Britain.’ In the
result of this inquiry it appeared, that among other branches of
manufacture for domestic supply, hats were made in the colonies
in considerable quantities, and had even been exported to foreign
countries. In consequence of this alarming discovery, the law of
5 George II. c. 22. was passed, forbidding hats or felts to be exported
from the colonies, or even ‘to be loaded on a horse, cart, or other
carriage for transportation, from one plantation to another.’ Nor was
this all; in 1750, a law was passed by the parliament of Great Britain,
which must be considered a disgrace to the legislation of a civilized
country. It prohibited ‘the erection or continuance of any mill or
other engine for slitting or rolling iron, or any plaiting forge,
to work with a tilt hammer, or any furnace for making steel, in the
colonies, under penalty of two hundred pounds.’ Every such mill, engine,
forge, or furnace was declared a _common nuisance_, which the governors
of the provinces, on information, were bound to abate, under penalty of
five hundred pounds, within thirty days!

It has been, within a few years, stated by Mr. Huskisson, and with
truth, that the real causes of the revolution are to be found, not in
the irritating measures that followed Mr. Grenville’s plan of taxation,
but in the long-cherished discontent of the colonies, at this system of
legislative oppression. Accordingly, the first measures of the patriots
aimed to establish their independence, on the basis of the productive
industry and the laborious arts of the country. They began with a
non-importation agreement, nearly two years before the declaration of
independence. This agreement, with the exception of the addresses to
the people of America and Great Britain, was the only positive act of
the first Congress, that met at Philadelphia in 1774, and it is signed
by every member of that body. The details, to which it descends, are
full of instruction. The seventh article provides that ‘we will use
our utmost endeavors to improve the breed of sheep, and increase their
numbers to the greatest extent;’ and the eighth, ‘that we will, in
our several stations, encourage frugality, economy, and industry,
and promote agriculture, arts, and the manufactures of this country,
especially those of wool.’

The policy indicated by these resolutions was, of course, favored by
a state of war. All regular commercial intercourse with Great Britain
was interrupted, and the supply of prize goods, which took its place,
was casual and uncertain. We had as yet formed no connections in trade,
with other countries; nor if we had, could their manufactures have
found their way across the ocean, amidst the cruisers of the enemy, at
any other than high prices. Fresh impulse was accordingly given to what
few manufactures existed before the revolution, and new ones of various
kinds were attempted with success. One of the earliest of these was the
manufacture of nails, upon which lord Chatham had placed his memorable
prohibition. It is within the memory of man, that the first attempt to
manufacture cut nails, in New England, was made in the southern part
of Massachusetts in the revolutionary war, with old iron hoops for
the material, and a pair of shears for the machine. Since that period,
besides supplying the consumption of the United States,――estimated
at from eighty to one hundred million pounds, and at a price not much
exceeding the duty,――machines of American invention for the manufacture
of nails have been introduced into England; and large quantities of
nails are exported from the United States to foreign countries.

On the return of peace in 1783, the influx of foreign goods, in many
respects prejudicial to the country, proved in the highest degree
disastrous to its mechanical and manufacturing industry. The want of
one national government, and the division of the powers of government
among thirteen sovereignties, made it impossible, by a uniform revenue
system, to remedy the evil. The states generally attempted, by their
separate navigation laws, to secure their trade to their own vessels;
but the rivalry and selfish policy of some states counteracted the
efforts of others, and eventually threw almost the whole navigation of
the country into foreign hands. So low had it sunk in Boston, that in
1788, it was thought expedient, on grounds of patriotism, to get up a
subscription to build three ships; and this incident, proving nothing
but the poverty and depression of the town, was hailed as one which
would give renewed activity to the industry of the trades’ people and
mechanics of Boston! The same class of citizens and the manufacturers
in general, in the state of Massachusetts, petitioned the government
of that state, by bounties, imposts, and prohibitions, to protect their
industry. This prayer was granted, and a tariff of duties laid, which
in some points,――that of coarse cottons for instance,――was higher than
any duty laid by Congress, before the war of 1812.

But the state of the country rendered these laws of little avail.
Binding in Boston, they were of no validity in Rhode Island; and what
was subject to duty in New York, might be imported free in Connecticut
and New Jersey. The state of the industry of the country was depressed
to a point of distress, unknown in the midnight of the revolution. The
shipping had dwindled to nothing. The manufacturing establishments were
kept up by bounties and by patriotic associations and subscriptions,
and even the common trades were threatened with ruin. It was plain,
for instance, that, in the comparative condition of the United States
and Great Britain, not a hatter, a boot or shoe maker, a saddler, or a
brass founder could carry on his business, except in the coarsest and
most ordinary productions of their various trades, under the pressure
of foreign competition. Thus was presented the extraordinary and
calamitous spectacle of a successful revolution, wholly failing of its
ultimate object. The people of America had gone to war, not for names,
but for things. It was not merely to change a government administered
by kings, princes, and ministers, for a government administered by
presidents, and secretaries, and members of congress. It was to redress
their own grievances, to improve their own condition, to throw off
the burden which the colonial system laid on their industry. To attain
these objects, they endured incredible hardships, and bore and suffered
almost beyond the measure of humanity. And when their independence
was attained, they found it was a piece of parchment. The arm which
had struck for it in the field, was palsied in the workshop; the
industry which had been _burdened_ in the colonies, was _crushed_ in
the free states; and, at the close of the revolution, the mechanics
and manufacturers of the country found themselves, in the bitterness
of their hearts, independent――and ruined.

They looked round them in despair. They cast about for means of relief,
and found none, but in a plan of a voluntary association throughout the
continent, and an appeal to the patriotism of their fellow-citizens.
Such an association was formed in Boston in 1787 or 1788, and a
circular letter was addressed by them to their brethren throughout the
union. The proposal was favorably received, and in some of the cities
zealously acted upon; but, unsupported by a general legislation, its
effects must at best have been partial and inadequate.

But before our citizens had discovered this, by sad experience, a
new and unhoped-for remedy for their sufferings had been devised.
The day-star of the constitution arose; and of all the classes of
the people of America, to whose hearts it came as the harbinger of
blessings long hoped for and long despaired of, most unquestionably
the tradesmen, mechanics, and manufacturers hailed it with the warmest
welcome. It had in fact grown out of the all-pervading inefficiency and
wretchedness of the revenue system, which had been felt in ruin by them,
more than by any other class. The feelings, with which it was regarded
by the ‘tradesmen and manufacturers of New York,’ will appear from
their letter, in reply to the circular of the association in Boston.
This expression of the sentiments which were entertained in New York,
while the adoption of the constitution by that state was an event of a
few months’ standing, may afford instruction and bear repetition at the
present day.

    _A Letter from, the Tradesmen and Manufacturers of New York
          to the Tradesmen and Manufacturers of Boston._

                                        NEW YORK, _17th Nov. 1788_.

  ‘GENTLEMEN:――The mechanics and manufacturers of the city of
  New York have long contemplated and lamented the evils, which
  a pernicious system of commerce has introduced into our country,
  and the obstacles with which it has opposed the extension and
  improvement of American manufactures; and having taken into
  consideration your circular letter, wherein those evils and their
  remedies are pointed out, in a just and striking manner, have
  authorized us to communicate to you, in answer to your address
  their sentiments on the interesting subject.

  ‘It is with the highest pleasure that we embrace this opportunity,
  to express to you their approbation of the liberal and patriotic
  attempt of the tradesmen and manufacturers of your respectable
  town.

  ‘Every zealous and enlightened friend to the prosperity of this
  country must view, with peculiar regret, the impediments with
  which foreign importations have embarrassed the infant arts in
  America. We are sensible that they are not only highly unfavorable
  to every mechanical improvement, but that they nourish a spirit of
  dependence, which tends in some degree to defeat the purposes of
  our late revolution, and tarnish the lustre of our character. We
  are sensible that long habit has fixed, in the minds of the people,
  an unjust predilection for foreign productions, and has rendered
  them too regardless of the arguments and complaints, with which
  the patriotic and discerning have addressed them from every
  quarter. These prejudices have become confirmed and radical; and
  we are convinced that a strong and united effort is necessary to
  expel them. We are happy that the tradesmen of Boston have led the
  way to a general and efficient exertion in this important cause.

  ‘The impression we feel of the utility and expediency
  of encouraging our domestic manufactures are in perfect
  correspondence with your own; and we shall most cheerfully unite
  our endeavours with those of our brethren throughout the union,
  and shall be ready to adopt every measure, which will have a
  tendency to facilitate the great design.

  ‘The legislature of our state, convinced of the propriety of
  cherishing our manufactures in their early growth, have made
  some provisions for that purpose. We have no doubt that more
  comprehensive and decisive measures will in time be taken by them.
  But on the confederated exertions of our brethren, _and especially
  on the patronage and protection of the general government_, we
  rest our most flattering hopes of success.

  ‘In order to support and improve the union and harmony of the
  American manufacturers, and to render as systematic and uniform
  as possible their designs for the common benefit, we perfectly
  concur with you on the propriety of establishing a reciprocal
  and unreserved communication. When our views, like our interests,
  are combined and concentered, _our petitions to the federal
  legislature will assume the tone and complexion of the public
  wishes, and will have a proportionable weight and influence_.

  ‘We request you to favor us with the continuation of your
  correspondence, and to transmit to us, from time to time, such
  resolutions and proposals of your association as may be calculated
  for the promotion of our mutual interests.

  ‘We are, with the highest respect, &c.’

Such were the feelings and hopes, with which the laboring classes of
the country in general, particularly the manufacturers and mechanics
looked forward to the adoption of the federal constitution. In the
state of Massachusetts, it is admitted, that the question of adoption
was decided, under the influence of the association of tradesmen and
manufacturers already mentioned. In the convention of that state,
the encouragement of manufactures, by protecting laws, was declared
in debate to be a leading and avowed object of the constitution. As
it was successively adopted in each state, triumphant processions
of the tradesmen, mechanics, and manufacturers, with the banners of
their industry, and mottos expressive of their reliance on the new
constitution for protection, evinced, in the most imposing form, and in
the presence of uncounted multitudes, the principles, the expectations,
and the hopes of the industrious classes of the community. Processions
of this kind were organized in Portsmouth, in Boston, in New York, in
Philadelphia, in Baltimore, and in Charleston; and the sentiment which
animated and inspired them all, was that which was expressed in the
motto inscribed upon the banners of the manufacturers in Philadelphia,
‘_May the Union Government protect the Manufactures of America_.’

Forty-three years have since passed, and it is now earnestly maintained,
and that by intelligent citizens, that the federal constitution thus
adopted, under the influence of the mechanics and manufacturers, (who
knew that by the new government the power of protecting their pursuits
was taken from the governments of the states, who had before held and
exercised it), confers no power on congress to protect the labor of
the country, and that the exercise of such power is unconstitutional.
When we consider the control over public sentiment possessed by the
associated mechanics and manufacturers of our large towns, and the
slender majorities by which, in some states, the constitution was
adopted it is not too much to say, that if such a conception of its
powers had then prevailed, it never would have been ratified.

A quorum of the house of representatives under the new constitution
was formed, for the first time, on 1st April, 1789. In one week from
that day, Mr. Madison brought forward the subject of the revenue system,
as the most important, which required the attention of the national
legislature. Pending the discussion of this subject, and three days
after it commenced, a memorial was presented ‘from the tradesmen,
manufacturers, and others of the town of Baltimore, in the state
of Maryland, praying an imposition of such duties on all foreign
articles, which can be made in America, as will give a just and decided
preference to the labors of the petitioners, and that there may be
granted to them, in common with the other manufacturers and mechanics
of the United States, such relief as to the wisdom of congress may
seem proper.’ This was followed up, the next day, by a petition from
the shipwrights of Charleston, S. C., stating ‘the distress they were
in, from the decline of that branch of the business, and the present
situation of the trade of the United States, and praying that the
wisdom and policy of the national legislature may be directed to such
measures, in a general regulation of trade, and the establishment of
a proper navigation act, as will relieve the particular distresses
of the petitioners, in common with those of their fellow shipwrights,
throughout the union.’

Thus the two first memorials presented to the congress of the United
States were for protecting duties on American industry; and of these
memorials, one was from Baltimore, and the other from Charleston, South
Carolina.

A few days after, a similar memorial came in from New York,
‘setting forth that, in the present deplorable state of commerce and
manufactures, they look with confidence to the operations of the new
government for a restoration of both, and that relief which they have
so long and so ardently desired; that they have subjoined a list of
such articles as can be manufactured in New York, and humbly pray the
countenance and attention of the national legislature thereto.’

Numerous other petitions of like purport were shortly after
presented, and in pursuance of their prayers, as well as from the
crying demands of the public service, the first impost law was passed,
at an early period of the session. It was, with the exception of the
law prescribing the oaths of office, the first law, which was passed
under the new government. In the long debate, which arose, at different
stages of its progress, the idea was advanced, by members from every
part of the country, that congress were bound to lay duties, that
would encourage its manufacturing industry; and it does not appear
that the suggestion was made in the reported debates, that they did not
constitutionally possess the power. Mr. Madison thus expressed himself
on the subject:――“The states, that are most advanced in population and
ripe for manufactures, ought to have their particular interest attended
to, in some degree. While these states retained the power of making
regulations of trade, they had the power to protect and cherish such
institutions. By adopting the present constitution, they have thrown
the exercise of this power into other hands. They must have done this
with the expectation, that those interests would not be neglected
here.” And again, “duties laid on imported articles may have an effect,
which comes within the idea of national prudence. It may happen that
materials for manufactures may grow up, without any encouragement for
this purpose. It has been the case in some of the states. But in others,
regulations have been provided and have succeeded in producing some
establishments, which ought not to be allowed to perish, from the
alteration which has taken place. It would be cruel to neglect them,
and turn their industry to other channels; for it is not possible for
the hand of man to shift from one employment to another, without being
injured by the change. There maybe some manufactures, which, being
once formed, can advance toward perfection, without any adventitious
aid; while others, for want of the fostering hand of government, will
be unable to go on at all. Legislative attention will be therefore
necessary to collect the proper objects for this purpose.” Such were
the principles on which this law was supported; and when it finally
passed, it was stated, in the preamble, to be ‘for the support of
government, the discharge of the debts of the United States, and the
encouragement and protection of manufactures.’

The present manufacturing system of the United States may be considered,
partly as the result of the revenue laws of 1789, which remained
without essential changes till the embargo of 1807, and partly as the
effect of that and the other restrictive measures, and of the war which
followed them. Those branches of industry, which are commonly called
the mechanic arts, received, for the most part, though not without
exception, an ample protection under the former laws:――manufactures on
a large scale, requiring great capital and skill, owed their existence
to the total interruption of commerce. In the combined result, a very
large amount of American capital was, at the peace of 1815, found
invested in manufactures. It was the prevalent opinion of the statesmen
of that day, and those of the south among the foremost, that this
capital ought to be protected; and the success which had attended some
of the manufactures, on a large scale, had produced some change in the
public opinion, as to the capacity of the country to support them.

In other parts of the volume we have mentioned the chief manufacturing
establishments in the country, and, for the purpose of avoiding
repetition, have reserved statistical details for the tabular views at
the end of the work.




                         CHAPTER V.――COMMERCE.


In the rapid growth of their commerce, the United States have enjoyed
a most wonderful prosperity. We have, in a previous chapter, alluded
to the restrictive measures adopted by the mother country, while
we remained in colonial subjection, and it will not be necessary to
enter into farther details on that subject. During the revolutionary
difficulties, the traffic which had previously existed was of course
suspended, and after the peace, commerce was still embarrassed with
numerous impediments. These found their origin in the very nature
of the confederation, and were inseparable from the confused and
ineffective powers of such a political system. Congress had no power
to impose any duties without the unanimous consent of the states,
and it is apparent at once how entirely impossible it was, under such
circumstances, to adjust a system that should be universally acceptable.
The foreign articles on which Pennsylvania laid a duty, New Jersey
admitted free; facility of smuggling from one of these states to the
other was unavoidable from their situation.

The several states laid different rates of duty on foreign tonnage;
in some, one shilling sterling per ton was imposed on vessels
which in other states paid three shillings per ton. Such was the
misunderstanding among the several states, that there were no general
commercial regulations; nor could congress enforce any, while the
opposition of any one of the states could prevent the passage of
any act on the subject. The evil of this condition of affairs was
flagrantly manifest, when, to provide a fund to discharge the public
debt, and to pay the arrears of the revolutionary soldiers, it
was proposed to congress, during the operation of the articles of
confederation, to lay a duty of five per cent. ad valorem on all
foreign merchandise imported, and the opposition of Rhode Island alone
was sufficient to defeat the plan.

European nations gladly availed themselves of the embarrassed situation
of our affairs, and labored to throw every obstacle in the way of our
increasing commerce. They refused to negotiate commercial treaties;
for even those nations which were ready to countenance our assertion of
independence, were not ready to receive us as competitors and rivals in
a struggle where their own interests were so deeply involved. The call
for an amendment of the regulations on foreign trade, was one of the
leading inducements to the change of the old confederation, and the new
constitution embraced the necessary provisions for the establishment
of a successful intercourse with foreign nations. Not long after
the adoption of the new constitution, Mr. Jefferson, then secretary
of state, proposed a liberal system of policy in relation to this
intercourse. His report on the subject of our commercial relations at
that period, contains a variety of interesting matter, which enables us
to make a correct comparison between the condition of our trade at that
period and its present very great increase. This report was prepared
in the summer of 1792. The countries with which the United States had
commercial intercourse at that period were Spain, Portugal, France,
Great Britain, the United Netherlands, Denmark, and Sweden, and their
American possessions: and the articles of export, which constitute the
basis of that commerce, with their respective amounts, were,

            Bread stuff, that is to say,
              bread grains, meals, and bread,
              to the annual amount of           $ 7,649,887
            Tobacco                               4,349,567
            Rice                                  1,753,796
            Wood                                  1,263,534
            Salted fish                             941,696
            Pot and pearl ashes                     839,093
            Salted meats                            599,130
            Indigo                                  537,379
            Horses and mules                        339,753
            Whale oil                               252,591
            Flax seed                               236,072
            Tar, pitch, and turpentine              217,177
            Live provisions                         137,743
            Ships
            Foreign goods                           620,274

To descend to articles of smaller value than these, would lead into a
minuteness of detail neither necessary nor useful to the present object.

The proportions of our exports, which went to the nations before
mentioned, and to their dominions respectively, were as follows:

            To Spain and its dominions          $ 2,005,907
            Portugal and its dominions            1,283,462
            France and its dominions              4,698,735
            Great Britain and its dominions       9,363,416
            The United Netherlands and their
              dominions                           1,963,880
            Denmark and its dominions               224,415
            Sweden and its dominions                 47,240

Our imports from the same countries were,

            Spain and its dominions               $ 335,110
            Portugal and its dominions              595,763
            France and its dominions              2,068,348
            Great Britain and its dominions      15,285,428
            United Netherlands and their
              dominions                           1,172,692
            Denmark and its dominions               351,364
            Sweden and its dominions                 14,325

These imports consist mostly of articles on which industry has been
exhausted.

Our _navigation_, depending on the same commerce, will appear by the
following statement of the tonnage of our own vessels, entering in our
ports, from those several nations and their possessions, in one year;
that is to say, from October, 1789, to September, 1790, inclusive, as
follows

            Spain                               19,695 tons
            Portugal                            23,576  “
            France                             116,410  “
            Great Britain                       43,580  “
            United Netherlands                  58,858  “
            Denmark                             14,655  “
            Sweden                                 750  “

The report then goes on to describe the degree of favor with which
each of the several articles of export is received in each of the
nations mentioned, and the nature and extent of the restrictions which
had been adopted by each government in reference to American commerce.
It then proceeds to the investigation of the question, how may these
restrictions be removed, modified, or counteracted? Two methods are
suggested; first, by friendly arrangements with the several nations
with whom these restrictions exist; or, secondly, by the separate act
of our own legislatures for countervailing their effects. The views
taken in this report have so important a bearing on many political
subjects that have of late years agitated the country, and indicate so
clearly the opinions of Mr. Jefferson in regard to the constitutional
powers of Congress, in regulating commerce, that it seems not improper
to present in this connection the following extracts:

‘Instead of embarrassing commerce under piles of regulating laws,
duties, and prohibitions, could it be relieved from all its shackles
in all parts of the world; could every country be employed in producing
that which nature has best fitted it to produce, and each be free to
exchange with others mutual surplusses for mutual wants, the greatest
mass possible would then be produced of those things which contribute
to human life and human happiness; the numbers of mankind would be
increased, and their condition bettered.

‘Would even a single nation begin with the United States this system
of free commerce, it would be advisable to begin it with that nation;
since it is one by one only, that it can be extended to all. Where the
circumstances of either party render it expedient to levy a revenue,
by way of impost, on commerce, its freedom might be modified, in that
particular, by mutual and equivalent measures, preserving it entire in
all others.

‘Some nations, not yet ripe for free commerce in all its extent,
might still be willing to mollify its restrictions and regulations for
us, in proportion to the advantages which an intercourse with us might
offer. Particularly they may concur with us in reciprocating the duties
to be levied on each side, or in compensating any excess of duty by
equivalent advantages of another nature. Our commerce is certainly of
a character to entitle it to favor in most countries. The commodities
we offer are either necessaries of life, or materials for manufacture,
or convenient subjects of revenue; and we take in exchange, either
manufactures, when they have received the last finish of art and
industry, or mere luxuries. Such customers may reasonably expect
welcome and friendly treatment at every market. Customers, too, whose
demands, increasing with their wealth and population, must very shortly
give full employment to the whole industry of any nation whatever, in
any line of supply they may get into the habit of calling for from it.

‘But should any nation, contrary to our wishes, suppose it may better
find its advantage by continuing its system of prohibitions, duties,
and regulations, it behoves us to protect our citizens, their commerce
and navigation, by counter prohibitions, duties, and regulations,
also. Free commerce and navigation are not to be given in exchange for
restrictions and vexations, nor are they likely to produce a relaxation
of them.

‘Our navigation involves still higher considerations. As a branch of
industry, it is valuable, but as a resource of defence, essential.

‘Its value, as a branch of industry, is enhanced by the dependence of
so many other branches on it. In times of general peace, it multiplies
competitors for employment in transportation, and so keeps that at its
proper level; and in times of war, that is to say, when those nations
who may be our principal carriers, shall be at war with each other, if
we have not within ourselves the means of transportation, our produce
must be exported in belligerent vessels, at the increased expense of
war-freight and insurance, and the articles which will not bear that,
must perish on our hands.’

The troubled situation of affairs in Europe exerted a very favorable
influence on American commerce. The wars which followed in the train
of the French revolution, created a demand for our exports, and invited
our shipping for the carrying trade of a very considerable portion
of Europe. American bottoms not only carried the colonial productions
to the several parent states, but our merchants became the purchasers
of them in the French, Spanish, and Dutch colonies. A new era was
established in our commercial history. Large numbers of individuals
embarked in commercial enterprises, and the other departments of
industry were comparatively deserted. The most adventurous became the
most wealthy, and that, too, without any knowledge of the principles on
which trade is usually conducted. No one confined himself to a single
branch of business, but the same individual was concerned in voyages to
the four quarters of the globe. Our tonnage increased with a rapidity
proportioned to its demand; in proportion to our population, we ranked
as the most commercial of nations; in point of value, our trade was
second only to that of Great Britain.

This astonishing increase of commercial connections, and consequent
accumulation of wealth, could not but excite the jealousy of European
nations, and eventually occasioned a series of restrictive and
prohibitory codes, on the part of England and France, at that time
belligerent, by which the Americans, as a neutral power, suffered
infinite damage. Indeed, between the years 1804 and 1807, inclusive,
above one thousand American merchant vessels were captured by nations
professedly at peace with the United States, for alleged breaches
of blockade, or of commercial decrees. Under these circumstances,
the government of the United States, at the close of the year 1807,
resorted to an embargo, to prevent the destruction of the mercantile
navy, which was continued till March, 1809. Thus the export trade of
the United States, after having, in the course of sixteen years, from
1790 to 1806, acquired an augmentation of nearly ninety millions of
dollars, was, in 1807, reduced by a single blow to the aggregate of
twenty-two millions, four hundred and thirty thousand, nine hundred and
sixty dollars, being only one million, six hundred and seventy-seven
thousand, eight hundred and sixty-two dollars more than the amount in
1791, the second year after the organization of the present government.
On raising the embargo, commerce at once revived, and during the years
1809 and 1810, the amount of exports, so far as related to domestic
products, was greater than the average of the ten years from 1802 to
1812.

Subsequently to the declaration of war with Great Britain, the export
trade of the United States was materially depressed, till, in the year
1814, it did not amount to seven millions of dollars. At the conclusion
of the war, the exports rose in 1815 to fifty-two millions; in 1816,
to eighty-one; in 1817, to eighty-seven; in 1818, to ninety-three. From
1819 to 1824, the amount ranged between sixty-five and seventy-five
millions, the average being above seventy; but in 1825, the amount
of exports again rose to nearly one hundred millions of dollars. From
1826 to 1830, the exports ranged from seventy to eighty millions;
the exports of foreign goods have materially declined, the amount for
1830 being little more than fourteen millions, a smaller amount than
any year since 1803, except those of the embargo and war, while the
domestic exports are nearly sixty millions, an amount exceeding those
of any preceding year, excepting the years 1816, ’17, ’18, and ’25.

The official accounts presented to congress divide the exports into
four classes: products of the sea, the forest, agriculture, and
manufactures. The following is a summary of the exports of the year
1830; the details of this and other years will be found in the tabular
views at the end of the volume. The products of the sea, consisting
of the results of the whale, cod, mackerel, and herring fisheries,
exported mostly from the northern states, amount to one million, seven
hundred and twenty-five thousand, two hundred and seventy dollars,
being nearly a thirty-fifth part of the whole domestic exports. About
one third of this value consists of codfish, and more than half of the
products of the whale fisheries.

The value of skins, furs, ginseng, amber, staves, bark, tar, pitch,
resin, and turpentine, and pot and pearl ashes, partly from the
northern and partly from the southern states, which were formerly
of much greater comparative importance, now constitutes nearly one
fifteenth part of the whole value of domestic exports, and amounts to
four millions, one hundred and ninety-two thousand, and forty dollars.
A large proportion of the trade in these articles, as well as in those
of codfish and bread stuffs, is carried on with the West Indies, Mexico,
and South America. The skins and the furs go to Europe and Canton, the
ginseng to Canton, and the pot and pearl ashes to France and England.

The chief amount of articles of export consist, as would naturally be
supposed, of the products of agriculture. The article of cotton alone
furnishes nearly half of the amount of the whole exports of the United
States, being for the year 1830 twenty-nine million, six hundred and
seventy-four thousand, eight hundred and thirty-three dollars. The
next important article of export is wheat, either as grain, flour,
or biscuit; the amount being six million, three hundred and twenty
thousand, six hundred seventeen dollars. The third in amount is tobacco,
five million, five hundred and eighty-six thousand, three hundred and
sixty-five dollars; the fourth, rice, one million, nine hundred and
eighty-six thousand, eight hundred twenty-four dollars; the fifth, the
produce of swine, including pork, bacon, and live hogs, one million,
three hundred and fifteen thousand, two hundred and forty-five dollars.
Three of the most important of these articles, cotton, tobacco, and
rice, amounting collectively to thirty-seven million, two hundred
and forty-eight thousand, and seventy-two dollars, are the produce
of the southern states, including Virginia and Kentucky. The other
agricultural exports, viz. beef, tallow, hides and cattle, butter,
cheese, horses, mules, sheep, rye meal, oats, potatoes, and apples,
flax seed, and hops, are mostly furnished by the middle and western
states. Cattle and their products, including butter and cheese,
amounted to eight hundred and sixty thousand, and fifty-three dollars.
This species of export is of far less comparative importance than
formerly, being limited to its present amount, not by the capacity
for production, but by the extent of demand in the foreign markets.
An increase of the foreign demand would soon double and treble the
quantity. Some of the articles comprehended in the above list, though
agricultural products, yet involve some process of manufacture; such,
for example, as butter, cheese, bacon, flour, biscuit, meal, and part
of the tobacco. A great many, however, of the exports coming under
the head of manufactures, include in them the value of materials, such
as the cotton fabrics, those of leather, and spirits distilled from
grain: so that, on the whole, the strictly agricultural products of
the country constitute a larger proportion of the whole exports than
the tables represent; and if we add the value of materials supplied
by agriculture for the manufactured exports, we shall have at least
six sevenths of the whole domestic exportation consisting of the raw
products of agriculture.

The total amount of manufactured articles exported from the United
States in the year 1830, is estimated in the official returns at
six million, two hundred and fifty-eight thousand, one hundred and
thirty-one dollars, being rather more than one tenth of the domestic
exports of the country; about nine hundred and thirty thousand dollars
should, however, be struck out of this list, being gold and silver coin,
consisting mostly of metals coined at the mint, and again exported. The
labor put upon these materials in coining is so inconsiderable a part
of their value, that the amount of coin of the country exported ought
not to be included in the estimate of the value of manufactured exports.
Of the articles exported on which the arts of the United States are
employed, the most considerable are cotton twist, thread, and fabrics,
the exported value of which, for the year 1830, was one million, eight
hundred and thirteen thousand, one hundred and eighty-three dollars,
being more than one fiftieth part of the whole domestic exports,
the principal markets of which are South America, Mexico, and the
Mediterranean.

The value of leather and its various manufactures, exported, is three
hundred and seventy-five thousand, two hundred and fifty dollars. Hats
exported the same year amount to three hundred and nine thousand, three
hundred and sixty-two dollars, a very large sum, considering the short
period during which this article has been sent to foreign markets.
Soap and candles have long been supplied for the foreign markets, but
have lately been on the decline, the amount for the year 1830 being six
hundred and nineteen thousand, two hundred and thirty-eight dollars;
and for 1831 only about twenty-five thousand dollars more. The various
articles manufactured for the most part of wood, such as furniture,
or of wood, leather, and iron, such as coaches and carriages, besides
various agricultural implements supplied to the West Indies and South
America, constitute an important branch of trade. The American glass
begins to appear in the foreign markets; the value sent abroad in 1830,
was sixty thousand, two hundred and eighty dollars; in the next year it
was nearly doubled, and it bids fair to be still increased. The other
exports consist of a variety of articles in small quantities, among
which are wearing apparel, combs and buttons, brushes, fire engines
and apparatus, printing presses and types, musical instruments, books,
maps, paper and stationery, and trunks. It is apparent from the above
enumeration and estimates, that the manufactured articles of which the
export is the most considerable and most flourishing are those of which
the raw materials consist mostly of cotton, wood, and leather.

The foreign articles imported and again exported from the country
during the year 1830, amounted to fourteen million, three hundred and
seventy-eight thousand, four hundred and seventy-nine dollars. This
transit trade consequently forms an important part of American commerce.
The principal foreign articles exported are cottons, coffee and cocoa,
sugar, tea, wines, and hardware.[72]

‘The tendency to the sea,’ says Mr. Cooper, in his Notions of the
Americans, ‘which the American has manifested since the earliest of
the colonial establishments, is, no doubt, to be ascribed originally to
the temper of his ancestors. Nothing can be more absurd, however, than
to argue, that although peculiar circumstances drew him on the ocean,
during the continuance of the late and general hostilities, he will
return to his fertile valleys and vast prairies, now that competitors
for the profits of commerce and navigation are arising among the former
belligerents. The argument implies an utter ignorance of history,
no less than of the character and sagacity of a people who are never
tardy to discover their individual interests. It is, notwithstanding,
often urged with so much pertinacity, as to savor much more of the
conclusions of what we hope for, than of what our reason would teach us
to believe. The fact is, there never has been a period, since society
was first firmly organized in their country, when the Anglo-Americans
have not possessed a tonnage greater, in proportion to their population
and means, than that of any other people, some of the small commercial
cities, perhaps, alone excepted. This was true, even previously to
their revolution, when the mother country monopolized all of trade and
industry that the temper of the colonies would bear, and it is true
now, to an extent of which you have probably no suspicion. The present
population of the United States may be computed at twelve million,
while the amount of shipping materially exceeds one million four
hundred thousand tons.[73] Assuming that amount, however, it gives one
ton to every eight and a half of the inhabitants. The tonnage of the
British empire is, in round numbers, two million, five hundred thousand.
This, divided among the twenty-three million of the British islands
alone, would give but one ton to every nine of the inhabitants. In this
calculation, the vast difference in wealth is forgotten. But by the
British empire, we are to understand Canada, the West Indies, and all
the vast possessions which are tributary to the wealth and power of
that great nation. I know not whether the shipping employed in the East
Indies ought to be enumerated in the amount named. If it is, you will
see the disproportion in favor of America is enormous. But assuming
that it is not, it becomes necessary to add several millions for their
other dependencies. There is, however, still another point of view in
which this comparison should, with strict justice, be made. A large
proportion of the people of the United States are so situated, that in
the nature of things they cannot turn much, if any, of their attention
to navigation. If the slaves and the inhabitants of the new states,
where the establishments are still too infant, to admit of such a
development of their resources, be deducted from the whole amount of
the population, it will not leave more than seven million of souls in
possession of those districts in which navigation can be supposed at
all to exist. The latter, too, will include all those states that are
called interior, where time has not been given to effect any thing like
a natural division of the employments of men. The result will show,
that the Americans, relatively considered, are addicted to navigation,
as compared with Great Britain, in the proportion of more than seven to
five; nor has this commercial, or rather maritime spirit, arisen under
auspices so encouraging as is generally imagined.

‘The navigation laws, adopted by the United States, so soon as
their present constitution went into operation, are generally known.
Their effect was to bring the shipping of the country into instant
competition with that of foreign nations, from the state of temporary
depression into which it had been thrown by the struggle of the
revolution. From that hour, the superiority enjoyed by the American,
in cheapness of construction, provisions and naval stores, aided by the
unrivalled activity, and practical knowledge of the population, put all
foreign competition at defiance. Of six hundred and six thousand tons
of shipping employed in 1790, in the foreign trade of the country, not
less than two hundred and fifty-one thousand tons were the property
of strangers. In 1794, while the trade employed six hundred and
eleven thousand tons, but eighty-four thousand tons were owned by
foreigners. In 1820, (a year of great depression,) the trade gave
occupation to eight hundred and eighty thousand tons, of which no more
than seventy-nine thousand tons were foreign property. This estimate,
however, includes the intercourse with the least, no less than that
with the most maritime nation. The trade between the United States and
England, which is the most important of all, in respect of the tonnage,
it employs, was about three to one, in favor of the former; with other
countries it varies according to the maritime character of the people,
but with all and each it is altogether in favor of the United States.’




                       CHAPTER VI.――RAIL-ROADS.


The first rail-road attempted in the United States, was that
constructed in Quincy, for the purpose of transporting granite from
the quarry at that place. It extends from the quarry to the Neponset
river, a distance of about three miles. It is a single track road, and
the distance between the rails is five feet. The rails are of pine,
covered with oak, and overlaid with thin plates of wrought iron. When
first constructed, the passage from the quarry to the landing of a car
carrying ten tons, with a single horse, was performed in an hour. It
was completed in 1827.

The _Boston and Lowell_ rail-road commences at Boston, near the
entrance to the Warren bridge. Twenty acres of flat have been purchased
at this place to accommodate the various depots of the company. The
rail-road crosses Charles river by a wooden viaduct, and terminates
at the basin of the canal in Lowell; whence branches extend along the
several canals to the factories. It is constructed of stone and iron,
in the most substantial manner. The company to form this road was
incorporated in June, 1830.[74]

The _Boston and Worcester_ rail-road was commenced in August, 1832. In
this road, the greatest degree of inclination from a level will be at
the rate of thirty feet a mile; the average inclination will be but ten
and a half feet, the main street in Worcester being but four hundred
and fifty-six feet higher than Charles street in Boston. The length of
the route is forty-three and a quarter miles.

The _Boston and Providence_ Rail-road company was incorporated in
June, 1831, with a capital of a million of dollars, for the purpose
of constructing a rail-road from Boston to the boundary line of
Massachusetts, in the direction of Providence. A company has been
formed for the continuation of this road to Stonington. Rail-roads
have been projected from Boston or Lowell to Brattleborough; from West
Stockbridge to the boundary line of the state of New York, to meet a
rail-road from Albany; from Boston to Salem, to be continued to the
northern line of the state; from Troy, in New York, at the head of
navigation on the Hudson river, to Bennington, a distance of thirty
miles to the town of Adams; and from Boston to Ogdensburg, in New York.

The _Hudson and Mohawk_ rail-road extends from Albany to Schenectady,
and affords a communication between the tide-water of Hudson river
and the Erie canal. It is a double track road, about sixteen miles in
length. It commences at the termination of the city line on the Hudson
river, and about thirteen acres of land are owned by the company in the
vicinity, for depots of transports. About four miles from Schenectady,
there is a curve in the road of twenty-three thousand feet radius;
there are six principal embankments. The descent from the Schenectady
summit to the level of the Hudson, is three hundred and thirty-five
feet. The soil through which the road passes is sandy. Several ravines
are crossed, and some considerable elevations are cut through. Both
locomotive engines and horses are used upon this route. A locomotive
has travelled upon it, with a load of eight tons, at the rate of
thirty miles per hour. In October, 1831, the number of daily passengers
averaged nearly four hundred. The cost of this road was between six and
seven hundred thousand dollars.

The _Saratoga and Schenectady_ rail-road forms a continuation of the
Mohawk and Hudson rail-road, extending from the city of Schenectady
to the villages of Ballston Spa and Saratoga, and uniting these places
with the line of steam navigation upon the Hudson. It is twenty miles
in length; was commenced in 1831, and completed in the following year.

The _Ithaca and Susquehanna_ rail-road is to extend from the village of
Ithaca, near the south end of Cayuga lake, to Owego, on the Susquehanna.
The distance is about twenty-eight miles. The _Ithaca and Catskill_
rail-road is to extend a distance of one hundred and sixty-seven miles,
from Ithaca to Catskill, on the Hudson. The _Catskill and Canajoharie_
rail-road is to extend for the distance of seventy miles, from Catskill
to Canajoharie, on the Mohawk. The company was incorporated in 1830,
with a capital of six hundred thousand dollars. The _Harlem_ rail-road
is about six miles in length, extending from Twenty-third street, New
York city, to Harlem river.

The _New York and Erie_ rail-road company was incorporated in April
1832, with a capital of ten million dollars. It was the original design
that the road should extend from the city of New York, or some point
in its vicinity, and continue through the southern counties, through
Owego, in the county of Tioga, to the shore of lake Erie, at some
point between Cattaraugus creek and the Pennsylvania line. It is to be
commenced within four years from the date of the act of incorporation,
one fourth to be completed within ten years, one half within fifteen
years, and the whole to be completed within twenty years, under penalty
of forfeiture of the charter.

The _New York and Albany_ rail-road company was incorporated in April,
1832, with a capital of three millions. It is to be completed within
ten years; commencing at New York city, opposite the termination of
the Fourth avenue, and ending on the Hudson, opposite Albany.[75]
‘The proposed route of this road,’ says the Boston Advertiser, ‘passes
through the county of Berkshire, in this state, from West Stockbridge
to the northern boundary of the state of Connecticut, following
the valley of the Housatonic river from Stockbridge to Sharon, in
Connecticut. It will thus afford an additional inducement for the
extension of the Boston and Worcester rail-road from Worcester to
Springfield, and thence to the western boundary of the state. This
latter rail-road will meet the New York and Albany road at Stockbridge
or West Stockbridge, and will thus come in contact with a continued
line of rail-roads, interrupted only by the Hudson river, extending
northwardly to Saratoga, westwardly to Utica, and southwardly to the
city of New York. It will thus afford the means of direct and rapid
intercourse between Boston and the towns in Berkshire county, along the
fertile valley of the Housatonic, and with the rich marble quarries and
beds of iron ore in that region, as well as with the vast country which
will be opened to this mercantile market, beyond the limits of the
state. The distance by the rail-road from West Stockbridge to Albany
will be about forty miles, of which distance over sixteen miles will
be a perfect level. From West Stockbridge to Utica, the distance by the
rail-road will be one hundred and thirty-seven miles, over a country a
great part of which is level. From Albany to Schenectady, and thence to
Saratoga, the rail-road is already finished. From Schenectady to Utica,
the road is yet to be made; but the company for building it is formed,
with an adequate capital. About seven times the requisite amount of
stock was subscribed. The required amount has been apportioned by
commissioners among the subscribers, and the subscription money for
the surplus shares has been returned.’

The _Camden and Amboy_ rail-road commences at Camden, on the Delaware,
opposite to Philadelphia, and passing through Burlington, Bordentown,
Highstown, and Spotswood, over South river, terminates at Amboy. It is
sixty-one miles in length, passing through a very level country. Being
designed for steam locomotives, it is to be constructed in the most
improved and substantial manner, though at present wooden rails are
laid over a great portion of the line, in order that the embankments
may be consolidated before laying the permanent track. A double track
of rails is to be laid ultimately through the whole distance. Between
Bordentown and Amboy, there is a cut varying in depth to sixty feet,
extending nearly two miles. In the vicinity of Bordentown, there are
stone culverts and viaducts. It has been calculated that five hundred
thousand dollars per annum will be received for the conveyance of
light freight and passengers. As the Delaware is frequently closed
with ice during part of the winter, and the Philadelphia trade is
consequently diverted to New York, it is supposed that vessels destined
to Philadelphia, may put into Raritan bay, which is open at all seasons,
and the cargoes be conveyed at once upon the rail-road to the place of
their destination. To secure this object, large lots on the Raritan and
the Delaware have been purchased by the company for the convenience of
ships and steamboats.

The _Patterson and Hudson_ river rail-road extends from Patterson, on
the Passaic, to Jersey city and the Hudson river, opposite New York,
fourteen miles. After the expiration of fifty years, the state of
New Jersey has a right to take this road at an appraised value. The
_Elizabethtown and Somerville_ rail-road company was incorporated in
1830, with a capital of two hundred thousand dollars, with the liberty
of increasing it to four hundred thousand. The _West-Jersey_ rail-road
is to extend from the Delaware river, in the county of Gloucester, or
from some point on the Camden and Amboy rail-road, to the township of
Penn’s Neck, on the same river, in the county of Salem. This company
was incorporated at the same session with the above, with a capital
of five hundred thousand dollars, and liberty to increase it to two
million. The _New Jersey_ rail-road is to extend from New Brunswick,
through Rahway, Woodbridge, Elizabethtown and Newark, to Hudson river.
It was incorporated in 1832, with a capital of seven hundred and fifty
thousand dollars. A charter was also granted to a company to construct
a rail-road connecting the Morris canal with the Patterson and Hudson
river rail-road.

The _Mauch Chunk_ rail-road was the first rail-road constructed in
Pennsylvania. It was commenced and finished in the first five months of
1827. It extends from the coal mines near Mauch Chunk, along the side
of the mountain, down an inclined plain of various declivities, to the
Lehigh river. The mines are nine hundred and thirty-six feet above the
point where the boats receive the coal, of which from three hundred to
three hundred and fifty tons are delivered daily. From the river to the
mines, the road is nine miles in length; and its branches at the ends
and sidelings, four and a half miles more. The _Mount Carbon_ rail-road
company was incorporated in the spring of 1829, and the rail-road was
commenced in the succeeding October. At the termination, the road is
elevated upon thirty-one piers of masonry erected upon the landings.
The _Schuylkill Valley_ rail-road commences at Port Carbon, and
terminates at Tuscarora, being ten miles in length. It is intersected
by fifteen lateral rail-roads, whose combined distances amount to
about thirteen miles. The _Schuylkill_ rail-road consists of a double
track, is thirteen miles in length, and cost seven thousand dollars
a mile. _Mill Creek_ rail-road commences at Port Carbon, and extends
up Mill creek four miles; it has but a single track. The _West Branch_
rail-road commences at Schuylkill haven, and terminates at the foot of
the Broad mountain. It is fifteen miles in length, with five miles of
lateral roads that intersect it; only the main stem has a double track.
The _Pinegrove_ rail-road extends from the mines to the Swatara feeder,
a distance of five miles. The _Little Schuylkill_ rail-road commences
at Port Clinton, and extends up the stream to the mines at Tamaqua,
a distance of about twenty-three miles. The _Lackawaxen_ rail-road
commences at the termination of the Lackawaxen and Delaware and Hudson
canal, and connects that canal with the coal bed in Carbondale. It is
sixteen miles in length, and overcomes an elevation of eight hundred
feet. The road consists of a single track of wooden rails, capped with
iron.

The _Alleghany Portage_ rail-road is intended to connect the eastern
and western sections of the Pennsylvania canal, and complete the direct
line of communication between Philadelphia and Pittsburg. The route
adopted commences at Frankstown, crosses the Alleghany mountains at
Blair’s gap summit, and descends in the valleys of Laurel run and the
Little Conemaugh, to Johnstown, a distance of thirty-eight and a half
miles. A tunnel of one thousand feet is projected at one of the bends
of the Conemaugh, which will be crossed by two bridges. This road is to
be constructed by the state of Pennsylvania.

The _Philadelphia and Columbia_ rail-road is intended to connect
the Delaware navigation at Philadelphia with that of the Susquehanna
at Columbia, passing through the counties of Delaware, Chester, and
Lancaster. It is about eighty-three miles in length, and it is proposed
to continue it fourteen miles further, across the Susquehanna, by the
Columbia bridge, to the borough of York. About seventy other rail-roads
have been projected in Pennsylvania, and companies for constructing
several of them have been incorporated.

The _Newcastle and Frenchtown_ rail-road extends from Newcastle, on
the Delaware, to the Elk river, near Frenchtown, in Maryland; it is
nearly parallel to the Chesapeak and Delaware canal, and is in direct
competition with it. This road consists of a single track, with the
requisite number of turn-outs, and is about sixteen and a half miles
in length――only eight hundred and fifty-three yards longer than a
perfectly straight line drawn between its two extremities. It consists
of six curve and six straight lines. The curve lines vary in length
from one thousand, nine hundred and thirty-nine to eight thousand, two
hundred and ninety-six feet. The _radii_ of the three smaller curves
are of ten thousand, five hundred and sixty feet each; the radius of
the largest, twenty thousand feet. The aggregate length of the curves
is five miles and one sixth; that of the straight lines eleven miles
and three tenths. The graduation of the road departs from a perfect
level, by ascents and descents varying from ten feet six inches to
sixteen feet four inches a mile; at one place, for about four thousand
feet the slope is at the rate of twenty-nine feet to the mile. The
whole amount of excavation is about five hundred thousand cubic yards
of earth, exclusive of the side drains. The amount of embankment is
four hundred and twenty thousand cubic yards. The road crosses four
viaducts and twenty-nine culverts, all constructed of substantial stone
masonry. The width is twenty-six feet, exclusive of the side drains.
It was completed in 1832. Cost, including land, wharf, depots, and
locomotive engines, four hundred thousand dollars.

The _Wilmington and Downington_ rail-road was incorporated by the
legislature of Delaware, in 1831, with a capital of one hundred
thousand dollars, with liberty to increase it to one hundred and fifty
thousand dollars, for the purpose of constructing a rail-road from
Wilmington to the boundary line of the state, in the direction of
Downington, in Pennsylvania.

The _Baltimore and Susquehannah_ rail-road was commenced in 1830, and
is to extend from Baltimore to York, in Pennsylvania, a distance of
seventy-six miles. The company has the right of constructing a lateral
rail-road, commencing at the main stem, within ten miles of Baltimore,
through Westminster, to the head waters of Monocacy river.

The _Baltimore and Ohio_ rail-road is intended to connect the city of
Baltimore with some point on the Ohio, thus affording a communication
between the waters of Chesapeak bay and those of the great western
river. Active operations on this great work were commenced in the
autumn of 1828. The road begins at the head of the basin in Baltimore.
In the city it consists of a single track, and is to be confined
to horse power, branch railways are to be constructed in various
directions. On the portion of the rail-road within a few miles
of the city, several magnificent viaducts are constructed, of
substantial stone masonry. The Carrollton viaduct, over Gwyn’s falls,
is constructed of granite; its whole exterior is hewn, it consists
of two arches, and is three hundred and twelve feet in length. Its
height, from the foundation to the top of the parapet, is sixty-three
feet nine inches; from the surface of the water to the top of the
parapet, fifty-one feet and nine inches. The width of the railway
travelling-path is twenty-six feet six inches; the chord of the
arch springing from the abutments, eighty feet three inches. It is a
structure of great beauty and solidity. The bridge across the Patapsco
is a stone structure, consisting of two arches of fifty-five feet span
each, and two of twenty feet span each. There are also several deep
cuts and extensive embankments.

  Illustration: Carrollton Viaduct.

Upon the route selected for this rail-road, there are only two summits
for the distance of one hundred and eighty miles. The approach to the
first of these summits, at Parr Spring ridge, is by an acclivity so
gradual as not to exceed eighteen feet to the mile. From the western
side of this ridge, to the coal mines near Cumberland, the route for
the whole distance is adapted to steam locomotive engines. From the
eastern base of the Alleghany mountain, a series of inclined planes
will be required to overcome a summit of twelve hundred feet; from
thence the road may be constructed upon a line so nearly level to the
Ohio river, as to be traversed by steam locomotive engines without
difficulty. The progress of the rail-road beyond the Point of Rocks has
been interrupted by a lawsuit between the Baltimore and Ohio Rail-road
company, and the Chesapeak and Ohio Canal company, which has been
decided in favor of the latter. The road is to be extended to the mouth
of the Shenandoah. A further extension of thirty miles will carry it
to Williamsport, and another of seventy-five miles to Cumberland, and a
country abounding in rich bituminous coal. From this point to Pittsburg,
the distance is one hundred and forty miles, making the whole length
three hundred and twenty-five miles.[76]

The _Baltimore and Washington_ rail-road is a branch of the Baltimore
and Ohio rail-road, and its completion has been undertaken by the
same company. Its length from the point of intersection, at Elk ridge
landing to Washington, is about thirty-three miles.

The _Manchester_ rail-road is in Chesterfield county, Virginia. It
extends from Manchester to the coal mines. It consists of a single
track, and is thirteen miles in length. The _Petersburg and Roanoke_
rail-road was undertaken to counteract the injurious effect which the
Dismal Swamp canal has had upon the trade of Petersburg.[77] It affords
a rapid and easy intercourse between the James and Roanoke rivers, and
has become a most important link in the chain of communication between
the North and the South. Rail-roads have also been projected from
Richmond to Lynchburg; from Lynchburg to New River; from Suffolk, in
Nansemond county, to the Roanoke river, opposite to the town of Weldon,
in North Carolina; and in several other directions.

The _Fayetteville_ rail-road company was incorporated by the
legislature of North Carolina, in 1830, with a capital stock of twenty
thousand dollars, for the purpose of constructing a rail-road from
Fayetteville to Campbelltown, on Cape Fear river. Rail-roads from Cape
Fear to the Yadkin; from the Yadkin to the Catawba; and from Wilmington
to the iron mining districts, near Statesville, have been projected,
and are in progress.

The _Charleston and Hamburg_ rail-road, extending one hundred and
thirty-six miles, from Charleston, South Carolina, to Hamburg, opposite
Augusta, in Georgia, was opened in October, 1833, for its entire length.
The passenger train leaves each place every morning, and arrives on
the evening of the day of departure. This enterprise was undertaken
by the South Carolina Canal and Rail-road company, which has received
pecuniary assistance from the state. A second rail-road of about the
same length, to extend from Charleston to Columbia, is also embraced
within the objects of this company.

Companies have been incorporated by the legislature of Alabama, to
construct a rail-road from Montgomery to Chattahoochie, opposite
Columbus, in Georgia; and from Selma, on the Alabama, through Elyta
and Montevallo, to Decatur, on the Tennessee. Rail-roads have also been
projected between Augusta and Heshman’s lake, a distance of fifty miles;
and between Augusta and Columbus, on the Chattahoochie.

The _Lexington and Ohio_ rail-road was commenced in 1831; it is to
extend from Lexington to Frankfort, and thence to the Ohio river, just
below the falls, near Shippingport, which is two miles distant from
Louisville. Its length is about eighty miles. The company by which it
was undertaken was incorporated by the legislature of Kentucky in 1830,
with a capital stock of one million dollars. _Mad River and Lake Erie_
rail-road is to commence at Dayton, at the head of the Miami canal,
and extend to Sandusky, on lake Erie, thus, by means of the canal and
rail-road, opening a communication between Cincinnati and the lake. The
distance is about one hundred and seventy-five miles.

The _Illinois and Michigan_ rail-road is to commence at Chicago, on
lake Michigan, and continue in a south-westerly direction eleven and
a half miles to the summit level: in this distance the ascent is only
twenty-five feet. After passing the summit level, it is to cross and
continue along the river Des Plaines, to the foot of the Illinois
rapids, the distance of eighty-five miles, with a descent of exactly
two feet a mile; thus giving, in a distance of ninety-six and a half
miles, only one hundred and ninety-five feet of rise and fall. A
company has been formed for the construction of a rail-road between
Detroit and Pontiac, a distance of twenty-five miles. The _Tuscumbia_
rail-road extends from Tuscumbia to Decatur. The _Lake Pontchartrain_
rail-road extends from lake Pontchartrain to New Orleans four and
a half miles. It consists of a single track, is perfectly straight
and nearly level. A port of entry has been established on the lake,
and an artificial harbor and breakwater have been constructed at the
termination of the rail-road. The _West Feliciana_ rail-road company
was incorporated by the legislature of Louisiana, for the purpose
of constructing a rail-road from the river Mississippi, near St.
Francisville, to the boundary line of Louisiana and Mississippi, in
the direction of Woodville, Mississippi.

The materials for the history of rail-roads in the United States are
now so scattered and uncertain, and the roads themselves are so rapidly
changing their aspect, that it is in vain to hope for any thing like an
authentic account, till all the great systems and chains are completed
throughout the country. We have not attempted to give a description of
all the rail-roads now in existence; besides those described, there are
many completed and in progress in various parts of the Union, so that
most of the principal cities are intimately connected, and internal
communication is greatly facilitated. Nor is the spirit of rail-road
enterprise at all abated; new routes are continually projected, and we
trust that the time is not far distant when all parts of the Union will
be thus connected, and the distance between the remote parts be as it
were annihilated.




                         CHAPTER VII.――CANALS.


GREAT improvements have been introduced in the inland navigation
of the United States within the last twenty years, both by removing
impediments that have obstructed river navigation, and by the
construction of canals. More than two thousand five hundred miles of
canal have been constructed in the country, and numerous works of this
description are now in progress, though the rail-road has perhaps, in
most instances, been preferred, where the circumstances admitted of a
choice. Our description of the principal canals in the country must be
limited to a mere enumeration of the most important particulars.

CANALS IN NEW ENGLAND. The _Cumberland and Oxford_ canal extends
from Portland to Sebago pond, and was completed in 1829. Its length
is twenty and a half miles; its width at the surface is thirty-four
feet, at the bottom, eighteen; its depth is four feet. The number of
its locks is twenty-six. A lock is also constructed in Songo river, by
which navigation is continued into Brandy and Long ponds, making the
whole natural and artificial water communication fifty miles.

_Middlesex_ canal was completed in 1808, and opens a water
communication between Boston and the central part of New Hampshire,
by its junction with the Merrimack river. It has but one summit level,
one hundred and four feet above Boston harbor, and thirty-two above the
level of the Merrimack, at the place where it unites with that river
in Chelmsford, above Pawtucket falls, on which are situated the great
manufacturing establishments of Lowell. Its length is twenty-seven
miles, breadth at the surface thirty feet, at the bottom twenty;
its depth of water is three feet, and locks are twenty. It has seven
aqueducts over streams and rivers, and fifty bridges, with stone
abutments twenty feet apart. Around the numerous falls of the river,
within the limits of New Hampshire, the following canals have been
constructed:――_Bow_ canal, completed in 1812, is one third of a mile
long, and passes a fall of twenty-five feet with four locks; _Hooksett_
canal, fifty rods in length, passes Hooksett falls by three locks,
with a lockage of sixteen feet; _Amoskeag_ canal, eight miles below the
above, passes a fall of the same name, by a lockage of forty-five feet,
with nine locks; _Union_ canal, immediately below Amoskeag, overcomes
seven falls in the river, and has seven locks in nine miles.

_Pawtucket_ canal, in the town of Lowell, is used not only for
passing a fall of the same name, but also for supplying very extensive
hydraulic works. It is a mile and a half in length, ninety feet wide,
and four feet deep, overcoming a difference of level of thirty-two feet.

In 1811, a charter, that has been subsequently renewed, was granted to
a company for the purpose of constructing a canal from Winnipisiogee
lake to Cocheco river, below the landing at Dover. The distance
is twenty-seven miles. The waters of the lake are four hundred and
fifty-two feet above the level of the river, and the fall would require
fifty-three locks. The expense has been estimated at about three
hundred thousand dollars.

The _Blackstone_ canal extends from Worcester, Massachusetts, to
Providence, Rhode Island. It is forty-five miles long, and follows
in the greater part of its course the valley of the Blackstone or
Pawtucket river, from which it is supplied with water. Its fall from
the summit at Worcester to tide water at Providence, is four hundred
and fifty-one and six tenths feet. It has forty-eight locks, eighty
feet long by ten wide; the breadth at its surface is thirty-four feet,
at the bottom eighteen; depth of water, four feet. It was built by an
incorporated company, under charter from the legislatures of the states
in which it lies, at a cost of about six hundred thousand dollars. It
was finished in the autumn of 1828. This canal facilitates and greatly
increases the trade from the northern part of Rhode Island, and the
central parts of Massachusetts, to the markets of Providence, New York,
and the middle and southern states.

The _Farmington_ canal was commenced in 1825, upon the plan of
connecting, by a line of seventy-eight miles of artificial navigation,
Connecticut river, at Northampton, in Massachusetts, with New Haven
harbor. It is thirty-six feet broad at the surface, twenty at the
bottom, and four feet in depth. The locks are eighty feet in the clear,
and twelve feet wide. It extends fifty-eight miles, from New Haven to
Southwick ponds, on the boundary of Massachusetts, and cost about six
hundred thousand dollars. In continuation of this work, the _Hampshire
and Hampden_ canal has been constructed in Massachusetts, as far as
Westfield; it is to be continued twenty miles, to Northampton, and
perhaps even to Barnet, in Vermont. The difference of level in this
canal is two hundred and ninety-eight feet.

_Enfield_, _South Hadley_, _Montague_, and _Bellows Falls_ canals are
short cuts at the different falls on the Connecticut river. The first
was built by a company incorporated in 1824. It extends around the
falls of the same name, in the state of Connecticut, and is five and
a half miles in length. It has two stone locks of ten feet lift, each
ninety feet by twenty, and is used for extensive hydraulic works,
as well as for navigation. Before the construction of this work,
these rapids were passed in boats, but offered great obstructions
to the navigation of the river. _South Hadley_ canal was constructed
for passing a fall of forty feet in the town of the same name, in
Massachusetts, and is two miles in length. There is a cut in this
canal through the solid rock, three hundred feet long and forty feet
deep. The company that undertook this work was incorporated in 1792.
_Montague_ canal, in the town of the same name, in the same state with
the preceding, and constructed for passing Montague falls, is three
miles long, twenty-five feet wide, and three deep. _Bellows Falls_
canal, in Vermont, opposite the town of Walpole, is half a mile
long, with nine locks, overcoming a fall of about fifty feet. Several
other short canals have been constructed on the western bank of the
Connecticut in this state, for the purpose of improving the navigation
of the river.

NEW YORK CANALS. The state of New York has an extensive system of
inland artificial navigation, connecting the navigation of the Hudson
with that of the lakes and Delaware river. The _Champlain_ canal in
this state passes from Albany to Whitehall, on lake Champlain, and is
seventy-two miles in length. It is four feet deep, twenty-eight feet
wide at the bottom, and forty at the surface. It has twenty-one locks,
and its rise and fall amount to one hundred and eighty-eight feet.
This work was commenced in October, 1817, and was opened for navigation
in November, 1819. The whole cost was nearly one million two hundred
thousand dollars.

The _Erie_ canal extends from Albany, on the Hudson, to Buffalo, on
lake Erie. It was commenced on the fourth of July, 1817, and was first
navigated from Utica to Rome, fifteen miles, on the third of October,
1819; tolls were first received in July, 1820, and the whole work was
completed in 1825. It is three hundred and sixty-three miles in length.
It is four feet deep, twenty-eight wide at the bottom, and forty at
the surface. The number of locks is eighty-four, and the rise and fall
are six hundred and ninety-eight feet. The cost was over nine millions
of dollars. A little below the Cohoes falls, a feeder enters from the
Mohawk, and connects the Erie with the Champlain canal, and the united
work then proceeds to Albany, eight and a half miles, and terminates in
the tide waters of the Hudson. The collections upon the Erie canal, for
the month of September, in the three last years, stand thus:

                                         Increase    Increase
      1831.       1832.       1833.     since ’31.  since ’32.
    $131,694    $137,184    $190,229     $58,536     $54,771

This great increase in the total amount of tolls has taken place,
notwithstanding a reduction in the rates of tolls in the spring of
1833, which was equal to about twenty per cent. compared with former
rates. The entire amount of tolls received at this canal in 1831, was
one million, ninety-one thousand, seven hundred and fourteen dollars,
twenty-six cents.

_Oswego_ canal is a branch of the Erie, extending from Salina to Oswego,
connecting lake Ontario with the Erie canal. It is thirty-eight miles
in length, having one hundred and twenty-three feet of lockage, all
descending to lake Ontario. One half the distance is a canal connected
with Oswego river by locks and dams; the other half is a slack-water
navigation on the river. It cost five hundred and twenty-five thousand,
one hundred and fifteen dollars. The _Cayuga and Seneca_ canal,
extending from Geneva, on Seneca lake, to Montezuma, on Erie canal, is
one half canal, and one half slack-water navigation. It was constructed
in 1828. Its length is twenty miles and forty-four chains; the descent
from Seneca lake to Montezuma is seventy-three and a half feet. The
four canals last described were constructed at the expense of the state,
and still remain under the administration of the state government as
public property.[78]

_Chemung_ canal, another work of the state, extends from the head
waters of Seneca lake to the Chemung (or Tioga) river. It is eighteen
miles in length, with a navigable feeder of thirteen miles from Painted
Post, on the Chemung river, to the summit level, making in the whole
thirty-one miles of canal navigation. On this canal are fifty-three
locks of wood, three aqueducts, and seventy bridges. It was completed
in 1832.

The _Delaware and Hudson_ canal company was incorporated in April,
1823, with a capital of a million and a half of dollars, for the
purpose of constructing a canal and rail-road from the Hudson river to
the coal mines in Luzerne county, Pennsylvania. The canal extends from
the tide-water of the Hudson to Honesdale, Wayne county, Pennsylvania,
a distance of one hundred and eight miles, when it meets the rail-road.
The canal is from thirty-two to thirty-six feet wide, and four feet
deep. The most important article of transport upon this canal is coal,
of which forty-three thousand two hundred tons were brought down in
1830. In 1831, the amount of tolls, exclusive of that of coal boats,
was nineteen thousand, five hundred dollars.

The _Harlem_ canal company was incorporated in April, 1826, with a
capital of five hundred and fifty thousand dollars. This canal is to
extend from Hudson to East river, through Manhattan island; its length
is three miles, its width sixty feet, and its depth six or seven.
It is to be walled with stone on both sides, and to have a street on
each side fifty feet wide its whole length, with a lock at each end to
command the tide water.[79]

NEW JERSEY. The _Morris_ canal was commenced in 1825, and extends from
Jersey city, on the Hudson, across the state of New-Jersey, to Delaware
river, opposite Easton, Pennsylvania, where it unites with Lehigh canal.
It is one hundred and one miles in length, with rise and fall of one
thousand, six hundred and fifty-seven feet; of which two hundred and
twenty-three are overcome by twenty-four locks, and the remaining one
thousand, three hundred and thirty-four feet by twenty-three inclined
planes. This canal is supplied with water from Hopatcong lake, situated
nine hundred feet above tide-water. The cost is estimated at somewhat
more than one million, one hundred thousand dollars. The _Delaware and
Raritan_ canal, extending from Lamberton, on Delaware river, to New
Brunswick, on the Raritan, is thirty-eight miles in length. It is
seventy-five feet wide, and seven feet deep.

PENNSYLVANIA. The canal system of this state is very extensive, and
has been in a great measure established by the state government. We
shall first notice the canals constructed by private corporations. The
_Schuylkill_ canal was commenced in 1816, and has been in operation for
a number of years. It extends from Philadelphia to Reading, and thence
to mount Carbon. Its length is one hundred and ten miles, and in this
distance is a lockage of six hundred and twenty feet. It comprises
thirty-one dams, one hundred and twenty-five locks, seventeen arched
aqueducts, a tunnel of four hundred and fifty feet in length, cut
through the solid rock, and sixty-five toll and gate houses. The
whole cost of this work, up to January 1, 1830, was two million, three
hundred and thirty-six thousand, three hundred and eighty dollars.
The _Union_ canal was constructed in 1827. It extends from Middleton,
on the Susquehanna, to the head of the Girard canal, two miles below
Reading, connecting the waters of the Susquehannah with those of the
Schuylkill. Its length is eighty miles, exclusive of Swatara feeder,
which extends twenty-four miles. The works comprehend, a tunnel,
eighteen feet wide, fourteen high, and seven hundred and twenty-nine
in length; two summit reservoirs, containing twelve million cubic
feet of water; two steam engines, each of one hundred horse power; one
hundred and thirty-five bridges; twelve small and two large aqueducts;
ninety-two cut stone locks; and fourteen miles of protection wall of
stone. Connected with this canal is a rail-road, about four miles in
length, extending from the basin at Pine grove to the coal mines. The
cost of the whole work was about two million dollars. The _Lackawaxen_
canal commences at the termination of the Delaware and Hudson canal,
near Carpenter’s point, and unites with a rail-road at Honesdale. It
is thirty-six miles in length. In junction with the Delaware and Hudson
canal, this canal opens a navigation of one hundred and seventeen miles,
including seventeen miles of Lackawaxen river. The _Lehigh_ canal
company was incorporated in 1818, and constructed a canal from Easton,
on Delaware river, to Stoddartsville, connecting Morris canal with the
Mauch Chunk rail-road. Its length is forty-six and three fourths miles,
and it cost one million, five hundred and fifty-eight thousand dollars.
The _Conestoga_ canal extends eighteen miles, from Safe Harbor, on
Susquehanna river, to Lancaster. _Conewago_ canal is two and a half
miles long, and is constructed about a fall of the same name on the
Susquehanna.

The following table exhibits a view of the canals in Pennsylvania,
constructed by the state, prior to the first of January, 1831, with the
amount expended for ordinary and extraordinary repairs during the year
1831.

                                Length  Ordinary  Extraord.
                                 miles   repairs   repairs    Total
  Delaware division                59¾   $10,000   $87,339   $97,339
  Columbia, east division          10      1,658     7,316     8,974
  Harrisburg line             }    63      3,108     6,216     9,324
  Susquehanna division        }            5,855    11,709    17,964
  North branch division            55½    18,584    37,168    55,752
  West branch division             24½     6,699    13,397    20,096
  Juniata division                 89     22,326    44,651    66,977
  Western division                105     24,406    48,812    73,218
  French creek feeder              19½        74     4,327     4,401
                                ――――――   ―――――――  ――――――――  ――――――――
              _Total_             426¼   $92,708  $260,936  $353,644

The main trunk of this system of canals commences at Columbia, at the
termination of the Philadelphia and Columbia rail-road, and extends
thence westward one hundred and seventy-two and a half miles, till it
meets the Alleghany Portage rail-road at Holidaysburg. It recommences
at the western extremity of the rail-road, and continues westward one
hundred and five miles, to the Monongahela river at Pittsburg.

The following canals, constructed by the state, have been but recently
completed:

_Frankstown_ line of the Juniata division, extending from Huntingdon to
Holidaysburg, is thirty and one third miles in length, including about
fifteen and three fourths miles of slackwater navigation. _Beaver_
division commences upon the Ohio river, at the mouth of Big Beaver, and
extends to Newcastle. Length, twenty-four and three fourths miles, of
which about two thirds are slackwater and towing-path. _Franklin_ line
commences on Alleghany river, at the mouth of French creek, and extends
up the latter stream till it meets the French creek feeder. Length,
twenty-two and one fourth miles, seventeen of which are slackwater
and towing-path. _Lycoming_ line commences at Muncy dam, and extends
up the west branch of the Susquehanna, and terminates at the Big
island, opposite to the mouth of the Bald Eagle. Length, forty-one and
one fourth miles, of which about ten miles are slackwater. _Wyoming_
line of the North branch division commences at the Nanticoke dam,
and extends up the North branch, and terminates near the mouth of
Lackawannock creek. Length, sixteen miles.

DELAWARE AND MARYLAND. The _Chesapeak and Delaware_ canal was
commenced in 1824, and completed in about five years. It is thirteen
and five eighths miles long, ten feet deep, and sixty-six feet wide at
the surface. Leaving the Delaware, forty-five miles below Philadelphia,
it crosses the peninsula, and meets Chesapeak bay. The summit level
is twelve feet above tide water. The whole cost of this work was two
million, two hundred thousand dollars. _Port Deposit_ canal is a public
work of the state of Maryland, extending ten miles along a line of
rapids, on the east bank of the Susquehanna, north of the boundary line
of Maryland and Pennsylvania. There are two short canals, one of twelve
hundred yards, and one of two and a half miles, around the Great and
Lower Falls of the Potomac.

The _Chesapeak and Ohio_ canal company received their charter
from Virginia in 1824, and it was confirmed in the following year
by Maryland and congress. The proposed length is three hundred
and forty-one and one fourth miles, from the tide water of the
Potomac river, above Georgetown, in the district of Columbia, to its
termination near Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. Its depth is six or seven
feet, its breadth at the bottom fifty, and at the surface from sixty
to eighty feet. Five miles from Georgetown, arrangements have been made
for constructing branches to Alexandria, Baltimore, and the navy yard
at Washington. The amount of lockage required on the whole canal is
three thousand, two hundred and fifteen feet. At the summit level on
the Alleghany mountain, a tunnel is required, four miles and eighty
yards long, with a deep cut of one thousand and sixty yards at the
western end, and another of fourteen yards at the eastern end, each of
which opens into a large basin. The original estimate of the cost was
twenty-two million, three hundred and seventy-five thousand dollars.

OHIO. This state has been active and liberal in the encouragement
of canals as public works. The state canals are the _Ohio_ and the
_Miami_. The _Ohio_ canal connects lake Erie, at Cleaveland, with the
Ohio river, at Portsmouth; its main trunk is three hundred and ten
miles in length; its lateral branches and feeders make twenty-four in
addition. _Miami_ canal connects the town of Dayton, situated on the
Great Miami river, with the Ohio river, at Cincinnati. Its main trunk
is sixty-five miles in length, and it has a side-cut of one mile. The
total length of canals in Ohio, constructed at the public expense,
and owned by the state, is four hundred miles. The _Lancaster Lateral_
canal is nine miles in length, and was constructed by an incorporated
company. The expense of the Ohio canals has been about five million
dollars.

VIRGINIA AND NORTH CAROLINA. At the city of Richmond is the _James
River_ canal, around a fall, with twelve locks, overcoming an ascent
of eighty feet, and connecting tide water with a basin on Shockoe hill.
From this basin proceeds a canal two and a half miles long, uniting
with the river. Three miles further up is a short canal, with three
locks, overcoming a fall of thirty-four feet. The _James and Jackson
River_ canal extends from the basin at Richmond, to a fall in Goveland
county, a distance of thirty and a half miles. There is also a canal
seven miles long, around the falls on James river, in Rockland county.
Canals have also been constructed to improve the navigation of the
Shenandoah. The _Dismal Swamp_ canal is twenty-two and a half miles
long, lying partly in Virginia, and partly in North Carolina. It
connects the waters of Chesapeak bay with Albemarle sound, extending
from Deep creek to Joyce’s creek, at the head of Pasquotank river. The
expense of this canal was three hundred and sixty thousand dollars, of
which two hundred thousand were subscribed by the United States. The
_Danville and Dan River_ canals are a series of improvements upon the
upper branches of Roanoak river. The _North West_, _Weldon_, _Clubfoot
and Harlow_, _Cape Fear_, _Yadkin_, _Tar River_, _New River_, and
_Catawba_ canals, have done much to improve the inland navigation of
North Carolina. The _Santee_, _Columbia_, and _Saluda_ canals, from
Columbia, through the Columbia canal into Broad river, and through the
Saluda canal, from Broad into Saluda river, through Drehr and Zorick’s
canals, on to the Abbeville county line, near Cambridge; also from
Santee river, by the Santee canal, into Cooper’s river, and down this
river to the port at Charleston, present a mixed navigation of one
hundred and fifty miles. _Winyaw_ canal is ten miles in length, uniting
the Santee river with Winyaw bay.

KENTUCKY. The _Louisville and Portland_ canal passes from the Ohio
at Louisville, to a point of the same below the rapids, a distance of
three miles. It is constructed for the accommodation of large vessels,
and the general government have contributed towards its completion.

GEORGIA AND LOUISIANA. The _Savannah and Ogatchee_ canal is sixteen
miles in length, passing from Savannah river, at Savannah, to the
Ogatchee river; hence it is to be continued to the Alatahama. The
_Carondelet_ canal is a short cut to admit small vessels into a basin
in the rear of New Orleans, extending from bayou St. John. It is only
a mile and a half long, and is without locks. The _Lafourche_ is a
small canal, supplied with water only when the Mississippi is in flood,
uniting the outlet of Lafourche with the chain of lakes and creeks
which lead into the lower Teche, and opens the commerce of Attacapas
to New Orleans. The _Plaquemine_ canal passes from the Mississippi into
bayou Plaquemine, at its efflux from the Mississippi, and is navigable
only at times of high flood. The _New Orleans and Teche River_ canal
is a projected navigation of one hundred miles, from a point on
the Mississippi, to the waters which unite with the Teche river, at
Berwick’s bay.

‘The spirit of enterprise,’ says Mr. Smith, ‘has been displayed on a
scale commensurate with the extensive territory of the United States.
With the exception of Great Britain and Holland, no country on the
face of the globe contains so many or as extensive canals as this
republic; and the whole of combined Europe has not effected as much
during the last sixteen years, as the three states of Pennsylvania,
New York and Ohio only. There are many other important canals not here
enumerated, in the different sections of the country, and others are
in contemplation. The whole number of miles of canals in the Union,
exceeds three thousand; nearly three fifths of which are in the three
States above mentioned.’




                      CHAPTER VIII.――GOVERNMENT.


THE political association of the American people commenced at a
very early period. A long time before the revolutionary troubles,
it was generally perceived and acknowledged that the true safety and
prosperity of the colonies were to be found only in their union. In the
year 1643, the colonies of Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and
New Haven, entered into a perpetual league, offensive and defensive,
for mutual protection against the claims of their Dutch neighbors, and
to resist apprehended aggression from the Indians. By their articles of
confederation, the jurisdiction of each colony within its own borders
was to be exclusive; in every war, each of the confederates was to
furnish its quota of men and provisions, according to its population;
and an annual congress of two commissioners from each colony was to
be held, with power to decide on all matters of general interest. With
some alterations, this confederacy existed more than forty years; and
it was dissolved only in 1686, when the charters of the New England
colonies were vacated by a commission from king James II.

In the year 1754, a congress of a very interesting character assembled
at Albany. It was called at the instance of the lords commissioners
for trade and the plantations, and consisted of delegates from the New
England provinces, New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland. The object of
the meeting was to consider the best means of defending the colonies,
in the case of a war with France. The lords commissioners had reference
merely to forming friendly connections with the Indian tribes; but the
colonies indulged more extensive views. This convention proposed a plan
of union, for which, however, public sentiment was not yet ripe, and it
met with the singular fortune of being rejected both by the crown and
the people. Local jealousies and disputes in regard to boundaries, had
at that time so excited the different colonies, that governor Pownal
felt himself authorized to say, in his work on the Administration of
the Colonies, that they had no one principle of association among them,
and that their manner of settlement, diversity of charters, conflicting
interests, and mutual rivalship and jealousies, would render an union
impracticable. Happy for our people that the stone which they rejected
has become the corner stone of our political temple; for the whole
edifice must be crushed and crumbled, when profane hands shall be laid
upon that which is its strength and foundation!

Men could not, however, remain insensible of the great advantages that
must inevitably result from a federate union. A common interest was
destined to be made more apparent and pressing by a common danger and
soon after the first unfriendly measures of the British government,
a congress of delegates from nine colonies was assembled at New
York in October, 1765. This step was adopted at the suggestion of
Massachusetts, and was preparatory to a more extensive and general
association of the colonies, which took place in September, 1774, and
laid the foundation of permanent independence. At this last period, the
impending oppressions of Great Britain induced the colonies to unite
in sending delegates to a congress at Philadelphia, with authority
to consult together for the common welfare. The measures adopted by
this assembly met with a prompt and general obedience, and the union
thus auspiciously formed was continued by a succession of delegates
in congress; it has continued through the struggles of a revolution,
foreign war and domestic dissension.――God grant that it may be
perpetual.

In May, 1775, a congress, with ample discretionary powers, assembled
in Philadelphia. Georgia soon after acceded to the measures that had
been adopted, and completed the confederacy of the thirteen colonies.
In Massachusetts, hostilities had been already commenced, and the
appeal to arms was now considered as the only resource. Congress
prepared to support this measure, and, gradually assuming all the
attributes of sovereignty, on the fourth day of July, 1776, declared
the united colonies to be free and independent states. The consequences
of this step belong more properly to another portion of this volume.
In June, 1776, congress undertook to prepare articles of confederation;
but it was not till November of the following year that they were able
so far to unite discordant interests, as to adopt these articles. In
passing through the states, they met with still stronger impediments,
and it was not till three years after their first promulgation, that
they received the unanimous approbation of the United States. This
confederation proved imbecile and insignificant, and it was only by
the assumption of power not granted by the fundamental charter of the
union, that congress could rescue the country from the most humiliating
consequences. A quorum of congress could with difficulty be assembled;
the finances of the nation were annihilated; in 1784, the whole army
amounted but to eighty men, and the states were urged to provide
some of the militia to garrison the western posts. In short, to
use the impressive and melancholy language of the Federalist, ‘each
state, yielding to the voice of immediate interest or convenience,
successively withdrew its support from the confederation, till the
frail and tottering edifice was ready to fall upon our heads, and to
crush us beneath its ruins.’

The first effort to relieve the country from the miseries and dangers
of the confederation originated in Virginia, in the proposition for
a convention of delegates to regulate our foreign commerce. A partial
representation of the states was in this manner collected at Annapolis,
and the plan of a national convention was by this body strongly
recommended to congress, for the purpose of devising a government that
should be adequate to the exigencies of the nation. Congress adopted
the suggestion, and immediately acted upon it; with the exception
of Rhode Island, all the states acceded to the proposal of a general
convention, and their delegates assembled at Philadelphia in May,
1787. This assembly united men of the most distinguished talents,
high-minded integrity, and disinterested patriotism, and commanded the
public regard and confidence in their fullest extent. After a tranquil
deliberation of several months, the plan of government, which now forms
the constitution of the United States, was adopted with unprecedented
unanimity. Nearly a year elapsed before it received the assent of
a sufficient number of states to give it a political existence; but
on the fourth of March, 1789, the government was duly organized and
set in motion. It was not till the year 1790, that the constitution
had received the unanimous ratification of all the members of the
original confederacy. ‘The peaceable adoption of this government,’
says chancellor Kent, ‘under all the circumstances which attended
it, presented the case of an effort of deliberation, combined with a
spirit of amity and of mutual concession, which was without example. It
must be a source of just pride, and of the most grateful recollection,
to every American, who reflects seriously on the difficulty of the
experiment, the manner in which it was conducted, the felicity of its
issue, and the fate of similar trials in other nations of the earth.’
The following is a copy of the constitution as adopted, with its
subsequent amendments:

  WE, the people of the United States, in order to form a more
    perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity,
    provide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and
    secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity,
    do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States
    of America.


                              ARTICLE I.

  SECTION I. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested
  in a congress of the United States, which shall consist of a
  senate and house of representatives.

  SEC. II. The house of representatives shall be composed of members
  chosen every second year by the people of the several states, and
  the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite
  for electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature.

  No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained
  to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen
  of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an
  inhabitant of that state in which he shall be chosen.

  Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the
  several states which may be included within this union, according
  to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding
  to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to
  service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed,
  three fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be
  made within three years, after the first meeting of the congress
  of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten
  years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of
  representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand,
  but each state shall have at least one representative; and until
  such enumeration shall be made, the state of New Hampshire shall
  be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island
  and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six,
  New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six,
  Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and
  Georgia three.

  When vacancies happen in the representation from any state, the
  executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill
  such vacancies.

  The house of representatives shall choose their speaker and other
  officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment.

  SEC. III. The senate of the United States shall be composed of two
  senators from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof, for
  six years; and each senator shall have one vote.

  Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the
  first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into
  three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall
  be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second
  class at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class
  at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one third may be
  chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen by resignation,
  or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any state,
  the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until
  the next meeting of the legislature which shall then fill such
  vacancies.

  No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the
  age of thirty years and been nine years a citizen of the United
  States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that
  state for which he shall be chosen.

  The vice-president of the United States shall be president of the
  senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided.

  The senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president
  pro tempore, in the absence of the vice president, or when he
  shall exercise the office of president of the United States.

  The senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments: when
  sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation.
  When the president of the United States is tried, the chief
  justice shall preside; and no person shall be convicted without
  the concurrence of two thirds of the members present.

  Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to
  removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any
  office of honor, trust, or profit, under the United States; but
  the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to
  indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law.

  SEC. IV. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for
  senators and representatives, shall be prescribed in each state by
  the legislature thereof; but the congress may at any time by law
  make or alter such regulations, except as to places of choosing
  senators.

  The congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such
  meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they
  shall by law appoint a different day.

  SEC. V. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns
  and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each
  shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number
  may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel
  the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such
  penalties, as each house may provide.

  Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its
  members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two
  thirds, expel a member.

  Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time
  to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their
  judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of
  either house on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of
  those present, be entered on the journal.

  Neither house, during the session of congress, shall, without the
  consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any
  other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting.

  SEC. VI. The senators and representatives shall receive a
  compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and
  paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall, in
  all cases except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be
  privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of
  their respective houses, and in going to and returning from the
  same; and for any speech or debate in either house, they shall not
  be questioned in any other place.

  No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he
  was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority
  of the United States, which shall have been created, or the
  emoluments whereof shall have been increased, during such time;
  and no person holding any office under the United States, shall
  be a member of either house during his continuance in office.

  SEC. VII. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the
  house of representatives; but the senate may propose or concur
  with amendments, as on other bills.

  Every bill which shall have passed the house of representatives
  and the senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the
  president of the United States: if he approve, he shall sign it;
  but if not, he shall return it, with his objections, to that house
  in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections
  at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If, after
  such reconsideration, two thirds of that house shall agree to pass
  the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the
  other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if
  approved by two thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But
  in all such cases, the votes of both houses shall be determined
  by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and
  against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house
  respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the president
  within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been
  presented to him, the same shall be a law in like manner as if he
  had signed it, unless the congress, by their adjournment, prevent
  its return, in which case it shall not be a law.

  Every order, resolution, or vote, to which the concurrence of the
  senate and house of representatives may be necessary (except on
  a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the president
  of the United States; and before the same shall take effect,
  shall be approved by him, or, being disapproved by him, shall be
  repassed by two thirds of the senate and house of representatives,
  according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a
  bill.

  SEC. VIII. The congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes,
  duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for
  the common defence and general welfare of the United States: but
  all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the
  United States;

  To borrow money on the credit of the United States;

  To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several
  states, and with the Indian tribes;

  To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws
  on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States;

  To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin,
  and fix the standard of weights and measures;

  To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and
  current coin of the United States;

  To establish post offices and post roads;

  To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing
  for limited times to authors and inventors, the exclusive right
  to their respective writings and discoveries;

  To constitute tribunals inferior to the supreme court;

  To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high
  seas, and offences against the law of nations;

  To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make
  rules concerning captures on land and water;

  To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that
  use shall be for a longer term than two years;

  To provide and maintain a navy;

  To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and
  naval forces;

  To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of
  the union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions;

  To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia,
  and for governing such parts of them as may be employed in the
  service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively
  the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the
  militia according to the discipline prescribed by congress;

  To exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, over
  such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession
  of particular states, and the acceptance of congress, become
  the seat of government of the United States, and to exercise
  like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the
  legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the
  erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock yards, and other
  needful buildings; and

  To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying
  into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested
  by this constitution in the government of the United States, or in
  any department or office thereof.

  SEC. IX. The migration or importation of such persons as any of
  the states now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not
  be prohibited by the congress prior to the year one thousand
  eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such
  importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person.

  The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended,
  unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety
  may require it.

  No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed.

  No capitation, or other direct tax, shall be laid, unless in
  proportion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to
  be taken.

  No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state.

  No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or
  revenue to the ports of one state over those of another: nor shall
  vessels bound to or from one state, be obliged to enter, clear, or
  pay duties in another.

  No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of
  appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account
  of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be
  published from time to time.

  No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States: And
  no person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall,
  without the consent of congress, accept of any present, emolument,
  office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or
  foreign state.

  SEC. X. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or
  confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money;
  emit bills of credit; make any thing but gold and silver coin a
  tender in payment of debts; pass any bills of attainder, ex post
  facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant
  any title of nobility.

  No state shall, without the consent of the congress, lay any
  imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be
  absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws: and
  the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any state on
  imports or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the
  United States; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision
  and control of the congress.

  No state shall, without the consent of congress, lay any duty on
  tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into
  any agreement or compact with another state, or with a foreign
  power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such
  imminent danger as will not admit of delay.


                              ARTICLE II.

  SECTION I. The executive power shall be vested in a president of
  the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the
  term of four years, and, together with the vice president, chosen
  for the same term, be elected as follows:

  Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature
  thereof may direct, a number of electors equal to the whole number
  of senators and representatives to which the state may be entitled
  in the congress: but no senator or representative, or person
  holding an office of trust or profit under the United States,
  shall be appointed an elector.

  [[80]The electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote
  by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an
  inhabitant of the same state with themselves. And they shall make
  a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes
  for each; which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit
  sealed to the seat of government of the United States, directed
  to the president of the senate. The president of the senate
  shall, in the presence of the senate and house of representatives,
  open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted.
  The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the
  president, if such number be a majority of the whole number of
  electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such
  majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the house of
  representatives shall immediately choose by ballot one of them for
  president; and if no person have a majority, then from the five
  highest on the list, the said house shall in like manner choose
  the president. But in choosing the president, the votes shall
  be taken by states, the representation from each state having
  one vote: A quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or
  members from two thirds of the states, and a majority of all the
  states shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the
  choice of the president, the person having the greatest number of
  votes of the electors shall be vice president. But if there should
  remain two or more who have equal votes, the senate shall choose
  from them by ballot the vice-president.]

  The congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and
  the day on which they shall give their votes; which day shall be
  the same throughout the United States.

  No person, except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the
  United States at the time of the adoption of this constitution,
  shall be eligible to the office of president; neither shall any
  person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained
  the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident
  within the United States.

  In case of the removal of the president from office, or his death,
  resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of
  the said office, the same shall devolve on the vice president,
  and the congress may by law provide for the case of removal,
  death, resignation, or inability, both of the president and vice
  president, declaring what officer shall then act as president,
  and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be
  removed, or a president shall be elected.

  The president shall at stated times receive for his services a
  compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished
  during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he
  shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the
  United States, or any of them.

  Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the
  following oath or affirmation:――‘I do solemnly swear (or affirm)
  that I will faithfully execute the office of president of the
  United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve,
  protect, and defend the constitution of the United States.’

  SEC. II. The president shall be commander-in-chief of the army
  and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several
  states, when called into the actual service of the United States;
  he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer
  in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to
  the duties of their respective offices, and he shall have power to
  grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States,
  except in cases of impeachment.

  He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the
  senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the senators
  present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice
  and consent of the senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public
  ministers and consuls, judges of the supreme court, and all other
  officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein
  otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law:
  but the congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior
  officers, as they think proper, in the president alone, in the
  courts of law, or in the heads of departments.

  The president shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may
  happen during the recess of the senate, by granting commissions
  which shall expire at the end of their next session.

  SEC. III. He shall from time to time give to the congress
  information of the state of the union, and recommend to their
  consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and
  expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both
  houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement between
  them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn
  them to such time as he shall think proper: he shall receive
  ambassadors and other public ministers; he shall take care that
  the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the
  officers of the United States.

  SEC. IV. The president, vice-president, and all civil officers
  of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment
  for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and
  misdemeanors.


                             ARTICLE III.

  SEC. I. The judicial powers of the United States shall be vested
  in one supreme court, and in such inferior courts as the congress
  may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of
  the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during
  good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their
  services a compensation which shall not be diminished during their
  continuance in office.

  SEC. II. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and
  equity, arising under this constitution, the laws of the United
  States, and treaties made, or which shall be made under their
  authority;――to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public
  ministers and consuls;――to all cases of admiralty and maritime
  jurisdiction;――to controversies to which the United States shall
  be a party;――to controversies between two or more states;――between
  a state and citizen of another state;――between citizens of
  different states;――between citizens of the same state claiming
  lands under grants of different states, and between a state or
  the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens or subjects.

  In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers
  and consuls, and those in which a state shall be a party, the
  supreme court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other
  cases before mentioned, the supreme court shall have appellate
  jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and
  under such regulations as the congress shall make.

  The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be
  by jury; and such trial shall be held in the state where the said
  crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within
  any state, the trial shall be at such place or places as the
  congress may by law have directed.

  SEC. III. Treason against the United States shall consist only in
  levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving
  them aid and comfort.

  No person shall be convicted of treason, unless on the testimony
  of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open
  court.

  The congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason;
  but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or
  forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted.


                              ARTICLE IV.

  SEC. I. Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to
  the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other
  state. And the congress may by general laws prescribe the manner
  in which such acts, records and proceedings shall be proved, and
  the effect thereof.

  SEC. II. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all
  privileges and immunities of citizens in the several slates.

  A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other
  crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another state,
  shall, on demand of the executive authority of the state from
  which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the state having
  jurisdiction of the crime.

  No person held to service or labor in one state, under the laws
  thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law
  or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor,
  but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such
  service or labor may be due.

  SEC. III. New states may be admitted by the congress into this
  union: but no new state shall be formed or erected within the
  jurisdiction of any other state; nor any state be formed by the
  junction of two or more states, or parts of states, without the
  consent of the legislatures of the states concerned as well es of
  the congress.

  The congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful
  rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property
  belonging to the United States; and nothing in this constitution
  shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United
  States, or of any particular state.

  SEC. IV. The United States shall guarantee to every state in the
  union, a republican form of government, and shall protect each of
  them against invasion: and on application of the legislature, or
  of the executive (when the legislature cannot be convened) against
  domestic violence.


                              ARTICLE V.

  The congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it
  necessary, shall propose amendments to this constitution, or, on
  the application of the legislatures of two thirds of the several
  states, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which,
  in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as
  part of this constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of
  three fourths of the several states, or by conventions in three
  fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification
  may be proposed by congress: provided that no amendment which may
  be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight
  shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the
  ninth section of the first article; and that no state, without its
  consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the senate.


                              ARTICLE VI.

  All debts contracted and agreements entered into, before the
  adoption of this constitution, shall be as valid against the
  United States under this constitution, as under the confederation.

  This constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall
  be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which
  shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be
  the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every state shall
  be bound thereby, any thing in the constitution or laws of any
  state to the contrary notwithstanding.

  The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the
  members of the several state legislatures, and all executive and
  judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several
  states, shall be bound by oath or affirmation, to support this
  constitution: but no religious test shall ever be required as
  a qualification to any office of public trust under the United
  States.


                             ARTICLE VII.

  The ratification of the conventions of nine states, shall be
  sufficient for the establishment of this constitution between the
  states so ratifying the same.


                              AMENDMENTS

  To the Constitution of the United States, ratified according to
  the provisions of the fifth article of the foregoing Constitution.

  [Congress, at its first session, begun and held in the city of
  New York, on Wednesday, the 4th of March, 1789, proposed to the
  legislatures of the several states, twelve amendments to the
  constitution, ten of which, only, were adopted. They are the ten
  first following:

  The 11th article of the amendments was proposed at the second
  session of the third congress, in 1794; and the 12th article at
  the first session of the eighth congress in 1804. Both of which
  were afterwards adopted by the requisite number of states.]

  ARTICLE I. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment
  of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or
  abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press, or the right of
  the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government
  for a redress of grievances.

  ART. II. A well-regulated militia, being necessary to the security
  of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms
  shall not be infringed.

  ART. III. No soldier shall in time of peace be quartered in any
  house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but
  in a manner to be prescribed by law.

  ART. IV. The right of the people to be secure in their persons,
  houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and
  seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue,
  but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and
  particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons
  or things to be seized.

  ART. V. No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or
  otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of
  a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces,
  or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public
  danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be
  twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in
  any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived
  of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor
  shall private property be taken for public use, without just
  compensation.

  ART. VI. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the
  right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the
  state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed,
  which district shall have been previously ascertained by law,
  and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to
  be confronted by the witnesses against him; to have compulsory
  process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the
  assistance of council for his defence.

  ART. VII. In suits of common law, where the value in controversy
  shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall
  be preserved; and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise
  re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to
  the rules of the common law.

  ART. VIII. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive
  fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

  ART. IX. The enumeration in the constitution, of certain rights,
  shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the
  people.

  ART. X. The powers not delegated to the United States, by the
  constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to
  the states respectively, or to the people.

  ART. XI. The judicial power of the United States shall not be
  construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or
  prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another
  state, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state.

  ART. XII. The electors shall meet in their respective states,
  and vote by ballot for president and vice president, one of
  whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with
  themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted
  for as president, and in distinct ballots the person voted for
  as vice-president, and they shall make distinct lists of all
  persons voted for as president, and of all persons voted for as
  vice-president, and of the number of votes for each, which lists
  they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of
  government of the United States, directed to the president of the
  senate:――The president of the senate shall, in the presence of the
  senate and house of representatives, open all the certificates,
  and the votes shall then be counted:――The person having the
  greatest number of votes for president, shall be the president,
  if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors
  appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the
  persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the
  list of those voted for as president, the house of representatives
  shall choose immediately, by ballot, the president. But in
  choosing the president, the votes shall be taken by states, the
  representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this
  purpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of
  the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary
  to a choice. And if the house of representatives shall not choose
  a president whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon
  them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the
  vice-president shall act as president, as in the case of the death
  or other constitutional disability of the president. The person
  having the greatest number of votes as vice-president shall be the
  vice-president, if such number be a majority of the whole number
  of electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then
  from the two highest numbers on the list, the senate shall choose
  the vice-president; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of
  two thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of
  the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person
  constitutionally ineligible to the office of president shall be
  eligible to that of vice-president of the United States.


                 ANALYSIS OF THE STATE CONSTITUTIONS.

  MAINE. The legislative power is vested in a senate and a house
  of representatives, both elected annually by the people, on the
  second Monday in September. These two bodies are together styled
  _The Legislature of Maine_. The number of representatives cannot
  be less than one hundred, nor more than two hundred. A town
  having fifteen hundred inhabitants is entitled to send one
  representative; but no town can ever be entitled to more than
  seven representatives. The number of senators cannot be less than
  twenty, nor more than thirty-one. The executive power is vested in
  a governor, who is elected annually by the people, on the second
  Monday in September, and his term of office commences on the
  first Wednesday in January. A council of seven members is elected
  annually on the first Wednesday in January, by joint ballot of
  the senators and representatives, to advise the governor in the
  executive part of government. The right of suffrage is granted
  to every male citizen aged twenty-one years or upwards (excepting
  paupers, persons under guardianship, and Indians not taxed),
  having had his residence established in the state for the term
  of three months next preceding an election. The judicial power
  is vested in a supreme judicial court, and such other courts as
  the legislature may, from time to time, establish. All the judges
  are appointed by the governor, with the advice and consent of the
  council; and they hold their offices during good behavior, but not
  beyond the age of seventy years.

  NEW HAMPSHIRE. A constitution was established in 1784; and in
  1792, this constitution was altered and amended, by a convention
  of delegates held at Concord, and is now in force. The legislative
  power is vested in a senate and house of representatives, which,
  together, are styled, _The General Court of New Hampshire_.
  Every town, or incorporated township, having one hundred and
  fifty ratable polls, may send one representative; and for every
  three hundred additional polls, it is entitled to an additional
  representative. The senate consists of twelve members, who are
  chosen by the people in districts. The executive power is vested
  in a governor and a council, which consists of five members. The
  governor, council, senators, and representatives, are all elected
  annually, by the people, on the second Tuesday in March; and
  their term of service commences on the first Wednesday in June.
  The right of suffrage is granted to every male inhabitant of
  twenty-one years of age, excepting paupers and persons excused
  from paying taxes at their own request. The judiciary power is
  vested in a superior court and a court of common pleas. Judges
  are appointed by the governor and council, and hold their offices
  during good behaviour, but not beyond the age of seventy years.

  VERMONT. The first constitution of this state was formed in
  1777; the one now in operation was adopted on the 4th of July,
  1793. The legislative power is vested in a single body, a house
  of representatives, elected, annually, on the first Tuesday
  in September, and styled _The General Assembly of the state of
  Vermont_. The executive power is vested in a governor, lieutenant
  governor, and a council of twelve persons, who are all chosen
  annually on the first Tuesday in September. They are empowered to
  commission all offices; to sit as judges to consider and determine
  on impeachments; to prepare and lay before the general assembly
  such business as shall appear to them necessary; and have power
  to revise and propose amendments to the laws passed by the house
  of representatives. The constitution grants the right of suffrage
  to every man of the full age of twenty-one years, who has resided
  in the state for the space of one whole year, next before the
  election of representatives, and is of quiet and peaceable
  behavior. The judiciary power is vested in a supreme court,
  consisting of three judges and of a county court of three judges
  for each county. Judges of the supreme, county and probate courts,
  sheriffs, and justices of the peace, are elected annually by the
  general assembly. A council of censors, consisting of thirteen
  persons, are chosen every seven years, whose duty is to inquire
  whether the constitution has been preserved inviolate; whether the
  legislative and executive branches of government have performed
  their duty as guardians of the people; whether the public taxes
  have been justly laid and collected; in what manner the public
  moneys have been disposed of; and whether the laws have been duly
  executed.

  MASSACHUSETTS. The constitution of this state was formed in
  1780, and amended in 1821. The legislative power is vested in a
  senate and house of representatives, which together are styled
  _The General Court of Massachusetts_. The members of the house
  of representatives are elected annually on the second Monday
  in November. Every corporate town having one hundred and fifty
  ratable polls may elect one representative, and another for every
  additional two hundred and twenty-five ratable polls.

  The senate consists of forty members, who are chosen, by
  districts, annually, on the second Monday in November. The supreme
  executive magistrate is styled the _Governor of the commonwealth
  of Massachusetts_, and has the title of “_His Excellency_.” The
  governor is elected annually by the people on the second Monday
  in November, and at the same time a lieutenant governor is chosen,
  who has the title of “_His Honor_.” The governor is assisted in
  the executive part of government by a council of nine members, who
  are chosen by the joint ballot of the senators and representatives,
  from the senators, and in case the persons elected, or any of them,
  decline the appointment, the deficiency is supplied from among the
  people at large. The right of suffrage is granted to every male
  citizen, twenty-one years of age and upwards (excepting paupers
  and persons under guardianship), who has resided within the
  commonwealth one year, and within the town or district in which he
  may claim a right to vote, six calendar months next preceding any
  election, and who has paid a state or county tax, assessed upon
  him within two years next preceding such election; and also every
  citizen who may be by law exempted from taxation, and who may be
  in all other respects qualified as above mentioned. The judiciary
  is vested in a supreme court, a court of common pleas, and such
  other courts as the legislature may establish. The judges are
  appointed by the governor, by and with the advice and consent of
  the council, and hold their offices during good behavior.

  RHODE ISLAND. The government of this state is founded on the
  provisions of the charter granted to the colony by Charles II.,
  in 1663; and this is the only state in the union which is without
  a written constitution. The legislative power is vested in
  a _General Assembly_, consisting of a senate and a house of
  representatives. The house of representatives consists of
  seventy-two members, elected semi-annually. The senate consists
  of ten members, who are elected annually in April. The executive
  power is vested in a governor, who is elected annually in April.
  A lieutenant governor is also elected, on whom the executive
  duties devolve in case of the office of governor being vacated.
  The judges are appointed annually by the general assembly.

  CONNECTICUT. The charter granted in 1662 by Charles II.,
  formed the basis of the government of Connecticut till 1818, when
  the present constitution was framed. The legislative power is
  vested in a senate and house of representatives, which together
  are styled the _General Assembly_. Members of the house of
  representatives are chosen by the different towns in the state:
  the more ancient towns, the majority of the whole number, send
  each two representatives; the rest only one each. The present
  number is two hundred and eight. The senate must consist of
  not less than eighteen, nor more than twenty-four members, who
  are chosen by districts. The present number is twenty-one. The
  executive power is vested in a governor. A lieutenant governor
  is also chosen, who is president of the senate, and on whom the
  duties of the governor devolve in case of his death, resignation,
  or absence. The representatives, senators, governor, and
  lieutenant governor, are all elected annually by the people on the
  first Monday in April. The judicial power is vested in a supreme
  court of errors, a superior court, and such inferior courts as the
  general assembly may, from time to time, establish. The judges
  are appointed by the general assembly; and those of the supreme
  and superior courts hold their offices during good behavior, but
  not beyond the age of seventy years. No person is compelled to
  join, or support, or to be classed with, or associated to, any
  congregation, church, or religious association. But every person
  may be compelled to pay his proportion of the expenses of the
  society to which he may belong: he may, however, separate himself
  from the society, by leaving a written notice of his wish with the
  clerk of such society.

  NEW YORK. The present constitution of the state of New York was
  formed in 1822. The executive power is vested in a governor, who
  is elected by the people every two years; and at the same time, a
  lieutenant governor is also chosen, who is president of the senate,
  and on whom, in case of the impeachment, resignation, death, or
  absence of the governor, from office, the powers and duties of
  governor devolve. The legislative power is vested in a senate of
  thirty-two members, who are chosen for four years, and an assembly,
  of one hundred and twenty-eight members, who are elected annually;
  and these bodies united are styled the _Legislature_. For the
  election of senators, the state is divided into eight districts,
  each being entitled to choose four senators, one of whom is
  elected every year. The members of the assembly are chosen
  by counties, and are apportioned according to population. The
  constitution grants the right of suffrage, in the election of
  public officers, to every white male citizen, of the age of
  twenty-one years, who has been an inhabitant of the state one year
  next preceding any election, and, for the preceding six months,
  a resident in the county where he may offer his vote; but no man
  of color is entitled to vote unless he is possessed of a freehold
  estate of the value of two hundred and fifty dollars, without
  any incumbrance. The chancellor and judges are appointed by the
  governor, with the consent of the senate. The chancellor and
  justices of the supreme and circuit courts hold their offices
  during good behavior, or until they attain the age of sixty years.
  The judges of the county courts, or courts of common pleas, are
  appointed for a term of five years.

  NEW JERSEY. The constitution of New Jersey was formed in 1776;
  and no revision of it has since taken place, except that the
  legislature has undertaken to explain its provisions in particular
  parts. The government is vested in a governor, legislative council,
  and general assembly; and these bodies united are styled _the
  Legislature_. The members of the legislative council and of the
  general assembly are elected annually, on the second Tuesday
  in October. The number of members of the legislative council
  is fourteen, one being elected by each county in the state.
  The general assembly has consisted, for a number of years past,
  of forty-three members; but by a law enacted in 1829, seven
  additional members were added; and it now consists of fifty
  members. The governor is chosen annually by a joint vote of the
  council and assembly, at their first joint meeting after each
  annual election. The governor is president of the council; and
  the council also elect from their own body, at their first annual
  meeting, a vice-president, who acts in the place of the governor
  in his absence. The governor and council form a court of appeals,
  in the last resort in all cases of law; and they possess the
  power of granting pardon to criminals after condemnation. The
  constitution grants the right of suffrage to ‘all persons of full
  age who are worth fifty pounds proclamation money, clear estate in
  the same, and have resided within the county in which they claim
  to vote for twelve months immediately preceding the election.’
  [The legislature has declared by law, that every white male
  inhabitant, who shall be over the age of twenty-one years, and
  shall have paid a tax, shall be considered worth fifty pounds,
  and shall be entitled to vote;――and by another legislative act,
  females and negroes are prohibited from voting.] Judges are
  appointed by the legislature; those of the supreme court for a
  term of seven years, and those of the inferior courts, for five
  years; both are capable of being re-appointed.

  PENNSYLVANIA. The first constitution of Pennsylvania was adopted
  in 1776; the present constitution in 1790. The legislative power
  is vested in a _General Assembly_, consisting of a senate and
  house of representatives. The representatives are elected annually,
  on the second Tuesday in October, by the citizens of Philadelphia
  and of the several counties, apportioned according to the number
  of taxable inhabitants. The number cannot be less than sixty, nor
  more than one hundred. The senators are chosen for four years, one
  fourth being elected annually, at the time of the election of the
  representatives. Their number cannot be greater than one third,
  nor less than one fourth, of the number of the representatives.
  The executive power is vested in a governor, who is elected by
  the people on the second Tuesday in October, and who holds his
  office during three years, from the third Tuesday in December next
  following his election; and he cannot hold the office more than
  nine years, in any term of twelve years. The judicial power is
  vested in a supreme court, in courts of oyer and terminer and
  jail delivery, in courts of common pleas, an orphans’ court, a
  registers’ court, a court of quarter sessions of the peace for
  each county; and in such other courts as the legislature may from
  time to time establish. The judges of the supreme court, and the
  several courts of common pleas, are appointed by the governor,
  and hold their offices during good behavior. The right of suffrage
  is possessed by every freeman of the age of twenty-one years, who
  has resided in the state two years next preceding an election, and
  within that time paid a state or county tax, assessed at least six
  months before the election.

  DELAWARE. The constitution of this state was formed in 1792, and
  amended 1831. The legislature is styled the _General Assembly_,
  and consists of a senate and house of representatives. The
  senators are nine in number, namely, three from each county, and
  are elected for a term of four years. The representatives are
  elected for a term of two years, and are twenty-one in number,
  seven from each county. The general election is held biennially,
  on the second Tuesday in November. The executive power is vested
  in a governor, who is elected by the people for a term of four
  years, and is not eligible for a second term. Judicial power is
  vested in a court of errors and appeals, a superior court, a court
  of chancery, an orphans’ court, a court of oyer and terminer,
  a court of general sessions of the peace, and jail delivery, a
  registers’ court, justices of the peace, and such other courts as
  the general assembly may (by a vote of two thirds of each house)
  establish. The right of suffrage is granted to every white male
  citizen, of the age of twenty-two years or upwards, having resided
  in the state one year, next before the election, and the last
  month in the county where he votes; and having within two years
  paid a county tax. Also, to every free white male over twenty-one,
  and under twenty-two years of age, having resided, as aforesaid,
  without payment of any tax.

  MARYLAND. The constitution of this state was first formed in 1776;
  since which time, many amendments have been made. The legislative
  power is vested in a senate, consisting of fifteen members, and
  a house of delegates, consisting of eighty members; and these two
  branches united are styled _The General Assembly of Maryland_.
  The members of the house of delegates, four from each county, and
  two each from the cities of Baltimore and Annapolis, are elected
  annually by the people, on the first Monday in October; and the
  members of the senate are elected every fifth year, on the third
  Monday in September, at Annapolis, by electors who are chosen by
  the people, on the first Monday of the same month of September.
  These electors choose by ballot nine senators from the western
  shore, and six from the eastern, who hold their offices five
  years. The executive power is vested in a governor, who is elected
  annually, on the first Monday in January, by a joint ballot of
  both houses of the general assembly. No one can hold the office
  of governor more than three years successively, nor be eligible
  as governor until the expiration of four years after he has been
  out of that office. The governor is assisted by a council of five
  members, who are chosen annually by a joint ballot of the senate
  and house of delegates. The general assembly meets annually (at
  Annapolis) on the last Monday in December. The council of the
  governor is elected on the first Tuesday in January; the governor
  nominates to office, and the council appoints. The constitution
  grants the right of suffrage to every free, white, male citizen,
  above twenty-one years of age, having resided twelve months
  within the state, and six months in the county, or in the city
  of Annapolis or Baltimore, next preceding the election at which
  he offers to vote. The chancellor and judges are nominated by
  the governor, and appointed by the council; and they hold their
  offices during good behavior.

  VIRGINIA. The old constitution of this state was formed in 1776,
  and continued in operation until 1830, when the present amended
  constitution was formed by a convention, and accepted by the
  people. By this constitution, the legislative power is vested in
  a senate and a house of delegates, which are together styled _The
  General Assembly of Virginia_. The house of delegates consists of
  one hundred and thirty-four members, chosen annually. The senate
  consists of thirty-two members. Senators are elected for four
  years; and the seats of one fourth of them are vacated every year.
  In all elections to any office or place of trust, honor, or profit,
  the votes are given openly, or viva voce, and not by ballot. A
  re-apportionment for representation in both houses is to take
  place every ten years, commencing in 1841, until which time there
  is to be no change in the number of delegates and senators from
  the several divisions; and after 1841, the number of delegates is
  never to exceed one hundred and fifty; nor that of the senators,
  thirty-six. The time of election of delegates is fixed by the
  general assembly, and at present takes place in April. The
  executive power is vested in a governor, elected by the joint vote
  of the two houses of the general assembly. He holds his office
  three years, commencing on the first of January next succeeding
  his election, or on such other day as may be from time to time
  prescribed by law; and he is ineligible for the three years next
  after the expiration of his term of office. There is a council
  of state, consisting of three members elected for three years, by
  the joint vote of the two houses: the seat of one being vacated
  annually. The senior counsellor is lieutenant governor. Judges
  of the supreme court of appeals, and of the superior courts, are
  elected by a joint vote of both houses of the general assembly,
  and hold their offices during good behavior, or until removed by
  a concurrent vote of both houses; but two thirds of the members
  present must concur in such vote, and the cause of removal be
  entered on the journals of each house. Right of suffrage is
  extended to every white male citizen of the commonwealth, resident
  therein, aged twenty-one years and upwards, who is qualified
  to exercise the right of suffrage according to the former
  constitution and laws; or who owns a freehold of the value of
  twenty-five dollars; or who has a joint interest to the amount of
  twenty-five dollars in a freehold; or who has a life estate in, or
  reversionary title to, land of the value of fifty dollars, having
  been so possessed for six months; or who shall own and be in the
  actual occupation of a leasehold estate, having the title recorded
  two months before he shall offer to vote――of a term originally
  not less than five years, and of the annual value or rent of two
  hundred dollars; or who, for twelve months before offering to vote,
  has been a housekeeper and head of a family, and shall have been
  assessed with a part of the revenue of the commonwealth within the
  preceding year, and actually paid the same.

  NORTH CAROLINA. The constitution of North Carolina was agreed to
  and resolved upon, by representatives chosen for that purpose, at
  Halifax, December 18, 1776. The legislative authority is vested
  in a body, styled the _General Assembly_, consisting of a senate
  and a house of commons, both elected annually by the people. The
  chief executive officer is the governor, who is chosen annually
  by a joint vote of the two houses; and he is eligible for three
  years only in six. He is assisted by an executive council of seven
  members, chosen annually by a joint vote of the two houses. In
  case of the death of the governor, his duties devolve upon the
  speaker of the senate. Judges of the supreme and superior courts
  are appointed by a joint vote of the two houses, and hold their
  offices during good behavior. The constitution grants the right of
  voting for members of the house of commons to all freemen of the
  age of twenty-one years, who have been inhabitants of the state
  twelve months immediately preceding the election; but in order to
  vote for a senator, a freeman must be possessed of a freehold of
  fifty acres of land.

  SOUTH CAROLINA. The first constitution of this state was formed
  in 1775; the present constitution was adopted in 1790. Legislative
  authority is vested in a _General Assembly_, consisting of a
  senate and a house of representatives. The senate consists of
  forty-five members, who are elected by districts for four years,
  one half being chosen biennially. The house of representatives
  consists of one hundred and twenty-four members, who are
  apportioned among the several districts, according to the number
  of white inhabitants and taxation; and are elected for two years.
  The representatives, and one half of the senators, are chosen
  every second year, on the second Monday in October and the day
  following. The executive power is vested in a governor, who is
  elected for two years, by a joint vote of the senate and house
  of representatives, at every first meeting of the house of
  representatives. A governor, after having performed the duties
  of the office for two years, cannot be re-elected till after the
  expiration of four years. At the time of the election of governor,
  a lieutenant governor is chosen in the same manner, and for the
  same period. The chancellor and judges are appointed by the joint
  ballot of the senate and house of representatives, and hold their
  offices during good behavior. The constitution grants the right
  of suffrage to every free, white, male citizen, of the age of
  twenty-one years, having resided in the state two years previous
  to the day of election, and having been possessed of a freehold of
  fifty acres of land, or a town lot, at least six months before such
  election, or (not having such freehold or town lot) having been a
  resident in the election district in which he offers his vote, six
  months before said election, and having paid a tax the preceding
  year of three shillings sterling towards the support of the
  government.

  GEORGIA. The first constitution of Georgia was formed in 1777;
  a second, in 1785; and a third, the one now in operation, in
  1798. The legislative power is vested in a senate and house
  of representatives, which, together, are styled the _General
  Assembly_. The members of both houses are chosen annually, on the
  first Monday in October. One senator is elected for each county,
  and the number of representatives is in proportion to population,
  including three fifths of all the people of color; but each county
  is entitled to at least one, and no one to more than four members.
  The executive power is vested in a governor, who was formerly
  elected by the general assembly, but he is now (and ever since
  1824) elected by the people, and holds the office for two years.
  The constitution grants the right of suffrage to all ‘citizens
  and inhabitants who have attained the age of twenty-one years,
  and have paid all the taxes which may have been required of them,
  and which they may have had opportunity of paying, agreeably to
  law, for the year preceding the election, and shall have resided
  six months within the county.’ The judicial power is vested
  in a superior court, and in such inferior jurisdictions as the
  legislature may, from time to time, ordain and establish; and the
  superior and inferior courts sit twice in each county every year.
  Judges of the superior court are elected by the legislature for
  three years; justices of the inferior courts, and justices of the
  peace, are elected quadrennially by the people; and clerks of the
  superior and inferior courts biennially.

  ALABAMA. The legislative power is vested in two branches, a senate
  and house of representatives, which together are styled _The
  General Assembly of the State of Alabama_. The representatives are
  elected annually, and are apportioned among the different counties
  in proportion to the white population; the whole number cannot
  exceed one hundred, nor fall short of sixty. The senators are
  elected for three years, and one third of them are chosen every
  year. Their number cannot be more than one third, nor less than
  one fourth of the number of representatives. The executive power
  is vested in a governor, who is elected by the people for two
  years, and is eligible four years out of six.

  The representatives and one third of the senators are elected
  annually on the first Monday in August and the day following; and
  the governor is elected biennially at the same time. The general
  assembly meets annually at Tuscaloosa, on the fourth Monday in
  October. The right of suffrage is possessed by every white, male
  citizen of twenty-one years of age, who has resided within the
  state one year preceding an election, and the last three months
  within the county, city, or town, in which he offers his vote. The
  judicial power is vested in one supreme court, in circuit courts,
  and such inferior courts as the general assembly may, from time to
  time, direct and establish. The judges are elected by a joint vote
  of both houses of the general assembly, every six years.

  MISSISSIPPI. The constitution of this state was formed at the
  town of Washington, in August, 1817, but has been recently revised.
  Among the articles of the bill of rights of the new constitution,
  there are some, embracing subjects which are elsewhere made
  the subject of legislation. In all prosecutions for libel, if
  the defendant shall make it appear that the matter charged as
  libellous is true, and has been published with good motives and
  for justifiable ends, he is to be acquitted. It is also provided
  that the person of a debtor, who shall deliver up his estate for
  the benefit of his creditors, shall not be detained in prison,
  unless there is ‘strong presumption of fraud.’ Another article
  declares, that no person shall be elected or appointed to any
  office for life, or during good behavior: but the tenure of all
  offices shall be for some limited period of time. The principle of
  representation is as follows: The legislature is at stated periods
  to require an enumeration of the free white inhabitants to be
  made, and to cause the whole number of representatives, which is
  not to be less than thirty-six, nor more than one hundred, to be
  apportioned among the several counties, cities, or towns, entitled
  to separate representation, according to the number of free white
  inhabitants in each; but each county is to be entitled to at least
  one representative. When any city or town shall have a number of
  free white inhabitants equal to the established ratio, it is to
  have a separate representation; and if the residuum or fraction
  in any such city or town, shall, when added to the fraction of
  the county in which it lies, be equal to the ratio, the county,
  city, or town, having the largest fraction, shall be entitled
  to such representation. The senators are at the same time to
  be apportioned among several districts, according to the number
  of free white inhabitants in each, and their number is not to
  exceed one third, or be less than one fourth, of the number
  of representatives. These districts are to be formed by the
  legislature, at stated periods. The judicial department is to
  be constituted as follows: The state is to be divided into three
  districts, in which three judges of a high court of errors and
  appeals are to be chosen by the people, for the term of six
  years. In the first instance, however, the seat of one judge is
  to be vacated in two years, that of a second in four, and that
  of the third in six, so that there may be a new election in each
  of the districts, at the expiration of every two years. Their
  jurisdiction is described to be such as properly belongs to a
  court of errors and appeals. A circuit court is to be established,
  consisting of judges to be elected in districts, into which the
  state is to be divided for the purpose, and each of which is to
  comprehend not more than twelve, nor less than three counties.
  Among the other provisions of this instrument, is the following:
  That no loan shall be raised on the credit of the state, nor the
  public faith pledged for the redemption of any debt, unless the
  bill for that purpose, after passing the legislature, shall be
  published, for three months successively, in three newspapers, and
  shall be passed a second time by the next succeeding legislature.

  LOUISIANA. The constitution of this state was formed in
  1812. The legislative power is vested in a senate and house of
  representatives, both together styled _The General Assembly of the
  State of Louisiana_. The representatives are elected for two years.
  Their number cannot be less than twenty-five, nor more than fifty;
  and they are apportioned according to the number of electors, as
  ascertained by enumeration every four years. Members of the senate
  are elected for four years; one half being chosen every two years,
  at the time of the election of the representatives. The state is
  divided into sixteen senatorial districts, in each of which one
  senator is chosen. Executive power is vested in a governor, who
  is elected for the term of four years. The people give their votes
  for a governor at the time and place of voting for representatives
  and senators; and on the second day of the succeeding session of
  the general assembly, the two houses, by a joint ballot, elect for
  governor one of the two candidates who have the greatest number of
  votes. Right of suffrage is possessed by every white male citizen
  of the United States, of the age of twenty-one years, who has
  resided in the county in which he offers to vote one year next
  preceding the election, and who, in the last six months prior to
  said election, has paid a state tax. Judiciary power is vested in
  a supreme court, which possesses appellate jurisdiction only, and
  such inferior courts as the legislature may establish. The judges
  are appointed by the governor, with the advice and consent of the
  senate, and hold their offices during good behavior.

  TENNESSEE. The constitution of this state was formed at Knoxville,
  in 1796. Legislative authority is vested in a general assembly,
  consisting of a senate and house of representatives; and the
  members of both houses are elected biennially, on the first
  Thursday and Friday in August. The number of representatives is
  sixty, who are apportioned among the different counties, according
  to the number of taxable inhabitants. The number of senators
  cannot be less than one third, nor more than one half, of the
  number of representatives. The executive power is vested in a
  governor, who is elected at the same time with the senators and
  representatives, and who holds his office for the term of two
  years, but is not eligible more than six years in any term of
  eight. The right of suffrage is granted to every freeman of the
  age of twenty-one years, possessing a freehold in the county
  where he offers his vote, and to every freeman who has been an
  inhabitant of any one county in the state, six months immediately
  preceding the day of election. Judiciary power is vested in such
  superior and inferior courts, as the legislature may from time to
  time direct and establish. The judges are appointed by a joint
  ballot of both houses, and hold their offices during good behavior.

  KENTUCKY. On the separation of Kentucky from Virginia, in 1790,
  a constitution was adopted, which continued in force till 1799,
  when a new one was formed instead of it; and this is now in
  force. The legislative power is vested in a senate and house
  of representatives, which, together, are styled _The General
  Assembly of the Commonwealth of Kentucky_. The representatives
  are elected annually, and are apportioned, every four years, among
  the different counties, according to the number of electors. The
  senators are elected for four years, one quarter of them being
  chosen annually. The executive power is vested in a governor, who
  is elected for four years, and is ineligible for the succeeding
  seven years after the expiration of his term of office. At the
  election of governor, a lieutenant governor is also chosen, who
  is speaker of the senate, and on whom the duties of the governor
  devolve, in case of his absence or removal. The constitution
  grants the right of suffrage to every free male citizen (people
  of color excepted) who has attained the age of twenty-one years,
  and has resided in the state two years, or in the county where he
  offers his vote one year next preceding the election. Judiciary
  power is vested in a supreme court, styled the court of appeals,
  and in such inferior courts as the general assembly may, from time
  to time, erect and establish. Judges of the different courts, and
  justices of the peace, hold their offices during good behavior.

  OHIO. The constitution of this state was formed at Chillicothe,
  in 1802. The legislative power is vested in a senate and house of
  representatives, which, together, are styled _The General Assembly
  of the State of Ohio_. The representatives are elected annually,
  on the second Tuesday in October; and they are apportioned among
  the counties according to the number of white male inhabitants
  above twenty-one years of age. Their number cannot be less than
  thirty-six, nor more than seventy-two. The senators are chosen
  biennially, and are apportioned according to the number of white
  male inhabitants of twenty-one years of age. Their number cannot
  be less than one third, nor more than one half of the number of
  representatives. The executive power is vested in a governor,
  who is elected by the people for two years. Right of suffrage is
  granted to all white male inhabitants above the age of twenty-one
  years, who have resided in the state one year next preceding
  the election, and who have paid, or are charged with a state
  or county tax. Judicial power is vested in a supreme court, in
  courts of common pleas for each county, and such other courts as
  the legislature may from time to time establish. The judges are
  elected by a joint ballot of both houses of the general assembly,
  for the term of seven years.

  INDIANA. Executive power is vested in a governor, who is
  elected by the people for a term of three years, and may be once
  re-elected. At every election of governor, a lieutenant governor
  is also chosen, who is president of the senate, and on whom, in
  case of the death, resignation, or removal of the governor, the
  powers and duties of governor devolve. The legislative authority
  is vested in a general assembly, consisting of a senate, the
  members of which are elected for three years, and a house of
  representatives, elected annually. The number of representatives
  can never be less than thirty-six, nor more than one hundred; and
  they are apportioned among the several counties, according to the
  number of white male inhabitants above twenty-one years of age.
  The number of senators, who are apportioned in like manner, cannot
  be less than one third, nor more than one half of the number of
  representatives. The representatives, and one third of the members
  of the senate, are elected annually, on the first Monday in August;
  and the governor is chosen on the same day, every third year.
  Right of suffrage is granted to all male citizens of the age of
  twenty-one years or upwards, who may have resided in the state
  one year immediately preceding an election. Judiciary power is
  vested in one supreme court, in circuit courts, and in such other
  inferior courts as the general assembly may establish. The supreme
  court consists of three judges; and each of the circuit courts
  consists of a president and two associate judges. Judges are
  all appointed for the term of seven years. Judges of the supreme
  court are appointed by the governor, with the consent of the
  senate; presidents of the circuit courts, by the legislature;
  and associate judges are elected by the people.

  ILLINOIS. The legislative authority is vested in a general
  assembly, consisting of a senate, the members of which are
  elected for four years; and of a house of representatives, elected
  biennially. ‘The number of representatives shall not be less
  than twenty-seven, nor more than thirty-six, until the number of
  inhabitants within the state shall amount to one hundred thousand;
  and the number of senators shall never be less than one third, nor
  more than one half of the number of representatives.’ Executive
  power is vested in a governor, who is elected by the people for
  four years; and he is not eligible for more than four years in
  any term of eight years. At the election of governor, a lieutenant
  governor is also chosen, who is speaker of the senate; and on
  whom, in case the governor vacates his office, the duties of
  governor devolve. Representatives, and one half of the senators,
  are elected biennially, on the first Monday in August; and the
  governor is chosen every fourth year, at the same time. All
  white male inhabitants, above the age of twenty-one years, having
  resided in the state six months next preceding an election, have
  the rights of electors. The judicial power is vested in a supreme
  court, and in such inferior courts as the general assembly may
  establish. The judges are appointed by a joint ballot of both
  branches of the general assembly, and hold their offices during
  good behavior.

  MISSOURI. The constitution of this state was formed at
  St. Louis, in 1820. Legislative power is vested in a general
  assembly, consisting of a senate and house of representatives.
  Representatives are chosen every second year. Every county is
  entitled to at least one representative; but the whole number
  can never exceed one hundred. The senators are elected for four
  years; the seats of one half being vacated every second year. The
  constitutional number is not less than fourteen, nor more than
  thirty-three. They are chosen by districts, and are apportioned
  according to the number of free white inhabitants. Executive power
  is vested in a governor, who is elected for four years, on the
  first Monday in August; and he is ineligible for the next four
  years after the expiration of his term of service. At the time of
  the election of governor, a lieutenant governor is also chosen,
  who is, by virtue of his office, president of the senate. Right of
  suffrage is granted to every white male citizen who has attained
  the age of twenty-one years, and has resided in the state one year
  before an election, the last three months thereof being in the
  county or district in which he offers his vote. Judicial power is
  vested in a supreme court, in a chancellor, circuit courts, and
  such other inferior tribunals as the general assembly may, from
  time to time, establish. Judges are appointed by the governor, by
  and with the advice and consent of the senate; and they hold their
  offices during good behavior, but not beyond the age of sixty-five
  years.

  MICHIGAN. The Constitution of this State was formed in 1835.
  The legislative power is vested in a senate and house of
  representatives; the number of representatives is never less
  than forty-eight, nor can it exceed one hundred; and the senate
  is to equal one third of the house, as nearly as may be. The
  representatives are to be chosen annually on the first Monday of
  November, and the day following; on the same days, once in two
  years, the senators are elected. The State is divided, at each
  new apportionment, into not less than four, nor more than eight
  senatorial districts. The legislature commences its session on
  the first Monday of January. The executive power is vested in
  a governor and lieutenant governor, who are chosen directly
  by the people once in every two years. The lieutenant governor
  is president of the senate, and in the absence of the governor
  performs the duties of his office. The judicial power is vested
  in a supreme court, and such other courts as the legislature may
  establish. The judges of the supreme court hold their office for
  seven years. They are appointed by the governor, by and with the
  advice and consent of the senate.

  The right of suffrage is possessed by all white male citizens over
  twenty-one years of age, who have resided in the state six months
  preceding any election in the townships where they reside. Slavery
  and involuntary servitude are forbidden in the state, except for
  crime.

  ARKANSAS. Every free white male citizen of the United States,
  who shall have been a citizen of the State for six months,
  shall be deemed a qualified elector. Members of the house of
  representatives are to be elected for two years, and of the senate
  for four years. The general assembly meets every two years. All
  general elections are to be _viva voce_. The senate can never
  consist of less than seventeen, nor more than thirty-three members.
  The house of representatives shall consist of not less than
  fifty-four, nor more than one hundred. The governor is to hold
  his office for four years, but shall not be eligible for more
  than eight years in any period of twelve years. Tho judicial power
  is vested in a supreme court, circuit courts, and in justices
  of the peace. The supreme court consists of three judges. Its
  jurisdiction is appellate. The official terms of the judges of the
  supreme court is eight years; of the judges of the circuit court,
  four years. They are chosen by the general assembly. Justices of
  the peace are elected for two years, by the people.




                       CHAPTER IX.――CONVENTION.


IN the chapter preceding, a brief account has been given of the
progress of Government among the people of the United States, from
those early leagues, or compacts, which being passed by the colonists,
served to bind them together in the bonds of a good degree of peace
and amity, down to the formation of that constitution, which, now, for
more than half a century has been the basis of our civil and political
prosperity. But in relation to this last great change in the general
government of the country, further statements are necessary. There
are certain historical facts, in relation to the Convention which
framed the Constitution, which every work of a similar character to
the present should record, and which should be treasured up in the
recollection of every free-born American.

Not a few of the men who composed this august assembly had borne a
conspicuous part in the Revolutionary struggle, which achieved our
independence. They had perilled life and fortune, in the great cause
of freedom, and although that object had been won, they perceived
that something further was necessary, or the toils and hardships, the
sacrifice of life and fortune, during a seven years’ war had all been
in vain. The enemies of the revolution had predicted that a separation
from the mother country would be followed by anarchy and confusion. It
was confidently affirmed, that the Americans would be found incapable
of self-government. So, for a time, it indeed seemed likely to prove.
The confederation, it was apparent, was inadequate to the wants of the
people. It embraced provisions which rendered the administration of
government under it nearly impossible; and yet no amendments might be
made to it, without the assent of every state in the Union. Experience
had shown that no relief could be expected from this quarter.

The first measure which led to the Convention of 1787, was adopted by
Virginia, in a proposition of her Legislature in January, 1786, for a
convention of delegates to regulate our _foreign commerce_. In a letter
to General Washington in March, 1786, Mr. Jay observed, “Experience
has pointed out errors in our national government, which call for
correction, and which threaten to blast the fruit we expected from
our tree of liberty. The convention proposed by Virginia, may do some
good, and would, perhaps, do more, if it comprehended more objects.
An opinion begins to prevail, that a general convention for revising
the articles of confederation, would be expedient. Whether the people
are yet ripe for such a measure, or whether the system proposed to be
obtained by it, is only to be expected from calamity and commotion, is
difficult to ascertain.”

In a second letter to the same person in June, his views and feelings
are thus expressed: “Our affairs seem to lead to some crisis, some
revolution, something that I cannot foresee or conjecture. I am uneasy
and apprehensive, more so than during the war. Then we had a fixed
object, and though the means and time of obtaining it, were often
problematical, yet I did firmly believe, that justice was with us. The
case is now altered. We are going and doing wrong, and, therefore, I
look forward to evils and calamities, but without being able to guess
at the instrument, nature or measure of them.”

“Your statements,” said General Washington, in reply to these
communications, “that our affairs are drawing rapidly to a crisis,
accord with my own. What the event will be, is also beyond my foresight.
We have errors to correct; we have, probably, had too good an opinion
of human nature, in forming our confederation. Experience has taught
us, that men will not adopt and carry into execution measures the best
calculated for their own good, without the intervention of coercive
power. I do not conceive we can exist long as a nation, without lodging
somewhere, a power, which will pervade the whole Union, in as energetic
a manner as the authority of the state governments extends over the
several states.”

Similar views were expressed by many of the distinguished men of the
nation. An opinion prevailed among all classes that some measures
were essential to the salvation of the country; but as yet no one saw
distinctly what those measures should be, or what, amid the prevalent
jealousies of so many different states, could be adopted.

The above proposal of Virginia met with so much favor, that delegates,
or commissioners, were appointed by Virginia, Delaware, Pennsylvania,
New Jersey and New York. These convened at Annapolis, in September of
1786. Delegates were also appointed by New Hampshire, Massachusetts,
Rhode Island, and North Carolina, but did not attend. In consequence of
such a partial representation of the states, the commissioners deemed
it inexpedient to proceed in the important business which had called
them together. But it was still more than ever apparent, that a general
convention was essential, and must be effected. They therefore drew
up a report and an address to the states, in which, after stating
the defects of the federal government, and that the situation of the
United States “was delicate and critical, calling for an exertion of
the virtue and wisdom of the confederacy,” they recommended to all
the states, to concur “in the appointment of commissioners, to meet
at Philadelphia, on the second Monday in May, 1787, to take into
consideration the situation of the United States, to devise such
further provisions as should appear to them necessary, to render the
constitution of the federal government adequate to the exigences of
the Union. This address was also sent to congress, as well as to the
several states.”

Virginia first appointed delegates, according to the recommendation
of the meeting at Annapolis. The general assembly of that state, which
commenced their session in October, 1786, selected seven of their most
distinguished citizens, to meet delegates from the other states, at
Philadelphia, in May following, and “to join with them, in devising
and discussing all such alterations and further provisions, as may be
necessary to render the federal constitution adequate to the exigences
of the Union.” Other states soon after followed the example of Virginia.
In February, 1787, the subject claimed the attention of congress, and
they passed the following resolution:

“Whereas there is provision, in the articles of confederation and
perpetual union, for making alterations therein, by the assent of a
congress of the United States, and of the legislatures of the several
states; and whereas experience hath evinced, that there are defects in
the present confederation, as a means to remedy which, several of the
states, and particularly the state of New York, by express instruction
to their delegates in congress, have suggested a Convention for the
purpose expressed in the following resolution; and such Convention
appearing to be the most probable means of establishing in these states
a firm national government――

“_Resolved_, That in the opinion of congress, it is expedient, that
on the second Monday in May next, a Convention of delegates, who shall
have been appointed by the several states, be held at Philadelphia,
for the sole and express purpose of revising the articles of
confederation, and reporting to congress and the several legislatures,
such alterations and provisions therein, as shall, when agreed to in
congress, and confirmed by the states, render the federal constitution
adequate to the exigences of government, and the preservation of the
Union.”

In consequence of this, delegates to the Convention were appointed from
all the states, except Rhode Island.

To the generation, which since those times has come on to the stage,
it may appear singular, that such obstacles to a Convention should have
existed. But it is to be remembered that the path to be trod was new
and untried. The political elements were in a deranged state. Sectional
interests were at war. The principles of free government were not then
drawn out and harmonized. No model existed adapted to the country.
Is it surprising, then, that the process was slow――that fears were
indulged――that opposite views were entertained? On the contrary,
looking at the state of the country as it then was――the political
and commercial jealousies, which had arisen among the states――their
difference in extent, wealth, and population, as well as in the habits,
religion, and education of their inhabitants――it may well excite our
admiration, that a few years achieved such important changes, and
produced a constitution, which has operated so happily in its practical
influence upon political communities so distinct, and to this day so
independent.

Among the causes which served to produce a general conviction of the
necessity of a more efficient government, none, perhaps, had greater
influence, than the insurrection in Massachusetts, in the year 1786.
“This open and formidable opposition to the laws,” observes a writer,
“threatened not only the destruction of the government of that state,
but of the Union. So numerous were the insurgents in the western
counties, and so confident of success, and even of support from their
fellow-citizens, that they refused all terms of accommodation offered
by the legislature. They completely obstructed judicial proceedings in
several counties, and for a time, it was extremely doubtful, whether
a sufficient force could be found in Massachusetts to reduce them to
obedience.”[81]

The delegates appointed by the states to convene at Philadelphia, met
at the time and place designated. George Washington was unanimously
elected to preside in their deliberations.

A question of great magnitude presented itself, in the very
commencement of their session, viz.: whether they should amend the old,
or form a new system. For the former object they had been appointed,
congress having limited their powers to revising the articles of the
confederation. But the defects of the old government were so many,
and so serious, that the voice of the majority decided in favor of an
entirely new system. Accordingly on the 29th of May, Edmund Randolph,
of Virginia, submitted fifteen resolutions, as the basis of a new
constitution. These resolutions, denominated the _Virginia plan_, were
debated and amended, until the 15th of June, when Mr. Patterson, of New
Jersey, presented a project, for revising the articles of confederation.
This was called the _Jersey plan_. The propositions of this latter plan
having been the subject of debate till the 19th of June, were rejected
by seven states against three, and one divided. The resolutions of
Mr. Randolph therefore again came under consideration, and on the 4th
of July, with the exception of those relating to the executive, were
referred to a committee, consisting of Mr. Rutledge, Mr. Randolph,
Mr. Gorham, Mr. Ellsworth, and Mr. Wilson, for the purpose of reducing
them to the form of a constitution. On the 26th of the same month,
those relating to the executive having been adopted, they, with various
other propositions submitted by individuals, were referred to the same
committee, and the Convention adjourned to the 6th of August, when the
committee reported a draft of a constitution. This was under debate
until the 8th of September, and underwent many material alterations.
A committee, consisting of Mr. Johnson, Mr. Hamilton, G. Morriss,
Mr. Madison, and Mr. King was then selected “to revise the style, and
arrange the articles.” The manner in which these eminent scholars and
statesmen performed the duty assigned them, appears from the great
precision and accuracy of the language of the Constitution, as well
as the happy arrangement of its various articles.

The report of this committee was made on the 12th, and on the 17th of
September, after a session of about four months, the Constitution was
finally adopted, and signed by all the members then present.

During the progress of debate, several questions of interest arose
in the Convention――but none, perhaps, more exciting than that which
related to the relative weight of the states, in the two branches of
the legislature. After much debate, the small states consented that the
right of suffrage in the house, should be in proportion to the whole
number of white, or other free citizens in each, including those bound
to service for a term of years, and three fifths of all other persons.
While they yielded this point, they insisted on an equal vote in the
senate.

To this the large states were unwilling to assent; and on this question,
the states remained, for a time, about equally divided. On the first
trial, in committee of the whole, six states against five decided that
the right of suffrage in the senate should be the same as in the house;
the states of Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Virginia, North Carolina,
South Carolina, and Georgia, being in the affirmative; and Connecticut,
New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland, in the negative.

On the 29th of June, the question was again presented to the
consideration of the Convention, in a motion made by Mr. Ellsworth,
“that in the second branch, each state should have an equal vote.”
We cannot pretend to give even an outline of the arguments in favor
and against this motion. The debate was warm and exciting. For several
days, the powers of mighty minds were in animated collision, and from
the strong ramparts behind which the respective parties had apparently
entrenched themselves, there was for a time little prospect of union on
the question.

On the 2d of July, the question was taken on the motion of Mr.
Ellsworth, that in the senate each state should have one vote, and five
states were in favor of it, five against it, and one divided; and the
motion was lost. This equal division on a subject of such importance,
accompanied with so much warmth on both sides, seemed to present an
insurmountable obstacle to further proceedings of the Convention,
without some compromise. To effect this, Charles C. Pinckney, of
South Carolina, moved for the appointment of a committee to take into
consideration the subject of both branches of the legislature. This
motion prevailed, though not without opposition. Some of the members
were in favor of appointing a committee, though they had little
expectation of a favorable result. Mr. Martin, of Maryland, declared,
that each state must have an equal vote, or the business of the
Convention was at an end.

Mr. Sherman said, we have got to a point, that we cannot move one
way or the other; a committee is necessary to set us right. Mr. Gerry
observed, that the world expected something from them――if we do nothing,
we must have war and confusion――the old confederation would be at
an end. Let us see if concessions cannot be made――accommodation is
absolutely necessary, and defects may be amended by a future Convention.

Thus the Convention was at a stand. Hopes were indeed entertained
that unanimity of views might on some basis prevail, but the longer
continuance of the debate, in the then existing state of the Convention,
it was apparent, was engendering no good. About this time, the
venerable Franklin rose and addressed the President:

“_Mr. President_――The small progress we have made after four or five
weeks’ close attendance and continual reasonings with each other, our
different sentiments on almost every question, several of the last
producing as many _noes_ as _ayes_, is, methinks, a melancholy proof
of the imperfection of the human understanding. We indeed seem to feel
our want of political wisdom, since we have been running all about
in search of it. We have gone back to ancient history for models of
government, and examined the different forms of those republics which,
having been originally formed with the seeds of their own dissolution,
now no longer exist; and we have viewed modern states all round Europe,
but find none of their constitutions suitable to our circumstances.
In this situation of this assembly, groping, as it were, in the
dark, to find political truth, and scarce able to distinguish it when
presented to us, how has it happened, sir, that we have not hitherto
once thought of humbly applying to the Father of Lights to illuminate
our understandings? In the beginning of the contest with Britain,
when we were sensible of danger, we had daily prayers in this room for
the divine protection? Our prayers, sir, were heard;――and they were
graciously answered. All of us, who were engaged in the struggle, must
have observed frequent instances of a superintending providence in
our favor. To that kind providence we owe this happy opportunity of
consulting in peace, on the means of establishing our future national
felicity. And have we now forgotten that powerful friend?――or do we
imagine we no longer need his assistance? I have lived, sir, a long
time; and the longer I live, the more convincing proofs I see of this
truth――_that God governs in the affairs of men_! And if a sparrow
cannot fall to the ground without his notice, is it probable that an
empire can rise without his aid? We have been assured, sir, in the
sacred writings, that ‘except the Lord build the house, they labor
in vain that build it.’ I firmly believe this; and I also believe,
that without his concurring aid, we shall succeed in this political
building no better than the builders of Babel: we shall be divided by
our little partial local interests, our projects will be confounded,
and we ourselves shall become a reproach and a by-word down to future
ages. And what is worse, mankind may hereafter, from this unfortunate
instance, despair of establishing government by human wisdom, and leave
it to chance, war, and conquest.

“I therefore beg leave to move, that henceforth prayers, imploring the
assistance of heaven, and its blessings on our deliberations, be held
in this assembly every morning, before we proceed to business; and that
one or more of the clergy of this city be requested to officiate in
that service.”

This was a well timed suggestion, and coming as it did from so
venerable a man as Dr. Franklin, was responded to by the Convention.
It is wonderful that the blessing and guidance of the God of nations
had not been sought before.

Impressed with the necessity of compromise, the convention chose
a committee by ballot, consisting of one from each state, and then
adjourned for three days. On re-assembling, it was found that greater
harmony prevailed――a report was presented from the committee, which
being accepted, the Convention proceeded with a good degree of
unanimity in their deliberations, until at length a constitution was
agreed upon. Of the fifty-five members who attended the Convention,
thirty-nine signed this instrument. Of the remaining sixteen, several
who were in favor of it were obliged, from particular business, to
leave the Convention before it was ready for signing.[82]

The Convention recommended that the constitution should be submitted to
state conventions, and that as soon as the same should be ratified by a
constitutional majority, congress should take measures for the election
of a President, and fix the time for commencing proceedings under it.

At the first session of the first congress, the senate and house of
representatives, two thirds concurring, recommended to the states the
adoption of twelve amendments to the constitution, comprising chiefly
those parts of the recommendations of the states which we have already
noticed as having been adopted. Ten of these amendments were adopted by
three fourths of the legislatures of the states, and became a part of
the constitution. Subsequently three other amendments were added.

On the 10th of January, 1791, _Vermont_, the first of the new states,
joined the Union, and gave its assent to the constitution. Since then,
the constitution has been adopted, assented to and ratified by other
states, until there are now in the Republic twenty-six states, which it
is hoped are connected by ties which will continue unbroken so long as
time shall last.[83]




                      CHAPTER X.――INDIAN TRIBES.


THE North American Indians are of a red copper color, with some
diversity of shade. The men are of the middle stature, large boned, and
well made; with small black eyes, lodged in deep sockets, high cheek
bones, nose more or less aquiline, mouth large, lips rather thick, and
the hair of the head black, straight, and coarse. In some tribes, they
carefully extract the hair of the beard and other parts of the body,
and hence were long believed destitute of that excrescence. The general
expression of the countenance is gloomy and severe. Formerly, some
tribes flattened the heads of their infants by artificial pressure; but
at present, that practice is unknown to the east of the Rocky mountains.
They have a sound understanding, quick apprehension, and retentive
memory, with an air of indifference in their general behavior.

The women, or _squaws_, differ considerably from the men, both in
person and features. They are commonly short, with homely, broad faces;
but have often an expression of mildness and sweetness in their looks.

Except when engaged in war, hunting and fishing are the sole
employments of the men. By means of these, by the spontaneous
productions of the earth, and by a partial cultivation of the soil,
they procure a precarious subsistence; feasting freely when successful
in the chase, but capable of great abstinence, when provisions are
less plentiful. Some of the tribes, when first visited by Europeans,
raised considerable crops; and they taught the early settlers in New
England to plant and dress maize. At present, several nations cultivate
maize, beans, pumpkins, and water-melons; and in this way considerably
increase their means of subsistence.

The sight, smell, and hearing of the Indians, being frequently and
attentively exercised, are all remarkably acute. They can trace the
footsteps of man or beast through the forest, and over the plain and
mountain, where an inexperienced eye cannot discern the slightest
vestige. They can often judge, with much accuracy, how many persons
have been in the company, how long it is since they passed, and
even, at times, to what nation they belonged. They can pursue their
course through the pathless forest, or over the snowy mountain, with
undeviating certainty, and are guided by marks which entirely escape
the notice of an European.

Strangers to letters, and untutored by learning, their passions, which
are little curbed by parental authority, grow up wild and unpruned,
like the trees of their native forests. They are fickle and capricious;
irascible and impetuous; kind to their friends, vindictive and cruel
towards their enemies; and in order to execute their revenge, they
readily exercise dissimulation and deceit, and shrink from no toil
or danger. Their distinguishing qualities are strength, cunning, and
ferocity; and as war is their first employment, so bravery is their
first virtue.

The ancient weapon of the hunter was the bow and arrow; but most
of them have now procured guns. Their dress differs considerably in
different tribes. It consisted originally of skins; but many of them
are now provided with blankets and different kinds of cloth. The dress
of the Konzas, a tribe on the Missouri, may serve as a sample. They
protect their feet with _moccasons_, or shoes made of dressed deer,
elk, or buffalo skin: _leggins_ of deer skin reach to the upper part of
the thigh: a _breech-cloth_ passes between the legs, and is attached to
a girdle fastened round the loins. A blanket or skin covers the upper
part of the body; but in warm weather it is laid aside. In some tribes,
the hair is allowed to flow loosely over the face and shoulders; in
others, it is carefully braided, knotted and ornamented, and is always
well greased. In many cases, the head is bare, both in summer and
winter; but in others, both men and women wear a cap like an inverted
bowl. The men have also a war cap, which they put on as a symbol of
mourning, or when preparing for battle. It is commonly decorated with
the feathers of rare birds, or with the claws of beavers or eagles,
or other similar ornaments. A quill or feather is also suspended from
it for every enemy that the warrior has slain in battle. They often
suspend from their ears wampum beads, silver and tin trinkets, and they
are fond of bracelets and rings. The face and body are often besmeared
with a mixture of grease and coal. They are very attentive to personal
decoration; and vermilion is an important article at their toilet. The
faces of the men are painted with more care than those of the women;
and the latter have more pride in adorning the countenances of their
husbands than their own. A tobacco pouch, attached to the girdle or
carried in the hand, is a usual part of their equipment. The women’s
dress is partly like that of the men; but their leggins only reach to
the knee; they have sleeveless shifts, which come down to the ankle,
and a mantle covers all.

The _wigwams_, tents, or lodges of the Indians, are differently
constructed in different nations. The rudest are formed of branches,
resting against each other at the top, covered with leaves or grass,
and forming a very imperfect shelter against the weather. The nations
on the west of the Rocky mountains have houses formed of a frame of
sticks, covered with mats and dried grass. Many tribes erect long poles,
in a circular form at the bottom, and resting against each other at the
top, which they cover with skins; others have oblong lodges, consisting
of a wooden frame, covered with grass mats and earth. The light is
admitted by a small door, and by an aperture in the top, which serves
also for the escape of the smoke. The fire is in the middle of the
lodge, and the family sit round it on the bare ground; but they spread
a skin for a stranger. They readily kindle a fire, by rapidly turning
one piece of smooth wood upon another; but in the vicinity of Europeans,
they are now generally provided with flint and steel.

  Illustration: Movable Lodges of the Kaskaias.

Their scanty and simple furniture and culinary utensils are suited to
their humble dwellings and homely manner of life. A kettle, a wooden
bowl, a couple of wooden or horn spoons, a few skins for beds and
covers, and a buffalo’s stomach for carrying water, are the chief
articles of domestic accommodation. Formerly they used earthen pots;
but these are now generally superseded by metallic pots and kettles,
purchased from the white traders.

Many of the tribes are strangers to bread and salt. Besides fruits
and roots, they feed on the flesh of the animals they kill, boiled or
roasted. In travelling, _pemmican_ is their favorite food. It consists
of flesh cut into thin slices, dried in the sun or over a slow fire,
beat to a coarse powder between two stones, mixed with grease, and
then carefully packed up. In different nations it is known by different
names.

Among the tribes who practise cultivation, maize is sometimes roasted
in the ashes, and sometimes bruised and boiled, and is then called
_hominy_. They also boil and eat wild rice, which grows in considerable
quantities in some parts of the country. They have no fixed time for
meals, but eat when they are hungry. They present food to a stranger,
at what time soever he enters their dwelling.

Polygamy is very common among them; and the husband occasionally finds
it necessary to administer a little wholesome castigation to his more
quarrelsome or refractory squaws. But many are satisfied with one wife.
The care of the tent, and the whole drudgery of the family, devolve
on the women. They gather fuel, cook the provisions, and repair every
article of dress; cultivate the ground, where any is cultivated; carry
the baggage on a journey; and pitch the tent when they halt. In these
and similar employments, their lordly fathers, husbands, and brothers
think it degrading to assist them, and unworthy of warriors to engage
in such employments.

The Indians never chastise their children, especially the boys;
thinking that it would damp their spirits, check their love of
independence, and cool their martial ardor, which they wish above all
things to encourage. ‘Reason,’ say they, ‘will guide our children, when
they come to the use of it; and before that, their faults cannot be
very great.’ They avoid compulsory measures, and allow the boys to act
with uncontrolled freedom; but endeavor by example, instruction, and
advice, to train them to diligence and skill in hunting; to animate
them with patience, courage, and fortitude in war; and to inspire them
with contempt of danger, pain and death,――qualities of the highest
order in the estimation of an Indian.

By gentleness and persuasion they endeavor to imbue the minds of their
children with virtuous sentiments, according to their notions of virtue.
The aged chiefs are zealous in this patriotic labor, and the squaws
give their cordial co-operation.

Ishuchenau, an old Kanza warrior, often admonished the group of young
auditors who gathered around him of their faults, and exhorted them
never to tell a lie, and never to steal, except from an enemy, whom
it is just to injure in every possible way. ‘When you become men,’
said he, ‘be brave and cunning in war, and defend your hunting grounds
against all encroachments: never suffer your squaws and little ones
to want; protect them and strangers from insult. On no occasion betray
a friend; be revenged on your enemies; drink not the poisonous strong
water of the white people, for it is sent by the bad Spirit to destroy
the Indians. Fear not death; none but cowards fear to die. Obey and
venerate old people, particularly your parents. Fear and propitiate
the bad Spirit, that he may do you no harm; love and adore the Good
Spirit, who made us all, who supplies our hunting grounds, and keeps
all alive.’ After recounting his achievements, he was wont to add,
‘Like a decayed prairie tree, I stand alone:――the friends of my youth,
the companions of my sports, my toils, and my dangers, rest their
heads on the bosom of our mother. My sun is fast descending behind the
western hills, and I feel it will soon be night with me.’ Then with
hands and eyes lifted towards heaven, he thanked the Great Spirit for
having spared him so long, to show the young men the true path to glory
and fame.

Their opinions, in many instances, are false, and lead to corresponding
errors in conduct. In some tribes, the young person is taught to pray,
with various superstitious observances, that he may be a great hunter,
horse-stealer, and warrior; so that thus the fountain of virtue is
polluted.

The Indians are entirely unacquainted with letters; but they have a
kind of picture-writing, which they practise on the inside of the bark
of trees, or on skins prepared for the purpose, and by which they can
communicate the knowledge of many facts to each other.

The Indian names are descriptive of the real or supposed qualities of
the persons to whom they belong: they often change them in the course
of their lives. The young warrior is ambitious of acquiring a new
name; and stealing a horse, scalping an enemy, or killing a bear,
are achievements which entitle him to choose one for himself, and the
nation confirms it.

The Indian women are industrious wives and affectionate mothers.
They are attentive to the comfort of their husbands, watch over their
children with the utmost care and tenderness; and if they die, lament
the loss in the most affecting manner. Chastity is not, in some tribes,
reckoned a virtue; and, as the women are considered the property of
the men, a deviation from it, with the consent of the father, husband,
or brother, is not looked on as an offence. Nay, to countenance their
wives, sisters, or daughters in conferring favors on strangers, is
considered a strong expression of hospitality; and refusal of the
proffered kindness is regarded by the lady as an unpardonable insult.
But some husbands, on discovering unauthorized conjugal infidelity,
punish it with severity; others treat it very lightly.

The Indians are kind and hospitable to their friends, and to those
who are introduced to them in that character. Although they themselves
sit on the bare ground, yet they courteously spread a buffalo skin for
their visiter; smoke a pipe with him in token of peace and amity; and
the squaw prepares something for him to eat. They are ready to share
their last morsel with their friends.

They are immoderately addicted to intoxicating liquors, which they
procure from the white traders, and which have been the means of
destroying multitudes of them. Before their intercourse with white
men, they had no intoxicating beverage; and, excepting the liquor
which they procure from the merchants, their meals are temperate, and
their habits of life active. Their diseases are few, and seldom of long
duration. Many of them fall in battle, and multitudes are occasionally
swept away by smallpox. To the healing art they are in a great measure
strangers; although, by means of simples, they in some instances
perform surprising cures. In general, however, these pretenders to
medical skill are mere quacks and jugglers, who affect to chase away
disease by howling, blowing on the patient, and by various incantations,
slight-of-hand performances, and superstitious rites.

Some of their medical men pretend to have seen the Great Spirit,
and to have conversed with him in some visible form, as of a buffalo,
beaver, or other animal, and to have received from him some medicine
of peculiar efficacy. The animal whose form had appeared is considered
to be the remedy; and they imitate its cry in making their medical
applications. The medicine bag, in which these savage physicians have
a few herbs, entire or pulverized, and which they administer with a
little warm water, is an indispensable requisite in Indian medical
practice. Indeed, the head of every family has his medicine bag, which
is a place of sacred deposit, and to the sanctity of which he commits
his most precious articles. The value of its contents an Indian only
can appreciate.

In every stage of society, persons appear who accommodate themselves
to the state of the public mind. Of this description are the jugglers,
conjurers, or powahs, among the ignorant and superstitious Indians.
They are partly medical quacks, partly religious impostors. Many of
them are dexterous jugglers and cunning cheats. They pretend to
foretell future events, and even to influence the weather. It is likely
that they are often, in some measure, the dupes of their own artifices.

The sweating houses of the Indians are often employed for medical
purposes, although they are places of social recreation also. A hole
is dug in the ground, and over it is built a small close hut, with
an opening just large enough to admit the patient. A number of heated
stones are placed in the bottom of the hole. The patient enters,
having a vessel full of water along with him; and being seated on a
place prepared for his reception, the entrance is closed. He sprinkles
water on the heated stones, and is soon, by the steam, thrown into a
state of profuse perspiration. After this has continued for some time,
the person is taken out and plunged into cold water. This process is
repeated several times, always ending with the steam-bath. The Indians
use this as a general remedy; but its salutary effects are experienced
chiefly in rheumatic diseases, in which its efficacy is at times very
great.

The Indians bear disease with composure and resignation; and, when
far advanced in life, often long for the hour of dissolution. ‘It is
better,’ said an aged sachem, ‘to sit than to stand, to sleep than to
be awake, to be dead than alive.’ The dying man exhorts his children to
be industrious, kind to their friends, but implacable to their enemies.
He rejoices in the hope of immortality. He is going to the land of
spirits, that happy place where there is plenty of game and no want,
where the path is smooth and the sky clear.

When the sick person expires, the friends assemble round the body,
the women weep and clap their hands, and bewail their loss with loud
lamentations. Different nations dispose of the bodies of departed
friends, and express their grief in different ways. Many Indian tribes
bury their dead soon after death. They wrap up the body carefully
in a buffalo robe, or dressed skin, and carry it to the grave on the
shoulders of two or three men. Along with the body, they bury a pair or
two of moccasons, some meat, and other articles, to be used in the land
of spirits. The favorite weapons and utensils of the warrior are also
deposited by his side. It is believed by several tribes that unless
this be done, the spirit of the deceased appears among the trees near
his lodge, and does not go to its rest till the property withheld be
committed to the grave. In some places, they discharge muskets, make
a noise, and violently strike the trees, in order to drive away the
spirit, which they imagine fondly lingers near its old abode. A mound
is sometimes raised over the grave, proportioned in size to the dignity
of the deceased; or the place is marked out and secured by short sticks
driven into the ground over and around it. Some of those graves are
commonly near each of their villages.

On the death of a relation, the survivors give way to excessive grief,
bedaub themselves with white clay, blacken their faces, cut off their
hair, and not unfrequently mangle themselves in a shocking manner,
thrusting knives or arrows into the muscular parts of their thighs or
arms, or cutting off a joint of one of their fingers. For a while they
nightly repair to the place of sepulture to give expression to their
grief; and may occasionally be seen affectionately plucking the grass
from the grave of a deceased relation or friend.

Among those tribes where provisions are scarce, and procured with
difficulty, it is not uncommon for an aged person, who is unable to
provide for himself, to request his family to put him to death; and the
request is complied with, or he is treated with much neglect. But this
unnatural conduct results entirely from the pressure of circumstances,
and the privations and sufferings to which those poor people are
exposed; for in more favorable situations, they behave towards the
aged and infirm with respect and tenderness.

Of the religion of the Indians we have no full and clear account.
Indeed, of the opinions of a people who have nothing more than a few
vague and indefinite notions, no distinct explanation can be given.
On this subject, the Indians are not communicative; and to obtain a
thorough knowledge of it would require familiar, attentive, unsuspected,
and unprejudiced observation. But such observation is not easily made;
and a few general, and on some points uncertain, notices only can be
given.

On looking at the most renowned nations of the ancient heathen world,
we see the people prostrating themselves before innumerable divinities;
and we are ready to conclude that polytheism is the natural belief of
man, unenlightened by revelation. But a survey of the vast wilds of
America will correct this opinion. For there we find a multitude of
nations, widely separated from each other, all believing in one Supreme
God, a great and good spirit, the father and master of life, the maker
of heaven and earth and of all other creatures. They believe themselves
entirely dependent on him, thank him for present enjoyments, and pray
to him for the good things they desire to obtain. They consider him the
author of all good; and believe he will reward or punish them according
to their deeds.

They believe in inferior spirits, also, both good and bad, whom they
consider tutelary spirits. The Indians are careful observers of dreams,
and think themselves deserted by the Master of life, till they receive
a revelation in a dream; that is, till they dream of some object,
as a buffalo, or beaver, or something else, which they think is an
intimation that the Great Spirit has given them that object as a charm,
or medicine. Then they are full of courage, and proud of their powerful
ally. To propitiate the medicine, every exertion is made, and every
personal consideration sacrificed. ‘I was lately the proprietor of
seventeen horses,’ said a Mandan; ‘but I have offered them all to
my medicine, and am now poor.’ He had turned all these horses, which
constituted the whole of his wealth, loose into the plain, committed
them to his medicine, and abandoned them forever. But, although they
offer oblations to the medicines, they positively deny that they pay
them any adoration, and affirm that they only worship the Great Spirit
through them.

They have no regular periodical times either of private or public
religious worship. They have neither temples, altars, stated ministers
of religion, nor regular sacrifices; for the jugglers are connected
rather with the medical art than with religious services. The Indians
in general, like other ignorant people, are believers in witchcraft,
and think many of their diseases proceed from the arts of sorcerers.
These arts the jugglers pretend to counteract, as well as to cure
natural diseases. They also pretend to predict the weather and to make
rain; and much confidence is placed in their prognostications and their
power.

The devotional exercises of the Indians consist in singing, dancing,
and performing various mystical ceremonies, which they believe
efficacious in healing the sick, frustrating the designs of their
enemies, and securing their own success. They often offer up to the
Great Spirit a part of the game first taken in a hunting expedition,
a part of the first produce of their fields, and a part of their food.
At a feast, they first throw some of the broth, and then of the meat,
into the fire. In smoking, they generally testify their reverence for
the Master of life, by directing the first puff upwards, and the second
downwards, or the first to the rising, and the second to the setting
sun; at other times, they turn the pipe to every point of the compass.

They firmly believe in the immortality of the soul, and in a state
of future retribution; but their conceptions on these subjects are
modified and tinged by their occupations in life, and by their notions
of good and evil. They suppose the spirit retains the same inclinations
as when in the body, and rejoices in its old pursuits. At times,
an Indian warrior, when about to kill and scalp a prostrate enemy,
addresses him in such terms as the following:――

‘My name is Cashegra: I am a famous warrior, and am going to kill you.
When you reach the land of spirits, you will see the ghost of my father;
tell him it was Cashegra sent you there.’ The uplifted tomahawk then
descends upon his victim.

The Mandans expect, when they die, to return to the original
subterraneous abode of their fathers: the good reaching the ancient
village by means of the lake, which the weight of the sins of the
bad will render them unable to pass. They who have behaved themselves
well in this life, and been brave warriors and good hunters, will be
received into the town of brave and generous spirits; but the useless
and selfish will be doomed to reside in the town of poor and useless
spirits.

The belief of those untutored children of nature has an influence on
their conduct. Among them, the grand defect is, an erroneous estimate
of good and evil, right and wrong. But how much soever we may lament
their errors on these interesting points, we need not be surprised
at them; for how many, even in more enlightened communities, and with
clearer means of information, can scarcely be said to have sounder
principles or a better practice? A reverential and grateful sense of
the divine perfections and government, manifesting itself by a devout
regard to his institutions and obedience to his will, by benevolence,
integrity, candor and kindness towards men, and by sobriety and
industry, is too little valued and practised by many who enjoy the
light of revelation. Hitherto the Indians have learned little but vice
by their intercourse with white men.

Although they have no regular system of religious worship, yet they
have many superstitious notions; some of them of a more general,
others of a more local nature. The Mandans have their medicine stone,
which is their great oracle; and they believe with implicit confidence
whatever it announces. Every spring, and occasionally during summer,
a deputation, accompanied by jugglers, magicians, or conjurers, visits
the sacred spot, where there is a large stone, about twenty feet in
circumference, with a smooth surface: there the deputies smoke, taking
a few whiffs themselves, and then ceremoniously offering the pipe to
the stone. They leave their presents, and withdraw to some distance
during the night. Before morning, the presents have disappeared, the
Great Spirit having, according to their belief, taken them away; and
they read the destinies of their nation in some marks on the stone,
which the jugglers, who have made them, and secretly manage the whole
transaction, can easily decipher. The Minnetarees have also a stone of
the same kind.

On the northern bank of the lower part of the Missouri, there is
a singular range of rocks, rising almost perpendicularly about two
or three hundred feet above the level of the river. These rocks the
Indians call Wakon, or spirit, and on or near them, the neighboring
nations deposit most of their offerings to the Great Spirit, or Father
of life; because they imagine he either inhabits or frequently visits
those rocks, and offerings presented there will sooner attract his
notice and gain his favor than any where else. Those offerings consist
of various articles, among which eagles’ feathers are held in highest
estimation; and they are presented in order to obtain success in war or
hunting.

They believe also in the existence of evil spirits, but think these
malevolent beings gratify their malignity chiefly by driving away the
game, preventing the efficacy of medicine, or similar injuries. But
they do not always confine their operations to such petty mischiefs;
for Mackenzie, in his first voyage, was warned of a spirit, behind
a neighboring island, which swallowed up every person who approached
it: and near the White Stone river of the Missouri, there is an oblong
mound, about seventy feet high, called by the Indians the Mountain of
Little People, or Little Spirits which are supposed to be malignant
beings in human shape, about eighteen inches high, with remarkably
large heads. They are provided with sharp arrows, in the use of which
they are very expert; and they are always on the watch to kill those
who approach the mountain of their residence. The tradition is, that
many persons have fallen victims to their malevolence; and such is the
terror of them among the neighboring nations, that on no consideration
will they approach the mound.

Among the Indians, society is in the loosest state in which it can
possibly exist. They have no regular magistrates, no laws, no tribunals,
to protect the weak or punish the guilty. Every man must assert his
own rights, and avenge his own wrongs. He is neither restrained nor
protected by any thing but a sense of shame and the approbation or
disapprobation of his tribe. He acknowledges no master, and submits to
no superior authority; so that an Indian community seems like a mound
of sand on the sea-shore, which one gale has accumulated, and which the
next may disperse.

But, amidst this apparent disunion, the Indian is strongly attached
to his nation. He is jealous of its honor, proud of its success, and
zealous for its welfare. Guided by a few traditionary notions, and by
the opinion and example of those around him, he is ready to exert all
his energies, and sacrifice even life itself for his country. Here
sentiment and habit do more than wise laws can elsewhere accomplish.

Where all are equally poor, the distinctions founded on wealth
cannot exist; and among a people where experience is the only source
of knowledge, the aged men are naturally the sages of the nation.
Surrounded by enemies, and exposed to continual peril, the strongest,
boldest, and most successful warrior is highly respected; and the
influence gained in youth by courage and enterprise is often retained
in old age by wisdom and eloquence. In many of the tribes, the chiefs
have a sort of hereditary rank; but, in order to maintain it, they
must conciliate the good will of the most influential persons of
the community. They have nothing like monarchical revenues, pomp, or
authority, but maintain their distinction by bravery, good conduct and
generosity.

The most important concerns of the tribe are discussed in a council
composed of the chiefs and warriors, in which the principal chief
presides. Every member delivers his opinion with freedom, and is heard
with attention. Their proceedings are considered sacred, and are kept
a profound secret, unless it be thought the public good requires a
disclosure. In that case the decision, with the reasons on which it
is founded, is published by a member of the council, who recommends
a compliance with it. In the stillness of the morning or evening,
this herald marches through the village, solemnly communicating the
information, and giving suitable exhortations. He also instructs the
young men and children how to behave, in order to gain the esteem of
good men, and the approbation of the Good Spirit.

The authority of the chiefs and warriors is hortatory rather than
coercive. They have influence to persuade, but not power to compel.
They are rather respected as parents and friends, than feared and
obeyed as superiors. The chief is merely the most confidential
person among the warriors; neither installed with any ceremony, nor
distinguished by any badge. He may recommend, or advise, or influence;
but he has no power to enforce his commands, or to punish disobedience.
In many of the tribes he gradually acquires his rank by his own
superior merit, and the good opinion of his companions; and he may
lose his authority as he gained it.

The people commonly settle their controversies among themselves, and
do not apply to their chiefs, except for advice. In some of the tribes,
peace is preserved and punishment inflicted in a very summary manner
by officers appointed by the chief for that purpose. These officers are
distinguished by having their bodies blackened, and by having two or
three ravens’ skins fixed in their girdles behind, so that the tails
project horizontally. They have also a raven’s skin, with the tail
projecting from their forehead. These officers, of whom there are two
or three in a village, and who are frequently changed, beat any person
whom they find acting in a disorderly manner. Their authority is held
sacred, and none dares resist them. They often attend the chief, and
consider it a point of honor to execute his orders at any risk.

The eloquence of the Indian orators occasionally displays itself in
strong and figurative expressions, accompanied with violent but not
unnatural gesticulations. Many of their speeches are on record; and
some, for rhetorical effect, would do credit to the parliament of a
refined nation.

The wars of the Indians most commonly originate in the stealing of
horses, or in the elopement of squaws; sometimes in encroachments on
their hunting grounds, or in the prosecution of old quarrels, and the
desire of avenging the murder of relations. These wars are conducted
in a predatory manner.

A single warrior sometimes undertakes an expedition against the enemy;
but, in cases of great provocation, the whole tribe engages in the
enterprise, under the conduct of the principal chief. Even in this case,
however, none but volunteers join the army: no one is obliged to march
against his will.

War is often carried on by a small predatory party, formed by the
influence of some approved warrior. Among the Omawhas, the warrior
paints himself with white clay, and marches through the village, crying
aloud to the _Wahconda_, or _Father of life_, and entreating the young
warriors of the nation to have pity on him, and to accompany him in
an expedition against their enemies. He gives a feast to those who
are willing to follow him; and it is distinctly understood that they
who partake of his hospitality pledge themselves to be partners in his
enterprise. At the feast he harangues them, and tells them they must
gain celebrity by their martial prowess. This leader of the party,
to whom the French gave the name of partisan, busies himself, before
setting out, in making medicine, hanging out his medicine bag, fasting,
attending to his dreams, and other superstitious observances. On the
medicine bag, much reliance is placed for the successful termination
of the adventure. It usually contains the skin of a sparrow-hawk,
and a number of small articles, such as wampum beads and tobacco,
all attached to a belt, neatly enveloped in bark, and tied round with
strings of the same material. It is of a cylindrical shape, about
one, or sometimes two feet long, and is suspended on the back of
the partisan by its belt, which passes round his neck. The moccasons,
leggins, and arms of the party are put in order, and each warrior
furnishes himself with some provisions.

With the partisan at their head, the party set out, march cautiously,
following each other in a line, at a distance of two or three paces,
often treading in each others’ footsteps, that their number may not
be discovered, and they send out spies to explore their route. They
easily find out whether any persons have lately passed the same way,
by discerning their footsteps on the grass; and as they have to deal
with people whose organs of sense are as acute as their own, they are
careful, as far as possible, to conceal their own tracks. On halting,
the medicine bag is not allowed to touch the ground, but is suspended
on a forked stick, firmly fixed in the earth for that purpose. They
smoke to it, occasionally turning the stem of the pipe towards it,
towards the heavens, and towards the earth. The partisan carefully
attends to his dreams, and, if he think them ominous of evil, he at
times abandons the enterprise.

When the spies bring information that they are near the enemy, the
partisan opens his medicine bag, removes its barky envelope, and
suspends the contents from his neck, with the bird skin, wampum, and
other articles hanging down on his breast. This is the signal to
prepare for action. If they have time, they paint themselves and smoke:
they also paint their shields with rude representations of the objects
on which they rely for success. The partisan gives the order to advance,
and they move on with cautious steps, as their great aim is to fall
upon the enemy by surprise. If they succeed in this, the attack begins
with the horrible yell of the war-whoop. This is their only martial
music. They kill, indiscriminately, all who fall in their way; but
if discovered, they either make a hasty retreat, or rush to the attack
with impetuous but disorderly fury. If in the forest, they shelter
themselves behind trees; if on open ground, they leap nimbly from
side to side, to prevent the enemy from taking a steady aim, and cover
themselves with their bucklers.

  Illustration: Otto Encampment.

It is not the mere killing of an enemy that confers the highest honor
on an Indian warrior, but the striking the body of his fallen foe on
the field of battle, and in presence of his friends, who are eager to
avenge his death. Scalping is an act of no small celebrity in Indian
warfare; and, in performing it, the victor sets one foot on the neck
of his dead or disabled enemy, entwines one hand in his hair, and, by
a few slashes of the scalping knife in his other, round the top of the
head, is enabled to pull off the skin with the hair. Carrying away the
scalp is simply a mark of victory, the taking of prisoners is reckoned
a high honor.

The wounded of the vanquished party are killed by the conquerors on the
field of battle, and their bodies shockingly mangled; the squaws so far
overcoming by habit the tender feelings of the female breast as to take
an active part in the inhuman scene. Indeed, they are more cruel than
the men.

In his lodge, the Indian is indolent, sedate, and apparently callous;
but in hunting, or in quest of an enemy, he is keen, indefatigable,
persevering: on the field of battle, he seems an infuriated demon:
so different are his appearances in different circumstances. The
victorious party bury their dead, or cover them with bushes or stones.
They remove their wounded in litters, borne on men’s shoulders; or, if
they have horses, on a car of two shafts, with a buffalo skin stretched
between them. They return rapidly to their village, and commonly halt
on some elevated ground in its vicinity. Their friends, eager to be
informed of the particulars of the expedition, hasten to meet them. The
party enters the village with savage pomp, ostentatiously exhibiting
the scalps which they have taken, raised on poles. Many of the warriors
bear the mark indicative of having drunk the blood of an enemy. This
consists in rubbing the hand all over with vermilion, and then pressing
it on the face and mouth, so as to leave a complete impression. On
those occasions, the wives of the warriors who have been engaged in
the enterprise, attire themselves in the dress of their husbands, and,
with rods in their hands, to which the scalps that have been taken are
attached, dance round a large red post, and, in concert with the young
warriors, sing the war and scalp songs. This barbarous dance, which
is repeated every night for some weeks, is charming to the squaws; a
circumstance which shows how far the human character may be perverted
by fashion and habit.

The Indians dance and sing at the same time: they have, however, but
little grace or variety in their movements, and little music in their
notes. Their musical instruments are a sort of drum, and a rattle, or
skin bag, with small shot or pebbles in it, which makes a noise when
shaken.

It is dangerous to meet a disappointed or defeated war party on
its return, as the warriors are apt to indemnify themselves for any
disappointment, defeat, or loss they may have sustained, by taking
the property and scalps of the first weak or unguarded party they may
encounter.

No offence against society is inquired into by the chiefs: stealing
from one of their own tribe, which is very rare, exposes the thief
to contempt; but cowardice is marked by the highest reprobation. When
they go to war, they keep a watchful eye on such of the young men as
are making their first essay in arms. If they display the necessary
qualifications, they are in due time admitted to the rank of warriors,
or, as they express it, of brave men. But if any give clear indications
of cowardice, on the return of the party, they are treated with neglect
and contempt. A coward is at times punished even with death.

The female prisoners are made slaves, a condition scarcely worse than
that of the other squaws. The young male prisoners are often adopted
by the families of the tribe which have taken them, and supply the
place of the members that have fallen in the expedition. Sometimes, on
returning to their village, the party show their prisoner a painted red
post, distant from twenty to forty yards, and bid him run and lay hold
of it. On each side of his course stand men and women with axes, sticks,
and other offensive weapons, ready to strike him as he passes. If he
instantly spring forward with agility, he may perhaps reach the post
without receiving a stroke, and is then safe, till a general council
of the warriors determine his fate; but if he fall, he is probably
despatched.

If the prisoner be rejected by the family to which he is offered,
he is then put to death with every circumstance of cruelty; and
the constancy and fortitude of the sufferer are as remarkable as the
barbarity of his murderers. The victim, fastened to a stake, sings his
death song, insults his tormentors, bears with unshrinking firmness the
most dreadful tortures, and expires without a groan. He triumphs in his
fortitude, not merely as a personal virtue, but chiefly as a national
characteristic. We are to seek the cause of this patient endurance
of the most excruciating pains, not in any nervous insensibility, any
constitutional apathy, any muscular rigidity of the Indian, but in the
sentiments which he has imbibed and the habits to which he has been
trained. He has been taught, from infancy, to consider courage and
fortitude as the glory of man; to endure privations and pain without a
murmur, and with an unsubdued heart, and to despise tortures and death;
and, in his last moments, he proves the efficacy of the education which
he has received. In these tragical scenes, the women always take an
active part; and their inhumanity, like the fortitude of the men,
springs from education.

Previous to their intercourse with Europeans, the arms of the Indians
were bows and arrows, spears, tomahawks, scalping knives, and war clubs.
Most of them, however, are now provided with fire arms; and, being
eager to procure them, their quantity is continually increasing. But
the use of these original weapons is far from being entirely superseded.

At times, the bow is formed of pieces of horn neatly spliced; but it is
more commonly made of wood. Formerly, the arrow was pointed with flint
or bone, but now generally with iron: the spear is pointed in a similar
manner. The tomahawk is a hatchet or war axe. The scalping knife is
used to cut and tear off the scalp, or integuments of the upper part
of the skull with the hair, of their fallen enemies, which the Indians
display as trophies of their victory, with as much exultation as
ancient heroes manifested in showing the arms of their vanquished foes.
The head of the war club is globular, and at times hollow, inclosing
pieces of metal, which make a gingling noise when a stroke is given.
Occasionally, the blade of a knife, or some other sharp instrument, is
fastened to the end of it at right angles. The tribes who dwell in the
depth of the forest have no bucklers, but shelter themselves behind
trees: those, however, who live in an open country, as on the banks
of the Missouri, use bucklers or shields of a circular form, about two
feet and a half in diameter, and composed of three or four folds of
buffalo’s skin, dried in the sun and hardened. These shields are proof
against arrows, but not against ball.

In all their acts of devotion, and on all occasions where their
confidence is to be won or their friendship secured, smoking is
regarded as an inviolable token of sincerity.

The pipe or calumet, as some have called it, is the symbol of peace
and the pledge of friendship. Among the rude dwellers of the desert,
it serves the same purposes as a flag of truce in the armies of more
civilized communities. The pipe is about four feet long; the bowl
made of stone or clay, and the stem of a light wood. It is differently
ornamented in different nations. The bearer of this sacred symbol of
friendship is seldom treated with disrespect, because they believe the
Great Spirit would not allow such an iniquity to escape with impunity.

Peace is concluded, and treaties ratified, by smoking. Wampum,
and wampum belts, are also commonly used on such occasions. Wampum,
formerly, and now among some tribes, the current coin of the Indians,
is formed of shells found on the coasts of New England and Virginia:
some of those shells are of a purple color, others white; but the
former are reckoned most valuable. They are cut into the shape of
oblong beads, about a quarter of an inch long, perforated, and strung
on a small leathern thong: several of these strings, neatly sewed
together by fine sinewy threads, form a belt, consisting of ten, twelve,
or more strings. The value of each bead, and, consequently, of each
string or belt, is exactly known. The size of the belt, which is often
about two feet long, and three or four inches broad, is proportioned to
the solemnity and importance of the occasion on which it is given. The
chiefs occasionally give strings to each other as tokens of friendship;
but belts are reserved for the ratification of national treaties, every
stipulation of which is recorded to posterity by the hieroglyphics on
the belt.

Tribes in amity occasionally apply to each other for a supply of their
wants. When one tribe is in need of any commodity with which another
is well provided, the needy tribe send a deputation of their number to
smoke with their wealthier neighbors, and to inform them of their wants;
and it would be a breach of Indian courtesy to send them away without
the expected supply. What they smoke is tobacco mixed with the inner
bark of the willow.

The Shoshonees, a band on the Rocky mountains, before smoking with
strangers, pull off their moccasons, in token of the sacred sincerity
of their professions; and by this act they not only testify their
sincerity, but also imprecate on themselves the misery of going
barefooted forever, if they prove unfaithful to their word.

A number of different languages are spoken by the Indians; and, in
some cases, different dialects of the same language are found among
different tribes.

The original languages, beside that of the Esquimaux, are said to
be principally three,――the Iroquois, the Lenni Lenape, or Delaware,
and the Floridian. These languages are so distinct, as to have no
perceivable affinity. The Iroquois was spoken by the Iroquois or Six
Nations, and several other tribes. The Iroquois, or Six Confederated
Nations, so famous in Indian history, and once so formidable by their
numbers, laws, and military prowess, are the Mohawks, Oneidas, Senecas,
Cayugas, Onondagoes, and Tuscaroras. The Delaware language was spoken
by many nations in the middle provinces; and the Floridian by the
Creeks, Choctaws, Cherokees, Chickasaws, and other tribes in the
southern states. Those languages are said to be copious and expressive:
they often consist of long compounds, and comprise many ideas in one
word.

The following observations on this interesting race of men are
furnished by a person who has spent many years in intimate contact with
several tribes of the north-west, and may, therefore, be considered
good authority. He writes expressly for this work.

‘There are few topics on which so much has been written, and to
so little purpose, as the character, manners, habits and origin of
the aborigines of North America. Novelists, poets, travellers and
philosophers have all failed to convey an adequate idea of them. This
arises, in our opinion, in a great measure, from the modern propensity
to generalization. A writer who has been present at an Indian council,
has seen the _nonchalant_ demeanor of the chiefs, and has heard the
tropes and metaphors with which they garnish their discourse, gravely
states that the self-possession of all Indians can never be disturbed
by any circumstances, and that the refinements of poetry and oratory
are as familiar in their mouths as household words. Another, who sees
the women performing the hard labor of their families, while the men
stand idly by, pronounces that squaws are regarded as slaves. Now
our experience assures us that the premises, on which such general
conclusions are based, are almost always fallacious.

‘Little need be said concerning the origin of the American natives.
The most probable conclusion is, that they immigrated into the new
continent via Behring’s strait; but whether they came by that route, or
crossed the Atlantic from Wales, or the Pacific, from Japan, certain it
is that their physical peculiarities plainly distinguish them from all
the races of the old world. We judge it safe to entertain an opinion
once expressed in our presence by an old Indian. ‘Why must we have
descended from your fathers?’ said he. ‘Is it not as reasonable to
suppose that God created the Indian where he now is, as that he made
the white man in the garden you have been talking about?’ This idea,
if not sanctioned by the Mosaic account of the creation is, at least,
not contradicted by it. We count the resemblances, which exist between
the customs and traditions of certain tribes in both continents, as of
very little importance. People living in different countries by similar
pursuits, most necessarily fall into similar observances. Every tribe
that lives on the banks of a stream or the ocean, must have witnessed
a high tide or an overflow, and hence the almost universal tradition
of a deluge. In our opinion, no importance ought to be attached to the
accounts of Indians of their own origin. Some septs, like the Pawnees
and Choctaws, say they sprang from the earth, the Incas descended from
the sun, the Osages are contented with such progenitors as a snail and
a beaver.

‘The idea that the present race of aborigines dispossessed a race
more advanced in civilization and less warlike than themselves, seems
to us to rest on no real foundation. The articles found with skeletons
exhumed from barrows, are still in use among the more remote tribes.
Indians still, occasionally, construct rude fortifications. The pottery,
on which antiquarians rely as illustrative of this favorite theory, is
made and used to this day by the remote Dahcotahs and Assinneboins. If
the field works found in different parts of the country be adduced as
proofs of the civilization of the supposed former race, we answer that
they do not betoken the tenth part of the ingenuity displayed in the
construction of a birch canoe.

‘The aborigines of America have generally been esteemed to be divided
into two distinct races, viz. the Esquimaux and the red Indians. We
doubt that the races are distinct. The Esquimaux are, indeed, milder
in character, and less perfect in physical conformation than their
southern neighbors; but is not the difference owing to climate and mode
of life? Fishermen, and especially such fishermen as the Esquimaux,
whose whole time and care is requisite to preserve life, cannot be
warriors. People who, like the Esquimaux, live upon scanty food in an
inhospitable clime, must necessarily be dwarfish. Bear witness tribes
who live in the same manner on the old continent. Besides, captain
Franklin informs us that those of this people who inhabit a less
inhospitable coast than their brethren (those east of the Coppermine
river) are of the ordinary stature of mankind.

‘Turning round Icy cape, we find the tribes along the north-west
coast gradually losing the characteristics of Esquimaux, and assuming
those of the red Indians. We are at a loss to divine, from the accounts
of Cook, Kotzebue and Jewett, which of the two races the tribes of
that region most resemble. At Nootka Sound, the savages are fishermen
like the Esquimaux, and hunters and warriors like the tribes of
the Mississippi. Wherever we find a tribe relying upon fisheries
as a principal means of subsistence, we find the moral and physical
character approximating toward that of the Esquimaux. In short, we see
no difference between the two races which may not have been produced by
something less than the will of the Almighty.

‘The physical appearance of the Indians has been too often described
to need notice here. It is impossible even to conjecture what their
number may be. Some idea of this may be gained from the fact that the
Dahcotahs, who are able to muster six or seven thousand fighting men,
scarcely support themselves on a tract of land eight hundred miles
long and as many in breadth. Other tribes, who rely in some degree upon
agriculture and fishing, are more thickly settled. Others, who occupy
less favored regions, are less so.

‘Two great families of Indians seem, from time immemorial, to have
occupied the country between the Rocky mountains and the Atlantic, viz.
the Dahcotahs, and the Chippeway, or Algonquin race. The former are
divided into a great number of independent tribes, whose origin may be
traced by similarity of language, habits and manners. The parent stock
is divided into several septs, which are again subdivided into a great
many minor hordes. The principal divisions are these: Munday Wawkantons,
Sussetons, Wakhpaytons, Wawkhpaykootays, Yanktows and Tetons. These
last live high upon the Missouri, and have little intercourse with the
rest. The Assinneboins, a numerous and powerful tribe, who roam over
the prairies between the Missouri and the Saskatchawayn, seceded from
the Dahcotahs little more than a century ago, and a bloody war was
long waged between them and the parent race. A woman was the cause of
quarrel. The Winnebagoes and Otoes, renowned for desperate bravery, the
Ioways, the Osages, the Omahaws and many other western tribes, claim
affinity with the Dahcotahs, and speak dialects of their tongue. The
tradition concerning their origin, to which we give most credit, says,
that they all came from Mexico at the time of the invasion of Cortez.
The Winnebagoes hold the Spaniards in abhorrence to this day. Such of
these tribes as inhabit the prairie region are vagrant, and live mainly
by hunting the buffalo. A description of one will be a description
of all of them. They are, generally, of the middle stature of mankind,
and it is rare to see a Dahcotah who much exceeds or falls short of
it, or who is in any wise deformed. They are beautifully formed: it
is as rare to see an ill-made Dahcotah as a well-made white man. They
are not muscular, nor are they so agile as whites commonly are; but in
recompense, their powers of endurance are very great. They seem utterly
insensible of fatigue, and patient of hunger, pain, and all other
hardships.

‘Neither these, nor any other Indians with whom we are acquainted, are
at all remarkable for gravity in their social intercourse. They are
more taciturn, indeed, than the whites; but this is the result rather
of circumstance than of education. Spending much time alone, they
acquire a habit of silence; having fewer ideas than civilized men, they
have fewer inducements to discourse. The conversation that does take
place among them, however, is by no means characterized by reserve or
by the absence of hilarity. In councils and on solemn occasions, it is
judged decorous and proper to give no indication of feeling, and hence
an apathetic gravity has long been thought a distinguishing attribute
of the Indian character. Even were the assumption just, the aborigines
would be no more remarkable in this respect than most modern Asiatic
nations.

‘The character of Indians in general seems to have been viewed by most
writers through a false medium, and their qualities have been inferred
from the nature of their intercourse with white men. This is a false
standard; to know them, one should live long among them and watch their
social relations. Thus seen, they appear to much greater advantage than
when hanging upon the frontiers doing or suffering wrong, and debasing
themselves by theft, beggary and intemperance.

‘It will not be denied by any who know them, that those Indians
who have not been corrupted by the whites are sincerely pious. They
universally believe in one all-wise, benevolent and powerful God, to
whom, however, they never pray; for, they say, he knows better what
is good for them than they do themselves. Nothing shocks them more
than to hear his name mentioned with irreverence by the whites. They
also believe in an evil principle, whom they pray to do them no harm.
They people all animated nature with inferior spirits, and to these
they offer prayers and sacrifices. Their superstitions are numberless.
They believe in a future state, and the world of spirits is, in their
opinion, a fine hunting-ground, where the vexations and sufferings of
this life will be unknown. Each man has what he calls his medicine;
that is, he thinks fit to consider his fate and fortunes dependent on
some animal, and that animal he will neither kill, eat, or treat with
disrespect. In short, they have an infinite variety of such observances,
and there is little uniformity in the belief of individuals.

‘Their priests are mere jugglers, who practise various mummeries, and
are also, as is common among savages, physicians and surgeons, and,
indeed, they mix medicine and religion together. A cure is effected
by songs and superstitious rites as well as by the use of simples. The
juggler’s voice and rattle are seldom still near the couch of a sick
man. We are yet to learn that these quacks are much respected in their
sacerdotal character, or that any great importance is attached to their
ceremonies by the majority of the laity. One merit they have, and that
is their skill in rough surgery. We have seen them effect astonishing
cures. It may not be amiss to mention one, by way of example. A hunter
was grappled by a bear, that he had wounded, and dreadfully lacerated.
His arm was broken in several places, and all who saw it thought he
must die or submit to amputation. An Indian surgeon, however, undertook
the cure and effected it. It is true that he was three years about it,
and perhaps the abstemious habits of the patient were a main cause of
his recovery.

‘As to government, the Dahcotah race have no king, and every man does
what seems right in his own eyes. They have chiefs, indeed, who have,
by tacit consent, the power of making treaties, and of transacting the
business of their followers. Sometimes they lead in war, but, save on
such occasions, authority they have none. They may advise, but cannot
command. They receive no reward for their services, nor do they wear
any badge of their rank. Indeed they are usually worse dressed and
provided than other individuals, because it is considered peculiarly
the duty of chiefs to be generous. The office is hereditary in
families, but not in the direct line of descent. If the heir apparent
be notoriously ineligible, he is set aside, and a more worthy kinsman
takes his place. Highly distinguished warriors become war chiefs
through the respect paid to their valor. Each village has one of these,
who is called the war chief, to distinguish him from the hereditary
leader. He rules in war, but not in civil affairs. Sometimes a chief
acquires absolute power, but of that kind which strong minds gain over
weak ones, and it behoves every leader to bear his faculties meekly.

‘Laws the Dahcotahs have none; but they have customs which have the
force of laws, and which are seldom broken. Thus a man may have as
many wives as he can maintain. Adultery is punished by cutting off the
nose of the offending wife; the wife cuts the clothes of the offending
husband to pieces. Life is taken for life, unless the homicide can
appease the friends of the dead by the payment of a ransom. The
murderer invariably gives himself up to punishment, for to fear death
is considered the acme of dishonor. When minor offences are committed,
the injured party kills the dogs and horses of his enemy, or destroys
his tent before his eyes, and in such cases no resistance is offered.
Divorces are at the option of the husband. Theft is not regarded as
a crime; indeed, property is nearly in common among them, so that
no theft can be committed. They apply this standard of morals to the
whites, and so get the reputation of thieves, while themselves are
unconscious of wrong doing. It is, in our opinion, this very community
of goods that is the principal obstacle to their civilization and
improvement; for it cannot be expected that one man will sow for all
the world to reap, or that he will weary his limbs in the chase to
obtain what will not belong to him or his family. Those tribes who
hold the right of property in most esteem, as, for example, the Saques
and Foxes, have made the greatest advances in civilization.

‘Another obstacle to the civilization of our aborigines is their
unconquerable indolence. The savage is content with the bare
necessaries of life; he neither knows nor cares for its luxuries and
superfluities. Necessity only will compel him to exertion. Tribes,
whose limits have been so circumscribed by the whites that they cannot
live by the chase, have resorted to labor for subsistence; but we think
no other force of reason or circumstance will bring about such a result.

‘However strange such an assertion may appear, we confidently
affirm that Indians are not more revengeful than other people. They
have the same feelings and passions as other men, neither stronger
nor weaker. They are kind to each other. Every offence but murder is
readily forgiven, and even that crime seldom finds its due punishment.
Nine murderers out of ten among them go down to the grave in peace.
An Indian rarely goes much out of his way for revenge. Time and
opportunity being ministered, an individual will wreak a long-smothered
resentment, and so, we presume, would any other man, if freed from the
restraints of law. We take it upon us to say that murders are not so
frequent among them as with ourselves, and that these, as well as all
minor injuries, are not so often or so fearfully avenged by Indians as
by white men. As it regards wrongs committed by enemies of the tribe,
the case is different. These, the savage is taught, it is his duty to
requite upon any member of the hostile nation. Such vengeance it is
his glory to take, and it is one of the first requisitions of his moral
code.

‘The courage of Indians is not to be measured by our standard. In a
mere clan, the loss of an individual is severely felt. It subtracts
largely from the strength of the band and the happiness of his family.
Discretion, therefore, is considered the better part of valor. The war
chief who conquers the enemy does well; but he who conquers without
loss to himself does infinitely better. It is thought honorable to
avoid risk as much as possible, and the decision of quarrels by single
combat is called folly and madness. But when they have resolved on
battle, no people strive more valiantly. Our history bears witness of
the furious energy of their valor. Their ideas of moral courage might
be adopted with advantage by all who call them savages. They think
it weak and cowardly to yield to grief or anger; misfortune and pain
they scorn, and death they endure not only without a murmur, but
with cheerfulness. Suicide under any circumstances they brand as the
strongest evidence of lack of courage.

‘Of the cruelty of Indians to conquered enemies, this only can be said,
that it is the vice of all barbarians, that they know not what they do,
that it is only exercised on their avowed foes, and that it is almost
always perpetrated in the heat of blood. Captives, once spared, fare
no worse than their conquerors. The sense of honor among Indians is,
in some respects, very strong; in others, not so. It will not prevent
an individual from falsehood, treachery, promise-breaking, flattery,
beggary and a multitude of other offences. It will deter him from labor,
which he considers the exclusive business of women, it forbids him to
shun death, it commands him to requite a disgraceful blow with a stab,
it forbids him to boast of deeds he never achieved, it commands him
to sacrifice himself for the good of his tribe. Its scope is not very
extensive; but where it operates, it operates effectually.

‘In their domestic relations, they are essentially, but not ostensibly
kind. They provide for their families, they love their wives and
children; but thinking it womanish to manifest the affections, they
are not fond husbands or fathers. Tatunkah Nazhee, the best hunter
of the Dahcotahs, lost his wife and five children by the hands of the
Chippeways. The only sign of grief he displayed was painting his face
black. Yet he abandoned his usual occupations, and pursued the enemy
till he had taken life for life. “This,” said he, “is the best way of
mourning for the dead.”

‘Indian hospitality and charity have no limit. No stranger enters their
tents to whom they do not give meat: no person goes to them in need
whom they do not relieve to the extent of their ability, and often to
their great inconvenience. They will not look upon an execution, they
will not suffer a person who has wronged them to be whipped for it, and
the idea of imprisoning a man for debt, or for a petty violation of the
rights of property, fills them with horror.

‘Some years ago, the old chief of a Dahcotah band was robbed by a
drunken soldier of eighteen ducks, which he had killed for the use of
his family. The offender was detected, compelled to make restitution,
and fastened to the whipping-post. When the old man comprehended
the nature of the punishment about to be inflicted, he burst into
tears, and threw down half his game before the commanding officer.
“I will give you these,” said he, “if you will spare this man. Of what
consequence are a few ducks?” The man had committed violence on the
chiefs person. Which of the two best deserved to be called a savage?

‘In short, to end our remarks on the Dahcotah character, which is,
with some trivial alterations, the character of most Indian tribes, we
may say that their moral code is grievously defective, but that, such
as it is, they adhere rigidly to it. Considering their ignorance, their
extreme necessities and their wrongs, it is wonderful that their moral
degradation is not deeper than it is. Their code is adapted to their
mode of life, and it is only by applying it to others, who have more
to lose and less to gain than themselves, that they become disagreeable
and dangerous neighbors to the whites. An incessant irritation is the
consequence, hatred succeeds, mutual wrong follows, and war consummates
the drama.

‘Those of the tribes of Dahcotah origin who live on the Mississippi,
and other wooded countries, live on the deer and other game of the
forest. By entrapping the fur-clad animals, they get the means of
buying guns, cloth and other articles, which have become indispensably
necessary to them. In the summer, they live in permanent villages,
and cultivate a little corn. The women perform this, as well as all
other labors, and do not consider themselves aggrieved thereby. It
is said that, as the men encounter the fatigues and perils of the
chase, the dangers of war and the vicissitudes of the seasons, they
have their full share of domestic duties. The women being unfit for
these occupations, must fill the station which God has allotted to
them, and neither party thinks the distribution of offices unjust or
unreasonable. The women are sold, like the daughters of the patriarchs,
by their parents to their husbands, and they are chastised or commended
according to the degree of their industry or good conduct. Judging from
their general cheerfulness, they see no hardship in their lot. Jealousy
seems to be their chief annoyance, and often causes them to hang
themselves.

‘In winter, the hunters leave their villages, and encamp in leathern
tents on their hunting-grounds, removing from place to place as the
game is more or less abundant. They are plentifully supplied by the
traders with ammunition on credit, and pay their debts as they best
can in the spring. This system is highly injurious to the Indians,
and vexatious to the traders. As not more than half of the hunters pay
their debts, the trader is obliged to charge a double price for his
goods, in his own defence, and thus the honest and industrious Indians
pay for the idle and vicious. Still this is the fashion of their
fathers, and no persuasion will induce them to depart from it.

‘It only remains to be said of this portion of the race, that they live
from hand to mouth, hunting and fishing when they feel so inclined,
and fasting when the chances of the chase are against them. Few of them
perish by starvation. The only circumstance that varies the monotony of
their lives is war, and that they practise on so limited a scale that
it has no perceptible effect on their population or happiness.

‘The roving tribes, who live in the great plains of the west, differ
little in language or character from their more stationary brethren.
They encamp near the vast herds of buffaloes, kill as many as they
want, eat the flesh, dress in the skins, and sell as many robes to
the traders as will procure them cloth and guns. They are wilder and
more primitive than their neighbors, and more addicted to plunder and
massacre those who are not of their blood. They are generally well
mounted and armed with guns, bows and arrows, spears and shields. They
kill the buffalo at full speed. If the drove removes, they pluck up
their tents and follow. If any man frightens the cattle, certain police
officers, called soldiers, punish him by stripes and the destruction
of his horses and property. Their persons are held sacred, and no one
thinks of resisting them. Some of these wanderers are like the children
of Ishmael in that every man’s hand is against them, and their hand is
against every man. The Assinneboins are an example. Their time is spent
in indolence, war and the chase.

‘The wars of Indians among themselves are seldom very destructive. The
war chief dreams or pretends to dream that the enemy will be delivered
into his hands, and sets out for the field of strife with, perhaps,
twenty followers. The greatest caution is observed, and if the party
find reason to think that the enemy is apprised of their intention,
they turn back. If, however, their plans succeed, a small number of the
enemy are surprised and butchered. Few are ever spared. Within a few
months, this paltry onslaught is repaid in kind, and the account is
balanced. These wars have been from time immemorial, and will probably
continue till time shall be no more. Such is the modern state of Indian
warfare; but tradition tells of more serious hostilities. Hundreds
of Dahcotahs and Mandans perished less than a century ago in a battle
between the two tribes. The Assinneboins were once nearly exterminated
by the former tribe. Those times are gone, and a mightier influence is
sweeping the red men from the face of the earth.

‘The Algonquin or Chippeway race is even more widely extended than
the Dahcotahs. Judging from the remains of the languages which have
descended to our times, the entire aboriginal population of New
England sprung from this stock. Their manners and habits corroborate
this supposition. The Delawares are supposed to have had the same
origin. The language of the powerful and chivalrous Iroquois is said
to be allied to the Chippeway. The Saque and Fox tribes are evidently
branches of the same tree. The Ottawas and Pottawattamies claim the
same descent. It is thought that the Menomenies share the same blood.
The Kinisteneaux speak a dialect of the same tongue, and many other
tribes may be traced to the same origin. All these tribes are and
have ever been dwellers in the woods, and save that they now dress
in articles made by the whites and that they love rum, they are now
very nearly what they were two hundred years ago. They have proved
themselves possessed of some mechanical ingenuity by inventing the
birch canoe, a vehicle which has been the admiration of all travellers.

‘The Chippeway race differ little from other tribes living in the
woods, whose manners and habits are too well known to need comment
here. They are a nation of hunters and warriors, skilful in the chase,
bold in battle, eloquent in council, and, in a word, possessing all
the half-formed virtues, all the vices, all the ignorance and all
the barbarism already ascribed to the Dahcotahs. Those of them who
live in high northern latitudes, are more needy, and consequently
more industrious, than those who dwell in more favored climes. Between
this great nation and the Dahcotahs, a war has been waged so long
that tradition itself conveys no knowledge of its cause or the date of
its commencement. The deadly feud has been transmitted from father to
son with such inveteracy, that all efforts to staunch it have proved
abortive. A great deal of inherited hatred, and the strong thirst for
martial renown, which is an inherent part of Indian character, have
co-operated to perpetuate this state of things.

‘The language of these two great races are like no forms of speech
known in the old world. They are wonderfully expressive, both defective
and redundant, and said to be difficult of acquisition. The verbs
of the Dahcotah language appear to have no roots, and to be entirely
irregular in their modifications. The nominative case neither precedes
nor follows the verb, as in the languages of the old world, but is
incorporated with it, sometimes at the end of the word, sometimes in
the middle, sometimes abbreviated, and sometimes entire. We have known
traders to fail to acquire it during a trial of thirty years. From the
little acquaintance we were able to gain, we thought it a collection
of phrases, with scarce the resemblance of rule or order, and conclude
that, to be learned at all, it must be learned by rote.

‘We can give but brief notices of other tribes. The Creeks, Cherokees,
Chickasaws and Choctaws are known to us by their wrongs, and by
the advances they have made in civilization. The measures taken to
remove them beyond the Mississippi, already partially successful, will
probably ere long be fully so. It would be an ungrateful as well as
a useless task to enter into a discussion of a subject so generally
understood; nevertheless, it may not be impertinent to offer a few
remarks on the probable future fate of these unfortunate tribes.

‘We have already expressed our views respecting what we think the
only sure mode of civilizing Indians. That mode, or, in other words,
the necessity of a change of manners, was in successful operation
upon the four southern nations. By transferring them to an unlimited
range of territory, that necessity has been removed, and if they do
not relapse into their primitive barbarism, they are radically unlike
any other Indians with whom we are acquainted, or farther advanced in
civilization than we are prepared to believe. The influences which make
and continue the hunter state of the Indians, operate on the whites
also. For every Indian who has voluntarily relinquished the life of his
fathers, ten whites may be found who have become hunters.

‘It is proposed, by placing these tribes west of the Mississippi, to
protect them from the encroachments of the whites, an intention which
is certainly not founded on precedent or analogy. If the most solemn
treaties, if repeated retrocessions have not hitherto been adequate to
protect the savage from the overpowering tide of white population, how
can it be supposed that his new abode in Arkansas will be respected
when he shall have made it valuable, if indeed, he ever should make it
valuable? There, he is thrown in contact with other tribes, as warlike,
and more barbarous than his own, and much misery and bloodshed has
already been the consequence.

‘Moreover, it is proposed, by casting the lot of several distinct
tribes together, to amalgamate them, and thereby preserve them from
decay. If the experience of past times is to be trusted, this measure
is much more likely to produce division than to prevent it. Who ever
saw two Indian tribes amalgamate, unless when one, reduced to a mere
handful, sought the protection of the other? Thus the remnant of the
Saques sought protection of the Foxes, the Stockbridge Indians of the
Six Nations. On the other hand, we have only to refer to the Dahcotah
and Algonquin races, severally derived from two great roots, but now
divided into an almost infinite number of petty hordes. If people, thus
connected by the bonds of common origin and language, have so divided,
what is to be expected from others, who have no basis of union, and
who, in some instances, entertain hostile feelings toward each other?
We hope the best; but to us the future prospect of the expatriated
tribes appears overshadowed with clouds and darkness.

‘Beside the two great divisions already noticed, there are many
other tribes, of whose origin and languages little is known, save that
they are wholly distinct from each other. Such are the natives of the
Columbia river, for an account of whom we must refer the reader to the
travels of Lewis and Clarke, and of Roos Coxe. M’Kenzie and Franklin
tell all that is known of the Dog-rib and Coppermine Indians, two
feeble and miserable tribes which inhabit the frozen regions north
of the Great Slave lake. The Flat-heads, who live on the upper waters
of the Columbia, muster five hundred determined warriors, and derive
their name from their custom of compressing the head, in infancy, into
a hideously unseemly shape; a practice common to most of the tribes
of Oregon, and formerly in use among the Caraibs. They war upon their
eastern neighbors, the buffalo-following Blackfeet, a desperate and
ferocious tribe, who are friendly to the English, and abhor the very
name of an American. This animosity arose from the fact that one or two
of them were killed, more than thirty years ago, by Lewis and Clarke.
The Mandans and Minnetarees dwell in permanent villages on the Missouri,
speak distinct languages from each other, and from all other tribes,
and claim consanguinity with none. The Crows are a separate and
powerful race of vagrant horsemen, and so are the Shiannes, who were
formerly expelled by the Dahcotahs from the lands which the latter
now occupy. The Pawnees and Arikarees compose three tribes who speak
one language; the Pawnee Wolves are in no wise connected with them.
The Shoshonees live and starve among the Rocky mountains. Among other
distinct races may be numbered the Wyandots, or Hurons, the Comanches,
the Appaches, and many others. All of these tribes, excepting the
Wyandots, are more or less in the vagabond state, and ride over the
boundless prairies, chasing the buffalo, and warring upon all whom they
dare attack. All are bold warriors, skilful hunters, and inveterate
horse-stealers, in all of which characters they glory. The manners of
all are nearly alike; all practise the same indiscriminate hospitality;
all have the same code of morals, religion, and policy; almost
all detest the people of the United States, for what reasons it is
unnecessary here to inquire. By classing all these hordes together,
we do not mean to imply that there is no difference whatever in their
habits, ideas, and characters; but that there is a very strong general
resemblance between them all.

‘The Caraibs and the original inhabitants of the West Indies have
passed away, thanks to the cruelties of their Spanish invaders. Nothing
can be said of them which is, probably, not already known to the mass
of our readers. For an account of the Mexicans, and the Indians of
South America, we must refer to the pages of Humboldt, Robertson,
and other writers. Nor can it be expected that we should enter into
such details as may have come to our knowledge, respecting the tribes
already mentioned. Many volumes larger than this would be requisite for
such purpose. It is our duty, however, to caution our readers against
trusting the statements of such travellers as Carver, who have galloped
over the countries they describe with the speed of race-horses, without
understanding a syllable of the languages of the Indians with whom
they sojourned, and relying for information on the hearsay testimony of
ignorant trappers and boatmen. There are but too many of this stamp. If
we may say what authorities we consider unquestionable, we will mention
M’Kenzie, Henry, Franklin, Tanner, and the English Long. These all
sojourned long among the people they pretend to describe, and enjoyed
the best opportunities for personal observation.

‘One topic connected with the aborigines only remains, which we
must discuss briefly. It relates to their ultimate destiny, and the
prospect of christianizing and civilizing them. Many obstacles to
this desideratum exist, and we are sorry to add that they appear to
us insuperable. To convert the adults must be excessively difficult,
if not impossible. Firstly, their languages are so difficult of
acquisition, and so barren of words expressing abstract ideas, that
the greater part of a life is spent in learning them, and when acquired,
they are scarcely adequate to convey the doctrines of Christianity.
Secondly, the Indians are so constantly roaming about, and so scattered,
that, to instruct them, a missionary would be needed for every family,
who should accompany them in their peregrinations, avail himself
of such opportunities as their caprice might allow, and above all,
maintain himself; for, though no Indian would tell him so, the burthen
of his support would, at times, be severely felt. He must then overcome
that apathy and laziness which is the characteristic of savage life,
break up the whole of his pupil’s long-revered rules of thought and
action, and substitute others in their stead. A new ambition must
be awakened, and the whole frame of Indian society must be changed
entirely, for the ethics of our Savior will not apply to the present
one. For example, it will be difficult to persuade the savage to
meekness and long-suffering, while all his arts and exertions will
scarce protect his wives and children from the knives of his neighbors,
while all his companions tell him that revenge on the enemies of his
tribe is a sacred duty, and that martial renown ought to be to him as
the breath of his nostrils.

‘The missionary should not too much rely on the apparent impression he
may have produced on his auditors. Indians seldom contradict, and, by
an intuitive politeness, always receive what is addressed to them by
one whom they respect, with approbation and assent. Therefore, when an
Indian auditory may have listened to a discourse with marked attention
and expressed approbation, the speaker is not to suppose that they
believe a word of it. They only mean that he is entitled to respect.
An Indian once agreed that man’s first disobedience was improper, and,
being farther questioned, gave his reasons. “It was very foolish,” he
said, “to eat apples: it was much better to make cider of them all.”

‘Some few adults have, indeed, become Christians; but where such
conversions have taken place, the converts have either made some
previous progress in civilization, or the change has been nominal. We
never yet saw a savage hunter who had a rational idea of Christianity.
The example of the Cherokees alone shows that the ground must be
prepared to receive the seed. The missionaries have undoubtedly done
them great good; but they made little or no progress before the tribe
had turned to agriculture, framed laws and a regular government, and
acknowledged a distinction of property. They are now fitted to receive
the Word.

‘Indians taken from their tribe young, educated, and sent back, do not
appear better qualified to teach than white missionaries. They are, in
every thing but complexion, as much aliens among their people as the
whites, and command no more sympathy, and rather less respect.

‘We believe there is no example on record of a tribe who have changed
from hunters to farmers on any other consideration than compulsion of
some kind or other. We constantly see them recede rather than labor.
But when prevented from receding, they learn the value of time and
labor, and a distinction of property necessarily takes place. Laws
are then necessary to guard this distinction. Prodigality is no longer
a principal virtue; war is no longer the chief pursuit of life; the
mind acquires new ideas and new habits of exercise, and thus the way
to entire civilization and Christianity is prepared. Could we see the
coast of the Pacific settled by white men, who should advance into the
interior, driving the western Indians before them as we have done the
eastern, till the entire race should be hemmed within limits too narrow
for their existence as hunters, we should entertain a hope of seeing
a remnant of them saved and civilized. The same result must be brought
about by driving them to the Pacific; but the operation will be so
tardy, that most of the expatriated tribes will probably be destroyed
by their intercourse with the whites, or by the tribes on whom they
will be forced to intrude. How small a remnant remains of the millions
who once dwelt in peace between the Atlantic and the Mississippi!

‘The children of Indians may be christianized, but only when they can
be separated from their parents. The missionaries of Michilimacinac
seem aware of this fact; for they have chiefly confined their
instructions to the half-breed children of white men, who are at the
disposal of their fathers. It was a wise policy, and their ministry
has produced the most blessed results.

‘Consider this subject in what light we may, so many difficulties
present themselves, that it is almost impossible to hope that any
considerable portion of the aboriginal race will be in existence three
centuries hence. The fate of individual tribes is beyond the reach of
conjecture, and we have only to pray that the God alike of white and
red men will preserve them from utter extermination.’




                CHAPTER XI.――AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES.[84]


INDIAN MOUNDS. The old Mexican villages, it is said, were built of
unbaked bricks, fourteen inches square, and covered with limbs of trees
and turf, which, when they mouldered away, formed a mound, similar
in shape to those which meet the traveller’s eye from the Red river
of Hudson’s bay to the state of Missouri, and probably to the gulf
of Mexico. The number of these barrows has, however, been greatly
exaggerated. We have seen it stated, on grave authority, that for
a length of five hundred miles, and a breadth of from eighty to two
hundred, the mounds are seldom an acre apart, and on this enormous
blunder was founded a conclusion that the population was once immense.
We, who speak from knowledge, affirm that, judging from such data,
the former population was not so great as the present. We have seen
mounds on the tributaries of Hudson’s bay, and on the waters of the
Mississippi, and their numbers warrant no such speculations. They are
common enough, indeed, but by no means so common, or of such magnitude,
as to make it certain that the ancestors of the present race of
aborigines were very numerous. We draw this inference from several
facts.

Travelling some years ago near the St. Peter’s river, we saw, at a
distance of about a mile, an erection which looked like one of the
conical tents of the Indians. A distinguished individual had lately
died, and our guide informed us that the object above mentioned was an
earthen lodge which his relatives had raised over him. Being pressed
for time, we did not approach it nigher. Supposing it to have been,
which we see no reason to doubt, what the guide stated, it must, when
the top crumbled down, have assumed the shape of a mound.

The Indians of those regions do, to this day, bury at least half of
their dead. They respect the dead highly, and to protect their remains
from wolves and dogs, erect over them an edifice of stakes, which,
as they possess axes, they can easily cut. Now is it not probable,
that before they had the means to cut stakes without excessive toil,
they raised a mound of earth in its stead? What corroborates this
supposition is, that many, and indeed the greater number, of the mounds
are not larger than would be required for such purpose. That they were
ever intended for dwellings is out of the question; for we are to learn
that any traces of bricks, timbers, or masonry, have ever been found in
any of them. We have already said that the fragments of pottery found
in them are precisely similar to the earthen pots still in use among
the modern Assinneboins. Again, fragments of bone are found in most of
them; but could bones have remained any great length of time in damp
earth undecayed? We think not――at least, we have known instances where
the human frame has been utterly resolved into its native elements
within the lapse of a century. But some of the mounds, and especially
those near St. Louis, are so large as to be esteemed beyond the powers
and industry of the present race of Indians. Before we adopt this
conclusion, we should remember that, as late as the discovery of the
Mississippi, several tribes kept the bones of their friends for years,
and then buried them together, a practice, the remains of which are
still distinctly visible among the Dahcotahs. On such occasions, a
large mound must have been raised, by the united efforts of a tribe. If
we suppose that successive layers were from time to time deposited on
the national burial heap, which is, surely, no extravagant theory, the
objection that the red men had neither power, inclination, nor motive
to raise such tumuli, vanishes.

‘On the banks of White river,’ says a writer in Silliman’s Journal,
‘where the earth had caved in, I found part of an earthen coffin, in
which the neck bones and the skull were yet remaining; and on the top
of the neck bone, as I dug to see what bone could be inserted thus in
part of an earthen box, I found a parcel of pieces of bones cut round,
and remaining on the neck in the exact position in which they had been
used as a necklace. They were pierced, but the string had entirely
disappeared; they were the one eighth of an inch thick, and three
fifths in diameter; and the bones of which they were made were much
better preserved than those of the skeleton. This, I was confident, did
not belong to the modern tribes of Indians which inhabit some parts of
that country.[85] I found, among the clay which rolled down from the
same mound, several pieces of lead ore, (common galena,) which had been
carried there. It is not uncommon to find this ore amongst human bones,
throughout the whole country; probably they used trinkets made of lead,
and this was a provision for them to dress in the other world.’

On the plantation of Mr. John Kain, of Knox county, near the north bank
of Holston river, five miles above its junction with the French Broad,
is a curious collection of mounds of earth, evidently the work of art,
but of an almost antediluvian antiquity, if we may form any conjecture
of their age from that of the forest which grows around and upon them.
They are about half a dozen in number, and arise on about half an acre
of level ground, without any seeming regularity. They are pyramidal
in their shape, or rather sections of pyramids, whose bases are from
ten to thirty paces in diameter. The largest one in this group rises
about ten feet above the level ground, and is remarkably regular in
its figure. A perpendicular section of this mound was made about a year
since, but no important discovery was made. It was found to consist of
the surface thrown up, and contained a good deal of ashes and charcoal.

This group of mounds is surrounded by a ditch, which can be distinctly
traced on three sides, and inclosing, besides the mounds, several acres
of ground. It is, like the mounds, covered with trees, which grow in
it and about it. At every angle of this ditch, it sweeps out into a
semicircle, and it appears in many respects well calculated for defence.

There are many other mounds of the same form in Tennessee. At the
junction of the French Broad with the Holston, there is one in which
human bones are said to have been found. Farther up French Broad,
near Newport, is a very large mound. It reposes on a very level and
extensive plain, and is itself the largest I ever saw. It is thirty
feet high, and its base covers half an acre of ground. As it ascends
from its base, there is a slight inclination from a perpendicular on
all sides, and the upper surface is as level as the rest is regular.
From the great size of this mound, its commanding situation, and the
mystery which veils its history, it is a most interesting spot of
ground. There are many other mounds of this description in the state of
Tennessee.

A mound of large dimensions is situated in the interior of the Cherokee
nation, on the north side of the Etowee, vulgarly called the Hightower
river, one of the branches of the Coosa. It stands upon a strip of
alluvial land, called _River Bottom_. It is described by the Rev. Elias
Cornelius, who visited it in company with eight Indian chiefs. The
first object which excited attention was an excavation, about twenty
feet wide, and in some parts ten feet deep. Its course is nearly that
of a semicircle; the extremities extending towards the river, which
forms a small elbow. ‘I had not time,’ says this writer, ‘to examine
it minutely. An Indian said it extended each way to the river, and had
several unexcavated parts, which served for passages to the area which
it incloses. To my surprise, I found no embankment on either side of
it. But I did not long doubt to what place the earth had been removed;
for I had scarcely proceeded two hundred yards, when, through the thick
forest trees, a stupendous pile met the eye, whose dimensions were
in full proportion to the intrenchment. I had at the time no means of
taking an accurate admeasurement. To supply my deficiency, I cut a long
vine, which was preserved until I had an opportunity of ascertaining
its exact length. In this manner I found the distance from the margin
of the summit to the base to be one hundred and eleven feet; and
judging from the degree of its declivity, the _perpendicular height_
cannot be less than seventy-five feet. The circumference of the base,
including the feet of three parapets, measured one thousand, one
hundred and fourteen feet. One of these parapets extends from the
base to the summit, and can be ascended, though with difficulty, on
horseback. The other two, after rising thirty or forty feet, terminate
in a kind of triangular platform. Its top is level, and, at the time
I visited it, was so completely covered with weeds, bushes, and trees
of a most luxuriant growth, that I could not examine it as well as I
wished. Its diameter, I judged, must be one hundred and fifty feet. On
its sides and summit are many large trees, of the same description and
of equal dimensions with those around it. One beech tree, near the top,
measured ten feet and nine inches in circumference. The earth on one
side of the tree was three and a half feet lower than on the opposite
side. This fact will give a good idea of the mound’s declivity. An oak,
which was lying down on one of the parapets, measured at the distance
of six feet from the but, without the bark, twelve feet four inches in
circumference. At a short distance to the south-east is another mound,
in ascending which I took thirty steps. Its top is encircled by a
breastwork three feet high, intersected through the middle with another
elevation of a similar kind. A little further is another mound, which I
had not time to examine.

‘On these great works of art, the Indians gazed with as much curiosity
as any white man. I inquired of the oldest chief if the natives had
any tradition respecting them, to which he answered in the negative.
I then requested each to say what he supposed was their origin. Neither
could tell; though all agreed in saying, “they were never put up by
our people.” It seems probable they were erected by another race, who
once inhabited the country. That such a race existed, is now generally
admitted. Who they were, and what were the causes of their degeneracy,
or of their extermination, no circumstances have yet explained. But
this is no reason why we should not, as in a hundred other instances,
infer the existence of the cause from its effects, without any previous
knowledge of its history.

‘In regard to the objects which these mounds were designed to answer,
it is obvious they were not always the same. Some were intended as
receptacles for the dead. These are small, and are distinguished by
containing human bones. Some may have been designed as sites for public
buildings, whether of a civil or religious kind; and others, no doubt,
were constructed for the purposes of war. Of this last description is
the Etowee mound. In proof of its suitableness for such a purpose, I
need only mention that the Cherokees, in their late war with the Creeks,
secured its summit by pickets, and occupied it as a place of protection
for hundreds of their women and children. Gladly would I have spent
a day in examining it more minutely; but my companions, unable to
appreciate my motives, grew impatient, and I was obliged to withdraw,
and leave a more perfect observation and description to some one else.’

With all the respect due to the authorities above quoted, we beg
leave to doubt their conclusions. That the Cherokees had no tradition
respecting the origin of their great mound, proves nothing. Indian
tradition reaches not far. Different tribes are constantly driving each
other from their possessions, and the tumulus in question may have been
the work of a clan dispossessed by the Cherokees. The trees growing on
such mounds prove as little. In 1825, we discovered two skeletons under
the roots of a very large elm, on the banks of the Mississippi. They
were at once pronounced relics of the supposed former race, and that
opinion was current until the iron parts of the handle of a clasp knife
were found in the earth from which they were exhumed. The Indians of
the vicinity wondered, like the Cherokees at their mound, and the tree
appeared more than a century old. The skulls were discovered to be
those of Dahcotahs, by a peculiar formation of the lower jaw, and as
the tribe to which they belonged are not agreed about their own former
dwelling-place, though they left it not more than two centuries ago, we
cannot attach much weight to Indian tradition.

In a stone quarry at St. Peter’s, a copper wedge, weighing three
pounds, was found, about ten years since, fifteen feet below the
surface of the earth. It was perfectly formed, and still bore marks of
the hammer which fashioned it. This, and the exsiccated body (it is no
mummy) which was found in the great cavern in Kentucky, are the only
things we have seen which in our opinion justify even a conjecture that
there was formerly another race of inhabitants on this continent. It
will not, we suppose, be disputed, that the Mexicans were unable to
rear the pyramid of Cholula, or that they are not of the same stock
with our aborigines.

We are unable to decide for what purpose the erections scattered
over our country, and commonly called forts, were intended. They
were probably fortifications, and very sufficient ones they must have
been, before the natives were acquainted with fire arms. Whoever has
seen with what incredible despatch a modern Indian throws up a work
sufficient for the protection of his own body, with no better implement
than his knife, will readily admit that a tribe were fully competent to
erect these works of an antediluvian people.

The great work which the impostor Carver pretends to have seen on the
Mississippi, never had existence, save in the pages of his deceitful
book. We have often sought without finding it, and the Indians of the
neighborhood know nothing about it.

On the eastern shore of lake Pepin, about three miles from its
debouchure, is an extensive prairie, and on its edge, commanding
the lake and the plain, are the ruins of a regular four-bastioned
fort. The curtain and the two western bastions have crumbled away,
and fallen into the lake; but the two other bastions and three
curtains, with the corresponding ditches, scarps and counterscarps, are
perfectly distinct, and might be repaired with little trouble. From its
commanding situation, and its regularity, it is plain that cannon were
mounted upon it, and that it was built by the early French traders or
travellers. This assumption is confirmed by the fact, that asparagus
still grows wild among the ruins, though it is found in no other part
of the country. Yet _Indian tradition_ knows nothing of the origin of
the fort, or its uses.

OLD FORTS. Among what may be called the antiquities of America, there
are few things which excite more interest than the fortifications of
the Highlands of the Hudson. It will readily be remembered that this
river was a pass of vast importance to the contending parties, inasmuch
as it was, during the revolution, the only channel of communication
between the British armies in Canada and those on the sea board. To
prevent a junction, which would have been ruinous to the cause of
freedom, general Washington occupied the Highlands, and made every
height bristle with cannon. The remains of many of the fortifications
are still distinctly visible to the traveller, as he passes up and down
the river; but it is in vain, excepting in a few instances, that he
inquires their history, or even their names. Those at and about West
Point, however, are better known. It is needless to tell here how this
post was well nigh betrayed by the traitor Arnold――the story is still
fresh in the memory of all men, and it is our business to say what may
be said of the works his treason would have surrendered.

West Point is situated at a bend, and the only abrupt one in the
whole course of the Hudson from New York to Albany. It is a large
plain, elevated several hundred feet above the level of the river.
Directly opposite is a large island, called Constitution island, on
which are many eminences commanding the river, which were crowned with
fortifications. Fort Constitution, the principal of these, is still
entire.

On a height below West Point may be observed the remains of fort
Montgomery, the guns of which, it is believed, compelled the Vulture
sloop of war to retire farther down the river, and was thus the cause
of the land excursion and capture of André, and consequently of the
safety of the post. The extremity of the Point is occupied by the ruins
of fort Clinton, which commanded two ranges on the river, and was an
extensive as well as a very strong and important work. It was just
opposite this fort that an enormous iron chain was stretched across the
river to obstruct the passage. It was broken by an English man of war
under full sail; but the vessel was so injured in the attempt, as to
be obliged to put back. There are many other fortifications of minor
importance on and about the Point, which, as well as those already
mentioned, are undergoing a rapid process of decay, and will probably
disappear in less than a century.

But what strikes the eye of the traveller with most imposing effect,
are the hoary ruins of fort Putnam, familiarly called Old Fort Put.
They stand five hundred feet immediately above the plain of West Point,
and once commanded all the batteries on and about it. They have very
much the appearance of a dilapidated castle. The work is of small
extent, but very strong. It stands on the apex of a steep hill, and
the wall on the northern side hangs upon the edge of a perpendicular
precipice. On the other sides, the walls are so high and steep, as to
render escalade impracticable. The walls are solid and very thick, and
contain within their mass apartments for the garrison, and furnaces
for heating shot. There was once an excellent well within the area;
but it is now choked and rendered useless by fragments of the crumbling
masonry. One of the angles contains two cells, probably designed for
prisoners, and for _black holes_. Tradition erroneously says that major
André was confined in one of them. Altogether, the whole ruin has an
imposing appearance, for it is in strict keeping with the grandeur and
wildness of the surrounding scenery, and serves to awaken many pleasing
historical recollections in the American spectator. In the midst
of embattled heights it stands, ‘the key-stone of the arch.’ Of its
strength we may say, that an enemy could not have taken it without
overwhelming numbers, and loss proportionate, or without bombarding it.
In short, it is, in many respects, like what we read of the hill forts
of India. We hope the proverbial economy of our government will not
suffer so interesting a historical monument to fall into utter decay,
and the rather, that a very small expense would restore it to its
original condition.

  Illustration: Fort Putnam.

The remains of fort William Henry, at the head of lake George, are
traced with much interest by every traveller. It was merely a sand
fort, but of great extent. The exterior redoubt, which may still be
traced, comprehends the whole plain between the mountain and the lake,
and the inner works, commanding the water, are in some places very
distinct. The plain pointed out as the parade ground, is extensive
and beautiful. This was the scene of the most wanton and perfidious
massacre which ever disgraced the annals of warfare. Not all the
consecrated water which the French carried home from the ‘_Sacremer_,’
as they beautifully termed the crystal lake, could wash out the foul
stain which this transaction left on the French arms and French faith.
The garrison, consisting of three thousand English and provincials,
under colonel Munro, surrendered, after a long and desperate resistance,
to the French army of ten thousand men, commanded by the marquis de
Montcalm, in 1757. By the terms of the capitulation, the garrison were
to receive a safe escort to fort Edward. They accordingly marched out
to the parade ground, stacked their arms, and awaited the escort. The
Indians, to the number of several thousand, armed with tomahawks and
knives, immediately surrounded them, and began to strip them by force
of their clothing. Colonel Munro, who was in the French camp, anxiously
demanded the escort; but Montcalm delayed it upon frivolous pretences,
and finally refused it. The French stood with folded arms, and beheld
the massacre within pistol shot of their camp. Some few of the devoted
and defenceless soldiers wrested weapons from the hands of their
murderers, and dearly sold their lives; but of the whole number, only
two or three escaped. A young man by the name of Carver, from New
England, of great strength and agility, grappled with and overthrew
several Indians, broke through their ranks, fled into the swamp in the
rear of the fort, and escaped. Strong representations of this affair
were made to the government of France, and Montcalm was called to
a formal account, but was not punished. In his defence, he stated
that, by interfering to prevent the massacre, he would have lost the
confidence of his Indian allies, and incurred their hostility. Musket
balls, grape and chain shot, buttons, hatchets, and human bones, are
frequently ploughed up on this ground. These relics are sometimes left
for sale at the Lake House.

In the rear of fort William Henry, on a commanding eminence, stands
fort George, a small, but, for the time when it was erected, a strong
fortress. The walls are of limestone, twelve or fifteen feet thick, and
thirty or forty feet high. The magazine and arches are of brick work;
a part of the magazine is entire, but the entrance to it is filled up.
The walls have been pulled down in many places by those who had use for
the stone, and all the bricks which could be got at have been carried
off. Several wells, now filled up, may be discovered in the vicinity,
and the ruins of the hospital, arsenal, and other buildings. Fort
George is completely commanded by the neighboring heights, and of
Gage’s hill it is within fair musket-shot. On this hill, however, the
English kept a fort, the remains of the redoubt being still visible.
It is remarkable that every old fort from the Canada line to Albany
is commanded by highlands in its vicinity. When they were built, there
was but little apprehension of artillery. Even the strong and important
fort of Ticonderoga was effectually commanded by mount Defiance, a
circumstance which proved disastrous to the American arms. The prospect
from fort George is extensive and diversified, embracing the village,
the mountains, the islands, and the lake, for a great distance.

‘Passing Plattsburg,’ says a recent English traveller, ‘the scene
of our defeat last war, we reached Crown Point, and then the lake
contracted from four or five miles in breadth to a river channel. The
point was green and elevated, and on it were the ruins of military
works, principally greeted by the Canadian French, when they meditated
and attempted the utter expulsion of the English colonists from the
shores of the Atlantic. Stories are told of vaults and dungeons at
Crown Point, where plots were hatched, in conjunction with the Indians,
for burning the dwellings and massacring the families of the settlers;
and here were displayed “long rows of scalps, white in one place with
the venerable locks of age, and glistening in another with the ringlets
of childhood and of youth.”

‘Next, at the entrance to lake George, with its clear waters,
its picturesque islets, and steep shores, were the remains of the
celebrated fort Ticonderoga, situated on a point of land, surrounded
on three sides with water, and on the fourth, deep trenches cut into
the morass, with high breastworks. It presented one of the most likely
posts to make a gallant defence, that could well be conceived. The ruin
of a barrack, like a “donjon keep,” was the most conspicuous object on
the point.

  Illustration: Old Fort Ticonderoga.

‘It is impossible, as an officer of the black watch, to think
of Ticonderoga without strong emotion, for here, in 1758, the
forty-second, after cutting their way with their claymores through a
broad abattis of prostrate trees, under a heavy fire from the French
garrison, made desperate efforts, for four hours, to scale a high work
without scaling-ladders, by mounting on one another’s shoulders, and
by making holes in it with their bayonets. They were so exasperated
at being so unexpectedly checked; and by the heavy loss which they had
sustained, that they refused to withdraw till ordered a third time to
do so by their general; their loss on this occasion was more than half
the men, and two thirds of the officers, killed or severely wounded;
that is, twenty-five officers, nineteen sergeants, and six hundred and
three privates. About this time, the regiment received the honorary
distinction of royal.’

The remains of the fortifications at Pittsburg occupy a very
interesting position, on the delta formed by the confluence of
the rivers at that place. Of fort Du Quesne, but a small mound
of earth remains. Fort Pitt may be more easily traced; part of
three bastions, about breast high, stand within different private
inclosures, and a piece of the curtain, which, within a few years, was
in complete preservation, may still be discovered. ‘I expected,’ says
an intelligent correspondent of the New York American, ‘to have seen
the magazine of the fort, which I was told was an admirable piece of
masonry, and still endured in the shape of a porter cellar; but upon
arriving at the spot where it had stood but a few weeks before, a pile
of rough stones was all that we could discover. In a country like ours,
where so few antiquities meet the eye, it is melancholy to see these
interesting remnants thus destroyed, and the very landmarks where they
stood effaced forever. Occasionally, too, the works of which every
vestige is thus painfully obliterated, were, especially when erected by
the French, of a peculiarly striking character. The French engineers,
who first introduced the art of fortification into this country, were
of the school of Vauban, and the enduring monuments they raised were
not less noble proofs of their skill, than were the sites selected of
their high military discernment.’ In the vicinity are the remains of a
mill-dam, constructed by the officers of fort Du Quesne, according to
the most approved rules of the time, like a perfect fortification; a
part of the curtain, with traces of some of the bastions, still rewards
the search of the inquisitive.

An old fort on the island Canonicut, which formerly defended the
passage up Narragansett bay, presents an interesting relic of past
times. It is built in a circular form, and is well represented in the
accompanying sketch.

  Illustration: Fort Canonicut.




                      CHAPTER XII.――RELIGION.[86]


THERE can scarcely be a doubt, that among all the political and
social relations of a people, there is none of such primary and
vital importance as their religion; and if this be true of nations
generally, it is peculiarly so of the United States of America. These
states present, in this point of view, a novel spectacle; that of an
experiment, conducted on a scale commensurate with its importance.
We have not here to describe the influence of religion upon savages,
nor upon a race fettered with the shackles of superstition, and of
a predominant church government. We find a civilized and intelligent
community in a situation to which history shows no parallel. Save
the effect of knowledge and principle, there is nothing to influence
the faith of the American citizen, no form of worship prescribed by
law, no predominance of sects, no physical intolerance, no advantage or
disadvantage to hope or fear from difference of opinion. The experiment
has been fully successful; it has proved that a nation may be moral and
religious without any external agency to direct or control the mind.
It may safely be considered to have demonstrated the inexpediency of
a union between church and state.

The constitution expressly forbids the general government to make
any laws with regard to religion, and though the several states have
reserved the right, they seem resolved never to use it. They do, indeed,
sometimes allot portions of new land for the support of public worship,
but the use of the grant is always left to the discretion of the
inhabitants. Such state laws as relate to religious qualifications for
office, &c. are almost a dead letter, if we except those which, in some
states, render the clergy ineligible to the legislature, probably on
the principle that civil and religious duties are incompatible with
each other.

We find religion in the United States free from legal support or
restriction, and, if the experience of fifty years is to be trusted,
this non-interference is favorable to good morals and rational piety.
There is no intolerance, no persecution, little controversy; yet the
people are as religiously given as those of any other country, though
not scrupulous with regard to forms. It has lately been demonstrated by
statistical facts, that religious institutions exist in a much larger
proportion to the population in this country than in any other; and in
no country is the spirit of Christianity manifested more than in this.
Benevolent societies for meliorating the condition of our race in this
and other lands are numerous and increasing, and they display all the
characteristic energy and enterprise of the Americans. The American
missionary is now seen bending his course to the ‘islands of the sea,’
that ‘they may rejoice in the salvation of God,’ and to the ‘utmost
parts of the earth,’ that they too may know the way of life. The Bible
society, having supplied so far as possible every family in this land
with the word of life, is now sending it through the missionaries to
the heathen world; while the Tract society is despatching its little
messengers of ‘_glad tidings_’ through the earth. Home Missionary, for
the supplying destitute places in the United States with the ordinances
of the gospel, Sabbath School, Prison Discipline, and numerous kindred
societies are also lending their aid; and there seems to be a spirit
of philanthropy pervading all denominations of evangelical Christians,
which knows no bounds but the ends of the earth. May this spirit be
increased a thousand fold!

                 ‘Shall we, whose souls are lighted
                  With wisdom from on high,
                  Shall we to men benighted
                  The lamp of life deny?’――_Heber._

It is almost unnecessary to say, the religious aspect of different
parts of the great confederacy is far from uniform. This would be
the natural result of the freedom of religious opinions, and the
circumstances of the early settlement of the country. New England,
settled by the Puritans, retains much of the strong impress of the
character of her fathers. Maryland was settled by Roman Catholics,
Pennsylvania by Quakers, and other states by Episcopalians, while
colonies of Swedes, French, and Dutchmen formed the starting points
of others. Some persons are disposed to mourn over the fact, that
Christians are divided into such a number of denominations, which they
conceive to be an evil, and they earnestly long for the time to come
when all these things shall be done away. It is indeed to be regretted
that a greater degree of harmony and charity does not prevail among
the great denominations which compose the mass of Christians, and that
the time should come speedily when all shall ‘love one another with
a pure heart fervently,’ is ‘most devoutly to be wished.’ Still these
differences of opinion are the inevitable consequences of freedom
of opinion on _any_ subject; and as the Bible has not clearly marked
out any _form_ of church order and discipline, in which the chief
difference consists among evangelical Christians, it can never be
expected that all will agree upon this subject any more than upon any
other. And on the whole it is best they should not; and it was wise in
the great Head of the church to leave these things, _non-essential_, as
he has, that different denominations may by a holy rivalry ‘stir each
other up to good works.’ What a safeguard against intolerance, and the
evils of bigotry and oppression, when several large and balancing sects
exist in a community at the same time――a mutual check, and mutually
operating on each other to prevent corruption. We should fear the
result in our own land of the great predominance of _any_ sect, but
most of all that which, owning allegiance to a foreign civil and
ecclesiastical potentate, is even now seeking to gain possession of
our fair inheritance――we mean the Roman Catholic. While their right to
propagate their opinions by all fair and constitutional means equally
with others is freely admitted, the influence of their principles on
our institutions, should they finally prevail, cannot but be dreaded.
What popery has been it ever must be, the very foundation-stone being
the infallibility of the church, which of course can never have done
wrong, and can never change in any of its great characteristics. (_See
note at the end of this article._)

We will now proceed to notice the principal sects existing in this
country.

METHODISTS. The Methodists are the most numerous denomination in the
United States, being found in all parts of the Union in considerable
numbers. They count more than six hundred thousand members of
their churches. There are two principal classes of Methodists:――the
_Wesleyan_, who are Arminians, and the most numerous. They are named
from John Wesley, one of the founders of the sect. The other class,
to which Whitfield belonged, are Calvinistic in their doctrines.
They are also divided into two bodies on the question of church
order and discipline,――the _Methodist Episcopal_ and the _Protestant
Methodist_;――the latter are seceders from the former body. Attached to
the former there were, in 1833, five bishops, twenty-two hundred and
thirty travelling preachers, and nearly five hundred thousand members
of the churches; to the latter, four hundred ministers and fifty
thousand communicants.

BAPTISTS. This denomination is second in the United States as to
numbers. They estimate from four to five hundred thousand members
of their churches. They are chiefly Calvinistic in doctrine, and
independent or congregational in their form of church government,
differing little in any respect from the latter denomination, except
that they administer baptism by immersion, and only to _adult_
believers.[87]

PRESBYTERIANS. This is the third numerically of the religious sects
of this country. It is the offspring of the church of Scotland.
Their doctrines are strictly Calvinistic. At the first meeting of
the general assembly, in 1789, there were but about one hundred and
eighty or ninety ministers belonging to the whole body, in four synods
and seventeen presbyteries. In 1834 it embraced twenty-three synods,
one hundred and eighteen presbyteries, two thousand six hundred and
forty-eight congregations, one thousand nine hundred and fourteen
_ordained_ ministers, and two hundred and fifty licentiates, and more
than two hundred and forty-seven thousand nine hundred and sixty four
communicants. Of these ministers, about one-third reside in the state
of New York, the next largest number in Pennsylvania, and the next
largest in Ohio; some are found in every state.

CONGREGATIONALISTS. This denomination, differing from the Presbyterian
only in regard to church order and government, abounds chiefly in New
England, where they are the most numerous sect, although there are
churches of this order in other states. According to their principles,
each congregation of Christians is a complete church, which may commune
with other churches if it pleases, and may appoint its own officers, to
exercise discipline within itself. These Christians have sometimes been
called Independents, from whom, however, they differ in some respects.
Congregationalist and Independent are synonymous terms in _England_.
They have pastors and deacons, the latter having the care of the
secular concerns of the church, and not being allowed to preach. Their
doctrines are the same as those of the Presbyterians, with whom they
are united in all the great benevolent societies and movements of the
day. Number of members, about one hundred and fifty thousand.

EPISCOPALIANS. The organization of the American Episcopal church
took place during the war of the revolution, and (to secure the
uninterrupted apostolic succession, as they say) the first bishop
procured ordination from the Scottish bishops at Aberdeen, and two
others were soon afterwards consecrated by the archbishop of Canterbury
in England, and thus the succession was preserved unbroken. They have
ten bishops, fifteen dioceses, and five hundred and twenty-eight clergy,
priests, and deacons. The highest dignitary recognised is the Bishop.
Priests and Deacons are the only other clergy known. The supreme
authority is vested in a general convention, composed of a house of
bishops and a house of lay delegates. Each diocese has a convention for
the regulation of its own affairs. The state conventions consist of the
clergy of the diocese, and a lay delegation from each church. No salary
is given to bishops, as such; they are supported as rectors of churches.

The influence of republican principles is thus strikingly manifest in
many of the features of American Episcopacy. The people always choose
their own ministers, the bishops are elected by a procedure, according
to which the laity have a vote through their delegates, and no salaries
are independent of a similar vote. In all these particulars, the
American church differs from that of England, but in doctrine and
principles they are the same.

UNITARIANS; a small body chiefly in the state of Massachusetts, and
mostly in and around Boston. They are Independents in church government.
In doctrines they are mostly either ultra Universalists, or hold the
belief of the final restoration of all men. They reject the doctrine
of the Trinity, and the doctrines called Calvinistic altogether. The
congregation of the King’s Chapel, in Boston, was probably the first
which cherished these principles. It was originally an Episcopalian
society, and they now use the liturgy, altered in some points to adapt
it to their views.

UNIVERSALISTS are a considerably numerous body. They are divided
into two classes――_Ultra_, or those who reject altogether the idea of
future punishments, and _Restorationists_, or those who believe in a
punishment after death, but which is not eternal.

QUAKERS. Pennsylvania is the strong-hold of the Quakers, although there
are considerable numbers in New Jersey, the city of New York, &c. There
are two sects, the one orthodox, the other followers of Elias Hicks,
or Hicksites. They dispute between themselves which has seceded from
the original principles of the denomination. The Quakers of England
sent forth an epistle in 1829, containing a confession of faith, which
acknowledged the inspiration of the Scriptures, the divinity of the
Savior, his atonement, &c. The Hicksites are generally considered the
seceders.

The DUTCH REFORMED was the established church in New York until its
surrender to England. Its first classes was formed in America in 1757.
Its government is vested in consistories, classes, and synods. Members
of the _German Reformed_ church are found principally in Pennsylvania,
and also in Maryland, Virginia, Ohio, and other states. There are more
than five hundred congregations of them. The American _Lutheran_ church
has eight hundred congregations. The United Brethren, or _Shakers_,
a singular, harmless, inoffensive and industrious race, are found in
Pennsylvania, North Carolina, New York, Massachusetts, and other states.
There may be about six thousand of them. The _Swedenborgians_ also hold
an annual convention.

INFIDELS. It is proper to mention under the head of religion, in order
to give a correct view of the religious state of the country, a class
of persons, divided into several subdivisions, and generally looked
upon with pity by professing Christians of all denominations, and
viewed with concern by all the rational friends of liberty. We speak of
the Owenites, Fanny Wrightites, Harmonites, Deists, or, according to a
very common form of parlance, Freethinkers, Infidels, or Atheists. All
of them, we believe, affirm that a community of property, labor, and
education, is necessary to the well-being of mankind, and hold that a
belief in divine revelation is unnecessary and absurd. They hold, too,
that the marriage covenant is binding only during the pleasure of the
contracting parties. Rapp, who brought a colony of foreigners of this
faith to the banks of the Ohio, acquired an almost unlimited authority
over them. He forbade the intercourse of the sexes for a year or more,
and was obeyed. He divided the lands among his followers, instituted
regulations for manual labor, and the products of the common exertion
was thrown into a common stock. Mr. Owen’s settlement, called Harmony,
was conducted on nearly the same principles of equality. This gentleman
possessed a large property in Scotland, which he abandoned to found a
colony, and disseminate the doctrines of Voltaire and Paine, in America,
in which he was very efficiently aided by the celebrated Miss Frances
Wright. Both of them went about the country several years, lecturing
against Christianity and revelation; but with no very great success.
They finally showed that practice does not always conform to principle,
by marrying one another. Mr. Owen’s settlement has long been abandoned,
his followers not having attained that degree of moral and social
perfection requisite for its success!

Such principles as those of Mr. Owen, striking, as they do, at the very
root of society, will never, it is to be hoped, prevail to any great
extent in any part of the world.[88] The Freethinkers are at present
but a small body, without order or government as a party, and little
respectable as individuals. They are probably not more than five or
six thousand. They have newspapers and places of meeting, in New York,
Boston, and elsewhere. Many of them are avowed atheists. Had they been
persecuted, molested, or opposed in any degree, it is probable they
would have multiplied much faster than they have.

PAPISTS or Roman Catholics. This sect is rapidly increasing in the
United States; a fact which ought to alarm all the friends of liberty
and true religion.[89]

In 1632, a priest of the order of the Jesuits accompanied the early
settlers to Maryland, and since that time the Catholic population have
been supplied with instructers of their own persuasion from England.
A see was constituted, and a bishop consecrated, in 1790. In 1810,
it became an archiepiscopal see, and four new suffragan dioceses were
established, viz.: in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Bardstown,
in Kentucky, to which some more have since been added, in New Orleans,
Charleston, Richmond, and Cincinnati, &c. Regular missions are also
established all over the country, and it would seem, from the zeal of
the missionaries, as well as by the language of the pope, that very
great importance is attached to the future religious faith of America
by the court of Rome. Nor have the devoted exertions of the priests
failed of much success, for it has been computed that half a million
of the people of the United States are Roman Catholics, of which not
less than ten thousand are in the city of _Boston_, being one sixth of
its population. It is stated that bishop England, of Baltimore, is an
officer of the Inquisition!




                CHAPTER XIII.――MANNERS AND AMUSEMENTS.


THE dispositions and feelings of the inhabitants of the different
portions of the United States have been modified by a great variety
of circumstances. Difference of descent has operated with its usual
power. The stern Puritan, the open-hearted and honest Dutchman,
the light-hearted and easy Frenchman, the German, the Spaniard, the
Catholic, the Huguenot, all have their representatives in various
portions of the country. The distinctive national peculiarities have
in some measure been worn off, and the varying elements have been
amalgamated by constant intercourse, intermarriage, removals from one
part to another, and the gradual effects of time. Still the national
character is very distinct in distinct sections of the country, and
in the following account of the various manners and customs, we have
uniformly followed what we consider the best authority.

The people of New England are grave, though they are not without
humor; many of their amusements are of a reflecting kind, and their
conversation tends rather to useful than to light or gay subjects.
They are moral and pious, and the descendants of the Puritans retain
much of the strictness of their fathers. If not ardent, they are to
a great degree persevering, and though inquisitive, they are equally
communicative. They are shrewd and calculating, yet not deceitful.
They are no ‘granters of propositions;’ with them almost all things
are subjects for discussion, in which they manifest much ingenuity.
They have a caution that prevails in all things, and they seldom answer
directly an abrupt question, without knowing why it is asked. They have
the impress of Franklin; Poor Richard’s maxims of thrift fall upon a
congenial soil, and no proverbs are oftener quoted, or more followed.
They are like Franklin, to a great degree inventive in practical things,
and far the greater number of inventions in the patent office are from
New England. It is peculiar to these people, that they are seldom found
without a pocket knife, which they use with dexterity; and boys at
school are frequently seen _whittling_, or cutting wood into some shape,
for a wind-mill or other toy. It is a universal trait, and it is said
that a gentleman in Havana, who invited a large company to dine, gave
each man from New England a shingle to cut, that they might not carve
his furniture.

One of the first traits developed in the New England character is, if
not a love of gain, at least a disposition to traffic. It commences at
an early age, and children at school not only exchange or ‘swap’ knives,
and other things, but make lotteries, in which the prizes are paid in
gingerbread and raisins, and which leave a little profit to the manager
and proprietor. The farmers too, though not the most industrious kind,
sometimes bring up horses and cattle for a ‘swap’ to the village inn;
and the tin pedlars, whose wheels are in every road in the United
States, are to a man from New England.

Another trait of character is the readiness with which the people of
New England admit the equality of all men with themselves, and the
steadiness with which they deny, both in theory and practice, that any
are superior. It would raise a tempest in the breast even of a female
domestic, to ask for her _mistress_, nor would she be satisfied to
be called a servant, or even a domestic. _Help_ is the word by which
servants reconcile their pride with their interest or employment, as
it denotes, that though the assistants, they are the equals of their
employers. A foreigner probably finds some ground for dissatisfaction
on the score of domestics, for among house-wives it is a subject of
universal complaint at home; the best servants are English, who have
been more familiar with the distinction of classes.

The people of New England are distinguished for their _celebrations_.
They are interlocked with each other by innumerable societies and
associations, and one man is a member of many. These have their
anniversaries, which, with the national and other holidays, make a
great many processions, public dinners, and addresses. It is also usual
to offer public dinners to those who have done acceptable services in
high public stations.

A town meeting is perhaps the best place wherein to see the
self-control of the people, when highly excited on questions of general
or local interest. Every town is within certain limits a pure democracy,
and its doings are attended with perfect decorum under the moderator,
who is chosen, as the word implies, to mollify any over-zealous
excitement. If, on these occasions, any citizen becomes turbulent, or
abusive in language, the sense of the assembly is so strongly expressed
against him, that he is at once reduced to order. Generally speaking,
there are no mobs or riotous assemblies. The interference of a few
constables, or the reading of the ‘riot act’ by a magistrate, is
sufficient to disperse any tumultuous throng. A tumult at a town
meeting or election, is a thing unheard of among us.

Some of the most peculiar manners and customs of New England are found
in the island of Nantucket, and the neighboring part of the continent.
Nantucket is a happy settlement; not that it has precious metals
in its bosom, or fertility in its soil, but because the people are
simple, innocent, and contented. The sea is their patrimony, and they
gather its bounties in the most distant ports. The whale fishery in
New England was commenced by six persons in Nantucket; one watched on
an eminence for the spouting of the whale, and when he discovered it,
all would pursue in a small boat, and they seldom failed to tow the
leviathan ashore. Gains extended the adventure, ships were fitted out,
and the whale was chased from the temperate regions to the arctic seas,
and followed to the remotest shores of the Pacific ocean.

Among the people, there are none idle, and few destitute. The vices
of commercial places are hardly known, and it is admitted all over New
England to be a great presumption in favor of a man’s honesty, that
he comes from Nantucket. The Friends or Quakers give to the language a
simplicity of diction truly Doric, and though they take some liberties
with the commonwealth’s English, yet in a person brought up with them,
to speak in a more classic manner would be held to savor of affectation
and pretension. The various relationships, and the kindly feelings,
have introduced the custom of calling elderly people uncle or aunt, and
the younger, cousin. Even a stranger soon falls into this habit. The
people generally marry young, and few live in celibacy. They are social
to a great degree, and are eminently distinguished for their frequent
visitings, to sup at each other’s houses. They live more as though they
made a large family, than a small community.

The following tribute to the New England character is from Captain
Hall, whom no one can accuse of a desire to overpraise what he saw in
this country. ‘I had, however, many sharp amicable discussions with my
friends at Boston, on the thousand and one topics that arose between
us, but I must do them the justice to say, that I never met a more
good-natured, or perhaps I should say, good-tempered people; for,
during the whole course of my journey, though I never disguised my
sentiments, even when opposed to the avowed favorite opinions of the
company, I never yet saw an American out of temper. I fear I cannot say
half so much for myself, for I was often a good deal harassed by these
national discussions, when the company and I took our station on the
opposite poles of the question. But it is pleasant to have it in my
power to say that I cannot recall a single instance in which any thing
captious, or personally uncivil, was ever said to me, though I repeated
openly, and in all companies, every thing I have written in these
volumes, and a great deal more than upon cool reflection I choose to
say again.’

In general, the amusements are of a thoughtful rather than a gay
character, and games of skill are preferred to those of chance. The
character of the Puritans has given some tone to the amusements and
holidays. Theatres are seldom even fashionably attended, and there are
many who hold it unlawful to enter them. There are places, too, in the
country, where dancing is considered to be a ‘vain, idle, and sinful
amusement.’

The active sports are principally games of ball, and sometimes running
and wrestling; formerly, different towns and parishes had their
champions in wrestling, to try their superiority by matches, in which
several fatal accidents occurred; but the sport is now almost entirely
disused. Boxing, which is so universal in England, is almost unknown,
and horse-racing and cock-fighting are seldom seen. In winter, when
there are delightful moonlight nights, sleigh-rides are a favorite
amusement. Parties of both sexes sit in large sleighs, as closely as
they can be packed, and sometimes in each others’ laps, scour over
several miles at a rapid rate, and at some hotel, find not only a
supper but a fiddler in attendance, whose gains are much enhanced in
the season of sleighing. There are several holidays, but none that
are observed in England. Election day is that on which the governor
is declared to be elected, and has heretofore been one of the most
‘time-honored’ days in the calendar. On this day, the young men often
take sides, in what is called a ‘bird shoot,’ to destroy the birds most
mischievous to crops, and the party bringing in the least number of
heads is vanquished, and gives a dinner to the other.

Fast day is an observance that has descended from the pilgrims, and is
kept with a decent solemnity. The governors appoint one day in the year,
in all the New England states, for ‘fasting, humiliation, and prayer;’
there is little business transacted, and the people generally attend
in the churches, which are called more generally, from an old dislike
to Episcopacy, meeting-houses. Thanksgiving is also a day appointed
by the same authorities, and the intent of the edict or proclamation
is carried into full effect by the disposition of the people. It is
always appointed in the _fall_ or autumn, after the harvests, when the
garners are full; and poor indeed is the inmate of the hovel that has
not on that day plenty and luxury on his board. The preparations for
thanksgiving continue several days, and for many more the prepared
viands are not exhausted. It is the day for family meetings, and it
is then that members of the same family often come hundreds of miles
to meet again, to renew the bands of affinity and affection under the
paternal roof. It is at this feast that the simplicity and patriarchal
character of a New England grandsire is pre-eminent.

Before and after thanksgiving, there are held all over the country
‘shooting matches,’ which are announced by printed placards, headed
‘sportsmen attend,’ and which set forth that geese, turkeys, and fowls,
will be set up for marksmen. They are shot at, generally after they
are killed, with rifles, at certain distances, and rates are paid for
every shot. If they are hit, the marksman has the game. These sports
are commonly held in some retired spot, or at some deserted house, by
which there is little passing, and where a day or two is spent as in
an encampment. A bear or deer is sometimes shot at in the same way.

Autumn also brings other holiday observances, one of which is
‘husking,’ when the men of a neighborhood meet to husk the Indian corn
of one of the number, that is, to separate it from the sheaf. A good
supper, and sometimes a dance, ensues. The females have also similar
meetings, called ‘quilting bees,’ when many assemble to work for
one, in padding or _quilting_ bed coverings or _comforters_. Militia
musters or reviews collect many people, but they are happily growing
out of date; they generally display the most repulsive traits of the
New England character. An ordination of a clergyman over a society
discloses better characteristics. It is a time when every house in the
society is invitingly open, when the master generally ‘provides’ for
more guests than he has the good fortune to secure; and when he may
be seen forestalling his neighbors, by asking visiters to dine, before
they arrive at the church. Persons of all creeds and conditions are
pressed, nothing loath, to the feasts that smoke upon a hundred tables.

Ploughing matches and cattle shows are held only in autumn; they
attract many people, and give a favorable impulse to the interests
of agriculture. The celebration of the fourth of July, or, as it is
called, Independence, is not peculiar to New England; it is the great
national holiday, honored by salutes of cannon, fireworks, processions,
addresses, dinners, in all cities, and in the most secluded corners of
the republic.

In the middle states there is little general or peculiar character.
In Pennsylvania, society takes a tone from the Friends, particularly
in Philadelphia and some other towns; in the interior, German influence
is equally perceptible. New York has the air and character of all
great commercial cities. One abominable custom deserves to be mentioned
with reprobation. Swine are by law permitted to range at large, and
these quadruped scavengers are, of course, intolerable nuisances.
Philadelphia and Baltimore seem to have escaped, in some measure, from
the moral evils which appear almost inseparable from great cities. In
these places, the manner of life is far more quiet and domestic than in
New York, and in the former city the arts and sciences meet with a more
assiduous cultivation. The Wistar parties of this city, assemblies held
at gentlemen’s houses, where the conversation is chiefly on literary
and scientific subjects, are much praised by intelligent strangers.[90]

The amusements of the middle states are more various than the other
sections of the country. As the three largest cities in the union are
distant one from the other but about a hundred miles, there are of
course greater facilities and encouragement for scenic exhibitions; and
the theatres, especially in New York, are much attended. The actors are
generally English, and the best English performers often come over for
a season. There is a French opera company, also, who at times perform
in the cities, where they give general pleasure, and a splendid opera
house has been recently erected in New York. In the latter city,
there are several expensive public gardens, in which a great variety
of costly fireworks, shows, and amusements, are offered in the warm
seasons; when lighted up at night, they are very brilliant, and
they attract crowds of people. There are many small gardens, where
refreshments are sold; and in Philadelphia the number of these is
considerable, though some of them contain little else than a few
alcoves, covered with creeping plants.

Horse racing, which in New England is almost unknown, is more honored
in the middle states; and some of the matches on Long Island and in
Dutchess county, have been attended by vast crowds of people. Boat
races also are sometimes held in the calm waters about New York.

Skating is practised with great animation, and thousands of people
collect on the Delaware, at Philadelphia, when the stream is frozen.
An ox, on such occasions, has sometimes been roasted on the ice, near
the Mariners’ hotel, which is the hull of a large vessel, moored in the
river. Skating is very general amusement in the northern parts of the
United States, and there are few boys who have not a pair of skates.
_Coasting_ is another winter pastime, in which, as in many other games,
the labor seems to be at least equal to the pleasure. When the snow
covers the earth, a troop of joyous boys assemble on the top of a long
and steep hill, and each one sitting upon a little sled, gives it an
impulse which carries him to the bottom with accelerating velocity, and
far into the plain below. The motion is sometimes so swift that it is
like the sweep of an eagle. In the cities, fatal accidents occur in
following this amusement, and there are generally penalties imposed by
law for pursuing it there.

The coasting is performed, however, in the country, upon a grander
scale; the great ox sled, or sledge, is carried up with commendable
perseverance and toil, and so covered with youth of both sexes, that
little of the timber appears. When fitted, it is launched; but when
adrift it is more difficult to be guided than the single sledge, and
the whole freight is sometimes turned topsy turvy into a snow bank half
way down the hill. This, however, seems to increase the enjoyment. This
practice of coasting is even more common in New England than in the
middle states.

There are some traits of character which run through the southern
states, modified by a variety of circumstances, but most obviously and
generally by the system of domestic slavery. The character of Virginia
and South Carolina is perhaps, in many respects, superior to that of
the Southern states, yet the principal characteristics are common to
all. In Virginia, many of the old English modes of life are retained,
and the domains of the landed proprietors have the extent of English
baronies. Attachment to home, family connections, and profuse
hospitality, eminently distinguish this high-minded and honorable
class.

The people of Carolina, who dwell in the lower country, are annually
compelled to leave their homes, however attached to them. None can
travel without gaining knowledge, and losing prejudices, and the
Carolinians are, to a great degree, liberal and intelligent. To
remain in summer on the plantations, is at the risk of life; they are
therefore found, at that season, in the northern and eastern states,
and in Europe. They are social, and in general closely united. In New
England, gentlemen of neighboring towns are often unacquainted with
each other; but in Carolina, the acquaintance extends over the state.
This arises from the intercourse of the capital, where all are found in
spring, and from the fellowships that are formed in packets, or while
residing or travelling in other states.

It may be thought that the life of a southern agriculturist is one of
indolence and ease. It is the very reverse; it is one of far greater
activity than is led by gentlemen of wealth elsewhere. The cares of a
plantation are sufficient to consume the day, and the planter is often
on horseback in his fields, till evening. His notions of space are
so liberal, that he will readily ride a dozen miles to dine, and he
engages in the chase with his characteristic ardor. No men ride so
fearlessly; and the game is followed at full speed in thick woods,
among holes, horizontal branches, and prostrate trunks. The social
relations are admirable. The season for visiting is never over, and as
the social is as much increased as any other principle, by cultivation,
here it attains to its best growth. There is, among relatives, great
kindliness of feeling, and the circle it embraces is wider than in New
England. Any one may, as far as affinity can be traced,

          ‘Claim kindred there, and have his claim allowed.’

Gentlemen meet at frequent intervals in club houses, often built in the
woods, where the entertainment is furnished by each one in turn.

The people of the south have more haughtiness, courtesy, and a higher
estimation of personal dignity, than those of the north. Pride is the
natural consequence of superiority of station, though it is generally
incompatible with meanness. A planter would be more apt to do what he
would be sorry for, than what he would be ashamed of. A slight wound of
pride is more strictly avenged, than a greater injury to property; and
a lack of courtesy is perhaps as much reprobated as a breach in morals.
Duelling is the natural growth of such a state, and though it is not
frequent, it is but too well established by custom. The challenged is
held to fight, even if he feel no resentment, or has done no injustice;
and he sometimes perils his life for mere expediency: as he would put
it to some risk to preserve his property, he is led to believe that he
must do it also to save his character.

‘The poles,’ says a recent traveller, ‘are not more diametrically
opposed, than a native of the states south of the Potomac, and a New
Englander. They differ in every thing of thought, feeling, and opinion.
The latter is a man of regular and decorous habits, shrewd, intelligent,
and persevering; phlegmatic in temperament, devoted to the pursuits
of gain, and envious of those who are more successful than himself.
The former――I speak of the opulent and educated――is distinguished by
a high-mindedness, generosity, and hospitality, by no means predicable
of his more eastern neighbors. He values money only for the enjoyments
it can procure, is fond of gayety, given to social pleasures, somewhat
touchy and choleric, and as eager to avenge an insult as to show a
kindness. To fight a duel in the New England states would, under almost
any circumstances, be disgraceful. To refuse a challenge, to tolerate
even an insinuation derogatory from personal honor, would be considered
equally so in the South.

‘In point of manner, the southern gentlemen are decidedly superior to
all others of the union. Being more dependent on social intercourse,
they are at greater pains, perhaps, to render it agreeable. There
is more spirit and vivacity about them, and far less of that prudent
caution, which, however advantageous on the exchange, is by no means
prepossessing at the dinner-table, or in the drawing-room. When at
Washington, I was a good deal thrown into the society of members from
the South, and left it armed, by their kindness, with a multitude of
letters, of which I regret that my hurried progress did not permit me
to avail myself. Many of them were men of much accomplishment, and I
think it probable that Englishmen, unconnected with business, would
generally prefer the society of gentlemen of this portion of the union,
to any other which the country affords.’

The amusements and occupations of the people inhabiting the valley of
the Mississippi afford no great scope to the pen of the true chronicler,
though they have often furnished materials for the foreign traveller
and the novelist. A new country, inhabited by what may be called, in
some sort, a new people, must, however, present some scenes which may
serve to amuse, if not to instruct.[91]

New Orleans seems, by common consent, to be the focus in which the
eccentricities of Missouri, Kentucky, and the rest of the western
country concentrate. Here are seen the Spaniard with his lazo, the
Kentuckian with his _broad-horn_, or flat-bottomed ark, the merchant
from Europe or the New England states, stepping stately from the deck
of his ship, the slave with his burthen on his shoulders, and the
gambler looking out for his prey. Not the least interesting of the
classes of this heterogenous population, are the women who have not
the pure white complexion of the Atlantic coast, or the crisp locks
and bent limbs of their remote African ancestors. These females hold
an anomalous position among the races by whom they are surrounded,
which will require some further comment. They are called _quadroons_,
_mustees_, _mulattoes_, &c. as the purity of their parentage or the
circumstances of their birth may require.

These women, being generally the offspring of white men of standing and
respectability, are left in singularly unfortunate circumstances. They
have the feelings, and, in a considerable degree, the education and
sentiments of their more pure-blooded countrywomen. Nevertheless, the
prejudice, or feeling, be it natural or not, which inclines every free
white American to view the whole African race as an inferior order of
mankind, prevents any legitimate union with them. So situated, they
make the best of the condition into which the accident of birth, and
not their own fault, has thrown them. They form temporary connections
with such respectable whites as are able to maintain them in ease,
and attachments are often formed, which are not surpassed, or scarcely
equalled, by any of which we read in romance. However, the connection
is generally considered in the light of a bargain. The mother
promenades with her fairer daughter on the levee, till some white
stranger, smitten with the charms of the latter, makes a proposal.
A bargain is made, limited in time, or unlimited, according to
circumstances, and a breach of faith, thus plighted, rarely occurs.
This connection, infamous as it seems, involves no disgrace in New
Orleans. It is the most respectable condition to which a female, who
is conscious of the taint of black blood, can aspire. She is neither
shunned nor scorned, and may hold up her head in any company into which
she may happen to enter.

Strange scenes sometimes occur, in consequence of the mixture of races
on the banks of the levee of New Orleans. The small trader tries to
take advantage of all with whom he is thrown in contact. The Indian
begs, the over-wrought slave groans, the backwoodsman bullies. ‘Twenty
dollars,’ cried a Kentuckian boatman, stepping upon the levee, ‘to any
man who stops my moderate head-way.’ A Mexican hunter of wild horses,
who rode quietly behind him, threw his lazo over his head, wheeled his
horse short round, and gallopped up the levee, dragging the boaster
after him.

Gaming is practised in New Orleans, probably to a greater extent than
in any other part of the United States. The vice being considered
little or no shame, houses are kept openly. This may be considered one
great well-spring of social corruption.

The inhabitants of the states on the Ohio and Mississippi raise great
quantities of grain, not to speak of pork and other commodities which
bring profit to American agriculturists. New Orleans is the mart where
these articles find a vent, and the principal object of a western
farmer is to get them thither. To this effect, he builds what he calls
a _flat_ boat, that is to say, a large square box, without a lid,
capable of containing and transporting many tons. The materials of this
vehicle are found in abundance all over the valley of the Mississippi,
and the cost of building it is therefore small. In this bark the farmer
commits himself to the waters, and if he escapes snags, sawyers, &c.
which usually happens, he arrives in New Orleans, where he disposes of
his produce. Keel boats are also used for the transportation of goods
and produce, but since steamboats have become common on the Mississippi
waters, they have in a great measure superseded the aforesaid means
of conveyance. Still, the keel and flat boats may merit a description.
The former were nearly in the form of the packets used on the Erie
and Middlesex canals, and were propelled by poles, oars, and sails.
The latter were unmanagable hulks, which floated at the mercy of the
current, and could only be diverted from rocks, snags, and other perils
of river navigation, by the use of sweeps, which, however, could only
move them in a lateral direction. On arriving at New Orleans, their
owners broke them up, as no human power could have taken them up stream,
and sold them for fire wood. They then returned to their homes by land.
Flat and keel boats are now rarely seen on the western waters; but when
they were the only means of transportation, they reared a hardy class,
fit to fight with Indians, or to subdue the wilderness. This class,
thanks to steam navigation, is now on the verge of extinction, and the
valley of the Mississippi has seen ‘the Last of the Boatmen.’

‘King balls’ are still in vogue in this region, both in the white and
free colored classes. A ball is given, precisely like those known in
other parts of the United States, excepting in one particular. He who
gives the ball, singles out a lady whom he designates his ‘queen,’
to whom he gives, and who receives, his exclusive attention, for the
remainder of the season. The other guests do likewise, and the _queens_
frequently receive presents to a large amount, before the temporary
connection is dissolved. Evil is seldom, if ever, known to come of this
custom.

Rough athletic sports, racing and shooting matches, are the most common
amusements of the men of the west. It is common for parties to test
their marksmanship by squirrel shooting, with the western weapon, the
rifle. The hunter aims solely at the head of the little animal, and the
shot which takes effect in any other part is reckoned as nothing. The
rifle used in this and other sports, is very different from those used
by volunteer companies in the eastern states, the barrel being very
heavy, the bore small, and the sights adjusted with scrupulous accuracy.
Hence the proverbial marksmanship of the backwoodsmen, so apparent
at New Orleans and elsewhere. The feats of individual hunters almost
transcend belief. Some have been known to throw two apples into the
air, and strike them both with a single bullet as they crossed each
other, and it is not uncommon for one man to hold up a small object for
another to shoot at. The celebrated ‘Mike Fink’ used to amuse himself
by shooting off the tails of swine, as they ran, and hitting his wife’s
comb upon her head.

A pastime is sometimes practised at weddings and other high festive
occasions, which is called a _goose_ or _gander_ pulling. The manner
is this. The toughest goose is selected from the flock, and its neck is
stripped of its feathers, and then well soaped or greased. A suitable
tree is next selected, an oak or hickory being preferred. The feet of
the fowl are then made fast to the extremity of a pliant limb, about
as high as a man on horseback can reach. Bets are made, and a prize
proposed. The first sportsman rides under the tree at full speed, and
snatches at the neck of the devoted fowl as he passes. If he succeeds
in pulling off its head, he gains the prize; but this rarely happens
at the first trial. The neck is too slippery, the animal sees and
avoids the horseman’s grasp, and the swaying branch aids its efforts.
Besides, the exploit requires no little strength of arm, and is
seldom accomplished without sundry falls and bruises; all of which
are considered matter of merriment.

The slaves of that section have little amusement, save what they
derive from their constitutional good humor. Dances and corn huskings,
or _shuckings_, are their chief pastimes. After laboring hard all day,
the negro will cheerfully run to a dance, half a score of miles off,
and get back to his toil before morning. A corn shucking is a matter
of more importance. The sable helots sit in a circle round the heap
of maize, keeping time with head and hand to some rude ditty like the
following:――

             ‘O I wish that I had the wings of an eagle!
                Ho! ho! he――ho――ho!
              I’d fly away to a wild-goose country,
                Ho, ho, he――ho――ho!’

This is sometimes accompanied by the banjoe, a kind of rude fiddle.
‘Possum up a gum stump,’ is a great favorite with these choristers.

Buffalo hunting was once, as deer hunting is now, a favorite amusement
of the backwoodsmen. The wild cattle have long since receded beyond
the Mississippi, and now furnish sport only to the wandering Indians,
their traders, and the no less hardy bands of trappers and hunters.
Some account of the manner of taking this huge animal may not be out
of place here.

The scent of the buffalo, though otherwise it is a very stupid animal,
is exceedingly acute. It will scent a man more than a league, and flee
in alarm, though it is not terrified at the sight of the human race.
Hence it is necessary for the pedestrian hunter to get to leeward of
the object of his pursuit. Having approached the animal as nearly as
he well may, he stoops, then gets upon all fours, and finally drags
himself along prone, pushing his firelock before him. If there be
long grass, or if, in winter, the snow be deep, the circumstance much
facilitates his operations. If the animal ceases to feed to look at
him, he stops and remains motionless till it begins to graze again. By
observing these precautions, the buffalo may be approached to within
a few yards. When the hunter is nigh enough, he directs his aim behind
the beast’s fore-shoulder, and inflicts a mortal wound. This, however,
is but a slow and unsatisfactory mode of hunting, inasmuch as it
consumes much time, and only one buffalo can be killed in many hours.
The best and most experienced hunters follow the chase on horseback.

The mounted sportsman dashes into the thick of the herd, and singles
out the best and fattest. The buffalo, when frightened, runs fast,
but awkwardly. His gait is that of a swine, and this peculiar gait the
trained horse acquires, and assumes when beside the game, obeying the
least pressure of the rider’s foot or knee. The hunter takes care to
keep at least his horse’s length from the buffalo, in order that, if
the latter should turn upon him, which he will certainly do if wounded,
he may have time and space to escape. All precautions being duly
taken, the horseman throws the reins on his steed’s neck, holds his gun
stiffly with both hands, and fires. The horse swerves at the flash, and
the rider directs him to new game, himself loading at full speed. An
expert huntsman will kill as many as half a score of buffaloes at one
race, and rarely misses the heart.

When an Indian wounds a buffalo, he leaves it to die or separate from
the herd, and his companions never interfere with what has thus become
his property. Few of the skins of the animals so killed are taken, and
the greater part of the flesh remains a prey to the wolves and ravens.
When the cattle are in plenty, they are slain merely for their tongues,
humps, and other delicate morsels. Vast havoc is made of them every
year.

The more remote Indians, not being provided with fire arms, use bows
and arrows in the chase, and with great effect. A single arrow is often
known to go through and through a buffalo, and it is seldom a shaft
stops short of the feather. But whether it strike deep or not, if it
does but stick, the animal’s fate is sealed. It works inward as he runs,
and eventually reaches the vitals.

It is a cheering sight to see an Indian buffalo hunt. The tread of the
herd shakes the solid earth; the hunters animate each other with loud
shouts, and the guns flash incessantly. Here a rider is seen fleeing
for life before some infuriated animal; there a buffalo stands at bay.
Altogether, the scene produces an excitement which those only who have
felt can conceive. The passion for this chase increases with time, and
few professed buffalo hunters leave it before age disables them.

There are many apparent dangers in buffalo hunting. The prairies are
full of holes dug by badgers and other burrowing animals, in which the
horse may stumble, and there is some risk from the horns of the chase.
Nevertheless, it is seldom that any serious accident occurs.

Another mode of taking the buffalo was formerly in use among the
Indians of the Mississippi. Two rows of stakes were planted in the
prairie, gradually converging, till at their extremity they barely left
a passage into an inclosure of a few yards in area. These rows were
a league or more in length, and on the top of each stake was placed
a piece of turf, which frightened the cattle, and prevented them from
attempting to escape in a lateral direction. The herd, being pursued by
horsemen to the entrance of this artificial defile, were driven onward
till they reached the pound, when the entrance was closed, and the
work of destruction began. Few ever escaped, for the buffalo has little
sagacity, and, being thus shut up, will run round and round, without
attempting to break through the barriers which inclose them. This mode
of hunting is still practised by some of the more remote tribes.[92]

Deer are hunted on the Mississippi, both by whites and Indians, in
a way unknown in the eastern states. In the hot nights of summer,
the deer resort to streams and ponds, to escape from the myriads of
mosquitoes with which the woods teem, and stand immersed in the water
for hours. Sportsmen take advantage of this habit to destroy them. A
board is placed in the front of a canoe, before which burns a torch.
The board serves to deflect the light from the person of the hunter,
who paddles as silently as possible along the margin. The devoted deer
seems to be fascinated by the glare of the torch, and suffers the canoe
to approach within five yards of him. Nay, even the sound of a gun
close at hand will scarce startle him. Two or three are often killed
within a stone’s throw of each other.

We are not aware that, besides the particulars already noticed under
this head, there are any occupations or amusements peculiar to the
people of the west, of sufficient importance to require description.




                  CHAPTER XIV.――PENITENTIARY SYSTEM.


MOST of the improvements made in the manner of punishing and reforming
persons convicted of enormous crimes in the United States may justly
be attributed to the studies and exertions of enlightened members
of the Prison Discipline Society. To their reports and publications,
therefore, must we look for a correct synopsis of this system, so
highly appreciated among ourselves, so much decried by the high-priest
of British prejudice, captain Basil Hall.

The first annual meeting of the above-named society took place on
the second of June, A. D. 1826, in Boston. The report declares that
its object was _the improvement of public prisons_. It contained many
lucid remarks on the existing state of these prisons, but, as it is
with the present, rather than with the past, that we have to do, we
shall pretermit these. It appears, however, that many of the jails
of that time were very insecure――that solitary confinement gave the
best promise of the desirable security, and prevented prisoners from
corrupting each other――that frequent inspections were necessary, to
prevent plans of escape――that prisons, from mere humanity, should be
better ventilated, and so lighted as to enable the convicts at least
to read the word of God――that cleanliness had, in many instances,
been neglected――that amended means of instruction in the mechanic
arts were highly desirable――that the condition of the sick was
much neglected――and, in short, that the condition of the jails and
penitentiaries of the United States was little better than that of
European places of punishment. The improvements which have since been
made will better appear from positive, authenticated facts, than from
the idle speculations of theorists and travellers.

When the above society was formed, there were but two prisons on the
principle of solitary confinement in the United States,――at Thomaston,
Maine, and Auburn, New York, containing between three and four hundred
night rooms, and four or five thousand convicts. Full six thousand
solitary cells have since been built. The prisons now constructed on
this principle are twenty-nine in number, and are all on the general
plan of the Auburn prison, with some slight varieties of construction.
As many of the prisons are nearly identical in construction with this
last, a description of it will probably not be unacceptable.

The external wall of this establishment comprises an area of upwards of
sixteen thousand feet, in which is contained the prisons, yards, lumber
yard, (very large,) garden of about four thousand five hundred feet,
keeper’s house, guard room, a great number of shops, bathing pools,
and other offices. Two large buildings, on the old plan, and which were
formerly used as night rooms, are no longer dedicated to that purpose.
These, together with the keeper’s house and the prisons, form three
sides of a square, which opens upon an area, surrounded, first by the
shops, and then by the exterior wall.

The external wall of the principal prison, (that in the northern wing,)
is thirty feet high, two hundred and six feet long, forty-six feet wide,
and three feet thick. It incloses an area of five hundred feet. The
long barrack, thus surrounded by this external wall, is divided from
end to end by a solid and continuous wall of masonry, two feet thick.
On each side of this, the cells designed for the prisoners are arranged.
To explain this more fully; a long, narrow building, of solid granite
and lime, is equally divided, from end to end, by a solid wall. On each
side of this wall, and within the outer wall of the building, are a
great number of cells, so arranged as to effect the greatest economy of
room. Outside the exterior walls of these cells, is another wall, ten
feet distant from them, and thirty feet high. Beyond this second wall
are certain yards, surrounded by a third wall, and in the said wall, as
well as in the ten-foot-wide gallery between the cells and the
thirty-foot wall, keepers and sentinels are constantly moving. Thus, if a
prisoner should break out of his cell, he must first pass or kill a
sentinel, then force a second wall, then pass through a yard in which
other sentinels are stationed, and then climb over another wall. So
great is the security thus afforded, that during many years, it is
believed that in prisons thus constructed, but one serious attempt at
escape has occurred, and in that instance it was unsuccessful.

Prisons built on this plan are thought to combine the advantages
of security, solitary confinement, inspection, ventilation, light,
cleanliness, instruction, and proper attendance on the sick.

The exterior wall of the cells, which looks upon the area ten feet
wide, is two feet thick. The walls which separate the cells are one
foot thick. Thus a recess is formed at each door, which deadens the
sound, should one prisoner attempt to hold communication with another.
The only opening from each cell is an open grate in the upper part of
the door, twenty inches long by eighteen wide, and defended by thick
iron bars. Through this glazed grate, light, air, and heat are admitted
to the cell. The door is fastened by a strong latch, connected with a
hook and a bar of iron. It is thus almost impossible for one prisoner
to communicate with another, even if there were no sentinel present to
listen.[93]

The economy of this mode of building is evident. A convenient hospital
may be made, by dispensing with the partition walls between four of the
cells in the upper story. Thus constructed, four hundred cells, seven
feet long seven high, and three and a half feet wide, cover only two
hundred and six by forty-six feet of ground. At Auburn, five small
stoves and eighteen lamps, great and small, placed in the ten-feet area,
beyond the reach of the prisoners, give light and heat to five hundred
and forty cells. One sentinel suffices to guard four hundred prisoners,
and to prevent communication between them. The space in front of the
cells is, like the ear of Dionysius, a perfect sounding gallery, so
that the sentinel, in the area, can hear a whisper from a distant cell,
in the upper story. The experiment has been often tried, and always
with the same result.

The rules and regulations found most effectual in this and other
prisons, are as follows: On entering, a criminal should undergo a
thorough cleansing. It should be a part of the regulations to classify
the prisoners. Men and women should be separated, as also old and young,
condemned and uncondemned, debtors and criminals. Prisoners should be
comfortably clothed, and fed with wholesome food. Employment should be
provided for such as have trades, and trades should be taught to such
as have none, so that they may not be a burthen to the society they
have offended, or be compelled to resort to crime for subsistence when
discharged. All these, and many other desirable ends, are believed to
have been attained in Auburn, and other prisons conducted on the same
plan.

The government of Auburn is confided to five inspectors, a keeper,
a deputy keeper, a clerk, sixteen assistant keepers, who are master
workmen in the shops, five sentinels, a porter, a physician, and a
chaplain. The inspectors receive no compensation; that of the officers
amounts to an aggregate of four thousand and thirty-two dollars per
annum. No spirituous liquors are used by any officer, or are allowed to
be introduced into the establishment by the guard, when on duty, nor is
any officer to invite the others together for the purpose of drinking,
or treating, as it is called. All the turnkeys are required to attend
divine service excepting two, who cannot be spared from the prison and
the kitchen. A uniform gravity and dignity are constantly maintained
by the officers in presence of the convicts, and they are expected, at
all times, to treat each other with that respect and kindness which are
calculated to advance the best interests of the institution.

The convicts march to and from their rest, food, and labor, at stated
times, in profound silence. The order of their march is in single file,
to the lock-step, keeping their faces toward the keeper, that he may
detect conversation, if it should be attempted. The same silence and
good order are enforced, as far as possible, in every business, and in
every department. The duty of the keepers is to prevent conversation,
looking at spectators, and idle diversion; for this purpose, as well
as to keep the convicts at work, they are continually walking about the
shops. The stillness and order of divine service are truly impressive,
and during the night the area about the cells is a scene of peculiar
solemnity and gloom. A hundred or more young convicts acquire the
rudiments of learning in the Sunday school.

A valuable experiment on the subject of temperance was first made in
this prison, and has since been carried into effect in all the rest.
The convicts being strictly debarred the use of tobacco, ardent spirits,
and all other stimulants, it was found that the health of the most
abandoned drunkards did not suffer, contrary to the common idea that
the grossly intemperate cannot at once break off from the use of
spirits without danger. It appears that, for a few days, they are
uneasy, and lose their appetite, after which they eat heartily, and
uniformly improve in health and appearance.

The mode of punishment in this and similar prisons merits some
attention. Stripes, fetters, solitary confinement, and hunger are used,
and there is much difference of opinion respecting their respective
degrees of utility. In some extensive establishments, stripes and
chains are not used at all; in others, recourse is had to stripes
only. It is so in Auburn. In Richmond, Baltimore, Philadelphia, New
York, Charlestown, and Concord, solitary confinement, with a reduced
allowance of bread and water, is preferred. In Connecticut, all
the above methods are practised, and severe hunger is often found
efficacious. If the efficacy of the different modes is to be tested
by the results they produce on discipline, Auburn seems to show that
stripes are better than other punishments. The difference in the order,
industry, and subdued feeling of the prisoners, is in favor of Auburn,
though perhaps, this is as much to be ascribed to their separation
by night, and other salutary regulations, as to the mode of physical
correction. The advocates for whipping urge, that it requires less
time than other punishments, that the mind of the sufferer does not
so long dwell on it, that it is less severe, and that it can more
easily be proportioned to the offence. On the other hand, it is said
that solitary confinement will subdue men hardened against all other
inflictions, and no doubt it has so operated in very many cases. Be the
question decided as it may, the remark of the London Prison Discipline
Society’s seventh annual report is undeniably untrue, viz. that
‘solitary confinement, unmitigated by employment either of body or mind,
is the most prominent feature in the discipline now recommended in the
United States.’

We are unable, both from the want of space and of sufficient means of
information, to enter into minute details respecting the government of
many of the prisons. At Sing-sing, on the Hudson river, the convicts
are awakened in the morning by a bell; but before they are let out of
their cells, the chaplain reads a prayer that may be heard by all on
one side, the space between the cells and the external wall being a
perfect sounding gallery. The doors are then opened, and the prisoners
step forth, at the word of command, into the gallery. They are then
marched to the workshops, stopping on the way to wash themselves. One
party cleanses the whole establishment, another attends to washing, and
another to cooking. The whole body then go to their fixed tasks, such
as hewing stone, sawing marble, forging iron, and the various mechanic
arts with which they may be acquainted. Each shop is superintended by
a turnkey, who must himself be a trustworthy master-workman, in order
that he may instruct those under his charge. While in the shops, the
prisoners are placed with their faces all in one direction, so that
there can be no communication by looks or signs. From twenty to thirty
are engaged in each shop, and one good man is found able to keep that
number of hardened villains in order.

A narrow, dark passage runs along the back of the shops, with narrow
slits in the wall, through which the superintendent may observe the
conduct of both the convicts and the turnkeys, himself unseen by
either. This certainty of being at all moments liable to an authorized
_espionage_, cannot fail to keep all parties careful of their behavior.

At eight, at the sound of the bell, the convicts are again marched to
their cells, at the doors of which their breakfasts have already been
placed. They are locked in, and eat in solitude and silence. In twenty
minutes, they are again marched to their work, and at noon they go to
dinner in precisely the same manner, and at night to supper. At a fixed
hour, the bell warns them to undress and go to bed, after having heard
the chaplain’s prayer, as in the morning. The next day brings the same
dull, unvaried round, convincing them that they are indeed cut off from
mankind, and that for the purpose of punishment. It should seem that if
any thing could make the wicked turn from his wickedness, it would be
the prospect of passing years in this manner.

It is the practice of Mr. Barrett, the resident clergyman, every
evening to read a portion of the Scriptures to the convicts, from the
gallery, then to offer explanatory remarks, and to conclude with prayer.
After divine service on Sundays, he spends a considerable portion of
time in talking with them in their cells, and, hardened as they are,
none of them have shown any want of respect, or unwillingness to hear.

The inspectors of the Auburn prison stated to the legislature of New
York, in 1828, that the labors of the convicts had become so much more
productive than in former times, they thought no further appropriations
would be necessary for the support of that establishment. In the same
year, the earnings of the Wethersfield (Connecticut) prison gave, in
six months, a net gain of one thousand and seventeen dollars over and
above the expenses of their government and support. A large gain is
believed to be obtained in other penitentiaries. The following facts
will show the superiority of United States prisons, in this particular,
to those of England. In one year, twelve of the most productive prisons
in England contained three thousand, six hundred and ninety-nine
convicts, who earned forty-one thousand, seven hundred and twenty-seven
dollars. In five prisons in the United States, during the same length
of time, there were but nine hundred and ninety-nine convicts, and they
earned eighty-one thousand, nine hundred and seventy-nine dollars. That
is, a little more than a fourth of the number of American convicts earn
more than double the amount of nearly four times the number of convicts
in England. This difference depends, no doubt, greatly on discipline,
and also on difference of diet. In the five American prisons to which
we have referred, at least a pound of animal food is given to each man,
_per diem_. In England, the quantity is from a pound to half a pound
per week, scarcely sufficient to keep up the strength of a laboring man.

In some of the penitentiaries, if not in all, a Bible is placed in
each cell; the only book the prisoner is permitted to see. It is
not required that he should read it; but it can scarcely be supposed
that he will long neglect to do so, since it is the only amusement he
can possibly hope for, and the only occupation which can relieve the
soul-subduing monotony of his solitude. ‘I should like to see what sort
of stuff the Bible is made of,’ said one very obdurate sinner to the
chaplain. With the same feeling will the convict, who at first scoffs
at religion, find that this privilege is the only link of kindness
which connects him with his species, and perhaps eventually find
inestimable profit in it.

Some of the convicts, especially the foreigners, being unable to
read, it was thought expedient, at Auburn, to establish the Sunday
school. Fifty of the most ignorant convicts were placed in it, and they
embraced the privilege with eagerness and thankfulness. The school has
since been increased to a hundred and twenty-five scholars. They are
divided into classes of five or six, and instructed by students in
the Auburn Theological Seminary, who benevolently give their services.
However, no greater relaxation of the ordinary discipline than is
absolutely necessary takes place on these occasions. While the classes
are under the superintendence of the chaplain, they are also closely
watched by the officers. The annual report of 1828 shows that nearly
a fourth of the whole number of convicts attended the Sunday school.

It will not be supposed that the effects of the system of which we
have given a brief sketch, are beneficial in all cases; but it cannot
be denied that they are often so, and that a great many convicts have
been reformed. One great advantage is gained, at any rate: the men who
would, in England, be put to a shameful death, are made to live and be
harmless, if not, indeed, actually serviceable to society. The persons
subjected to this discipline are the most depraved and ignorant men in
the land. Many of them have learned vice as a science, and have become
unable, from the force of habit, to control their wicked propensities.
It is not to be hoped that all, or even a great portion of such a class,
can be radically reformed; but they can, at least, be rendered less
wicked. Beside this, the safe custody of the culprit is combined with
enough punishment to make an impression on the mind, and deter others
from his offences. The system is also entitled to much praise for
having joined economy with humanity. It may have faults, but, taken as
a whole, we think the wisdom of man may safely be challenged to make a
better.

A late English traveller has offered a suggestion on this head, which
we think entitled to attentive consideration. He says, in substance,
that a powerful motive to virtue might easily be introduced into our
penitentiaries; namely, hope. At present, severe coercion is the only
means of preserving discipline, and indeed it is indispensable. But
hope may come in play with fear. If disobedience be punished, obedience
can be rewarded, and thus the convicts would have a direct interest
in conforming to the rules of the prison. If a prisoner were sentenced
for several years, and should behave well for a week, one day might
be subtracted from the period of his confinement; if he should still
continue to do aright, his detention might be further shortened, and in
any ratio that might be thought expedient. By this procedure, the seeds
of virtue might be sown, and good habits formed.

It will not probably be thought amiss to conclude this article with
a glance at certain institutions, called houses of reformation for
juvenile offenders. There are several of them in the country, all
designed to reclaim children from incipient habits of vice, and they
have certainly saved many from state prison and gallows here, and
perdition hereafter. The principal two of these are in New York and
South Boston.

In the South Boston school of reform, the boys are divided into grades,
and are promoted or degraded, as they improve or retrograde in morals.
When their reformation is supposed to be complete, they are apprenticed
to respectable citizens, who become bound to feed and clothe them,
to give them the means of instruction, to teach them some useful
art, and, at the expiration of their indentures, to give them a small
sum of money to begin the world with. As they generally come very
ignorant to the institution, and do not stay long in it, it cannot
be expected that they should receive very thorough instruction, but
they are nevertheless taught the elements of English education. They
were formerly taught several mechanical arts, (as they still are in
New York,) but this having been thought to interfere with the great
business of moral reform, the plan has been abandoned. Many boys have
been discharged as cured of their former habits and feelings, most of
whom have given entire satisfaction, and very few indeed have relapsed.
The institution has unquestionably been of great benefit to society.[94]

The other institutions of the same nature are conducted on the
same general principles. There are differences in their governments,
endowments, and discipline, but there is a strong general resemblance.
It is not for us to say which is best conducted, and we have only
selected that in South Boston, because, having witnessed its operation,
we are able to bear witness of its peculiar utility, and of the skill,
patience, and integrity of the gentlemen who have hitherto had charge
of it.




                CHAPTER XVI.――LITERATURE AND EDUCATION.


THE language of the United States differs little or nothing from
that of the middle and southern counties of England. The slight
peculiarities are chiefly such as relate to accent and intonation,
and do not affect the sense. Most of the expressions which are now
peculiar to the Americans, and especially to _the Yankees_, were in use
by the ‘pilgrim fathers,’ at the time of their emigration, and to them,
probably, ought to be attributed the nasal drawl of the least educated
inhabitants of New England. The peculiar words of the Americans are too
few to deserve particular notice. The educated men of all the states,
and especially the inhabitants of the larger cities and towns, speak a
language scarcely to be distinguished from that of the higher classes
of the mother country. It is yet a question, in what part of the
union it is spoken in its greatest purity, each of the different
sections arrogating that praise to itself. A practised ear, however,
can distinguish a difference between them, so as to decide at once to
what division the speaker belongs. The want of a capital, by which the
standard can be fixed, is probably the cause of this variety. It may
truly be asserted, that, on the whole, English is as well spoken in the
United States as in the mother country, and that the jargon put into
the mouths of Americans by foreign travellers, bears the same relation
to the tongue actually spoken, that a gross caricature does to its
original.

Education has met with few obstacles in the United States. Neither the
interests and prejudices of an aristocracy, nor poverty and dependence
of working classes have checked it in the least. State has vied with
state in giving the means of instruction to the humblest individuals.
Large tracts of land have been granted by the general government,
for the support of schools in the new states, and a reservation is
made in every new township for that purpose. In the old states, the
legislatures have, by legal enactments, compelled every township to
provide for the instruction of its population by assessment, and a
punishment is provided for neglect. In the New England and some other
states, education at the public expense is accounted one of the rights
of freeborn citizens.[95] It appears from the returns from a hundred
and one of the towns of Massachusetts to the legislature, that the
amount annually paid in those towns for instruction is one hundred and
seventy-seven thousand, three hundred and forty-two dollars. Twelve
thousand, three hundred and ninety-three pupils attend private schools
in the same towns, at an expense of one hundred and seventy thousand,
three hundred and forty-two dollars. In all these towns, the whole
number of persons between the ages of fourteen and twenty-one, who
cannot read and write, is only fifty-eight. In one considerable town,
there are but three persons of the above-mentioned age who cannot read
and write, and those three are deaf and dumb.

Infant schools have been established all over the union, with great
benefit, and great attention has been given to the improvement of
seminaries of all descriptions, as well as to the means of rendering
teachers competent to their office. The press teems with myriads
of books for the use of children, institutions for the improvement
of teachers are established, thousands of associations for mutual
instruction are formed, countless lectures are delivered, libraries
are accumulated, and, in short, no means of disseminating knowledge
is neglected.

The elements of knowledge being thus accessible to all, it follows
naturally, that the wealthy should be desirous to give their children
a more perfect education than elementary public schools can afford.
There are, therefore, an almost infinite number and variety of private
schools, in which children may be educated in conformity to the views
which their parents may entertain for them. In some instances, public
schools have intrenched materially upon private academies; in others,
the case has been reversed. Females are not neglected in the same
degree as in other countries――in some of the seminaries, they are
taught Greek, Latin, the exact sciences, philosophy, botany, chemistry,
&c. &c. The great fault of American instruction in general is, that
it is superficial, some knowledge of many subjects being communicated,
without a very thorough knowledge of any particular one. There are,
however, many distinguished exceptions to this remark, and eminent
scholars are yearly becoming more numerous.

There are more than sixty colleges in the United States, besides
many academies, several theological seminaries, and numerous medical
and law schools. Of all these, the most distinguished are Harvard
university and Yale college. The object of nearly all of them is to
give a thorough education, in languages, mathematics, and the sciences,
and it cannot be doubted that most of them afford to the diligent
student all the necessary means of acquiring such knowledge. Yet it is
not to be denied, that very many of the students leave college studies
for the more active pursuits of life, without having given sufficient
time or pains to their studies, and in this respect, our universities
will not, certainly, compare advantageously with those of England.
The reason is obvious――in the old country, few students would spend
the best of their years in celibacy and seclusion, in the pursuit
of knowledge, were they not supplied with the luxuries of life
by endowments, and cheered by the prospect of comfortable future
establishments by provision of law. We may console ourselves for this
manifest inferiority by the reflection, that if we have fewer great
scholars than European nations, neither have we peasants or beggars.

The consequences of the superficial but universal diffusion of
literature and science in the United States are remarkably singular.
Literary productions of the lowest order exist in excess. We think
we should not speak much amiss in saying, that more newspapers are
published in this country than in all Europe. A great number of them
are of an inferior character, being filled with virulent and crude
political speculations, religious controversy, or rather vituperation,
items of common-place intelligence, such poetry and literature as may
be expected from writers beneath their majority, advertisements, puffs,
and trash of all kinds. Some, which are purely political, mistake abuse
for the energy of eloquence; others, which are devoted to the interests
of the commercial classes, are chiefly filled with advertisements; some
contain little beside invective against masonry or antimasonry, and not
a few disgrace religion, under pretence of promoting its progress. The
cause of this perversion of the press is very simple. The expense of
starting a newspaper is so trifling, that any successful apprentice
can establish one on arriving at his majority; and an excellent printer
may make a very indifferent editor. Having once began to publish a
print, he must conduct it on his own mental resources, for there are
few establishments of this kind which can afford to pay for really
valuable assistance. Yet, every state can boast of some public journals
of higher character. There is also another class of journals which
are really valuable, and which partake of the nature of magazines.
These are periodical records of facts connected with trade, commerce,
internal improvement, mechanical inventions, and matters connected
with the proceedings of the national and state legislatures. Such are
Niles’s Register, Blount’s Annual Register, and a few others of the
same character.

The present number of magazines and reviews would seem to indicate
a very rapid improvement in American taste and knowledge. Some years
since, many abortive attempts were made to establish an American
review, and the North American was the first to maintain its ground,
and its improvement has been constant. It is now very well known,
and often quoted in Europe. Silliman’s Journal of the Sciences is
deservedly esteemed. There are also several monthly magazines of a
very respectable character. The Knickerbocker, issued in New York,
has acquired considerable notoriety. The New York Review, conducted
by Professor Henry and J. C. Cogswell, Esq., is fast gaining a high
reputation. “Colman’s Monthly Miscellany,” just issued, under the
editorial direction of Grenville Mellen and William Cutter, gives
promise of a good progress. Even the new western states are not wholly
without periodical literature. Theological magazines are very numerous,
and some of them are ably conducted. The Christian Examiner and
Unitarian Advocate are the organs of Unitarianism. The Christian
Spectator and Spirit of the Pilgrims are Calvanistic works, and, indeed,
almost every sect in the union has its particular organ. Christians of
all denominations will be disposed to question the merits of many of
these; but none will deny that they are all useful in some degree, as
they serve to awaken a spirit of inquiry. The annual publications are,
the American Almanac, the merits of which are denied by none, and which
is constantly improving; and the Annual Register, also a very useful
work. The beautiful books of the New Year, as the Annuals may perhaps
be called, can receive no other notice here of course, than as they may
be considered as evidence of improvement in the arts.

Literature, in the form of both poetry and prose, is certainly taking
a ground, in the United States, increasingly honorable to writers
and to the cause. Still, our novels, though many are striking, and
some powerful, want the vigor of another day, as exemplified in Brown.
Useful books can have no better champion than they find in the name of
Sedgwick. The drama, it may be observed, has been illustrated in latter
days, by efforts that reflect honor on some of our poetical writers.
Meritorious law books of American production are not rare. The labors
of Chancellor Kent are an honor to the science of jurisprudence. In
history, we have Judge Marshall’s Life of Washington, Belknap’s History
of New Hampshire, and well-written histories of most of the old states.
Many more writers we have, whose pens have been employed merely on
matters of local and temporary interest. Still, however, our literature
has not kept pace with that of the mother country. Little has been done
to encourage it, and many causes have contributed to retard its growth.
It has been in a great measure superseded by foreign publications,
which the American bookseller can republish without paying the author,
and which he therefore prefers. There is little honor and less profit
in the pursuits of our writers. Our mechanics become wealthy by hard
labor, whereas our writers might starve, did they depend on their
pens. There is a great demand for all things which are of practical,
tangible, every-day utility, but a very limited one for fine reading.
Few of our people have the leisure and fortune which might enable
them to cultivate literature and science advantageously. Under
these circumstances, most of what is written is done hastily, and
consequently badly done. But notwithstanding the great number of
discouraging circumstances, enough has been well done to indicate the
existence of much talent and learning.[96]

We have already alluded to the general feeling in regard to education.
The strength of this is exhibited in the great number of common schools
and colleges. Institutions by this name are to be found perhaps more
frequently than the cause of sound scholarship requires. If the funds
which are now distributed through so many small establishments were
concentrated on a few universities, advantages might be enjoyed which
will now be in vain sought. It is much to be regretted that measures
have not been taken for the erection of a national university, which
the general government of the country might endow with privileges and
means sufficient for its permanent success.

At the head of the collegiate institutions in the United States, is
Harvard university, originally styled Harvard college, at Cambridge,
three miles west-north-west of Boston. In the year 1636, the general
court advanced four hundred pounds towards the establishment of a
college, which was incorporated in 1638; and the same year, the Rev.
John Harvard died, leaving a legacy of seven hundred and seventy-nine
pounds, seventeen shillings, and two pence, to the college, which, on
account of this donation, was named Harvard college. Its endowments
have since, from time to time, been greatly increased by donations
from the state, and many munificent private benefactors. The university
comprises the collegiate department for undergraduates, or the college,
properly so called, and the theological, law, and medical departments.
It has four halls, four stories high, for the accommodation of
undergraduates; two halls containing the library, cabinet of minerals,
the chapel, and various other public rooms; a divinity hall, a law
hall, and a medical hall, (which last is situated in Boston,) and other
buildings. The university library contains upwards of forty thousand
volumes, of which thirty-five thousand, five hundred, are in the
general library, three thousand in the law, one thousand in the
medical, six hundred and fifty in the theological library: and there
are libraries belonging to the students, which contain four thousand,
five hundred volumes. The philosophical and chemical apparatus, and
the cabinet of minerals, are extensive, and very valuable. The property
in possession of the university, exclusive of the college buildings,
library, apparatus, and grounds adjoining to the buildings, according
to the treasurer’s report, dated October, 1832, amounted to:

                                                          $460,814.87
  Funds in trust for other uses than those
    of the college                                          65,125.45
                                                          ―――――――――――
                                                           395,689.42
  Funds for theological department            36,277.92
  Funds for law department                    17,943.63     54,221.55
                                              ―――――――――   ―――――――――――
  Giving for the more immediate use of the
    college                                                341,467.87

The institution is under the legislative government of a corporation,
consisting of seven members, and of a board of overseers, consisting of
thirty elected members, together with the governor, lieutenant governor,
the members of the council and senate, the speaker of the house of
representatives, and the president of the university, _ex officio_.

Yale college was established in 1700, at Saybrook; incorporated
in 1701; and removed to New Haven in 1716: the first commencement at
Saybrook was in 1702; the first at New Haven, in 1717. It derives its
name from Elihu Yale, of London, (but a native of New Haven,) governor
of the East India company, who was one of its principal benefactors; it
received from bishop Berkeley one thousand volumes of books; and since
its foundation it has, from time to time, received benefactions from
various individuals, and also from the state. It has, for some years
past, had a greater number of students than any other college in the
United States. It possesses ten valuable buildings, two of them of
stone, the others of brick; four of which are college halls, one
hundred feet by forty, four stories high, containing thirty-two rooms
each for students; and another hall is soon to be erected. It has the
finest cabinet of minerals in the United States, a good chemical and
philosophical apparatus, and a library of eight thousand, five hundred
volumes; and there are libraries, belonging to the students, containing
ten thousand, five hundred volumes. The funds of this institution,
considering its reputation and number of students, are small; and it
is supported chiefly by tuition fees. The whole amount of the funds of
the different departments, exclusive of buildings, library, apparatus,
&c. is stated at eighty or ninety thousand dollars. According to the
statement of the treasurer, subscriptions have lately been made for the
benefit of the college, by six hundred and eighteen individuals, of one
hundred and seven thousand dollars, of which forty-one thousand dollars
have already been paid. The college is under the legislative government
of a corporation, consisting of the president of the college, the
governor and lieutenant governor of the state, and the six senior
senators, _ex officio_, and ten clergymen.

Connected with this institution, is a law school, theological
department and medical institution.

The legislature of Virginia, at the session of 1817–18, adopted
measures for establishing an institution, then proposed to be named
_Central College_, and twenty-four commissioners were appointed to
select a site for it. They accordingly selected a pleasant and elevated
spot, nearly two miles from Charlottesville, in the county of Albemarle,
not far from the centre of the population of the state. Their choice
was confirmed by the legislature in 1819, and an act was passed,
incorporating the institution, by the title of the _University of
Virginia_, which went into operation in 1825. It was erected and
endowed by the state; and it owes its origin and peculiar organization
chiefly to Mr. Jefferson. It has a fine collection of buildings,
consisting of four parallel ranges, about six hundred feet in length,
and two hundred feet apart, suited to the accommodation of nine
professors, and upwards of two hundred students; which, together with
the real estate, cost three hundred and thirty-three thousand, nine
hundred and ninety-six dollars. It possesses a very valuable library of
eight thousand volumes, and a philosophical apparatus, which, together,
cost thirty-six thousand, nine hundred and forty-eight dollars. The
state gives annually fifteen thousand dollars for the support of
the institution. The whole annual income of the university is about
eighteen thousand, five hundred dollars. The professors are paid,
partly by a fixed salary, and partly by fees received from the students;
but the sums which they severally receive are widely different, varying,
in ordinary years, from sixteen hundred to three thousand, five hundred
dollars.

  Illustration: University of Virginia.

The plan of this university differs materially from that of other
institutions of the kind in the United States. The students are not
divided into four classes, with a course of studies embracing four
years; but the different branches of science and literature here taught
are styled _schools_. The following particulars are extracted from
the ‘Regulations,’ &c. Students are not admitted under sixteen years
of age; every one is free to attend the schools of his choice, and no
other than he chooses; provided, that if under the age of twenty-one,
he shall attend at least three professors, unless he has the written
authority of his parents or guardian, or the faculty shall, for good
cause shown, allow him to attend less than three. In each school, there
are three regular lectures a week; besides which, there are, in most
of them, extra lectures, suited to the several classes into which
the school is divided. The mode of instruction is by text-books and
lectures accompanied by rigid examinations.

Three honorary distinctions are conferred by this institution; a
_certificate of proficiency_,――that of _graduate_ of any class,――and
that of _master of arts of the University of Virginia_. No particular
period of study is prescribed for the acquisition of these honors. The
student obtains them whenever he can undergo the rigid examination to
which the candidates for them are subjected. The title of _doctor of
medicine_ is conferred on the graduates of the medical department.

There is but one session annually, commencing on the tenth of September,
and ending on the twentieth of July. _Commencement_ is on the last day
of the session, when there are public exercises, and at the same time
the certificates and diplomas are awarded. Number of students, in 1833,
one hundred and fifty-seven.

Kenyon college, at Gambier, in the central part of a tract of land
belonging to it, five miles east of Mount Vernon, and fifty-two
north-east of Columbus, was founded, in 1828, by the exertions of
bishop Chase, who went to England in 1823, and returned in 1825, having
there obtained for it about thirty thousand dollars; and he gave to the
college the name of ‘Kenyon,’ from lord Kenyon, one of its principal
benefactors, and to the town the name of ‘Gambier,’ from lord Gambier,
another of its benefactors. It has received considerable additions to
its funds from individuals in several of the states; and it possesses
eight thousand acres of land. The college edifice, which is of stone,
contains thirty-six rooms, and forms only one third part of the entire
design. The library contains two thousand, three hundred volumes. The
college is under the direction of a board of sixteen trustees, of which
the bishop of Ohio is president _ex officio_. The college has connected
with it a theological department and a grammar school.

  Illustration: Kenyon College, Ohio.

It does not fall within our plan to give a particular description
of the numerous collegiate institutions throughout the country. In
addition to this account of the most prominent establishments, we have
added a list of colleges in the appendix, for which, as well as the
previous descriptions, we have been indebted to the American Almanac
for 1834. To that valuable work we refer the reader for a collection of
much useful and interesting matter on the subject of education in the
United States.

‘Less attention,’ says Mr. Cooper, ‘is paid to classical learning here
than in Europe; and, as the term of residence (at our colleges) rarely
exceeds four years, profound scholars are by no means common. This
country possesses neither the population nor the endowments to maintain
a large class of learned idlers, in order that one man in a hundred may
contribute a mite to the growing stock of general knowledge. There is a
luxury in this expenditure of animal force, to which the Americans have
not yet attained. The good is far too problematical and remote, and
the expense of man too certain, to be prematurely sought. I have heard,
I will confess, an American legislator quote Horace and Cicero; but
it is far from being the humor of the country. I thought the taste
of the orator questionable. A learned quotation is rarely of any use
in an argument, since few men are fools enough not to see that the
application of any maxim to politics is liable to a thousand practical
objections, and, nine times in ten, they are evidences of the want
of a direct, natural, and vigorous train of thought. They are the
affectations, but rarely the ebullitions, of true talent. When a man
feels strongly, or thinks strongly, or speaks strongly, he is just as
apt to do it in his native tongue, as he is to laugh when he is tickled,
or to weep when in sorrow. The Americans are strong speakers and acute
thinkers, but no great quoters of the morals and axioms of a heathen
age, because they happen to be recorded in Latin.

‘The higher branches of learning are certainly on the advance in this
country. The gentlemen of the middle and southern states, before the
revolution, were very generally educated in Europe, and they were
consequently, in this particular, like our own people. Those who came
into life during the struggle, and shortly after, fared worse. Even
the next generation had little to boast of in the way of instruction.
I find that boys entered the colleges so late as the commencement of
the present century, who had read a part of the Greek Testament, and a
few books of Cicero and Virgil, with, perhaps, a little of Horace. But
great changes have been made, and are still making, in the degree of
previous qualification.

‘Still, it would be premature to say, that there is any one of the
American universities where classical knowledge, or even science, is
profoundly attained, even at the present day. Some of the professors
push their studies, for a life, certainly; and you well know, after
all, that little short of a life, and a long one too, will make any man
a good general scholar. In 1820, near eight thousand graduates of the
twelve oldest colleges of this country (according to their catalogues)
were then living. Of this number, one thousand, four hundred and six
were clergymen. As some of the catalogues consulted were several years
old, this number was, of necessity, greatly within the truth. Between
the years 1800 and 1810, it is found that of two thousand, seven
hundred and ninety-two graduates, four hundred and fifty-three became
clergymen. Here is pretty good evidence that religion is not neglected
in America, and that its ministers are not, as a matter of course,
absolutely ignorant.

‘But the effects of the literary institutions of the United States
are somewhat peculiar. Few men devote their lives to scholarship. The
knowledge that is actually acquired, is, perhaps, quite sufficient for
the more practical and useful pursuits. Thousands of young men, who
have read the more familiar classics, who have gone through enough of
mathematics to obtain a sense of their own tastes, and of the value of
precision, who have cultivated _belles lettres_ to a reasonable extent,
and who have been moderately instructed in the arts of composition, and
in the rules of taste, are given forth to the country to mingle in its
active employments. I am inclined to believe that a class of American
graduates carries away with it quite as much general and diversified
knowledge, as a class from one of our own universities. The excellence
in particular branches is commonly wanting; but the deficiency is more
than supplied by variety of information. The youth who has passed four
years within the walls of a college, goes into the office of a lawyer
for a few more. The profession of the law is not subdivided in America.
The same man is counsellor, attorney, and conveyancer. Here the student
gets a general insight into the principles, and a familiarity with the
practice of the law, rather than any acquaintance with the study as a
science. With this instruction, he enters the world as a practitioner.
Instead of existing in a state of dreaming retrospection, lost in a
maze of theories, he is at once turned loose into the jostlings of
the world. If, perchance, he encounters an antagonist a little more
erudite than himself, he seizes the natural truth for his sheet-anchor,
and leaves precedent and quaint follies to him who has made them his
study and delight. No doubt he often blunders, and is frequently, of
necessity, defeated. But in the course of this irreverent treatment,
usages and opinions, which are bottomed in no better foundation
than antiquity and which are as inapplicable to the present state
of the world, as the present state of the world is, or ought to
be, unfavorable to all feudal absurdities, come to receive their
death-warrants. In the mean time, by dint of sheer experience, and by
the collision of intellects, the practitioner gets a stock of learning,
that is acquired in the best possible school; and, what is of far more
importance, the laws themselves get a dress which brings them within
the fashions of the day. This same man becomes a legislator, perhaps,
and, if particularly clever, he is made to take an active part in the
framing of laws, that are not to harmonize with the other parts of an
elaborate theory, but which are intended to make men comfortable and
happy. Now, taken with more or less qualification, this is the history
of thousands in this country, and it is also an important part of the
history of the country itself.’

We may not inappropriately introduce in this connection the following
account of the Military academy at West Point, for which we have been
indebted to an able article in the North American Review for January,
1832.

  Illustration: West Point.

The main object of the institution is to qualify the pupil for the
performance of all the duties of a military life; and, by way of
preparation, he is carefully disciplined in the various duties of a
soldier and officer, from the handling of a musket, to the commanding
of armies. The use of the various instruments of attack and defence;
the construction of military works, both permanent and temporary, and
the most approved methods of attacking and defending these works; the
manner of conducting the marches of armies, and of disposing of the
different arms, with a view to their mutual protection and assistance
in cases of emergency; minor tactics, or the evolutions of troops,
whether in small or large numbers; and the more complicated and exalted
principles of grand tactics, or _strategy_, are each in turn carefully
attended to, so far as theory and the lessons of experience extend.

Besides these military subjects, studies of a different nature are
made to engage a large portion of the pupil’s attention during the
last year. Civil engineering, in its multifarious departments, viz. the
construction of roads, canals, bridges, and rail-roads, together with
the elements of carpentry and architecture, holds an important rank. As
architecture is becoming daily more interesting to the public at large,
its encouragement and advancement cannot be too strongly recommended.
A deficiency of taste and information upon this subject is but too
evident in many parts of our country; and any institution, which tends
to diffuse the correct and chaste principles of this art, deserves to
be cherished and encouraged. A fine collection of casts, representing
the most celebrated buildings of antiquity has recently been procured
from France for the Military academy; and there is every reason to hope,
that it will tend materially to improve the department of architecture.

  Illustration: Military Academy at West Point.

The studies that have now been enumerated, together with rhetoric and
national and constitutional law, embrace the chief objects of attention
at this institution. A cursory glance at this course of instruction
will be sufficient to convince the observer, that it comprehends much
useful information. Yet there are many, who profess to believe the
academy not only useless, but absolutely injurious, in its effect upon
the public interests. They maintain, that genius and courage alone
are enough to insure distinction in the military profession. They say,
that all our citizens are soldiers, and that competent officers can be
selected from among them, whenever military services are necessary; and
they, doubtless, honestly believe, that to become an able officer is
not a very difficult matter. But, with due respect for the sincerity of
these opinions, we must confess our preference for the doctrine of our
illustrious Hamilton; who says, that ‘war, like most other things, is
a science to be acquired and perfected by diligence, by perseverance,
by time, and by practice.’ These few words, coming as they do from a
statesman of acknowledged genius and wisdom, are entitled to the most
respectful and deliberate attention. That great man had investigated,
with the most keen and discerning scrutiny, the many and complicated
causes of national grandeur and infirmity. He had especially weighed
the mighty causes, which had elevated, sustained, and overthrown
the various contrivances of men for self-government; and he was of
the unqualified opinion, that a national military establishment was
indispensable to our peace and security. The reasons which led him
to this conclusion are, doubtless, familiar to most of our readers,
and still operate with undiminished influence. All, however, must
acknowledge, that a military establishment without skilful officers,
would be about as inefficient as powder and bullets without a gun, or
a vessel without helm or compass. But how is this skill to be ‘acquired
and perfected?’ Doubtless, ‘by diligence, by perseverance, by time, and
by practice.’ These objectors should hesitate, before they destroy one
of the most useful instruments by which this benefit is to be secured.

Such an instrument is the Military academy. Before they attempt to
subvert so noble an edifice, they should reflect, that it is not always
wise to suffer speculation to prevail over experience. They should
remember the consequences, which have heretofore resulted from the
want of military science and skill, before they labor to expose us
anew to similar evils. They ought not to forget, that nations, as
well as individuals, are liable to be overwhelmed by adverse events,
whose approaches cannot be foreseen, or guarded against by any sudden
exertion of art or power; that a hitherto unknown responsibility rests
upon the citizens of this republic, an obligation greater than ever was
imposed upon any other political society; and that we ought, at least,
to pause, before we divest ourselves of any of those securities, upon
which the peace, the progress, and the stability of our institutions
may depend.




                       CHAPTER XVII.――FINE ARTS.


The progress of the arts in the United States has depended, in
a great measure, on their practical reference to the essential
comforts of life. In the mechanical arts, we yield to no other nation,
as our ships, steamboats, engines of every description, and vast
internal improvements, sufficiently testify. The prevailing taste in
architecture is much better than it was twenty years ago, and it is
now considered of great importance to have regard to the appearance
of a public edifice. Many private houses of much splendor have also
been erected within a short period. Our churches and state-houses are
built after better models, and the eye of taste is no longer shocked
by unsightly piles, without even the recommendation of antiquity to
compensate for their defects.

Of the fine arts, however, painting has been most successfully
cultivated, and many artists have won, in this department, very
considerable eminence. The materials for an account of the history
and present condition of painting in this country, are so scattered and
unsatisfactory, that we shall be able to present but a brief sketch.
We are pleased to learn that a gentleman of New York, distinguished
as a dramatic author and as an artist, has a work in preparation, that
will effectually supply this deficiency in our literature. This work
is expected with much interest by the lovers of art. In the mean while,
we must look to the leading review of the country, for some of the most
valuable notices of American art. For the remainder of this chapter, we
have been entirely indebted to the North American Review, for October,
1830.

It is stated by an able writer in that work, that few countries have
done more in the way of painting, during the last half century, than
our own. There is no nation which, during that period, can produce
a more respectable list of artists than is composed by the names of
Copley, West, Trumbull, Allston, Leslie, Newton, Stuart, Sully, Morse,
Doughty, Peale, Harding, Fisher, and Weir. Several of these artists
have been, and still continue to be, the chief ornaments of the British
school, which, for the time in question belongs at least as much to the
United States as to the mother country. The style of painting in France,
during this period, has been decidedly vicious, and although it has
obtained there a temporary popularity, it is not approved by competent
judges, who have been educated under the influence of a better taste.
In the rest of Europe, there has been little or no activity in this
branch of the arts; so that the United States have done as much for
painting during the last fifty years, as any other country.

In estimating the merits of our various painters, the article to which
we have referred, places West at the head of the list. ‘The length of
his career,’ continues this writer,――‘his conspicuous position at the
head of the British Academy, and the indefatigable perseverance with
which he pursued his labors up to the very close of his protracted
life――all these circumstances placed him in full relief before the
public, and perhaps raised his reputation a little higher than it
will be maintained by the impartial judgment of posterity. Perceiving
or supposing that his merit was exaggerated, a certain number of
persons were induced, as always happens in similar cases, by a sort
of re-action, to depreciate the value of his works, and even to deny
altogether his pretensions to excellence. Without speaking of Peter
Pindar, who attacked him merely because he was patronized by the king,
we may find the feeling to which we allude exhibited in a quarter where
we had a right to look for good taste and political impartiality. Lord
Byron, in one of his poems, describes our illustrious countryman as

                              ――――“the dotard West,
           Europe’s worst dauber, and poor England’s best.”

But even here the noble bard, however opposite may have been his
intention, has borne a sort of involuntary testimony to the high
deserts of the painter. The British school, which, in his wayward humor,
he represents as the worst in Europe, was undoubtedly at that time, and
still is, the best, and by putting West at the head of it, he rendered
him, in fact, all the justice which his warmest friends could possibly
have claimed for him. His real merit was very considerable, although
he may not have risen precisely to the level of the greatest masters
of other times. It was sufficiently evinced by the great popularity
and success of his last and best pieces, the _Christ Rejected_, and
the grand composition of _Death on the Pale Horse_. We had the pleasure
of seeing these noble paintings, when they were first brought out
at London, and witnessed the enthusiasm which they excited among the
lovers of the arts, and the public at large. The sum of ten thousand
pounds was offered for the latter work――a higher price, probably,
than was ever commanded by any other picture. As there was nothing
meretricious in the style of West, and as the public of a city like
London is not often very widely mistaken in matters wholly unconnected
with any accidental or temporary interest, it is impossible to account
for this extraordinary vogue, without allowing to the artist a talent
of a very high order. His works exhibit, in reality, almost all the
qualities that designate a first-rate painting. His walk lay in the
highest department of the art. His subjects were always of a poetical
cast, and he treated them all in a large, free and generous spirit;
and while he possessed the principal requisites of a great painter,
his manner was almost wholly free from faults. He had, in particular,
the great merit of avoiding the unnatural style of coloring which
prevailed in the neighboring kingdom, and seemed likely, at one
time, to corrupt the taste of the rest of Europe. His excellent moral
character contributed much to his talent, and still more to his fortune.
It kept him steady to his profession, during a period of violent
political convulsions, which swept away from their natural occupation
almost all the high and stirring spirits. It recommended him to the
favor of the king, and through that to the presidency of the academy,
and it preserved his health and capacity for constant employment, to
the last moment of a very long life. He enjoyed the rare happiness
of realizing, in his life-time, his full deserts on the score of
reputation――perhaps something more――and of laboring with undiminished
activity, and a constant increase of fame, beyond the ordinary term
of human existence. We had the satisfaction of seeing him frequently
in his last days, and have seldom known a more striking example of
a serene and happy old age. He was then, at nearly eighty, a healthy,
handsome man, busily occupied upon his last and greatest works,
and enjoying the vogue which they successively obtained on their
first exhibition. The natural simplicity and modesty of his manner
were mingled with a slight air of self-importance, and conscious
satisfaction with his recent success, which appeared rather graceful
than otherwise in one so much respected, and so far advanced in years.
The freshness and vigor of his mind were truly remarkable. He was
still alive to every means of improving himself, and when the Athenian
marbles were received in England, he addressed a printed letter to lord
Elgin, in which he spoke of this event as forming a sort of epoch in
his life, and anticipated the great advantage which he should derive
from the study of these admirable remains of antiquity in the further
prosecution of his labors, which, however, were very soon after brought
to a close.

‘We have said above that the manner of West was almost wholly free
from faults. His conceptions are noble, his drawing correct, his
coloring true, and his composition skilful and spirited. If we miss
any thing in his paintings, it is, perhaps, the secret indescribable
charm of coloring, which, like the curious felicity of language in
some writers, seems to be a sort of natural “grace, beyond the reach
of art,” but affording, at the same time, a higher delight than any of
those beauties, which can be more distinctly analyzed and defined. Of
this, Sir Joshua Reynolds possessed a larger share than West, and will,
probably, on that account, be always ranked above him in the general
scale of merit.

‘The paintings of West, which remained in his possession at his death,
were offered for sale soon after, and we have anxiously desired, that
the whole or a portion of them should have taken the direction of
this country. They would have formed a most interesting and valuable
addition to our collections, and would then have reached what may
fairly be considered their natural destination, the birth-place
and original home of their author. We are not exactly informed what
disposition has been made of them, and venture to hope that the
expectation we have expressed may still, in part, at least, be realized.

‘The general reputation of Trumbull is hardly equal to that of West,
although the _Sortie from Gibraltar_ is perhaps superior in effect
to any single production of the latter artist. This noble picture may
justly be ranked with the finest productions of the pencil, and would
forever secure to its author, had he done nothing else, a rank with
the greatest masters of the art. If his success has been, on the
whole, inferior to that of his illustrious contemporary, it is probably
because his devotion to his profession has not been so exclusive.
The important military and political occupations, in which he was
engaged during a considerable portion of the most active part of his
life, diverted his attention for the time from painting, and when he
afterwards resumed the pencil, he seemed to have lost, in some degree,
the vigor and freshness of his youthful talent. Hence his reputation
has not continued to increase with his years, and his last works have
not, like those of West, been regarded as his best. The four great
paintings, on subjects connected with the revolutionary war, which he
executed for congress, have, on the whole, hardly satisfied the public
expectation, and for that reason have, perhaps, been depreciated below
their real worth. They are all valuable pieces, and the _Declaration
of Independence_, which we look upon as the best of the series, is
one of a very high order. They derive a great additional interest from
exhibiting portraits, as far as they could be obtained, of the signers
of the declaration, and of the other patriots and warriors, who took a
part in the memorable action of the revolution. We incline to believe
that these paintings, should the liberality of congress allow the
appropriation necessary for keeping them in existence, will gradually
gain upon the public opinion, both as works of art, and as historical
memorials, and be viewed by the next generation with more interest than
they are by the present one.

‘Of our living native artists, Mr. Allston is the one, to whose future
productions the country looks, with reason, for the most brilliant
exhibitions of talent, and the most valuable accessions to our public
and private collections. Few painters have ever possessed, at his
age, a higher reputation, or one acquired by nobler means; and from
his character and habits, there is room to suppose that his fame
will continue to increase, like that of West, to the last period of
his labors. Inspired by that exclusive and passionate love for his
profession, which is the sure characteristic of a real genius for it,
and by a lofty and generous disinterestedness, which has prevented
him from consecrating his pencil to its lower and more lucrative
departments, he has, under some discouragements, steadily confined
himself to historical, scriptural, and poetical subjects, and has
formed his manner upon the highest standard of excellence. His
conceptions are uniformly happy, and, when the subject requires it,
sublime; his taste and skill, in the mechanical details of his art,
complete; and he knows how to give his works the secret charm to which
we alluded before, and which adds the last finish to every other beauty.
If there be any thing to complain of in him, it is that he is not
satisfied himself with the degree of merit, which would satisfy every
one else, and employs in correcting, maturing, and repainting a single
piece, not always, perhaps, with any real accession of effect, the time
and labor which would have been sufficient for completing a dozen. This
extreme fastidiousness may have been, at an earlier period of life, a
virtue, and is probably one of the qualities, which have enabled the
artist to realize the high idea of excellence, which originally warmed
his young fancy. But, if we might venture to express an opinion on the
subject, we should say that the time has now arrived, when he might
throw it off with advantage, and allow himself a greater rapidity of
execution. His manner is formed. He possesses his talent, whatever it
is, and, as we remarked above, when we treated the same question in
general terms, the more freely and fearlessly he exercises it, the more
natural and spirited, and, on the whole, the better will be the product.
We trust that he will not permit another year to pass over, without
putting the last hand to the grand heroic composition, upon which he
has been employed so many, and that this will be followed by a series
of others, of equal merit, and of a rather more rapid growth. By this
change in his manner of working, we believe that he would gain in ease
and spirit, without sacrificing any real beauty, and would labor, on
the whole, with infinitely more satisfaction and profit to himself and
the public, than he does now. We offer these remarks, however, with
all the deference that is due from mere _amateurs_ to an artist of
consummate genius, who is, after all, the only true judge of effect in
his art, and of the best means of producing it.’




                  CHAPTER XVIII.――BANKING SYSTEM[97]


IN new countries, one of the chief difficulties with which a civilized
population is obliged to contend, after a sufficiency is obtained of
the necessaries of life, is in appropriating a portion of their capital,
to serve as a common standard of value in the transactions of commerce.
Barter, which is always the first process, soon becomes too burdensome,
and the precious metals, which, in older countries furnish a sound
and universal currency, are too expensive for new settlements, where
all the capital of the inhabitants is wanted in improving the face of
the country, and in providing additional comforts, as the community
advances in wealth. In the course of time, however, commerce claims
a portion of capital, as the medium of exchange; and the struggle
commences between the necessity of providing a circulating medium,
formed of a material of universal value, and the reluctance to spare
for that purpose, capital, which might be exchanged for articles
essentially wanted in new countries. Hence it is found, that in new
colonies, there is a strong tendency to substitute the credit of
public bodies in the place of capital, or in other words, a paper
for a metallic currency. The want of capital is so great, and the
opportunities of investment so abundant, that the issues soon become
excessive; and it is not until the channels of circulation are entirely
filled, that the holders begin to look to the fund provided for
its redemption; and the first re-action generally results in the
depreciation of the currency, and in the universal distress of the
community.

In this country, this evil had been so often felt under the colonial
governments, and during the revolution, (when the necessity of the
public service compelled, if it did not excuse, excessive emissions
of bills of credit by the individual states,) that upon forming a
government for the United States, after the termination of hostilities,
all power over the currency was taken from the state governments; and
they were expressly prohibited from coining money, issuing bills of
credit, or making any thing but gold and silver a tender in payment of
debts.

It was intended to vest in congress the power to establish a uniform
currency, instead of the fluctuating medium formerly used; and to place
it out of the power of the states, to invalidate or alter the terms
of contracts, by tender, relief, or bankrupt laws, or by any tampering
with the currency. It was a wise endeavor to elevate the commercial
credit of the country, by placing its principles under the guardianship
of the national government, and to establish the currency upon an
immovable basis, by making it of gold and silver. The effort, though
well meant, was, at that period of our history, almost too great for
the ability of the country. A circulating medium composed entirely of
the precious metals, could not be furnished, without abstracting too
large a share of its capital from active employment.

Certificates of public debt were already too abundant, and the name of
continental money was of itself sufficient, to prevent government bills
from becoming current. A bank, whose issues should be founded on real
capital, convertible at pleasure into gold and silver, would furnish a
circulating medium, not so expensive as a metallic currency, and still
not liable to the objections made to treasury bills. So long as the
credit of the bank should be fully sustained, a large amount of bills
would be kept in circulation, and an additional capital provided, on
which it might safely discount to a certain extent. The experiment
had been already successfully tried, in the bank of North America,
chartered in 1781, under the authority of the continental congress.
This institution subsequently accepted a charter from the legislature
of Pennsylvania, and of course lost its character as a national bank.
This step was also unfortunate, as the commencement of state banking,
and being speedily followed by the incorporation of the banks of New
York and Massachusetts, by the legislatures of those respective states,
established the practice of incorporating state banks, upon a footing
that could not be overthrown. As these banks were all established on
real capital, and were prudently managed, their paper soon formed a
large part of the circulating medium; and by the operation of causes
more powerful than legislative enactments, a victory was finally
obtained over the policy and spirit of the constitution; and a currency,
chiefly composed of the notes of incorporated banks, was substituted
in the place of a metallic currency. With such a circulating medium,
it is clear that the state governments, in exercising the power of
incorporating banks, have materially diminished the practical control
of congress over the currency of the union. These notes, indeed,
are not, and cannot be made a legal tender in payment of debts. The
federal constitution has there interposed an effectual prohibition.
But although the power, which is secured to each creditor, of enforcing
payment of his debt in specie, has served as a check to the excessive
issue of bank notes, still a paper currency has existed in the United
States, which, by dispensing with and superseding the use of the
precious metals, has, in fact, compelled every one to receive such
currency, in nearly the same manner as if it had been made a legal
tender.

The old United States bank, which was chartered by congress in 1791,
shortly after the adoption of the federal constitution, by the salutary
control it exercised over the state banks, prevented any great and
general injury from growing out of this change in the character of
the currency. It carefully guarded against all excessive issues by
the local banks, and compelled them to make their paper equivalent
to specie. Even this check did not always prove sufficient; and the
natural tendency of banking institutions, in new countries to over
issues, was occasionally illustrated by the bankruptcy of country banks,
to the great detriment of the mercantile community. When this check was
withdrawn by the refusal to renew the charter of the United States bank,
in 1811, the evil became incomparably greater. Availing themselves of
the pecuniary distress of the government, during the war that ensued,
the local banks, out of New England, came to a determination to suspend
specie payments, and by continually increasing their issues, they
finally flooded the country with bank notes, which constituted the sole
circulating medium, and which, though nominally convertible into specie
upon demand, were in reality at twenty per cent. discount.

Even this currency was received, as if it had been made a legal
tender. An outcry had been made against those who enforced the payment
of specie, as engaged in a combination to drain the country of the
precious metals; and the only alternative presented to the creditor
was, a lawsuit in the face of public opinion for his legal rights, or
the acceptance of the depreciated paper currency from his debtor.

Protected by this popular prejudice, the banks went on issuing their
irredeemable bills, even after the termination of the war; and a
circulating medium, altogether without value in other countries, became
the currency of the union, with the exception of the eastern states.
By the large issues of the banks that had suspended payment, the
circulating medium had been so much augmented, that it exceeded the
wants of the community, and fell greatly in value,――the whole currency
in 1816, being estimated at one hundred and ten million dollars, when
forty-five million dollars were all that was needed. This evil was
still further aggravated by the different values of this currency in
the several states――being in some five, in some ten, in others twenty
per cent. below par. A debtor, therefore, in paying a debt contracted
before the general depreciation of the currency, would, in that state
of affairs, pay less value than he agreed to pay; and a debtor, by
moving from the eastern to the southern and western states, would, in
effect, diminish the amount of his indebtedness twenty per cent. Nor
was this all. By the federal constitution, it was provided that all
duties, imposts, and excises, should be uniform throughout the United
States. So long, however, as bank notes were received by the revenue
officers at Boston, New York, and Baltimore, the importer at Baltimore
during this period paid one fifth, and at New York one tenth, less than
at Boston, where bank notes were equivalent to specie.

To permit the longer continuance of this state of things in the face
of the constitution, would have been inconsistent with the duty of
congress. A remedy was necessary. Congress could no longer regulate
the value of the currency, by declaring that current coin in silver
and gold should be of a specified weight and purity. A paper was
substituted in the place of a metallic currency, and it was essential
to obtain a control over the local banks, and to bring their issues
within proper limits. This might have been done by positive enactment,
or by imposing a stamp duty on bank notes; but in the then existing
state of the currency, it was deemed hazardous to resort to direct
interference.

It was also proposed to remedy the evil, by investing the receiving
officers of the revenue with the power of discriminating between the
notes of the several banks. This addition to the power and influence
of the revenue officers was wisely deemed inexpedient, as augmenting
too directly the powers of the treasury department; and the short
experiment which was made of this mode of controlling the local banks,
resulted in bringing into the treasury more than a million of dollars,
of what were denominated unavailable funds, consisting of the notes of
broken banks.

The only mode remaining consisted in establishing a United States bank,
with capital sufficient to control the local banks, which should, by
degrees, compel them to reduce their issues to an amount proportionate
to their means, and thus bring the paper currency to the par of silver
and gold. This mode was adopted, and the present United States bank
was chartered in 1816, for twenty years, with a capital of thirty-five
million dollars, to which the federal government subscribed one fifth.

The notes of this bank and its branches were made receivable for any
debt due to the United States, and its capital and solidity soon gave
a currency to its notes, to the exclusion of those local banks that did
not redeem their paper in specie.

They were immediately compelled to reduce their issues with a view
to the resumption of specie payments, and within three years after
the opening of the United States bank, the currency of the union was
reduced from one hundred and ten million dollars, to forty-five million
dollars, and made equivalent to gold and silver. The local banks found
the United States bank notes were preferred, and they were compelled
to furnish as good a currency, in order to preserve those customers who
were worth having. Since this restoration of the currency to a healthy
state, it has been kept so, by the constant action of the national bank
upon all local banks evincing a disposition to depart from the true
rules of banking.

Occasional deviations have indeed taken place, as in Tennessee and
Kentucky, where the legislatures undertook to create capital by
pledging the public credit, and to force an unnatural quantity of bank
notes into circulation. These attempts resulted, as was predicted,
in the bankruptcy of the banks, and in the general distress of that
part of the country. In Kentucky, indeed, the legislature sought to
alleviate the distress flowing from this policy, by relief and tender
laws. But this only aggravated the evil, and finally produced a contest
between the friends of law and order, and the partizans of the ‘relief
system,’ that, for violence and acrimony, has been seldom witnessed
in the United States. The relief and tender laws were declared
unconstitutional by the state court of appeal, and their advocates,
having obtained possession of the legislature, abolished the court, and
constituted a new court in its place. The old court, however, refused
to yield, and being sustained by the sound part of society, finally
prevailed in the contest; and after a conflict of six years, the
legislative and executive departments were rescued from the hands of
the relief party, and law and justice, which, for a short time, had
been driven from the judgment-seat, resumed their sway over the state
of Kentucky.

The history of the banking institutions of that state affords a
striking illustration of the mischiefs resulting from any interference
of a state government with the currency, and furnishes a complete
demonstration of the wisdom of the federal constitution, in vesting
the whole power over this subject in the general government. During
the short period that elapsed between the first usurpation on the part
of Kentucky upon this prerogative of congress, and the termination of
the contest, the currency of the state was depreciated; private and
public credit destroyed; a bankruptcy almost universal produced; the
principles of sound morality and civil order disregarded; the most
valuable institutions of the state temporarily overthrown; and the
community brought to the brink of civil war and anarchy.

The right side having triumphed, means were taken to redeem
this depreciated currency; and the notes of the United States bank
furnishing a currency that was universally preferred, the paper of the
commonwealth bank was driven from circulation, and gradually redeemed
and destroyed.

To prevent the recurrence of such a state of things in other states,
is one of the objects of a national bank. In a country like this,
the temptation to excessive issues of bank paper is too strong to
be resisted by banking institutions in the new states, unless they
are checked by a vigilant superintendence, beyond the effect of local
influence. The United States, at the present moment, furnish a complete
epitome of the progress of civilization in a wilderness, and until
the whole continent shall be occupied, this republic will always
possess within its limits all the varieties of human society, in its
advancement from the savage to the civilized state. On the Atlantic
coast are cities and states, which, in commerce, in capital, and
in all the productions of wealth and skill, are not far, if at all,
behind those of Europe. Advancing through New York and Pennsylvania,
a traveller enters the new states beyond the Alleghanies, and although
Cincinnati, Lexington, Louisville, and Nashville are inferior to but
few cities on the sea-coast, still the population is not so dense, and
the country shows fewer signs of cultivation. The roads become worse,
the towns smaller, until in the far west he comes upon the log hut,
the half-cleared field, and finally reaches the _ultima Thule_ of
civilization, in discovering the trapper’s tent not far distant from
the Indian’s wigwam. The effect of this condition of society, upon the
internal commerce of the country, is striking and characteristic. In
settling in the interior, whether in one or more families, the whites
take with them little more than their clothing, furniture, agricultural
implements, and a small stock of domestic cattle.

In a few years, the fertility of the soil enables them to send
surplus produce, in exchange for European or West India productions,
to the stores of the country traders in some neighboring town, who,
in their turn, transport it to the sea-coast, for home consumption or
exportation. In this manner an active trade is maintained between the
seaports and the interior, and as the new settlers stand in actual need
of many foreign articles, which they require on credit, to be paid for
from the next year’s crop, it follows, that the interior is invariably
in debt to the merchants on the seaboard. These debts, however, they
are enabled to discharge, through the great fertility of their soil,
and the advance of their property in consequence of the improvement
of the country; and contrary to an old maxim, they grow rich, although
they continue in debt――that is, they are daily augmenting the value of
their farms, and each year they are enabled to purchase some additional
comfort or luxury, which they do not hesitate to buy on credit, because
they are certain of being able to pay for it before the lapse of
another year.

The invariable course of business between old and new countries――always
showing a balance in favor of the former, and bringing the latter in
debt――demonstrates, that this habit is beyond the reach of legislation.

The truth is, that new countries are deficient in capital. They are
in want of all the luxuries, and many of the necessaries, to which the
emigrants were accustomed at home. They, however, advance in wealth and
population faster than older states, and for the advance of capital, or
the credit which they require, they are able and willing to pay. Thus
both parties are satisfied with their mutual relations of debtor and
creditor, and find their respective interests promoted by the proper
adjustment of these relations. The same principle is equally applicable
to the capital required in the new states for a circulating medium. If
they can borrow at a fair rate of interest from the Atlantic cities,
or from Europe, capital for this purpose, it is as advantageous a loan
as if procured for any other object. It enables them to appropriate an
equal amount of capital to the clearing of new towns, building better
houses, improving the roads, and generally promoting the prosperity
of that portion of the union. It obviates the necessity, that so often
impels them to excessive issues, on a limited capital of their own, and
thus lessens the danger of a derangement of the currency.

This object was effectually attained in the establishment of the
United States bank. Founded upon real capital, which was large enough
for its proposed ends, it furnished, through its branches, a sound
paper currency to these new states; and by the supervising care of
the mother bank, those branches were sufficiently guarded against the
tendency to over-issues.

By the same agency, the local banks were compelled to conduct their
business with prudence, and to keep their circulation within proper
limits. Whenever their issues were too much augmented, the national
bank interposed a direct check, in demanding the redemption of their
paper; and an indirect check was also given by the superior credit of
its bills, which are receivable in all places in payment of duties.
Since the establishment of this bank, consequently, the business
of domestic exchange has been transacted upon the basis of a sound
currency, and the rate of exchange, between the western and the middle
states, has been reduced to one fifth of its price before that event.

It was not, however, in this manner alone that the rate of exchange
was lowered. It was equalized by the obligation assumed by the federal
government to receive the notes of the United States bank in payment of
duties. The revenue paid to the United States in each year, amounts to
about twenty-six million dollars, of which about one half is receivable
at the custom-house in New York. The exchange being always in favor of
that city, whenever it became too high, remittances were made by the
western merchants, in branch notes, to their New York creditors, who
used those notes in paying their custom-house bonds. The exchange was
thus equalized without any expense to the community, and this operation
has been felt through all the branches of the domestic exchange
business.

Its effect has been so great, that exchange between the different parts
of the union has been generally kept below the expense of transporting
the specie, and the branch notes have seldom been at a greater discount
than one fourth per cent. in any part of the country. As an equivalent
for these advantages, the national bank, besides a bonus paid to the
government when the charter was granted, has collected the public
revenue, and transported it, without expense, to any part of the union
where it was wanted. It has also disbursed it, and thus formed an
efficient arm of the treasury department. During the time it has been
in existence, it has performed these duties without any expense to the
government, and has saved it from all losses from the insolvency of
state banks. As an agent of the treasury department, in collecting and
disbursing the revenue, it has proved itself efficient and eminently
useful; and in that point of view, the establishment of the United
States bank by congress has been vindicated, as one of the means
necessary and proper to carry into effect the powers constitutionally
vested in the federal government. In its operation upon the federal
currency of the country, however, its constitutionality is still
more unquestionable. It is through a national bank alone that congress
can exercise that control over the money system of the union, that is
vested in it by the federal compact.

In order, therefore, to regulate the currency, and to render the taxes
and duties imposed by congress uniform throughout the United States,
it is absolutely necessary that a national bank should be established
with sufficient capital to control the state banks, and to compel them
to keep their notes equivalent to specie. It can in this manner only
discharge that duty, which, for wise and salutary ends, was exclusively
vested in congress, at the formation of the government. In performing
these highly responsible duties, the United States bank has necessarily
gone counter to the wishes of various classes of the community. By
compelling the local banks to control their issues, it has diminished
the dividends of the stockholders; by reducing the rate of domestic
exchange, it has lessened the profits of the brokers and capitalists,
carrying on that branch of business; and by increasing the value of the
circulating medium, through its supervising power over the local banks,
it has, in effect, reduced the price of all property for which money
is exchanged. These effects, though salutary to the community, have
been injurious to individual interests, which have all been arrayed in
hostility to that institution. The benefits of the bank have been of
too general a character, to be readily appreciated by the mass. They
consist in restoring and maintaining a sound currency, and though this
is as indispensable to prosperous commerce, as a pure atmosphere is
to a healthy man; still no special feeling is excited in the minds of
those who use the one and breathe the other with a happy forgetfulness,
that adulterated coin and irredeemable paper will cause as much
desolation among merchants, as a pestilential miasma in a crowded city.

The administration of the bank, however, though excellent, has not
been without faults. Shortly after going into operation, its direction
fell into the hands of a few speculators, who brought it to the verge
of bankruptcy, and it did not escape without the loss of more than
a million of dollars, and no small portion of character. In the
distribution of capital, dissatisfaction had been caused by the small
amount apportioned to the city of New York; and it has been, with too
much reason, asserted, that the illiberal policy pursued by the present
bank towards that city, originated in a jealousy of the increasing
wealth and trade of the commercial metropolis of the United States.
At times, too, it had indiscreetly enlarged its discounts, and in
order to bring the currency within proper limits, was obliged to bear
harshly upon its customers. Notwithstanding these errors, it was with
no little surprise, that the public found, in the first message of
general Jackson to congress, (six years before the expiration of the
charter,) an expression of his opinion against the constitutionality
and expediency of the United States bank, and an assertion that it had
failed in the great end of establishing a uniform and sound currency.
As no intimation had been given of an intention to apply for a renewal
of the charter, and as no specific abuses were pointed out deserving
examination, this intimation was justly regarded as an indication of a
strong hostility against that institution, on the part of the president,
originating in causes not open to the public eye. The message had the
effect of diminishing the value of the stock six per cent. lower than
before the opening of congress. The subject, however, was referred
to the committees on finance, and reports adverse to the president’s
views having been brought in, the stock recovered itself, and finally
attained a higher rate than the original price.

The recent history of the Banks is to be found in a condensed state,
introduced without any prescribed place, among the events, as they
occurred, of Jackson’s and Van Buren’s administrations, near the end
of the volume.




                 CHAPTER XIX.――BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES.


ADAMS, JOHN, the second president, was born, in 1735, at Braintree
Massachusetts. He was educated at the university of Cambridge, and
received the degree of master of arts in 1758. At this time, he entered
the office of Jeremiah Gridley, a lawyer of the highest eminence, to
complete his legal studies; and in the next year he was admitted to
the bar of Suffolk. Mr. Adams, at an early age, espoused the cause of
his country, and received numerous marks of the public confidence and
respect. He took a prominent part in every leading measure, and served
on several committees, which reported some of the most important state
papers of the time. He was elected a member of the Congress, and was
among the foremost in recommending the adoption of an independent
government. It has been affirmed by Mr. Jefferson himself, ‘that the
great pillar of support to the declaration of independence, and its
ablest advocate and champion on the floor of the house, was John Adams.’
In 1777, he was chosen commissioner to the court of Versailles, in
the place of Mr. Dean, who was recalled. On his return, about a year
afterwards, he was elected a member of the convention to prepare a
form of government for the state of Massachusetts, and placed on the
sub-committee chosen to draught the project of a constitution. Three
months after his return, congress sent him abroad with two commissions,
one as minister plenipotentiary, to negotiate a peace, the other to
form a commercial treaty with Great Britain. In June, 1780, he was
appointed, in the place of Mr. Laurens, ambassador to Holland, and
in 1782, he repaired to Paris, to commence the negotiation for peace,
having previously obtained assurance that Great Britain would recognise
the independence of the United States. At the close of the war, Mr.
Adams was appointed the first minister to London. In 1789, he was
elected vice-president of the United States, and, on the resignation
of Washington, succeeded to the presidency, in 1797. After his term
of four years had expired, it was found, on the new election, that his
adversary, Mr. Jefferson, had succeeded, by the majority of one vote.
On retiring to his farm in Quincy, Mr. Adams occupied himself with
agriculture, obtaining amusement from the literature and politics
of the day. The remaining years of his life were passed in almost
uninterrupted tranquillity. He died on the fourth of July, 1826, with
the same words on his lips, which, fifty years before, on that glorious
day, he had uttered on the floor of Congress――‘Independence forever!’
Mr. Adams is the author of An Essay on Canon and Feudal Law.

ADAMS, SAMUEL, one of the most remarkable men connected with the
revolution, was born at Boston, in 1722. He was educated at Harvard
college, and received its honors in 1740. He was one of the first who
organized measures of resistance to the mother country; and for the
prominent part which he took in these measures, he was proscribed
by the British government. During the revolutionary war, he was one
of the most active and influential asserters of American freedom and
independence. He was a member of the legislature of Massachusetts
from 1766 to 1774, when he was sent to the first congress of the
old confederation. He was one of the signers of the declaration of
1776, for the adoption of which he had always been one of the warmest
advocates. In 1781, he retired from congress, but only to receive from
his native state additional proofs of her confidence in his talents and
integrity. He had already been an active member of the convention that
formed her constitution; and after it went into effect, he was placed
in the senate of the state, and for several years presided over that
body. In 1789, he was elected lieutenant governor, and held that office
till 1794; upon the death of Hancock, he was chosen governor, and was
annually re-elected till 1797, when he retired from public life. He
died in 1803. The following encomium upon Mr. Adams is from a work upon
the American rebellion, by Mr. Galloway, published in Great Britain,
1780: ‘He eats little, drinks little, sleeps little, thinks much,
and is most indefatigable in the pursuit of his object. It was this
man, who, by his superior application, managed at once the factions
in congress at Philadelphia, and the factions of New England.’

ADAMS, HANNAH, a native of New England, whose literary labors have
made her name known in Europe, as well as in her native land. Among her
works are the View of Religions, History of the Jews, Evidences of the
Christian Religion, and a History of New England. She was a woman of
high excellence and purity of character. She died in 1831, at the age
of seventy-six.

ALEXANDER, WILLIAM, a major-general in the American army, during
the revolutionary war, was born in the city of New York, but passed
a portion of his life in New Jersey. He acted an important part
throughout the revolution, and distinguished himself particularly
in the battles of Long Island, Germantown, and Monmouth. He died at
Albany, in 1783, at the age of fifty-seven years, leaving behind him
the reputation of a brave officer and a learned man.

ALLEN, ETHAN, a brigadier-general in the revolutionary army, was
born in Connecticut, but was educated principally in Vermont. In 1775,
soon after the battle of Lexington, he collected a body of about three
hundred Green Mountain boys, as they were called, and marched against
the fortresses of Ticonderoga and Crown Point; and in each of these
enterprises he was successful. He was shortly after taken prisoner, and
sent to England; of the events of his captivity he has himself given
an interesting narrative. On release from his confinement, he repaired
to the head-quarters of general Washington, where he was received with
much respect. As his health was much injured, he returned to Vermont,
after having made an offer of his services to the commander-in-chief,
in case of his recovery. He died suddenly at Colchester, in 1789. Among
other publications, Allen was the author of a work entitled Allen’s
Theology, or the Oracles of Reason, the first formal attack upon the
Christian religion issued in the United States. He was a man of an
exceedingly strong mind, but entirely rough and uneducated.

ALSOP, RICHARD, a man of letters, was born at Middletown, in
Connecticut, and resided in that place during most of his life. His
works are numerous, and embrace a great variety of subjects. He was one
of the contributors to the Echo, a journal that obtained considerable
celebrity, in its day, for humor and satire. He published various
translations from the French and Italian, and left in manuscript a poem
of considerable length, called the Charms of Fancy. He died in 1815, at
the age of fifty-seven.

AMES, FISHER, one of the most eloquent of American writers and
statesmen, was born at Dedham, in Massachusetts, in the year 1758.
He was educated at Harvard college, where he received his degree
in 1774. About seven years afterwards, he began the practice of the
law, and an opportunity soon occurred for the display of his superior
qualifications, both as a speaker and essay writer. He distinguished
himself as a member of the Massachusetts convention for ratifying
the constitution, in 1788, and from this body passed to the house of
representatives, in the state legislature. Soon after, he was elected
the first representative of the Suffolk district, in the congress of
the United States, where he remained, with the highest honor, during
the eight years of Washington’s administration. On the retirement
of the first president, Mr. Ames returned to the practice of his
profession in his native town. During the remaining years of his life,
his health was very much impaired, but his mind still continued deeply
interested in politics, and he published a considerable number of
essays, on the most stirring topics of the day. He died in 1808.
In the following year, his works were issued in one volume, octavo,
prefaced by a biographical notice, from the pen of his friend, the
Rev. Dr. Kirkland.

BAINBRIDGE, WILLIAM, a distinguished naval officer, was born at
Princeton, New Jersey, on the seventh of May, 1774. From 1793 to 1798,
he was engaged in the merchant service, sailing between Philadelphia
and Europe. In July, 1798, he received the command of the United
States’ schooner Retaliation, of fourteen guns, to be employed in the
hostilities which had arisen with France. While cruising off Guadeloupe
this schooner was taken by two French frigates and a lugger, and taken
in to that island, where she remained three months. He reached home
in February, 1799, and his exchange being soon effected, he received
a commission of master-commandant, and sailed in the brig Norfolk, in
another cruise to the West Indies. Here he remained for some months,
convoying the trade of the United States. On his return, he received a
captain’s commission, and was appointed to the command of the frigate
George Washington, in which he shortly afterwards sailed for Algiers,
with the presents which our treaty bound us to make to the regency.
After performing, from motives of policy, a highly insolent exaction
of the Dey, captain Bainbridge returned to Philadelphia, in the month
of April, 1801. In the following year, he received the command of the
frigate Essex, and sailed for the Mediterranean, to protect American
commerce from the Tripolitan cruisers. In July, 1803, he sailed in the
Philadelphia, to join the Mediterranean squadron, then under commodore
Preble. His frigate was unfortunately captured by the Tripolitans,
and captain Bainbridge and his crew remained in imprisonment for
thirteen months. In 1805, a treaty of peace was concluded between the
United States and Tripoli, and the prisoners were liberated. Captain
Bainbridge was received with much respect, and was acquitted of all
blame, by a court of inquiry, held at his request. From 1806 to 1812,
he was employed at times in the merchant service. In 1812, he was
appointed to the command of the navy yard at Charlestown, and when
captain Hull applied for a furlough, after his victory over the British
frigate Guerriere, commodore Bainbridge was permitted to take command
of the Constitution. In a few weeks after sailing, he was running down
towards the coast of Brazil, when he fell in with the Java frigate,
which he captured, after a severe battle. This frigate was so much
injured, that it was impossible to bring her to the United States, and
she was accordingly blown up. The situation of the Constitution soon
compelled commodore Bainbridge to return, and he was engaged in no
other action during the war. After the peace of 1815, he superintended
the building of the Independence, seventy-four, and took command of the
first line of battle ship that belonged to our navy. In this ship he
sailed to the Mediterranean, to form a junction with commodore Decatur,
to cruise against the Barbary powers; but matters had been arranged
before his arrival. In November, 1815, he returned to this country,
was afterwards appointed one of the navy commissioners, and resumed the
command of the navy yard in Charlestown. His health gradually declined,
and he died at Philadelphia on the twenty-seventh of July, 1833.

BARLOW, JOEL, a poet and diplomatist, was born at Reading, in
Connecticut, about the year 1755. His father died while he was yet
a lad at school, and left him little more than sufficient to defray
the expenses of a liberal education. He was first placed at Dartmouth
college, New Hampshire, then in its infancy, and after a very short
residence there, removed to Yale college, New Haven. From this
institution he received a degree, in 1778, when he first came before
the public in his poetical character, by reciting an original poem,
which was soon after published. On leaving college, he was successively
a chaplain in the revolutionary army, an editor, a bookseller, a
lawyer, and a merchant. He next visited England, and published, in
London, the first part of Advice to the Privileged Orders; and, in
the succeeding year, a poem, called The Conspiracy of Kings. In the
latter part of 1792, he was appointed one of the deputies from the
London Constitutional Society, to present an address to the national
convention of France. Information of the notice which the British
government had taken of this mission, led him to think that it would
be unsafe to return to England, and he continued to reside in Paris
for about three years. It was about this time that he composed his most
popular poem, entitled Hasty Pudding. He was subsequently appointed
consul for the United States at Algiers, with powers to negotiate a
peace with the dey, and to redeem all American citizens held in slavery
on the coast of Barbary. After discharging these duties, he returned
to Paris, and again engaging in trade, amassed a considerable fortune.
In 1805, he returned to his native country, and fixed his residence
at Washington, where he displayed a liberal hospitality, and lived
on terms of intimacy with most of our distinguished statesmen. He now
devoted himself to the publication of the Columbiad, which was based
upon a poem written while he was in the army, and published soon after
the close of the war, under the title of The Vision of Columbus. This
was issued in a style of elegance which few works, either American
or European, have ever equalled. In 1811, he was appointed minister
to France, and in October of the following year, was invited to a
conference with the emperor Napoleon, at Wilna. He immediately set
off on this mission, travelling day and night; but, sinking under
the fatigue, and want of food and sleep, to which he was obliged to
submit, he fell into a state of debility and torpor, from which he
never recovered. He died in December, 1812, at Zarnowica, a village
in Poland, near Cracow.

BARNEY, JOSHUA, a distinguished naval commander, was born at Baltimore,
Maryland, in 1759. He went to sea at a very early age, and when the war
commenced between Great Britain and the colonies, Barney offered his
services to the latter, and obtained the situation of master’s mate
in the sloop of war Hornet. During the war, he was several times taken
prisoner by the enemy, and displayed, on numerous occasions, great
valor and enterprise. In 1795, he received the commission of captain
in the French service, but in 1800 resigned his command, and returned
to America. In 1812, when war was declared against Great Britain, he
offered his services to the general government, and was appointed to
the command of the flotilla for the defence of the Chesapeak. While in
this situation, during the summer of 1814, he kept up an active warfare
with the enemy; and in the latter part of July, he was severely wounded
in a land engagement near Bladensburg. In the following year, he was
sent on a mission to Europe. He died at Pittsburg, in 1818, in the
sixtieth year of his age.

BARRY, JOHN, a distinguished naval officer, was born in Ireland, in
1745. He arrived in America when only fourteen or fifteen years old,
and obtained employment from some of the most respectable merchants
of the day, until the commencement of hostilities between the colonies
and the mother country. Embracing the cause of the colonies, his
reputation for skill and experience procured for him one of the first
naval commissions from congress. During the war, he served with great
benefit to his country, and credit to himself, and after the cessation
of hostilities, he was appointed to superintend the building of the
frigate United States, in Philadelphia, which was designed for his
command. He was highly respected in private life, and died, much
lamented and honored, in 1803.

BARTRAM, JOHN, one of the most distinguished of our botanists, was
born in Pennsylvania, in 1701. He was a simple farmer, self taught in
the science of botany, and in the rudiments of the learned languages,
medicine, and surgery. So great was his progress in his favorite
pursuit, that Linnæus pronounced him the ‘greatest natural botanist in
the world.’ He contributed much to the gardens of Europe, and received
honors from several foreign societies and academics. At the time of his
death, which happened in 1777, he held the office of American botanist
to George III. of England.

BARTRAM, WILLIAM, a celebrated naturalist, son of the preceding, was
born in Pennsylvania, in 1739. In early life, he was occupied with
mercantile pursuits, but an attachment to natural science induced him
to relinquish them, and, in 1773, he embarked for Charleston, with the
intention to visit the Floridas and the western parts of Georgia and
Carolina, to examine their natural productions. In this employment he
was engaged nearly five years; and in 1790, he published an account of
his travels and discoveries, in one volume, octavo. After his return
from his travels, he devoted himself to science, and was elected a
member of several learned societies, both at home and in Europe. His
contributions to the natural history of our country have been highly
valuable. He died suddenly, in 1823.

BAYARD, JAMES A., an eminent lawyer and politician, was born in
Philadelphia, in 1767, and educated at Princeton college. In the year
1784, he engaged in the study of the law, and on admission to the
bar, settled in the state of Delaware, where he soon acquired practice
and consideration. He was elected to a seat in congress towards the
close of the administration of Mr. Adams, and first particularly
distinguished himself in conducting the impeachment of senator Blount.
In 1804, he was elected to the senate of the United States, by the
legislature of Delaware, and remained for several years a conspicuous
member of that assembly. In 1813, he was appointed by president Madison
one of the ministers to conclude a treaty of peace with Great Britain,
and assisted in the successful negotiations at Ghent, in the following
year. He then received the appointment of minister to the court of St.
Petersburgh, but an alarming illness induced him to return immediately
to the United States. He died soon after his arrival home, in July,
1815.

BELKNAP, JEREMY, an eminent historian and divine, was born at Boston,
Massachusetts, in 1744, and was graduated at Harvard college, in 1762.
He was first settled in the Christian ministry at Dover, New Hampshire,
and afterwards in his native town. He was one of the founders of the
Massachusetts Historical Society, and devoted much of his time to the
promotion of its objects and interests. His published works are, the
History of New Hampshire, American Biography, and a number of political,
literary and religious tracts. His writings are characterized by great
research, clear arrangement, and perspicuity of style. He died at
Boston, in 1798.

BENEZET, ANTHONY, a philanthropist, was born in 1713, at St.
Quentin, in Picardy, of Protestant parents, who first settled
in London, and afterwards at Philadelphia. He was intended for a
merchant, but apprenticed himself to a cooper, and subsequently became
a school-master, and a member of the society of Friends. His whole
life was spent in acts of benevolence, and he was one of the earliest
opponents of the atrocious slave trade. A few hours before his death,
he rose from his bed, to give, from his bureau, six dollars to a poor
widow. His funeral was attended by thousands; and at the grave, an
American officer exclaimed, ‘I would rather be Anthony Benezet, in that
coffin, than George Washington, with all his fame.’ Benezet died at
Philadelphia, in 1784. He is the author of a Caution to Great Britain
and her colonies; and an Historical Account of Guinea.

BIDDLE, NICHOLAS, an American naval officer, was born in Philadelphia,
in 1750. He entered the British fleet in 1770, having previously served
several years as a seaman on board merchant ships. On the commencement
of hostilities between the colonies and the mother country, he returned
to Philadelphia, and received from congress the captaincy of the Andrew
Doria, a brig of fourteen guns, employed in the expedition against
New Providence. Towards the close of 1776, he received command of the
Randolph, a new frigate of thirty-two guns, with which he soon captured
a Jamaica fleet, of four sail, richly laden. This prize he carried into
Charleston, and was soon after furnished by the government of that town
with four additional vessels, to attack several British cruisers, at
that time harassing the commerce of the vicinity. He fell in with the
royal line-of-battle ship Yarmouth, of sixty-four guns, on the seventh
of March, 1778 and, after an action of twenty minutes, perished, with
all his crew except four, by the blowing up of the ship.

BLAKELY, JOHNSTON, a captain in the United States navy during the
late war, was born in Ireland, in 1781. Two years after, his father
emigrated to the United States, and settled in North Carolina. Young
Blakely was placed, in 1796, at the university of North Carolina; but
circumstances having deprived him of the means of adequate support, he
left college, and in 1800 obtained a midshipman’s warrant. In 1813, he
was appointed to the command of the Wasp, and in this vessel took his
Britannic majesty’s ship Reindeer, after an action of nineteen minutes.
The Wasp afterwards put into L’Orient; from which port she sailed
August 27. On the evening of the first of September, 1814, she fell in
with four sail, at considerable distances from each other. One of these
was the brig of war Avon, which struck, after a severe action; but
captain Blakely was prevented from taking possession, by the approach
of another vessel. The enemy reported that they had sunk the Wasp by
the first broadside; but she was afterwards spoken by a vessel off the
Western isles. After this, we hear of her no more. Captain Blakely was
considered a man of uncommon courage and intellect.

BOONE, DANIEL, one of the earliest settlers in Kentucky, was born in
Virginia, and was from infancy addicted to hunting in the woods. He set
out on an expedition to explore the region of Kentucky, in May, 1769,
with five companions. After meeting with a variety of adventures, Boone
was left with his brother, the only white men in the wilderness. They
passed the winter in a cabin, and in the summer of 1770, traversed the
country to the Cumberland river. In September, 1773, Boone commenced
his removal to Kentucky, with his own and five other families. He was
joined by forty men, who put themselves under his direction; but being
attacked by the Indians, the whole party returned to the settlements
on Clinch river. Boone was afterwards employed by a company of North
Carolina, to buy, from the Indians, lands on the south side of the
Kentucky river. In April, 1775, he built a fort at Salt-spring, where
Boonesborough is now situated. Here he sustained several sieges from
the Indians, and was once taken prisoner by them, while hunting with a
number of his men. In 1782, the depredations of the savages increased
to an alarming extent, and Boone, with other militia officers,
collected one hundred and seventy-six men, and went in pursuit of a
large body, who had marched beyond the Blue Licks, forty miles from
Lexington. From that time till 1798, he resided alternately in Kentucky
and Virginia. In that year, having received a grant of two thousand
acres of land from the Spanish authorities, he removed to Upper
Louisiana, with his children and followers, who were presented with
eight hundred acres each. He settled with them at Charette, on the
Missouri river, where he followed his usual course of life,――hunting
and trapping bears,――till September, 1822, when he died, in the
eighty-fifth year of his age. He expired while on his knees, taking aim
at some object, and was found in that position, with his gun resting on
the trunk of a tree.

BOUDINOT, ELIAS, a descendant of one of the Huguenots, was born in
Philadelphia, in 1740. He received a liberal education, and entered
into the practice of the law in New Jersey, where he soon rose to
considerable eminence. In 1777, he was chosen a member of congress, and
in 1782, was elected president of that body. On the return of peace,
he resumed his profession, but, in 1789, was elected to a seat in the
house of representatives of the United States, which he continued to
occupy for six years. He was then appointed by Washington director of
the national mint, in which office he remained for about twelve years.
Resigning this office, he retired to private life, and resided from
that time in Burlington, New Jersey. Here he passed his time in
literary pursuits, liberal hospitality, and in discharging all the
duties of an expansive and ever active benevolence. Being possessed of
an ample fortune, he made munificent donations to various charitable
and theological institutions, and was one of the earliest and most
efficient friends of the American Bible Society. Of this institution
he was the first president, and it was particularly the object of his
princely bounty. He died in October, 1821.

BOWDOIN, JAMES, a governor of Massachusetts, was born at Boston, in
the year 1727, and was graduated at Harvard college in 1745. He took
an early stand against the encroachments of the British government
upon the provincial rights, and in 1774 was elected a delegate to
the first congress. The state of his health prevented his attendance,
and his place was afterwards filled by Mr. Hancock. In 1778, he was
chosen president of the convention which formed the constitution of
Massachusetts, and in 1785, was appointed governor of that state. He
was a member of the Massachusetts convention assembled to deliberate
on the adoption of the constitution of the United States, and exerted
himself in its favor. He was the first president of the Academy of Arts
and Sciences, established at Boston in 1780, and was admitted a member
of several foreign societies of distinction. He died at Boston, in 1790.

BOYLSTON, ZABDIEL, was born at Brookline, Massachusetts, in 1684.
He studied medicine at Boston, and entered into the practice of his
profession in that place. In 1721, when the small pox broke out in
Boston, and spread alarm through the whole country, the practice of
inoculation was introduced by Dr. Boylston, notwithstanding it was
discouraged by the rest of the faculty, and a public ordinance was
passed to prohibit it. He persevered in his practice, in spite of the
most violent opposition, and had the satisfaction of seeing inoculation
in general use in New England, for some time before it became common in
Great Britain. In 1725, he visited England, where he was received with
much attention, and was elected a fellow of the Royal society. Upon
his return, he continued at the head of his profession for many years,
and accumulated a large fortune. Besides communications to the Royal
society, he published two treatises on the small pox. He died in 1766.

BRADFORD, WILLIAM, an eminent lawyer, was born in Philadelphia, in
1755. After graduating at Princeton college, he pursued the study of
the law, and in 1779, was admitted to the bar of the supreme court of
Pennsylvania. In 1780, he was appointed attorney-general, and in 1791,
he was made a judge of the supreme court of his native state. In 1794,
he was appointed attorney-general of the United States, and held this
office till his death. In 1793, he published an Inquiry how far the
Punishment of Death is necessary in Pennsylvania. He died in 1795. He
was a man of integrity, industry, and talent.

BRAINARD, J. G. C., a poet and man of letters, was born in Connecticut,
and was graduated at Yale college, in 1815. He pursued the profession
of the law, and entered into practice at Middletown, Connecticut; but
not finding the degree of success that he expected, he returned in
a short time to his native town, whence he removed to Hartford, to
undertake the editorial charge of the Connecticut Mirror. His poems
were chiefly short pieces, composed for the columns of that paper, and
afterwards collected into a volume. They display much pathos, boldness,
and originality. Brainard died of consumption, in 1828.

BRAINERD, DAVID, the celebrated missionary, was born at Haddam,
Connecticut, in 1718. From an early period he was remarkable for a
religious turn of mind, and in 1739, became a member of Yale college,
where he was distinguished for application, and general correctness of
conduct. He was expelled from this institution in 1742, in consequence
of having said, in the warmth of his religious zeal, that one of the
tutors was as devoid of grace as a chair. In the spring of 1742, he
began the study of divinity, and at the end of July, was licensed to
preach. Having received from the Society for propagating Christian
Knowledge, an appointment as missionary to the Indians, he commenced
his labors at Kaunameek, a village of Massachusetts, situated between
Stockbridge and Albany. He remained there about twelve months, and on
the removal of the Kaunameeks to Stockbridge, he turned his attention
towards the Delaware Indians. In 1744, he was ordained at Newark,
New Jersey, and fixed his residence near the forks of the Delaware,
in Pennsylvania, where he remained about a year. From this place,
he removed to Crosweeksung, in New Jersey, where his efforts among
the Indians were crowned with great success. In 1747, he went to
Northampton, Massachusetts, where he passed the remainder of his life
in the family of the celebrated Jonathan Edwards. He died, after great
sufferings, in 1747. His publications are a narrative of his labors at
Kaunameek, and his journal of a remarkable work of grace among a number
of Indians in New Jersey and Pennsylvania, 1746.

BRANDT, a noted half-blooded Indian chief, of the Mohawk tribe,
was educated by Dr. Wheelock, of Dartmouth college, and made very
considerable attainments in knowledge. In the revolutionary war, he
attached himself to the British, and headed the party which destroyed
the beautiful village of Wyoming. He resided in Canada after the war,
and died there in 1807.

BROOKS, JOHN, the son of a respectable farmer, was born in Medford,
Massachusetts, in the year 1752. After receiving a common school
education, he was placed with Dr. Tufts, to study the profession of
medicine. On completing his studies, he commenced practice in the
neighboring town of Reading, a short time before the commencement of
the revolution. When this event occurred, he was appointed to command
a company of minute men, and was soon after raised to the rank of major
in the continental service. He was distinguished for his knowledge of
military tactics, and acquired the confidence of Washington. In 1777,
he was appointed lieutenant-colonel, and took a conspicuous part in
the capture of Burgoyne, at Saratoga. On the disbanding of the army,
colonel Brooks resumed the practice of medicine in Medford and the
vicinity, and was soon after elected a member of the Massachusetts
Medical society. He was, for many years, major-general of the militia
of his county, and his division rendered efficient service to the
government in the insurrection of 1786. General Brooks also represented
his town in the general court, and was a delegate to the state
convention for the adoption of the federal constitution. In the late
war with England, he was the adjutant-general of governor Strong, whom,
on his retirement from office, he was chosen to succeed. He discharged
the duties of chief magistrate with much ability, for seven successive
years, when he retired to private life. His remaining years were passed
in the town of Medford, where he died in 1825.

BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN, a distinguished novelist and man of letters,
was born at Philadelphia, in January, 1771. After a good school
education, he commenced the study of the law in the office of an
eminent member of the bar. During the preparatory term, his mind was
much engaged in literary pursuits, and when the time approached for
his admission into the courts, he resolved to abandon the profession
altogether. His passion for letters, and the weakness of his physical
constitution, disqualified him for the bustle of business. His first
publication was Alcuin, a Dialogue on the Rights of Women, written
in the autumn and winter of 1797. The first of his novels, issued in
1798, was Wieland, a powerful and original romance, which soon acquired
reputation. After this, followed Ormond, Arthur Mervyn, Edgar Huntley,
and Clara Howard, in rapid succession, the last being published in
1801. The last of his novels, Jane Talbot, was originally published
in London, in 1804, and is much inferior to its predecessors. In 1799,
Brown published the first number of the Monthly Magazine and American
Review; a work which he continued for about a year and a half, with
much industry and ability. In 1805, he commenced another journal, with
the title of the Literary Magazine and American Register; and in this
undertaking he persevered for five years. During the same interval,
he found time to write three large political pamphlets, on the Cession
of Louisiana, on the British Treaty, and on Commercial Restrictions.
In 1806, he commenced a semi-annual American Register, five volumes
of which he lived to complete and publish, and which must long be
consulted as a valuable body of annals. Besides these works, and
many miscellaneous pieces, published in different periodicals, he
left in manuscript an unfinished system of geography, which has been
represented to possess uncommon merit. He died of consumption, in 1810.

BROWN, JOHN, was born, in 1736, in Providence, Rhode Island, and was
a leader of the party which, in 1772, destroyed the British sloop of
war Gasper, in Narragansett bay. He became an enterprising and wealthy
merchant, and was the first in his native state who traded with the
East Indies and China. He was chosen a member of congress, and was a
generous patron of literature, and a great projector of works of public
utility. He died in 1803.

BUCKMINSTER, JOSEPH STEVENS, a celebrated pulpit orator, was born
in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in 1784. His male ancestors, on both
sides, for several generations, were clergymen, and some of them of
considerable eminence. He was graduated at Harvard college, in 1800
with much distinction, and spent the ensuing four years in the study
of theology and general literature. He was ordained minister over the
church in Brattle-street, Boston, in January, 1805. In the ensuing year,
he embarked for Europe, with the hopes of repairing his constitution,
which had suffered much from attacks of epilepsy. He returned in
the autumn of 1807, and resumed the exercise of his profession; his
sermons placing him in the first rank of popular preachers. In 1810,
he superintended an American edition of Griesbach’s Greek Testament,
and wrote much in vindication of this author’s erudition, fidelity,
and accuracy. In 1811, he was appointed the first lecturer on
Biblical criticism, at the university of Cambridge, on the foundation
established by Samuel Dexter. He immediately began a course of
laborious and extensive preparation for the duties of this office,
but was interrupted by a violent attack of his old disease, which
prostrated his intellect, and gave a shock to his frame which he
survived but a few days. He died in 1812, at the completion of his
twenty-eighth year. Two volumes of his sermons have been collected and
published since his decease; one in 1814, the other in 1829. The first
was prefaced with a well-written biographical sketch.

CABOT, GEORGE, was born in Salem, Massachusetts, in the year 1752, and
spent the early part of his life in the employment of a ship-master. He
possessed a vigorous and inquisitive mind, and took advantage of every
opportunity of improvement and acquisition, even amid the restlessness
and danger of a seafaring life. Before he was twenty-six years of age,
he was elected a member of the provincial congress of Massachusetts,
which met with the visionary project of establishing a maximum in the
prices of provision. There he displayed that sound sense, and that
acquaintance with the true principles of political economy, for which
he afterwards became so much distinguished. Mr. Cabot was a member
of the state convention, assembled to deliberate on the adoption
of the federal constitution, and in 1790, was elected to a seat in
the senate of the United States. Of this body he became one of the
most distinguished members, and enjoyed the unlimited confidence and
friendship of Hamilton and Washington. In 1808, he became a member of
the council of Massachusetts, and in 1814, was appointed a delegate
to the convention which met at Hartford, and was chosen to preside
over its deliberations. He died at Boston, in 1823, at the age of
seventy-two years. He possessed a mind of great energy and penetration,
and in private life was much loved and esteemed. As a public man, he
was pure and disinterested, of high sagacity and persuasive eloquence.
His favorite studies were political economy and the science of
government.

CADWALLADER, JOHN, was born in Philadelphia, and rose to the rank
of brigadier-general during the revolutionary war. He was a man of
inflexible courage, and possessed, in a high degree, the esteem and
confidence of Washington. In 1778, he was appointed by congress general
of cavalry, an appointment which he declined, on the score of being
more useful in the situation he then occupied. After the war, he
was a member of the assembly of Maryland, and died in 1786, in the
forty-fourth year of his age.

CARROLL, CHARLES, was born on the twentieth of September, 1737, at
Annapolis, in Maryland. At an early age, he was sent to St. Omers to be
educated, whence he removed to the college of Louis le Grand, at Rheims.
After prosecuting for some time the study of the civil law, at one of
the best institutions in France, he entered the temple. After becoming
well versed in the principles of the common law, and completing his
studies and travels, he returned to his native land, at the age of
twenty-seven. At this period, the difficulties between the colonies and
the mother country had commenced, and the struggle was soon carried on
with considerable warmth. Mr. Carroll wielded a vigorous pen, and was
soon known as one of the most powerful writers in Maryland. He foresaw
at an early hour that the appeal to arms must finally be made, and
boldly recommended due preparation.

Early in 1776, he was sent as one of the commissioners to Canada,
to induce the people of that province to join us in the opposition
to the mother country. This mission was ineffectual. Mr. Carroll
returned in June, 1776, and immediately took his seat as a delegate
in the convention of Maryland. Being afterwards elected a member of
the congress, he presented his credentials to this body at Philadelphia
on the eighteenth of July, and on the second of August following
subscribed his name to the declaration of independence.

At the time he was considered as one of the most fearless and daring
men of the age; as his property was immense, and its ultimate loss was
considered rationally certain. On his entrance into congress, he was
immediately appointed to the board of war, of which he was an efficient
member. During the war, he bore his part with unabated vigor, and
was often, at the same time, a member of the continental congress
and of the convention of his native state; discharging his duties in
both relations with fidelity, energy, and attention. In 1778, he left
congress, and devoted himself to the councils of his native state.
When the constitution of the United States went into operation, Mr.
Carroll was elected a senator from Maryland, and took his seat at the
organization of the government, on the 30th of April, 1789. To this
office he was elected for a second term.

In 1801, he quitted public life at the age of sixty-four, and for
upwards of thirty years enjoyed a life of tranquil honor, and unalloyed
prosperity. He survived all his companions of the immortal instrument
of our independence, and on the fourteenth of November, 1832, the
‘patriarch was gathered to his fathers.’

CARTER, NATHANIEL H., a man of letters, was born in Concord, New
Hampshire, and graduated at Dartmouth college in 1811. In 1816, he
was chosen professor of languages at the college where he was educated,
and was subsequently editor of the New York Statesman. He is the author
of a few occasional poems, and of Travels in Europe, in two vols. 8vo.
He died in Marseilles, where he had gone on account of his health, in
January, 1830.

CARVER, JONATHAN, a celebrated traveller, born in Connecticut, in
1732, was a grandson of the governor of that province. He was educated
for the medical profession, but embraced a military life, and served
with reputation till the peace of 1763. The years 1766, 1767, and
1768, he spent in exploring the interior of North America, and he added
considerably to our knowledge of the country. He visited England, in
1769, hoping for the patronage of government, but he was disappointed.
In 1778, while in the situation of clerk of a lottery, in Boston, he
published his travels, and, subsequently, a Treatise on the Cultivation
of Tobacco. After having long contended with poverty, he died, in
1780, of disease which is believed to have been produced by want. His
narrations have all the interest of fiction, and it has been suggested
that they may in some respects be considered the work of fancy.

CHASE, SAMUEL, judge of the supreme court of the United States, was
born in Somerset county, Maryland, in 1741. He was educated by his
father, a learned clergyman; and after studying for two years the
profession of law, he was admitted to the bar, at Annapolis, at the age
of twenty. In 1774, he was sent to the congress of Philadelphia as a
delegate from Maryland, and he continued an active, bold, eloquent, and
efficient member of this body throughout the war, when he returned to
the practice of his profession. In 1791, he accepted the appointment of
chief justice of the general court of Maryland; and in 1796, president
Washington made him an associate judge of the supreme court of the
United States. He remained upon the bench for fifteen years, and
appeared with ability and dignity. It was his ill fortune, however,
to have his latter days embittered by an impeachment by the house of
representatives at Washington. This impeachment originated in political
animosities, from the offence which his conduct in the circuit court
had given to the democratic party. The trial of the judge before the
senate is memorable on account of the excitement which it occasioned,
the ability of the defence, and the nature of the acquittal. Judge
Chase continued to exercise his judicial functions till 1811, when
his health failed him, and he expired on the nineteenth of June, in
that year. He was a sincere patriot, and a man of high intellect and
undaunted courage.

CHURCH, BENJAMIN, a physician of some eminence, and an able writer,
was graduated at Harvard college in 1754, and, after going through the
preparatory studies, established himself in the practice of medicine
in Boston. For several years before the revolution, he was a leading
character among the whigs and patriots; and on the commencement of
the war he was appointed physician general to the army. While in
the performance of the duties assigned him in this capacity, he
was suspected of a treacherous correspondence with the enemy, and
immediately arrested and imprisoned. After remaining some time in
prison, he obtained permission to depart for the West Indies. The
vessel in which he sailed was never heard from afterwards. He is
the author of a number of occasional poems, serious, pathetic, and
satirical, which possess considerable merit; and an oration, delivered
on the fifth of March, 1773.

CLINTON, JAMES, was born in 1736, at the residence of his father,
in Ulster county, New York. He displayed an early inclination for a
military life, and held successively several offices in the militia and
provincial troops. During the French war he exhibited many proofs of
courage, and received the appointment of captain-commandant of the four
regiments, levied for the protection of the western frontiers of the
counties of Ulster and Orange. In 1775, he was appointed colonel of the
third regiment of New York forces, and in the same year marched with
Montgomery to Quebec. During the war, he rendered eminent services to
his country, and on the conclusion of it retired to enjoy repose on his
ample estates. He was, however, frequently called from retirement by
the unsolicited voice of his fellow-citizens; and was a member of the
convention for the adoption of the present constitution of the United
States. He died in 1812.

CLINTON, GEORGE, vice-president of the United States, was born in the
county of Ulster, New York, in 1739, and was educated in the profession
of the law. In 1768, he was chosen to a seat in the colonial assembly,
and was elected a delegate to the continental congress in 1775. In 1776,
he was appointed brigadier-general of the militia of Ulster county,
and some time after a brigadier in the army of the United States, and
continued during the progress of the war to render important services
to the military department. In April, 1777, he was elected both
governor and lieutenant-governor of New York, and was continued in the
former office for eighteen years. He was unanimously chosen president
of the convention which assembled at Poughkeepsie, in 1788, to
deliberate on the new federal constitution. In 1801, he again accepted
the office of governor, and after continuing in that capacity for three
years, he was elevated to the vice-presidency of the United States;
a dignity which he retained till his death at Washington, in 1812. In
private he was kind and amiable, and as a public man he is entitled to
respectful remembrance.

CLINTON, DE WITT, was born in 1769, at Little Britain, in Orange
county, New York. He was educated at Columbia college, commenced the
study of the law, and was admitted to the bar, but was never much
engaged in professional practice. He early imbibed a predilection for
political life, and was appointed the private secretary of his uncle,
George Clinton, then governor of the state. In 1797, he was sent to the
legislature from the city of New York; and two years after was chosen
a member of the state senate. In 1801, he was appointed a senator of
the United States, and continued in that capacity for two sessions. He
retired from the senate in 1803, in consequence of his election to the
mayoralty of New York; an office to which he was annually re-elected,
with the intermission of but two years, till 1815, when he was obliged
to retire by the violence of party politics. In 1817, he was elected,
almost unanimously, governor of the state, was again chosen in 1820,
but in 1822 declined being a candidate for re-election. In 1810, Mr.
Clinton had been appointed, by the senate of his state, one of the
board of canal commissioners, but the displeasure of his political
opponents having been excited, he was removed from this office, in 1823,
by a vote of both branches of the legislature. This insult created a
strong reaction in popular feeling, and Mr. Clinton was immediately
nominated for governor, and elected by an unprecedented majority.
In 1826, he was again elected, but he died before the completion of
his term. He expired very suddenly, whilst sitting in his library
after dinner, Feb. 11, 1828. Mr. Clinton was not only eminent as a
statesman, but he occupied a conspicuous rank as a man of learning.
He was a member of a large part of the benevolent, literary and
scientific societies of the United States, and an honorary member of
several foreign societies. His productions are numerous, consisting
of his speeches and messages to the state legislature; his discourses
before various institutions; his speeches in the senate of the Union;
his addresses to the army during the late war; his communications
concerning the canal; his judicial opinions; and various fugitive
pieces. His national services were of the highest importance; and the
Erie canal, especially, though the honor of projecting it may belong
to another, will remain a perpetual monument of the patriotism and
perseverance of Clinton.

CLYMER, GEORGE, one of the signers of the declaration of independence,
was born in Philadelphia, in 1739. He was left an orphan at the age of
seven years, and after the completion of his studies, he entered the
counting house of his uncle. When the difficulties commenced between
Great Britain and the colonies, Mr. Clymer was among the first to raise
his voice in opposition to the arbitrary acts of the mother country,
and was chosen a member of the council of safety. In 1775, he was
appointed one of the first continental treasurers, but resigned this
office soon after his first election to congress, in the ensuing year.
In 1780, he was again elected to congress, and strongly advocated
there the establishment of a national bank. In 1796, he was appointed,
together with colonel Hawkins and colonel Pickens, to negotiate
a treaty with the Cherokee and Creek Indians, in Georgia. He was
subsequently president of the Philadelphia bank, and the Academy of
Fine Arts. He died in 1813.

COLDEN, CADWALLADER, was born in Dunse, Scotland, in 1688. After
studying at the university of Edinburgh, he turned his attention
to medicine and mathematical science, until the year 1708, when he
emigrated to Pennsylvania, and practised physic with much reputation,
till 1715. He then returned to England, and attracted some attention
by a paper on Animal Secretions, which was read by Dr. Halley before
the Royal society. Again repairing to America, he settled, in 1718,
in the city of New York, and relinquishing the practice of physic,
turned his attention to public affairs, and became successively
surveyor general of the province, master in chancery, member of the
council, and lieutenant-governor. His political character was rendered
very conspicuous by the firmness of his conduct during the violent
commotions which preceded the revolution. In 1775, he retired to a
seat on Long Island, where he died in September, of the following
year, a few hours before nearly one fourth part of the city of New-York
was reduced to ashes. His productions were numerous, consisting of
botanical and medical essays. Among them were treatises on the Cure of
Cancer, and on the Virtues of the Great Water Dock. His descriptions of
between three and four hundred American plants were printed in the Acta
Upsaliensia. He also published the History of the Five Indian Nations,
and a work on the Cause of Gravitation, afterwards republished by
Dodsley, under the title of The Principles of Action in Matter. He left
many valuable manuscripts on a variety of subjects.

COOPER, SAMUEL, a Congregational minister, was born in Boston,
Massachusetts, in 1725. He was graduated at Harvard college in 1743,
and, devoting himself to the church, acquired great reputation as a
preacher, at a very early age. After an useful and popular ministry
of thirty-seven years, he died in 1783. He was a sincere and liberal
christian, and in his profession perhaps the most distinguished man
of his day, in the United States. He was an ardent friend of the cause
of liberty, and did much to promote it. With the exception of political
essays in the journals of the day, his productions were exclusively
sermons.

COPLEY, JOHN SINGLETON, a distinguished painter, was born in Boston,
Massachusetts, in 1738. He began to paint without any instruction
at a very early age, and executed pieces unsurpassed by his later
productions. He visited Italy in 1774, and in 1776 went to England,
where he determined to remain, in consequence of the convulsed state of
his native country. He therefore devoted himself to portrait painting
in London, and was chosen a member of the royal academy. His celebrated
picture, styled The Death of Lord Chatham, at once established his
fame, and he was enabled to pursue his profession with success and
unabated ardor till his sudden death in 1815. Among his most celebrated
productions, are Major Pierson’s Death on the island of Jersey;
Charles I. in the house of commons, demanding of the speaker the five
impeached members; the Surrender of Admiral De Winter to Lord Duncan;
Samuel and Eli; and a number of portraits of several members of the
royal family.

CRAFTS, WILLIAM, a lawyer and miscellaneous writer, was born in
Charleston, South Carolina, in 1787. He received his education at
Harvard college, and studied law in his native city, where he acquired
some reputation for talent and eloquence. He was a member of the
South Carolina legislature, and for some time editor of the Charleston
Courier. He died at Lebanon springs, New York, in 1826. A collection
of his works, comprising poems, essays in prose, and orations, with a
biographical memoir, was published in Charleston, in 1828.

CRAIK, JAMES, was born in Scotland, where he received his education
for the medical service of the British army. He came to the colony of
Virginia in early life, and accompanied Washington in his expeditions
against the French and Indians, in 1754; and in the following year
attended Braddock in his march through the wilderness, and assisted in
dressing his wounds. At the commencement of the revolution, by the aid
of his early and fast friend, general Washington, he was transferred to
the medical department in the continental army, and rose to the first
rank and distinction. He continued in the army to the end of the war,
and was present at the surrender of Cornwallis, on the memorable 19th
of October, 1781. After the cessation of hostilities, he removed to the
neighborhood of Mount Vernon, and in 1798 was once more appointed by
Washington to his former station in the medical staff. He was present
with his illustrious friend in his last moments, and died in 1814, in
the 84th year of his age. He was a skilful and successful physician,
and Washington mentioned him as ‘my compatriot in arms, my old and
intimate friend.’

DALE, RICHARD, an American naval commander, was born in Virginia,
in 1756. At twelve years of age he was sent to sea, and in 1776, he
entered as a midshipman on board of the American brig of war Lexington.
In the following year he was taken prisoner by a British cruiser,
and after a twelve-month confinement he escaped from Mill prison,
and succeeded in reaching France. Here he joined, in the character of
master’s mate, the celebrated Paul Jones, then commanding the American
ship Bon Homme Richard. He was soon raised to the rank of first
lieutenant, and signalized himself in the sanguinary engagement between
the Bon Homme Richard and the English frigate Serapis. In 1794, the
United States made him a captain in the navy, and in 1801, he took
command of the American squadron, which sailed in that year from
Hampton roads to the Mediterranean. From the year 1802, he passed
his life in Philadelphia, in the enjoyment of a competent estate, and
much esteemed by his fellow-citizens. He died in 1826, leaving the
reputation of a brave and intelligent seaman.

DALLAS, ALEXANDER JAMES, was born in the island of Jamaica, in 1759;
and was educated at Edinburgh and Westminster. In 1783, he left Jamaica
for the United States, and settled in Philadelphia; taking the oath of
allegiance to the state of Pennsylvania. In 1785, he was admitted to
practise in the supreme court of the state, and in four or five years
in the courts of the Union. During this time he prepared his Reports,
and was engaged in various literary pursuits, writing much in the
periodical journals. He occupied successively the offices of secretary
of Pennsylvania, district attorney of the United States, secretary of
the treasury, and secretary of war. On the restoration of peace, in
1816, Mr. Dallas resigned his political situation, and resumed the
successful practice of his profession. His services as an advocate were
called for in almost every part of the union; but in the midst of very
flattering expectations he died at Trenton, in 1817.

DAVIE, WILLIAM RICHARDSON, governor of North Carolina, was born in
England, in 1756. He was brought to America at the age of six years,
and received his education at Princeton, New Jersey, where he was
graduated in 1776. After pursuing for a short time the study of the
law, he entered the army as a lieutenant in the legion of Pulaski, and
distinguished himself by his efficiency and courage as an officer. On
the termination of the war, he devoted himself with eminent success to
the practice of the law. In 1787, he was chosen a delegate from South
Carolina, to represent that state in the convention which framed the
constitution of the United States. Unavoidable absence prevented him
from affixing his name to that instrument. In 1790, he was elected
governor of North Carolina, and in 1799, was appointed one of the
commissioners for negotiating a treaty with France. He died at Camden,
in 1820. He was a man of a dignified and noble person, courage as a
soldier, and ability as a lawyer.

DEANE, SILAS, minister of the United States to the court of France,
was born in Connecticut, and educated at Yale college. He was elected
member of congress in 1774, and sent two years after as agent to France,
but was superseded, in 1777, and returned. Involved in suspicions
from which he could not extricate himself, he lost his reputation, and
returning to Europe, died in poverty in England, in 1789.

DECATUR, STEPHEN, a distinguished naval officer, was born in Maryland,
in 1779, and received his education in Philadelphia. He entered the
navy in 1798, and first distinguished himself when in the rank of
lieutenant, by the destruction of the American frigate Philadelphia,
which had run upon a rock in the harbor of Tripoli, and fallen into
the hands of the enemy. For this exploit, the American congress gave
him a vote of thanks and a sword, and the president immediately sent
him a captaincy. At the bombardment of Tripoli, the next year, he
distinguished himself by the capture of two of the enemy’s boats, which
were moored along the mouth of the harbor, and immediately under the
batteries. When peace was concluded with Tripoli, Decatur returned
home in the Congress, and afterward succeeded commodore Barron in the
command of the Chesapeake. In the late war between Great Britain and
the United States, his chief exploit was the capture of the British
frigate Macedonian, commanded by captain Carden. In January, 1815,
he attempted to sail from New York, which was then blockaded by four
British ships; but the frigate under his command was injured in passing
the bar, and was captured by the whole squadron, after a running
fight of two or three hours. He was restored to his country after the
conclusion of peace. In the summer of the same year, he was sent with
a squadron to the Mediterranean, in order to compel the Algerines to
desist from their depredations on American commerce. He arrived at
Algiers on the twenty-eighth of June, and in less than forty-eight
hours terrified the regency into an entire accession to all his terms.
Thence he went to Tripoli, where he met with like success. On returning
to the United States, he was appointed a member of the board of
commissioners for the navy, and held that office till March, 1820, when
he was shot in a duel with commodore Barron. He was a man of an active
and powerful frame, and possessed a high degree of energy, sagacity,
and courage.

DENNIE, JOSEPH, born in Boston, in 1768, displayed an early fondness
for polite literature, and entered Harvard college in 1787. In 1790,
he left this institution, and commenced the study of the law; but made
little progress in the practice of his profession, in consequence of
a strong attachment to literary pursuits. In the spring of 1795, he
established a weekly paper in Boston, under the title of The Tablet,
but it died from want of patronage. Soon after, he went to Walpole to
edit the Farmer’s Museum, a journal in which he published a series of
papers with the signature of the Lay Preacher. In 1799, he removed to
Philadelphia, where he had received an appointment in the office of
the secretary of state. He subsequently established the Port Folio,
a journal which acquired reputation and patronage. He died in 1812.
Mr. Dennie was a man of genius, and a beautiful writer, but wanted
the industry and judgment, which might have secured him a competent
subsistence and a permanent reputation.

DEXTER, SAMUEL, an eminent lawyer and statesman, was born in
Boston, in 1761. He received his education at Harvard college,
where he was graduated with honor, in 1781. Engaging in the study
of the law, he soon succeeded in obtaining an extensive practice.
He enjoyed successively a seat in the state legislature, and in the
house of representatives and senate of the United States; and in
each of these stations he secured a commanding influence. During the
administration of Mr. Adams, he was appointed secretary of war, and of
the treasury; but on the accession of Mr. Jefferson to the presidency,
he resigned his public employments, and returned to the practice of his
profession. For many years he was extensively employed in the courts of
Massachusetts, and in the supreme court of the United States, where he
was almost without a rival. He died suddenly, at Athens, New York, in
1816. Mr. Dexter was tall, muscular, and well formed. His eloquence was
clear, simple and cogent; and his powers were such as would have made
him eminent in any age or nation.

DICKINSON, JOHN, a celebrated political writer, was born in Maryland,
in 1732, and educated in Delaware. He pursued the study of law, and
practised with success in Philadelphia. He was soon elected to the
state legislature, and distinguished himself as an early and efficient
advocate of colonial rights. In 1765, he was appointed by Pennsylvania
a delegate to the first congress, held at New York, and prepared the
draft of the bold resolutions of that body. His celebrated Farmer’s
Letters to the Inhabitants of the British Colonies were issued in
Philadelphia, in 1767; they were reprinted in London, with a preface
by Dr. Franklin, and a French translation of them was published at
Paris. While in congress, he wrote a large number of the most able
and eloquent state papers of the time, and as an orator he had few
superiors in that assembly. He conscientiously opposed the declaration
of independence, and his opinions upon this subject rendered him for
a time unpopular; but they did not permanently affect his reputation
and influence. He was afterwards a member of congress, and president
of Pennsylvania and Delaware, successively. He died at Wilmington, in
1808. Mr. Dickinson was a man of a strong mind, great knowledge and
eloquence, and much elegance of mind and manners.

DORSEY, JOHN SYNG, professor of anatomy in the university of
Pennsylvania, was born in Philadelphia in 1783, and received an
excellent elementary education at a school of the society of Friends.
At the age of fifteen he commenced the study of medicine, and pursued
it with unusual ardor and success. In the spring of 1802, he was
graduated doctor in physic, having previously defended with ability
an inaugural dissertation on the Powers of the Gastric Liquor as a
Solvent of the Urinary Calculi. Soon after he received his degree, the
yellow fever reappeared in the city, and a hospital was open for the
exclusive accommodation of those sick with this disease, to which he
was appointed resident physician. At the close of the same season he
visited Europe. On his return, in 1804, he immediately entered on the
practice of his profession, and soon acquired, by his popular manners,
attention and talent, a large share of business. In 1807 he was elected
adjunct professor of surgery, and remained in this office till he was
raised to the chair of anatomy by the death of the lamented Wistar. He
opened the session by one of the finest exhibitions of eloquence ever
heard within the walls of the university; but on the evening of the
same day, he was attacked by a fever, which in one week closed his
existence. He died in 1818. His Elements of Surgery, in two volumes 8vo,
is considered the best work on the subject. It is used as a text book
in the university of Edinburgh, and was the first American work on
medicine reprinted in Europe.

DRAYTON, WILLIAM HENRY, a statesman of the revolution, was born in
South Carolina, in 1742. He received his education in England, and
on its completion returned to his native state. Taking an early and
active part in the defence of colonial rights, he wrote and published
a pamphlet under the signature of _Freeman_, in which he submitted
a ‘bill of American Rights’ to the continental congress. On the
commencement of the revolution he became an efficient leader; in
1775, was chosen president of the provincial congress; and in March
of the next year, was elected chief justice of the colony. In 1777,
Mr. Drayton was appointed president of South Carolina, and, in 1778,
was elected a delegate to the continental congress, where he took a
prominent part, and distinguished himself by his activity and eloquence.
He continued in congress until September, 1779, when he died suddenly,
at Philadelphia. He left a body of valuable materials for history,
which his only son, John Drayton, revised and published at Charleston,
in 1821, in two volumes 8vo, under the title of Memoirs of the American
Revolution.

DWIGHT, TIMOTHY, an eminent divine and writer, was born at Northampton,
Massachusetts, in 1752. At the age of thirteen he entered Yale college;
and after having graduated, took charge of a grammar-school at New
Haven, where he taught for two years. In 1771, he became a tutor
in Yale college, where he remained for six years. In 1783, he was
ordained minister of Greenfield, a parish in the town of Fairfield,
in Connecticut; where he soon opened an academy that acquired great
reputation. In 1795, Dr. Dwight was elected president of Yale college,
and his character and name soon brought a great accession of students.
During his presidency, he also filled, the office of the professor of
theology. He continued to discharge the duties of his station, both
as minister and president of the college, to the age of sixty-five;
when, after a long and painful illness, he died, in January, 1817. He
was endowed by nature with uncommon talents; and these, enriched by
industry and research, and united to amiability and consistency in
his private life, entitled Dr. Dwight to rank among the first men
of his age. As a preacher, he was distinguished by his originality,
simplicity, and dignity; he was well read in the most eminent fathers
and theologians, ancient and modern; he was a good biblical critic;
and his sermons should be possessed by every student of divinity. He
wrote Travels in New England and New York; Greenfield Hill, a poem; The
Conquest of Canaan, a poem; a collection of theological lectures; and a
pamphlet on The Dangers of the Infidel Philosophy.

EATON, WILLIAM, general in the service of the United States, was born
in Woodstock, Connecticut, in 1764, and was graduated at Dartmouth
college, in 1790. In 1792, he received a captain’s commission in the
army, and served for some time under general Wayne, on the Mississippi,
and in Georgia. In 1797, he was appointed consul to the kingdom of
Tunis, and continued there engaged in a variety of adventures and
negociations, till 1803, when he returned to the United States. In 1804,
he was appointed navy agent for the Barbary powers, for the purpose
of co-operating with Hamet bashaw in the war against Tripoli; but
was disappointed by the conclusion of a premature peace between the
American consul and the Tripolitan bashaw. On his return to the United
States, he failed in obtaining from the government any compensation for
his pecuniary losses, or any employment corresponding with his merit
and services. Under the influence of his disappointments, he fell into
habits of inebriety, and died in 1811. His life, published by one of
his friends in Massachusetts, is full of interesting adventure.

EDWARDS, JONATHAN, was born at Windsor, in the province of Connecticut,
in 1703. At the age of twelve years he was admitted into Yale college,
and at the age of seventeen received the degree of bachelor of
arts. He remained nearly two years longer at Yale, preparing for the
ministry; and in 1722, went to New York, and preached there with great
distinction. In September, 1723, he was elected a tutor in Yale college,
and remained there till 1726, when he resigned his office, in order to
become the minister of the people of Northampton, where he was ordained
in February, 1727. After more than twenty-three years of service in
this place, a rupture took place between him and his congregation,
and he was dismissed by an ecclesiastical council, in 1750. In the
following year he accepted a call to serve as missionary among the
Indians at Stockbridge, Massachusetts. In 1757, he was chosen president
of the college at Princeton, New Jersey, and accepted the invitation.
In January, 1758, he repaired to Princeton, where he died of the
small-pox, in the March following. His chief works are a Treatise
on Religious Affections; an Inquiry into the Notion of Freedom of
Will, which is considered the best vindication of the doctrine of
philosophical necessity; a Treatise on Original Sin; and numerous
tracts and sermons. Various narratives of his life, and editions of his
works, have been printed both in Great Britain and the United States.
The latest is in ten octavo volumes, published in New York, in 1830,
and edited by Sereno E. Dwight.

ELLIOTT, STEPHEN, a botanist and man of letters, was born at Beaufort,
South Carolina, in 1771, and received his education at Yale college. On
his return home, he applied himself to the improvement of his paternal
estate, devoting his leisure hours to history and poetry. At the age
of twenty-two he was chosen to the legislature of his native state,
where he obtained considerable influence, by his knowledge, attention,
and power of argument. He was chosen president of the state bank,
established in 1812, and continued to discharge the duties of this
office with ability to the time of his death. His two volumes of the
botany of South Carolina are held in high estimation, and his lectures
before several literary and learned societies obtained great applause.
His acquisitions in literature and science were extensive, and he
left a valuable collection in the several branches of natural history,
scientifically arranged. He was the chief editor of the Southern Review,
and the author of some of its best articles. He died in 1830. Most of
his productions remain in manuscript.

ELLSWORTH, OLIVER, an American judge and statesman, was born at Windsor,
Connecticut, in 1745, and was graduated at the college of Nassau Hall,
at Princeton, in 1766. Devoting himself to the practice of the law, he
soon rose to distinction, by the energy of his mind and his eloquence.
From the earliest period of discontent, he joined the cause of the
colonies, and in 1777 was elected a member of the continental congress.
In this body he remained for three years, and in 1784 he was appointed
a judge of the superior court of the state. He was a delegate to the
convention for framing the federal constitution, and was a senator
in the first congress. In 1796, he was appointed chief justice of
the supreme court of the United States, and in 1799 was sent envoy
extraordinary to France. The decline of his health induced him to
resign his seat on the bench, and he retired to his family residence,
at Windsor, where he died in 1807.

FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN, a philosopher and statesman, the son of a
soap-boiler and tallow-chandler, was born in 1706, at Boston, in
America. He was apprenticed as a printer, to his brother, at Boston. It
was while he was with his brother, that he began to try his powers of
literary composition. Street ballads, and articles in a newspaper, were
his first efforts. Dissatisfied with the manner in which he was treated
by his relative, he, at the age of seventeen, privately quitted him,
and went to Philadelphia, where he obtained employment. Deluded by a
promise of patronage from the governor, Sir William Keith, he visited
England to procure the necessary materials for establishing a printing
office in Philadelphia; but, on his arrival at London, he found that
he had been deceived, and he was obliged to work as a journeyman for
eighteen months. While he was in the British metropolis, he wrote a
Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain. In 1726, he
returned to Philadelphia; not long after which he entered into business,
as a printer and stationer, and, in 1728, established a newspaper. His
prudence soon placed him among the most prosperous of the citizens,
and the influence which prosperity naturally gave was enhanced by
his activity and talent. Chiefly by his exertions, a public library,
a fire-preventing company, an insurance company, and a voluntary
association for defence, were established at Philadelphia. In 1732,
he began Poor Richard’s Almanac. His first public employment was
that of clerk to the general assembly of Pennsylvania; his next, that
of postmaster; and he was subsequently chosen as a representative.
Philosophy, also, now attracted his attention, and he began those
inquiries into the nature of electricity, the results of which have
ranked him high among men of science. In 1753, he was appointed deputy
postmaster-general of British America; and from 1757 to 1762, he
resided in London, as agent for Pennsylvania, and other colonies. The
last of these offices was intrusted to him again, in 1761, and he held
it till the breaking out of the contest, in 1775. After his return to
America, he took an active part in the cause of liberty, and, in 1778,
he was dispatched by the congress as ambassador to France. The treaty
of alliance with the French government, and the treaties of peace, in
1782 and 1783, as well as treaties with Sweden and Prussia, were signed
by him. On his reaching Philadelphia, in September, 1785, his arrival
was hailed by applauding thousands of his countrymen, who conducted
him in triumph to his residence. He died April 17, 1790. His Memoirs,
written by himself, but left unfinished, and his Philosophical,
Political, and Miscellaneous Works, have been published by his grandson,
in six volumes, octavo.

FULTON, ROBERT, an American engineer and projector, was born in 1765,
at Little Britain, in Pennsylvania. Abandoning the trade of a jeweller,
he studied for some years under West, with the intention of being a
painter; but, having become acquainted with a fellow countryman, named
Rumsey, who was skilled in mechanics, he became fond of that science,
and ultimately adopted the profession of a civil engineer. Before he
left England, he published, in 1796, a treatise on Inland Navigation,
in which he proposed to supersede locks by inclined planes. In 1800, he
introduced, with much profit to himself, the panorama into the French
capital. For some years he was engaged in experiments to perfect a
machine called a torpedo, intended to destroy ships of war by explosion.
After his return to America, he gave to the world an account of several
inventions, among which are a machine for sawing and polishing marble,
another for rope making, and a boat to be navigated under water. He
obtained a patent for his inventions in navigation by steam, in 1809,
and another for some improvements, in 1811. In 1814, he contrived
an armed steam ship for the defence of the harbor of New York, and a
submarine vessel large enough to carry one hundred men; the plans of
which being approved by government, he was authorized to construct them
at the public expense. But before completing either of those works, he
died suddenly, in 1815. Though not the inventor of it, he was the first
who successfully employed the steam engine in navigation.

GATES, HORATIO, was born in England, in 1728, and entering the British
service in early life, rose by his merits to the rank of major. In 1755,
he was with Braddock when that unfortunate commander was defeated, and
received in that battle a severe wound, which for some time debarred
him from active service. On the conclusion of peace, he settled in
Virginia, where he resided till the commencement of the revolution,
in 1775. He was then appointed adjutant-general by congress, with the
rank of brigadier, and in 1776, received the command of the army in
Canada. General Schuyler succeeded him for a few months, in 1777, but
he resumed his situation in August, and soon revived the hopes of his
country, by the capture of the army under Burgoyne. In 1780, he was
appointed to the chief command of the southern districts, but he was
afterwards superseded by general Greene, and his conduct was subjected
to the investigation of a special court. He was restored to his command
in 1782. On the termination of war he resided on his farm in Virginia,
till 1790, when he removed to New York, where he lived much esteemed
and respected, till his decease in 1806.

GERRY, ELBRIDGE, one of the signers of the declaration of independence,
and vice-president of the United States, was born at Marblehead,
Massachusetts, in 1744, and received his education at Harvard college.
He was graduated at this institution in 1762, and afterwards engaging
in mercantile pursuits, amassed a considerable fortune. He took an
early part in the controversy between the colonies and Great Britain,
and in 1772, was elected a representative from his native town, to the
legislature of Massachusetts. In 1776, he was elected a delegate to the
continental congress, where for several years he exhibited the utmost
zeal and fidelity, in the discharge of numerous and severe official
labors. In 1784, Mr. Gerry was re-elected a member of congress, and
in 1787, was chosen a delegate to the convention, which assembled at
Philadelphia, to revise the articles of confederation. In 1789, he
was again elected to congress, and remained in that body for four
years, when he retired into private life, till the year 1797, when
he was appointed to accompany general Pinckney and Mr. Marshall on a
special mission to France. In October, 1798, Mr. Gerry returned home,
and having been elected governor of his native state, and in 1812
vice-president of the United States, he died suddenly at Washington,
in November, 1814.

GIRARD, STEPHEN, a celebrated banker, was born in France, about the
year 1746. At the age of twelve years, in the capacity of cabin boy, he
left France for the West Indies, where he resided some time, and whence
he made many voyages to the United States. About 1775, he arrived
in this country, and for a while kept a small shop in New Jersey. In
1780, he removed to Philadelphia, and by gradual but sure acquisition
accumulated a large fortune. He became distinguished for his active
philanthropic exertions during the ravages of the yellow fever in that
city in 1793. In 1811, when congress refused to recharter the old bank
of the United States, Mr. Girard purchased the banking house of that
institution, and became a banker. The capital which he first invested
in his bank, was one million eight hundred thousand dollars, and he
subsequently augmented it to five millions. During our late war with
Great Britain, the government found difficulty in raising the necessary
funds, and public credit had sunk so low, that seven per cent. stock
was offered at thirty per cent. discount. Of this stock Mr. Girard took
five millions. At the time of his death, in 1832, he was estimated to
be worth from twelve to fifteen millions of dollars, and he was the
most wealthy man in the new world. He was buried with public honors.
By his will, he distributed his immense riches in the most judicious
and liberal manner, among several charitable institutions, and for
the purposes of public improvements. One bequest was of two millions,
for the erection of a permanent college in Penn Township, for the
accommodation of at least three hundred poor white male orphans, above
the age of six years. In regulation of this bequest, it is enjoined,
that ‘no ecclesiastic, missionary, or minister, of any sect whatever,
shall ever hold or exercise any station or duty whatever, in said
college; nor shall any such person ever be admitted for any purpose, or
as a visiter, within the premises appropriated to the purposes of the
said college.’

GODMAN, JOHN D., an eminent naturalist and physician, was born at
Annapolis, in Maryland, and having lost his parents at an early age,
was bound apprentice to a printer. He afterwards entered the navy as a
sailor boy, and at the age of fifteen commenced the study of medicine.
On completing his studies, he settled in Philadelphia as a physician
and private teacher of anatomy, and for some time was an assistant
editor of the Medical Journal. It was at this period that he published
his Natural History of American Quadrupeds, in three volumes, 8vo.
Having been elected to the professorship of anatomy in Rutgers’ Medical
college, he removed to New York, where he soon acquired extensive
practice as a surgeon. Ill health, however, obliged him to relinquish
his pursuits, and he returned in 1829 to Philadelphia, where he died
in 1830, in the thirty-second year of his age. He possessed much
and varied information in his profession, in natural history, and
in general literature. Besides the work above referred to, he is the
author of Rambles of a Naturalist, and several articles on natural
history in the Encyclopædia Americana.

GODFREY, THOMAS, the real inventor of the quadrant commonly called
_Hadley’s_, was born in Philadelphia, and pursued the trade of a
glazier. He was a great student of mathematics, and acquired by
himself a tolerable knowledge of Latin, in order to be able to read
mathematical works in that language. In 1730, he communicated the
improvement he had made in Davis’s quadrant to Mr. Logan, secretary
of the commonwealth; and in the following year a full description of a
similar instrument was read before the Royal society of London, by Mr.
Hadley. It was decided that both claimants were entitled to the honor
of the invention, and the society presented Godfrey with household
furniture to the value of £200. He was intemperate in his habits, and
died in 1749.

GODFREY, THOMAS, son of the preceding, and a poet of some merit, was
born in Philadelphia, in the year 1736. He was at first apprenticed
to a watchmaker, but disliking the drudgery of this occupation,
he obtained a lieutenant’s commission in the Pennsylvania forces,
which were raised in 1758 for the expedition against fort Du Quesne.
Subsequently he established himself as a factor in North Carolina,
where he died in 1763. His chief works are The Court of Fancy, a poem;
and The Prince of Parthia, which was the first American tragedy.

GREENE, NATHANIEL, major-general in the army of the United States,
was born in Warwick, Rhode Island, in 1742. Though enjoying very few
advantages of education, he displayed an early fondness for knowledge,
and devoted his leisure time assiduously to study. In 1770, he was
elected a member of the state legislature, and in 1774, enrolled
himself as a private in a company called the Kentish Guards. From this
situation he was elevated to the head of three regiments, with the
title of major-general. In 1776, he accepted from congress a commission
of brigadier-general, and soon after, at the battles of Trenton and
Princeton, distinguished himself by his skill and bravery. In 1778,
he was appointed quarter-master general, and in that office rendered
efficient service to the country by his unwearied zeal and great
talents for business. He presided at the court-martial which tried
major Andre, in 1780, and was appointed to succeed Arnold in the
command at West Point; but he held this post only a few days. In
December of the same year, he assumed the command of the southern army,
and in this situation displayed a prudence, intrepidity and firmness
which raise him to an elevated rank among our revolutionary generals.
In September, 1781, he obtained the famous victory at Eutaw Springs,
for which he received from congress a British standard and a gold medal,
as a testimony of their value of his conduct and services. On the
termination of hostilities, he returned to Rhode Island, and, in 1785,
removed with his family to Georgia, where he died suddenly, in June of
the following year. He was a man of high energy, courage and ability,
and possessed the entire confidence of Washington.

HAMILTON, ALEXANDER, was born in the island of Nevis, in 1757. At the
age of sixteen, he accompanied his mother to New York, and was placed
at Columbia college, where he soon gave proof of extraordinary talent,
by the publication of some political essays, of such strength and
sagacity that they were generally attributed to Mr. Jay. At the age
of nineteen he entered the American army, and in 1777, was appointed
aid-de-camp of Washington, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel. In this
capacity he served during the remainder of the war, and at the siege
of Yorktown led in person the detachment that carried by assault one of
the enemy’s outworks. After the war he commenced the study of the law,
entered into its practice in New York, and soon rose to distinction. In
1782, he was chosen a member of congress from the state of New York; in
1787, a member of the convention which formed the constitution of the
United States, and in 1787 and 1788, wrote, in connection with Mr. Jay
and Mr. Madison, the essays published under the title of The Federalist.
In 1789, he was placed by Washington at the head of the treasury
department, and while in this situation rendered the most efficient
service to the country, by the establishment of an admirable system
of finance, which raised public credit from the lowest depression to
an unprecedented height. In 1795, he retired from office, in order
to secure by his professional labors a more ample provision for his
numerous family. In 1798, his public services were again required, to
take the second command in the army that was raised on account of the
apprehended invasion of the French. On the disbanding of the army, he
resumed the practice of the law in New York, and continued to acquire
new success and reputation. In 1804, he fell in a duel with colonel
Burr, vice-president of the United States, and died universally
lamented and beloved. Besides his share in the Federalist, general
Hamilton was the author of numerous congressional reports, the essays
of Pacificus, and the essays of Phocion. A collection of his works in
three vols. 8vo, was issued at New York some time after his death. He
was a man of transcendent abilities and unsullied integrity; and no
one labored more efficiently in the organization of the present federal
government.

HANCOCK, JOHN, a patriot and statesman, was born in Quincy,
Massachusetts, in 1737, and under the patronage of a wealthy uncle
received a liberal education, and was graduated at Harvard college, in
1754. On leaving college, he entered the counting-house of his uncle,
by whose sudden death, in 1764, he succeeded to great riches and the
management of an extensive business. In 1766, he was chosen a member
of the assembly and soon distinguished himself by his zeal in the cause
of the colonies. In 1774, he was elected president of the provincial
congress of Massachusetts, and in the following year, president of
the continental congress, in which capacity he was the first to affix
his signature to the declaration of independence. In this station he
continued till October, 1777, when ill health induced him to resign.
In 1780, he was elected governor of Massachusetts, and held that office
for four successive years, and again from 1787 till his death in 1793.
Governor Hancock was hospitable and munificent, a man of excellent
talents for business, and a true lover of his country.

HARPER, ROBERT GOODLOE, was a native of Virginia, but when very young
removed with his parents to North Carolina. His parents were poor, and
in early life he passed through a number of vicissitudes. At the age
of twenty he found himself in Charleston, S. C., with but a dollar or
two in his pocket, and with the intention of studying the profession
of the law. Having obtained introduction to a lawyer, he prepared
himself under his instruction for the bar, and, in about a twelvemonth,
undertook the management of causes on his own account. He then removed
from Charleston to an interior district, where he first distinguished
himself, politically, by the publication of a series of newspaper
essays on a proposed change in the constitution of the state. He was
immediately elected to the state legislature, and soon afterwards to
congress, where he was an efficient member of the federal party, a
powerful advocate of the policy of Washington, and the personal friend
of the most distinguished federal statesmen of the day. Many years
afterwards, he collected in an octavo volume a number of his circulars
and addresses to his constituents, and several of his speeches in
congress. In 1797, he published a pamphlet, entitled Observations on
the Dispute between the United States and France, which passed through
numerous editions, and acquired great celebrity both at home and in
Europe. The speeches which he delivered in managing the impeachment
of Blount, and the defence of judge Chase, are admirable specimens
of argument and eloquence. On the downfall of the federal party, Mr.
Harper resumed the practice of the law in Baltimore, where he married
the daughter of the distinguished Charles Carroll. He attended almost
every session of the supreme court, from the time of its removal to
Washington to that of his death, and was always heard with respect and
attention by the court and juries. The federal party having regained
the ascendant in Maryland, Mr. Harper was immediately elected a senator
in congress; but the demands of his profession soon obliged him to
resign his seat. In the years 1819–20, he visited Europe with a portion
of his family, and was absent about two years. He died suddenly in
Baltimore, in 1825. He was an active leader in the federal party,
an able and learned lawyer, well versed in general literature, and
political economy, and lived with elegant hospitality.

HEATH, WILLIAM, an officer in the army of the revolution, was born in
Roxbury, in 1737, and was bred a farmer. He was particularly attentive
to the study of military tactics, and in 1775 he was commissioned as a
brigadier-general by the provincial congress. In 1776, he was promoted
to the rank of major-general in the continental army, and in the
campaign of that year commanded a division near the enemy’s lines, at
Kingsbridge and Morrisania. During the year 1777, and till November,
1778, he was the commanding officer of the eastern department, and his
headquarters were at Boston. In 1779, he returned to the main army, and
was invested with the chief command of the troops on the east side of
the Hudson. After the close of the war, he served in several public
offices, till the time of his death, in 1814.

HENRY, PATRICK, was born in Virginia, in 1736, and after receiving
a common school education, and spending some time in trade and
agriculture, commenced the practice of the law, after only six weeks of
preparatory study. After several years of poverty, with the incumbrance
of a family, he first rose to distinction in managing the popular side
in the controversy between the legislature and the clergy, touching
the stipend which was claimed by the latter. In 1765, he was elected
a member of the house of burgesses, with express reference to an
opposition to the British stamp act. In this assembly he obtained the
honor of being the first to commence the opposition to the measures
of the British government, which terminated in the revolution. He was
one of the delegates sent by Virginia to the first general congress of
the colonies, in 1774, and in that body distinguished himself by his
boldness and eloquence. In 1776, he was appointed the first governor
of the commonwealth, and to this office was repeatedly re-elected.
In 1786, he was appointed by the legislature one of the deputies to
the convention held at Philadelphia, for the purpose of revising the
federal constitution. In 1788, he was a member of the convention, which
met in Virginia to consider the constitution of the United States, and
exerted himself strenuously against its adoption. In 1794, he retired
from the bar, and died in 1799. Without extensive information upon
legal or political topics, he was a natural orator of the highest order,
possessing great powers of imagination, sarcasm and humor, united with
great force and energy of manner, and a deep knowledge of human nature.

HOBART, JOHN HENRY, was born in Philadelphia, on the fourteenth of
September, 1775. He was educated at the college in Princeton, New
Jersey, and was noted in early life for his industry and proficiency
in his studies. On leaving this institution he was engaged a short
time in mercantile pursuits, was subsequently a tutor at Nassau Hall,
and after two years service in this capacity, he determined upon
the study of theology. In 1798, he was admitted into orders, and was
first settled in the two churches at Perkiomen, near Philadelphia,
but soon after accepted a call to Christ church, New Brunswick.
In about a year he removed from this place to become an assistant
minister of the largest spiritual cure in the country, comprising
three associated congregations in the city of New York. In 1811, he
was elected assistant bishop, and in 1816, became diocesan of New York,
and in performing the severe duties of the office, his labors were
indefatigable. From 1818 to 1823, he was employed in editing the
American edition of Mant and D’Ogly’s Bible, with notes. In September,
1823, the state of his health required a visit to Europe, where
he remained about two years. He died in 1830. He was incessantly
active in performing his religious offices, and made several valuable
compilations for the use of the church.

HOLLEY, HORACE, a celebrated pulpit orator, was born in Connecticut,
in 1781, and was graduated at Yale college, in 1799. On leaving this
institution he began the study of the law, which he soon relinquished
for divinity, and in 1805, was ordained to the pastoral charge of
Greenfield Hill, Conn. In 1809, he was installed over the society
in Hollis street, Boston, where he remained for ten years, when he
accepted an invitation to become president of Transylvania university,
in Kentucky. In this situation he continued till 1827, when he died on
his passage from New Orleans to New York. His sermons were generally
extemporaneous, and were distinguished for power and eloquence.

HOLYOKE, EDWARD AUGUSTUS, was born in 1728, in the county of Essex,
Massachusetts, and was graduated at Harvard college, in 1746. He
pursued the study of medicine, and in 1749 began to practice his
profession in Salem. He was the first president of the Medical society
of Massachusetts, and was always considered a learned physician and
skilful surgeon. He lived to be over one hundred years of age, and died
in 1829. He published various scientific disquisitions.

HOPKINSON, FRANCIS, an excellent writer, and signer of the declaration
of independence, was born in Philadelphia, in 1737. He was graduated
at the college in his native town, and pursued the profession of the
law. In 1766, he visited England, where he resided more than two years,
and on his return, married and settled in the state of New Jersey.
He entered with much zeal into the public measures of the patriotic
party, and in 1776, was elected a delegate to congress. In 1779, he
was appointed judge of the admiralty court of Pennsylvania, and for
ten years continued to discharge with fidelity the duties of this
office. In 1790, he passed to the bench of the district court, and
died suddenly in the midst of his usefulness, in 1791. Mr. Hopkinson
possessed talents of a quick and versatile character, excelling in
music and poetry, and having some knowledge of painting. In humorous
poetry and satire he was quite successful, and his well-known ballad of
the Battle of the Kegs obtained great popularity. A collection of his
miscellaneous works, in three volumes 8vo. was published in 1792.

HOPKINS, SAMUEL, a divine, and founder of the sect called Hopkinsians,
was born in Connecticut, in 1721, and educated at Yale college. In 1743,
he was settled at a place now called Great Barrington, in Massachusetts,
and continued there till 1769, when he removed to Newport, Rhode Island.
He died in 1803. He published numerous sermons, a Treatise on the
Millennium, and a sketch of his own life. His theological learning was
extensive, and he was a profound metaphysician.

HOPKINS, STEPHEN, a signer of the declaration of independence, was
born in Providence, in 1707, and after receiving a school education,
turned his attention to agriculture. In 1751, he was appointed chief
justice of the superior court of Rhode Island, and in 1756, was elected
governor of that state. In 1774, he was chosen a delegate to the
general congress at Philadelphia, and was re-elected to that body in
1775 and 1776. In 1776, he was a delegate to congress for the last
time, though for several subsequent years he was a member of the general
assembly of his native state. He died in 1785. Although his early
education was very limited, Mr. Hopkins acquired by his own efforts
extensive information. He wrote a pamphlet on the rights of the
colonies, was a member of the American Philosophical society, and for
many years chancellor of the college of Rhode Island.

HOWARD, JOHN EAGER, an officer of the army of the American revolution,
was born in Baltimore, in 1752. After serving in the rank of captain,
in 1779, he was appointed lieutenant-colonel, and distinguished himself
by his valor and activity during the war. At the battle of Cowpens,
colonel Howard, at one time, had in his hands the swords of seven
officers, who had surrendered to him personally. He was also present at
the battles of Germantown, White Plains, Monmouth, Camden, and Hobkicks
hill. On the disbanding of the army, he retired to his patrimonial
estates, near Baltimore, and was subsequently governor of Maryland,
and member of the senate of the United States. He died in 1827. General
Greene said of him, that as a patriot and soldier, he deserved a statue
of gold no less than Roman and Grecian heroes.

HUMPHREYS, DAVID, minister of the United States to the court of
Spain, was born in Connecticut, in 1753, and received his education
at Yale college. Soon after the commencement of the revolutionary war,
he entered the army, and was successively an aid to Parsons, Putnam,
Greene, and Washington. He left the army with the rank of colonel.
In 1784, he was appointed secretary of legation to Paris, and was
subsequently ambassador to the court of Lisbon, and in 1797, minister
plenipotentiary to the court of Madrid. While in the military service,
he published a poem addressed to the American armies, and after the war,
another on the happiness and glory of America. In 1789, he published a
life of general Putnam, and while in Europe, a number of miscellaneous
poems. He died in 1818.

HUTCHINSON, THOMAS, a governor of the colony of Massachusetts, was born
in Boston, in 1711, and was graduated at Harvard college. He was for a
while occupied with commercial pursuits, but soon engaged in the study
of law and politics, and was sent agent to Great Britain. On his return
he was elected a representative, and after a few years was chosen
speaker of the house, and in 1752, judge of probate. After being a
member of the council, lieutenant governor and chief justice, in 1771,
he received his commission as governor of Massachusetts. In 1774, he
was removed from his office, and was succeeded by general Gage. He then
repaired to England, fell into disgrace, and died in retirement, in
1780. He is the author of a valuable History of Massachusetts, some
occasional essays, and a pamphlet on colonial claims. It is said that
no man contributed more effectually to bring about the separation
between the colonies and Great Britain than Hutchinson.

JAY, JOHN, was born in the city of New York, in 1745. He was graduated
at Columbia college, in 1764, and in 1768, was admitted to the bar. He
soon rose to eminence as a lawyer, and began to take an active part in
politics. In 1774, he was elected a delegate to the first congress. In
May, 1776, he was recalled from congress by the provincial convention,
to aid in forming the government for the province, and to this it
is owing that his name does not appear among the signers of the
declaration of independence. Upon the organization of the state
government, in 1777, Mr. Jay was appointed chief justice, and held this
office till 1779. In November, 1778, he was again chosen a delegate
to the continental congress, and three days after taking his seat
was elected president of that venerable body. In September, 1779, he
was appointed minister plenipotentiary to the court of Spain, and he
arrived at Cadiz in January of the following year. Having resigned
his commission as minister in 1783, in 1784 he returned to the United
States, and was placed at the head of the department for foreign
affairs. In this post he remained till the adoption of the present
constitution, when he was appointed chief justice of the United States.
In 1794, he was sent as envoy extraordinary to Great Britain, and
before his return in 1795, he had been elected governor of his native
state. In 1798, he was re-elected to this office, and in 1801, went
into voluntary retirement. The remainder of his life was passed in the
faithful discharge of the charitable duties, and he was publicly known
only by the occasional appearance of his name, or the employment of his
pen, in the service of philanthropy and piety. He died in 1829. Beside
a variety of state papers and political essays, Mr. Jay was the author
of the 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, and 64th numbers of the Federalist.

JEFFERSON, THOMAS, was born in Albemarle county, Virginia, in 1743, and
was entered a student in the college of William and Mary. On leaving
this seminary, he applied himself to the study of the law, under the
tuition of the celebrated George Wythe, and was called to the bar in
1766. He soon occupied a high stand in his profession, and at the early
age of twenty-five entered the house of burgesses of his native state.
In 1774, he published a Summary View of the Rights of British America,
a bold but respectful pamphlet addressed to the king. In 1775, he was
elected a member of the continental congress, and in the following
year drew up the declaration of independence. Between 1777 and 1779,
he was employed, together with George Wythe and Edmund Pendleton, on a
commission for revising the laws of Virginia. In 1779, he was elected
governor of Virginia, and continued in office until June, 1781. In
the latter year he composed his celebrated Notes on Virginia, and
in 1787, published it under his own signature. In November, 1783, he
again took his seat in the continental congress, and in May following
was appointed minister plenipotentiary, to act abroad with Adams
and Franklin in the negotiation of commercial treaties. In 1785,
he was appointed to succeed Dr. Franklin as minister to the court
of Versailles, and performed the duties of this office till 1789,
when he returned to his native country, and was placed by president
Washington at the head of the department of state. In 1797, he became
vice-president, and in 1801, president of the United States. At the
expiration of eight years he again retired to private life, and took
up his residence at Monticello. He still continued anxious to promote
the interest of science and literature, and devoted the attention
of several years to the establishment of a university in Virginia.
He died on the fourth of July, 1826, the fiftieth anniversary of the
declaration of independence. In stature, Mr. Jefferson was six feet
two inches high. His person was erect and well formed, though spare.
In his manners he was simple and unaffected, simple in his habits,
and incessantly occupied with the pursuits of business or study. Four
volumes of his Correspondence have been published since his decease.

JONES, JOHN PAUL, a native of Scotland, was born, in 1747, at Selkirk,
and settled in America when young. He distinguished himself by his
bravery in the American service, during the contest with the mother
country, particularly in a desperate action with the Serapis frigate,
which he captured. He died in Paris, in 1792, and was buried at the
expense of the national convention. Jones was not only a man of signal
courage, but also of great talent, and keen sagacity, wrote poetry, and
in France aspired to be a man of fashion. His memorials and
correspondence are quite voluminous.

KING, RUFUS, an eminent statesman, was born in Scarborough, in the
state of Maine, in the year 1755. He was graduated at Harvard college
in 1777, immediately entered as a student at law in the office of the
celebrated Theophilus Parsons, at Newburyport, and was admitted to
the bar in 1780. In 1784, he was chosen to represent Newburyport in
the state legislature, and in the same year was elected a delegate
to the old congress. In 1787, he was appointed a delegate to the
general convention assembled at Philadelphia, and in 1788 removed
from Massachusetts to the city of New York. In 1796, he was appointed
minister plenipotentiary to the court of Great Britain, and remained
there for seven years with equal honor to his country and himself. In
1813, he was chosen by the legislature of New York a senator of the
United States, and being re-elected in 1820, he continued till the
expiration of the term in 1825. Upon his retirement from the senate,
he accepted from president Adams an invitation again to represent
the United States at the court of Great Britain. During the voyage to
England his health was seriously impaired, and his illness induced him
to return in about a twelvemonth to his native land. He died in April,
1827.

KNOX, HENRY, a revolutionary general, was born in Boston, in 1750,
and after receiving a common school education, commenced business as a
bookseller, in his native town. Before the commencement of hostilities,
he discovered an uncommon zeal in the cause of liberty. When the corps
of artillery, in 1776, was increased to three regiments, the command
was given to Knox, with the rank of brigadier-general. He distinguished
himself by his courage at the battles of Trenton, Princeton, Germantown,
and Monmouth, and contributed greatly to the capture of Cornwallis.
Immediately after this event he received from congress the commission
of major-general. In 1785, he succeeded general Lincoln in the office
of secretary of war, and having filled this department for eleven years,
he obtained a reluctant permission to retire into private life. In 1798,
when our relations with France were assuming a cloudy aspect, he was
called upon to take a command in the army, but the peaceful arrangement
of affairs soon permitted him to return into his retirement. He died
at Thomaston, Maine, in 1806. In private life he was amiable, in his
public character persevering, and of unsurpassed courage.

LAURENS, HENRY, a patriot and statesman, was born at Charleston, South
Carolina, in 1724. After receiving a good school education, he engaged
in commerce, and soon amassed an ample fortune. At the breaking out
of the revolution he was in London, but he immediately returned to
his native country, and in 1776, was elected a delegate to the general
congress. He was soon chosen president of this body, and remained so
till the close of the year 1778. In 1779, he received the appointment
of minister plenipotentiary to Holland, but on his way thither was
captured by the British, and committed to the Tower, where he was
in confinement fourteen months. He was one of the commissioners for
negotiating a peace with Great Britain, and in 1782, he signed with Jay
and Franklin the preliminaries of the treaty. His health, however, was
much impaired and he soon returned home, and passed the remainder of
his life in agricultural pursuits. He died in 1792.

LAURENS, JOHN, lieutenant-colonel, son of the preceding, was
liberally educated in England, and having returned to his native
country, joined the American army in 1777. He displayed prodigies of
valor at Brandywine, Germantown, Monmouth, Savannah and Charleston, and
was killed at the very close of the war by carelessly exposing himself
in a trifling skirmish. In 1780, he was sent as a special minister to
France, to negotiate a loan; and after being subjected to a vexatious
delay, he determined to present a memorial to the king in person at the
levee. This purpose he carried into effect, the memorial was graciously
received, and the object of negotiation satisfactorily arranged.

LAWRENCE, JAMES, a distinguished naval officer, was born in New
Jersey, in 1781, and became a midshipman in 1798. In 1803, he was sent
to the Mediterranean, as first lieutenant to the schooner Enterprise,
and while there distinguished himself by his activity and valor. He
remained on this station for three years, and then returned to the
United States, having been transferred to the frigate John Adams. In
February, 1813, he was in command of the Hornet, and took the fine
British brig Peacock, after an action of fifteen minutes. On his return
to the United States he was transferred to the frigate Chesapeake,
and in June of the same year, while engaged in battle with the frigate
Shannon, he received a mortal wound. His last exclamation, as they were
carrying him below, was――‘Don’t give up the ship.’ He lingered in great
pain for four days, when he died. His remains are interred at New York.

LEDYARD, JOHN, an adventurous traveller, was born at Groton, in
Connecticut, and was educated at Dartmouth college, in New Hampshire.
After having lived for some time among the Indians, he came to England,
and sailed with Cook, on his second voyage, as a marine. On his return,
he resolved to penetrate on foot across Northern Asia, and proceed to
the opposite coast of America. He was, however, seized at Yakutz, and
sent out of the Russian dominions. He was next employed by the African
association to explore the interior of Africa; but he died at Cairo, in
1789.

LEE, ARTHUR, was born in Virginia, in 1740, and received his education
in England, taking his degree of M.D. at the university of Edinburgh.
He then returned to his native state, and for some years practised
physic at Williamsburg; but political affairs were then assuming so
interesting an aspect, that he again went to England and entered on the
study of law in the Temple. In 1770, he visited London, and became a
member of the famous society of the supporters of the bill of rights.
His political publications at this period, under the signature of
Junius Americanus, were numerous, and procured for him the acquaintance
of the leaders of the popular party. In 1776, he was appointed minister
to France, in conjunction with Dr. Franklin and Mr. Deane, and assisted
in negotiating the treaty with that nation. In 1779, in consequence of
the false accusations of Mr. Deane, complaints of his political conduct
were freely circulated at home, and in the following year, he resigned
his appointments and returned. In 1781, he was elected to the assembly
of Virginia, and by this body returned to congress, where he continued
to represent the state till 1785. In 1784, he was employed to arrange a
treaty with the six Indian nations. He was next called to the board of
treasury, where he continued till 1789, when he went into retirement.
He died in 1792.

LEE, CHARLES, a major-general in the army of the revolution, was
born in North Wales, and entered the army while very young. He served
at an early age in America, and afterwards distinguished himself under
general Burgoyne, in Portugal. He subsequently entered the Polish
service, wandered all over Europe, killed an Italian officer in a duel,
and in 1773, sailed for New York. Espousing the cause of the colonies,
he received a commission from congress in 1775, with the rank of
major-general. In 1776, he was invested with the command at New York,
and afterwards with the chief command in the southern department.
In December, 1776, he was made prisoner by the English, as he lay
carelessly guarded at a considerable distance from the main body of
the army in New Jersey. He was kept prisoner till the surrender of
Burgoyne, in 1777, and treated in a manner unworthy of a generous
enemy. In 1778, he was arraigned before a court martial, in consequence
of his misconduct at the battle of Monmouth, and was suspended from any
commission in the army of the United States for one year. He retired
to a hovel in Virginia, living in entire seclusion, surrounded by his
books and his dogs. In 1782, he went to reside at Philadelphia, where
he died in obscurity, in October of the same year. He was a man of
much energy and courage, with considerable literary attainments, but
morose and avaricious. He published essays on military, literary, and
political subjects, which, with his extensive correspondence, were
collected in a volume, in 1792. The authorship of the Letters of Junius
has been ascribed to him.

LEE, HENRY, a distinguished officer in the revolutionary army, was born
in Virginia, in 1756, and was graduated at the college in Princeton. In
1776, he was a captain of one of the six companies of cavalry, raised
by Virginia, and afterwards incorporated into one regiment, and in 1777,
added to the main body of the provincials. At the battle of Germantown,
Lee was selected with his company to attend Washington as his bodyguard.
In 1780, being raised to the rank of lieutenant-colonel, he was sent
with his legion to the army of the south, under general Greene, and
continued with it till the end of the war. He distinguished himself
at the battle of Eutaw springs, and in the ensuing October was sent on
a special commission to the commander-in-chief, then employed in the
siege of Yorktown. In 1786, he was appointed a delegate to congress,
from the state of Virginia, and remained in that body till the adoption
of the present constitution. He was a member of the state convention
which ratified that instrument, and in 1792, he was raised to the chair
of governor of Virginia. In 1799, he was again a member of congress,
and while there selected to pronounce a funeral oration on the death of
Washington. The latter years of his life were embarrassed by want, and
it was while confined for debt in the limits of Spottsylvania county,
that he prepared for publication his excellent Memoirs of the Southern
Campaign. He was severely wounded during the riot in Baltimore, in 1814,
and his health rapidly declined. He died on Cumberland island, Georgia,
in 1818.

LEE, FRANCIS LIGHTFOOT, a signer of the declaration of independence,
was born in Virginia, in 1734. He inherited a large fortune, and in
1765, became a member of the house of burgesses of his native state,
and continued in that body till 1775, when he was chosen a member of
the continental congress. He remained in this assembly till 1779, when
he entered the legislature of his native state. He died in 1797.

LEE, RICHARD HENRY, an eminent patriot, and signer of the declaration
of independence, was born in Virginia, in 1732, and received his
education in England. He returned to his native country when in
his nineteenth year, and devoted himself to the general study of
history, politics, law, and polite literature, without engaging in
any particular profession. In his twenty-fifth year, he was chosen
a delegate to the house of burgesses, where he soon distinguished
himself by his powers in debate. In 1764, he was appointed to draught
an address to the king, and a memorial to the house of lords, which
are among the best state papers of the period. His efforts in resisting
the various encroachments of the British government were indefatigable,
and in 1774, he attended the first general congress at Philadelphia,
as a delegate from Virginia. He was a member of most of the important
committees of this body, and labored with unceasing vigilance and
energy. The memorial of congress to the people of British America,
and the second address of congress to the people of Great Britain,
were both from his pen. In June, 1776, he introduced the measure that
declared the colonies free and independent states, and supported it by
a speech of the most brilliant eloquence. He continued to hold a seat
in congress till June, 1777, when he solicited leave of absence, on
account of the delicate state of his health. In August of the next year,
he was again elected to congress, and continued in that body till 1780,
when he declined a re-election till 1784. In that year he was chosen
president of congress, but retired at the close of it, and in 1786, was
again chosen a member of the Virginia assembly. He was a member of the
convention which adopted the present constitution of the United States,
and one of the first senators under it. In 1792, he again retired from
public life, and died in 1794.

LEWIS, MERIWETHER, a celebrated explorer, was born in Virginia, in 1774,
and, after receiving a good school education, engaged in agriculture.
When general Washington called out a body of militia in consequence
of the discontent produced by the excise taxes, young Lewis entered
as a volunteer, and from that situation was removed to the regular
service. In 1803, he was sent by president Jefferson on an exploring
expedition to the north-western part of our continent; and of this
expedition, which was completed in about three years, and in which
he was accompanied by Mr. Clarke, a highly interesting account was
afterwards published. Lewis was subsequently appointed governor of the
Louisiana territory. He put an end to his own life in 1809. He was a
man of energy, perseverance, and of a sound understanding.

LINCOLN, BENJAMIN, a major-general in the revolutionary army, was
born in Hingham, Massachusetts, in 1733, and until the age of forty
years was engaged in the pursuits of agriculture. At the commencement
of the revolution, he was elected a member of the provincial congress,
in 1776, received the commission of major-general, and employed himself
vigorously to improve the discipline of the militia. He was second
in command in the army which compelled the surrender of Burgoyne. On
the day after the battle of Stillwater, he received a dangerous wound
in his leg, and was confined for several months by its effects. In
the following year, he was appointed to the command of the southern
department, and while in this post he attempted the defence of
Charleston, but was compelled to capitulate in May, 1780. He was
exchanged in November, and in the spring following joined the army
on the North river. At the siege of Yorktown he commanded a central
division, and shared largely in the dangers and honors of the day. In
1781, he was appointed secretary of the war department, and afterwards
on several occasions commissioner to treat with the Indians. On the
establishment of peace, he returned to his native state, and in 1787,
was appointed to command the troops employed in the suppression of the
insurgents in Massachusetts. In 1788, he was chosen lieutenant governor,
and in the following year he was a member of the convention which
ratified the constitution of the United States. He died in 1810. He
was the author of several published letters and essays; a member of the
American Academy of the Arts and Sciences; and president of the society
of Cincinnati of Massachusetts.

LIVINGSTON, ROBERT R., a celebrated statesman and lawyer, was born
in New York, and was educated at King’s college. He engaged in the
profession of the law, and was elected to the first general congress
of the colonies, where he was one of the committee appointed to prepare
the declaration of independence. In 1780, he was appointed secretary of
foreign affairs, and at the adoption of the constitution at New York,
chancellor of that state. This last office he held till 1801, when he
was sent minister plenipotentiary to France. It was in Paris that he
formed a personal friendship with Robert Fulton, whom he materially
assisted. In 1805, he returned to the United States, and devoted the
remainder of his life to the promotion of agriculture and the arts. He
died in 1813.

LOWELL, JOHN, an eminent lawyer, was born at Newbury, in 1744, and was
educated at Harvard college. He studied law, and rising to reputation,
in 1761, he removed to Boston, and soon distinguished himself by his
political knowledge and eloquence. In 1781, he was elected a member
of congress, and on the establishment of the federal government, was
appointed a judge of the circuit court of the United States. In these
situations he was much respected for his legal knowledge and dignity.
He died in 1802.

LOWNDES, WILLIAM, a celebrated statesman, was a native of South
Carolina, and was for many years a distinguished member of congress.
His mind was vigorous, comprehensive, and logical; and his disposition
eminently kind, frank, and generous. He was in a high degree ardent and
patriotic. He entered congress in 1812, and retained his seat for about
ten years, when ill health compelled him to resign. In 1818, he was
chairman of the committee of ways and means. He died at sea, in October,
1822, at the age of forty-two. It was said of him in the house, by
Mr. Taylor of New York, that ‘the highest and best hopes of the country
looked to William Lowndes for their fulfilment. The most honorable
office in the civilized world, the chief magistracy of this free people,
would have been illustrated by his virtues and talents.’

M’KEAN, THOMAS, an eminent judge, and a signer of the declaration of
independence, was born in Pennsylvania, in 1734, and, after a course of
academic and professional studies, was admitted to the bar at the age
of twenty-one years. His political career commenced in 1762, when he
was returned a member of the assembly from the county of Newcastle.
He was a member of the congress which assembled in New York, in 1765,
to obtain relief of the British government for the grievances under
which the colonies were suffering. In this body he behaved with much
decision and energy. In 1774, he was appointed to the general congress,
a delegate from the lower counties in Delaware, and was the only man
who, without intermission, was a member during the whole period. Of
this body he was president in 1781. In 1777, he was appointed chief
justice of Pennsylvania, and discharged the duties of this office with
impartiality and dignity, for twenty-two years. In 1799, he was elected
governor of the state of Pennsylvania, and his administration continued
for nine years. In 1808, he retired from public life, and died, much
respected and honored, in 1817.

MARION, FRANCIS, a distinguished officer of the revolutionary army,
was born in South Carolina, in 1732, and first served in 1761, as a
lieutenant against the Cherokees. Soon after the commencement of the
revolution, he received a major’s commission, and in 1780, he obtained
that of brigadier-general. He continually surprised and captured
parties of the British and the royalists, by the secrecy and rapidity
of his movements. On the evacuation of Charleston, he retired to his
plantation, where he died in 1795. He was bold, generous, and severe
in his discipline.

MASON, GEORGE, a statesman, was a member of the general convention,
which, in 1787, framed the constitution of the United States, but
refused to sign his name as one of that body to the instrument which
they had produced. In the following year, he was a member of the
Virginia convention, to consider the proposed plan of federal
government. In union with Henry, he opposed its adoption with great
energy, and is the author of one of the articles inserted among the
amendments of that instrument. So averse was he to the section which
allowed the slave-trade for twenty years, that he declared his vote
should be cast against the admission of the southern states into the
Union, unless they would agree to discontinue the traffic. He died at
his seat in Virginia, in the autumn of 1792, at the age of sixty-seven.

MASON, JOHN MITCHELL, a divine and pulpit orator, was born in the
city of New York, in 1770, and after graduating at Columbia college,
prepared himself for the sacred ministry. His theological studies
were completed in Europe. In 1792, he returned to New York, and was
established in the ministry at that place till 1811, when he accepted
the appointment of provost in Columbia college. This situation his
ill health obliged him to resign, and he visited Europe to repair his
constitution. On his return, in 1817, he again resumed his labors in
preaching, and in 1821, undertook the charge of Dickinson college, in
Pennsylvania. In 1824, he returned to New York, and died in 1829. He
was the author of Letters on Frequent Communion; A Plea for Sacramental
Communion on Catholic Principles; and a number of essays, reviews,
orations, and sermons, published at different times.

MATHER, INCREASE, a learned divine, was born at Dorchester, in 1639,
was educated to the ministry, and was settled in the North church,
Boston, in 1664. He continued there for sixty-two years, discharging
the duties of his sacred office with zeal and ability. In 1685, he was
appointed to the presidency of Harvard college, which he resigned in
1701. He died in 1723. He was an indefatigable student, and published
a variety of works on religion, politics, history, and philosophy.

MATHER, COTTON, a celebrated divine, son of the preceding, was born
in February, 1663, and was educated for the profession of theology.
In 1684, he was ordained minister of the North church in Boston, as
colleague with his father. He died in 1728. His learning was marvellous,
but his taste was eccentric, and he was very pedantic and credulous.
His publications are 382 in number; the most celebrated of which is
Magnalia Christi Americani.

M’DONOUGH, THOMAS, a distinguished naval officer, was born in Newcastle
county, Delaware, and after his father’s death in 1796, he obtained a
midshipman’s warrant, and went out with our fleet to the Mediterranean.
In 1812, at the age of twenty-seven, he commanded the American forces
on lake Champlain. In the battle of September 11, 1814, after an
action of two hours and twenty minutes, he obtained a complete victory,
which he announced to the war department in the following terms:――‘The
Almighty has been pleased to grant us a signal victory on lake
Champlain, in the capture of one frigate, one brig, and two sloops of
war of the enemy.’ The state of New York gave him a thousand acres of
land on the bay in which the battle was fought. He died in November,
1825, at about the age of thirty-nine years.

MIDDLETON, ARTHUR, a signer of the declaration of independence, was
born in South Carolina, in 1743, and received his education in Europe.
Soon after his return home, he began to take an active part in the
revolutionary movements, and in 1776, was chosen one of the delegates
from his native state to the American congress. At the close of the
year 1777, he resigned his seat, leaving behind a character for the
purest patriotism and unwavering resolution. In the year 1779, many
of the southern plantations were ravaged, and that of Mr. Middleton
did not escape. On the surrender of Charleston, he was taken prisoner,
and kept in confinement for nearly a year. In 1781, he was appointed
a representative to congress, and again in 1782. In the latter year he
went into retirement, and died in 1787.

MONROE, JAMES, was born in Virginia, in 1759, and was educated in
William and Mary college. He entered the revolutionary war, in 1776, as
a cadet, was at the battles of Haerlem Heights and White Plains, and in
the attack on Trenton, and rose through the rank of lieutenant to that
of captain. He was present at the battles of Brandywine, Germantown,
and Monmouth, as aid to lord Sterling. Resuming the study of the law,
he entered the office of Mr. Jefferson, and after being a member of the
assembly of Virginia and the council, he was elected, in 1783, a member
of the old congress. In 1790, he was elected a member of the senate of
the United States, in 1794, went as minister plenipotentiary to France,
and in 1799, was appointed governor of Virginia. In 1803, he was
appointed minister extraordinary to France, in the same year minister
to London, and in the next minister to Spain. In 1806, he was again
appointed, in conjunction with Mr. William Pinkney, minister to London.
He was subsequently governor of Virginia; in 1811, was appointed
secretary of state, and continued to exercise the duties of this
department, and for some time those of the department of war till 1817.
In that year he was chosen president of the Union, and in 1821, was
re-elected by a vote unanimous, with the single exception of one vote
in New Hampshire. He died in New York, on the fourth of July, 1831.

MONTGOMERY, RICHARD, a major-general in the army of the revolution,
was born in Ireland, in 1737. He entered the British army, and fought
with Wolfe at the siege of Quebec, in 1759. He subsequently left the
army and settled in New York. Joining the cause of the colonies, he
was appointed a general in the northern army, and fell at the assault
on Quebec, in 1775. By a vote of congress, a monument of white marble,
with emblematical devices, was executed by Mr. Cassiers, at Paris, and
is erected to his memory in front of St. Paul’s church, New York. His
remains, in pursuance of a resolve of the New York legislature, were
disinterred by his nephew, colonel Livingston, in June, 1818, the place
of their burial having been pointed out by an old soldier, who attended
their burial forty-two years before. They were removed to New York,
and again interred in St. Paul’s church, with the highest civil and
military honors. His widow was then living.

MORGAN, DANIEL, a distinguished officer in the army of the American
revolution, was born in New Jersey, and removed to Virginia in 1755.
He enlisted in Braddock’s expedition as a private soldier, and on the
defeat of that general, returned to his occupation as a farmer. At
the commencement of the revolution he was appointed to the command
of a troop of horse, and joined the army under Washington, then in
the neighborhood of Boston. He distinguished himself very much in
the expedition against Quebec, where he fell into the hands of the
enemy. On the exchange of prisoners, he rejoined the American army,
was appointed to the command of a select rifle corps, and detached to
assist general Gates on the northern frontier, where he contributed
materially to the capture of general Burgoyne. After a short
retirement from service, on account of ill health, he was appointed
brigadier-general by brevet, and commanded the force by which colonel
Tarleton was routed at the battle of Cowpens. He soon after resigned
his commission. In 1794, he commanded the militia of Virginia called
out to suppress the insurrection in Pennsylvania, and continued in the
service till 1795. He afterwards was elected to a seat in congress. He
died in 1799.

MORRIS, GOUVERNEUR, an eminent statesman and orator, was born at
Morrisania, near the city of New York, in 1752, was graduated at King’s
college in 1768, and licensed to practice law in 1771. In 1775, he was
a member of the provincial congress of New York, and was one of the
committee which drafted a constitution for the state of New York. In
1777, he was chosen a delegate to the continental congress, and in
the following year wrote the celebrated Observations on the American
Revolution. In 1781, he accepted the post of assistant superintendent
of finance, as colleague of Robert Morris; and in 1787, was a member
of the convention which framed the constitution of the United States.
In 1792, he was appointed minister plenipotentiary to France, and held
this station till his recall by the request of the French government,
in 1794. In 1800, he was elected a senator in congress from the state
of New York, and in this body was very conspicuous for his political
information and his brilliant eloquence. Many of his speeches in
congress and orations have been published; and a selection from his
correspondence and other valuable papers, with a biographical sketch,
by Mr. Jared Sparks, was issued in 1832.

MORRIS, LEWIS, a signer of the declaration of independence, was born
at the manor of Morrisania, near the city of New York, in 1726. He
was educated at Yale college, and took an early part in the cause of
the colonies. In 1775, he was elected a delegate to the continental
congress, and while in this body served on several of the most
important committees. His rich estates were laid waste by the British
army in 1776. He left congress in 1777, and died in 1798. Three of his
sons served with distinction in the revolutionary army.

MORRIS, ROBERT, a celebrated financier, was a native of England,
removed with his father to America, at an early age, and subsequently
established himself as a merchant in Philadelphia. In 1775, he
was appointed a delegate to congress, and signed the declaration
of independence in the following year. In 1781, he was appointed
superintendent of finance, and rendered incalculable service by his
wealth and credit during the exhausted state of our public funds.
It has been said, and with much truth, that ‘the Americans owed, and
still owe, as much acknowledgment to the financial operations of Robert
Morris, as to the negotiations of Benjamin Franklin, or even to the
arms of George Washington.’ He was a member of the convention which
framed the constitution of the United States in 1787, and afterwards
a senator in congress. In his old age he lost his ample fortune, by
unfortunate land speculations, and passed the last years of his life
confined in prison for debt. He died in 1806.

MOULTRIE, WILLIAM, a major-general in the army of the revolution, was
born in England, but emigrated to South Carolina at an early age. He
served with distinction in the Cherokee war, in 1760, and in its last
campaign commanded a company. At the commencement of the revolution,
he was a member of the provincial congress, and a colonel of the
second regiment of South Carolina. For his brave defence of Sullivan’s
island, in 1776, he received the thanks of congress, and the fort
was afterwards called by his name. In 1779, he gained a victory over
the British at Beaufort. He afterwards received the commission of
major-general, and was second in command to general Lincoln at the
siege of Charleston. After the close of the war, he was repeatedly
elected governor of South Carolina. He published Memoirs of the
Revolution in the Carolinas and Georgia, consisting chiefly of official
letters. He died at Charleston, in 1805.

MURRAY, ALEXANDER, a distinguished naval officer, was born in Maryland,
in 1755. He went early to sea, and being appointed a lieutenant in
the navy, obtained a correspondent rank in the army, and distinguished
himself at the battles of White Plains, Flatbush, and New York. Being
promoted to a captaincy, he served with gallantry to the close of the
campaign of 1777. During the war he was engaged in thirteen battles
by sea and land, and was once taken prisoner. On the organization of
the new government, he was one of the first officers recalled into
service, and was engaged for a while to defend the American trade in
the Mediterranean. His last appointment was that of commander of the
navy-yard in Philadelphia, a post which he held till the time of his
death, in 1821. He was a brave officer and much respected.

MURRAY, WILLIAM VANS, an American statesman, was born in Maryland,
in 1761, and received his legal education in London. On returning to
his native state, he engaged in the practice of law, and in 1791 was
elected to a seat in congress, where he distinguished himself by his
ability and eloquence. He was appointed by Washington minister to the
republic of Batavia, and discharged the duties of the office with much
ability. He was subsequently envoy extraordinary to the French republic,
and assisted in making the convention which was signed at Paris in 1800,
between France and the United States. Returning to his station at the
Hague, he embarked in 1801 for his native country, where he died in
1803.

OTIS, JAMES, a distinguished statesman, was born at West Barnstable,
Massachusetts, in 1725, and was graduated at Harvard college in 1743.
He pursued the profession of the law, and establishing himself in
Boston, soon rose to eminence. His public career may be said to have
opened with his celebrated speech against writs of assistance. At the
next election he was chosen a representative to the legislature, and
soon became the leader of the popular party. In 1765, he was a member
of the congress which assembled at New York. In 1769, he was severely
wounded in an assault committed upon him by some British officers; from
one of whom he recovered large damages, which he remitted on receiving
a written apology. In 1772, he retired from public life, and in May of
the following year was killed by a stroke of lightning. He was a good
scholar, a learned and able lawyer, a bold and commanding orator, and
possessed infinite powers of humor and wit.

PAINE, ROBERT TREAT, an eminent lawyer, and a signer of the declaration
of American independence, was born at Boston, in 1731, and was
graduated at Harvard college in 1749. After a visit to Europe of some
years, he commenced the study of the law, and about 1759, settled in
its practice in Taunton. He took an early and active interest in public
affairs, and in 1774, was appointed a delegate from Massachusetts
to the general congress. He was a member of the committee of the
convention that drafted the constitution of his native state. Under
the government that was organized he was appointed attorney-general,
and held this office till 1790, when he was appointed a judge of the
supreme court. He remained on the bench till 1804. He died at Boston,
in 1814. His legal attainments and his general acquirements were
extensive, and he was a man of much brilliancy of wit.

PAINE, ROBERT TREAT, a poet, son of the preceding, was born at Taunton,
in 1773, and graduated at Harvard college in 1792. On leaving college
he was placed in a counting-house, but soon turned his attention to
literature and theatricals, and published several orations and poems.
His poems were very popular and profitable, and by the sale of the song
of Adams and Liberty, he received the sum of seven hundred and fifty
dollars. In 1800, he began the practice of law, but failed of success
from the want of industry, and passed the close of his life in poverty.
He died in 1811. His works have been collected and published in one
volume 8vo, prefaced by a biographical sketch.

PARKER, ISAAC, an eminent lawyer, was born in Boston, and graduated at
Harvard college in 1786. He studied law in the office of judge Tudor,
and commenced practice at Castine, in Maine, then an integral part
of Massachusetts. Removing to Portland, he was sent for one term to
congress as a representative from Cumberland county. He also held for
a short time the office of United States’ marshal for that district.
In 1806, he was appointed by governor Strong associate judge of the
supreme court of Massachusetts, and soon after took up his residence at
Boston. In 1814, he was appointed chief justice of the supreme court,
and held that office till his sudden death, in July, 1830, at the age
of sixty-three years. He was distinguished for urbanity, and his legal
opinions are very highly respected.

PARSONS, THEOPHILUS, a distinguished lawyer, was born at Byefield,
Massachusetts, in 1750, and graduated at Harvard college, in 1769.
He studied, and pursued the practice of the law, for some years,
in Falmouth now Portland; but when that town was destroyed by the
British, he retired to the house of his father in Newbury. About a
year afterwards he opened an office in Newburyport. He soon rose to the
highest rank in his profession, and made immense acquisitions in legal
knowledge. His professional services were sought for in all directions,
and after thirty-five years of extensive practice, he was appointed
chief justice of the supreme court of Massachusetts. In 1780, he was
a member of the convention which formed the constitution of the state,
and of the convention which accepted the federal constitution. He was
a powerful speaker, without a rival in knowledge of law, and surpassed
by few in his acquaintance with science and classical literature. He
continued in the seat of chief justice till his death, in 1813.

PENN, WILLIAM, the founder and legislator of Pennsylvania, whom
Montesquieu denominates the modern Lycurgus, was the son of admiral
Penn; was born, in 1644, in London; and was educated at Christ church,
Oxford. At college he imbibed the principles of Quakerism, which, a
few years afterwards he publicly professed. He was, in consequence,
twice turned out of doors by his father. In 1668, he began to preach in
public, and to write in defence of the doctrines which he had embraced.
For this he was thrice imprisoned, and once brought to trial. It was
during his first imprisonment that he wrote No Cross, No Crown. In
1677, he visited Holland and Germany, to propagate Quakerism. In March,
1680–81, he obtained from Charles II. a grant of that territory which
now bears the name of Pennsylvania; in 1682, he embarked for his new
colony; and in the following year he founded Philadelphia. He returned
to England in 1684. So much was he in favor with James II., that,
after the revolution, he was more than once arrested on suspicion of
plotting to restore the exiled monarch; but he at length succeeded
in establishing his innocence. The rest of his life was passed in
tranquillity. He died July 30, 1718. His works have been collected in
two folio volumes.

PERRY, OLIVER HAZARD, a naval officer of distinction, was born at
Kingston, Rhode Island, in August, 1785. He entered the navy of the
United States as a midshipman, and in 1812, was advanced to the office
of master commandant. In the following year he was appointed to the
command of the squadron on lake Erie. On the tenth of September, he
achieved a complete victory over the enemy under commodore Barclay,
after an action of three hours, and captured the whole squadron. He
commanded the Java in the expedition to the Mediterranean, under
commodore Decatur. He died in the West Indies, in 1820.

PETERS, RICHARD, an eminent judge, was born in June, 1744, and received
his education in the city of Philadelphia. He adopted the profession of
the law, and soon obtained an extensive practice. At the commencement
of hostilities with the mother country, Mr. Peters joined the side of
the colonies, and in 1776, was appointed by congress secretary of the
board of war. His exertions in this department were highly meritorious
and useful, and on resigning the post, in 1781, he was elected a member
of congress, and assisted in closing the business of the war. On the
organization of the new government, Mr. Peters was appointed judge of
the district court of Pennsylvania, and performed the duties of this
office for thirty-six years. During this time he was engaged in several
objects of public improvement, and issued several valuable publications
in relation to agriculture. As a judge, he possessed powers of a high
order, and his decisions on admiralty law form the ground work of this
branch of our jurisprudence. Their principles were not only sanctioned
by our own courts, but were simultaneously adopted by lord Stowell,
the distinguished maritime judge of Great Britain. Judge Peters died
in August, 1828.

PICKERING, TIMOTHY, a statesman, was born in Salem, in 1746, and
was graduated at Harvard college, in 1763. He took an active part in
the popular cause, and, in organizing the provisional government of
Massachusetts, in 1775, was appointed a judge of the court of common
pleas for Essex, and sole judge of the maritime court for the middle
district. During the war, he was appointed adjutant-general, and
subsequently a member of the board of war. From 1790 to 1798, at
different intervals, he was employed on various negotiations with the
Indians. He was successively postmaster-general, secretary of war, and
secretary of state. From the last office he was removed by president
Adams, in 1800. From 1803 to 1811, he was a senator in congress from
his native state, and from 1814 to 1817, a representative in that body.
In public life he was distinguished for firmness, energy, activity and
disinterestedness. He died in Salem, in 1829.

PIKE, ZEBULON MONTGOMERY, brigadier-general, was born at Lamberton, New
Jersey, on the fifth of January, 1779. After the purchase of Louisiana,
he was appointed by Mr. Jefferson, in 1805, to explore the sources of
the Mississippi. On his return, he was sent on a similar expedition
to the interior of Louisiana, and on the Rio del Norte was seized by a
Spanish force, and deprived of his papers. He returned in 1807. During
the late war, he was made brigadier-general, and commanded the land
forces in the attack upon York, in Upper Canada, on the twenty-seventh
of April, 1813. In the explosion of the British magazine, he was struck
by a large stone, and died in a few hours. When the British standard
was brought to him, he caused it to be placed under his head, and thus
died at the age of thirty-four.

PINCKNEY, CHARLES COTESWORTH, a distinguished officer of the
revolutionary army, was born in South Carolina, received his education
in England, and studied law in the Temple. On returning to his native
province, in 1769, he devoted himself to the successful practice of his
profession. On the commencement of hostilities, he renounced law for
the study of military tactics, and was soon promoted to the command
of the first regiment of Carolina infantry. He was subsequently
aid-de-camp to Washington, and in this capacity at the battles of
Brandywine and Germantown. On the surrender of Charleston, he was
taken prisoner, and remained so till all opportunity of gaining
fresh reputation in the field had passed. He was a member of the
convention which formed the federal constitution, and in 1796 was
appointed minister to France. When preparations were making for war on
account of the expected French invasion, Mr. Pinckney was nominated a
major-general, but he soon had an opportunity of retiring to the quiet
of private life. He was afterwards president of the Cincinnati society
of the United States. He died in 1825.

PINKNEY, WILLIAM, an eloquent lawyer and statesman, was born in
Maryland, in 1764, and prepared himself for the bar, under the
instruction of judge Chase. He was admitted to practice in 1786, and
soon gave indications of possessing superior powers. He was a member of
the convention of Maryland, which ratified the federal constitution. In
1796 he was appointed one of the commissioners under the British treaty.
The state of Maryland also employed him to procure a settlement of its
claims on the bank of England, and he recovered for it the sum of eight
hundred thousand dollars. This detained him in England till the year
1804, when he returned and resumed his professional labors. In 1806,
he was sent as envoy extraordinary to London, and in 1808, received the
authority of minister plenipotentiary. He returned to the United States
in 1811, and soon after was appointed attorney-general. This office he
held till 1814. During the incursion of the British into Maryland, he
commanded a battalion, and was wounded in the battle of Bladensburgh,
in August, 1814. He was afterwards representative in congress, minister
plenipotentiary to Russia, envoy to Naples, and in 1819, senator in
congress. In the last office he continued till his death, in 1822.

PINKNEY, EDWARD COATE, son of the foregoing, was born in London, in
1802, passed his infancy in England, and was placed as a student in
Baltimore college at the age of ten or eleven. He entered the navy as
a midshipman, and continued in the service for several years. On the
death of his father, he quitted the navy and devoted himself to the
practice of the law. He published, in 1825, a volume of poems, which
possess much beauty. He died in 1828.

PREBLE, EDWARD, a distinguished naval officer, was born at Falmouth,
in Maine, in 1761, and entered the navy as a midshipman, in 1779.
He soon rose to the rank of lieutenant, and during the revolutionary
war distinguished himself by capturing a British vessel at Penobscot.
In 1798, he was appointed to the command of the brig Pickering, and
soon after to the Essex. He commanded, in 1803, a fleet sent against
the Barbary powers, and repeatedly attacked Tripoli with considerable
success. In 1804, he returned to the United States, and died in 1807.

PUTNAM, ISRAEL, an officer in the army of the revolution, was born in
Salem, Massachusetts, 1718. He received but a meagre education, and
removing to Connecticut, engaged in agriculture. In the French war he
commanded a company, and was engaged in several contests with the enemy.
In 1756, he fell into an ambuscade of savages, and was exposed to the
most cruel tortures. He obtained his release in 1759, and returned
to his farm. Soon after the battle of Lexington he joined the army
at Cambridge, was appointed major-general, and distinguished himself
at Bunker’s hill. In 1776, he was sent to complete the fortifications
at New York, and afterwards to fortify Philadelphia. In the winter
of 1777, he was stationed with a small body at Princeton, and in the
spring appointed to a command in the Highlands, where he remained most
of the time till the close of 1779, when he was disabled by an attack
of paralysis. He died in 1790. He was brave, energetic, and one of the
most efficient officers of the revolution.

QUINCY, JOSIAH, a distinguished lawyer and patriot, was born in Boston,
in 1743, and was graduated at Harvard college. He soon became eminent
in the practice of law, and distinguished by his active exertions in
the popular cause. His powers of eloquence were of a very high order.
In 1774, he took a voyage to Europe for the benefit of his health, and
to advance the interests of the colonies. He died on his return, on the
25th of April, 1775, the day the vessel reached the harbor of cape Ann.

RAMSAY, DAVID, an historian, was born in Pennsylvania, in 1749, was
educated at Princeton college, and commenced the study of medicine.
After practising a short time in Maryland, he removed to Charleston,
South Carolina, in 1773, and soon rose to an extensive practice. He
took an active and early part in the cause of the colonies, and was for
some time a surgeon in the revolutionary army. In 1782, he was chosen
to a seat in congress. He wrote a History of the Revolution in South
Carolina; a History of the American Revolution; a Life of Washington; a
History of South Carolina; and a History of the United States. He died
in 1815.

RANDOLPH, EDMUND, governor of Virginia, was educated to the law. After
seeing a little military service in the suite of Washington, he applied
himself to his professional pursuits. He succeeded Patrick Henry to the
gubernatorial chair of Virginia, and occupied it from 1786 to 1788. In
1790, he received from Washington the appointment of attorney-general
of the United States; and in 1794, he succeeded Mr. Jefferson as
secretary of state. In consequence of some difficulties with the
administration, he resigned in August, 1795. He died in Frederic
county, Virginia, in September, 1813.

REED, JOSEPH, a patriot of the revolution, was graduated at the
college in New Jersey, in 1757. While a member of congress, in 1778,
the British commissioner endeavored to procure his influence to bring
about a reconciliation between the colonies and the mother country;
he rejected their offers with the reply,――‘That he was not worth
purchasing; but such as he was, the king of Great Britain was not rich
enough to buy him.’ In 1778, he was chosen president of Pennsylvania,
and retained that office till his death, in 1781.

REEVE, TAPPING, an eminent lawyer, was born at Brook-Haven, in 1744,
and was graduated at Princeton college. He established himself as a
lawyer in Litchfield, Connecticut, where he founded the law school, of
which, for nearly thirty years, he was the principal instructer. He was
for many years judge of the supreme court of that state, and some time
chief justice. His legal attainments were of a high order, and as a man
he possessed the esteem and respect of the community.

RITTENHOUSE, DAVID, a celebrated mathematician, was born in
Pennsylvania, in 1732. During his early life he was employed in
agriculture, but as his constitution was feeble, he became a clock
and mathematical instrument maker. In 1770, he removed to Philadelphia,
and practised his trade. He was elected a member, and for some time
president of the Philosophical society, and one of the commissioners
employed to determine the boundary line between Pennsylvania and
Virginia, and between New York and Massachusetts. He was treasurer
of Pennsylvania from 1777 to 1789, and from 1792 to 1795, director of
the United States mint. His death took place in 1796. His mathematical
talents were of the highest order.

RUSH, BENJAMIN, an eminent physician, was born, in 1745, at Bristol,
in Pennsylvania; was educated at Princeton college, and took his degree
at Edinburgh, was chosen, in 1776, a member of congress, and signed
the declaration of independence; was professor of medicine and clinical
practice at the Pennsylvanian university; and died in 1813. He was
one of the greatest and best men who have adorned his country. Among
his works are Essays, literary, moral, and philosophical; Medical
Inquiries and Observations; and a History of the Yellow Fever.

RUTLEDGE, EDWARD, an eminent lawyer, and a signer of the declaration
of independence, was born in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1749. His
legal education was completed in England, and in 1773 he returned to
his native country, and entered upon the duties of his profession. In
1774, he was appointed a delegate to the congress at Philadelphia, and
took an active part in the discussions of the day. After a successful
practice of his profession for seventeen years, in 1798 he relinquished
his station at the bar, and was elected chief magistrate of South
Carolina. He died in 1800.

SAINT CLAIR, ARTHUR, born at Edinburgh, was a lieutenant under
general Wolfe, and afterwards settled in Pennsylvania, and became a
naturalized citizen. On the commencement of the revolution, he embraced
the cause of the American army, and in February, 1777, was appointed
major-general. He served with distinction, and in 1783, was elected
president of the Cincinnati society of his adopted state. In 1785, he
was elected a delegate to congress, and in 1787, was chosen president
of that body. He was afterwards governor of the North-west territory,
and in 1790, commanded an army against the Miami Indians. He resigned
his commission of major-general in 1792. His latter years were passed
in poverty. He died in 1818.

SANDS, ROBERT C., a man of letters, was born in the city of New York,
on the eleventh of May, 1799. He was graduated at Columbia college, in
1815, and soon after commenced the study of law, in the office of David
B. Ogden, a distinguished advocate of New York. In 1817, he published
the Bridal of Vaumond, an irregular metrical romance, after the
fashion which Scott had made so popular. Subsequently, in conjunction
with his friend the Rev. J. W. Eastburn, he wrote the poem Yamoyden,
which appeared in New York in 1820, and acquired for the authors a
high reputation. In the same year he was admitted to the bar, and
opened an office in the city of New York. In 1822 and 1823, he wrote
many articles for the Literary Review, a monthly periodical, then
published in New York, which received great increase of reputation from
his contributions. Shortly after this he was engaged in a burlesque
publication, entitled the St. Tammany Magazine. In May, 1824, the
Atlantic Magazine was established in New York, and placed under his
care; at the end of six months he gave up this work, but subsequently
resumed its charge, when it changed its name and character, and
appeared as the New York Review. During the same period, he assisted
in editing various compilations on legal subjects. Having now become an
author by profession, and looking to his pen for support, he became the
assistant editor of the New York Commercial Advertiser, and remained in
this situation to the close of his life. While engaged in the laborious
and incessant duties of a daily journal, Mr. Sands prosecuted various
other literary undertakings with much success. He was one of the chief
contributors to the Talisman, in which he was assisted by his friends
Bryant and Verplanck. He edited a new Life of Paul Jones, and wrote
two stories in the Tales of Glauber Spa. His death occurred suddenly,
in the thirty-fourth year of his age. His collected works have been
recently published, in two volumes octavo.

SCHUYLER, PHILIP, an officer in the revolutionary army, was appointed
major-general in 1775, and was dispatched to the fortifications in the
north of New York, to prepare for the invasion of Canada. He afterwards
fell under some suspicion, and was superseded in the chief command by
general Gates. He was a member of congress before the adoption of the
present constitution, and afterwards twice a senator. He died in 1804,
in the seventy-third year of his age.

SEDGWICK, THEODORE, was born at Hartford, in 1746, was educated at Yale
college, and removing to Massachusetts, pursued the study of the law.
He embarked with spirit in the cause of the popular party before the
revolution, held a seat several years in the state legislature, and was
a member of congress under the old confederation. He was a member of
the Massachusetts convention to decide on the adoption of the federal
constitution, was a representative and senator to congress, and in 1802
was appointed judge of the supreme judicial court of Massachusetts. In
this office he remained till his death, in 1813.

SEWALL, SAMUEL, chief justice of Massachusetts, was born at Boston,
in 1757, and, after graduating at Harvard college, entered on the
profession of the law. He soon became eminent; in 1797, was elected a
member of congress, and in 1800, was placed on the bench of the supreme
judicial court. In 1813, he was appointed chief justice, but died
suddenly in the following year. He was a lawyer of ability and learning,
and highly popular.

SHERMAN, ROGER, a signer of the declaration of independence, was
born at Newton, Massachusetts, in 1721, and with only a common
school education, rose to distinction as a lawyer and statesman. His
early life was passed in the occupation of a shoemaker. Removing to
Connecticut, in 1743, he was admitted to the bar in 1754, and soon
became distinguished as a counsellor. In 1761, he removed to New Haven,
four years after was appointed a judge of the county court, and in
1776, advanced to the bench of the superior court. He was a delegate to
the celebrated congress of 1774, and was a member of that body for the
space of nineteen years. He was a member of the convention that formed
the constitution of the United States. He died in 1793.

SHIPPEN, WILLIAM, an eminent physician, was born in Pennsylvania,
and was graduated at Princeton college in 1754. His medical studies
were completed at Edinburgh, and on his return, in 1764, he began at
Philadelphia the first course of lectures on anatomy ever delivered
in the country. He assisted in establishing the medical school of
that city, and was appointed one of its professors. In 1777, he was
appointed director general of the medical department in the army. He
died in 1808.

SMITH, JOHN, one of the early settlers of Virginia, was born in
Lincolnshire, in 1579. After passing through a variety of wonderful
adventures, he resolved to visit North America; and having, with a
number of other persons, procured a charter of South Virginia, he
came over thither in 1607. Being taken prisoner by the Indians, and
condemned to death, his life was saved by the daughter of the savage
chief, the celebrated Pocahontas. He published an account of several
of his voyages to Virginia, a history of that colony, and an account
of his own life. He died at London, in 1631.

SMITH, JAMES, a signer of the declaration of independence, was a native
of Ireland, removed with his father to this country at an early age,
and established himself in the practice of law at York, in Pennsylvania.
He was a delegate from York county to the continental congress. His
death took place in 1806.

STANDISH, MILES, the first captain at Plymouth, New England, was born
at Lancashire, in 1584, and accompanied Mr. Robinson’s congregation
to Plymouth, in 1620. His services in the wars with the Indians were
highly useful, and many of his exploits were daring and extraordinary.
He died in 1656.

STARK, JOHN, a general in the army of the revolution, was born in
Londonderry, New Hampshire, in 1728. During the French war, he was
captain of a company of rangers in the provincial service, in 1755,
and was with lord Howe when that general was killed, in storming the
French lines at Ticonderoga, in 1758. On receiving the report of the
battle of Lexington, he was engaged at work in his saw-mill; and,
fired with indignation, seized his musket, and immediately proceeded
to Cambridge. He was at the battles of Bunker’s hill and of Trenton,
and achieved a glorious victory at Bennington. He rose to the rank
of brigadier-general, and was distinguished throughout the war for
enterprise and courage. He died in 1822.

STEUBEN, FREDERICK WILLIAM AUGUSTUS, BARON DE, was a Prussian officer,
aid-de-camp to Frederick the Great, and lieutenant-general in the army
of that distinguished commander. He arrived in America in 1777, and
immediately offered his services to the continental congress. In 1778,
he was appointed inspector general, with the rank of major-general, and
rendered the most efficient services in the establishment of a regular
system of discipline. During the war he was exceedingly active and
useful, and after the peace he retired to a farm in the vicinity of New
York, where, with the assistance of books and friends, he passed his
time as agreeably as a frequent want of funds would permit. The state
of New York afterwards gave him a tract of sixteen thousand acres in
the county of Oneida, and the general government made him a grant of
two thousand five hundred dollars per annum. He died in 1795, and at
his own request was wrapped in his cloak, placed in a plain coffin, and
hid in the earth, without a stone to tell where he was laid.

STRONG, CALEB, governor of Massachusetts, was born at Northampton, in
1744, and graduated at Harvard college. He pursued the profession of
the law, and established himself in his native town. Taking an early
and active part in the revolutionary movements, he was appointed,
in 1775, one of the committee of safety, and in the following year
a member of the state legislature. He was a member of the convention
which formed the constitution of the state, and of that which formed
the constitution of the United States. Subsequently he was senator to
congress, and for eleven years, at different periods, chief magistrate
of Massachusetts. He died in 1820.

STUART, GILBERT, a celebrated painter, was born in Newport, Rhode
Island, in 1755. Soon after becoming of age, he went to England,
where he became the pupil of Mr. West. He soon rose to eminence as a
portrait painter, and obtained a high reputation both in England and
Ireland. In 1794, he returned to his native country, chiefly residing
in Philadelphia and Washington, in the practice of his profession, till
about the year 1801, when he removed to Boston. Here he remained till
his death, in 1828. Mr. Stuart was not only one of the first painters
of his time, but was also a very extraordinary man out of his
profession.

SULLIVAN, JOHN, an officer in the army of the revolution, was born
in Maine, and established himself in the profession of law in New
Hampshire. Turning his attention to military affairs, he received, in
1772, the commission of major, and, in 1775, that of brigadier-general.
The next year he was sent to Canada, and on the death of general Thomas,
the command of the army devolved on him. In this year he was promoted
to the rank of major-general, and was soon after captured by the
British, in the battle on Long island. He commanded a division of the
army at the battles of Trenton, Brandywine, and Germantown; and was
the sole commander of an expedition to the island of Newport, which
failed through want of co-operation from the French fleet. In 1779, he
commanded an expedition against the Indians. He was afterwards a member
of congress, and for three years president of New Hampshire. In 1789,
he was appointed a judge of the district court, and continued in that
office till his death, in 1795.

SULLIVAN, JAMES, was born at Berwick, Maine, in 1744, and after
passing the early part of his life in agricultural pursuits, adopted
the profession of the law. He took an early part in the revolutionary
struggle, and in 1775, was chosen a member of the provincial congress.
In 1776, he was appointed a judge of the superior court. He was
subsequently a member of congress, a member of the executive council,
judge of probate, and in 1790, was appointed attorney-general. In 1807,
he was elected governor of Massachusetts, and again in the following
year, in the December of which he died. He was the author of a History
of Land Titles, a History of the District of Maine, and an Essay on
Banks. His rank at the bar was in the very first class, and in his
private character he was distinguished for piety, patriotism, and
integrity.

THOMAS, ISAIAH, a distinguished printer, was born in Boston, in 1749,
and at a very early age was bound apprentice to the craft, in which he
afterwards became so famous. In 1770, he published the Massachusetts
Spy in Boston. Five years afterwards he was obliged to remove it to
Worcester. He afterwards entered extensively into the publishing and
bookselling business, having at one time sixteen presses in operation,
and eight bookstores at different places. He was the founder and
president of the American Antiquarian society, and the author of a
valuable History of Printing. He died in 1831.

THORNTON, MATTHEW, was born in Ireland, in 1714, and when about
two or three years old his father emigrated to America, and finally
settled in Worcester, Massachusetts. Young Thornton pursued the
study of medicine, and commenced the practice of his profession in
Londonderry, New Hampshire. In 1776, he was chosen a delegate to
the continental congress, and affixed his name to the declaration of
independence. He was afterwards chief justice of the court of common
pleas, and judge of the superior court of his adopted state. He died
in 1803.

TILGHMAN, WILLIAM, an eminent jurist, was born, in 1756, in Talbot
county, on the eastern shore of Maryland. In 1772, he began the study
of law in Philadelphia, but was not admitted to the practice of the
profession till 1783. In 1788, and for some successive years, he was
elected a representative to the legislature of Maryland. In 1793, he
returned to Philadelphia, and pursued the practice of the law in that
city till 1801, when he was appointed chief judge of the circuit court
of the United States for the third circuit. After the abolition of
this court, he resumed his profession, and continued it till 1805, when
he was appointed president of the courts of common pleas in the first
district of Pennsylvania. In the following year he was commissioned as
chief justice of the supreme court of that state. He died in 1827.

TOMPKINS, DANIEL D., vice-president of the United States, was born
in June, 1774, graduated at Columbia college, in 1795, and settled in
New York in the profession of the law. He distinguished himself in the
party struggles of 1799–1801, and in 1807 was elected governor of the
state. During the late war, he was active and efficient in the cause
of the administration and the dominant party. In 1817, he was elected
vice-president. He died at Staten island, in June, 1825.

TRUMBULL, JOHN, the author of McFingal, was born in Connecticut,
in 1750, and was educated at Yale college, where he entered at a
very early age. In 1772, he published the first part of his poem,
The Progress of Dullness. In the following year, he was admitted to
the bar in Connecticut, and, removing to Boston, continued his legal
studies in the office of John Adams. He returned to his native state in
1774, and commenced practice at New Haven. The first part of McFingal
was published at Philadelphia, in 1775; the poem was completed and
published in 1782, at Hartford, where the author at that time lived.
More than thirty editions of this work have been printed. In 1789, he
was appointed state attorney for the county of Hartford, and in 1801,
was appointed a judge of the superior court of errors, and held this
appointment till 1819. In 1820, a collection of his poems was published
in two volumes 8vo. In 1825, he removed to Detroit, where he died, in
May, 1831.

TRUXTON, THOMAS, a naval officer, was born on Long island, in 1755.
In 1775, he commanded a vessel, and distinguished himself by his
depredations on British commerce during the revolution. He subsequently
engaged in commerce, till the year 1794, when he was appointed to
the frigate Constitution. In 1799, he captured the French frigate
L’Insurgente; and in the following year he obtained a victory over the
La Vengeance. On the close of the French war he retired from the navy,
and died at Philadelphia, in 1822.

TUDOR, WILLIAM, a man of letters, was born in the state of
Massachusetts, and was graduated at Harvard college in 1796. He soon
after visited Europe, and passed several years there. After having
been some time a member of the legislature of his native state, he was
appointed, in 1823, consul at Lima, and for the ports of Peru. In 1827,
he was appointed charge d’affaires of the United States at the court of
Brazil. He died at Rio de Janeiro, in 1830. Mr. Tudor was the founder,
and for two years the sole editor of the North American Review. He was
the author of Letters on the Eastern States, and a Life of James Otis,
and left a number of volumes in manuscript, nearly prepared for the
press.

TYLER, ROYAL, a lawyer and miscellaneous writer, was born in Boston,
and graduated at Harvard college, in 1776. In 1790, he removed his
residence to Vermont, and soon distinguished himself in his profession
of law. For six years he was an associate judge of the supreme court
of that state, and for six years more chief justice. He was the author
of several dramatic pieces of considerable merit; a novel called The
Algerine Captive; and numerous pieces in prose and verse published
in the Farmer’s Museum, when edited by Dennie. In addition to these,
he published two volumes, entitled Vermont Reports. He died at
Brattleboro’, in 1825.

WALN, ROBERT, a miscellaneous writer, was born in Philadelphia, and was
liberally educated, but adopted no profession. He was the author of The
Hermit in Philadelphia, a satire; The American Bards, a satire; Sisyphi
Opus, or Touches at the Times; a History of China; some of the lives in
the Biography of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence; a Life
of Lafayette; and an account of the Quaker hospital at Frankford, near
Philadelphia. He died in 1824, at the age of thirty-one.

WARREN, JOSEPH, a patriot of the revolution, was born in Roxbury,
near Boston, in 1741, and was graduated at Harvard college, in 1759.
He pursued the profession of medicine, and soon after commencing the
practice, distinguished himself by his successful treatment of the
small pox. Early engaging in politics, he obtained great influence, and
rendered efficient service by his writings and addresses. He was twice
elected to deliver the oration in commemoration of the massacre on the
fifth of March. In June, 1775, the provincial congress of Massachusetts,
of which he was at this time president, made him a major-general of
their forces. At the battle of Bunker’s hill he fought as a volunteer,
and was slain within a few yards of the breast-work, as he was among
the last slowly retiring from it. He was a man of the most generous and
intrepid spirit, much elegance of manners, and of commanding eloquence.
His loss was deeply felt and regretted. In 1776, his remains were
removed from the battle ground, and interred in Boston.

WARREN, JAMES, was born at Plymouth, in 1726, and was graduated at
Harvard college, in 1745. He took an early and active part in the
cause of the colonies against the aggressions of the mother country,
was a member of the general court, proposed the establishment of
committees of correspondence, and, after the death of general Warren,
was appointed president of the provincial congress. He was afterwards
appointed a major-general of the militia. On the adoption of the
constitution of Massachusetts, he was for many years speaker of the
house of representatives. He died at Plymouth, in 1808.

WASHINGTON, GEORGE, was born in 1732, in the county of Fairfax, in
Virginia, where his father was possessed of great landed property. He
was educated under the care of a private tutor, and paid much attention
to the study of mathematics and engineering. He was first employed
officially by general Dinwiddie, in 1753, in remonstrating to the
French commander on the Ohio, for the infraction of the treaty between
the two nations. He subsequently negotiated a treaty of amity with
the Indians on the back settlements, and for his honorable services
received the thanks of the British government. In the unfortunate
expedition of general Braddock, he served as aid-de-camp; and on the
fall of that brave but rash commander, he conducted the retreat to the
corps under colonel Dunbar, in a manner that displayed great military
talent. He retired from the service with the rank of colonel; but
while engaged in agriculture at his favorite seat of Mount Vernon, he
was elected senator in the national council for Frederic county, and
afterwards for Fairfax. At the commencement of the revolutionary war,
he was selected as the most proper person to take the chief command
of the provincial troops. From the moment of taking upon himself
this important office, in June 1775, he employed the great powers of
his mind to his favorite object, and by his prudence, his valor, and
presence of mind, he deserved and obtained the confidence and gratitude
of his country, and finally triumphed over all opposition. The record
of his services is the history of the whole war. He joined the army at
Cambridge in July, 1775. On the evacuation of Boston, in March, 1776,
he proceeded to New York. The battle of Long island was fought on the
27th of August, and the battle of White Plains on the 28th of October.
On the 25th of December he crossed the Delaware, and soon gained the
victories at Trenton and Princeton. The battle of Brandywine was fought
on September 11th, 1777; of Germantown, October 4th; of Monmouth,
February 28th, 1778. In 1779 and 1780, he continued in the vicinity of
New York, and closed the important military operations of the war by
the capture of Cornwallis, at Yorktown, in 1781. When the independence
of his country was established by the treaty of peace, Washington
resigned his high office to the congress, and, followed by the applause
and the grateful admiration of his fellow-citizens, retired into
private life. His high character and services naturally entitled him
to the highest gifts his country could bestow, and on the organization
of the government he was called upon to be the first president of
the states which he had preserved and established. It was a period of
great difficulty and danger. The unsubdued spirit of liberty had been
roused and kindled by the revolution of France, and many Americans
were eager that the freedom and equality which they themselves enjoyed,
should be extended to the subjects of the French monarch. Washington
anticipated the plans of the factious, and by prudence and firmness
subdued insurrection, and silenced discontent, till the parties which
the intrigues of Genet, the French envoy, had roused to rebellion, were
convinced of the wildness of their measures and of the wisdom of their
governor. The president completed, in 1796, the business of his office,
by signing a commercial treaty with Great Britain, and then voluntarily
resigned his power, at a moment when all hands and all hearts were
united, again to confer upon him the sovereignty of the country.
Restored to the peaceful retirement of Mount Vernon, he devoted himself
to the pursuits of agriculture; and though he accepted the command
of the army in 1798, it was merely to unite the affections of his
fellow-citizens to the general good, and was one more sacrifice to
his high sense of duty. He died after a short illness, on the 14th of
December, 1799. He was buried with the honors due to the noble founder
of a happy and prosperous republic. History furnishes no parallel to
the character of Washington. He stands on an unapproached eminence;
distinguished almost beyond humanity for self-command, intrepidity,
soundness of judgment, rectitude of purpose, and deep, ever-active
piety.

WASHINGTON, BUSHROD, an eminent judge, was born in Westmoreland county,
Virginia, and was educated at William and Mary’s college. He pursued
the study of the law in the office of Mr. Wilson, of Philadelphia, and
commenced its practice with great success in his native county. In 1781,
he was a member of the house of delegates of Virginia. He afterwards
removed to Alexandria, and thence to Richmond, where he published two
volumes of the decisions of the supreme court of Virginia. In 1798,
he was appointed an associate justice of the supreme court of the
United States, and continued to hold this situation till his death,
in November, 1829. He was the favorite nephew of president Washington,
and was the devisee of Mount Vernon.

WAYNE, ANTHONY, major-general, was born, in 1745, in Chester county,
Pennsylvania. He entered the army as colonel, in 1775, served under
Gates at Ticonderoga, and was promoted to the rank of brigadier-general.
He was engaged in the battles of Brandywine, Germantown, and Monmouth;
in 1779, captured the fortress at Stony Point, and rendered other
important services during the war. In 1787, he was a member of the
Pennsylvanian convention which ratified the constitution of the United
States. In 1792, he succeeded St. Clair in the command of the western
army, and gained a complete victory at the battle of the Miamis, in
1794. He died at Presque isle, in 1796.

WEST, BENJAMIN, an eminent painter, was born, in 1738, at Springfield,
near Philadelphia, of Quaker parents. At the age of seven years he
began to manifest his pictorial talents, by sketching with pen and ink
an infant sleeping in a cradle. From some Indians he obtained red and
yellow, and his mother gave him a piece of indigo; and as camel’s hair
pencils were wanting, he supplied the want by clipping the fur of the
cat. Improving as he advanced in years, he became a portrait painter of
considerable repute, and produced some meritorious historical pictures.
In his twenty-second year he visited Italy, where he remained for some
time. In 1763 he settled in England, where he soon acquired reputation.
Among his patrons was archbishop Drummond, of York, by whose means
he was introduced to George the Third, who immediately gave him a
commission to paint the Death of Regulus, and continued ever afterwards
to employ him. In 1791, he was chosen president of the Royal academy.
Among his last, and perhaps his best works, are, Death on the Pale
Horse, and Christ healing the Sick. He died March 18, 1820.

WHITNEY, ELI, inventor of the cotton-gin, was born at Westborough
Massachusetts, in 1765. He received a liberal education, and displayed
at an early age great mechanical genius. While a student of law, he
invented the cotton-gin, a machine for separating the seed from the
cotton, an invention of vast importance to the cotton growing states.
It has been worth to them a hundred millions of dollars. In 1798,
he commenced the manufacture of firearms, for the United States. In
perseverance and inventive power, he has scarcely a parallel among
mechanicians. He died in 1825.

WILKINSON, JEMIMA, a bold and artful religious impostor, was born
in Cumberland, Rhode Island, about the year 1753. Recovering suddenly
from an apparent suspension of life, in 1773, she gave out that she
had been raised from the dead, and laid claim to supernatural power
and authority. Making a few proselytes, she removed with them to the
neighborhood of Crooked lake, in New York, where she died in 1819.

WILLIAMS, ROGER, one of the founders of Rhode Island, was born in
Wales, in 1599, and received his education at Oxford. He was, for some
time, a minister of the established church, but dissenting, he removed,
in 1631, to New England, and preached till 1636, at Salem and Plymouth.
Being banished from the colony on account of his religious opinions,
he removed with several others to Rhode Island, and laid the foundation
of Providence. They there established the first society in which was
enjoyed perfect liberty of conscience. For several years, Williams was
president of the colony. He died in 1683.

WILLIAMS, OTHO HOLLAND, an officer in the American army, was born
in Maryland, in 1748, served in various capacities during the
revolutionary war, and fought at the battles of Guilford, Hobkirk’s
hill, and the Eutaws. Before the disbanding of the army, he was made
brigadier-general. For several years he was collector at Baltimore.
He died in 1794.

WILSON, JAMES, a signer of the declaration of American independence,
was born in Scotland, about the year 1742. He was well educated,
and after completing his studies, emigrated to America. Settling at
Philadelphia, he received an offer to enter the office of Mr. John
Dickinson, and pursue the study of the law. He soon distinguished
himself, and was appointed a delegate to the continental congress,
where he continued from 1775 to 1777. He was a member of the
conventions which framed the constitution of Pennsylvania, and that of
the United States, and in 1789, was appointed one of the judges of the
supreme court of the United States. In 1797, he was made professor of
law in the university of Pennsylvania, and in this capacity delivered a
course of lectures, afterwards published in three volumes 8vo. He died
in 1798.

WINDER, WILLIAM H., an officer in the army, was born in Maryland, in
1775, was educated for the bar, and pursued his profession in Baltimore
with great success. In 1812, he received a colonel’s commission, was
promoted to the rank of brigadier-general, and served with reputation
during the war with Great Britain. He commanded the troops at the
battle of Bladensburg. On the declaration of peace, he resumed the
practice of his profession. He died in 1824.

WISTAR, CASPAR, a celebrated physician, was born in Philadelphia,
in 1761. He studied medicine under Dr. John Redman, and completed his
professional course at the schools in London and Edinburgh. Returning
in 1787 to his native city, he soon distinguished himself in his
profession, and in 1789, was elected professor of chemistry in the
college of Philadelphia. In 1792, he became adjunct professor of
anatomy, mid-wifery, and surgery, with Dr. Shippen; and on the decease
of that gentleman, in 1808, sole professor. His acquirements in
professional knowledge were very extensive, and he obtained much
popularity as a lecturer. He died in 1818. His chief work is a valuable
System of Anatomy, in two volumes.

WOLCOTT, OLIVER, governor of Connecticut, was born in 1727, and
received his education at Yale college. He served as captain in
the French war, and studied medicine, though he never practised. He
was a delegate to the congress of 1776, signed the declaration of
independence, and the articles of confederation, and remained a member
till 1785. In 1785, he was elected deputy-governor, and was re-elected
till 1796, when he was made governor. He died in 1797.

WYTHE, GEORGE, a signer of the declaration of independence, was born
in Virginia, in 1726. His early course was dissipated, but at the age
of thirty he reformed, turned his attention to literature, studied law,
and commenced its practice. At the breaking out of the revolution, he
was a distinguished leader of the popular party. He was for some time
speaker of the house of burgesses, and in 1775, was elected a member of
congress. He was one of the committee to revise the laws of Virginia,
in 1776, and had a principal share in preparing the code adopted in
1779. Soon after, he was appointed one of the three judges of the high
court of chancery, and subsequently, sole counsellor. He was a member
of the convention of Virginia to consider the constitution of the
United States. His death, which was attributed to poison, took place
in 1806.




                         CHAPTER XX.――HISTORY.


                      DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION.

IT is a singular fact that the science and energy of Italian navigators
opened the new world to Europe, though adventurers from other countries
derived the benefit of their discoveries, and established colonies
on its shores. Columbus, Cabot, Verazzani, and Americo Vespucci, were
all Italians; and though the latter gave his name to a hemisphere, he
acquired no particular advantage for himself or his native country.

The exploits of Columbus had excited a spirit of enterprise among the
English merchants, and a commission was granted by Henry VII. to John
Cabot and his three sons, giving them full liberty to sail to all parts
of the east, west and north; to discover countries of the heathen; to
occupy all countries they could subdue, and set up the king’s banners
in them; to exercise jurisdiction over them, and pay to the king one
fifth part of all their gains. A small fleet was thus equipped, with
about three hundred men. Cabot sailed north-west a few weeks, till his
course was arrested by icebergs; he then steered south, subsequently
changed his course, and again resumed it, till further prosecution of
the voyage was finally abandoned in consequence of a mutiny which broke
out on board. It is doubtful whether he ever landed in the new world.
From this voyage, the English derived their claims to the territory
which they subsequently acquired in this continent. For a period of
sixty successive years, the English monarchs gave themselves no further
trouble about the progress of discoveries in America.

During this time, France and Spain were on the alert. In a voyage
patronized by Francis I., the Florentine navigator Verazzano discovered
and described with considerable accuracy the coast of Florida. In a
second voyage, undertaken in the following year, he landed with some
of his crew, was killed by the savages, and devoured in the presence
of his companions. This melancholy event for a time damped the spirit
of discovery, and it was not till after a lapse of ten years that any
other French expedition was fitted out to America. In 1534, Jacques
Cartier was supplied with two ships under the direction of the
vice-admiral of France, and discovered the Baye des Chaleurs and the
gulf of St. Lawrence. In the following spring a larger expedition
was equipped under the same direction, and they proceeded direct to
Newfoundland. They sailed up the river of Canada three hundred leagues,
formed alliances with the natives, built a fort, and wintered in the
country. This colony was afterwards broken up, and for fifty years the
French made no effort to establish themselves in Canada.

To trace the course of Spanish discovery――in the year 1528, Pamphilo
de Narvaez received from Charles V. of Spain, a grant of all the
lands extending from the river of Palms to the cape of Florida, with a
commission to conquer and govern all the provinces within these limits.
Landing at Florida, he marched to Apalache, and lost many of his troops
in encounters with the natives. Being forced to direct his course
towards the sea, and sailing to the westward, he was lost in a violent
storm, and the enterprise frustrated. Calamitous as was the issue of
this expedition, it did not deter others from pursuing the same course.
In May, 1539, Fernando de Soto sailed from Havana on an exploring
expedition, and landed on the western coast of Florida. Of nine hundred
men engaged in this voyage, but three hundred and eleven survived it;
the remainder perished in battles with the natives. Poverty and ruin
involved all who were concerned in it. Soto died at the confluence of
the Guacoya and Mississippi; and to prevent the Indians from obtaining
a knowledge of his death, his body was deposited in a hollowed oak and
sunk in the river.

About the year 1562, a party of Huguenots, under the command of
Ribault, sailed with a view of colonizing Florida. After a favorable
voyage, he arrived at the entrance of a river which he called May,
from the month in which he reached the coast. Here he erected a fort,
and then sailed for France to bring out a reinforcement. Two years
afterwards a fresh expedition was fitted out, under M. René Laudonniere,
who arrived in the river May in the latter part of June. He proved
incompetent to manage the affairs of the new colony, and he was on the
point of leaving for Europe, when a new expedition under the command
of Ribault entered the river. That officer superseded Laudonniere only,
however, to experience more melancholy disasters. Scarcely a week had
passed after his arrival, when eight Spanish ships were seen in the
river. After a variety of misfortunes which befell Laudonniere, he
escaped with some of his followers in a French shallop, and finally
reached in a miserable condition the port of Bristol. A more tragic
end awaited Ribault. His vessels were dashed to pieces during a storm,
and their crews with great difficulty succeeded in reaching the shore.
They directed their steps towards the fort, and found it to their great
surprise in the hands of their inveterate enemies, the Spaniards. It
was determined to open a parley, and the Spanish commander pledged his
honor that they should be unharmed. Notwithstanding this pledge they
were inhumanly massacred, and their dead bodies treated with the most
shocking indignities. A number of the mangled limbs of the victims
were then suspended to a tree, to which was attached the following
inscription: ‘Not because they are Frenchmen, but because they are
heretics and enemies of God.’

This outrage was fully avenged by Dominique de Gourgues, who devoted
himself and his fortune to effect a signal retribution. Finding means
to equip three small vessels, he crossed the Atlantic, sailed along the
coast of Florida, and landed at a river about fifteen leagues distant
from the May. The Spaniards to the number of four hundred were well
stationed in different fortresses; they were all slain or taken captive.
The surviving prisoners were led away, and were hung on the boughs
of the same trees from which the Frenchmen had before been suspended.
Gourgues attached to them the retaliatory label――‘I do not this as
to Spaniards, nor as to mariners, but as to traitors, robbers, and
murderers.’ Thus terminated the attempts of the French Protestants to
colonize Florida.

In 1578, Sir Walter Raleigh, in conjunction with his half-brother and
kindred spirit, Sir Humphry Gilbert, projected the establishment of a
colony in that quarter of America which the Cabots had visited in the
reign of Henry VII.; and a patent for this purpose was procured without
difficulty in favor of Gilbert, from Elizabeth. As this is the first
charter to a colony granted by the crown of England, the articles in
it merit particular attention, as they unfold the ideas of that age
with respect to the nature of such settlements. Elizabeth authorizes
him to discover and take possession of all remote and barbarous lands,
unoccupied by any Christian prince or people; invests in him the full
right of property in the soil of those countries whereof he shall take
possession; empowers him, his heirs and assigns, to dispose of whatever
portion of those lands he shall judge meet, to persons settled there,
in fee simple, according to the laws of England; and ordains, that
all the lands granted to Gilbert shall hold of the crown of England by
homage, on payment of the fifth part of the gold or silver ore found
there. The charter also gave Gilbert, his heirs and assigns, full power
to convict, punish, pardon, govern, and rule, by their good discretion
and policy, as well in causes capital or criminal as civil, both marine
and other, all persons who shall, from time to time, settle within the
said countries; and declared, that all who settled there should have
and enjoy all the privileges of free denizens and natives of England,
any law, custom, or usage to the contrary notwithstanding. And, finally,
it prohibited all persons from attempting to settle within two hundred
leagues of any place which Sir Humphry Gilbert, or his associates,
shall have occupied during the space of six years.

Invested with these extraordinary powers, Gilbert began to collect
associates, and to prepare for embarkation. The first equipment,
however, of Sir Humphry, may be said to have failed, even before it
set out. Being composed in a great measure of ‘voluntary men of diverse
dispositions,’ there was a great falling off when it came to the point,
and Sir Humphry was at last obliged to set out with only a few of his
own tried friends. He encountered the most adverse weather, and was
obliged to return, ‘with the loss of a tall ship, and, more to his
grief, of a valiant gentleman, Miles Morgan.’ This was a severe blow,
as Sir Humphry had embarked a large portion of his property in this
undertaking. However, his determination continued unshaken; and by the
aid of Sir George Peckham, Sir Walter Raleigh, and other persons of
distinction, he was enabled to equip another expedition, with which,
in the year 1583, he again put to sea.

On the 30th of July, Gilbert discovered land in about fifty-one
degrees north latitude; but, finding nothing but bare rocks, he shaped
his course to the southward, and on the 3d of August arrived at St.
John’s harbor, at Newfoundland. There were at that time in the harbor
thirty-six vessels, belonging to various nations, and they refused
him entrance; but, on sending his boat with the assurance that he
had no ill design, and that he had a commission from queen Elizabeth,
they submitted, and he sailed into the port. Having pitched his tent
on shore in sight of all the shipping, and being attended by his own
people, he summoned the merchants and masters of vessels to be present
at the ceremony of his taking possession of the island. When assembled
his commission was read and interpreted to the foreigners. A turf and
twig was then delivered to him; and proclamation was immediately made,
that, by virtue of his commission from the queen, he took possession of
the harbor of St. John, and two hundred leagues every way around it, for
the crown of England.

This formal possession, in consequence of the discovery by the Cabots,
is considered the foundation of the right and title of the crown of
England to the territory of Newfoundland, and to the fishery on its
banks. Gilbert, intending to bring the southern parts of the country
within his patent, the term of which had now nearly expired, hastened
to make further discoveries before his return to England. He therefore
embarked from St. John’s harbor with his little fleet, and sailed
for the isle of Sable by the way of cape Breton. After spending eight
days in the navigation from cape Race towards cape Breton, the ship
Admiral was cast away on some shoals before any discovery of land, and
nearly one hundred persons perished; among these was Stephen Parmenius
Budeius, a learned Hungarian, who had accompanied the adventurers, to
record their discoveries and exploits. Two days after this disaster,
no land yet appearing, the waters being shallow, the coast unknown,
the navigation dangerous, and the provisions scanty, it was resolved
to return to England. Changing their course accordingly, they passed
in sight of cape Race on the 2d of September; but when they had
sailed more than three hundred leagues on their way home, the frigate,
commanded by Sir Humphry Gilbert himself, foundered in a violent storm,
at midnight, and every soul on board perished.


                VIRGINIA, FROM ITS SETTLEMENT TO 1756.

Terrible as was the fate of Gilbert and his associates, the ardor of
Raleigh was not daunted, nor his energies depressed. High in favor
with Elizabeth, he found no difficulty in procuring a patent similar
to that which had been granted to his unfortunate brother. Prompt in
the execution, as intrepid in the projection of his plans, he speedily
equipped two small vessels, under Amadas and Barlow, to obtain further
information of the coasts, the soil, and the inhabitants of the regions
he designed to colonize. Approaching America by the gulf of Florida,
they touched first at the island of Ocakoke, which runs parallel to
the greater part of North Carolina, and then at Roanoke, near the mouth
of Albemarle sound. In both they had some intercourse with the natives,
whom they found to be savages, with all the characteristic qualities of
uncivilized life――bravery, aversion to labor, hospitality, a propensity
to admire and a willingness to exchange their rude productions for
English commodities, especially for iron, or any of the useful metals
of which they were destitute. After spending a few weeks in this
traffic, and in visiting some parts of the adjacent continent, Amadas
and Barlow returned to England, and gave a most fervid description of
the country they had been sent to explore.

Delighted with the prospect of possessing a territory so far superior
to any hitherto visited by her subjects, Elizabeth was pleased to honor
both the newly discovered country and herself, by bestowing upon it the
title of Virginia.

These favorable circumstances not only encouraged the enterprising
spirit of Raleigh, but, by their effect on public opinion, assisted
him in his arrangements to form a permanent settlement; and he was
soon enabled to dispatch seven ships, under the command of Sir Richard
Grenville, one of the most valorous spirits of the age, with Ralph
Lane, as governor of the colony, accompanied by Heriot, a mathematician
of celebrity, and some other men of science. Sailing from Plymouth on
the 9th of April, they proceeded to Virginia by the way of the West
Indies, and, having narrowly escaped shipwreck at cape Fear, anchored
at Wocokon, on the 26th of June. From this island Grenville went to
the continent, accompanied by several gentlemen, and discovered various
Indian towns. He then proceeded to cape Hatteras, where he was visited
by Granganimo, the prince seen by Amadas and Barlow the preceding
year; and having viewed the island of Roanoke, he embarked for England,
leaving one hundred and seven persons under the government of Mr. Lane,
to form a plantation, and to commence the first English colony ever
planted in America.

The chief employment of this party, during their year’s residence in
the new world, consisted in obtaining a more correct and extensive
knowledge of the country; a pursuit in which the persevering abilities
of Heriot were exercised with peculiar advantage. His unremitting
endeavors to instruct the savages, and diligent inquiries into their
habits and character, by adding to the stock of human knowledge,
rendered the expedition not wholly unproductive of benefit to mankind.
He endeavored to avail himself of the admiration expressed by the
savages for the guns, the clock, the telescopes, and other implements
that attested the superiority of the colonists, in order to lead their
minds to the great source of all sense and science. But, unfortunately,
the majority of the colonists were much less distinguished by piety
or prudence, than by a vehement impatience to acquire sudden wealth;
their first pursuit was gold; and, eagerly listening to the agreeable
fictions of the natives, the adventurers consumed their time, and
endured amazing hardships, in pursuit of a phantom, to the utter
neglect of the means of providing for their future subsistence.
The stock of provisions brought from England was exhausted; and the
colony, reduced to the utmost distress, was preparing to disperse into
different districts of the country in quest of food, when Sir Francis
Drake appeared with his fleet, returning from a successful expedition
against the Spaniards in the West Indies. A scheme which he formed, of
furnishing Lane and his associates with such supplies as might enable
them to remain with comfort in their station, was disappointed by a
sudden storm, in which the vessel he had destined for their service
was dashed to pieces; and as he could not supply them with another, at
their joint request, as they were worn out with fatigue and famine, he
carried them home to England.

Had the Virginia adventurers, however, remained but a little time
longer at their plantation, they would have received supplies from
home; for, a few days after their departure, a ship, sent by Sir Walter
Raleigh to their relief, arrived at Hatteras, and made diligent search
for them, but, not finding them, returned to England. Within a few
days after this ship had left the coast, Sir Richard Grenville arrived
at Virginia with three new vessels laden with provisions. Searching
in vain for the colony that he planted, but yet unwilling to lose
possession of the country, he left fifty of his crew to keep possession
of the island of Roanoke, and returned to England. This was, indeed,
but an inauspicious commencement for English attempts at transatlantic
colonization; but, though its immediate results did not realize
the high expectations which had been formed, its consequences were
indirectly very beneficial. It gave Heriot opportunity to describe its
soil, climate, productions, and the manners of its inhabitants, with a
degree of accuracy which merits no inconsiderable praise, when compared
with the childish and marvellous tales published by several of the
early visitants of the new world.

Another consequence of this abortive colony is important enough to
entitle it to a place in history. Lane and his associates, by their
constant intercourse with the Indians, had acquired a relish for
their favorite enjoyment of smoking tobacco; to the use of which, the
credulity of that people not only ascribed a thousand imaginary virtues,
but their superstition considered the plant itself as a gracious gift
of the gods, for the solace of human kind, and the most acceptable
offering which man can present to heaven. They brought with them a
specimen of this new commodity to England, and taught their countrymen
the method of using it; which Raleigh and some young men of fashion
fondly adopted. From its being deemed a fashionable acquirement,
and from the favorable opinion of its salutary qualities entertained
by several physicians, the practice of smoking spread rapidly among
the English; and by a singular caprice of the human species, no less
inexplicable than unexampled, it has become almost as universal as the
demands of those appetites originally implanted in our nature.

  Illustration: Virginian Colony.

Amidst all the discouraging circumstances with which the settlement
of Virginia was attended, Raleigh still remained devotedly attached
to the object; and early in the year 1587, equipped another company of
adventurers, incorporated by the title of the Borough of Raleigh, in
Virginia. John White was constituted governor, in whom, with a council
of twelve persons, the legislative power was vested. They were directed
to plant at the bay of Chesapeak, and to erect a fort there. This
expedition sailed from Plymouth on the 8th of May, and about the 16th
of July fell in with the Virginian coast. Arriving at Hatteras on the
22d of July, the governor, with a select party, proceeded to Roanoke,
and landed at that part of the island where the men were left the year
preceding; but discovered no signs of them, excepting the bones of one
man, who had been slain by the savages. The next day the governor and
several of his company went to the north end of the island, where Lane
had erected his fort, and had built several decent dwelling houses,
hoping to obtain some intelligence of his fellow countrymen; but, on
coming to the place, and finding the fort razed, and all the houses,
though standing unhurt, overgrown with weeds and vines, and deer
feeding within them, they returned, in despair of ever seeing the
objects of their research alive. Orders were given the same day for
the repair of the houses, and for the erection of new cottages; and
all the colony, consisting of one hundred and seventeen persons, soon
after landed, and commenced a second plantation.

Before the close of the month of August, the governor was compelled
to sail to England for supplies; but war in Europe interfered with the
expectation of the colonists, and it was not till 1590 that another
expedition reached Virginia. They beheld a scene similarly dreadful
with that which had been before presented. The houses were demolished,
though still surrounded by a palisade, and a great part of the stores
was found buried in the earth; but, as no trace was ever found of this
unfortunate colony, there is every reason to apprehend that they must
have miserably perished. Thus after a period of one hundred and six
years from the time that Cabot discovered North America, in the service
of Henry VII., not a single Englishman remained in the new world.

In the last year of Elizabeth a new impulse was given to the spirit
of emigration by Bartholomew Gosnold. He sailed in a small bark from
Falmouth, steering directly west, and was the first Englishman who
came in a direct course to this part of America. He anchored at a
point which he called cape Cod. Attempting a settlement on an island
which they named Elizabeth, they built a fort and storehouse, but
shortly abandoned their design and returned to England. Two vessels
were afterwards fitted out by the merchants of Bristol, to examine the
discoveries of Gosnold, and ascertain the correctness of his statements.
They were also subsequently confirmed by a similar expedition equipped
and despatched by lord Arundel.

An association of able and influential men was now formed to attempt
a settlement, and a petition for leave was favorably received by king
James. But as the extent as well as value of the American continent
began now to be better known, a grant of the whole of such a vast
region to any one body of men, however respectable, appeared to him
an act of impolitic and profuse liberality. For this reason he divided
that portion of North America, which stretches from the thirty-fourth
to the fifty-fifth degree of latitude, into two districts nearly equal;
the one called the first or south colony of Virginia, the other, the
second or north colony. He authorized Sir Thomas Gates, Sir George
Summers, Richard Hakluyt, and their associates, mostly resident in
London, to settle any part of the former which they should choose,
and vested in them a right of property to the land extending along the
coast fifty miles on each side of the place of their first habitation,
and reaching into the interior country a hundred miles. The latter
district he allotted, as the place of settlement to sundry knights,
gentlemen, and merchants of Bristol, Plymouth, and other parts of
the west of England, with a similar grant of territory. The supreme
government of the colonies that were to be settled, was vested
in a council, resident in England, named by the king, with laws
and ordinances given under his sign manual; and the subordinate
jurisdiction was committed to a council, resident in America, which was
also nominated by the king and to act conformably to his instructions.

The charter, while it thus restricted the emigrants in the important
article of internal regulation, secured to them and their descendants
all the rights of denizens, in the same manner as if they had remained
or had been born in England; and granted them the privilege of holding
their lands in America by the freest and least burdensome tenure. The
king permitted whatever was necessary for the sustenance or commerce
of the new colonies to be exported from England, during the space of
seven years, without paying any duty; and, as a farther incitement to
industry, he granted them liberty of trade with other nations; and
appropriated the duty to be levied on foreign commodities, as a fund
for the benefit of the colonies, for the period of twenty-one years.
He also granted them liberty of coining for their own use, of repelling
enemies, and of detaining ships that should trade there without their
permission.

We may regard the colonies of North and South Virginia, or Virginia and
New England, as they were subsequently denominated, as forming, from
this period, the subject of two distinct and continuous histories; that
of the former, being earliest in point of time, will continue to occupy
our attention during the remainder of this division.

The proprietors of the royal patent lost no time in carrying their
plans into effect. It cannot, however, be said, that they commenced
their operations on a scale at all worthy of the magnitude of the
undertaking, as their fleet consisted only of three ships, conveying
one hundred emigrants; and, although some persons of rank were among
the number of proprietors, their pecuniary resources were but scanty.
The charge of this embarkation was committed to Christopher Newport,
already famous for his skill in western navigation. He sailed from the
Thames on the 20th of December, 1606, having, in a sealed box, the
royal instructions, and the names of the intended colonial council,
with orders not to break the seal till twenty-four hours after the
expedition had effected a landing; to which singular policy, may be
attributed the dissensions which soon commenced among the leaders, and
which continued to distract them during a voyage long and disastrous.

Captain Newport had designed to land at Roanoke; but fortunately, being
driven by a storm to the northward, he stood into the spacious bay of
Chesapeak, that grand reservoir into which are poured almost countless
tributaries, which not only fertilize the country through which they
flow, but open to it a commercial intercourse which can scarcely be
said to be surpassed in any portion of the globe. The promontory on the
south of the bay was named cape Henry, in honor of the prince of Wales;
and that on the north, cape Charles, after the then duke of York. At
night the box, containing the sealed instructions, was opened, in which
Bartholomew Gosnold, John Smith, Edward Wingfield, Christopher Newport,
John Ratcliffe, John Martin, and George Kendall, were constituted the
council of government, with power to elect a president from among their
number. The adventurers were employed in seeking a place for settlement
until the thirteenth of May, when they took possession of a peninsula,
on the north side of the river Powhatan, called by the emigrants James
river, about forty miles from its mouth.

To make room for their projected town, they commenced clearing away
the forest, which had for centuries afforded shelter and food to the
natives. The members of the council, while they adhered to their orders
in the choice of their president, on the most frivolous pretences
excluded from a seat, among them, the individual, who was probably
of all others the best fitted for the office, captain Smith,[98]
though nominated by the same instrument from which they derived
their authority. His superior talents, and the fame he had previously
acquired in war, excited their envy, while possibly they induced him
to assume, that a greater deference was due to his opinion than his
coadjutors were willing to admit. At length, however, by the prudent
exhortations of Mr. Hunt, their chaplain, the animosities which had
arisen were composed, Smith was admitted into the council, and they
all turned their undivided attention to the government of the colony.
In honor of their monarch, they called the town, the erection of which
they now commenced, Jamestown. Thus was formed the first permanent
colony of the English in America.

The vicinity of the settlement was a vast wilderness, though a
luxuriant one, inhabited by a race of Indian savages, possessing
both the virtues and the vices peculiar to their state. At first,
they treated the colonists with kindness; but misunderstandings,
from various causes, ere long interrupted the peace, and annoyed
the proceedings of the English. Nor was the hostility of the natives
the only occasion of discomfort; the extreme heat of the summer, and
the intense cold of the succeeding winter, were alike fatal to the
colonists. From May to September, fifty persons died, among whom
was Bartholomew Gosnold, a member of the council. The storehouse at
Jamestown accidentally taking fire, the town, thatched with reeds,
burned with such violence, that the fortifications, arms, apparel,
bedding, and a great quantity of private goods and provision, were
consumed.

These distresses naturally led them to reflect upon their situation;
and having become sensible of their injustice to Smith, his personal
talents and activity were, in their adversity, appealed to with that
regard and deference which, in prosperous times, are yielded only to
vested authority and official station. From some unaccountable jealousy
on the part of the governor, the fort had been left in an unprotected
state, but, by the advice of Smith, it was now put into a state to
defend them against the attacks of the Indians. To procure provisions
and explore the country, he made frequent and distant excursions into
the wilderness. In one of these, he seized an Indian idol, made with
skins stuffed with moss, for the redemption of which as much corn
was brought him as he required. Some tribes he gained by caresses
and presents, and procured from them a supply of provisions; others
he attacked with open force, and defeating them on every occasion,
whatever their superiority in numbers might be, compelled them to
impart to him some portion of their winter stores. As the recompense
of all his toils and dangers, he saw abundance and contentment
re-established in the colony, and hoped that he should be able to
maintain them in that happy state, until the arrival of ships from
England in the spring. But in the midst of his energetic measures,
while exploring the source of the river Chickahominy, he was surprised
and attacked by a party of Indians. He defended himself bravely
until his companions were killed, when he took to flight; but running
incautiously, he sunk up to his shoulders in a swamp, and was taken
prisoner.

The exulting savages conducted him in triumph through several towns
to Werowocomoco, where Powhatan, their king, resided in state, with
a strong guard of Indians around him. When the prisoner entered the
apartment of the sovereign, all the people gave a shout. The queen
of Appamatuck was appointed to bring him water to wash his hands; and
another person brought a bunch of feathers, instead of a towel, to
dry them. Having feasted him in their best manner, they held a long
consultation, at the conclusion of which, two great stones were brought
before Powhatan. Smith had now reason to consider his career as drawing
to a close; by the united efforts of the attendants, he was forcibly
dragged, his head laid upon one of the stones, and the mighty club
upraised, a few blows from which were to terminate his existence. But a
very unexpected interposition now took place. Pocahontas, the favorite
daughter of Powhatan, was seized with emotions of tender pity, and ran
up to her father, pathetically pleading for the life of the stranger.
When all entreaties were lost on that stern and savage potentate, she
hastened to Smith, snatched his head in her arms, and laid her own on
his, declaring that the first blow must fall upon her. The heart even
of a savage father was at last melted, and Powhatan granted to his
favorite daughter the life of Smith.

It appears at first to have been the intention of the savage monarch to
have detained the captive, and employed him in manufacturing utensils
and ornaments for his majesty’s use; but from some cause he speedily
changed his mind, and in two days after his deliverance, sent him, to
his high gratification, with a guard of twelve of his trusty followers,
to Jamestown, upon condition that he should remit two culverins and a
millstone as his ransom.

After an absence of seven weeks, Smith arrived barely in time to save
the colony from being abandoned. His associates, reduced to the number
of thirty-eight, impatient of farther stay in a country where they had
met with so many discouragements, were preparing to return to England;
and it was not without the utmost difficulty, and alternately employing
persuasion, remonstrance, and even violent interference, that Smith
prevailed with them to relinquish their design. Pocahontas, persevering
in her generous designs, continued to supply the colony with provisions
till a vessel arrived from England with supplies. Having preserved the
settlement during the winter by his active exertions and his careful
management, Smith embraced the earliest opportunity, in the following
summer, to explore the extensive and multifarious ramifications of the
Chesapeak.

In an open barge, with fourteen persons, and but a scanty stock of
provisions, he traversed the whole of that vast extent of water,
from cape Henry, where it meets the ocean, to the river Susquehannah;
trading with some tribes of Indians, and fighting with others. He
discovered and named many small islands, creeks, and inlets; sailed up
many of the great rivers; and explored the inland parts of the country.
During this enterprise, the Susquehannah Indians visited him, and made
him presents. At this early period they had hatchets, and utensils
of iron and brass, which, by their own account, originally came from
the French of Canada. After sailing about three thousand miles, Smith
returned to Jamestown. Having made careful observations during this
excursion of discovery, he drew a map of Chesapeak bay, with its
tributary rivers, annexing to it a description of the countries, and
of the nations inhabiting them, and sent it to the council in England.

The superior abilities of Smith had now been so manifestly subservient
to the general welfare, that they had silenced, at least, the malignity
of envy and faction; and although it was comparatively a short period
since he had been so unjustly calumniated, and deprived of his seat
at the council-board, immediately after his return from his voyage, he
was, by the election of the council and the request of the settlers,
invested with the government, and received letters-patent to be
president of the colony. The wisdom of his administration inspired
confidence, its vigor commanded obedience, and the military exercises,
which he obliged all to perform, struck the Indians with astonishment,
and inspired them with awe.

Under the administration of president Smith, the colony continued to
prosper; as far as it could prosper, under the circumstances of its
organization. Its elements, however, were not of the best description,
and the number of ‘poor gentlemen, tradesmen, serving men, libertines
and such like,’ is represented to have been ten times more fit to spoil
a commonwealth than either to begin or maintain one. They were lazy,
avaricious, and disappointed. The Indians too became suspicious and
troublesome; and the company in England were unjustly discontented with
the management of captain Smith. A new charter was therefore treated
for by the company of South Virginia, and obtained; and among the new
proprietors were many of the most wealthy and influential commoners and
peers of the land. Lord Delaware was appointed governor of Virginia for
life, though he did not accompany the expedition, which was immediately
fitted out. A fleet of nine vessels sailed for the colony, one of which
was wrecked at the Bermudas, and one lost in a violent storm. On board
of this fleet were five hundred emigrants; chiefly young and licentious,
indigent and haughty, who soon involved the colony in anarchy and
confusion.

A systematic design was now meditated against the whole colony by the
sovereign of the country; but it was providentially discovered and
frustrated. Pocahontas, the tutelary friend of Virginia, though but a
child of thirteen years of age, went in a very dark and dreary night to
Jamestown, and, at the hazard of her life, disclosed to the president
a plot of her father to kill him and all the English. This timely
notice put the colony on its guard; and some favorable occurrences soon
after contributed still farther towards its preservation. An Indian,
apparently dead through the effect of a charcoal fire in a close room,
was, on the application of vinegar and aqua vitæ by the president,
reanimated. This supposed miracle, with an explosion of powder, which
killed two or three Indians and scorched and wounded others, excited
such astonishment, mingled with such admiration of English power and
art, that Powhatan and his people came to them with presents of peace;
and the whole country during the remainder of Smith’s administration,
was entirely free from molestation, and the colonists pursued
their plans of improvement, both in agriculture and in some of the
manufactures, with tolerable success. Unhappily, however, the president,
while exerting himself with his usual energy in the concerns of the
settlement, received a dangerous wound from the accidental explosion
of a quantity of gunpowder. Completely disabled by this misfortune, and
destitute of surgical aid, he was compelled to resign his command, and
take his departure (and it was a final one) for England.

The departure of Smith was in every respect inauspicious for the
colony. It was the signal for a general revolt among the Indians. Many
of the colonists were slain, their provisions were wasted by imprudence,
and they were threatened with absolute starvation. There numbers were
reduced from five hundred to about sixty, in the course of half a
year. In this extremity they received unexpected relief from Sir Thomas
Gates and the party which had been wrecked the year before at Bermudas,
and who had been enabled to build two small vessels, and succeed in
reaching Virginia. It was determined to abandon the colony, and sail
for Newfoundland, and every thing was prepared for embarkation, when
lord Delaware, with three ships and a hundred and fifty men, arrived at
the mouth of the river. By the energetic discipline of this nobleman,
the affairs of the colony were soon restored to order. He erected
forts, allotted to each man his respective duty, and appointed the
necessary officers to enforce obedience to his commands. His health
not permitting him to remain in office, he returned to England, leaving
about two hundred people in health and tranquillity.

Not long after his departure, Sir Thomas Dale arrived at Virginia with
three ships and three hundred emigrants. Other additions to the colony
were made within a short interval. New settlements were commenced
farther up the river, and a town was built, and called Henrico, in
honor of prince Henry. In 1612, application was made to the king by
the patentees for a new charter, with increased privileges, and it was
accordingly granted.

It was in the year following the grant of the new charter, that the
marriage of Pocahontas, the famed daughter of Powhatan, was celebrated;
an alliance which secured peace to Virginia many years. Having been
carefully instructed in the Christian religion, it was not long
before she renounced the idolatry of her country, made profession of
Christianity, and was baptized by the name of Rebecca. In some measure
connected with this event, by the influence so powerful an alliance was
calculated to have upon the minds of the natives in the vicinity, was
the treaty which Sir Thomas Dale effected with the Chickahominy tribe
of Indians, a bold and free people, who now voluntarily relinquished
their name, for that of Tassantessus, or Englishmen; and solemnly
engaged to be faithful subjects to king James.

During the interval of tranquillity procured by the alliance with
Powhatan, an important change was made in the state of the colony.
Hitherto no right of private property in land had been established.
The fields that were cleared had been cultivated by the joint labor
of the colonists; their product was carried to the common storehouses,
and distributed weekly to every family, according to its number and
exigencies. However suitable such an arrangement might have been
deemed for the commencement of a colony, experience proved that it was
decidedly opposed to its progress in a more advanced state. In order to
remedy this, Sir Thomas Dale divided a considerable portion of the land
into small lots, and granted one of these to each individual in full
property. From the moment that industry had the certain prospect of a
recompense, it advanced rapidly. The articles of primary necessity were
cultivated with so much attention as secured the means of subsistence;
and such schemes of improvement were formed as prepared the way for the
introduction of opulence into the colony.

The increased industry of the colonists was not long before it found
a new and somewhat singular channel――the cultivation of tobacco;
indeed so inconsiderately and exclusively were their energies directed
to that object at this time, that the most fatal consequences were
rendered almost inevitable. The land which ought to have been reserved
for raising provisions, and even the streets of Jamestown, were
planted with tobacco. Various regulations were framed to restrain
this ill-directed activity; but, from eagerness for present gain,
the planters disregarded every admonition. Tobacco, however, had
many trials to pass through before it reached its present established
station. King James declared himself its open enemy, and drew against
it his royal pen. In the work which he entitled ‘Counterblast to
Tobacco,’ he poured the most bitter reproaches on this ‘vile and
nauseous weed.’ He followed it up by a proclamation to restrain
the disorderly trading in tobacco, as tending to a general and new
corruption of both men’s bodies and minds. Yet tobacco, like other
proscribed objects, throve under persecution, and achieved a final
triumph over all its enemies.

Financially, the colony was now in a flourishing state; politically, it
was badly administered. Its president was captain Argal, a rigid master,
and absurd tyrant. One of his edicts is worth quoting: it ordered ‘That
every person should go to church on Sundays and holidays, or be kept
confined the night succeeding the offence, and be a slave to the colony
for the following week; for the second offence, a slave for a month;
and for the third, a year and a day.’ From the representations made to
him of the misrule of this man, lord Delaware embarked a second time
for America; but died on the voyage, in or near the bay which bears his
name. His death was the signal for renewed outrages on the part of the
colonial tyrant, and the office of captain-general was transferred to
Mr. Yeardley. He arrived in April, and immediately convoked a colonial
assembly, which met at Jamestown on the 19th of June, and was the first
representative legislature which assembled in the transatlantic states.

The full tide of prosperity was now enjoyed by the colony. Its
numbers greatly increased, and its settlements became widely extended.
At peace with the Indians, it reposed in perfect security, and realized
the happiness its fortunate situation and favorable prospects afforded,
without suspecting the sudden and terrible reverse of fortune it was
doomed to experience. Opechankanough, the successor of Powhatan, had
adopted with ardor all the early enmity of his native tribe against
the settlers; and he formed one of those dreadful schemes, so frequent
in Indian annals, of exterminating the whole race at one blow. Such
was the fidelity of his people, and so deep the power of savage
dissimulation, that this dire scheme was matured without the slightest
intimation reaching the English, who neither attended to the movements
of the Indians, nor suspected their machinations; and though surrounded
by a people whom they might have known from experience to be both
artful and vindictive, they neglected those precautions for their own
safety that were requisite in such circumstances.

All the tribes in the vicinity of the English settlements were
successively gained, except those on the eastern shore, from whom,
on account of their peculiar attachment to their new neighbors, every
circumstance that might discover what they intended was carefully
concealed. To each tribe its station was allotted, and the part it was
to act prescribed. On the morning of the day consecrated to vengeance,
each was at the place of rendezvous appointed; and at mid-day, the
moment they had previously fixed for this execrable deed, the Indians,
raising a universal yell, rushed at once on the English in all their
scattered settlements, butchering men, women, and children, with
undistinguishing fury, and every aggravation of brutal outrage and
savage cruelty. In one hour, three hundred and forty-seven persons
were cut off, almost without knowing by whose hands they fell. Indeed,
the universal destruction of the colonists was prevented only by
the consequences of an event, which perhaps appeared but of little
importance in the colony at the time when it took place――the conversion
of an Indian to the Christian faith. On the night before the massacre,
this man was made privy to it by his own brother; but as soon as
his brother left him he revealed the dreadful secret to an English
gentleman in whose house he was residing, who immediately carried the
tidings to Jamestown, and communicated them to some of the nearest
settlers, scarcely in time to prevent the last hour of the perfidious
truce from being the last hour of their lives.

A bloody and exterminating war followed, in which the English were
victorious, but by which they were much reduced in numbers. Famine
came in the train of battle, and made additional devastation. A writ of
_quo warranto_ was issued against the company, under whose rule these
calamities had been suffered. It was brought to trial in the court
of king’s bench, and their charter was vacated. A new commission
was issued for the government of Virginia, in which the republican
tendencies of the previous government were duly restrained.

Charles I. on the demise of his predecessor reduced the colony under
the immediate direction of the crown, appointing a governor and council,
and ordering all patents and processes to issue in his own name. His
first appointment of governor elevated Sir George Yeardley to that
office, but he died early, and was succeeded by the despotic Sir John
Harvey, who managed to make himself perfectly odious to the people whom
he was sent to govern. The public mind became finally so much excited,
that even the despotic Charles thought it prudent to recall his minion,
and Sir William Berkeley was appointed to succeed him.

Sir William was as eminent, as his predecessor had been deficient,
in all popular virtues; and he was the bearer of instructions which
directed him to restore the colonial assembly, and invite it to enact
a body of laws for the province. Thus unexpectedly the colonists
were restored to their old system of freedom, and the consequence was
universal gratitude and joy. The king became universally popular, and
during the civil wars, the colony continued faithful to the royal cause.

The next incident of great interest in the history of Virginia, is the
rebellion consequent on the passage of the navigation act; by which
the plan of monopolizing to England the commerce of the colonies was
perfected and reduced into a complete system.

This oppressive system excited great indignation in Virginia, where
the extensive commerce and pre-eminent loyalty of the people rendered
the pressure of the burden more severe, and the infliction of it more
exasperating. The excitement became general, and was worked up to such
a pitch, that nothing was wanting to precipitate the people into the
most desperate acts, but some leader qualified to unite and to direct
their operations. Such a leader they found in Nathaniel Bacon. He was
a lawyer, educated in London, and was appointed a member of the council
a short time after his emigration to Virginia. Young, bold, ambitious,
with an engaging address, and commanding eloquence, he harangued the
colonists upon their grievances; inflamed their resentment against
their rulers; declaimed particularly against the languor with which
the war, then existing with the Indians, had been conducted; and such
was the effect of his representations, that he was elected general by
the people. To give some color of legitimacy to the authority he had
acquired, and perhaps expecting to precipitate matters to the extremity
which his interest required that they should speedily reach, he applied
to the governor for an official confirmation of the popular election,
and offered instantly to march against the common enemy. This Sir
William Berkeley firmly refused, and issued a proclamation commanding
the dispersion of the insurgents. Bacon had advanced too far to
recede; and he hastened, at the head of six hundred armed followers,
to Jamestown, surrounded the house where the governor and council were
assembled, and repeated his demand.

Intimidated by the threats of the enraged multitude, the council
hastily prepared a commission, and, by their entreaties, prevailed
on the governor to sign it. Bacon and his troops then began their
march against the Indians; but no sooner were the council relieved from
their fears, than they declared the commission void, and proclaimed
Bacon a rebel. Enraged at this conduct, he instantly returned, with
all his forces, to Jamestown. The aged governor, unsupported, and
almost abandoned, fled precipitately to Accomack, on the eastern
shore of the colony; collecting those who were well affected towards
his administration, he began to oppose the insurgents, and several
skirmishes were fought, with various success. A party of the insurgents
burned Jamestown, laid waste those districts of the colony which
adhered to the old administration, and confiscated the property of
the loyalists. The governor, in retaliation, seized the estates of many
of the insurgents, and executed several of their leaders. In the midst
of these calamities Bacon sickened and died. Destitute of a leader to
conduct and animate them, their sanguine hopes of success subsided;
all began to desire an accommodation; and after a brief negotiation
with the governor they laid down their arms, on obtaining a promise
of general pardon.

On hearing of the disturbances in Virginia, Charles despatched, though
with no great haste, a fleet with some troops for its pacification.
These did not arrive, however, till they might well have been dispensed
with. With them came colonel Jeffreys, appointed to recall and replace
Sir William Berkeley in the government of the colony. This brave and
benevolent man did not long survive his dismissal, and may justly be
said to have lived and died in the service of Virginia.

A succession of weak and tyrannical rulers followed the recall of Sir
William Berkeley. Notwithstanding the unfavorable circumstances under
which it labored, the colony continued to increase. Tobacco grew in
demand in Europe, and its cultivation gave constant employment to the
planters. The situation of the colony, removed alike from the French
in Canada, and the Spaniards in Florida, saved it from their hostile
incursions, and procured for it a comparative repose.


                            MASSACHUSETTS.

In the order of time, the settlement of the northern states followed
next after that of Virginia. In the year 1614, captain Smith explored
the coast with much care between Penobscot and cape Cod. He presented
a chart and description of it to Charles, prince of Wales, who was so
well pleased with the country that he called it _New England_; a name
which has since been applied to the provinces east of the Hudson.

In 1620, that country began to be colonized by a body of Puritans; who
had been first driven to Holland, by the mad intolerance of the English
government, and afterwards determined to emigrate to America. They
applied to the Virginia company for a patent, and it was not unwilling
to favor their views. They solicited full freedom of conscience, but
this the king declined granting under the great seal: he promised,
however, not to molest them, so long as they behaved themselves
peaceably.

The first band of these Puritans, consisting of one hundred and one
persons, reached cape Cod at break of day on the 9th of November, 1620.
Observing that they were beyond the limits of the company’s patent,
they had no powers of government derived from authority; and, therefore,
even before landing, they formed themselves into a ‘civil body politic,
under the crown of England, for the purpose of framing just and equal
laws, ordinances, acts, constitutions, and offices,’ to which they
promised all due submission and obedience. Forty-one persons signed
this contract. It contained the elements of those forms of government
peculiar to the new world. Under this system, John Carver was, by
general consent, chosen their first governor, ‘confiding,’ as the
electors say, ‘in his prudence, that he would not adventure upon any
matter of moment without the consent of the rest, or, at least, advice
of such as were known to be the wisest among them.’

Government being thus established, sixteen men, well armed, with a
few others, were sent on shore the same day, to fetch wood and make
discoveries; but they returned at night without having found any
person or habitation. The company, having rested during the Sabbath,
disembarked on Monday, the 13th of November; and soon after proceeded
to explore the interior of the country. In their researches they
discovered heaps of earth, one of which they dug open, but, finding
within implements of war, they concluded these were Indian graves; and
therefore, replacing what they had taken out, they left them inviolate.
In different heaps of sand they also found baskets of corn, a large
quantity of which they carried away in a great kettle, found at
the ruins of an Indian house. This providential discovery gave them
seed for a future harvest, and preserved the infant colony from
famine. On the 6th of December the shallop was sent out with several
of the principal men, to sail round the bay in search of a place for
settlement. During their researches, part of the company travelled
along the shore, where they were surprised by a flight of arrows from
a party of Indians; but, on the discharge of the English muskets, the
Indians instantly disappeared. The shallop, after imminent hazard from
the loss of its rudder and mast in a storm, and from shoals, which it
narrowly escaped, reached a small island on the night of the 8th; here
the company reposed themselves, grateful for their preservation during
the week; and on this island they kept the Sabbath. The day following
they sounded the harbor, and found it fit for shipping; went on shore,
and explored the adjacent land, where they saw various corn-fields and
brooks; and, judging the situation to be convenient for a settlement,
they returned with the welcome intelligence to the ship.

On the 23d, as many of the company as could, with convenience, went on
shore, and felled, and carried timber to the spot appropriated for the
erection of a building for common use. On the 25th, they commenced the
erection of the first house. A platform for their ordnance demanding
the earliest attention, they formed one upon a hill, which commanded
an extensive prospect of the plain beneath, of the expanding bay, and
of the distant ocean. They divided their whole company into nineteen
families; measured out the ground; and assigned to every person by
lot half a pole in breadth, and three poles in length, for houses and
gardens. In grateful remembrance of the Christian friends whom they
found at the last town they left in their native country, they called
their settlement Plymouth. Thus was founded the first British town of
New England.

The climate was found much more severe than the colonists had
anticipated; and they had arrived when winter was nearly one-third
advanced. They had every thing to do, and in this season could do very
little, even of what was indispensable. Their shelter was wretched;
their sufferings were intense; their dangers were not small, and were
rendered painful by an absolute uncertainty of their extent. All these
evils they encountered with resolution, and sustained with fortitude.
To each other they were kind: to the savages they were just: they loved
the truth of the gospel; embraced it in its purity; and obeyed it with
an excellence of life, which added a new wreath to the character of man.

Among the attempts at forming settlements at this time was one of a
character as peculiar as it was undesirable. Captain Wollaston began
a plantation, which he named after himself. One Morton, of Furnival’s
inn, was of this company. He was not left in command, but contrived to
make himself chief, changed the name of mount Wollaston to Merry mount,
set all the servants free, erected a may-pole, and lived a life of
dissipation, until all the stock intended for trade was consumed. He
was charged with furnishing the Indians with guns and ammunition, and
teaching them the use of them. At length, he made himself so obnoxious
to the planters in all parts, that, at their general desire, the people
of New Plymouth seized him by an armed force, and confined him, until
they had opportunity of sending him to England.

The time was now at hand, when the causes which had induced the
voluntary exile of the Leyden congregation, should produce an effect
far more extensive. Applications to the Plymouth company from Puritan
congregations were now becoming frequent; and, in the year 1628,
the council of Plymouth sold to Sir Henry Roswell and others, their
heirs and associates, that part of New England which lies between two
boundaries, one three miles north of the Merrimac, and the other three
miles south of Charles river, from the Atlantic to the South sea.
The same year Mr. Endicot, one of the patentees, came to New England,
and planted himself, with a small colony, in Naumkeag, now Salem. The
following year they were joined by about two hundred others, making
three hundred in the whole, one hundred of whom, however, removed the
same year, and settled themselves, with the consent of Mr. Endicot,
governor of the colony, at Mishawum, now Charlestown. The second Salem
company brought with them a considerable number of cattle, horses,
sheep, and goats; which after a little period, became so numerous as
to supply all the wants of the inhabitants. Powers of government were
granted to these colonists by Charles I., which constituted them a
corporation, by the name of The Governor and Company of Massachusetts
Bay, in New England, with power to elect annually a governor, deputy
governor, and eighteen assistants; four great and general courts were
to be held every year, to consist of the governor, or, in his absence,
the deputy governor, the assistants, or at least six of them, and the
freemen of the company.

The arbitrary proceedings of the British court, in affairs both of
church and state, continued without any abatement, and induced many
gentlemen of wealth and distinction to join the Plymouth company, and
remove to New England. In 1629, many persons of this character, and
among them the distinguished names of Isaac Johnson, John Winthrop,
Thomas Dudley, and Sir Richard Saltonstall, proposed to the company
to remove with their families, on condition that the charter and
government should be transferred to New England. To this the company
assented, and in the course of the next year, John Winthrop, who had
been chosen governor, with about one thousand five hundred persons,
embarked. The fleet consisted of ten sail, one of which was of three
hundred and fifty tons, and, from lady Arabella Johnson, who sailed
in her, was called the Arabella. Among the passengers were a number
of eminent non-conformist ministers. The most highly esteemed was Mr.
Wilson, the son of a dignitary of the church, who, by his connexions
and talents, might have aspired to its highest honors, but chose to
renounce all, in order to suffer with those whom he accounted the
people of God. But the circumstance which threw a greater lustre on
the colony than any other, was the arrival of Mr. John Cotton, the most
esteemed of all the Puritan ministers in England. Becoming an object
of the persecuting fury of Laud, he left Boston in disguise, and spent
some time in London, seeking a proper opportunity to emigrate. There
went out with him Mr. Hooker and Mr. Stone, who were esteemed to make a
glorious triumvirate, and were received in New England with the utmost
exultation. Mr. Cotton was appointed to preach at Boston, now the
principal town in Massachusetts bay, and was mainly employed in drawing
up the ecclesiastical constitution of the colony.

On the arrival of the principal ships of the fleet at Charlestown, the
governor and several of the patentees, having viewed the bottom of the
bay of Massachusetts, and pitched down on the north side of Charles
river, took lodgings in the great house built there the preceding year,
and the rest of the company erected cottages, booths, and tents, about
the town hill. Their place of assembling for divine service was under a
tree. When the fleet had safely arrived, a day of thanksgiving was kept
in all the plantations. Early attention was paid to the great object of
the enterprise. On the 30th of July, a day of solemn prayer and fasting
was kept at Charlestown, when governor Winthrop, deputy governor Dudley,
and Mr. Wilson, first entered into church covenant; and at this time
was laid the foundation of the church of Charlestown, and of the first
church in Boston. On the 27th of August, the congregation kept a fast,
and chose Mr. Wilson their teacher. ‘We used imposition of hands,’ says
governor Winthrop, ‘but with this protestation by all, that it was only
a sign of election and confirmation, not of any intent that Mr. Wilson
should renounce the ministry he received in England.’

The colony was now gaining strength from its numbers and organization;
but it had also its trials to contend with, not the least of which was
the sickness arising from the severity of the climate, or, more truly,
from the means of counteracting the injurious tendencies of the climate
not being yet properly understood. Among those who fell an early
sacrifice, none were lamented more than lady Arabella Johnson and her
husband, who had left the abodes of abundance and of social comfort
for the American wilderness, purely from religious principle. As soon
as the severity of the winter was abated sufficiently to admit of
assemblies being convened, the colonists proceeded to enact laws for
their internal regulation. It has been before observed, that those who
so resolutely ventured to cross the ocean, and to brave the hardships
attendant on clearing the American forests, sought rather to establish
churches, than to found a kingdom; it will naturally be supposed,
therefore, that their legislation partook largely of an ecclesiastical
character. Indeed, the history of this colony presents more matter for
the ecclesiastical than the civil historian. At the very first court
of election a law was passed, enacting that none should hereafter be
admitted freemen, or be entitled to any share in the government, or be
capable of being chosen magistrates, or even of serving as jurymen but
such as had been or should hereafter be received into the church as
members. ‘This was a most extraordinary order or law,’ says Hutchinson,
‘and yet it continued in force until the dissolution of the government,
it being repealed in appearance only after the restoration of king
Charles II. Had they been deprived of their civil privileges in England
by an act of parliament, unless they would join in communion with
the churches there, it might very well have been the first in the
roll of grievances. But such were the requisites to qualify for
church-membership here, that the grievance was abundantly greater.’

The baneful influence of the erroneous principles of the union of the
civil and ecclesiastical power, soon became apparent in the persecution
of the most liberally minded man in the colony, Roger Williams. It is
true that he enthusiastically supported some tenets which were deemed
heterodox, and occasioned considerable excitement by inveighing against
the use of the cross in the national flag. In consequence of the spread
of his opinion, some of the troops would not act till the relic of
popery, as they considered it, was cut out of the banner, while others
would not serve under any flag from which it was erased. At length a
compromise was entered into, by which it was agreed that the obnoxious
emblem should be omitted from the banners of the militia, while it
was retained in those of the forts. This, however, was only one of the
errors charged against Williams; it is said that he maintained that
no female should go abroad unless veiled; that unregenerate men ought
neither to pray nor to take oaths; that, indeed, oaths had better
be altogether omitted; that the churches of New England should not
acknowledge or communicate with the hierarchy from which they had
separated; that infants should not be subjects of baptism; that the
magistrate should confine his authority wholly to temporal affairs; and
that James or Charles of England had no right at all to grant away the
lands of the Indians without their consent. For the zealous propagation
of these sentiments, he was deemed worthy of banishment from the
colony of Massachusetts. The order of the court was, that he should be
transported to England; but he escaped the limits of their jurisdiction,
repaired to the Narraganset country, and became the founder of a new
colony.

During the year 1635, no less than three thousand persons arrived in
New England. Among them was Henry Vane, a young man of noble family,
animated with a devotion to the cause of religion and liberty, which
induced him to relinquish all his hopes in England, and settle in an
infant colony which as yet afforded little more than a bare subsistence
to its inhabitants: he was naturally received in New England with high
regard and admiration, and was instantly complimented with the freedom
of the colony. Enforcing his claims to respect by the address and
ability which he showed in conducting business, he was elected governor
in the year subsequent to his arrival, by the universal consent of
the colonists, and with the highest expectations of an advantageous
administration. These hopes, we shall find in the sequel, were by
no means realized. He entered too deeply into polemical theology, to
allow him to devote the energies of his mind to the civil and political
duties which afforded so abundant a field for their exercise.

A brief period elapsed after the expulsion of Roger Williams, before
the repose of the colony was again interrupted by religious dissensions.
The Puritans had transported, with their other religious practices,
that of assembling one evening in the week to converse over the
discourses of the preceding Sabbath; a proceeding well calculated to
keep alive that zeal which arises from the vigorous exercise of private
judgment, but not to promote the subserviency requisite to a quiet
submission to the uniformity of authorized opinions. These meetings
had been originally confined to the brethren; but Mrs. Hutchinson, a
lady of respectable station in life, of considerable native talent,
and of affable manners, deemed it desirable that the sisters should
also exercise a similar privilege. Unfortunately, it was not long
before this lady and her associates discovered that there would be
much more propriety in their instructing their ministers than in the
reverse process, which had hitherto prevailed. They adopted that most
convenient dogma, that good works are no evidence of being a true
Christian, or one of the elect; and that the only testimony to a state
of justification, was the overpowering assurance of the mind, produced
by the immediate influence of the divine Spirit.

The disturbance occasioned by the propagation of these offensive
sentiments, was aggravated by the circumstance of the governor, Mr.
Vane, being their decided advocate. Vehement discussions and bitter
accusations abounded; but the antinomian party, though most zealous,
were least numerous; and at the annual election, Mr. Vane was displaced
by Mr. Winthrop, by a very decided majority. After various measures had
been resorted to, in order to bring the dissentients within the pale of
orthodoxy, a synod was called, which determined that the sentiments of
Mrs. Hutchinson and her followers were grievously erroneous, and, as
they still refused submission, the favorite measure of banishment was
had recourse to. Another accession was thus made to the ‘alluvies,’ as
Mather terms it, of Rhode Island; but not finding that land of liberty
perfectly to her taste Mrs. Hutchinson removed to a Dutch plantation,
where, not long after, she was basely murdered, with many of her family,
by the Indians.

It does not fall within our plan to follow out the details of the
ecclesiastical persecutions that disfigure the early history of New
England. Although themselves fugitives from the terrors of persecution,
the Puritans entertained no particular toleration for the tenets of
those who came to different conclusions. They whipped, banished, and
imprisoned Anabaptists, Quakers and others, whose obstinacy was equal
to their own, and whose power was unfortunately less. Like many other
enthusiasts, they entertained a strong predilection for the phraseology
and manners of the Hebrews, whose laws they ill understood. Lying,
drunkenness and dancing were punished with public whipping; and for a
man to have long hair was considered an abomination, and inconsistent
with the care of the soul.

A more important subject than religious wrangling, is the union formed
by the New England colonists, for mutual defence against the savages,
and for security against the claims and encroachments of the Dutch.
This union, or confederation, was formed in 1643, by the name of The
United Colonies of New England. It had been proposed by the colonies
of Connecticut and New Haven, as early as 1638, but was not finally
completed until five years after. This confederacy, which continued
about forty years, constituted an interesting portion of the political
history of New England. It consisted of the colonies of Massachusetts,
New Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven. By the articles of
confederation, as they were called, these colonies entered into a firm
and perpetual league of friendship and amity, for offence and defence,
mutual advice and succor, upon all just occasions, both for preserving
and propagating the truth and liberties of the gospel, and for their
own mutual safety and welfare. Each colony was to retain its own
peculiar jurisdiction and government; and no other plantation or colony
was to be received as a confederate, nor any two of the confederates to
be united into one jurisdiction, without the consent of the rest. The
affairs of the united colonies were to be managed by a legislature, to
consist of two persons, styled commissioners, chosen from each colony.
The commissioners were to meet annually in the colonies, in succession,
and when met, to choose a president, and the determination of any
six to be binding on all. This confederacy, which was declared to
be perpetual, continued without any essential alteration, until the
New England colonies were deprived of their charter by the arbitrary
proceedings of James II. This union evidently served as the basis of
the great confederacy afterwards formed between the thirteen states of
America. An examination of the two systems will prove a similarity not
only in names, but in general principles.

At the termination of the first half century from the arrival of the
emigrants at Plymouth, the New England colonies were calculated to
contain one hundred and twenty towns, and as many thousand inhabitants;
of whom sixteen thousand were capable of bearing arms. The habits
of industry and economy, which had been formed in less happy times,
continued to prevail, and gave a competency to those who had nothing,
and wealth to those who had a competency. The wilderness receded before
these hardy and persevering laborers, and its savage inhabitants found
their game dispersed, and their favorite haunts invaded. This was
the natural consequence of the sales of land, which they were at all
times ready to make to the whites. But this result the Indians did not
foresee; and when they felt it in all its force, the strongest passions
were awakened which could animate the savage breast. A leader only
was wanting to concentrate and direct their exertions, and Philip, of
Pokanoket, sachem of a tribe residing within the boundaries of Plymouth
and Rhode Island, assumed that station. His father was the friend,
but he had ever been the enemy, of the whites; and he exerted all the
arts of intrigue, of which he was master, to induce the Indians, in all
parts of New England, to unite their efforts for their destruction. He
succeeded in forming a confederacy, able to send into action more than
three thousand warriors.

  Illustration: Attack on Swanzey.

The English were apprized of the plots of the Indians, and made
preparations to meet their hostilities. They hoped, however, that
the threatened storm would pass by, as others had, and that peace
would be preserved. But the insolence of Philip, and the number of his
adherents, increased daily; and, in June, 1675, some of them entered
the town of Swanzey, in Plymouth, where, after slaughtering the cattle,
and plundering the houses, they fired upon the inhabitants, killing
and wounding several. The troops of that colony marched immediately
to Swanzey, and were soon joined by a detachment from Massachusetts.
The Indians fled, and marked the course of their flight by burning
the buildings, and fixing on poles by the way side, the hands, scalps,
and heads of the whites whom they had killed. The troops pursued, but
unable to overtake them, returned to Swanzey. The whole country was
alarmed, and the number of troops augmented. By this array of force,
Philip was induced to quit his residence at mount Hope, and take post
near a swamp at Pocasset. At that place the English attacked him, but
were repulsed. Sixteen were killed, and the Indians by this success
were made bolder.

Most of the settlements were surrounded by thick forests, and as the
Indians lived intermixed with the whites, the former were acquainted,
of course, with the dwellings of the latter, and all the avenues
to them; could watch their motions, and fall upon them in their
defenceless and unguarded moments. Many were shot dead as they opened
their doors in the morning; many while at work in their fields, and
others while travelling to visit their neighbors, or to places of
worship; their lives were in continual jeopardy; and no one could tell
but that, in the next moment, he should receive his death shot from
his barn, the thicket, or the way side. Whenever the enemy assembled
in force, detachments were sent against them; if weaker than these,
they would retreat; if stronger, assault and harass, or destroy them.
Defenceless villages were suddenly attacked, the houses burned, and the
men, women and children killed, or carried into captivity. Their ruin
was the work of a moment; and when accomplished, its authors vanished.
The colonists found their numbers sensibly diminished, and their
strength impaired; and they began to apprehend even total extinction.
Nothing but a vigorous effort could save them.

The commissioners of the three United Colonies met on the 9th of
September, and it was concluded, that the war was just and necessary;
that it ought to be jointly prosecuted by all the United Colonies;
and that there should be immediately raised 1000 soldiers out of
the colonies, in such proportion as the articles of confederation
established: Massachusetts, 527; Plymouth, 158; Connecticut, 315. At
an adjourned meeting, the commissioners declared the Narragansets to
be deeply accessory in the present bloody outrages of the Indians that
were at open war, and determined that 1000 more soldiers be raised, for
the Narraganset expedition, to obtain satisfaction of those Indians,
or to treat them as enemies. On the 8th of December, the Massachusetts
forces marched from Boston, and were soon joined by those of Plymouth.
The troops from Connecticut joined them on the 18th, at Petaquamscot.
At break of day the next morning they commenced their march, through
a deep snow, toward the enemy, who were about fifteen miles distant in
a swamp, at the edge of which they arrived at one in the afternoon. The
Indians, apprized of an armament intended against them, had fortified
themselves as strongly as possible within the swamp. The English,
without waiting to draw up in order of battle, marched forward in quest
of the enemy’s camp.

The Indian fortress stood on a rising ground in the midst of the
swamp, and was composed of palisades, which were encompassed by a
hedge, nearly a rod thick. It had but one practicable entrance, which
was over a log, or tree four or five feet from the ground; and that
aperture was guarded by a block-house. Falling providentially on this
very part of the fort, the English captains entered it, at the head
of their companies. The two first, with many of their men, were shot
dead at the entrance; four other captains were also killed. When the
troops had effected an entrance, they attacked the Indians, who fought
desperately, and compelled the English to retire out of the fort;
but after a hard-fought battle of three hours, they became masters
of the place, and set fire to the wigwams, to the number of five or
six hundred, and in the conflagration many Indian women and children
perished. The surviving Indians fled into a cedar swamp, at a small
distance; and the English retired to their quarters. Of the English
there were killed and wounded about two hundred and thirty; of the
Indians one thousand are supposed to have perished.

  Illustration: Attack on the Indian Fortress.

From this blow, the confederated Indians never recovered; but they
still remained sufficiently strong to harass the settlements by
continual inroads. In retaliation, the English sent several detachments
into their territories, nearly all of which were successful. Captain
Church, of Plymouth, and captain Dennison, of Connecticut, were
conspicuous for their bravery and success. In the midst of these
reverses, Philip remained firm and unshaken. His warriors were cut off;
his chief men, his wife and family, were killed, or taken prisoners;
and at these successive misfortunes, he is represented to have wept
with a bitterness which proves him not to have been destitute of the
noblest affections; but he disdained to listen to any offers of peace.
He even shot one of his men, who proposed submission. At length,
after being hunted from swamp to swamp, he was himself shot, by the
brother of the Indian he had killed. This event was certainly the
signal of complete victory. The Indians in all the neighboring country
now generally submitted to the English, or fled, and incorporated
themselves with distant and strange nations. Never was peace more
welcome. In this short, but tremendous war, about six hundred of the
inhabitants of New England, composing its principal strength, were
either killed in battle, or murdered by the enemy; twelve or thirteen
towns were entirely destroyed; and about six hundred buildings, chiefly
dwelling-houses, were burnt. In addition to these calamities, the
colonies contracted a very heavy debt; while, by the loss of their
substance through the ravages of the enemy, their resources were
greatly diminished. But, in their deepest distress, they forbore to
apply to the mother country for assistance; and this omission excited
surprise and jealousy. ‘You act,’ said a privy counsellor, ‘as though
you were independent of our master’s crown; and though poor, yet you
are proud.’

In this unsettled state of the country, the French in Canada and
Nova Scotia instigated the northern and eastern Indians to commence
hostilities against the English settlements. Dover and Salmon Falls,
in New Hampshire, Casco, in Maine, and Schenectady, in New York, were
attacked by different parties of French and Indians, and the most
shocking barbarities perpetrated on the inhabitants. The Indians having
taken the fort at Pemaquid, and the French privateers from Acadie still
infesting the coast of New England, the general court of Massachusetts
determined to make an attempt on Port Royal. A fleet, with seven or
eight hundred men, under the command of Sir William Phipps, sailed on
that expedition in the latter end of April. The fort at Port Royal,
not being in a state to sustain a siege, surrendered, with little or
no resistance; and Sir William took possession of the whole sea-coast,
from Port Royal to the New England settlements.

Regarding Canada as the principal source of their miseries, New England
and New York formed the bold project of reducing it to subjection. By
great exertion they raised an army, which, under the command of general
Winthrop, was sent against Montreal, and equipped a fleet, which,
commanded by Sir William Phipps, was destined to attack Quebec. The
fleet, retarded by unavoidable accidents, did not arrive before Quebec
until the 5th of October. Phipps, the next morning, sent a summons on
shore, but received an insolent answer from count Frontenac. The next
day he attempted to land his troops, but was prevented by the violence
of the wind. On the 8th, all the effective men, amounting to between
twelve and thirteen hundred, landed at the isle of Orleans, four miles
below the town, and were fired on from the woods by French and Indians.
Having remained on shore three days, they received information from a
deserter of the strength of the place, and precipitately embarked. A
tempest soon after dispersed the fleet, which made the best of its way
back to Boston. A successful result had been so confidently expected,
that adequate provision was not made at home for the payment of the
troops. In this extremity, the government of Massachusetts issued bills
of credit, or paper money; and these were the first that were ever
issued in the American colonies; but though it afforded relief at
the moment, it produced in its consequences extensive and complicated
mischief.

The first trials for witchcraft in New England occurred in the year
1645, when four persons charged with this crime were put to death in
Massachusetts. For more than twenty years after, we hear but little of
similar prosecutions. But in the year 1688, a woman was executed for
witchcraft in Boston, after an investigation conducted with a degree
of solemnity that made a deep impression on the minds of the people.
Suspicions having been thus violently roused, the charges of witchcraft
began gradually to multiply, till at length there commenced at Salem
that dreadful tragedy which rendered New England for many months a
scene of bloodshed, terror and madness, and at one time seemed to
threaten the subversion of civil society.

In the year 1692, the frenzy of the colonists reached the highest
pitch of extravagance. Suspicions and accusations of witchcraft became
general among them; and on this fanciful charge many persons were
put to death. This pestilential visitation first showed itself in the
town of Salem. A fanatic, who was minister of a church there, had two
daughters subject to convulsions. He fancied they were bewitched; and
fixed his suspicions on an Indian girl who lived in the house, as the
accomplice and tool of Satan in the matter. By harsh treatment he made
the poor savage acknowledge herself a witch. Among a people like the
New Englanders, this was throwing a firebrand into a powder magazine;
and the explosion was dreadful. Every woman subject to hysterical
affections instantly believed herself bewitched; and was seldom at a
loss to discover the guilty cause of her malady. Persons accused of the
imaginary crime of witchcraft were imprisoned, condemned, hanged, and
their bodies left exposed to wild beasts and birds of prey. Counsellors
who refused to plead against these devoted victims, and judges who were
not forward in condemning them, were doomed to share their fate, as
accomplices in their guilt.

Children of ten years of age were put to death; young women were
stripped naked, and the marks of witchcraft sought for on their bodies
with unblushing curiosity. Scorbutical or other spots on the bodies
of old men were reckoned clear proofs of a heinous commerce with
the infernal powers. Dreams, apparitions, prodigies of every kind,
increased the general consternation and horror. The prisons were
filled, the gibbets left standing, and the citizens were appalled.
Under this frightful delirium, the miserable colonists seemed doomed
to destruction by each other’s hands. The more prudent withdrew from a
country polluted by the blood of its inhabitants, and the ruin of the
colony seemed inevitable; when, ceasing to receive countenance from
those in authority, this awful frenzy passed away, almost as suddenly
as it had arisen, leaving to future ages a fearful warning against such
popular insanity.

It is matter of satisfaction to the historian, that his attention
is not again to be diverted, in the annals of this state, from his
peculiar province, to record events which, had the intention of
religion been rightly apprehended, would not have intermixed with civil
affairs in fact, and therefore not in history. The legislature, at its
first session under the new charter, passed a law which indicates the
same independent spirit that afterwards resisted the usurpations of the
British parliament. It provided that no tax should be imposed upon any
of his majesty’s subjects, or their estates, in the province, but by
the act and consent of the governor, council, and representatives of
the people, in general court assembled. It is almost needless to add,
that this law was disallowed by the king.

The war with the French and Indians, which began in 1690, was not yet
terminated. For several years were the frontier settlements harassed by
the savages, and the English were employed in expeditions against them.
This continuance of the war on the part of the Indians, instigated and
aided by the French, induced repeated applications for a force from the
British government, to act in conjunction with land forces to be raised
in New England and New York, for the reduction of Canada; and it was
at length determined, that an expedition should be undertaken for that
purpose. A fleet was to be employed in the winter in the reduction of
Martinico; and, after the performance of that service, was to sail to
Boston, take on board a body of land forces under Sir William Phipps,
and proceed to Quebec. By attempting too much, the whole of this
extensive project entirely failed.

The attacks of the natives on the English continued with little
intermission till the peace of 1697. They were carried on with Indian
cunning, treachery, and cruelty. ‘To these causes of suffering were
superadded the power of all such motives as the ingenuity of the
French could invent, their wealth furnish, or their bigotry adopt. Here
all the implements of war and the means of sustenance were supplied;
the expedition was planned; the price was bidden for scalps; the
aid of European officers and soldiers was conjoined; the devastation
and slaughter were sanctioned by the ministers of religion; and the
blood-hounds, while their fangs were yet dropping blood, were caressed
and cherished by men regarded by them as superior beings. The intervals
between formal attacks were usually seasons of desultory mischief,
plunder, and butchery; and always of suspense and dread. The solitary
family was carried into captivity; the lonely house burned to the
ground; and the traveller waylaid and shot in the forest. It ought,
however, to be observed, to the immortal honor of these people,
distinguished as they are by so many traits of brutal ferocity, that
history records no instance in which the purity of a female captive
was violated by them, or even threatened.’

The peace of Ryswick, which had been signed on the 20th of September,
was proclaimed at Boston on the 10th of December, and the English
colonies had a brief repose. By the seventh article it was agreed,
that mutual restitution should be made of all the countries, forts,
and colonies taken by each party during the war.

In a few years war again broke out in Europe, and hostilities speedily
recommenced in America. The first blow fell upon Deerfield. In February,
1704, it was surprised in the night, about forty persons were killed,
and more than one hundred were made prisoners, among whom were Mr.
Williams, the minister, and his family. The killed were scalped, and
the prisoners commanded to prepare for a long march to Canada. On the
second day, Mrs. Williams was so exhausted with fatigue that she could
go no farther. Her husband solicited permission to remain with her; but
the retreating savages, according to their custom in such cases, killed
her and compelled him to proceed. Before the termination of their
journey, twenty more became unable to walk, and were in like manner
sacrificed. Those who survived the journey to Canada were treated by
the French with humanity; and after a captivity of many years, most of
them were redeemed, and returned to their friends.

New York having agreed with the French and the western Indians to
remain neutral, the enemy were enabled to pour their whole force
upon Massachusetts and New Hampshire, the inhabitants of which, for
ten years, endured miseries peculiar to an Indian war, of which the
description we have given falls below the truth. The enemy were at all
times prowling about the frontier settlements, watching in concealment
for an opportunity to strike a sudden blow, and to fly with safety.
The women and children retired into the garrisons; the men left their
fields uncultivated, or labored with arms at their sides, and with
sentinels at every point whence an attack could be apprehended. Yet,
notwithstanding these precautions, the Indians were often successful,
killing sometimes an individual, sometimes a whole family, sometimes
a band of laborers, ten or twelve in number; and so swift were they in
their movements, that but few fell into the hands of the whites. It was
computed, that the sum of one thousand pounds was expended for every
Indian killed or made captive. In 1707, Massachusetts, New Hampshire,
and Rhode Island, despatched an armament against Port Royal, in Nova
Scotia, then in possession of the French, which returned, however,
without effecting its object; but in 1710, the troops of New England,
assisted by a British fleet, succeeded in reducing the place; and in
compliment to queen Anne, changed its name to Annapolis.

We pass over various topics of interest, in regard to contests in
Massachusetts between the people and their governors, relative to
certain prerogatives of the crown. After a struggle of more than thirty
years, the crown was compelled to yield to a bold and persevering
opposition, and the controversy was not again renewed till the year
1773.

In 1744, war again broke out between England and France, and the
colonies were again the theatre on which the great drama was to be
acted. Commerce generally, and in particular the fisheries, suffered
greatly during these hostilities from privateers fitted out at
Louisburg, a French port on Cape Breton. This post was considered of
vast importance, and nearly six millions of dollars had been expended
on its fortifications. This post it was determined to subdue, and
an expedition was sent against it under the command of Sir William
Pepperell, of Kittery. In conjunction with other forces from England
under the command of commodore Warren, batteries were erected before
the town, and an assault eventually resolved upon. Discouraged by these
adverse events and menacing appearances, the French commander consented
to capitulate, and on the sixteenth of June articles were accordingly
signed. After the surrender of the city, the French flag was kept
flying on the ramparts, and several rich prizes were thus decoyed.

Fired with resentment at their loss, the French made extraordinary
exertions to retrieve it, and to inflict chastisement on New England.
The next summer they despatched to the American coast a powerful fleet,
carrying a large number of soldiers. The news of its approach spread
terror throughout New England; but an uncommon succession of disasters
deprived it of all power to inflict injury. After remaining a short
time on the coast, it returned to France, having lost two admirals,
both of whom it was supposed put an end to their lives through chagrin;
having also, by tempests, been reduced to one half its force, without
effecting any of the objects anticipated.

In the month of November, 1747, a great tumult occurred in the town
of Boston, arising from the following circumstance: Commodore Knowles,
while lying at Nantasket with a number of men of war, losing some of
his sailors by desertion, thought it reasonable that Boston should
supply him with as many men as he had lost. He therefore sent his boats
early in the morning, and surprised not only as many seamen as could
be found on board any of the ships, but pressed some ship carpenters’
apprentices, and other laboring landsmen. This conduct was universally
resented as outrageous; and as soon as it was dusk, several thousand
people assembled in King’s street, where the general court was sitting.
Stones and brickbats were thrown into the council chamber through
the windows. A judicious speech of the governor from the balcony,
disapproving of the impress, promising his utmost endeavors to obtain
the discharge of the persons impressed, but reprehending the irregular
proceedings of the people, had no effect.

  Illustration: Riot in State Street.

The seizure and restraint of the commanders and other officers who
were in town were insisted on, as the only effectual method to procure
the release of the inhabitants aboard the ships. The militia of Boston
was summoned the next day to the aid of government, but refused to
appear. The governor, judging it inexpedient to remain in town another
night, withdrew to castle William; but kept up a communication with
the commodore, urging the liberation of the townsmen. Meanwhile, the
council and house of representatives passed some vigorous resolutions,
and the tumultuous spirit began to subside. The inhabitants, assembled
in town meeting, while they expressed their sense of the great insult
and injury by the impress, condemned the riotous transactions. The
militia of the town the next day promptly made their appearance, and
conducted the governor with great pomp to his house; and the commodore
dismissed most, if not all of the inhabitants who had been impressed;
and the squadron sailed, to the joy and repose of the town.

In October, 1748, a treaty of peace between England and France was
signed at Aix la Chapelle. By the articles of this treaty, Cape Breton
was given up to the French, in a compromise for restoring the French
conquests in the low countries to the empress queen of Hungary and
the States General, and for a general restitution of places captured
by the other belligerent powers. It was naturally a mortification to
the inhabitants of New England, that what they termed, not unjustly,
‘their own acquisition,’ should be restored to France; but so long
as peace continued, they sustained no disadvantage. In most respects,
Massachusetts Bay was never in a more easy and happy situation, than
at the close of this war.


                       NEW HAMPSHIRE AND MAINE.

It was in the year 1623, that Sir Ferdinando Gorges, John Mason, and
others, having obtained of the Plymouth or New England company grants
of several tracts of land, lying north of Massachusetts, sent from
England a few persons to begin a settlement. Part landed, and for a
short time remained at Little Harbor, on the west side Piscataqua river,
and near its mouth, where they erected the first house, calling it
Mason Hall; the remainder, proceeding higher up the river, settled at
Cocheco, afterwards called Dover. Fishing and trade being the principal
objects of these emigrants, their settlements increased slowly.

The persecuting policy of the Massachusetts colony peopled this country,
when money and persuasion had been tried in vain. It has already been
stated, that among those who were expelled from the jurisdiction of
Massachusetts, at the time of the dissensions occasioned by opposition
to the spread of antinomian sentiments at Boston, was the Rev. John
Wheelwright. Previously to the date of Mason’s patent, he had purchased
the land of the Indians, and laid the foundation of Exeter. In the
year 1630, thirty-five persons residing in that town combined and
established civil government; and within a year or two afterwards, the
inhabitants of Dover and Portsmouth followed their example, each town
remaining distinct and independent.

From Indian hostilities, this colony suffered more severely than
her neighbors. The surprise of Dover, in 1689, was effected with the
most shocking barbarity; though the natives having been ill-treated
by one of the principal inhabitants may account for, if not palliate,
their ferocious revenge. Having determined upon their plan of attack,
the Indians employed their usual art to lull the suspicions of the
inhabitants. So civil and respectful was their behavior, that they
occasionally obtained permission to sleep in the fortified houses in
the town. On the evening of the fatal night, they assembled in the
neighborhood, and sent their women to apply for lodgings at the houses
devoted to destruction. When all was quiet the doors were opened and
the signal given. The Indians rushed into Waldron’s house, and hastened
to his apartment. Awakened by the noise, he seized his sword, and drove
them back, but when returning for his other arms was stunned with a
hatchet, and fell. They then dragged him into his hall, seated him
in an elbow chair upon a long table, and insultingly asked him, ‘Who
shall judge Indians now?’ After feasting upon provisions, which they
compelled the rest of the family to procure, each one with his knife
cut gashes across his breast, saying, ‘I cross out my account.’ When,
weakened with the loss of blood, he was about to fall from the table,
his own sword was held under him, which put an end to his tortures. At
other houses, similar acts of cruelty were perpetrated; in the whole,
twenty-three persons were killed, and twenty-nine carried prisoners to
Canada, who were mostly sold to the French. Many houses were burned,
and much property was plundered; but so expeditious were the Indians,
that they had fled beyond reach before the neighboring people could
be collected. The war thus commenced, was not easily terminated. The
French, by giving premiums for scalps, and by purchasing the English
prisoners, animated the Indians to exert all their activity and address,
and the frontier inhabitants endured the most aggravated sufferings.
The peace of Ryswick, in 1697, closed the distressing scene till 1703,
when another war began, which continued ten years.

A few years only transpired before the inhabitants again suffered the
afflictions of an Indian war. Following the example of the French, the
government offered premiums for scalps, which induced several volunteer
companies to undertake expeditions against the enemy. One of these,
commanded by captain Lovewell, was greatly distinguished. In April,
1725, with thirty-four men, he fought a famous Indian chief, named
Paugus, at the head of about eighty savages, near the shores of a pond
in Pequackett. Lovewell’s men were determined either to conquer or die,
although outnumbered by the Indians more than twice. They fought till
Lovewell and Paugus were killed, and all Lovewell’s men but nine were
either killed or dangerously wounded. The savages having lost, as was
supposed, sixty of their number out of eighty, and being convinced of
the fierce and determined resolution of their foes, at length retreated,
and left them masters of the ground. The scene of this desperate and
bloody action, which took place in the town that is now called Fryburgh,
is often visited with interest to this day, and the names both of those
who fell, and those who survived, are yet repeated with exultation.


                             CONNECTICUT.

The Connecticut colony consisted of people who first emigrated from
England to Massachusetts, and, in the years 1630 and 1632, settled and
formed themselves into churches at Dorchester, Watertown, and Cambridge,
where they resided several years. But either because the number of
emigrants to Massachusetts did not allow them all such a choice as they
wished of good lands, or because some jealousies had arisen between
their pastors and leaders, and the leading men of the colony, they
took the resolution of seating themselves again in the wilderness;
and in the years 1635 and 1636 they removed their families to Windsor,
Weathersfield, and Hartford, on the Connecticut river.

From the commencement of the Connecticut colony, the natives discovered
a hostile disposition. Their principal enemy was the Pequods, the most
numerous and warlike nation within the limits of the state, and perhaps
in New England. They inhabited the country which environs the towns
of New London, Groton, and Stonington. Sassacus, the great prince of
the Pequods, had under him six-and-twenty sachems, and could bring
into the field seven hundred or a thousand warriors, who had been
long accustomed to victory. The royal residence was at a large fort
situated on a beautiful eminence in the town of Groton, which commands
an extensive prospect of the sea and of the surrounding country. There
was also another fortress, called Mystic fort, situated in the town of
Stonington. After suffering repeated injuries, and the murder of about
thirty of their people, principally by the Pequods, the general court,
which had been convened for the purpose, resolved on active hostilities,
and immediately raised an army of ninety men, half the effective
force of the colony. These were to be joined by two hundred men from
Massachusetts, and forty from Plymouth.

The court which declared war was holden on the 1st of May; the men
were raised and embarked on the river, under the command of captain
Mason, on the 10th; and, after being wind-bound several days, sailed
from the mouth of the river for Narraganset bay on the 19th. They were
accompanied by sixty Mohegan and River Indians, under Uncas, a Mohegan
sachem. On reaching Narraganset bay, they landed to the number of
seventy-seven Englishmen, marched into the country of the Narragansets,
and communicated their design to Miantonimoh, the sachem of the country,
who offered to join them. Information was here received that captain
Patrick had reached Providence, with a company of Massachusetts troops,
but it was resolved not to wait for this reinforcement. On the next
day, they marched twenty miles through the west part of Rhode Island,
and reached Nihantick, which bordered on the Pequods’ country.[99] The
army wheeled directly to Mystic fort, which was immediately attacked;
the contest, though tremendously severe, terminated in favor of the
English, and in the destruction of the Indians. Although this victory
was complete, the situation of the army was extremely dangerous and
destressing. Several were killed, and one-fourth of their number were
wounded; the remainder were exhausted with fatigue, and destitute of
provisions; they were in the midst of an enemy’s country, many miles
from their vessels, and their ammunition was nearly exhausted; they
were but a few miles distant from the principal fortress of their foe,
where there was a fresh army, which they knew would be exasperated in
the highest degree on learning the fate of their brethren. In the midst
of their perplexity, while they were consulting on the course to be
pursued, their vessels appeared in sight, steering with a fair wind
directly into the harbor. The army was received on board with great
mutual joy and congratulation.

The troops employed on this successful expedition reached their homes
before the expiration of a month from the day that the war was resolved
upon. The Pequods, on the departure of captain Mason, burnt their
wigwams, destroyed their principal fort, and scattered themselves
throughout the country. Sassacus, with a party of his chief warriors,
abandoned his country, and moved by slow marches towards the Hudson
river. They were followed by a party of Massachusetts and Connecticut
troops; and, in a great swamp in Fairfield, near the western part of
Connecticut, they were overtaken, and a battle ensued. Sassacus, and
about twenty of his most hardy men, escaped, and fled to the Mohawk
country; but there he found no safety; he was surprised by the Mohawks,
and killed, with all his party, except Mononotto, who, after being
wounded, made his escape. The Pequods who remained were divided between
the Mohegans and Narragansets, and the nation became extinct. The vigor
and boldness with which this war was prosecuted on both sides, give it
the air of romance. Its decisive termination, which was so fatal to one
party, was productive of the most happy consequences to the other. It
struck the Indians throughout New England with such a salutary terror,
that they were contented, in general, to remain at peace for nearly
forty years.

In the year 1637, Mr. John Davenport, a celebrated London minister,
accompanied by several eminent merchants, made overtures to the native
proprietors for the purchase of all the lands between the rivers
Hudson and Connecticut. This purchase they in part effected, and from
this originated the colony of New Haven. At first they recognised
the authority of Massachusetts, but it being evident that they were
not within the limits of the Massachusetts colony, they convened an
assembly at Hartford, and formed a constitution of government of the
most popular kind. The people of New Haven followed their example, and
framed a similar government; and these continued the constitutions of
the two colonies, till their union in 1661. On the completion of the
union among the several colonies of New England, several Indian sachems
came in and submitted themselves to the English government, among whom
were Miantonomoh, the Narraganset, and Uncas, the Mohegan, chief.

After the restoration, the Connecticut colony sent out Mr. Winthrop
of Massachusetts to England, with a petition for a charter with the
royal signature. This charter he obtained, and it was one of the most
liberal description. It established a government of a highly popular
kind, and continued the fundamental law of Connecticut for one hundred
and fifty-eight years. ‘It is remarkable,’ says a writer in the North
American Review, ‘that although it was granted at a period of the
world when the rights of the people were little understood and little
regarded, and by a sovereign who governed England with a more arbitrary
sway than any of his successors, the form of government established by
this charter was of a more popular description, and placed all power
within the more immediate reach of the people, than the constitution
for which it has been deliberately exchanged, in these modern days
of popular jealousy and republican freedom.’ In this new charter was
included the colony of New Haven; though it was not for some years that
the union was finally adopted.

Connecticut was destined to suffer, with the rest of the colonies,
from the violent acts committed in the last years of the reign of the
Stuarts. Massachusetts had been deprived of her charter, and Rhode
Island had been induced to surrender hers, when, in July, 1685, a
writ of _quo warranto_ was issued against the governor and company
of Connecticut. The colonial government was strongly advised by Vane
to comply with the requisition, and surrender the charter; but it was
determined neither to appear to defend the charter, nor voluntarily
to surrender it. Sir Edmund Andros made repeated applications for its
surrender, but without success.

The singular mode of its escape from his demand in person is thus
recorded by Trumbull: ‘The assembly met as usual, in October, 1687,
and the government continued, according to charter, until the last
of the month. About this time, Sir Edmund, with his suite, and more
than sixty regular troops, came to Hartford, where the assembly were
sitting, demanded the charter, and declared the government under it
to be dissolved. The assembly were extremely reluctant and slow with
respect to any resolve to surrender the charter, or with respect to
any motion to bring it forth. The tradition is, that governor Treat
strongly represented the great expense and hardships of the colonists
in planting the country; the blood and treasure which they had expended
in defending it, both against the savages and foreigners; to what
hardships and dangers he himself had been exposed for that purpose;
and that it was like giving up his life now to surrender the patent and
privileges so dearly bought, and so long enjoyed. The important affair
was debated and kept in suspense until the evening, when the charter
was brought and laid upon the table where the assembly were sitting.

‘By this time, great numbers of people were assembled, and men
sufficiently bold to enterprise whatever might be necessary or
expedient. The lights were instantly extinguished, and one captain
Wadsworth, of Hartford, in the most silent and secret manner, carried
off the charter, and secreted it in a large hollow tree, fronting the
house of the honorable Samuel Wyllys, then one of the magistrates of
the colony. The people appeared all peaceable and orderly. The candles
were officiously relighted, but the patent was gone, and no discovery
could be made of it, or of the person who had conveyed it away.’ Though
Sir Edmund was thus foiled in his attempt to obtain possession of the
charter, he did not hesitate to assume the reins of government, which
he administered in a manner as oppressive in this as in the other
colonies. When, on the arrival of the declaration of the prince of
Orange at Boston, Andros was deposed and imprisoned, the people of
Connecticut resumed their previous form of government, having been
interrupted little more than a year and a half.

In the Indian war, in which Philip acted so conspicuous a part,
Connecticut had her share of suffering, though it was not so great as
that of some of her sister colonies. Hostilities were commenced by the
aborigines, on the Connecticut river, in the summer of 1675; and, on
the first of September, the inhabitants of Hadley were alarmed by the
Indians during the time of public worship, and the people thrown into
the utmost confusion; but the enemy were repulsed by the valor and
good conduct of an aged, venerable man, who, suddenly appearing in the
midst of the affrighted inhabitants, put himself at their head, led
them to the onset, and, after the dispersion of the enemy, instantly
disappeared. This deliverer of Hadley, then imagined to be an angel,
was general Goffe, (one of the judges of Charles I.,) who was at that
time concealed in the town.

But a short time elapsed, before the colonists were again called on to
defend their privileges from what they deemed an unjust encroachment.
Colonel Fletcher, governor of New York, had been vested with plenary
powers to command the militia of Connecticut, and insisted on the
exercise of that command. The legislature of Connecticut, deeming
that authority to be expressly given to the colony by charter, would
not submit to his requisition; but, desirous of maintaining a good
understanding with governor Fletcher, endeavored to make terms with
him, until his majesty’s pleasure should be further known. All their
negotiations were, however, unsuccessful; and, on the 26th of October,
he came to Hartford, while the assembly was sitting, and, in his
majesty’s name, demanded submission; but the refusal was resolutely
persisted in. After the requisition had been repeatedly made, with
plausible explanations and serious menaces, Fletcher ordered his
commission and instructions to be read in audience of the trainbands
of Hartford, which had been assembled upon his order.

Captain Wadsworth, the senior officer, who was exercising his soldiers,
instantly called out, ‘Beat the drums!’ which, in a moment, overwhelmed
every voice. Fletcher commanded silence. No sooner was a second attempt
made to read, than Wadsworth vociferated, ‘Drum, drum! I say.’ The
drummers instantly beat up again, with the greatest possible spirit.
‘Silence, silence,’ exclaimed the governor. At the first moment of
a pause, Wadsworth called out earnestly, ‘Drum, drum, I say;’ and,
turning to his excellency, said, ‘If I am interrupted again, I will
make the sun shine through you in a moment.’ Colonel Fletcher declined
putting Wadsworth to the test, and, abandoning the contest, returned
with his suite to New York.


                             RHODE ISLAND.

The settlement of PROVIDENCE AND RHODE ISLAND was made by Roger
Williams, in 1636. This man was far in advance of his age. He set
the first example of perfect religious equality and toleration; and
extended his humane labors to enlighten, improve and conciliate the
savages. When the New England colonies, in 1643, formed the celebrated
confederacy, Rhode Island applied to be admitted to the union; but
Plymouth objected, on the ground that the settlements were within her
boundaries.

Upon the application of the inhabitants, in 1663, a charter was
granted by Charles II. to the Rhode Island and Providence plantations.
On the accession of James II., the assembly of Rhode Island immediately
transmitted an address, acknowledging themselves his loyal subjects,
and begging protection for their chartered rights. But reformation of
abuses in New England was then the order of the day, and articles of
high misdemeanor were exhibited against them before the lords of the
committee of colonies, accusing them of breaches of their charter, and
of opposition to the acts of navigation. This committee ordered that
Sir Edmund Andros, the governor of Massachusetts, should demand the
surrender of their charter, and govern them as other colonies of New
England. In December, 1686, Andros accordingly dissolved the government
of Rhode Island, broke its seal, and assumed the administration of
affairs. When the revolution put an end to his power, Rhode Island and
Providence resumed their charter, on the ground that an act which was
extorted by terror might justly be recalled when restraint no longer
remained.

The wise, peaceful and beneficent counsels of Williams, had preserved
the colonists from the dangers of Indian incursions. Their prosperity
was proportionate to their moderation. The population increased
with great rapidity, and in 1761 amounted to forty thousand. Brown
university was founded at Warren, in 1764. Six years afterwards it was
removed to Providence, where a large and elegant building was erected
for the students.


                               NEW YORK.

NEW YORK was first settled by the Dutch, who erected a fort near Albany,
which they called fort Orange, and a few trading-houses on the island
of New York, then called by the Indians Manhattan. The claims of the
Dutch to the property of the soil were disputed by the king of Great
Britain, who founded an adverse claim on the discovery of the Cabots in
the previous century. In the first year of their settlement, they were
visited by captain Argal, who claimed the country for his sovereign,
and warned them to acknowledge his authority. The colony was small,
and prudently acquiesced in the demand: but within a twelvemonth their
number was increased, and the demands of the English were promptly
resisted. For a series of years they continued in undisturbed quiet,
and by toil, perseverance and unwearied activity, surmounted the
dangers and troubles of an infant colony.

In 1621, the Dutch republic granted to their West India company an
extensive territory on both sides of the Hudson, and called it New
Netherlands. Under the management of this company, the settlement was
soon both consolidated and extended; and the foundations were laid of
the cities of New Amsterdam, afterwards New York, and of Albany. In
1623, they erected a fort on the Delaware, which they called Nassau;
and, ten years afterwards, another on the Connecticut, which they
called Good Hope. Near the former the Swedes had a settlement; and from
the interfering claims of the two nations, quarrels arose between the
settlers, which, in a few years, terminated in the subjugation of the
Swedes.

The policy of the Dutch, in extending their settlements so far
eastward as Connecticut, soon brought them into collision with more
powerful neighbors. Numberless causes of dispute arose between New
Netherlands and the colonies of Connecticut and New Haven; but neither
party allowed itself to forget the substantial claims of humanity, or
the forms of ordinary courtesy. In the Indian wars, the English never
delayed to render due assistance to their Dutch neighbors, who were so
unwarlike that they found it necessary to invite captain Underhill, who
had been banished from Boston for his eccentricities in religion, to
take command of their troops. Collecting a flying party of one hundred
and fifty men, he was enabled to preserve the Dutch settlements from
destruction. The number of Indians whom he killed in the course of the
war, was supposed to exceed four hundred. In 1646, a severe battle was
fought on that part of Horse-Neck called Strickland’s Plain. The Dutch
were victorious; on both sides great numbers were slain; and for a
century afterwards the graves of the dead were distinctly visible.

When Charles II. ascended the British throne, he did not hesitate
to assert his claim to the province of New Netherlands; and without
any attempt at negotiation with the states, he executed a charter,
conveying to the duke of York the whole territory from the eastern
shore of the Delaware to the western bank of the Connecticut. This
grant took no notice of the existing possession of the Dutch, or of the
recent Connecticut charter, which it entirely superseded. No sooner did
the duke of York obtain this grant, than he conveyed to lord Berkeley
and Sir George Carteret all that portion now constituting the province
of New Jersey. To carry such a grant into effect, it was necessary to
call in the aid of the military, and an armament was despatched from
England under the command of colonel Nichols; who was also appointed
governor of the province he was about to conquer. After touching at
Boston, the fleet sailed to the Hudson and took a position before
the capital of New Netherlands. The Dutch governor, Stuyvesant, had
determined on a resolute resistance, but his followers were of a
less gallant temperament, and compelled him to agree to a treaty of
capitulation.

Immediately after its subjugation, New Amsterdam, and the whole
conquered province, received the name of New York. Few of the
inhabitants thought proper to remove from the country; even governor
Stuyvesant lived and died there. Nichols at once assumed command of the
conquered territory, and proceeded to reduce the affairs of the state
to one uniform constitution and policy. Many of the Dutch forms of
government were retained, but English influence gradually brought about
a change; and on the twelfth of June, 1665, the inhabitants of New York
were incorporated under a mayor, five aldermen, and a sheriff. At the
peace of Breda, New York was regularly ceded to England in exchange for
Surinam, by a general stipulation that each of the belligerents should
retain what its arms had acquired since the commencement of hostilities.

The interior of New York was originally inhabited by a confederacy,
which consisted at first of five, and afterwards of six, nations of
Indians. This confederacy was formed for mutual defence against the
Algonquins, a powerful Canadian nation, and displayed much of the
wisdom and sagacity which mark the institutions of a civilized people.
By their union they had become formidable to the surrounding tribes.
Being the allies of the English, the French were alarmed at their
successes, and became jealous of their power. In the year 1684, De la
Barre, the governor of Canada, marched to attack them, with an army
of seventeen hundred men. His troops suffered so much from hardships,
famine, and sickness, that he was compelled to ask peace of those
whom he had come to exterminate. He invited the chiefs of the Five
Nations to meet him at his camp, and those of three of them accepted
the invitation. Standing in a circle, formed by the chiefs and his own
officers, he addressed a speech to Garrangula, of the Onondago tribe,
in which he accused the confederates of conducting the English to
the trading grounds of the French, and threatened them with war and
extermination if they did not alter their behavior. Garrangula, knowing
the distresses of the French troops, heard these threats with contempt.
After walking five or six times round the circle, he addressed De la
Barre in the following bold language, calling him Yonnondio, and the
English governor, Corlear:――

‘Hear, Yonnondio, I do not sleep; I have my eyes open, and the sun
which enlightens me, discovers to me a great captain at the head of
a company of soldiers, who speaks as if he was dreaming. He says that
he only came to smoke the great pipe of peace with the Onondagas. But
Garrangula says, that he sees the contrary; that it was to knock them
on the head, if sickness had not weakened the arms of the French. We
carried the English to our lakes, to trade there with the Utawawas,
and Quatoghies, as the Adirondacs brought the French to our castles,
to carry on a trade which the English say is theirs. We are born free;
we neither depend on Yonnondio nor Corlear. We may go where we please,
and buy and sell what we please. If your allies are your slaves, use
them as such; command them to receive no other but your people. Hear,
Yonnondio! what I say is the voice of all the Five Nations. When
they buried the hatchet at Cadaracui, in the middle of the fort, they
planted the tree of peace in the same place, to be there carefully
preserved, that instead of a retreat for soldiers, the fort might be a
rendezvous for merchants. Take care that the many soldiers who appear
there do not choke the tree of peace, and prevent it from covering
your country and ours with its branches. I assure you that our warriors
shall dance under its leaves, and will never dig up the hatchet to
cut it down, till their brother Yonnondio or Corlear shall invade the
country which the Great Spirit has given to our ancestors.’

De la Barre was mortified and enraged at this bold reply; but,
submitting to necessity, he concluded a treaty of peace, and returned
to Montreal. His successor, De Nonville, led a larger army against the
confederates; but fell into an ambuscade, and was defeated. These wars
within the limits of the colony served to perpetuate the enmity of the
Indians against the French, and their attachment to the English.

When James II. ascended the throne, it was determined to superadd New
York and the Jerseys to the jurisdiction of the four colonies of New
England; and a new commission was issued, appointing Sir Edmund Andros
captain-general and vice-admiral over the whole. His authority, however,
was a brief one. In the following year, intelligence was received of
the accession of William and Mary to the British throne; and while the
principal officers and magistrates were assembled to consult for the
general good, Jacob Leisler, a captain of militia, seized the fort
and held it for the prince of Orange. The province was for some time
subsequently ruled by a committee of safety, with Leisler at their
head. In a few months, a letter arrived from the ministry in England,
directed ‘to such as, for the time being, take care of administering
the laws of the province,’ and conferring authority to perform all
the duties of lieutenant governor. This letter Leisler understood
as addressed to himself, and assumed the authority conferred by it,
without ceremony.

The people of Albany acknowledged king William, but refused to
submit to Leisler. Force was resorted to, with the view of compelling
obedience; and the estates of the rebellious were confiscated. In this
disturbed state, the colonists of New York remained nearly two years;
when the miseries of foreign aggression were added to those of internal
discord.

War had been declared between France and England; and De Nonville
had been replaced in the governorship of Canada by count Frontignac,
a veteran officer, whose skilful and energetic measures, aided by a
large reinforcement, soon raised the affairs of the French from the
brink of ruin, and enabled them to act on the offensive. Frontignac
was indefatigable in his efforts to gain over the Five Nations, who
had made two attacks upon Montreal, and murdered a great number of
inhabitants. He held a great council with them at Onondaga; and, as
they seemed to be somewhat inclined to peace, he resolved to give
their favorable disposition no time for change, and, at the same time,
to inspirit his own drooping countrymen, by finding them immediate
employment against the English colonies. On the 19th of January, a
party of about two hundred French, and some Cahnuaga Indians, set
out, in a deep snow, for Schenectady; they arrived on the 8th of
February, at eleven o’clock at night; and the first intimation the
inhabitants had of their design, was conveyed in the noise of their own
bursting doors. The village was burnt, sixty persons were butchered,
twenty-seven suffered the worse fate of captivity, the rest made
their way naked through the snow towards Albany, where some arrived in
extreme distress, while many perished in the attempt. A party of young
men, and some Mohawk Indians, set out from the latter place, pursued
the enemy, and killed or captured twenty-five.

To avenge these barbarities, and others perpetrated in New England,
a combined expedition against Canada was projected. An army, raised
in New York and Connecticut, proceeded as far as the head of lake
Champlain, whence, finding no boats prepared, they were obliged to
return. Sir William Phipps, with a fleet of more than thirty vessels,
sailed from Boston into the St. Lawrence, and, landing a body of troops,
made an attack by land and water upon Quebec; but the return of the
army to New York allowing the whole force of the enemy to repair to the
assistance of the garrison, he was obliged to abandon the enterprise.
Leisler, transported with rage when he was informed of the retreat,
caused Winthrop, who commanded the New England forces, to be arrested,
but was instantly compelled, by universal indignation, to release him.
It was to the misconduct or incapacity of Leisler and Milborne, (the
latter of whom, as commissary-general, had made no adequate provision
for the enterprise,) that the failure of this expedition was attributed.

Leisler was afterwards superseded by colonel Sloughter, and, together
with Milborne, was executed for refusing to surrender his authority to
the officer legally appointed to receive it. Sloughter’s administration
was inefficient and turbulent. He was succeeded by colonel Fletcher,
a man of great energy of character, but violent in his disposition
and mean. His administration was signalized by no occurrence worthy
of particular record. The war between the French and the Five Indian
Nations raged with great fury, and both parties seemed inspired with
a mutual emulation of cruelty in victory, no less than of prowess in
battle. Prisoners were tortured, and put to death, without the least
regard to the rights of humanity, or the laws of war.

In 1697, the peace of Ryswick, which was concluded between Great
Britain and France, gave security and repose to the colonies. The next
year, the earl of Bellamont was appointed governor. He was particularly
desirous of clearing the American seas of the pirates with which they
had for some time been grievously infested. The government, however,
declining to furnish an adequate naval force, the earl engaged with
others in a private undertaking against them. Among the associates were
lord chancellor Summers and the duke of Shrewsbury; the king himself,
too, held a tenth share. The company, having procured a vessel of war,
gave the command to captain Kid, and despatched him on a cruise against
the pirates. He had been but a short time at sea, when he made a new
contract with his crew, and, on the Atlantic and Indian oceans, became
himself a daring and successful pirate. Three years afterwards he
returned, burned his ship, and, with a strange infatuation, appeared
in public at Boston.

The earl of Bellamont wrote to the secretary of state, desiring
that Kid might be sent for, and a man-of-war was despatched upon
this service; but being driven back by a storm, a general suspicion
prevailed in England, that there was collusion between the ministry
and the adventurers, who were thought unwilling to produce Kid, lest
he might discover that the chancellor and the other associates were
confederates in the piracy. So powerful was this feeling, that a motion
was made in the house of commons, that all who were concerned in the
adventure might be deprived of their employments; but it was rejected
by a great majority, and all subsequent attempts to implicate the
unfortunate shareholders, only proved more satisfactorily their entire
innocence of any participation either in the designs or the profits
of captain Kid; although their imprudence in selecting a person whose
previous character was very indifferent, was evident and undeniable.
Ultimately Kid was conveyed to England, where he was tried and executed.

Lord Bellamont found affairs in great confusion, and the colony
divided into two bitter factions, contending with increased animosity.
His administration was prudent, and promised to be highly beneficial;
but was early terminated by his death, in March, 1701. Lord Cornbury
was appointed his successor, a man eminent only for his meanness and
profligacy: dismissed by his friends to place him out of the reach of
his creditors. His rule was oppressive and extravagant; and the infamy
of his private character exposed him to universal odium. He was finally
removed, and was succeeded by lord Lovelace. His lordship died soon
after his arrival, and general Hunter was appointed to the vacant chair.
He brought with him nearly three thousand Germans, who were dispersed
through New York and Pennsylvania.

In the year 1709, extensive preparations were made for an attack on
the French settlements in Canada; the plan was afterwards abandoned,
but in 1711 resumed. It was unsuccessful, and nothing was accomplished
by it. To defray its expenses, the newly-elected assembly passed
several bills, which the council persisted in amending. A contest
ensued between these two bodies, in which the governor took side
with the council, and finally dissolved the assembly. At the ensuing
election, most of the members chosen were opposed to the governor.
This assembly was dissolved by the death of the queen. The next met
a similar fate from the governor soon after it met, a majority being
known to be unfriendly to his views. At length, however, the people
became weary of contending, and sent representatives who were not
disposed to differ from the governor.

General Hunter quitted the province in 1719, and his authority
devolved on Peter Schuyler, the oldest member of the council. William
Burnet succeeded him in the following year. He was a man of good sense,
and kind feelings, and he entertained just views of policy. His most
vigilant attention was directed to Indian affairs, and to the danger to
be apprehended from the vicinity of the French.

Turning his views towards the wilderness, he perceived that the
French, in order to connect their settlements in Canada and Louisiana,
to secure to themselves the Indian trade, and to confine the English
to the sea-coast, were busily employed in erecting a chain of forts
from the St. Lawrence to the Mississippi. He endeavored to defeat
their design, by building a trading-house, and afterwards a fort,
at Oswego, on lake Ontario. But the French had the command of more
abundant resources, and applied them to the accomplishment of their
object with great activity and zeal. They launched two vessels upon
that lake; and, going farther into the wilderness, erected a fort at
Niagara, commanding the entrance into it; they had previously erected
fort Frontignac, commanding the outlet. The Jesuit Charlevoix does no
more than justice to Mr. Burnet, in declaring that he left no stone
unturned to defeat the French at Niagara. Besides supplanting his
favorite trade at Oswego, these operations tended to the defection
of the Five Nations; and, in case of a rupture, exposed the frontiers
of the southern colonies to the ravages of the French and their
allies. Mr. Burnet, upon whom these considerations made the deepest
impression, laid the matter before the house, remonstrated against the
proceedings to Longuiel, in Canada, wrote to the ministry in England,
who complained of them to the French court, and met the confederates
at Albany, endeavoring to convince them of the danger they themselves
would be in from an aspiring, ambitious neighbor.

He spoke first about the affair privately to the sachems, and
afterwards, in the public conference, informed them of all the
encroachments which the French had made upon their fathers, and the
ill-usage they had met with, according to La Potherie’s account,
published with the privilege of the French king, at Paris, in 1722.
He then reminded them of the kind treatment they had received from the
English, who constantly fed and clothed them, and never attempted any
act of hostility to their prejudice. This speech was extremely well
drawn, the thoughts being conceived in strong figures, particularly
expressive and agreeable to the Indians. The governor required
an explicit declaration of their sentiments concerning the French
transactions at Niagara, and their answer was truly categorical. ‘We
speak now in the name of all the Six Nations, and come to you howling.
This is the reason why we howl, that the governor of Canada encroaches
on our land, and builds thereon.’ After which they entreated him
to write to the king for succor. Mr. Burnet embraced this favorable
opportunity to procure from them a deed, surrendering their country to
his majesty, to be protected for their use, and confirming their grant
in 1701, concerning which there was only an entry in the books of the
secretary for Indian affairs.

It was an unfortunate circumstance, which tended to prevent the
execution of Mr. Burnet’s vigorous designs, that the electors of the
colony had become dissatisfied at the length of time which had elapsed
since they had been called on to exercise their functions. The assembly
elected in 1716 had been on such good terms with the governor, that he
continued its existence during the long period of eleven years. In the
year 1727, however, the clamors of the people induced him to dissolve
it; and, as might be expected, that which next met, was composed
almost exclusively of his opponents. The court of chancery, in which
he presided, had become exceedingly unpopular. It had been instituted
by an ordinance of the governor and council, without the concurrence
of the assembly, and some of the decisions had given great offence to
powerful individuals. The house passed resolutions, declaring it ‘a
manifest oppression and grievance,’ and intimating that its decrees
were void. Mr. Burnet no sooner heard of these votes, than he called
the members before him, and dissolved the assembly. They occasioned,
however, an ordinance in the spring following, as well to remedy sundry
abuses in the practice in chancery, as to reduce the fees of that court,
‘which, on account of the popular clamors, were so much diminished,’
says Smith, ‘that the wheels of the chancery have ever since rusted
upon their axles, the practice being contemned by all gentlemen of
eminence in the profession.’

Mr. Burnet was soon after appointed governor of Massachusetts, and was
succeeded at New York by colonel Montgomery, who devoted himself so
much to his ease that he has left nothing else to distinguish his brief
rule. Upon his death, in 1731, the supreme authority devolved upon
Rip Van Dam, the senior member of the council. Under his inefficient
administration, the French were permitted to erect a fort at Crown
Point, within the acknowledged boundaries of New York, from which
parties of savages were often secretly despatched to destroy the
English settlements.

In August, 1732, Van Dam was superseded by William Crosby. Having been
the advocate in parliament of the American colonies, he was at first
popular, but he soon lost the affection and confidence of the people.
One of his most unpopular acts was the prosecution of Zenger, the
printer of a newspaper, for publishing an article derogatory to the
dignity of his majesty’s government, bringing him to trial, after
a severe imprisonment of thirty-five weeks from the printing of the
offensive articles. Andrew Hamilton, an eminent lawyer of Philadelphia,
though aged and infirm, learning the distress of the prisoner and
the importance of the trial, went to New York to plead Zenger’s cause,
which he did so effectually that the jury brought in the prisoner not
guilty. The common council of the city of New York, for this noble
and successful service, presented Mr. Hamilton the freedom of their
corporation in a gold box.

Governor Crosby was succeeded, in 1736, by George Clark. During his
administration, the contest which had ended, twenty years before, in
the victory gained by governor Hunter over the house of representatives,
was revived. The colony being in debt, the house voted to raise the sum
of six thousand pounds; but, in order to prevent its misapplication,
declared that it should be applied to the payment of certain specified
debts. Offended by this vote, Clark immediately dissolved the assembly.
At the election which ensued, the popular party was triumphant. In
their second session the house voted an address to the lieutenant
governor, in which, after stating some of the vital principles of free
government, and referring to recent misapplications of money, they say,
‘We therefore beg leave to be plain with your honor, and hope you will
not take it amiss when we tell you, that you are not to expect that we
will either raise sums unfit to be raised, or put what we shall raise
into the power of a governor to misapply, if we can prevent it; nor
shall we make up any other deficiencies than what we conceive are fit
and just to be paid; nor continue what support or revenue we shall
raise for any longer time than one year; nor do we think it convenient
to do even that, until such laws are passed as we conceive necessary
for the safety of the inhabitants of this colony, who have reposed a
trust in us for that only purpose, and which we are sure you will think
it reasonable we should act agreeable to; and, by the grace of God, we
shall endeavor not to deceive them.’

With men so resolute in maintaining their rights, Clark wisely
declined to contend; and promised his cordial co-operation in all
measures calculated to promote the prosperity of the colony. Harmony
did not, however, long continue. Clark, in his speech at the opening
of the next session, declared that unless the revenue was granted for
as long a time as it had been granted by former assemblies, his duty
to his majesty forbade him from assenting to any act for continuing
the excise, or for paying the colonial bills of credit. The house
unanimously resolved, that it would not pass any bill for the grant
of money, unless assurance should be given that the excise should be
continued and the bills of credit redeemed. The lieutenant governor
immediately ordered the members to attend him. He told them that ‘their
proceedings were presumptuous, daring, and unprecedented; that he could
not look upon them without astonishment, nor with honor suffer the
house to sit any longer;’ and he accordingly dissolved it. In April,
1740, the assembly again met. It had now risen to importance in the
colony; and the adherence of the representatives to their determination,
not to grant the revenue for more than one year, made annual meetings
of the assembly necessary. Their attachment to liberty was construed
by the lieutenant governor into a desire for independence: in a speech
delivered, in 1741, he alludes to ‘a jealousy which for some years had
obtained in England, that the plantations were not without thoughts of
throwing off their dependence on the crown.’

George Clinton superseded Clark in the government of the colony in 1743.
Like most of his predecessors he was welcomed with joy; and one of his
earliest measures confirmed the favorable accounts which had preceded
him, of his talents and liberality. To manifest his confidence in the
people, he assented to a bill limiting the duration of the present and
all succeeding assemblies. The house evinced its gratitude by adopting
the measures he recommended for the defence of the province against
the French, who were then at war with England. In 1745, the savages in
alliance with France made frequent invasions of the English territories;
and their hostilities were continued, with little intermission, till
the war which terminated the French dominion in Canada.

In the middle of the seventeenth century, the whole colony of New
York contained scarcely one hundred thousand inhabitants,[100] not half
the number which the city of New York alone can now boast. That the
population would have been much more numerous at this time, had not the
inhabitants been so continually exposed to the irruptions of the French
and their Indian allies, is evident from its rapid increase when those
unfavorable circumstances ceased to exist. The consideration of this
period belongs, however, to another department of the work.


                              NEW JERSEY.

It was not till the year 1640 that any attempt was made by the
English to colonize that portion of the continent now known as New
Jersey, and then they were resisted and expelled by the Swedes. This
nation remained in possession of the country on both sides of the
Delaware until 1655, when the governor of New Netherlands conquered all
their posts, and transported most of the Swedes to Europe. The Dutch
consequently possessed themselves of the whole territory of New Jersey,
New York, and Delaware; but their settlements in New Jersey shared the
fate of those on the Hudson, when in the year 1664 they were captured
by the English under colonel Nichols. In the same year the duke of York
conveyed that portion of his grant lying between Hudson and Delaware
rivers to lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. This tract was called
NEW JERSEY, in compliment to Sir George, who had been governor of the
island of Jersey, and had held it for the king in his contest with the
parliament.

The early history of this province is a history of disputes between
the inhabitants and the proprietaries. It would not be interesting
to go into their details, as they are mere claims and adjudications
of title. Suffice it to say, that in the course of the disputes it
became partitioned into East and West Jersey, and fell into the hands
of different proprietors. The former was released, in July, 1676, by
William Penn and his three associates, assignees of lord Berkeley,
to Philip Carteret; and he in return conveyed to them the latter,
the government of which the duke retained as a dependency of New York,
while that of the first was resigned to Carteret.

Philip Carteret, a natural son of Sir George, returned to East
Jersey in the beginning of 1675, and was now kindly received by the
inhabitants, because they had felt the rigors of conquest, which had
not been softened by Andros, who had been appointed by the duke of
York lieutenant over all his territories, from the western bank of the
Connecticut to the farther shore of the Delaware. Having postponed the
payment of quit-rents to a future day, and published new concessions
with regard to the tenure of lands, tranquillity was perfectly restored.
Desirous to promote the commercial interests of the colony, because he
perceived its neighbor growing great and rich by trade, Carteret began,
in 1676, to clear out vessels from East Jersey; but he was steadily
opposed by Andros, who claimed jurisdiction over the Jersies, insisting
that conquest by the Dutch divested the proprietors of all their rights.
He forcibly seized, transported to New York, and there imprisoned,
those magistrates why refused to acknowledge his authority. He imposed
a duty upon all goods imported, and upon the property of all who came
to settle in the country.

The inhabitants made repeated and energetic complaints of this
injustice to the duke of York; and at length, wearied with their
continual importunity, this prince consented to refer the matter to
commissioners, who ultimately agreed to adhere to the opinion of Sir
William Jones.

The commissioners pronounced their judgment, in conformity with the
opinion of Sir W. Jones, ‘that as the grant to Berkeley and Carteret
had reserved no profit or jurisdiction, the legality of the taxes
could not be defended.’ In consequence of this adjudication, the duke
resigned all his claims on West Jersey, and confirmed the province
itself in the amplest terms to its new proprietaries; and soon after
granted a similar release in favor of the representatives of Sir George
Carteret in East Jersey. The whole of New Jersey thus rose to the rank
of an almost independent state, maintaining only a federal connection
with the British crown.

The accession of numerous companies of settlers now rapidly promoted
the population and prosperity of West Jersey. In the year 1681, the
first representative assembly was held; and during its session were
enacted the ‘Fundamental Constitutions,’ and other laws for the
preservation of property, and the punishment of criminals.

Frequent disputes arising between the proprietary government of
East Jersey and the colonists, the trustees of Sir George Carteret,
apprehending they should derive little emolument from retaining the
government under their control, offered their rights in the province
for sale, and accepted the proposals of William Penn, to whom, and his
associates, East Jersey was conveyed. Among the new proprietors was the
author of the well-known ‘Apology;’ and his colleagues, by a unanimous
vote, conferred on him the office of governor for life, with the
extraordinary permission to appoint a deputy, instead of his residing
at the scene of his authority.

The number of proprietors, and the frequent transfers and subdivisions
of shares, introduced such confusion into titles to land, and such
uncertainty as to the rights of government, that, for twenty years
afterwards, both Jerseys were frequently in a state of disturbance and
disorder. In 1702, the proprietors, weary of contending with each other,
and with the people, surrendered the right of government to the crown.
Queen Anne reunited the two divisions, and appointed lord Cornbury
governor over the provinces of New Jersey and New York. From the period
of his appointment till his deprivation of office, the history of
New Jersey consists of little else than a detail of his contests with
the colonial assemblies; and exhibits the resolution with which they
opposed his arbitrary conduct, his partial distribution of justice,
and his fraudulent misapplication of the public money. After repeated
complaints, the queen yielded to the universal indignation; and he was
superseded, in 1709, by lord Lovelace.

These provinces continued, for several years, to be ruled by the same
governor, but each chose a separate assembly. In 1738, the inhabitants,
by a petition to the king, desired that they might, in future, have a
separate governor; and their request was granted.

The distance of New Jersey from Canada, the source of most of the
Indian wars which afflicted the northern colonies, gave it a complete
exemption from those direful calamities, while the Indian tribes in
the neighborhood, which were far from numerous, were almost always
willing to cultivate a friendly relation with the Europeans. The
gravity, simplicity, and courtesy of Quaker manners seem to have been
particularly acceptable to these savages; and, added to the careful
observation of the principles of equity in the proceedings of the
colonists, established an amicable intercourse, to the manifest
advantage both of themselves and of the natives.


                      PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE.

During a considerable period, the colony of Delaware was attached to
that of Pennsylvania, without even a separate assembly; and after it
acquired that privilege, it remained for some time longer under the
same governor: its history requires, therefore, to be blended with that
of Pennsylvania, although it was settled at a much earlier period. It
does not appear that the date of the first European plantation on South
river, or the Delaware, can now be ascertained with any precision;
some authorities, however, assert that a Swedish colony settled at cape
Henlopen as early as the year 1627; although Chalmers is of opinion
that, ‘though various Europeans may have trafficked in Delaware, their
plantations had not yet embellished her margin, probably in the year
1632.’

The colony which forms the chief subject of this division was founded
in the year 1681, by the celebrated William Penn. His attention was
attracted to colonization by his connection with New Jersey. While
he was engaged in the government of that territory, he received
information of the country situate to the westward of the Delaware,
which induced in his mind the desire of acquiring an estate in that
quarter. He therefore presented a petition to Charles II., urging his
claim for a debt incurred by the crown to his father, and soliciting
a grant of land to the northward of Maryland, and westward of the
Delaware. After a conference with the duke of York and lord Baltimore,
to ascertain that the grant would not interfere with any prior claims
of theirs, a charter, making conveyance of that territory, was signed
and sealed by the king. It constituted William Penn and his heirs true
and absolute proprietaries of the province of Pennsylvania, saving to
the crown their allegiance and the sovereignty. It gave him, his heirs,
and their deputies, power to make laws, by advice of the freemen, and
to erect courts of justice for the execution of those laws, provided
they be not repugnant to the laws of England.[101]

The charter being thus obtained, Penn invited purchasers by public
advertisement. Many single persons, and some families, chiefly of
the denomination of Quakers, were induced to think of a removal; and
a number of merchants and others, forming themselves into a company,
purchased twenty thousand acres of this land, which was sold at the
rate of twenty pounds for every thousand acres. In May he despatched
Markham, a relative, with a few associates, to take possession of
the newly granted territory; and in the autumn three ships, with a
considerable number of emigrants, sailed for the same destination. The
philanthropic proprietor sent a letter to the Indians, informing them
that ‘the great God had been pleased to make him concerned in their
part of the world, and that the king of the country where he lived, had
given him a great province therein; but that he did not desire to enjoy
it without their consent; that he was a man of peace, and that the
people whom he sent were of the same disposition; and if any difference
should happen between them, it might be adjusted by an equal number
of men chosen on both sides.’ The position selected by these emigrants
for their abode, was immediately above the confluence of the Schuylkill
and Delaware. In the following April, Penn published ‘the frame of
government for Pennsylvania.’ The chief intention of this famous
charter was declared to be, ‘for the support of power in reverence
with the people, and to secure the people from the abuse of power. For,
liberty without obedience is confusion, and obedience without liberty
is slavery.’

The first page in the annals of Pennsylvania is one of the brightest
in the history of mankind, recording an event not more to the credit
of the wise and benevolent legislator through whose agency it happened,
than honorable to humanity itself. At a spot which is now the site of
one of the suburbs of Philadelphia, the Indian sachems, at the head of
their assembled warriors, awaited in arms the approach of the Quaker
deputation. Penn, distinguished from his followers only by a sash of
blue silk, and holding in his hand a roll of parchment that contained
the confirmation of the treaty, arrived, at the head of an unarmed
train, carrying various articles of merchandise, which, on their
approach to the sachems, were spread on the ground. He addressed the
natives through an interpreter, assuring them of his friendly and
peaceable intentions; and certainly the absence of all warlike weapons
was a better attestation of his sincerity than a thousand oaths. The
conditions of the proposed purchase were then read; and he delivered
to the sachems not only the stipulated price, but a handsome present
of the merchandise which he had spread before them. He concluded by
presenting the parchment to the sachems, and requesting that they would
carefully preserve it for three generations. The Indians cordially
acceded to his propositions, and solemnly pledged themselves to live
in love with William Penn and his children as long as the sun and moon
should endure.

  Illustration: Penn’s Treaty.

Having received information from his agent that his presence was
necessary in England, Penn departed from America, in August, 1684,
leaving his province in profound peace, under the administration of
five commissioners chosen from the provincial council. The unfortunate
James II. ascended the throne soon after Penn’s arrival. ‘As he has,’
said Penn, ‘been my friend, and my father’s friend, I feel bound
in justice to be a friend to him.’ He adhered to him while seated
on the throne; and for two years after he was expelled from his
kingdom, the government of the province was administered in his name.
By this display of attachment to the exiled monarch, he incurred
the displeasure of William III. On vague suspicion and unfounded
charges, he was four times imprisoned. The king took the government
of Pennsylvania into his own hands; and colonel Fletcher was appointed
governor of this province, as well as of New York. On the arrival of
colonel Fletcher at Philadelphia, the persons in the administration
appear to have surrendered the government to him, without any notice
or order to them, either from the crown or the proprietary. By the
severest scrutiny, however, it was rendered apparent, that Penn had not
suffered personal gratitude to lead him to any serious dereliction of
duty, and he consequently regained the good opinion of king William;
and being permitted to resume and exercise his rights, he appointed
William Markham to be his deputy governor.

During several years the colony continued in a course of prosperity,
without any occurrence requiring historical record. In the year 1699,
Penn revisited his Pennsylvanian associates, accompanied by his family,
with an intention of spending the remainder of his life amongst them.
But several points soon came up, on which a difference of opinion
existed between himself and the legislature, and disappointed him
in his hopes of obtaining influence as a lawgiver. He consequently
determined to return to England, and he naturally desired to have some
frame of government finally adopted before his departure. In 1701,
he prepared and presented one to the assembly, which was accepted.
It confirmed to them, in conformity with that of 1696, the right of
originating bills, which, by the charters preceding that date, had been
the right of the governor alone, and of amending or rejecting those
which might be laid before them. To the governor it gave the right of
rejecting bills passed by the assembly, of appointing his own council,
and of exercising the whole executive power.

Immediately after his fourth frame was accepted, Penn returned to
England; but he had scarcely arrived there, when the disputes between
the province and the territories broke forth with greater bitterness
than ever; and in the following year, the separate legislature of
Delaware was permanently established at Newcastle. In addition to the
tidings of these prolonged disagreements, and of the final rupture
between the two settlements, Penn was harassed by complaints against
the administration of governor Evans; and having ascertained, by a
deliberate examination of them, that they were too well founded, he
appointed in his place Charles Gookin, a gentleman of ancient Irish
family, who seemed qualified to give satisfaction to the people over
whom he was sent to preside. Finding his people still in a discontented
state, Penn, now in his sixty-sixth year, for the last time addressed
the assembly, in a letter replete with calm solemnity and dignified
concern. This letter is said to have produced a deep and powerful
impression on the more considerate part of the assembly, who now began
to feel for the father of his country, and to regard with tenderness
his venerable age; to remember his long labors, and to appreciate their
own interest in his distinguished fame: but it is very doubtful if
this change of sentiment was ever known to its illustrious object, who
was attacked shortly afterwards by a succession of apoplectic fits,
which impeded, in a great degree, the exercise of his memory and
understanding, and ultimately terminated his life.

The legislatures and governors continuing to act on the noble
principles and example which their founder left for their imitation,
the colony acquired, by well-conducted purchases from the Indians,
a most extensive and unembarrassed territory, and proceeded rapidly
in its prosperous course. The only circumstance which appears to have
created any internal disunion worthy of notice, was a dispute between
the governors and the assembly, on the question of exempting the land
of the proprietaries from the general taxation; a claim which the
inhabitants deemed very inequitable. In January, 1757, the assembly of
Pennsylvania voted a bill for granting to his majesty the sum of one
hundred thousand pounds by tax on all the estates, real and personal,
and taxables, within the province. On submitting it to governor Denny
for his sanction, he refused it. ‘The proprietaries,’ he observed
in his message, ‘are willing their estates should be taxed in the
manner that appears to them to be reasonable, and agreeable to the
land-tax acts of parliament in our mother country.’ The governors of
Pennsylvania still refusing their assent to any tax bill that did not
exempt the estates of the proprietaries, the assembly of that province
deputed the celebrated Benjamin Franklin as an agent to London, to
petition the king for redress. The subject was discussed before the
privy council; and Mr. Franklin acceding to a proposal to enter into
engagements that the assessments should be fair and equitable, a bill
for levying a general tax, which had previously received the governor’s
assent, though after the agent’s departure from the province, was
stamped with the royal approbation. These disputes, by calling the
energetic mind of Benjamin Franklin into a new field of exertion,
enlarged the sphere of his observation, and fitted him for those
extraordinary services in which he acquired his greatest glory by
contributing to that of his country.


                               MARYLAND.

The founder of the state of Maryland was lord Baltimore. Before the
date of his charter, it was a portion of the territory of Virginia; but
by that instrument it was separated, and declared subject only to the
crown of England. Lord Baltimore was created the absolute proprietary
of it, and was empowered, with the assent of delegates, whom he was
to assemble for that purpose, to make laws for the province, and to
administer them. Having thus obtained a most favorable charter, he
proceeded to carry its provisions into execution.

He appointed his brother, Leonard Calvert, governor of the new
province, and concurred with him in the equipment of vessels, which
conveyed a numerous body of emigrants, chiefly Roman Catholics, and
many of them gentlemen of rank and fortune. After a circuitous voyage
the governor arrived, accompanied by his brother George, at Point
Comfort, in Virginia, in February, 1634. Early in March, he proceeded
up the bay of Chesapeake to the northward, and entered the Potomack,
up which he sailed twelve leagues, and came to an anchor under an
island, which he named St. Clement. Here he erected a cross, and
took possession ‘in the name of the Savior of the world, and of the
king of England.’ Thence he went fifteen leagues higher to the Indian
town of Potowmack, on the Virginia side of the river, now called New
Marlborough, where he was received in a friendly manner. Arriving at
the town of Piscatawa, on the Maryland side, he found Henry Fleet,
an Englishman, who had resided several years among the natives, and
was held by them in great esteem, who was very serviceable as an
interpreter.

An interview having been procured with the werowance, or prince,
Calvert asked him, whether he was willing that a settlement should be
made in his country; he replied, ‘I will not bid you go, neither will
I bid you stay; but you may use your own discretion.’ Having convinced
the natives that his designs were honorable and pacific, the governor
now sought a suitable station for commencing his colony. He visited
a creek on the northern side of the Potomack, on which he found an
Indian village. Here he acquainted the prince of the place with his
intentions, and by presents to him and his principal men, conciliated
his friendship so much as to obtain permission to reside in one part of
the town until next harvest, when it was agreed that the natives should
entirely quit the place. Both parties entered into a contract to live
together in a friendly manner. After Calvert had given a satisfactory
consideration, the Indians readily yielded a number of their houses,
and retired to the others. Thus, on the 27th of March, 1634, the
governor took peaceable possession of the country of Maryland, and
gave to the town the name of St. Mary, and to the creek on which it
was situate, the name of St. George. The desire of rendering justice to
the natives by giving them a reasonable compensation for their lands,
is a trait in the character of the first planters, which will always
do honor to their memory.

Circumstances favored the rapid population of the colony. The charter
granted more ample privileges than had ever been conceded to a subject;
the country was inviting; the natives were friendly; from the south
Churchmen drove Puritans, from the north Puritans drove Churchmen, into
her borders, where all were freely received, protected, and cherished.
The colony was soon able to export Indian corn and other products
to New England and Newfoundland, for which they received in return
dried fish and other provisions. The Indians also killed many deer
and turkeys, which they sold to the English for knives, beads, and
other small articles of traffic, while cattle, swine, and poultry,
were procured from Virginia.

It is a fact, which reflects the greatest credit on these early
colonists, that fifteen years after they first landed, the general
assembly of the people passed an act, entitled ‘An Act concerning
Religion,’ in which the great principles of religious toleration and
liberty are extensively recognised. This law was passed by an assembly
composed entirely of Roman Catholics, and is the more remarkable, as
being the first legislative act which is recorded to have been passed
by any government, administered by members of the Romish hierarchy, in
favor of the unlimited toleration of all Christian sects.

In 1676, Cecil, lord Baltimore, the father of the province, died.
For more than forty years he had directed its affairs as proprietor,
and displayed in all his conduct a benevolent heart and enlightened
understanding. Although he lived in an age of bigotry, he was liberal
in his opinions; and for all his exertions to contribute to the
happiness of his fellow-beings, he desired no reward but their
gratitude. This reward he received. The records of the Maryland
assembly contain frequent memorials of the respect and affection of
the people. He was succeeded, as proprietor, by his eldest son, Charles,
who had for several years been governor of the colony, and displayed
the same amiable qualities which had rendered his father respected and
beloved.

The closing years of the proprietary government were embittered by a
circumstance similar to that which the institution of the colony of
Maryland had inflicted on Virginia. The grant which had been made by
Charles II. to the celebrated Penn included the territory of Delaware,
which lord Baltimore had always considered within the limits of his
patent. On the arrival of William Penn in America, a meeting took place
between him and lord Baltimore, in the hope of effecting an amicable
adjustment of the boundaries of their respective territorial grants.
But the pretensions of the parties were so completely incompatible,
that it proved impossible at the time to adjust them in a manner
satisfactory to both. Penn ultimately complained to the English
government, and by his interest at court, procured it to be adjudged
that the debatable territory should be divided into two equal parts,
one of which was appropriated to himself, and the other to lord
Baltimore. This adjudication was carried into effect; and the territory
which now composes the state of Delaware was thus dismembered from the
provincial limits of Maryland.

In the year following the revolution of 1688, the repose of Maryland
was again disturbed. A rumor was artfully circulated that the Catholics
had leagued with the Indians to destroy all the Protestants in the
province. An armed association was immediately formed, for the defence
of the Protestant religion, and for asserting the rights of king
William and queen Mary. The magistrates attempted to oppose this
association by force; but, meeting with few supporters, they were
compelled to abdicate the government. King William directed those
who had assumed the supreme authority to exercise it in his name; and
for twenty-seven years the crown retained the entire control of the
province. In 1716, the proprietor was restored to his rights; and he
and his descendants continued to enjoy them until the commencement
of the revolution. The people then assumed the government, adopted a
constitution, and refused to admit the claims of the representatives
of lord Baltimore either to jurisdiction or to property.


                       NORTH AND SOUTH CAROLINA.

The final settlement of this country originated with the earl of
Clarendon and other courtiers of Charles II., who were presented
with a grant of all the lands lying between the thirty-first and
thirty-sixth degrees of north latitude, and received in their charter
ample powers of administration and judicature. Some previous efforts
had been unsuccessfully made to colonize this portion of the North
American continent, and grants had been given to different individuals,
which were now all pronounced void by the privy council. A few settlers
were scattered in different parts, and those on Albemarle sound were
on certain conditions allowed to retain their lands. A government was
organized over them, at the head of which Mr. Drummond was placed.

Having taken the command of the infant settlement at Albemarle, the
proprietaries directed a survey of the coast to the southward, and
projected the establishment of a new colony in Clarendon country,
which had been recently abandoned by the emigrants from New England.
In furtherance of this object, they conferred on John Yeamans, a
respectable planter of Barbadoes, the appointment of commander-in-chief
of Clarendon country. In the autumn, he conducted from Barbadoes a
body of emigrants, who landed on the southern bank of cape Fear. He
cultivated the good will of the natives, and insured a seven years’
peace. The planters, in opening the forest to make room for the
operations of tillage, ‘necessarily prepared timber for the uses of the
cooper and builder, which they transmitted to the island whence they
had emigrated, as the first subject of a feeble commerce, that kindled
the spark of industry which soon gave animation to the whole.’ Another
settlement was also projected to the southward of cape Remain, which
received the name of Carteret, and was placed under a separate governor.

In pursuance of the authority with which the proprietors were
invested by their charter, they began to frame a system of laws for
the government of their colony; in which they availed themselves of
the assistance of the illustrious John Locke. The form of government
proposed by this eminent man proved utterly impracticable and useless.
It received no favor from the people, and never attained the force of
fundamental laws.

Notwithstanding these constitutions and legal preparations, several
years elapsed before the proprietors of Carolina made any serious
efforts towards its settlement. In 1667, they fitted out a ship, gave
the command of it to captain William Sayle, and sent him out to bring
them some account of the coast. His report to his employers, as might
naturally be expected, was favorable. He praised their possessions,
and encouraged them to engage with vigor in the execution of their
project. His observations respecting the Bahama islands, which he had
visited, induced them to apply to the king for a grant of them, and
Charles bestowed on them by patent all those islands lying between the
twenty-second and twenty-seventh degrees of north latitude. Nothing
then remained but to make preparations for sending a colony to Carolina.
Two ships were procured, on board of which a number of adventurers
embarked, with provisions, arms, and utensils requisite for building
and cultivation.

Sayle was appointed the first governor, and received a commission,
bearing date July 26, 1669. The expenses of this first embarkation
amounted to twelve thousand pounds; a proof that the proprietors
entertained no small hopes with respect to their palatinate. The
number of men, however, must have been by no means adequate to the
undertaking, especially considering the multitude of savages that
ranged through that extensive wilderness. In what place governor Sayle
first landed is uncertain; but he was dissatisfied with his first
situation, and, moving to the southward, took possession of a neck of
land between Ashley and Cooper rivers, where he laid out a town, which,
in honor of the king then reigning, he called Charleston; but dying
soon after, Sir John Yeamans, who had for several years been governor
at Clarendon, was appointed to succeed him. This new settlement
attracted many inhabitants from that at Clarendon, and ultimately
entirely exhausted it. Being at a great distance from Albemarle, the
proprietors established a separate government over it, and hence arose
the distinctive appellations of North and South Carolina.

The affairs of the northern colony must now occupy a portion of our
attention. The fundamental constitutions, which have already been
described, were received by the colonists with disgust and disunion.
Their promulgation produced no other effect than to excite the most
inveterate jealousy of the designs of the proprietaries; till, in
process of time, a refractory spirit took possession of the minds of
the people, and was at length exasperated into sentiments as hostile
to subordination, as the policy of the proprietaries was repugnant to
liberty. From this period the history of the northern province, for
a series of years, is involved in such confusion and contradiction,
that it is impossible to render it interesting, and difficult to make
it even intelligible. It is a record of insurrection and revolt, not
easily understood, and not sufficiently interesting to demand more than
this slight allusion.

To return to the affairs of the southern colony, now under the
administration of Joseph West. The situation of Old Charleston being
found inconvenient, the inhabitants, in 1680, removed to Oyster Point,
where a new city was laid out, to which the name of the other was given.
In the same year commenced a war with the Westoes, a powerful tribe of
Indians, which threatened great injury to the colony; peace, however,
was soon restored. Governor West was superseded by Sir Richard Kirle,
an Irish gentleman, who died six months after his arrival in the
country. After his decease, colonel Robert Quarry was chosen his
successor. During the time of his government, a number of pirates put
into Charleston, and purchased provisions with their Spanish gold and
silver. Those public robbers, instead of being taken and tried by the
laws of England, were treated with great civility and friendship, in
violation of the laws of nations.

Whether the governor was ignorant of the treaty made with Spain, by
which England had withdrawn her former toleration from these plunderers
of the Spanish dominions, or whether he was afraid to bring them to
trial from the notorious courage of their companions in the West Indies,
we have not sufficient authority to affirm; but one thing is certain,
that Charles II., for several years after the restoration, winked at
their depredations, and many of them performed such valiant actions, as,
in a good cause, would have justly merited honors and rewards; he even
knighted Henry Morgan, a Welshman, who had plundered Porto Bello and
Panama, and carried off large treasures from them. For several years
so formidable was this body of plunderers in the West Indies, that they
struck a terror into every quarter of the Spanish dominions. Their gold
and silver, which they lavishly spent in the colony, insured to them
a kind reception among the Carolinians, who opened their ports to them
freely, and furnished them with necessaries. They could purchase the
favor of the governor, and the friendship of the people, for what they
deemed a trifling consideration. Leaving their gold and silver behind
them for clothes, arms, ammunition, and provisions, they embarked in
quest of more. However, the proprietors, having intelligence of the
encouragement given to pirates by governor Quarry, dismissed him from
the office he held; and, in 1685, landgrave Joseph Morton was appointed
to the government of the colony.

It is not now of importance to recur to the difficulties between the
proprietary government and the people: they led to extreme irritation,
and in the year 1690, at a meeting of the representatives, a bill was
brought in and passed, for disabling James Colleton, then governor of
the province, from holding any office, or exercising any authority,
civil or military, in the colony, and he was informed that in a limited
time he must depart from the colony.

During these public commotions, Seth Sothel, one of the proprietors,
who had been driven from North Carolina, appeared suddenly at
Charleston, and, aided by a powerful faction, assumed the reins of
government. At first the people gladly acknowledged his authority,
while the current of their enmity ran against Colleton; especially
as he stood forth as an active and leading man in opposition to that
governor, and ratified the law for his exclusion and banishment; but
they afterwards found him void of every principle of honor, and even
of honesty. Such was the insatiable avarice of this man, that every
restraint of common justice and equity was trampled upon by him;
and oppression, such as usually attends the exaltation of vulgar and
ambitious scramblers for power, extended her rod of iron over the
distracted colony. The fair traders from Barbadoes and Bermuda were
seized as pirates by order of this popular governor, and confined
until such fees as he was pleased to exact were paid him; bribes from
felons and traitors were accepted to favor their escape from the hands
of justice; and plantations were forcibly taken possession of, upon
pretences the most frivolous and unjust. At length, the people, weary
of his grievous impositions and extortions, agreed to take him by force,
and ship him off for England. He then evinced the meanness of spirit
generally associated with a disposition to tyranny, and humbly begged
liberty to remain in the country, promising to submit his conduct to
the trial of the assembly at their first meeting. When the assembly met,
thirteen different charges were brought against him, and all supported
by the strongest evidence; upon which, being found guilty, they
compelled him to abjure the government and country forever.

The next important incident that attracts our attention is the
unsuccessful expedition against St. Augustine, planned by governor
Moore, in the year 1702, at the time of a rupture in Europe between
England and Spain. It failed utterly, and entailed a debt on the colony
of six thousand pounds sterling; which led to many severe reflections
against the governor, and brought him sadly into disrepute. To redeem
his character, the governor resolved upon an expedition against the
Apalachian Indians; in consequence of the insults and injuries which
they had been instigated by the Spaniards to commit. To make his
conquest permanent, he transplanted fourteen hundred of these Indians
to the territory now included in Georgia; a measure which seems to have
led to the settlement of the English in that part of the country.

The northern colony continued to receive accessions to its strength
from several of the European states. In 1707, a company of French
Protestants arrived and seated themselves on the river Trent, a branch
of the Neuse; and three years afterwards a large number of palatines,
fleeing from religious persecution in Germany, sought refuge in the
same part of the province. To each of these bodies of emigrants the
proprietors granted a hundred acres of land. On their newly acquired
possessions they were living in peace, in the enjoyment of liberty of
conscience, and in the prospect of competence and ease, when suddenly
a terrible calamity fell upon them. The Tuscarora and Coree Indians,
smarting under recent aggressions, and dreading total extinction from
the encroachment of these strangers, with characteristic secrecy,
plotted their entire destruction. Sending their families to one of
their fortified towns, twelve hundred bowmen sallied forth, and in
the same night attacked, in separate parties, the nearest settlements
of the palatines. Men, women, and children were indiscriminately
butchered. The savages, with the swiftness and ferocity of wolves,
ran from village to village. Before them was the repose of innocence;
behind, the sleep of death. A few escaping alarmed the settlements
more remote, and hastened to South Carolina for assistance. Governor
Craven immediately despatched to the aid of the sister colony nearly
a thousand men, under the command of colonel Barnwell. Hideous was
the wilderness through which colonel Barnwell had to march, and the
utmost expedition was requisite. There was no road through the woods
upon which either horses or carriages could pass; and his army had all
manner of hardships and dangers to encounter, from the climate, the
wilderness, and the enemy.

In spite of every difficulty, however, Barnwell advanced against them,
and being much better supplied with arms and ammunition than his enemy,
he did great execution among them, killing in the first battle three
hundred Indians, and taking about one hundred prisoners. The Tuscaroras
then retreated to their town, fortified within a wooden breastwork;
but there Barnwell surrounded them, and forced them to sue for peace;
and some of his men being wounded, and others having suffered greatly
by constant watching, and much hunger and fatigue, the savages the
more easily obtained their request. After having killed, wounded,
or captured nearly a thousand Tuscaroras, Barnwell returned to South
Carolina. The peace was, however, of short duration, and upon the
recommencement of hostilities, assistance was again solicited from
the southern colony. Colonel James Moore, an active young officer, was
immediately despatched, with forty white men and eight hundred friendly
Indians. He found the enemy in a fort near Cotechny river; and after a
siege, which continued more than a week, the fort was taken, and eight
hundred Indians made prisoners. The Tuscaroras, disheartened by this
defeat, migrated, in 1713, to the north, and joined the celebrated
confederacy, denominated the Five Nations. The others sued for peace,
and afterwards continued friendly.

The northern colony had scarcely recovered from the scourge of
Indian war, when the southern was exposed to the same calamity. All
the tribes from Florida to cape Fear, had been for some time engaged
in a conspiracy to extirpate the whites. On the day before the
Yamassees began their bloody operations, captain Nairn and some of the
traders observing an uncommon gloom on their savage countenances, and
apparently great agitations of spirit, which to them prognosticated
approaching mischief, went to their chief men, begging to know the
cause of their uneasiness, and promising, if any injury had been
done them, to give them satisfaction. The chiefs replied, they had
no complaints to make against any one, but intended to go a-hunting
early the next morning. Captain Nairn accordingly went to sleep, and
the traders retired to their huts, and passed the night in seeming
friendship and tranquillity. But next morning at daybreak, the 15th
day of April, all were alarmed with the cries of war. The leaders were
all out under arms, calling up their followers, and proclaiming aloud
designs of vengeance. The young men, burning with fury and passion,
flew to their arms, and, in a few hours, massacred above ninety
persons in Pocotaligo town and the neighboring plantations; and many
more must have fallen a sacrifice on Port Royal island, had they not
providentially been warned of their danger. Mr. Burrows, a captain
of the militia, after receiving two wounds, by swimming one mile and
running ten escaped to Port Royal, and alarmed the town. A vessel
happening fortunately to be in the harbor, the inhabitants in great
hurry repaired on board, and sailed for Charleston; a few families
of planters on that island, not having timely notice, fell into the
barbarous hands of the Indians, and of them some were murdered, and
others made prisoners of war.

While the Yamassees, with whom the Creeks and Apalachians had joined,
were advancing against the southern frontiers, and spreading desolation
and slaughter through the province, the colonists on the northern
borders also found the Indians among their settlements in formidable
parties. The Carolinians had foolishly entertained hopes of the
friendship of the Congarees, the Catawbas, and Cherokees; but they soon
found that they had also joined in the conspiracy, and declared for
war. It was computed that the southern division of the enemy consisted
of above six thousand bowmen, and the northern of between six hundred
and a thousand. In the muster-roll at Charleston there were no more
than one thousand two hundred men fit to bear arms, but as the town had
several forts into which the inhabitants might retreat, governor Craven
resolved to march with this small force into the woods against the
enemy. He proclaimed martial law, and laid an embargo on all ships, to
prevent either men or provisions from leaving the country. He obtained
an act of assembly, empowering him to impress men, and seize arms,
ammunition, and stores, wherever they were to be found, to arm such
trusty negroes as might be serviceable at a juncture so critical, and
to prosecute the war with the utmost vigor.

Being no stranger to the ferocious temper of his enemies, and their
horrid cruelty to prisoners, the governor advanced against them by
slow and cautious steps, always keeping the strictest guard round
his army. He knew well under what advantages they fought among their
native thickets, and the various wiles and stratagems they made use
of in conducting their wars; and therefore he was watchful above
all things against surprises, which might throw his followers into
disorder, and defeat the end of his enterprise. The fate of the whole
province depended on the success of his arms, and his men had no other
alternative but to conquer or die a painful death. As he advanced,
the straggling parties fled before him, until he reached Saltcatchers,
where they had pitched their great camp. Here a sharp and bloody battle
ensued from behind trees and bushes, the Indians whooping, hallooing,
and giving way one while, and then again and again returning with
double fury to the charge. But the governor, notwithstanding their
superior number, and their terrible shrieks, kept the provincials close
at their heels, and drove them before him like a flock of wolves. He
expelled them from their settlement at Indian river, pursued them over
the Savannah, and entirely freed the province of this formidable tribe
of savages. What number of the army was killed does not appear; but in
the whole war nearly four hundred unfortunate inhabitants of Carolina
fell a prey to Indian cruelty, property of great value was destroyed,
and a large debt contracted.

Of this debt the proprietors refused to pay any portion, and by
their harsh and arbitrary conduct in regard to this matter and its
consequences, a bitter hostility grew up between them and the people.
It was resolved to throw off their yoke. A favorable opportunity
presented itself at a general review of the militia at Charleston, in
1719; the officers and soldiers binding themselves by a solemn compact
to resist the tyranny of the proprietors. The assembly was dissolved
by the governor, but it immediately met in convention, and assumed
the direction of public affairs. In spite of all opposition they
established themselves in the full possession of the government, both
in its legislative and executive relations.

The agent for Carolina at length procured a hearing from the lords
of the regency and council in England, the king being at that time
in Hanover; who gave it as their opinion, that the proprietors had
forfeited their charter, and ordered the attorney-general to take
out a _scire facias_ against it. In consequence of this decision, in
September, 1720, they appointed general Francis Nicholson provisional
governor of the province, with a commission from the king. Several
years afterwards, seven of the proprietors sold to the king their claim
to the soil and rents, and all of them assigned to him their right
of jurisdiction. The government of both Carolinas was subsequently
administered in each colony by a governor and council appointed by
the crown, and by assemblies chosen by the people. They soon attracted
general attention, and their population was increased by accessions
from several of the states of Europe.

In 1738, an alarming insurrection of the negroes occurred in the
southern colony. A number of them assembled at Stono, and surprised and
killed two men who had charge of a warehouse, from which they took guns
and ammunition. They then chose a captain, and, with drums beating and
colors flying, marched south-westward. They burned every house on their
way, killed all the whites they could find, and compelled other negroes
to join them. Governor Bull, who was returning to Charleston from the
southward, accidentally met them, hastened out of their way, and spread
an alarm. The news soon reached Wiltown, where, fortunately, a large
congregation were attending divine service. The men having, according
to a law of the province, brought their arms to the place of worship,
marched instantly in quest of the negroes, who, by this time, had
become formidable, and spread terror and desolation around them, having
killed about twenty of the whites. While, in an open field, they were
carousing and dancing, with frantic exultation at their late success,
they were suddenly attacked; some were killed, and the remainder took
to flight, but most of them were taken and tried. Those who had been
compelled to join the conspirators were pardoned; but the leaders and
principal instigators suffered death. Under apprehensions resulting,
probably, from this rebellion, the legislature of South Carolina passed
an act, that whoever shall teach, or cause any slave or slaves to be
taught to write, or shall use or employ any slave as a scribe in any
manner of writing whatsoever, shall, for every such offence, forfeit
the sum of one hundred pounds.

The Carolinas were frequently exposed to the injurious effects of
war from the French and Spaniards, as well as from some of the Indian
tribes; but after the treaty of Paris, the progress of these colonies
was no longer retarded from that cause. The assembly of South Carolina,
taking advantage of the peaceful state of the colony to encourage
emigration, appropriated a large fund for bounties to foreign
Protestants, and such industrious poor people of Great Britain and
Ireland as should resort to the province within three years, and
settle on the inland parts. Two townships, each containing forty-eight
thousand acres, were laid out; one on the river Savannah, called
Mecklenburgh, and the other on the waters of Santee, at Long Cane,
called Londonderry. Not long after, the colony received a considerable
accession from Germany.

Beside foreign Protestants, several persons emigrated from England and
Scotland, and great multitudes from Ireland, and settled in Carolina.
An accession was also derived from the northern colonies, from which,
in the space of one year, above a thousand families removed thither. To
these adventurers lands in small tracts were allotted on the frontiers,
by which means the back settlements soon became the most populous part
of the province, while the whole felt the important benefits resulting
from such accessions to its population.


                               GEORGIA.

The last of the colonies established previous to the war of
independence was Georgia. A company of wealthy and influential
individuals obtained a patent from George III., conferring the
necessary powers, and lost no time in the prosecution of their design.
In November, 1733, James Oglethorpe embarked at Gravesend for Georgia,
with one hundred and sixteen persons, destined for settlement in that
country. In the following January he arrived at Charleston, where he
was kindly received, and whence he started to explore the territory
granted by the patent. He selected the present site of Savannah as the
most desirable point for the new settlement. Having completed a fort
at this place, and put the colony in a state of defence, he next sought
to cultivate friendly relations with the Indians, and to treat with
them for a share of their possessions. Having made such arrangements as
seemed to insure safety, Oglethorpe returned to England, carrying with
him several Indians, among whom was Tomochichi, a chief of the Creeks,
and his queen. Here they remained on a visit of about four months.

In the year 1740, the trustees rendered an account of their
administration. At that time nearly two thousand five hundred emigrants
had arrived in the colony; of whom more than fifteen hundred were
indigent Englishmen, or persecuted Protestants. The benefactions
from government and from individuals had been nearly half a million
of dollars; and it was computed that, for every person transported
and maintained by the trustees, more than three hundred dollars had
been expended. The hopes which the trustees had cherished, that the
colony would be prosperous and the objects of their benevolence happy,
were far from realized. Such was the character of the greater part
of the settlers and the nature of the restrictions imposed, that the
plantations languished, and continued to require the contributions
of the charitable. In the mean time events were preparing a rupture
in Europe, and a war between England and Spain appeared inevitable.
The plenipotentiaries, appointed for settling the boundaries between
Georgia and Florida, and other differences and misunderstandings
subsisting between the two crowns, had met at Pardo in convention,
where preliminary articles were drawn up; but the conference ended to
the satisfaction of neither party. The merchants had lost all patience
under their sufferings, and became clamorous for letters of reprisal,
which at length they obtained; all officers of the navy and army were
ordered to their stations, and, with the unanimous voice of the nation,
war was declared against Spain on the 23d of October, 1739.

As soon as intelligence of the declaration of war reached Georgia,
general Oglethorpe passed over to Florida with four hundred select
men of his regiment, and a considerable party of Indians; and a few
days after, he marched with his whole force, consisting of above
two thousand men, regulars, provincials, and Indians, to fort Moosa,
within two miles of St. Augustine. The Spanish garrison evacuating the
fort on his approach, and retiring into the town, put themselves in a
posture of defence; and the general soon discovering that an attempt
to take the castle by storm would be presumptuous, changed his plan
of operations, and resolved, with the assistance of the ships of war
which were lying at anchor off Augustine bar, to turn the siege into
a blockade. Having made the necessary dispositions, he summoned the
Spanish governor to surrender; but, secure in his strong-hold, he sent
him for an answer that he would be glad to shake hands with him in his
castle.

Indignant at this reply, the general opened his batteries against the
castle, and at the same time threw a number of shells in the town. The
fire was returned with equal spirit from the Spanish fort, and from
six half-galleys in the harbor; but the distance was so great that the
cannonade, though it continued several days, did little execution on
either side. It appears that, notwithstanding the blockade, the Spanish
garrison contrived to admit a reinforcement of seven hundred men, and
a large supply of provisions. All prospect of starving the enemy being
lost, the army began to despair of forcing the place to surrender. The
Carolina troops, enfeebled by the heat of the climate, dispirited by
sickness, and fatigued by fruitless efforts, marched away in large
bodies. The naval commander, in consideration of the shortness of his
provisions, and of the near approach of the usual season of hurricanes,
judged it imprudent to hazard his fleet longer on that coast. The
general himself was sick of a fever, and his regiment was worn out with
fatigue, and disabled by sickness. These combined disasters rendered
it necessary to abandon the enterprise; and Oglethorpe, with extreme
sorrow and regret, returned to Frederica.

After a lapse of two years the Spaniards prepared to retaliate by
the invasion of Georgia, intending, if successful, to subjugate the
Carolinas and Virginia. On receiving information of their approach,
general Oglethorpe solicited assistance from South Carolina: but the
inhabitants of that colony, entertaining a strong prejudice against him,
and terrified by the danger which threatened themselves, determined
to provide only for their own safety, though without avowing their
intention. General Oglethorpe, however, made preparations for a
vigorous defence. He assembled seven hundred men, exclusive of a body
of Indians, fixed his head-quarters at Frederica, on the island of
St. Simon, and, with this small band, determined to encounter whatever
force might be brought against him. It was his utmost hope that he
might be able to resist the enemy until a reinforcement should arrive
from Carolina, which he daily and anxiously expected. On the last day
of June, the Spanish fleet, consisting of thirty-two sail, and having
on board more than three thousand men, came to anchor off St. Simon’s
bay. Notwithstanding all the resistance which general Oglethorpe could
oppose, they sailed up the river Altamaha, landed upon the island,
and there erected fortifications. Convinced that his small force,
if divided, must be entirely inefficient, Oglethorpe assembled the
whole of it at Frederica. One portion he employed in strengthening
his fortifications; the Highlanders and Indians, ranging night and day
through the woods, often attacked the outposts of the enemy. The toil
of the troops was incessant; and the long delay of the expected succors,
still unexpectedly withheld by South Carolina, caused the most gloomy
and depressing apprehensions.

Oglethorpe, at length, learning by an English prisoner who escaped
from the Spanish camp, that a difference subsisted between the troops
from Cuba and those from St. Augustine, so as to occasion a separate
encampment, resolved to attack the enemy while thus divided. Taking
advantage of his knowledge of the woods, he marched out in the night
with three hundred chosen men, the Highland company and some rangers,
with the intention of surprising the enemy. Having advanced within
two miles of the Spanish camp, he halted his troops, and went forward
himself with a select corps to reconnoitre the enemy’s situation. While
he was endeavoring cautiously to conceal his approach, a French soldier
of his party discharged his musket, and ran into the Spanish lines.
Thus betrayed, he hastened his return to Frederica, and endeavored
to effect by stratagem what could not be achieved by surprise.
Apprehensive that the deserter would discover to the enemy his weakness,
he wrote him a letter, desiring him to acquaint the Spaniards with
the defenceless state of Frederica, and the ease with which his small
garrison might be cut to pieces. He pressed him to bring forward the
Spaniards to an attack; but, if he could not prevail thus far, to
use all his art and influence to persuade them to stay at least three
days more at fort Simon; for within that time, according to advices
he had just received from Carolina, he should have a reinforcement
of two thousand land forces, with six British ships of war. The letter
concluded with a caution to the deserter against dropping the least
hint of admiral Vernon’s meditated attack upon St. Augustine, and with
an assurance that for his service he should be amply rewarded by the
British king.

Oglethorpe gave it to a Spanish prisoner, who, for a small
reward together with his liberty, promised to deliver it to the
French deserter. On his arrival at the Spanish camp, however, he
gave the letter, as Oglethorpe expected, to the commander-in-chief,
who instantly put the deserter in irons. This letter perplexed and
confounded the Spaniards; some suspecting it to be a stratagem to
prevent an attack on Frederica, and others believing it to contain
serious instructions to direct the conduct of a spy. While the Spanish
officers wore deliberating what measures to adopt, an incident, not
within the calculation of military skill, or the control of human power,
decided their counsels. Three ships of force, which the governor of
South Carolina had sent out to Oglethorpe’s aid, appeared at this
juncture off the coast. The agreement of this discovery with the
contents of the letter convinced the Spanish commander of its real
intention. The whole army, seized with an instant panic, set fire to
the fort, and precipitately embarked, leaving several cannon, with a
quantity of provisions and military stores; and thus, in the moment of
threatened conquest, was the infant colony providentially saved.

Thus was Georgia, with trifling loss, delivered from the most imminent
danger. General Oglethorpe not only retrieved, but established his
reputation. From the Carolinians, grateful for their preservation,
and from the governors of most of the northern colonies, he received
cordial congratulations upon his address and good fortune. But on an
impeachment brought forward before this invasion, Oglethorpe still
felt himself bound in honor to return to England, where, on trial,
the charge was adjudged to be false, malicious and groundless, and
its author dismissed his majesty’s service. The character of this
able general now appeared in its true light; and his contemporaries
acknowledged what impartial history records, that to him Carolina
was indebted for her safety and repose, as well as Georgia for her
existence and protection. After this period general Oglethorpe never
returned to the province of Georgia, but upon all occasions discovered
in England an uncommon zeal for its prosperity and improvement.

In the year 1749, the colony was exposed to great danger from a
quarter as unexpected as it was singular. During the whole of his
administration, general Oglethorpe had, from motives of policy, treated
an Indian, or rather half-breed woman, called Mary Musgrove, afterwards
Mary Bosomworth, with particular kindness and generosity. Finding
that she had great influence amongst the Creeks, and understood their
language, he made use of her as an interpreter, in order the more
easily to form treaties of alliance with them; allowing her for her
services one hundred pounds sterling a year. Thomas Bosomworth, who
was chaplain to Oglethorpe’s regiment, had married this woman, accepted
a tract of land from the crown, and settled in the province. Being
unsuccessful in most of his speculations, he had recourse to one of
an extraordinary kind. He persuaded his wife to assert herself to be
the elder sister of Malatche, the Indian chief, and to have descended,
by a maternal line, from an Indian king, who held from nature the whole
territory of the Creeks; and therefore to possess a right to them,
superior not only to that of the trustees, but also to that of the
king. Accordingly, Mary assumed the title of an independent empress,
disavowing all subjection or allegiance to the king of Great Britain,
otherwise than by way of treaty or alliance, such as one independent
sovereign might voluntarily enter into with another; a meeting of all
the Creeks was summoned, to whom Mary made a long speech, in which she
set forth the justice of her claim, and the great injury she and her
beloved subjects had sustained by the loss of their territories, and
urged them to a defence of their rights by force of arms. The Indians
were fired with rage at the idea of such indignity, and to a man
pledged themselves to stand by her to the last drop of their blood in
defence of her royal person and their lands; in consequence of which,
queen Mary, escorted by a large body of her savage subjects, set
out for Savannah, to demand from the president and council a formal
acknowledgment of her rights in the province.

Several interviews between the magistrates and the Indian chiefs took
place on this strange occurrence, and the president and council were
flattering themselves with the idea of an amicable compromise of all
the existing difficulties, and rejoicing in the re-establishment of
friendly intercourse with the Creeks, when Mary, excited with liquor,
and disappointed in her royal views, rushed in amongst them like a fury,
told the president that these were her people, that he had no business
with them, and that he should soon be convinced of it to his cost. The
president calmly advised her to retire to her lodgings, and forbear to
poison the minds of the Indians, adding that he would otherwise order
her into close confinement; upon which, turning about to Malatche,
in great rage, she repeated, with some ill-natured comments, what the
president had said; Malatche started from his seat, laid hold of his
arms, calling upon the rest to follow his example, and dared any man
to touch the queen. The whole house was filled in a moment with tumult
and uproar; every Indian having his tomahawk in his hand, the president
and council expected nothing but instant death. During this confusion,
captain Jones, who commanded the guard, very seasonably interposed, and
ordered the Indians immediately to surrender their arms, endeavoring,
however, not merely to overawe them, but using prudence to avoid coming
to extremities: with reluctance the Indians submitted, and Mary was
conveyed to a private room, where a guard was placed over her, and all
further communication with the Indians denied her during their stay in
Savannah. Ultimately the _soi-disant_ queen was compelled to abandon
her pretensions, and the Indians were induced to depart, to the great
joy of the inhabitants, who had been so long harassed by their
turbulent visit.

The wars to which it had been subject had much retarded the progress
of the colony, and in 1752 the trustees surrendered their charter to
the king. Georgia thus became a royal government. At this time the
whole exports of Georgia did not amount to ten thousand pounds a year.


                        FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS.

The formation and progress of all the colonies which constituted
the North American republic at the era of its independence, have now
been traced up to the middle of the eighteenth century. From that
period circumstances tended rapidly to promote that federation which
eventually effected the independence of the colonies, and laid the
basis of their future prosperity; indeed, in the prosecution of the
French war, which commenced in 1756, the energies of the colonies
were so united in the attainment of one common object, that the
generalization of their political history from that period is not
only rendered preferable, but almost inevitable.

Not to enter into a detail of the progress of French discovery, it
is sufficient to say that France had established settlements on the
St. Lawrence and at the mouth of the Mississippi, and formed the bold
plan of uniting these points by a chain of forts, stretching across
the continent, and intended to confine the English colonists to the
eastern side of the Alleghanies. In their northern colonies, the
military strength of the French was considerable; Quebec and Montreal
were strongly fortified; and at other points, Louisbourg, Cape Breton,
and the forts of lake Champlain, Niagara, Crown Point, Frontignac,
Ticonderoga, and several others, defended the frontiers. They had
also erected a considerable fort at the junction of the Alleghany with
the Monongahela, then called Du Quesne, but now forming the site of
Pittsburg.

The proceedings of the French in America excited a strong interest
in the minds of the British government; and deeming war inevitable,
orders were sent to the governors of the several colonies to repel
force by force, and to dislodge the French from their posts on the
Ohio. These orders were accompanied with a recommendation to form a
union of the colonies for more effective defence. Delegates had already
been appointed to meet at Albany, for the purpose of conferring with
the Five Nations; and governor Shirley recommended that the subject
of union should also be discussed at the convention. The commissioners
from Massachusetts had ample powers to co-operate in the formation of
a plan; those from Maryland were instructed to observe what others did;
and those from New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Pennsylvania,
and New York, had no instructions at all on the subject. As soon,
however, as the friendship of the Indians was thought to be secured
by a distribution of presents, the delegates appointed a committee to
devise some scheme for the proposed confederation; and the committee
recommended the adoption of a government analogous to that of the
individual colonies. There was to be a grand council, composed of
deputies from the several provinces, and a president-general, appointed
by the crown, with the power of negativing the acts of the council. The
Connecticut delegates, however, dissented from this plan, because it
placed too preponderating a power in the hands of the crown.

It was rejected by the British ministry for the very opposite reason;
they suggested, however, that the several governors, with one or two
of their counsellors, should meet and adopt such measures as the common
safety might demand. But this scheme was defeated by a provision, that
they might draw upon the British treasury for all necessary sums, which
parliament would undertake to repay _by imposing a general tax upon the
colonies_. The Massachusetts assembly sent special instructions to its
agent in London to oppose most strenuously any measure which had for
its object the establishment of taxes on the colonies, under whatever
plea of utility; and Franklin, to whom the governor of Virginia had
sent the proposition of the British minister, states most distinctly in
his letter in reply, the reasons which would ever prevent the Americans
from consenting to such a proposal. He observes that it would inspire
universal discontent among the Americans to attempt the imposition of
taxes by a parliament where they were not represented; a point of which
neither the colonies nor the British government ever lost sight, from
this period till the contest it originated terminated in the entire
separation of the former from its dependence on the British crown.

Early in the spring of 1755, the British government despatched general
Braddock to America, with a respectable force, to expel the French,
and keep possession of the territory; and preparations having been made
by France to despatch a reinforcement to her armies in Canada, admiral
Boscawen was ordered to endeavor to intercept the French fleet before
it should enter the gulf of St. Lawrence. In April, general Braddock
met the governors of the several provinces to confer upon the plan of
the ensuing campaign. Three expeditions were resolved upon; one against
Du Quesne, to be commanded by general Braddock; one against forts
Niagara and Frontignac, to be commanded by governor Shirley; and one
against Crown Point, to be commanded by general Johnston. This last
originated with Massachusetts, and was to be executed by colonial
troops raised in New England and New York.

While preparations were making for these expeditions, another, which
had been previously concerted, was carried on against the French forts
in Nova Scotia. This province was settled by the French, but was ceded
to the English by the treaty of Utrecht. Its boundaries not having
been defined, the French continued to occupy a portion of the territory
claimed by the English, and had built forts for their defence. To
gain possession of these was the object of the expedition. About two
thousand militia, commanded by colonel Winslow, embarked at Boston;
and being joined on their passage by three hundred regulars, arrived in
April at the place of their destination. The forts were invested, the
resistance made was trifling and ineffectual, and in a short time the
English gained entire possession of the province according to their own
definition of its boundaries. Three only of their men were killed.

As soon as the convention of governors was dissolved, general Braddock
proceeded to the post at Wells’ Creek, whence the army commenced its
march about the middle of June. Their progress was very much retarded
by the necessity of cutting a road; and, lest the enemy should have
time to collect in great force, the general concluded to set forward
with twelve hundred select men, while colonel Dunbar should follow
slowly in the rear, with the main body and the heavy baggage. Colonel
Washington’s regiment had been split into separate companies, and he
had only joined the army as aid to the general. The roughness of the
country prevented the advanced corps from reaching the Monongahela
till the 8th of July. It was resolved to attack Du Quesne the very
next day; and lieutenant-colonel Gage was sent in front with three
hundred British regulars, while the general himself followed at some
distance with the main body. He had been strongly cautioned by colonel
Washington to provide against an ambuscade, by sending forward some
provincial companies to scour the woods; but he held the provincials
and the enemy in equal contempt. The Monongahela was crossed the second
time, about seven miles from Du Quesne; and the army was pressing
forward in an open wood, through high and thick grass, when the front
was suddenly thrown into disorder by a volley from small arms. The
main body was formed three deep, and brought to its support: the
commander-in-chief of the enemy fell; and a cessation of the fire led
general Braddock to suppose that the assailants had fled; but he was
soon attacked with redoubled fury.

Concealed behind trees, logs, and rocks, the Indians poured upon
the troops a deadly and incessant fire; officers and men fell thickly
around, and the survivors knew not where to direct their aim to revenge
their slaughtered comrades. The whole body was again thrown into
confusion; but the general, obstinate and courageous, refused to
retreat; and instead of withdrawing them beyond the reach of the
enemy’s muskets, where their ranks might easily have been formed
anew, undertook to rally them on the very ground of attack, and in
the midst of a most incessant and deadly fire. He persisted in these
efforts until five horses had been shot under him, and every one of
his officers on horseback, except colonel Washington, was either killed
or wounded. The general at length fell, and the rout became universal.
The troops fled precipitately until they met the division under Dunbar,
then sixty miles in the rear. Sixty-four officers out of eighty-five,
and about half of the privates, were killed or wounded. General
Braddock died in Dunbar’s camp; and the whole army, which appears to
have been panic struck, marched back to Philadelphia. The provincial
troops, whom Braddock had so lightly esteemed, displayed during the
battle the utmost calmness and courage. Though placed in the rear, they
alone, led on by Washington, advanced against the Indians, and covered
the retreat; and had they at first been permitted to engage the enemy
in their own way, they would easily have defeated them.

The two northern expeditions, though not so disastrous, failed in
attaining their proposed objects. The campaign of 1755 was thus utterly
unsuccessful. Immense preparations had been made, but no desired
result was obtained. By the failure of the three expeditions, the
whole frontier was left open to the ravages of the Indians. The second
campaign was almost as pregnant with evil. Montcalm had marched against
Oswego, and by destroying it had thrown the English and American army
on the defensive. No successful measures were put in operation to carry
out the plans of the colonists, and it was necessary to wait till the
following year.

At the commencement of the following year a council was held at
Boston, composed of lord Loudoun, and the governors of the New England
provinces and of Nova Scotia. At this council his lordship proposed
that New England should raise four thousand men for the ensuing
campaign; and that a proportionate number should be raised by New
York and New Jersey. These requisitions were complied with; and in the
spring his lordship found himself at the head of a very considerable
army. Admiral Holbourn arriving in the beginning of July at Halifax
with a powerful squadron, and a reinforcement of five thousand British
troops, under George viscount Howe, lord Loudoun sailed from New York
with six thousand regulars, to join those troops at the place of their
arrival. Instead of the complex operations undertaken in previous
campaigns, his lordship limited his plan to a single object. Leaving
the posts on the lakes strongly garrisoned, he resolved to direct
his whole disposable force against Louisbourg; Halifax having been
determined on as the place of rendezvous for the fleet and army
destined for the expedition. Information was, however, soon received,
that a French fleet had lately sailed from Brest; that Louisbourg was
garrisoned by six thousand regulars, exclusive of provincials; and
that it was also defended by seventeen line-of-battle ships, which
were moored in the harbor. There being no hope of success against so
formidable a force, the enterprise was deferred to the next year; the
general and admiral on the last of August proceeded to New York; and
the provincials were dismissed.

The marquis De Montcalm, availing himself of the absence of the
principal part of the British force, advanced with an army of nine
thousand men, and laid siege to fort William Henry. The garrison at
this fort consisted of between two and three thousand regulars, and
its fortifications were strong and in very good order; and for the
additional security of this important post, general Webb was stationed
at fort Edward with an army of four thousand men. The French commander,
however, urged his approaches with such vigor, that, within six days
after the investment of the fort, colonel Monro, the commandant, having
in vain solicited succor from general Webb, found it necessary to
surrender by capitulation. The garrison was to be allowed the honors of
war, and to be protected against the Indians until within the reach of
fort Edward; but the next morning, a great number of Indians, having
been permitted to enter the lines, began to plunder; and meeting
with no opposition, they fell upon the sick and wounded, whom they
immediately massacred. Their appetite for carnage being excited, the
defenceless troops were attacked with fiend-like fury. Monro in vain
implored Montcalm to provide the stipulated guard, and the massacre
proceeded. All was turbulence and horror. On every side savages were
butchering and scalping their wretched victims. Their hideous yells,
the groans of the dying, and the frantic shrieks of others shrinking
from the uplifted tomahawk, were heard by the French unmoved. The fury
of the savages was permitted to rage without restraint until fifteen
hundred were killed, or hurried captives into the wilderness. The day
after this awful tragedy, major Putnam was sent with his rangers to
watch the motions of the enemy. When he came to the shore of the lake,
their rear was hardly beyond the reach of musket-shot. The prospect
was horrible in the extreme; the fort demolished; the barracks and
buildings yet burning; innumerable fragments of human carcasses still
broiled in the decaying fires; and dead bodies, mangled with tomahawks
and scalping knives, in all the wantonness of Indian barbarity, were
everywhere scattered around. Thus ended the third campaign in America;
happily forming the last of a series of disasters, resulting from folly
and mismanagement, rather than from want of means and military strength.

The British nation was alarmed and indignant, and the king found it
necessary to change his councils. At the head of the new ministry he
placed the celebrated William Pitt, afterwards earl of Chatham, under
whose administration public confidence revived, and the nation seemed
inspired with new life and vigor. He was equally popular in both
hemispheres. Lord Loudoun was replaced by general Abercrombie, who,
early in the spring of 1758, was ready to enter upon the campaign at
the head of fifty thousand men, the most powerful army ever seen in
America.

Three points of attack were marked out for this campaign; the first
Louisbourg; the second Ticonderoga and Crown Point; and the third,
fort Du Quesne. Its result was highly honorable to the British arms.
Of the three expeditions, two completely succeeded, and the leader of
the third had made an important conquest. Fort Du Quesne was reduced,
supplied with a new garrison, and its name changed to Pittsburg. As
usual, the Indians joined the strongest side. A peace was concluded
with all the tribes between the Ohio and the lakes; and the frontier
inhabitants of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, were once more
relieved from the terrors of fire and scalping knives.

To the commanding talents of Pitt, and the confidence which they
inspired, this change of fortune must be chiefly attributed; and in
no respect were these talents more strikingly displayed than in the
choice of men to execute his plans. The advantages of this campaign
had, however, been purchased by an expensive effort and corresponding
exhaustion of provincial strength; and, when a circular letter from
Mr. Pitt to the several governors induced the colonies to resolve upon
making the most vigorous preparation for the next, they soon discovered
that their resources were by no means commensurate with their zeal.

Notwithstanding these difficulties, it was resolved to signalize the
year 1759 by the complete conquest of Canada. The plan of the campaign
was, that three powerful armies should enter the French possessions by
three different routes, and attack all their strong-holds at nearly the
same time. At the head of one division of the army, brigadier-general
Wolfe, a young officer who had signalized himself at the siege of
Louisbourg, was to ascend the St. Lawrence and lay siege to Quebec,
escorted by a strong fleet to co-operate with his troops. The central
and main army, composed of British and provincials, was to be conducted
against Ticonderoga and Crown Point by general Amherst, the new
commander-in-chief, who, after making himself master of these places,
was to proceed over lake Champlain and by the way of Richelieu river
to the St. Lawrence, and, descending that river, form a junction
with general Wolfe before the walls of Quebec. The third army, to be
composed principally of provincials, reinforced by a strong body of
friendly Indians, was to be commanded by general Prideaux, who was
to lead this division first against Niagara, and, after the reduction
of that place, to embark on lake Ontario, and proceed down the St.
Lawrence against Montreal. It has been observed by a recent author,
‘Had the elements been laid, and the enemy spell-bound, the whole of
this brilliant plan could not have helped succeeding.’ This sentence,
however, betrays a very limited view of a plan that was well worthy
of the mind of Pitt. In this arrangement immediate advantage was not
sacrificed; while the more remote results exhibited a prospect highly
calculated to excite the ambition of the leaders, and to arouse all the
energies of the troops. It is in thus affording motives which tend to
bring physical force into most effective and persevering action, that
intellectual superiority becomes manifest, confounding the calculations
of ordinary minds.

Early in the winter, general Amherst commenced preparations for his
part of the enterprise; but it was not till the last of May that his
troops were assembled at Albany; and it was as late as the 22d of July,
when he appeared before Ticonderoga. As the naval superiority of Great
Britain had prevented France from sending out reinforcements, none of
the posts in this quarter were able to withstand so great a force as
that of general Amherst. Ticonderoga was immediately abandoned; the
example was followed at Crown Point; and the only way in which the
enemy seemed to think of preserving their province was by retarding
the English army with shows of resistance till the season of operation
should be past, or till, by the gradual concentration of their forces,
they should become numerous enough to make an effectual stand. From
Crown Point they retreated to Isle-aux-Noix, where general Amherst
understood there was a body of between three and four thousand men,
and a fleet of several armed vessels. The English made great exertions
to secure a naval superiority; and had it not been for a succession
of adverse storms upon the lake, they would most probably have
accomplished the original design of forming a junction at Quebec,
instead of being obliged to go into winter quarters at Crown Point.

In prosecution of the enterprise against Niagara, general Prideaux
had embarked with an army on lake Ontario; and on the 6th of July
landed without opposition within about three miles of the fort, which
he invested in form. While directing the operations of the siege he
was killed by the bursting of a cohorn, and the command devolved on
Sir William Johnson. That general, prosecuting with judgment and vigor
the plan of his predecessor, pushed the attack of Niagara with an
intrepidity that soon brought the besiegers within a hundred yards
of the covered way. Meanwhile, the French, alarmed at the danger of
losing a post which was a key to their interior empire in America, had
collected a large body of regular troops from the neighboring garrisons
of Detroit, Venango, and Presqu’ Isle, with which, and a party of
Indians, they resolved, if possible, to raise the siege. Apprised
of their intention to hazard a battle, general Johnson ordered his
light infantry, supported by some grenadiers and regular foot, to
take post between the cataract of Niagara and the fortress; placed the
auxiliary Indians on his flanks; and, together with this preparation
for an engagement, took effectual measures for securing his lines, and
bridling the garrison. About nine in the morning of the 24th of July,
the enemy appeared, and the horrible sound of the war-whoop from the
hostile Indians was the signal of battle. The French charged with great
impetuosity, but were received with firmness; and in less than an hour
were completely routed. This battle decided the fate of Niagara. Sir
William Johnson the next morning opened negotiations with the French
commandant; and in a few hours a capitulation was signed. The garrison,
consisting of six hundred and seven men, were to march out with the
honors of war, to be embarked on the lake, and carried to New York; and
the women and children were to be carried to Montreal. The reduction
of Niagara effectually cut off the communication between Canada and
Louisiana.

The expedition against the capital of Canada was the most daring and
important. Strong by nature, and still stronger by art, Quebec had
obtained the appellation of the Gibraltar of America; and every attempt
against it had failed. It was now commanded by Montcalm, an officer of
distinguished reputation; and its capture must have appeared chimerical
to any one but Pitt. He judged rightly, however, that the boldest and
most dangerous enterprises are often the most successful, especially
when committed to ardent minds glowing with enthusiasm, and emulous of
glory. Such a mind he had discovered in general Wolfe, whose conduct at
Louisbourg had attracted his attention. He appointed him to conduct the
expedition, and gave him for assistants brigadier-generals Monckton,
Townshend, and Murray; all, like himself, young and ardent. Early in
the season he sailed from Halifax with eight thousand troops, and,
near the last of June, landed the whole army on the island of Orleans,
a few miles below Quebec. From this position he could take a near and
distinct view of the obstacles to be overcome. These were so great,
that even the bold and sanguine Wolfe perceived more to fear than to
hope. In a letter to Mr. Pitt, written before commencing operations,
he declared that he saw but little prospect of reducing the place.

Quebec stands on the north side of the St. Lawrence, and consists of
an upper and lower town. The lower town lies between the river and a
bold and lofty eminence, which runs parallel to it far to the westward.
At the top of this eminence is a plain, upon which the upper town is
situated. Below, or east of the city, is the river St. Charles, whose
channel is rough, and whose banks are steep and broken. At a short
distance farther down is the Montmorency; and between these two rivers,
and reaching from one to the other, was encamped the French army,
strongly entrenched, and at least equal in number to that of the
English. General Wolfe took possession of Point Levi, on the southern
bank of the St. Lawrence, and there erected batteries against the
town. The cannonade which was kept up, though it destroyed many houses,
made but little impression on the works, which were too strong and too
remote to be materially affected; their elevation, at the same time,
placing them beyond the reach of the fleet.

  Illustration: Siege of Quebec.

Convinced of the impossibility of reducing the place, unless he
could erect batteries on the north side of the St. Lawrence, Wolfe
soon decided on more daring measures. The northern shore of the St.
Lawrence, to a considerable distance above Quebec, is so bold and rocky
as to render a landing in the face of an enemy impracticable. If an
attempt were made below the town, the river Montmorency passed, and the
French driven from their entrenchments, the St. Charles would present
a new, and perhaps an insuperable barrier. With every obstacle fully
in view, Wolfe, heroically observing that ‘a victorious army finds no
difficulties,’ resolved to pass the Montmorency, and bring Montcalm
to an engagement. In pursuance of this resolution, thirteen companies
of English grenadiers, and part of the second battalion of royal
Americans, were landed at the mouth of that river, while two divisions,
under generals Townshend and Murray, prepared to cross it higher up.
Wolfe’s plan was to attack first a redoubt, close to the water’s edge,
apparently beyond reach of the fire from the enemy’s entrenchments, in
the belief that the French, by attempting to support that fortification,
would put it in his power to bring on a general engagement; or, if
they should submit to the loss of the redoubt, that he could afterwards
examine their situation with coolness, and advantageously regulate his
future operations.

On the approach of the British troops the redoubt was evacuated; and
the general, observing some confusion in the French camp, changed
his original plan, and determined not to delay an attack. Orders were
immediately despatched to the generals Townshend and Murray to keep
their divisions in readiness for fording the river; and the grenadiers
and royal Americans were directed to form on the beach until they could
be properly sustained. These troops, however, not waiting for support,
rushed impetuously toward the enemy’s entrenchments; but they were
received with so strong and steady a fire from the French musketry,
that they were instantly thrown into disorder, and obliged to seek
shelter at the redoubt which the enemy had abandoned. Detained here
awhile by a dreadful thunder storm, they were still within reach of
a severe fire from the French; and many gallant officers, exposing
their persons in attempting to form the troops, were killed, the whole
loss amounting to nearly five hundred men. The plan of attack being
effectually disconcerted, the English general gave orders for repassing
the river, and returning to the isle of Orleans.

Compelled to abandon the attack on that side, Wolfe deemed that
advantage might result from attempting to destroy the French fleet,
and by distracting the attention of Montcalm with continual descents
upon the northern shore. General Murray, with twelve hundred men in
transports, made two vigorous but abortive attempts to land; and though
more successful in the third, he did nothing more than burn a magazine
of warlike stores. The enemy’s fleet was effectually secured against
attacks, either by land or by water, and the commander-in-chief was
again obliged to submit to the mortification of recalling his troops.
At this juncture, intelligence arrived that Niagara was taken, that
Ticonderoga and Crown Point had been abandoned, but that general
Amherst, instead of pressing forward to their assistance, was preparing
to attack the Isle-aux-Noix.

While Wolfe rejoiced at the triumph of his brethren in arms, he
could not avoid contrasting their success with his own disastrous
efforts. His mind, alike lofty and susceptible, was deeply impressed
by the disasters at Montmorency; and his extreme anxiety, preying
upon his delicate frame, sensibly affected his health. He was observed
frequently to sigh; and, as if life was only valuable while it added
to his glory, he declared to his intimate friends, that he would not
survive the disgrace which he imagined would attend the failure of
his enterprise. Nothing, however, could shake the resolution of this
valiant commander, or induce him to abandon the attempt. In a council
of his principal officers, called on this critical occasion, it was
resolved, that all the future operations should be above the town. The
camp at the isle of Orleans was accordingly abandoned; and the whole
army having embarked on board the fleet, a part of it was landed at
point Levi, and a part higher up the river. Montcalm, apprehending from
this movement that the invaders might make a distant descent and come
on the back of the city of Quebec, detached M. de Bougainville with
fifteen hundred men, to watch their motions, and prevent their landing.

Baffled and harassed in all his previous assaults, general Wolfe
seems to have determined to finish the enterprise by a single bold
and desperate effort. The admiral sailed several leagues up the river,
making occasional demonstrations of a design to land troops; and,
during the night, a strong detachment in flat-bottomed boats fell
silently down with the stream, to a point about a mile above the city.
The beach was shelving, the bank high and precipitous, and the only
path by which it could be scaled, was now defended by a captain’s guard
and a battery of four guns. Colonel Howe, with the van, soon clambered
up the rocks, drove away the guard, and seized upon the battery. The
army landed about an hour before day, and by daybreak was marshalled on
the heights of Abraham.

Montcalm could not at first believe the intelligence; but, as soon
as he was assured of its truth, he made all prudent haste to decide
a battle which it was no longer possible to avoid. Leaving his camp
at Montmorency, he crossed the river St. Charles with the intention of
attacking the English army. No sooner did Wolfe observe this movement,
than he began to form his order of battle. His troops consisted of
six battalions, and the Louisbourg grenadiers. The right wing was
commanded by general Monckton, and the left by general Murray. The
right flank was covered by the Louisbourg grenadiers, and the rear and
left by Howe’s light infantry. The form in which the French advanced
indicating an intention to outflank the left of the English army,
general Townshend was sent with the battalion of Amherst, and the two
battalions of royal Americans, to that part of the line, and they were
formed _en potence_, so as to present a double front to the enemy. The
body of reserve consisted of one regiment, drawn up in eight divisions,
with large intervals. The dispositions made by the French general
were not less masterly. The right and left wings were composed about
equally of European and colonial troops. The centre consisted of a
column, formed of two battalions of regulars. Fifteen hundred Indians
and Canadians, excellent marksmen, advancing in front, screened by
surrounding thickets, began the battle. Their irregular fire proved
fatal to many British officers, but it was soon silenced by the steady
fire of the English.

About nine in the morning the main body of the French advanced briskly
to the charge, and the action soon became general. Montcalm having
taken post on the left of the French army, and Wolfe on the right of
the English, the two generals met each other where the battle was most
severe. The English troops reserved their fire until the French had
advanced within forty yards of their line, and then, by a general
discharge, made terrible havoc among their ranks. The fire of the
English was vigorously maintained, and the enemy everywhere yielded
to it. General Wolfe, who, exposed in the front of his battalions,
had been wounded in the wrist, betraying no symptom of pain, wrapped
a handkerchief round his arm, and continued to encourage his men. Soon
after, he received a shot in the groin; but, concealing the wound, he
was pressing on at the head of his grenadiers with fixed bayonets, when
a third ball pierced his breast.[102] The army, not disconcerted by
his fall, continued the action under Monckton, on whom the command
now devolved, but who, receiving a ball through his body, soon yielded
the command to general Townshend. Montcalm, fighting in front of his
battalions, received a mortal wound about the same time; and general
Senezergus, the second in command also fell.

The British grenadiers pressed on with their bayonets. General Murray,
briskly advancing with the troops under his direction, broke the
centre of the French army. The Highlanders, drawing their broadswords,
completed the confusion of the enemy; and after having lost their first
and second in command, the right and centre of the French were entirely
driven from the field; and the left was following the example, when
Bougainville appeared in the rear, with the fifteen hundred men who had
been sent to oppose the landing of the English. Two battalions and two
pieces of artillery were detached to meet him; but he retired, and the
British troops were left the undisputed masters of the field. The loss
of the French was much greater than that of the English. The corps of
French regulars was almost entirely annihilated. The killed and wounded
of the English army did not amount to six hundred men. Although Quebec
was still strongly defended by its fortifications, and might possibly
be relieved by Bougainville, or from Montreal, yet general Townshend
had scarcely finished a road in the bank to get up his heavy artillery
for a siege, when the inhabitants capitulated, on condition that during
the war they might still enjoy their own civil and religious rights.
A garrison of five thousand men was left under general Murray, and the
fleet sailed out of the St. Lawrence.

The fall of Quebec did not immediately produce the submission of
Canada. The main body of the French army, which, after the battle on
the plains of Abraham, retired to Montreal, and which still consisted
of ten battalions of regulars, had been reinforced by six thousand
Canadian militia, and a body of Indians. With these forces M. de
Levi, who had succeeded the marquis de Montcalm in the chief command,
resolved to attempt the recovery of Quebec. He had hoped to carry the
place by a _coup de main_ during the winter; but, on reconnoitring, he
found the outposts so well secured, and the governor so vigilant and
active, that he postponed the enterprise until spring. In the month
of April, when the upper part of the St. Lawrence was so open as to
admit a transportation by water, his artillery, military stores, and
heavy baggage, were embarked at Montreal, and fell down the river under
convoy of six frigates; and M. de Levi, after a march of ten days,
arrived with his army at Point au Tremble, within a few miles of Quebec.

General Murray, to whom the care of maintaining the English conquest
had been intrusted, had taken every precaution to preserve it; but
his troops had suffered so much by the extreme cold of the winter,
and by the want of vegetables and fresh provisions, that instead of
five thousand, the original number of his garrison, there were not at
this time above three thousand men fit for service. With this small
but valiant body he resolved to meet the enemy in the field; and on
the 28th of April marched out to the heights of Abraham, where, near
Sillery, he attacked the French under M. de Levi with great impetuosity.
He was received with firmness; and, after a fierce encounter, finding
himself outflanked, and in danger of being surrounded by superior
numbers, he called off his troops, and retired into the city. In this
action the loss of the English was near a thousand men, and that of
the French still greater. The French general lost no time in improving
his victory. On the very evening of the battle he opened trenches
before the town, but it was the 11th of May before he could mount his
batteries, and bring his guns to bear on the fortifications. By that
time general Murray, who had been indefatigable in his exertions, had
completed some outworks, and planted so numerous an artillery on his
ramparts, that his fire was very superior to that of the besiegers, and
in a manner silenced their batteries. A British fleet most opportunely
arriving a few days after, M. de Levi immediately raised the siege,
and precipitately retired to Montreal. Here the marquis de Vaudreuil,
governor-general of Canada, had fixed his head-quarters, and determined
to make his last stand. For this purpose he called in all his
detachments, and collected around him the whole force of the colony.

The English, on the other hand, were resolved upon the utter
annihilation of the French power in Canada; and general Amherst
prepared to overwhelm it with an irresistible superiority of numbers.
Almost on the same day, the armies from Quebec, from lake Ontario, and
from lake Champlain, were concentrated before Montreal; a capitulation
was immediately signed; Detroit, Michilimackinac, and, indeed, all
New France, surrendered to the English. The French troops were to be
carried home; and the Canadians to retain their civil and religious
privileges.

The history of modern Europe, with whose destiny that of the
colonies was closely interwoven, may be designated as the annals of
an interminable war. Her sovereigns, ever having the oily words of
peace on their lips, have seldom had recourse to the olive branch but
as the signal of a truce, the duration of which should be coeval with
the reinvigoration of military strength. It was thus with France on
the present occasion. Equally unsuccessful on both continents, and
exhausted by her strenuous and continued efforts, she was at length
induced to make overtures of peace; and every thing seemed to be in a
fair train for adjustment, when the treaty was suddenly broken off by
an attempt of the court of Versailles to mingle the politics of Spain
and of Germany with the disputes between France and Great Britain.
A secret family compact between the Bourbons to support each other
through evil and good, in peace and in war, had rendered Spain desirous
of war, and induced France once more to try her fortune. As the
interests of the two nations were now identified, it only remained for
England to make a formal declaration of hostility against Spain. The
colonies of New England, being chiefly interested in the reduction
of the West India islands, furnished a considerable body of troops to
carry on the war. A large fleet was despatched from England; the land
forces amounted to sixteen thousand; and before the end of the second
year, Great Britain had taken the important city of Havannah, the key
of the Mexican gulf, together with the French provinces of Martinique
Grenada, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and the Caribbee islands.

The progress of the British conquests, which threatened all the
remaining colonial possessions of their opponents, was arrested by
preliminary articles of peace, which, towards the close of 1762, were
interchanged at Fontainbleau between the ministers of Great Britain,
France, and Spain. On the 10th of February in the following year, a
definitive treaty of peace was signed at Paris, and soon after ratified.
France ceded to Great Britain all the conquests which the latter had
made in North America; and it was stipulated between the two crowns,
that the boundary line of their respective dominions in the new
hemisphere should run along the middle of the Mississippi, from its
source as far as the Iberville, and along the middle of that river,
and of lakes Maurepas and Pontchartrain.

Thus terminated a war, which originated in an attempt on the part
of the French to surround the English colonists, and chain them to
a narrow strip of country along the coast of the Atlantic; and ended
with their giving up the whole of what was then their only valuable
territory in North America. The immediate advantage the colonies
derived from the successful issue of the contest was great and apparent.
Although, for a short period after the conquest of Canada had been
effected, they were subject to attacks from the Indian tribes attached
to the French, and also from the Cherokees on their south-western
borders, they were soon enabled to visit their cruelties with severe
retribution, and to procure a lasting repose, as the Indians had
no forts to which to repair for protection or aid. But the indirect
results, though almost unperceived at first, were far more important,
and prepared the way for those momentous efforts which issued in the
loss to Great Britain of the fairest portion of her colonies, and the
establishment of her vassal as a rival. The colonists became inured to
the habits and hardships of a military life, and skilled in the arts of
European warfare; while the desire of revenge for the loss of Canada,
which France did not fail to harbor, was preparing for them a most
efficient friend, and making way for the anomalous exhibition of a
despotic sovereign exerting all his power in the cause of liberty and
independence.


                    COMMENCEMENT OF THE REVOLUTION.

Our limits will not permit us to enter into any speculations as to the
remote origin of the American revolution. The immediate and exciting
causes of the spirit of opposition to the government were twofold;
the rigorous execution of the navigation laws, which destroyed a most
important and profitable, though contraband and illegal trade; and the
assertion by the British parliament of its right to tax the colonies.
The latter so speedily followed the former, and afforded so preferable
a ground on which to make a stand, that the navigation laws were seldom
exhibited as one of the chief grievances; although, had not the stamp
act and other similar measures been brought forward, the laws affecting
the trade of the colonies would inevitably have excited the same
opposition.

The attempt to hold a people, circumstanced as were the American
colonists, under the legislation of Great Britain, was as irrational
as it was unjust. Financial embarrassments called forth the erroneous
policy into action, which, as often happens in private life, deeply
aggravated the evil it was designed to remedy; and the attempt to wring
a few thousands per annum from the colonists, terminated in plunging
Great Britain into debt, and in depriving her of an immense territory,
which, under a just and liberal management, might still have continued
one of the most illustrious appendages of the British crown.

Plans of laying internal taxes, and of drawing a revenue from the
colonies, had been at various times suggested to the ministry, and
particularly to Sir Robert Walpole. This statesman, however, was too
wise and sagacious to adopt them. ‘I will leave the taxation of the
Americans,’ Walpole answered, ‘for some of my successors, who may have
more courage than I have, and be less friendly to commerce than I am.
It has been a maxim with me,’ he added, ‘during my administration, to
encourage the trade of the American colonies to the utmost latitude;
nay, it has been necessary to pass over some irregularities in their
trade with Europe; for, by encouraging them to an extensive and growing
foreign commerce, if they gain five hundred thousand pounds, I am
convinced that, in two years afterwards, full two hundred and fifty
thousand of this gain will be in his majesty’s exchequer by the labor
and product of this kingdom, as immense quantities of every kind of our
manufactures go thither; and as they increase in the foreign American
trade, more of our produce will be wanted. This is taxing them more
agreeably to their own constitution and laws.’ The first Pitt, also,
in his celebrated speech on the repeal of the stamp act, referring
to the conduct of the several preceding administrations, says, ‘None
of these thought, or even dreamed, of robbing the colonies of their
constitutional rights. That was reserved to mark an era of the late
administration; not that there were wanting some, when I had the honor
to serve his majesty, to propose to me to burn my fingers with an
American stamp act. With the enemy at their back, with our bayonets
at their breasts, in the day of their distress, perhaps the Americans
would have submitted to the imposition; but it would have been taking
an ungenerous and unjust advantage.’

Whatever might have been the views or wishes of any individual of
the British cabinet, at any period, relative to drawing a revenue
directly from the colonies, no one had been bold enough to make the
attempt until after the reduction of the French power in America. This
was deemed a favorable moment to call upon the Americans for taxes,
to assist in the payment of a debt, incurred, as was alleged, in a
great measure, for their protection against a powerful enemy, now no
longer an object of their dread.[103] A British statesman should have
reflected, that, if the Americans were relieved from the dread of
their ancient enemy, they no longer required the protection of the
parent country against that enemy; and that the strongest hold on their
dependence was gone when Canada was gained.

The conquest of Canada had scarcely been effected, when rumors were
extensively prevalent that a different system of government was about
to be adopted by the parent state; that the charters would be taken
away, and the colonies reduced to royal governments. The officers of
the customs began to enforce with strictness all the acts of parliament
regulating the trade of the colonies, several of which had been
suspended, or had become obsolete. Governor Bernard, of Massachusetts,
who was always a supporter of the royal prerogative, appears to
have entered fully into these views, and to have indicated, by his
appointment of confidential advisers, that his object would be to
extend the power of the government to any limits which the ministry
might require. The first demonstration of the new course intended
to be pursued, was the arrival of an order in council to carry into
effect the acts of trade, and to apply to the supreme judicature of
the province for writs of assistance, to be granted to the officers
of the customs. According to the ordinary course of law, no searches
or seizures can be made without a special warrant, issued upon probable
cause, supported by oath or affirmation, particularly designating
the place to be searched and the goods to be seized. But the writ of
assistance was to command all sheriffs and other civil officers to
assist the person to whom it was granted in breaking open and searching
every place where he might suspect any prohibited or uncustomed goods
to be concealed. It was a sort of commission, during pleasure, to
ransack the dwellings of the citizens, for it was never to be returned,
nor any account of the proceedings under it rendered to the court
whence it issued. Such a weapon of oppression in the hands of the
inferior officers of the customs might well alarm even innocence, and
confound the violators of the law.

The mercantile part of the community united in opposing the petition,
and was in a state of great anxiety as to the result of the question.
The officers of the customs called upon Mr. Otis for his official
assistance, as advocate-general, to argue their cause: but as he
believed these writs to be illegal and tyrannical, he resigned the
situation, though very lucrative, and if filled by a compliant spirit,
leading to the highest favors of government. The merchants of Salem and
Boston applied to Otis and Thacher, who engaged to make their defence.
The trial took place in the council chamber of the old town-house, in
Boston. The judges were five in number, including lieutenant governor
Hutchinson, who presided as chief justice; and the room was filled with
all the officers of government and the principal citizens, to hear the
arguments in a cause that inspired the deepest solicitude. The case was
opened by Mr. Gridley, who argued it with much learning, ingenuity, and
dignity, urging every point and authority that could be found, after
the most diligent search, in favor of the custom-house petition; making
all his reasoning depend on this consideration,――‘if the parliament
of Great Britain is the sovereign legislator of the British empire.’
He was followed by Mr. Thacher on the opposite side, whose reasoning
was ingenious and able, delivered in a tone of great mildness and
moderation. ‘But,’ in the language of president Adams, ‘Otis was a
flame of fire; with a promptitude of classical allusion, a depth of
research, a rapid summary of historical events and dates, a profusion
of legal authorities, a prophetic glance into futurity, and a rapid
torrent of impetuous eloquence, he hurried away all before him.
American independence was then and there born. The seeds of patriots
and heroes to defend the _Non sine Diis animosus infans_, to defend
the vigorous youth, were then and there sown. Every man of an immense
crowded audience appeared to me to go away as I did, ready to take arms
against writs of assistance. Then and there was the first scene of the
first act of opposition to the arbitrary claims of Great Britain. Then
and there the child Independence was born. In fifteen years, i. e. in
1776, he grew up to manhood and declared himself free.’[104]

In consequence of this argument, the popularity of Otis was without
bounds, and at the next election he was for the first time chosen a
member of the house of representatives, by an almost unanimous vote.
Some idea of the state of public sentiment at that period may be
derived from the following remarkable language of the governor, in his
speech at the commencement of the session. ‘Let me recommend to you to
give no attention to declamations tending to promote a suspicion of the
civil rights of the people being in danger. Such harangues might suit
well in the times of Charles and James, but in the times of the Georges
they are groundless and unjust. Since the accession of the first George,
there has been no instance of the legal privileges of any corporate
body being attacked by any of the king’s ministers or servants,
without public censure ensuing. His present majesty has given uncommon
assurances how much he has at heart the preservation of the liberty,
rights, and privileges of all his subjects. Can it be supposed that
he can forfeit his word; or that he will suffer it to be forfeited
by the acts of any servant of his with impunity? An insinuation so
unreasonable and injurious I am sure will never be well received among
you.’

In the following session governor Bernard informed the house of
representatives, that, during the recess of the legislature, he had
appropriated a small sum towards fitting out the sloop Massachusetts
to protect the fishery. The committee appointed to prepare an
answer reported to the house a message, in which, after desiring his
excellency to restore the sloop to her former condition, they add,
‘Justice to ourselves and to our constituents obliges us to remonstrate
against the method of making or increasing establishments by the
governor and council. It is in effect taking from the house their
most darling privilege, the right of originating all taxes. It is, in
short, annihilating one branch of the legislature. And when once the
representatives of a people give up this privilege, the government will
very soon become arbitrary. No necessity, therefore, can be sufficient
to justify a house of representatives in giving up such a privilege;
for it would be of little consequence to the people whether they were
subject to George or Louis, the king of Great Britain or the French
king, if both were arbitrary, as both would be if both could levy
taxes without parliament.’ ‘Treason, treason!’ cried one of the members
when these words were read; but the report was accepted, and the
message sent unaltered to the governor. The same day he returned it,
accompanied by a letter requesting that a part of it might be expunged,
as disrespectful to the king. It was then proposed to insert an
amendment in the message, expressive of loyalty; but a certain member
crying ‘Rase them, rase them,’ the obnoxious words, which had been
underlined by the governor, were erased; ‘it being obvious that the
remonstrance would be the same in effect with or without them.’ The
governor sent a vindication of his conduct to the house, and prorogued
the assembly before there was time to answer it.

The year 1764 was prolific in measures calculated to agitate and
arouse the spirit of the Americans. Early in March an act was passed,
which declared that the bills which had been issued by the several
colonial governments, should no longer be regarded as legal currency;
an enactment which, although in some cases it might have the beneficial
effect of preventing an injurious excess of paper, was very prejudicial
to the interests, as well as galling to the feelings, of the colonists.
On the 10th of March the house of commons passed eighteen resolutions
for imposing taxes and duties on the colonies. The execution of
that which declared that it might be proper to impose certain stamp
duties on them, was deferred to the next session; but the others
were immediately enforced by ‘An Act for granting certain Duties in
America;’ which, after stating that it was just and expedient to raise
a revenue there, imposed duties on silks and colored calicoes from
Persia, India, or China, and on sugar, wines, coffee, and pimento, made
the sugar and molasses act perpetual, reducing the duty on molasses
from six-pence to three-pence per gallon; and this for the express and
sole purpose of raising a revenue. The same act increased the number
of enumerated commodities, laid new and harsh restrictions on commerce,
re-enacted many of the obsolete laws of trade, and provided that
all penalties and forfeitures, accruing under any of them, might be
sued for, at the election of the informer, in any court of record
or of admiralty, or in that of vice-admiralty to be established over
all America. The declaration which was made, that all these duties
should be devoted to the maintenance of an army for the defence of
the colonies, was by no means satisfactory: it was indeed urged by the
ministry, to prove to Americans that the money which was raised from
them would ultimately be spent again among their own inhabitants; but
the colonists sagaciously conjectured, that now they had no other enemy
than a few exhausted tribes of Indians, there must be some other design
than that of defence in maintaining a standing army among them; and
they could attribute the plan to no other source than a desire on the
part of the ministry to secure the destruction of their liberties by
military force.

The direct assertion by the British parliament of its right to tax
the colonies, accompanied, as it evidently was, by a determination
to carry the principle into almost immediate effect, excited the most
extensive clamor and agitation, not only among individuals, but in the
minds of the constituted authorities. ‘Taxation without representation
is tyranny,’ was the universal watchword; the proposed exaction was
everywhere the topic of conversation, and the subject of the severest
animadversion. Every day beheld the affection of the Americans for the
parent country sensibly diminish, while the disposition to resist by
force was silently but effectually fostered. Several of the provincial
assemblies sent instructions to their agents in London to employ every
means to prevent the obnoxious measure being carried into effect.

The people of Boston, at their meeting in May, instructed their
representatives to the general court on this important subject. In
these instructions, (which were drawn up by Samuel Adams, one of
the committee appointed for that purpose,) after commenting on the
sugar and molasses act, they proceed to observe: ‘But our greatest
apprehension is, that these proceedings may be preparatory to new taxes;
for if our trade may be taxed, why not our lands? why not the products
of our lands, and every thing we possess or use? This, we conceive,
annihilates our charter rights to govern and tax ourselves. It strikes
at our British privileges which, as we have never forfeited, we hold
in common with our fellow-subjects who are natives of Britain. If
taxes are laid upon us, in any shape, without our having a legal
representation where they are laid, we are reduced from the character
of free subjects, to the state of tributary slaves. We, therefore,
earnestly recommend it to you to use your utmost endeavors to obtain
from the general court all necessary advice and instruction to our
agent, at this most critical juncture. We also desire you to use your
endeavors that the other colonies, having the same interests and rights
with us, may add their weight to that of this province; that by united
application of all who are aggrieved, all may obtain redress.’

This was the first act in the colonies, in opposition to the
ministerial plans of drawing a revenue directly from America; and
it contained the first suggestion of the propriety of that mutual
understanding and correspondence among the colonies, which laid the
foundation of their future confederacy. The house of representatives
of Massachusetts, in June following, declared, ‘That the sole right
of giving and granting the money of the people of that province, was
vested in them, or their representatives, and that the imposition of
duties and taxes by the parliament of Great Britain upon a people not
represented in the house of commons, is absolutely irreconcilable with
their rights; that no man can justly take the property of another,
without his consent; upon which original principles, the power of
making laws for levying taxes, one of the main pillars of the British
constitution, is evidently founded.’ The same sentiments are expressed,
though in stronger language, in their letter of instructions to their
agent. ‘If the colonists are to be taxed at pleasure,’ they say,
‘without any representatives in parliament, what will there be to
distinguish them, in point of liberty, from the subjects of the most
absolute prince? If we are to be taxed at pleasure, without our consent,
will it be any consolation to us, that we are to be assessed by a
hundred instead of one? If we are not represented, we are slaves.’ The
house, also, at the same time, appointed a committee, to sit during the
recess of the court, to write to the other colonies, requesting them to
join in applying for a repeal of the sugar act, and in endeavoring to
prevent the passage of the act laying stamp duties, or any other act
imposing taxes on the American provinces.

In addition to the acts and declarations of the colonial legislatures,
various individuals enlightened and animated the colonists by numerous
publications both in the newspapers and by separate pamphlets. Among
the latter, ‘The Rights of the Colonists asserted and proved,’ by
Mr. Otis, and ‘The Sentiments of a British American,’ by Oxenbridge
Thacher, were particularly distinguished. Mr. Otis, among other things,
declared, ‘That the imposition of taxes, whether on trade or on land,
on houses or ships, on real or personal, fixed or floating property
in the colonies, is absolutely irreconcilable with the rights of the
colonists, as British subjects and as men.’ On the subject of the sugar
and molasses act, Mr. Thacher stated his objections, the first of which
was, ‘That a tax was thereby laid on several commodities, to be raised
and levied in the plantations, and to be remitted home to England.
This is esteemed,’ he said ‘a grievance, inasmuch as the same are laid
without the consent of the representatives of the colonists. It is
esteemed an essential British right, that no man shall be subject to
any tax but what, in person or by his representative, he hath a voice
in laying.’

In the winter of 1765, at the request of the other agents of the
colonies Dr. Franklin, Jared Ingersoll, Mr. Jackson, and Mr. Garth,
had a conference with Mr. Grenville, on the subject of the stamp duty.
Mr. Ingersoll was from Connecticut, and had been requested to assist
Mr. Jackson in any matters relating to that colony; Mr. Garth was agent
for South Carolina, and he and Mr. Jackson were members of parliament.
These gentlemen, and particularly Dr. Franklin and Mr. Ingersoll,
informed the minister of the great opposition to the proposed tax in
America, and most earnestly entreated him, that if money must be drawn
from the colonies by taxes, to leave it with the colonists to raise it
among themselves in such manner as they should think proper, and best
adapted to their circumstances and abilities. Dr. Franklin informed
the minister, that the legislature of Pennsylvania had by a resolution
declared, ‘That as they always had, so they always should, think it
their duty to grant aids to the crown, according to their abilities,
whenever required of them in the usual constitutional way.’

Neither the remonstrances of the colonists, however, nor the
entreaties of their agents, were of any avail with the ministry or
parliament. The bill for laying the stamp and other duties was soon
brought before the house, and petitions from the colonies of Virginia,
Connecticut, and South Carolina, were offered in opposition to it. The
house, however, refused to receive them; in the first place, because
they questioned or denied the right of parliament to pass the bill; and
in the second place, because it was contrary to an old standing rule of
the house,――‘that no petition should be received against a money bill.’
The majority against receiving the petitions was very large, and those
from the other colonies were not offered. The petition from New York
was expressed in such strong language, that no member of the house
could be prevailed upon to present it. The admirable speech of colonel
Barré in reply to Charles Townshend, so familiar to all of us, although
it produced a profound impression, did not of course defeat the measure;
and the colonial petitions and remonstrances, with the petition of the
London merchants trading to America, were equally unavailing. In the
house of commons there were about two hundred and fifty for, and only
fifty against it. In the lords it passed without debate, with entire
unanimity; and on the 22d of March it obtained the royal assent.

This enactment, which was to come into operation on the 1st of November,
excited the most serious alarm throughout the colonies. It was viewed
as a violation of the British constitution, and as destructive of the
first principles of liberty; and combinations against its execution
were everywhere formed. The house of burgesses in Virginia, which was
in session when intelligence of the act was received, passed several
spirited resolutions, asserting the colonial rights, and denying
the claim of parliamentary taxation. The resolutions were introduced
into the Virginia assembly by the eloquent Patrick Henry, who, on
the envelope of a copy of them in his own hand-writing, has given the
following interesting particulars: ‘They formed,’ says Mr. Henry, ‘the
first opposition to the stamp act, and the scheme of taxing America by
the British parliament. All the colonies, either through fear, or want
of opportunity to form an opposition, or from influence of some kind
or other, had remained silent. I had been for the first time elected a
burgess a few days before, was young inexperienced, unacquainted with
the forms of the house, and the members that composed it. Finding the
men of weight averse to opposition, and the commencement of the tax
at hand, and that no person was likely to step forth, I determined
to venture; and alone, unadvised, and unassisted on a blank leaf of
an old law book wrote the within. Upon offering them to the house,
violent debates ensued. Many threats were uttered, and much abuse cast
on me, by the party for submission. After a long and warm contest, the
resolutions passed by a very small majority, perhaps of one or two only.
The alarm spread throughout America with astonishing quickness, and
the ministerial party were overwhelmed. The great point of resistance
to British taxation was universally established in the colonies. This
brought on the war, which finally separated the two countries, and gave
independence to ours. Whether this will prove a blessing or a curse,
will depend upon the use our people make of the blessings which a
gracious God hath bestowed on us. If they are wise, they will be great
and happy. If they are of a contrary character, they will be miserable.
Righteousness alone can exalt them as a nation.’

‘It was in the midst of this magnificent debate,’ says his biographer,
Mr. Wirt, ‘while he was descanting on the tyranny of the obnoxious act,
that he exclaimed in a voice of thunder, “Cæsar had his Brutus――Charles
the First his Cromwell――and George the Third”――(“Treason,” cried the
speaker; “Treason, treason,” echoed from every part of the house:
it was one of those trying moments which are decisive of character.
Henry faltered not for an instant; but rising to a loftier attitude,
and fixing on the speaker an eye of the most determined fire, he
finished his sentence with the firmest emphasis,)――“_may profit by
their example_. If this be treason, make the most of it.”’

In the province of Massachusetts the dissatisfaction at the passing
the stamp act was strong, and was strongly manifested. On the meeting
of the legislature in May, it was recommended that there should be
an early meeting of committees from the houses of representatives
or burgesses in the several colonies, to consult together on their
grievances and devise some plan for their relief. In accordance with
the views of the Massachusetts legislature, the proposed convention was
held at New York in October, and consisted of twenty-eight delegates
from the assemblies of the colonies, excepting the assemblies of
Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia, which were either not in session,
or were otherwise prevented from sending representatives. Timothy
Ruggles of Massachusetts was chosen president. A declaration of rights
and grievances was adopted. A petition to the king, and a memorial to
each house of parliament were also agreed on; and it was recommended to
the several colonies to appoint special agents, who should unite their
utmost endeavors in soliciting redress.

The populace in various parts of the colonies were unwilling to wait
for the effect of the constitutional measures their representatives
were adopting. One day in the month of August the effigy of Andrew
Oliver, the proposed distributor of stamps in Massachusetts, was found
hanging on a tree, afterwards well known by the name of Liberty tree,
in the main street of Boston. At night it was taken down, and carried
on a bier, amidst the acclamations of an immense collection of people,
through the court-house, down King street, to a small brick building,
supposed to have been erected for the reception of the detested stamps.
This building being soon levelled with the ground, the rioters next
attacked Mr. Oliver’s house, and having broken the windows, entered it,
and destroyed part of the furniture. The next day, however, Mr. Oliver
authorized several gentlemen to announce on the exchange, that he had
declined having any concern with the office of stamp master; but in
the evening a bonfire was made, and a repetition of this declaration
exacted of him. On the 26th the tumults were renewed. The rioters
assembled in King street, and proceeded to the house of the deputy
register of the court of admiralty, whose private papers, as well
as the records and files of the court, were destroyed. The house
of Benjamin Hallowell, jun., comptroller of the customs, was next
entered; and elevated and emboldened by liquors found in his cellar,
the mob, with inflamed rage, directed their course to the house of
lieutenant-governor Hutchinson, who, after vainly attempting resistance,
was constrained to depart to save his life. By four in the morning one
of the best houses in the province was completely in ruins, nothing
remaining but the bare walls and floors. The plate, family pictures,
most of the furniture, the wearing apparel, about nine hundred pounds
sterling, and the manuscripts and books which Mr. Hutchinson had been
thirty years collecting, besides many public papers in his custody,
were either carried off or destroyed. The whole damage was estimated
at two thousand five hundred pounds.[105]

The town of Boston the next day voted unanimously, that the selectmen
and magistrates be desired to use their utmost endeavors, agreeably
to law, to suppress the like disorders for the future, and that the
freeholders and other inhabitants would do every thing in their power
to assist them. The officer appointed to receive the stamped paper,
which was daily expected, having resigned his commission, the governor
determined to receive the paper into his own charge at the castle; and,
by advice of council, he ordered the enlistment of a number of men to
strengthen the garrison. This caused great murmur among the people. To
pacify them he made a declaration in council, that he had no authority
to open any of the packages, or to appoint a distributor of stamps;
that his views in depositing the stamped paper in the castle, and in
strengthening the garrison there, were to prevent imprudent people from
offering an insult to the king; and to save the town, or province, as
it might happen, from being held to answer for the value of the stamps,
as they certainly would be if the papers should be taken away. This
declaration the council desired him to publish, but it did not stop the
clamor. He was forced to stop the enlistment, and to discharge such men
as had been enlisted. The first day of November, on which the stamp act
was to begin its operation, was ushered in at Boston by the tolling of
bells; many shops and stores were shut; and effigies of the authors and
friends of that act were carried about the streets, and afterwards torn
in pieces by the populace.

Nor was Massachusetts alone;――the obnoxious act received similar
treatment in the other colonies. On the 24th of August a gazette
extraordinary was published at Providence, with _Vox Populi vox Dei_,
for a motto; effigies were exhibited, and in the evening cut down and
burnt. Three days afterwards, the people of Newport conducted effigies
of three obnoxious persons in a cart, with halters about their necks,
to a gallows near the town-house, where they were hung, and after
a while cut down and burnt amidst the acclamations of thousands. On
the last day of October, a body of people from the country approached
the town of Portsmouth, (New Hampshire,) in the apprehension that the
stamps would be distributed; but on receiving assurance that there was
no such intention, they quietly returned. All the bells in Portsmouth,
Newcastle, and Greenland, were tolled, to denote the decease of Liberty;
and in the course of the day, notice was given to her friends to attend
her funeral. A coffin, neatly ornamented, and inscribed with ‘LIBERTY,
aged CXLV. years,’ was prepared for the funeral procession, which began
from the state-house, attended with two unbraced drums; minute guns
were fired until the corpse arrived at the grave, when an oration
was pronounced in honor of the deceased: but scarcely was the oration
concluded, when, some remains of life having been discovered, the
corpse was taken up; and the inscription on the lid of the coffin was
immediately altered to ‘LIBERTY REVIVED;’ the bells suddenly struck
a cheerful sound, and joy appeared again in every countenance. In
Connecticut, Mr. Ingersoll, the constituted distributor of stamps,
was exhibited and burnt in effigy in the month of August; and the
resentment at length became so general and alarming, that he resigned
his office.

The spirit manifested by the citizens of New York produced a similar
resignation; and the obnoxious act was contemptuously cried about the
streets, labelled, ‘The Folly of England and Ruin of America.’ The
stamp papers arriving toward the end of October, lieutenant-governor
Colden took every precaution to secure them. On the first of November,
many of the inhabitants of New York, offended at the conduct and
disliking the political sentiments of the governor, having assembled in
the evening, broke open his stable, and took out his coach; and after
carrying it through the principal streets of the city, marched to the
common, where a gallows was erected, on one end of which they suspended
his effigy, with a stamped bill of lading in one hand, and a figure of
the devil in the other. When the effigy had hung a considerable time,
they carried it in procession suspended to the gallows to the gate
of the fort, whence it was removed to the bowling green, under the
muzzle of the guns, and a bonfire made, in which the whole pageantry,
including the coach, was consumed, amidst the acclamations of several
thousand spectators. The next day, the people insisting upon having the
stamps, it was agreed that they should be delivered to the corporation,
and they were deposited in the city hall. Ten boxes of stamps, which
arrived subsequently, were committed to the flames.

At Philadelphia, on the appearance of the ships having the stamps on
board, all the vessels in the harbor hoisted their colors half-mast
high, the bells were muffled, and continued to toll until evening.
The body of Quakers, with a part of the church of England and of the
Baptists, seemed inclined to submit to the stamp act; but great pains
were taken to engage the Dutch and the lower class of people in the
opposition, and Mr. Huges, the stamp master, found it necessary at
length to resign. In Maryland, Mr. Hood, the stamp distributor for
that colony, to avoid resigning his office, fled to New York; but he
was constrained by a number of freemen to sign a paper, declaring his
absolute and final resignation. In Virginia, when the gentleman who had
been appointed distributor of stamps arrived at Williamsburg, he was
immediately urged to resign: and the next day he so handsomely declined
acting in his office, that he received the acclamations of the people;
at night the town was illuminated, the bells were rung, and festivity
expressed the universal joy.

Associations had already been formed in the colonies, under the
title of the Sons of Liberty, and were composed of some of the most
respectable of their citizens. The association in New York held a
meeting on the 7th of November, at which it was determined that they
would risk their lives and fortunes to resist the stamp act. Notice of
this being sent to the Sons of Liberty in Connecticut, an union of the
two associations was soon after agreed upon, and a formal instrument
drawn and signed; in which, after denouncing the stamp act as a
flagrant outrage on the British constitution, they most solemnly
pledged themselves to march with their whole force whenever required,
at their own proper cost and expense, to the relief of all who should
be in danger from the stamp act or its abettors; to be vigilant in
watching for the introduction of stamped paper, to consider all who are
caught in introducing it as betrayers of their country, and to bring
them if possible to condign punishment, whatever may be their rank;
to defend the liberty of the press in their respective colonies from
all violations or impediments on account of the said act; to save all
judges, attorneys, clerks, and others from fines, penalties, or any
molestation whatever, who shall proceed in their respective duties
without regard to the stamp act; and lastly, to use their utmost
endeavors to bring about a similar union with all the colonies on the
continent. In pursuance of this plan, circular letters were addressed
to the Sons of Liberty in Boston, New Hampshire, and as far as South
Carolina, and the proposal was received with almost universal
enthusiasm.

Societies were formed also in most of the colonies, including females,
and those of the highest rank and fashion, of persons who resolved
to forego all the luxuries of life, sooner than be indebted for them
to the commerce of England under the restrictions imposed upon it by
parliament. These societies denied themselves the use of all foreign
articles of clothing; carding, spinning, and weaving became the daily
employment of ladies of fashion; sheep were forbidden to be used as
food, lest there should not be found a sufficient supply of wool; and
to be dressed in a suit of homespun was to possess the surest means of
popular distinction. So true were these patriotic societies to their
mutual compact, that the British merchants and manufacturers soon began
to feel the necessity of uniting with the colonies in petitioning
parliament for the repeal of the obnoxious law; and the table of the
minister was loaded with petitions and remonstrances from most of the
manufacturing and mercantile towns in the kingdom.


                      PROGRESS OF THE REVOLUTION.

While the colonies were thus brought into a state bordering on
insurrection by the injudicious and unjust measures of the Grenville
administration, the administration itself was rapidly hastening to its
dissolution. George III. had ascended the throne not long after the
capture of Quebec and in the following October, the patriot Pitt, who
had devised and executed the grand scheme of expelling the French from
North America, resigned the seals of office. Lord Bute, who appears to
have been a personal friend of the new king, was appointed Mr. Pitt’s
successor; and under his brief administration the peace of Paris was
concluded. He was succeeded by Mr. Grenville, whose name will always
bear an unhappy notoriety as the author of the stamp act; and whose
measures have formed the subject of the preceding division. However the
king might approve his political sentiments, and the king was a decided
tory, Grenville was not personally in favor with his majesty; and the
result was, (after some unsuccessful negotiation with Mr. Pitt, who
expressed his unwillingness to go to St. James’ ‘without he could carry
the constitution along with him,’) the formation of the Rockingham
administration.

On the twenty-second of February, 1766, a bill was introduced in the
house of commons for a repeal of the stamp act. The mover of the bill
was general Conway, the same individual who in the first instance had
denied the authority of parliament to impose it. On the proposed repeal
a warm and interesting debate ensued, and it was finally carried by
a large majority. In the upper house it was carried by a vote of one
hundred and five to seventy-one.

On the 19th of March, his majesty went to the house of peers, and
passed the bill for repealing the American stamp act, as also that
for securing the dependency of the colonies on the British crown. On
this occasion the American merchants made a most numerous appearance
to express their gratitude and joy; ships in the river displayed
their colors; the city was illuminated; and every method was adopted
to demonstrate the sense entertained of the wisdom of parliament in
conciliating the minds of the people on this critical occasion. In
America, the intelligence was received with acclamations of the most
sincere and heart-felt gratitude by all classes of people. Public
thanksgivings were offered up in all the churches. The resolutions
which had been passed on the subject of importations were rescinded,
and their trade with the mother country was immediately renewed with
increased vigor. The homespun dresses were given to the poor, and once
more the colonists appeared clad in the produce of British looms.

The administration of the marquis of Rockingham terminated in July,
1766, and a new ministry was formed, under the direction of Mr. Pitt,
composed of men of different political principles and parties. The duke
of Grafton was placed at the head of the treasury; lord Shelburne was
joined with general Conway, as one of the secretaries of state; Charles
Townshend was made chancellor of the exchequer; Camden lord chancellor;
Pitt had the privy seal, and was made a peer, with the title of the
earl of Chatham; and lord North and George Cooke were joint paymasters.
Under this chequered administration, the scheme of taxing America was
revived. In May, 1767, the new chancellor of the exchequer submitted a
plan of this kind to parliament. Charles Townshend was a man of genius
and talents, but of high passions, eccentric, and versatile. He had
warmly supported Grenville in the passage of the stamp act, and had
voted with the marquis of Rockingham in its repeal. The ex-minister
Grenville may indeed be considered the real author of the second plan
for taxing the colonies, for he was ever urging the subject on the new
ministers.[106]

The measure proposed by Townshend to the house was for imposing duties
on glass, paper, pasteboard, white and red lead, painters’ colors, and
tea, imported into the colonies. The preamble declared, ‘that it was
expedient to raise a revenue in America, and to make a more certain and
adequate provision for defraying the charge of the administration of
justice and the support of the civil government in the provinces, and
for defraying the expenses of defending, protecting, and securing them.’
The earl of Chatham was then confined by sickness in the country; the
bill passed both houses without much opposition, and on the 29th of
June received the royal assent.

The conduct of the assemblies of Massachusetts and New York had given
great dissatisfaction in Great Britain. The refusal of the assembly
of the latter to comply with the requisitions of the mutiny act, in
particular, had excited the indignation of the ministry and parliament
to such a degree, that three days after the passage of the new tax bill
an act was passed restraining the legislature of that province from
passing any act whatever, until they had furnished the king’s troops
with all the articles required by the mutiny act. The ministry at the
same time determined to establish a new board of custom-house officers
in America. An act was therefore passed, enabling the king to put the
customs and other duties in America, and the execution of the laws
relating to trade there, under the management of commissioners to be
appointed for that purpose, and to reside in the colonies. This, as the
preamble declares, would ‘tend to the encouragement of commerce, and to
better securing the rates and duties, and the more speedy and effectual
collection thereof.’ These three acts arrived in America about the same
time.

The appropriation of the new duties to the support of crown officers
and to the maintenance of troops in America, was a subject of serious
complaint. It had long been a favorite object of the British cabinet
to establish in the colonies a fund, from which the salaries of the
governors, judges, and other officers of the crown, should be paid,
independent of the annual grants of the colonial legislatures. As these
officers held their places during the pleasure of the king, the people
of Massachusetts, it will be remembered, had uniformly resisted such
establishment, though repeatedly urged on the part of the crown. On
this subject the house of representatives maintained, in resolutions
indicative of great firmness, their former purpose. The house also,
during this session, addressed a circular letter to the other colonies,
stating the difficulties to be apprehended by the operation of the
late acts of parliament, and requesting their co-operation for redress.
When the question of addressing a circular to the colonies was first
presented to the house it was opposed, as seeming to countenance the
meeting of another congress, heretofore so offensive to the British
government; and the motion was negatived. The subject was afterwards
reconsidered, and the letter so worded as to satisfy a large majority
of the house. The other colonies approved of the proceedings of
Massachusetts, and joined in applying to the king for relief.

The circular letter of Massachusetts created no little alarm in the
British cabinet. Directions were issued by the secretary of state to
the governor of this colony, requiring him to demand of the house of
representatives a recantation of that offensive measure. This the house
peremptorily refused. They viewed the letter of lord Hillsborough as
an unwarrantable attempt on their rights; and in their answer to the
communication of the governor on this subject, express themselves with
no little warmth. ‘If the votes of the house were to be controlled
by the direction of a minister,’ they say, ‘we have left us but a
shadow of liberty!’ On the question to rescind, Mr. Otis, one of the
representatives from Boston, said――‘When lord Hillsborough knows that
we will not rescind our acts, let him apply to parliament to rescind
theirs. Let Britain rescind their measures, or they are lost forever.’
On receiving information of the decision of the house, the governor
immediately dissolved the assembly. This ministerial mandate to the
other colonies was equally disregarded.

Americans looked with astonishment at such a system of policy
proceeding from a ministry of which lord Chatham constituted a part.
They found it impossible to reconcile the conduct now adopted towards
them with their ideas of his lordship’s character. They had heretofore
regarded him as a friend, in whose honest and liberal principles they
might securely trust the management of all that concerned the colonies;
but here was a melancholy evidence before their eyes of the insincerity
of ministerial professions. In justice to the character of lord Chatham,
however, it must be observed, that he was not in parliament during
any part of the time that these measures of Mr. Townshend were under
discussion. The state of his health was such as not only to detain him
from his seat in the house, but to render him incapable of attending to
any of the duties of his high station; and it appears that his opinion
weighed but little with the men whom he had raised to power.

Charles Townshend, from whom all the troubles and commotions that
were now rapidly spreading through the colonies in a great measure
originated, did not live to witness their effects. He died in September,
1767, and was succeeded as chancellor of the exchequer by Frederick
lord North, a young nobleman, then but little known in the political
world, but who will be found to make a conspicuous figure in the sequel
of this history. Very soon afterwards, lord Chatham, disgusted at the
corrupt influence which manifested itself in every act of the court,
and sick of the political world, resigned the privy seal.

The colonists meanwhile were adopting all the peaceable means in their
power to show their sense of the wrongs heaped upon them. Petitions,
memorials, and remonstrances to the king and parliament, and letters
to the individual friends of America, were addressed from all the
legislatures; but the most favorable reply which any of them received
was an exhortation to suffer with patience and in silence. To suffer
tamely, and without seeking redress, however, was not the character
of the sturdy sons of freedom who inhabited the colonies. They entered
into the same kind of resolutions of non-importation, the effects of
which had been so severely felt by the traders in England under the
stamp act. Boston, as before, took the lead. At a town meeting held
in October, it was voted that measures should be immediately taken to
promote the establishment of domestic manufactures, by encouraging the
consumption of all articles of American manufacture. They also agreed
to purchase no articles of foreign growth or manufacture, but such as
were absolutely indispensable. New York and Philadelphia soon followed
the example of Boston; and in a short time the merchants themselves
entered into associations to import nothing from Great Britain but
articles that necessity required.

The new board of commissioners of the customs established at Boston had
now entered on the duties of their office. From the great excitement
at that place, a collision between the new custom-house officers and
the people was by no means improbable. The indignation of the people
of Boston was at length excited to open opposition by the seizure of
Mr. Hancock’s sloop Liberty, for a violation of the revenue laws. Under
the idea that the sloop would not be safe at the wharf in their custody,
the custom-house officers had solicited aid from a ship of war which
lay in the harbor, the commander of which ordered the sloop to be cut
from her fastenings and brought under the guns of his ship. It was to
prevent this removal that the mob collected; many of the officers were
severely wounded in the scuffle, and the mob, being baffled in their
attempts to retain the sloop at the wharf, repaired to the houses of
the collector, comptroller, and other officers of the customs, where
they committed many acts of violence and injury to their property.
This riotous disposition continued for several days, during which
the commissioners applied to the governor for assistance, but his
excellency not being able to protect them, advised them to remove from
Boston; they consequently retired, first on board the Romney man-of-war,
and then to castle William. The excitement at Boston was greatly
increased about this time by the impressment of some seamen belonging
to that town by order of the officers of the Romney. The inhabitants
of Boston were assembled on this occasion, and their petition to the
governor, praying his interference to prevent such outrages for the
future, shows to what a state of alarm, anxiety, and even despair,
they were then reduced. ‘To contend,’ they said, ‘against our parent
state, is, in our idea, the most shocking and dreadful extremity; but
tamely to relinquish the only security we and our posterity retain for
the enjoyment of our lives and properties without one struggle, is so
humiliating and base, that we cannot support the reflection.’

The general court of Massachusetts having been dissolved by governor
Bernard, who refused to convene it again without his majesty’s
command, on the proposal of the selectmen of Boston to the several
towns in the colony, a convention met in that town on the 22d of
September, to deliberate on constitutional measures to obtain redress
of their grievances. The convention, disclaiming legislative authority,
petitioned the governor; made loyal professions; expressed its aversion
to standing armies, to tumults and disorders, its readiness to assist
in suppressing riots, and preserving the peace; recommended patience
and good order; and, after a short session, dissolved itself.

The day before the convention rose, advice was received that a
man-of-war and some transports from Halifax, with about nine hundred
troops, had arrived at Nantasket harbor. On the day after their arrival,
the fleet was brought to anchor near castle William. Having taken a
station which commanded the town, the troops, under cover of the cannon
of the ships, landed without molestation, and, to the number of upwards
of seven hundred men, marched, with muskets charged, bayonets fixed,
martial music, and the usual military parade, into the common. In
the evening, the selectmen of Boston were required to quarter the
two regiments in the town; but they absolutely refused. A temporary
shelter, however, in Faneuil hall, was permitted to one regiment that
was without its camp equipage. The next day, the state-house, by order
of the governor, was opened for the reception of the soldiers; and,
after the quarters were settled, two field-pieces, with the main guard,
were stationed just in its front. Every thing was calculated to excite
the indignation of the inhabitants. The lower floor of the state-house,
which had been used by gentlemen and merchants as an exchange, the
representatives-chamber, the court-house, Faneuil hall――places with
which were intimately associated ideas of justice and freedom, as well
as of convenience and utility――were now filled with troops of the line.

Guards were placed at the doors of the state-house, through which the
council must pass in going to their own chamber. The common was covered
with tents. Soldiers were constantly marching and countermarching to
relieve the guards. The sentinels challenged the inhabitants as they
passed. The Sabbath was profaned, and the devotion of the sanctuary
disturbed, by the sound of drums and other military music. There was
every appearance of a garrisoned town. The colonists felt disgusted and
injured, but not overawed, by the presence of such a body of soldiery.
After the troops had obtained quarters, the council were required
to provide barracks for them, agreeably to act of parliament; but
they resolutely declined any measure which might be construed into a
submission to that act. In a few weeks several more transports arrived
at Boston from Cork, having on board part of the sixty-fourth and
sixty-fifth British regiments, under colonels Mackey and Pomeroy.

The general court of Massachusetts was at length convened, on the 31st
of May, and their first act was to send a committee to the governor,
assuring him of their intention to make a thorough inquiry into the
grievances of the people, and to have them redressed; and demanding
of his excellency to order the removal of the forces from the harbor,
and from the gates of the capital, during the sitting of the assembly.
To this message the governor replied, ‘that he had no control of
the king’s troops stationed in the town or province, and that he had
received no orders for their removal.’

The assembly proved to be independent and resolute, and came to an
open breach with governor Bernard. This body was accordingly removed
to Cambridge, and the troops retained possession of the capital. On
the 6th of July, the assembly received a message from the governor,
desiring funds for the expenditures of his majesty’s troops, and
provision for their further quartering in Boston and Castle island,
according to act of parliament. This measure was strenuously resisted,
and all provision of the kind was peremptorily refused. The prorogation
of the assembly to the 10th of January following immediately ensued.

In August, 1769, Sir Francis Bernard was recalled, and left the
administration to lieutenant-governor Hutchinson. The occasion of his
taking leave was one of great joy to Boston. The bells were rung, guns
were fired from Mr. Hancock’s wharf, Liberty tree was covered with
flags, and in the evening a great bonfire was made upon Fort hill.

In 1770, lord North was elevated to the premiership; and his
administration will ever be celebrated by the fact, that it cost the
country more money, and lost it more territory, than that of any other
man. His first measure was for the repeal of the port duties of 1767,
with the exception of the duty on tea; this was to be retained in token
of the supremacy of parliament. This single reservation was of course
sufficient to frustrate all hopes of making this bill a peace-offering
to the Americans.

The public mind in the colonies was still farther agitated by the
continuance of the troops of the line in Boston. The inhabitants felt
that their presence was designed to overawe and control the expression
of their sentiments, and the military appear to have viewed their
residence in the town in the same light. Under the excitement that was
thus occasioned, affrays were frequently occurring between the populace
and the soldiers; and it would appear that, as might be expected,
neither party conducted themselves with prudence or forbearance. On
the one hand, the soldiers are represented as parading the town, armed
with heavy clubs, insulting and seeking occasion to quarrel with the
people;[107] while, on the other, the populace are declared to be the
aggressors, and the military to have acted on the defensive.[108] Early
in the evening of the 5th of March, the inhabitants were observed to
assemble in different quarters of the town; parties of soldiers were
also driving about the streets, as if both the one and the other had
something more than ordinary upon their minds.

About eight o’clock, one of the bells of the town was rung in such
manner as is usual in case of fire. This called people into the streets.
A large number assembled in the market-place, not far from King street,
armed with bludgeons, or clubs. A small fray between some of the
inhabitants arose at or near the barracks at the west part of the town,
but it was of little importance, and was soon over. A sentinel who
was posted at the custom-house, not far from the main guard, was next
insulted, and pelted with pieces of ice and other missiles, which
caused him to call to the main guard to protect him. Notice was soon
given to captain Preston, whose company was then on guard, and a
sergeant with six men was sent to protect the sentinel; but the captain,
to prevent any precipitate action, followed them himself. There seem to
have been but few people collected when the assault was first made on
the sentinel; but the sergeant’s guard drew a greater number together,
and they were more insulted than the sentinel had been, and received
frequent blows from snowballs and lumps of ice. Captain Preston
thereupon ordered them to charge; but this was no discouragement to
the assailants, who continued to pelt the guard, daring them to fire.
Some of the people who were behind the soldiers, and observed the
abuse of them, called on them to do so. At length one received a blow
with a club, which brought him to the ground; but, rising again, he
immediately fired, and all the rest, except one, followed the example.

This seems, from the evidence on the trials and the observation of
persons present, to have been the course of the material facts. Three
men were killed, two mortally wounded, who died soon after, and several
slightly wounded. The soldiers immediately withdrew to the main guard,
which was strengthened by additional companies. Two or three of the
persons who had seen the action ran to the lieutenant-governor’s house,
which was about half a mile distant, and begged he would go to King
street, where they feared a general action would come on between the
troops and the inhabitants. He went immediately, and, to satisfy the
people, called for captain Preston, and inquired why he had fired upon
the inhabitants without the direction of a civil magistrate. The noise
was so great that his answer could not be understood; and some persons,
who were apprehensive of the lieutenant-governor’s danger from the
general confusion, called out, ‘The town-house, the town-house!’ when,
with irresistible violence, he was forced up by the crowd into the
council chamber.

There demand was immediately made of him, to order the troops to
withdraw from the town-house to their barracks. He refused; but calling
from the balcony to the great body of people who remained in the street,
he expressed his great concern at the unhappy event; assured them
he would do every thing in his power to obtain a full and impartial
inquiry, that the law might have its course; and advised them to go
peaceably to their homes. Upon this there was a cry――‘Home, home!’ and
a great part separated, and went home. He then signified his opinion to
lieutenant-colonel Carr, that if the companies in arms were ordered to
their barracks, the streets would be cleared and the town in quiet for
that night. Upon their retiring, the rest of the inhabitants, except
those in the council chamber, retired also.

Lieutenant-colonel Dalrymple, at the desire of the lieutenant-governor,
came to the council chamber, while several justices were examining
persons who were present at the transactions of the evening. From the
evidence it was apparent that the justices would commit captain Preston,
if taken. Several hours passed before he could be found, and the people
suspected that he would not run the hazard of a trial; but at length
he surrendered himself to a warrant for apprehending him, and, having
been examined, was committed to prison. The next morning the soldiers
who were upon guard surrendered also, and were committed. This was
not sufficient to satisfy the people, and early in the forenoon they
were in motion again. The lieutenant-governor caused his council
to be summoned, and desired the two lieutenant-colonels of the
regiments to be present. The selectmen of Boston were waiting the
lieutenant-governor’s coming to council, and, being admitted, made
their representation, that, from the contentions arising from the
troops quartered in Boston, and, above all, from the tragedy of the
last night, the minds of the inhabitants were exceedingly disturbed;
that they would presently be assembled in a town meeting; and that,
unless the troops should be removed, the most terrible consequences
were to be expected.

The justices also of Boston and several of the neighboring towns had
assembled, and desired to signify their opinion, that it would not be
possible to keep the people under restraint, if the troops remained
in town. The lieutenant-governor acquainted both the selectmen and the
justices, that he had no authority to alter the place of destination of
the king’s troops; but that he expected the commanding officers of the
two regiments, and would let them know the applications which had been
made. Presently after their coming, a large committee from the town
meeting presented an address to the lieutenant-governor, declaring
it to be the unanimous opinion of the meeting that nothing could
rationally be expected to restore the peace of the town, ‘and prevent
blood and carnage,’ but the immediate removal of the troops. The
committee withdrew into another room to wait for an answer. Some of the
council urged the necessity of complying with the people’s demand; but
the lieutenant-governor declared that he would, upon no consideration
whatever, give orders for their removal. Lieutenant-colonel Dalrymple
then signified, that, as the twenty-ninth regiment had originally
been designed to be placed at the castle, and was now peculiarly
obnoxious to the town, he was content that it should be removed to the
castle, until the general’s pleasure should be known. The committee was
informed of this offer, and the lieutenant-governor rose from council,
intending to receive no further application upon the subject; but the
council prayed that he would meet them again in the afternoon, and
colonel Dalrymple desiring it also, he complied.

Before the council met again, it had been intimated to them that
the ‘desire’ of the governor and council to the commanding officer
to remove the troops, would cause him to do it, though he should
receive no authoritative ‘order.’ As soon as they met, a committee
from the town meeting attended with a second message, to acquaint
the lieutenant-governor that it was the unanimous voice of the people
assembled, consisting, as they said, of near three thousand persons,
that nothing less than a total and immediate removal of the troops
would satisfy them. Ultimately the scruples of the lieutenant-governor
were overcome, and he expressed his desire that the troops should be
wholly withdrawn from the town to the castle, which was accordingly
done. The funeral of the victims was attended with extraordinary pomp.
Most of the shops were closed, all the bells of the town tolled on the
occasion, and the corpses were followed to the grave by an immense
concourse of people arranged six abreast, the procession being closed
by a long train of carriages belonging to the principal gentry of the
town. Captain Preston and the party of soldiers were afterwards tried.
The captain and six of the men were acquitted, and two were brought in
guilty of manslaughter; a result which reflected great honor on John
Adams and Josiah Quincy, the council for the prisoners, and on the jury.

During the year 1771, nothing of moment occurred either in Boston or
the colonies. The encouragement given by the agreement of the merchants
to smuggling, occasioned continual contests with revenue officers; and
it appears that the magistrates, when appealed to, refused to interfere.
One circumstance, however, transpired, which must not be omitted.
Early in this year, Mr. Hutchinson received his appointment to the
office of governor of Massachusetts, an office which his political
opponents allege to have always been the darling object of his ambition;
while he maintains, that, however in ordinary times he might have
desired it, he now ‘determined, not only to desire to be excused
from the honor intended for him, but to be superseded in his place of
lieutenant-governor; and he wrote to the secretary of state accordingly.’

The occurrences of the year 1772, afforded new sources of mutual
animosity. The destruction of his majesty’s revenue schooner Gaspee,
was one of those popular excesses which highly incensed the British
ministry. Lieutenant Doddington, who commanded that vessel, had
become very obnoxious to the inhabitants of Rhode Island, by his
extraordinary zeal in the execution of the revenue laws. On the 9th of
June, the Providence packet was sailing into the harbor of Newport, and
lieutenant Doddington thought proper to require the captain to lower
his colors. This the captain of the packet deemed repugnant to his
patriotic feelings, and the Gaspee fired at the packet to bring her to:
the American, however, still persisted in holding on her course, and
by keeping in shoal water, dexterously contrived to run the schooner
aground in the chase.

As the tide was upon the ebb, the Gaspee was set fast for the night,
and afforded a tempting opportunity for retaliation; and a number
of fishermen, aided and encouraged by some of the most respectable
inhabitants of Providence, being determined to rid themselves of so
uncivil an inspector, in the middle of the night manned several boats,
and boarded the Gaspee. The lieutenant was wounded in the affray; but,
with every thing belonging to him, he was carefully conveyed on shore,
as were all his crew. The vessel, with her stores, was then burnt; and
the party returned unmolested to their homes. When the governor became
acquainted with this event, he offered a reward of five hundred pounds
for the discovery of the offenders, and the royal pardon to those
who would confess their guilt. Commissioners were appointed also to
investigate the offence, and bring the perpetrators to justice; but,
after remaining some time in session, they reported that they could
obtain no evidence, and thus the affair terminated; a circumstance
which forcibly illustrates the inviolable brotherhood which then united
the people against the government.

Active resistance to the measures of the British government in
relation to the colonies, had for some time been principally confined
to Massachusetts. The other colonists, however, had not been idle or
indifferent spectators of the scenes that had passed in Massachusetts.
To remain long in their present state seemed impossible; and in
the event of an opposition by force, unity of action, as well as of
sentiment, was all important. To promote this object, the house of
burgesses in Virginia originated what ultimately proved a powerful
engine of resistance――a committee for corresponding with the
legislatures of the several colonies; and by this means a confidential
communication and interchange of opinions was kept up between them.

The British government determined to carry the duty on tea into effect,
and the East India company were authorized to export their tea free
of duties to all places whatever; by which means it could be furnished
more cheaply in America than before it had been made a source of
revenue.

Confident of finding a market at their reduced prices, the company
freighted several ships with that article, and appointed agents for the
disposal of it. Cargoes were sent to New York, Philadelphia, Charleston,
and Boston. The inhabitants of the two former cities sent the ships
back to London; and in the latter the tea was unloaded and stored in
cellars, where it finally perished.

At Boston, before the vessels arrived with it, a town meeting was
called to devise measures to prevent the landing and sale within the
province. The agreement not to use tea while a duty was imposed was now
solemnly renewed; and a committee was chosen to request the consignees
of the East India company neither to sell nor unlade the tea which
should be brought into the harbor. They communicated the wishes of the
town to the merchants, who were to have the custody and sale of the
tea; but they declined making any such promise, as they had received
no orders or directions on the subject. On the arrival of the vessels
with the tea in the harbor of Boston, another meeting of the citizens
was immediately called. ‘The hour of destruction,’ it was said, ‘or
of manly opposition, had now come;’ and all who were friends to the
country were invited to attend, ‘to make an united and successful
resistance to this last and worst measure of the administration.’ A
great number of the people assembled from the adjoining towns, as well
as from the capital, in the celebrated Faneuil hall, the usual place of
meeting on such occasions, but the meeting was soon adjourned to one of
the largest churches in the town. Here it was voted, as it had been at
a meeting before the tea arrived, that they would use all lawful means
to prevent its being landed, and to have it returned immediately to
England.

After several days spent in negotiations, the consignees still refused
to return the tea, and, fearing the vengeance of an injured people,
they retired to the castle. The owner of the ship which brought the
tea was unable to obtain a pass for her sailing, as the officer was
in the interest of the British ministers. Application was then made
to the governor, to order that a pass be given for the vessel; but he
declined interfering in the affair. When it was found no satisfactory
arrangement could be effected, the meeting broke up; but, late in the
evening, a number of men, disguised as Mohawk Indians, proceeded to the
vessels, then lying at the wharf, which had the tea on board, and in
a short time every chest was taken out, and the contents thrown into
the sea; but no injury was done to any other part of their cargoes. The
inhabitants of the town, generally, had no knowledge of the event until
the next day. It is supposed, the number of those concerned in the
affair was about fifty; but who they were has been only a matter of
conjecture to the present day.


                      PROGRESS OF THE REVOLUTION.

The British ministry appear to have been highly gratified that the town
of Boston, which they ever regarded as the focus of sedition in America,
had rendered itself, by the violent destruction of the property of the
East India company, obnoxious to their severest vengeance. On the 7th
of March lord North presented a message from his majesty to both houses
of parliament, commenting on the outrageous proceedings at the town and
port of Boston. In a few days a bill was introduced ‘for the immediate
removal of the officers concerned in the collection of customs from
Boston, and to discontinue the landing and discharging, lading and
shipping, of goods, wares, and merchandise, at Boston, or within
the harbor thereof.’ The bill also levied a fine upon the town, as
a compensation to the East India company for the destruction of their
teas, and was to continue in force during the pleasure of the king. The
opposition to this measure was very slight, and it was finally carried
in both houses without a division.

This, however, was only a part of lord North’s scheme of coercion.
He proposed two other bills, which were intended to strike terror into
the province of Massachusetts, and to deter the other colonies from
following her example. By one of these, the constitution and charter
of the province were completely subverted, all power taken out of the
hands of the people, and placed in those of the servants of the crown.
The third scheme of lord North was the introduction of ‘a bill for
the impartial administration of justice in Massachusetts.’ By this
act, persons informed against or indicted for any act done for the
support of the laws of the revenue, or for the suppression of riots
in Massachusetts, might by the governor, with the advice of the
council, be sent for trial to any other colony, or to Great Britain;
an enactment which, in effect, conferred impunity on the officers of
the crown, however odious might be their violations of the law.

These plans of the administration were opposed by Burke, lord Chatham,
Barré, and others, in language of the highest indignation. They
originated in mistaken views of the opinion and temper of the people.
The government, too, maintained that any measures were justifiable for
supporting the authority of the king and parliament, and calculated on
bringing the refractory and disaffected to submission by severity and
force.

As a measure indicative of a determination to conduct the proceedings
against the refractory colonists with the utmost vigor, general Gage
was appointed, with powers of the most unlimited extent, to supersede
governor Hutchinson. The offices of governor of the province of
Massachusetts and commander of his majesty’s forces in America were
united in his person. The intelligence of the passing of the Boston
port bill had preceded general Gage a few days. On the day after his
arrival, the general court having been dissolved by the late governor,
a town meeting was convened and very numerously attended. They declared
and resolved, ‘that the impolicy, injustice, inhumanity, and cruelty
of the act, exceed all their powers of expression; and therefore,’
they say, ‘we leave it to the censure of others, and appeal to God and
the world.’ They also declared it as their opinion, that, ‘if the other
colonies come into a joint resolution to stop all importation from,
and exportation to, Great Britain, and every part of the West Indies,
till the act be repealed, the same would prove the salvation of North
America and her liberties.’

The idea was probably entertained by the British ministry, that
the other colonies would be inclined rather to avail themselves
of the commercial advantages which the closing of one of the chief
sea-ports would open to them, than to make common cause with Boston,
at the hazard of incurring a similar penalty. In this instance, as in
most others, the government made a great miscalculation of American
character. The several colonies lost no time in expressing the deepest
sympathy for the sufferings of the inhabitants of Boston, and in
contributing to their pecuniary necessities, as well as in affording
them moral countenance. In this patriotic course Virginia took the lead.

The convention of Virginia recommended to the committee of
correspondence, that they should communicate with their several
corresponding committees, on the expediency of appointing deputies from
the several colonies of British America, to meet in general congress
at such place annually as might be deemed most convenient; there to
deliberate on those general measures which the united interests of
America might from time to time require.

Similar expressions of determined opposition to the port bill, and
assurances of support to the disfranchised citizens of Boston, were
made wherever the act became known. In some places it was printed
upon mourning paper, and hawked about the streets; in others it was
publicly burned, with every demonstration of abhorrence. At New York
there was a considerable struggle between the friends of administration
and the friends of liberty, but the latter at length prevailed, by
the influence and management of two individuals, who had on several
occasions manifested great activity and zeal in their opposition to
the obnoxious measures of the ministry. Addresses were also sent from
Pennsylvania, the Carolinas, and some other provinces, to the committee
of Boston, assuring them of support, and declaring that they considered
the cause of Boston as the common cause of the country.

The two last of the coercive enactments of the British legislature did
not reach Boston till July. By one, the governor alone was authorized
to appoint all civil officers; and by the other, the counsellors were
to be selected by the king and his ministers in England. A list of
those appointed was soon made known, and gave great dissatisfaction,
as they were the most unpopular characters in the province. To add to
the anxiety which now pervaded every breast, a large military force
was ordered into the province, an act of parliament having been passed,
which directed the governor to provide quarters for them in any town he
might choose.

It had been agreed by the delegates which had now been appointed by
most of the colonies, that they should meet in general congress in
September; and the desire to await the result of its determinations
prevented any violent proceedings during the interim; while, however,
great attention was given by the inhabitants to military discipline.
Independent companies were formed, who elected their own officers,
many of whom had served during the French war, and were well able to
instruct their pupils in military tactics. On the other hand, general
Gage was no less active in adopting measures calculated, in his
estimation, to overawe the inhabitants, and to deter them from having
recourse to force. With this view, although ostensibly for the purpose
of preventing desertion, he fortified the isthmus which connects Boston
with the main land, called Boston neck, the only entrance by land into
the town of Boston, and therefore the only route by which, according to
the port bill, the merchants and traders could carry on their business.
This measure, however, served only the more to exasperate the people,
and the subsequent seizure of the gunpowder at Charlestown added to
their alarm.

Before daybreak, on the 1st of September, general Gage despatched
a party of soldiers to bring into his own custody a quantity of
provincial powder from the arsenal at Charlestown. Immediately this
transaction became generally known, the inhabitants of the neighboring
towns flew to arms, and agreed on Cambridge as a general rendezvous;
and it was with great difficulty that they were dissuaded, by their
more prudent leaders, from marching at once to Boston to require
the restoration of the powder, or, in case of refusal, to attack the
garrison.

It was under the excitement of these circumstances that, in defiance
of the act of parliament, and the governor’s proclamation founded
upon it prohibiting public assemblies, the county of Suffolk, of which
Boston was the capital, elected delegates to meet for the purpose of
taking into consideration the most proper course to be adopted in the
present state of affairs. With a boldness and decision surpassing that
of any former assembly, they passed resolutions declaring themselves
constitutionally exempt from all obedience to the late measures of the
British parliament, that the government of the province was in fact
dissolved, and that they should consider all persons who dared to act
in any official capacity under the new regulations as open enemies
of their country. They sent a copy of their resolutions, and of their
letter to the governor, with his answer, to the general congress, upon
whose judgment they rested the decision of their future conduct.

This congress, which will ever be celebrated in the page of history,
and held sacred in the annals of liberty, met at Philadelphia, on
the 5th of September. Representatives from eleven of the colonies
were present at the opening, and those from North Carolina arrived
shortly after; Georgia alone having demurred to send delegates. Peyton
Randolph, of Virginia, was elected president, and Charles Thompson, of
Philadelphia, secretary; and after a brief controversy on the mode of
voting, which resulted in the determination that each province should
have only one vote, whatever number of delegates might be present, the
assembly proceeded to business with all the solemnity of an organized
legislature.

‘The most eminent men of the various colonies were now, for the first
time, brought together. They were known to each other by fame, but they
were personally strangers. The meeting was awfully solemn. The object
which had called them together was of incalculable magnitude. The
liberties of no less than three millions of people, with that of all
their posterity, were staked on the wisdom and energy of their councils.
No wonder, then, at the long and deep silence which is said to have
followed upon their organization; at the anxiety with which the members
looked round upon each other, and the reluctance which every individual
felt to open a business so fearfully momentous. In the midst of this
deep and death-like silence, and just when it was beginning to become
painfully embarrassing, Mr. Henry arose slowly, as if borne down by
the weight of the subject. After faltering, according to his habit,
through a most impressive exordium, in which he merely echoed back
the consciousness of every other heart, in deploring his inability to
do justice to the occasion, he launched gradually into a recital of
the colonial wrongs. Rising, as he advanced, with the grandeur of his
subject, and glowing at length with all the majesty of the occasion,
his speech seemed more than that of mortal man.’[109] Mr. Henry was
followed by Mr. Richard Henry Lee, in a speech scarcely less powerful,
and still more replete with classic eloquence. One spirit of ardent
love of liberty pervaded every breast, and produced a unanimity as
advantageous to the cause they advocated, as it was unexpected and
appalling to their adversaries.

One of the first acts of this assembly was the appointment of a
committee, consisting of two from each colony, to state the rights
of the colonists in general, the several instances in which those
rights had been violated, and the means most proper to be pursued for
obtaining a restoration of them. The congress proceeded with great
deliberation; its debates were held with closed doors, and it was not
till the 14th of October that they published a series of resolutions,
embodying in spirited language their opinions on the chief subjects of
difference between the colonies and the mother country. An agreement
was also signed by all the members to abstain from commercial
intercourse with Great Britain.

Upon the principles and in the spirit of the preceding resolutions,
was composed an address to the people of Great Britain, as also one
to the king; a statement to the aggrieved colonies, and an address to
the inhabitants of Canada. These documents were drawn up with great
ability. The gentlemen selected from the several colonies for this
memorable congress were no less distinguished for their talents than
their patriotism; and when perusing these state papers, no one can
fail to regret that the speeches delivered on that occasion by such
distinguished statesmen and orators as John Adams, John Jay, Richard
Henry Lee, Patrick Henry, John Dickinson, Samuel Chase, John Rutledge,
and many others of that illustrious band of patriots, are lost to the
world.

During the session of the congress most of the colonies had adopted the
plan of instituting provincial assemblies, regardless of their old form
of government. In Massachusetts, general Gage had convoked a general
court, to assemble at Salem, on the 5th of October; but events which
subsequently transpired, induced him to issue a proclamation dissolving
the assembly. The members, however, regarded that proclamation as
illegal, and met at Salem on the day appointed. After waiting in vain
the whole day for the governor’s appearance to administer the oaths,
they resolved themselves into a provincial congress, and adjourned
to Concord. After appointing John Hancock president, and addressing
a communication to the governor, they again adjourned, to meet at
Cambridge on the 17th. Here they appointed a committee of safety, and
a committee of supplies. They also voted to enlist one-fourth of the
militia as minute men, to be frequently drilled, and held in readiness
for service at a minute’s warning; and after appointing three general
officers, they adjourned to the 23d of November.

Before the close of the year the busy note of preparation resounded
through almost every colony. The Massachusetts committees were
indefatigable in providing for the most vigorous defence in the spring.
They had procured all sorts of military supplies for the service
of twelve thousand men, and had engaged the assistance of the three
neighboring provinces of New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut.

While these hostile preparations were proceeding in America, the
British monarch was meeting a new parliament. The king informed his
parliament, that a most daring resistance and disobedience to the
law still prevailed in Massachusetts, and had broken out in fresh
violences; that these proceedings had been countenanced and encouraged
in the other colonies, and that unwarrantable attempts had been made to
obstruct the commerce of the kingdom, by unlawful combinations; and he
expressed his firm determination to withstand every attempt to weaken
or impair the supreme authority of parliament over all the dominions
of the crown. Addresses in answer to the speech, concurring in the
sentiments expressed by the king, were carried in both houses, by large
majorities.

After the recess, parliament met on the 20th of January, and on the
same day lord Chatham moved, ‘That an humble address be presented to
his majesty, most humbly to advise and beseech his majesty, that, in
order to open the way towards our happy settlement of the dangerous
troubles in America, by beginning to allay ferments and soften
animosities there; and, above all, for preventing in the mean time
any sudden and fatal catastrophe at Boston, now suffering under daily
irritation of an army before their eyes, posted in their town; it may
graciously please his majesty that immediate orders may be despatched
to general Gage for removing his majesty’s forces from the town of
Boston, as soon as the rigor of the season and other circumstances,
indispensable to the safety and accommodation of the said troops,
may render the same practicable.’ This motion was supported by one
of the most eloquent and impressive speeches ever delivered by that
distinguished statesman and orator.

Lord Chatham’s motion was seconded by lord Camden, who affirmed that
‘whenever oppression begins, resistance becomes lawful and right;’ and
it was ably supported by the marquis of Rockingham and lord Shelburne;
but, like all other motions opposed to the views of the ministry,
it was lost by a large majority. The administration declared their
determination never to relax in their measures of coercion, until
America was forced into obedience. This, however, did not prevent
lord Chatham from presenting to the house, soon afterwards, a bill,
containing his favorite plan ‘for settling the troubles, and for
asserting the supreme legislative authority and superintending power of
Great Britain over the colonies.’ Though this bill, as it contained a
direct avowal of the supreme authority of parliament over the colonies,
in all cases except that of taxation, could never have received the
assent of the Americans, yet, as it expressly denied the parliamentary
power of taxing the colonies, without the consent of their assemblies,
and made other concessions, it was rejected by a large majority on its
first reading.[110]

On the 20th of February, lord North astonished both his friends and
opponents, by introducing into the house of commons a proposition of
a conciliatory nature. This was at first opposed from all quarters,
but those who usually acted with the minister were finally persuaded
to join him in this measure. But it did not prevent Mr. Burke and
Mr. Hartley from presenting to the house their respective plans
of reconciliation. They were of course rejected by the ministerial
majority.

While most of the colonies afforded sufficient occupation for the
watchfulness of the British government, those of New England called
forth the most vigorous efforts of the royalists, both by sea and
land. The naval forces were frequently engaged in destroying armed
American vessels, congress having fitted out several, which were very
successful in capturing store ships sent with supplies of provisions
and ammunition for the royal army. At Gloucester, the Falcon sloop of
war, having chased an American vessel into the harbor, despatched three
boats, with about forty men, to bring her off, when the party were so
warmly received by the militia who had collected on the shore, that the
captain thought it necessary to send a reinforcement, and to commence
cannonading the town. A very smart action ensued, which was kept up for
several hours, but resulted in the complete defeat of the assailants,
leaving upwards of thirty prisoners in the hands of the Americans.
This repulse excited the British to deeds of revenge upon several of
the defenceless towns on the coast, and to declare that many of them
should be reduced to ashes, unless the inhabitants consented to an
unconditional compliance with all their demands.

Another occurrence also tended to mutual exasperation. In compliance
with a resolution of the provincial congress to prevent tories from
conveying out their effects, the inhabitants of Falmouth, in the
north-eastern part of Massachusetts, had obstructed the loading of a
mast ship. The destruction of the town was therefore determined on, as
an example of vindictive punishment. Captain Mowat, detached for that
purpose with armed vessels by admiral Greaves, arrived off the place on
the evening of the 17th of October, and gave notice to the inhabitants
that he would allow them two hours ‘to remove the human species.’ The
next day, captain Mowat commenced a furious cannonade and bombardment;
and a great number of people, standing on the heights, were spectators
of the conflagration, which reduced many of them to penury and despair.
More than four hundred houses and stores were burnt. Newport, Rhode
Island, being threatened with a similar attack, was compelled to
stipulate for a weekly supply to avert it.

Warlike operations were not confined to the sea-ports. Their success in
the reduction of Ticonderoga and Crown Point stimulated the Americans
to more extensive operations in the north; and the movements of Sir G.
Carleton, the governor of Canada, appeared to call for them, congress
having reason to believe that a formidable invasion was intended from
that quarter. The management of military affairs in this department
had been committed to the generals Schuyler and Montgomery. On the 10th
of September, about one thousand American troops effected a landing
at St. John’s, the first British port in Canada, lying one hundred
and fifteen miles only to the northward of Ticonderoga, but found it
advisable to retreat to Isle aux Noix, twelve miles south of St. John’s.
An extremely bad state of health soon after inducing general Schuyler
to retire to Ticonderoga, the command devolved on general Montgomery.
That enterprising officer in a few days returned to the vicinity of
St. John’s, and opened a battery against it; and the reduction of fort
Chamblee, by a small detachment, giving him possession of six tons of
gunpowder, enabled him to prosecute the siege of St. John’s with vigor.
General Carleton advanced against him with about eight hundred men; but,
in attempting to cross the St. Lawrence, with the intention of landing
at Langueil, he was attacked by colonel Warner, at the head of three
hundred Green Mountain boys, and compelled to retire with precipitancy.
This repulse induced the garrison of St. John’s to surrender, on
honorable terms of capitulation.

While Montgomery was prosecuting the siege of St. John’s, colonel Ethan
Allen, who had been despatched on a service necessary to that object,
hearing that Montreal was in a defenceless state, attempted its capture
without the knowledge of his superior in command; he was, however,
with a part of his detachment, taken prisoner, and, to the disgrace of
general Carleton, loaded with irons, and in that state sent to England.
After the capture of St. John’s, Montgomery directed his attention
to Montreal, with different success. On his approach, the few British
troops there repaired on board the shipping, in hopes of escaping down
the river; but general Prescot, and several officers, with about one
hundred and twenty privates, were intercepted, and made prisoners on
capitulation; eleven sail of vessels, with all their contents, fell
into the hands of the provincials. Governor Carleton was secretly
conveyed away in a boat with muffled paddles, and arrived safely
at Quebec. General Montgomery, leaving some troops in Montreal, and
sending detachments into different parts of the province to encourage
the Canadians and to forward provisions, advanced with his little army
to Quebec, where he found, to his surprise, that a body of American
troops had arrived before.

General Washington, foreseeing that the whole force of Canada would
be concentrated about Montreal, had projected an expedition against
Quebec in a different direction from that of Montgomery. His plan was
to send out a detachment from his camp before Boston, to march by way
of Kennebec river; and, passing through the dreary wilderness lying
between the settled parts of the province of Maine and the St. Lawrence,
to penetrate into Canada about ninety miles below Montreal. This
extraordinary and most arduous enterprise was committed to colonel
Arnold, who, with one thousand one hundred men, consisting of New
England infantry, some volunteers, a company of artillery, and three
companies of riflemen, commenced his march on the 13th of September. It
is almost impossible to conceive the labor, hardships, and difficulties
which this detachment had to encounter in their progress up the rapid
stream of the Kennebec, frequently interrupted by falls, where they
were obliged to land and carry the boats upon their shoulders, until
they surmounted them, through a country wholly uninhabited, with a
scanty supply of provisions, the season cold and rainy, and the men
daily dropping down with fatigue, sickness and hunger.

Arnold was indefatigable in his endeavors to alleviate the distresses
of his men, but to procure provisions for them was not in his power.
They were at one time reduced to so great an extremity of hunger, that
the dogs belonging to the army were killed and eaten, and many of the
soldiers devoured their leather cartouch boxes. Arnold and his party
at length arrived at Point Levi, opposite the town of Quebec: but in
consequence of information the British had received, by the treachery
of the Indian to whom Arnold had intrusted a letter to general Schuyler,
the boats which he expected to find there to transport his troops
across the river had been removed, and the enemy were no longer in a
state to be surprised. Arnold, however, was not to be deterred from
attempting something against the town; he calculated strongly upon the
defection of the inhabitants: and having supplied himself with canoes,
he crossed the river in the night, and gained possession of the heights
of Abraham. Here, though he had no artillery, and scarcely half the
number of men that composed the garrison of the town, he made a bold
experiment to try the loyalty of the enemy’s troops, by sending a flag
to summon them to surrender. But no message would be admitted, and
Arnold found himself compelled to retire to more comfortable quarters,
where he awaited the arrival of general Montgomery.

  Illustration: Voyage up the Kennebec.

General Carleton, who, as we have already stated, had arrived at
Quebec, had taken the best measures for its defence, and was prepared
to receive him. In a few days the American general opened a six-gun
battery within about seven hundred yards of the walls; but his
artillery was too light to make a breach, and he could do nothing more
than amuse the enemy, and conceal his real purpose. After continuing a
siege nearly a month, he resolved on a desperate attempt to carry the
place by escalade. To distract the garrison, two feigned attacks were
made on the upper town by two divisions of the army under majors Brown
and Livingston, while two real attacks on opposite sides of the lower
town were made by two other divisions under Montgomery and Arnold.
Early in the morning of the last day in the year, the signal was given,
and the several divisions moved to the assault in the midst of a heavy
fall of snow, which covered the assailants from the sight of the enemy.
Montgomery, at the head of the New York troops, advanced along the St.
Lawrence, by Aunce de Mere, under cape Diamond.

The first barrier to be surmounted on that side was defended by a
battery, in which were mounted a few pieces of artillery, in front of
which were a blockhouse and picket. The guard at the blockhouse, after
giving a random fire, threw away their arms and fled to the barrier,
and for a time the battery itself was deserted. Enormous piles of
ice impeded the progress of the Americans, who, pressing forward in a
narrow defile, reached at length the blockhouse and picket. Montgomery,
who was in front, assisted in cutting down or pulling up the pickets,
and advanced boldly and rapidly at the head of about two hundred men,
to force the barrier. By this time one or two persons had ventured to
return to the battery, and, seizing a slow match, discharged one of the
guns. Casual as this fire appeared, it was fatal to general Montgomery
and to two valuable young officers near his person, who, together with
his orderly sergeant and a private, were killed on the spot. Colonel
Campbell, on whom the command devolved, precipitately retired with the
remainder of the division.

In the mean time, colonel Arnold, at the head of about three hundred
and fifty men, made a desperate attack on the opposite side. Advancing
with the utmost intrepidity along the St. Charles, through a narrow
path, exposed to an incessant fire of grape-shot and musketry, as he
approached the first barrier at the Saut des Matelots, he received a
musket ball in the leg, which shattered the bone, and he was carried
off to the camp. Captain Morgan, who commanded a company of Virginia
riflemen, rushed forward to the batteries at their head, and received
a discharge of grape-shot, which killed one man only. A few rifles were
immediately fired into the embrasures, and the barricade was mounted;
the battery was instantly deserted, but the captain of the guard, with
the greater part of his men, fell into the hands of the Americans.
Morgan formed his men, but from the darkness of the night and total
ignorance of the situation of the town, it was judged unadvisable to
proceed. He was soon joined by lieutenant-colonel Green and majors
Bigelow and Meigs, with several fragments of companies, amounting
collectively to about two hundred men. At daylight this gallant party
was again formed; but after a bloody and desperate engagement, in which
they sustained the force of the whole garrison three hours, they were
compelled to surrender themselves prisoners of war.[111]

After this brave but disastrous assault, the commander of the American
troops did not muster more than four hundred effective men: in the
hope, however, of receiving reinforcements, they maintained a position
at a short distance from Quebec; and, although the garrison was very
superior in numbers, the bravery the colonists had evinced, and the
mixed character of his own troops, disinclined general Carleton from
leaving his ramparts to attack the Americans.

In the end of May and beginning of June, generals Howe, Burgoyne,
and Clinton, with reinforcements from Britain, arrived at Boston.
The British general, in common with his troops, resolved on active
operations; but every movement which they made was watched with an
attentive eye by zealous Americans in Boston, who found means to
penetrate every design before it was carried into execution, and to
transmit secret intelligence to the American head-quarters. About the
middle of June, it was suspected that general Gage intended to cross
the river Charles, on the north side of Boston, and take possession of
Breed’s or Bunker’s hill, in the vicinity of Charlestown.

On the night of the 16th of June, upwards of one thousand Americans,
under colonel William Prescot, were ordered to proceed to this eminence,
and to intrench themselves upon it. The movement was not without
difficulty and danger; for British vessels of war were lying both in
the Medford and Charles, on each side of the narrow peninsula. But
the provincials marched to the place in profound silence; and, about
midnight, began their operations. They labored with such assiduity,
that before the dawn of day they had thrown up a breastwork, nearly
across the peninsula, and constructed a small redoubt on their right.

About four in the morning of the 17th of June, the American works
were observed by the captain of the Lively sloop of war, lying in the
river Charles, who instantly began a heavy fire upon them, and was soon
joined by the other ships, and by the battery on Copp’s hill at Boston.
The Americans steadily continued their labors under a furious cannonade
and an incessant shower of balls and bombs; but so harmless was this
fearful noise that they lost only one man in the course of the morning.
As in this post the Americans overlooked Boston, it was necessary to
dislodge them; and, for this purpose, soon after mid-day, a detachment
of British troops, under the command of generals Howe and Pigot,
crossed the river in boats, and landed near the point of the peninsula;
but, on observing the formidable position of the Americans, they waited
for a reinforcement, which soon arrived. Meanwhile the steeples and the
roofs of the houses in Boston, the eminences in the adjacent country,
and the ships in the rivers, were crowded with anxious spectators,
agitated by different hopes and fears according to their different
attachments and interests. The main body of the American army encamped
beyond Charlestown neck were looking on; and generals Clinton and
Burgoyne, and other British officers of high rank, took their station
in the battery on Copp’s hill to view the approaching conflict.

While general Howe waited for this reinforcement, the Americans
received an accession of strength, under generals Warren and Pomeroy,
who crossed Charlestown neck under a brisk cannonade from the shipping
in the rivers, to join their countrymen and take part in the battle.
By their arrival the provincial force was increased to fifteen hundred
at least. The Americans also took advantage of general Howe’s halt to
strengthen part of their position, by pulling down some rail-fences,
forming the stakes into two parallel lines at a short distance from
each other, and filling the interval with hay.

The British detachment, consisting of upwards of two thousand men,
advanced towards the American line. The light infantry, commanded
by general Howe, was on the right; the grenadiers, under general
Pigot, on the left. They began the attack by a brisk cannonade from
some field-pieces and howitzers, the troops proceeding slowly, and
sometimes halting, to give time to the artillery to produce some
effect. On advancing, the left set fire to Charlestown, a thriving town,
containing about three hundred wooden houses, besides other buildings,
and entirely consumed it. The rising flames added not a little to the
grandeur and solemnity of the scene.

Secure behind their intrenchments, the Americans reserved their fire,
and silently waited the approach of the British, till within fifty or
sixty yards, when they poured upon them an incessant and well directed
discharge of musketry. The British returned the fire for some time,
without attempting to advance; but the discharge from the American line
was so close and so destructive, that the troops at length gave way,
and fell back towards the landing place. By the vigorous exertions of
their officers, however, they were again brought to the charge; and the
Americans, again reserving their fire till the troops were very near,
directed it against them with the same deadly aim as before. Many fell:
at one time, general Howe, for a few seconds, was left alone, every
officer and soldier near him having been killed or wounded. The troops
gave way a second time; but at that critical moment Sir Henry Clinton
arrived from Boston, and was very active in leading them back to a
third and more successful attack, in which they entered the American
lines with fixed bayonets. The colonists had nearly exhausted their
powder, and hence their fire had slackened. Being mostly armed with
old rusty muskets, and ill provided with bayonets, they were unprepared
for a close encounter. They therefore retreated; and, in passing
Charlestown neck, were exposed to the fire of the Glasgow sloop of war,
and two floating batteries, from which they sustained their greatest
loss.

  Illustration: Battle of Bunker’s Hill.

The British troops had suffered so severely in the engagement, that no
pursuit was ordered; and, indeed, a pursuit could have served no good
purpose, as the main body of the American army was at a small distance
beyond the neck, and the royal troops were in no condition to encounter
it. They were protected merely by the ships of war and floating
batteries in the rivers Charles and Medford. The battle lasted about
an hour, during the greater part of which time there was an incessant
blaze of musketry from the American line.

This was a severe battle; and, considering the numbers engaged,
extremely destructive to the British; for nearly one half of the
detachment fell. According to the return made by general Gage, they
lost one thousand and fifty-four men; two hundred and twenty-six of
whom were slain on the field, and eight hundred and twenty-eight
wounded. Nineteen commissioned officers were killed, and seventy
wounded; among the former was major Pitcairn, whose inconsiderate
conduct at Lexington had occasioned the first shedding of blood.

Among the killed on the side of the Americans were several lamented
officers; but the death of general Warren was particularly regretted.
By profession this gentleman was a physician of unsullied reputation.
He did every thing in his power to prevent a rupture; but when an
appeal to arms became unavoidable he joined the colonial standard.

After the engagement the British intrenched themselves on Bunker’s
hill, the scene of action; and the Americans on Prospect hill, at a
small distance in front of them. The colonists had been driven from
their intrenchments; the royal troops had suffered severely in the
battle, and neither party was forward to renew the conflict. Each
fortified his post, and stood on the defensive.

On the 2d of July, general Washington, accompanied by general Lee and
several other officers of rank, arrived at Cambridge, the head-quarters
of the provincial army. On his journey he had everywhere been received
with much respect, and escorted by companies of gentlemen, who
volunteered their services on the occasion.

The existence of armed vessels in the service of the colonies has
already been adverted to. From the peculiar situation of Massachusetts,
it was perceived that important advantages might be gained by employing
armed vessels on the coasts, to prevent the British from collecting
provisions from any places accessible to them, and to capture the
enemy’s ships loaded with military stores. Before the subject of a
naval armament was taken up by congress, it appears that not only
Massachusetts, but Rhode Island and Connecticut had each of them
two vessels, at least, fitted, armed, and equipped by the colonial
authorities. Subsequently, the general court of Massachusetts passed
an act for encouraging the fitting out of armed vessels to defend the
sea-coast of America, and for erecting a court to try and condemn all
vessels that should be found infesting the same. Shortly afterwards, a
committee of congress, appointed to devise ways and means for fitting
out a naval armament, brought in their report, which was adopted. It
was resolved to fit out for sea thirteen ships, five of thirty-two guns,
five of twenty-eight, and three of twenty-four guns; a committee was
nominated, with full powers to carry the report into execution with all
possible expedition, and Ezekiel Hopkins was appointed commander. Thus
commenced the American navy. The advantages that had been anticipated
from armed vessels were soon experienced. Captain Manly, of Marblehead,
one of the first who put to sea, on the 29th of November took an
ordnance brig from Woolwich, containing, besides a large brass mortar,
several pieces of fine brass cannon, a large quantity of small arms and
ammunition, with all kinds of tools, utensils, and machines, necessary
for camps and artillery; and, nine days after, three ships, from London,
Glasgow, and Liverpool, with various stores for the British army. A
brig, with fifteen thousand pounds of powder, was captured by a vessel
fitted out by the council of safety of South Carolina. The supplies
obtained by these means were of vast importance to the American army,
which was in very great want of ammunition and military stores.

Among other measures tending to promote the general welfare, congress
resolved that a line of posts should be appointed from Falmouth, in New
England, to Savannah, in Georgia; and Benjamin Franklin was unanimously
chosen postmaster-general. They also directed the establishment of an
hospital, adequate to the necessities of an army consisting of twenty
thousand men; and Dr. Church was appointed director and physician of
the establishment.[112]

General Washington, on his first arrival in camp, found the materials
for a good army; but they were in the crudest state. The troops having
been raised by different colonial governments, no uniformity existed
among the regiments; and imbued with the spirit of that very liberty
for which they were preparing to fight, and unaccustomed to discipline,
they neither felt an inclination to be subject to military rules, nor
realized the importance of being so. The difficulty of establishing
subordination was greatly increased by the shortness of the terms
of enlistment, some of which were to expire in November, and none to
continue longer than December. Various causes operated to lead congress
to the almost fatal plan of temporary military establishments. Among
the most important of these were a prospect of accommodation with the
parent state, and the want of experience in the management of war upon
an extensive scale.

The fear of accumulating expenses which the resources of the country
could not discharge, had a further influence to deter the American
government from the adoption of permanent military establishments;
for, although the recommendations of congress, and the regulations of
state conventions, had, in the day of enthusiasm, the force of law,
yet the ruling power thought it inexpedient to attempt to raise large
sums by direct taxes, at a time when the commerce of the country was
annihilated, and the cultivators of the ground were subjected to heavy
services in the field of war. The only recourse was to a paper medium,
without funds for its redemption, or for the support of its credit,
and therefore of necessity subject to depreciation, and, in its nature,
capable of only a temporary currency; congress, therefore, was justly
afraid of the expense of a permanent army. Jealousy of a standing army
had also a powerful influence upon the military arrangements of America.
Indeed this spirit early insinuated itself into the legislative bodies
of the colonies, and was displayed in many of their measures: an
indication of this feeling appears in the address presented by the
provincial assembly of New York to general Washington, while on his
journey to the American camp. ‘We have the fullest assurance,’ say they,
‘that whenever this important contest shall be decided, by that fondest
wish of each American soul, an accommodation with our mother country,
you will cheerfully resign the important deposit committed to your
hands, and reassume the character of our worthiest citizen.’

The want of subordination was by no means the only difficulty with
which the commander-in-chief had to contend; he soon made the alarming
discovery, that there was no more powder than would furnish each man
with nine cartridges. Although this dangerous deficiency was carefully
concealed from the enemy, yet the want of bayonets, which was very
considerable, could not be kept secret. The army was also so destitute
of tents as to be unavoidably lodged in barracks, a circumstance
extremely unfavorable to sudden movements, to health, and to discipline.
There was no commissary-general, and therefore no systematic
arrangement for obtaining provisions; and a supply of clothes was
rendered peculiarly difficult by the non-importation agreements. Added
to this there was a total want of engineers, and a great deficiency of
working tools.

The general, happily qualified at once to meet difficulties and to
remove them, took immediate care to organize the troops, to fit them
for actual service, and to make arrangements for the necessary supplies.
Next to these objects, he considered the re-enlistment of the army
the most interesting. To this essential point he had early solicited
the attention of congress, assuring that body that he must despair of
the liberties of his country, unless he were furnished with an army
that should stand by him until the conclusion of their enterprise.
Congress at length resolved to raise a standing army, to consist of
about seventy-five thousand men, to serve for the term of three years,
or during the war; and that it should be composed of eighty-eight
battalions, to be raised in the colonies, according to their respective
abilities. Recruiting orders were accordingly issued; but the progress
in raising recruits was by no means proportioned to the public
exigencies. On the last day of December, when all the old troops
not engaged on the new establishments were disbanded, there had been
enlisted for the army of 1776 no more than nine thousand six hundred
and fifty men. An earnest recommendation of general Washington to
congress to try the influence of a bounty was not acceded to until
late in January; but during the winter the number of recruits was
considerably augmented. ‘The history of the winter campaign,’ says the
biographer of Washington, ‘is a history of continued and successive
struggles on the part of the American general, under the vexations and
difficulties imposed by the want of arms, ammunition, and permanent
troops, on a person in an uncommon degree solicitous to prove himself,
by some grand and useful achievement, worthy of the high station to
which the voice of his country had called him.’

In the space of time between the disbanding the old army and the
constitution of an effective force from the new recruits, the lines
were often in a defenceless state; the English must have known the
fact, and no adequate reason can be assigned why an attack was not made.
‘It is not,’ says general Washington in his communications to congress,
‘in the pages of history to furnish a case like ours. To maintain a
post within musket shot of the enemy, for six months together, without
ammunition, and, at the same time, to disband one army and recruit
another, within that distance of twenty odd British regiments, is
more, probably, than ever was attempted. But if we succeed as well
in the last as we have heretofore in the first, I shall think it
the most fortunate event of my whole life.’ Such a measure, with
the organization and discipline of the men, will be supposed to have
employed every active power of the general; yet this did not satisfy
his mind. He knew that congress anxiously contemplated more decisive
steps, and that the country looked for events of greater magnitude.
The public was ignorant of his actual situation, and conceived his
means for offensive operations to be much greater than they were and
they expected from him the capture or expulsion of the British army
in Boston. He felt the importance of securing the confidence of his
countrymen by some brilliant action, and was fully sensible that his
own reputation was liable to suffer if he confined himself solely to
measures of defence.

To publish to his anxious country the state of his army, would be to
acquaint the enemy with his weakness, and to hazard his destruction.
The firmness and patriotism of general Washington were displayed, in
making the good of his country an object of higher consideration than
the applause of those who were incapable of forming a correct opinion
of the propriety of his measures. While he resolutely rejected every
measure which in his calm and deliberate judgment he did not approve,
he daily pondered the practicability of a successful attack upon Boston.
As a preparatory step, he took possession of Plowed hill, Cobble hill,
and Lechmere’s point, and erected fortifications upon them. These posts
brought him within half a mile of the enemy’s works on Bunker’s hill;
and, by his artillery, he drove the British floating batteries from
their stations in Charles river. He erected floating batteries to watch
the movements of his enemy, and to aid in any offensive operations
that circumstances might warrant. He took the opinion of his general
officers a second time respecting the meditated attack; they again
unanimously gave their opinion in opposition to the measure, and this
opinion was immediately communicated to congress. Congress appeared
still to favor the attempt, and, that an apprehension of danger to the
town of Boston might not have an undue influence upon the operations
of the army, resolved, ‘That if general Washington and his council
of war should be of opinion that a successful attack might be made
on the troops in Boston, he should make it in any manner he might
think expedient, notwithstanding the town, and property therein, might
thereby be destroyed.’

General Howe had, in October, succeeded general Gage in the command of
the British army, and through the winter confined himself to measures
of defence. The inability of the American general to accomplish the
great object of the campaign, repeatedly pointed out by congress, was
doubtless a source of extreme mortification to him; but he indulged
the hope of success in some military operations during the winter that
would correspond with the high expectations of his country, and procure
him honor in his exalted station of commander-in-chief of the American
army. Early in January he summoned a council of war, in which it was
resolved, ‘That a vigorous attempt ought to be made on the ministerial
troops in Boston, before they can be reinforced in the spring, if the
means can be provided, and a favorable opportunity shall offer.’

It was not, however, till the middle of February, that the ice became
sufficiently strong for general Washington to march his forces upon it
into Boston; he was then inclined to risk a general assault upon the
British posts, although he had not powder to make any extensive use of
his artillery; but his general officers in council voted against the
attempt, and in their decision he reluctantly acquiesced. By the end
of the month the stock of powder was considerably increased, and the
regular army amounted to fourteen thousand men, which was reinforced
by six thousand of the militia of Massachusetts. General Washington
now resolved to take possession of the heights of Dorchester, in the
prospect that this movement would bring on a general engagement with
the enemy under favorable circumstances; or, should this expectation
fail, that from this position he would be enabled to annoy the ships
in the harbor, and the troops in the town. To mask the design, a severe
cannonade and bombardment were opened on the British works and lines
for several nights in succession. As soon as the firing began on the
night of the 4th of March, a strong detachment marched from Roxbury
over the neck of land connecting Roxbury with Dorchester heights, and,
without discovery, took possession of the heights. General Ward, who
commanded the division of the army in Roxbury, had fortunately provided
fascines before the resolution passed to fortify the place; these were
of great use, as the ground was deeply frozen; and, in the course of
the night, the party, by uncommon exertions, erected works sufficient
for their defence.

When the British discovered these works, nothing could exceed their
astonishment. Their only alternative was either to abandon the town,
or to dislodge the provincials. General Howe, with his usual spirit,
chose the latter part of the alternative, and took measures for the
embarkation on that very evening of five regiments, with the light
infantry and grenadiers, on the important but most hazardous service.
The transports fell down in the evening towards the castle with the
troops, amounting to about two thousand men; but a tremendous storm at
night rendered the execution of the design absolutely impracticable.
A council of war was called the next morning, which agreed to evacuate
the town as soon as possible. A fortnight elapsed before that measure
was effected. Meanwhile, the Americans strengthened and extended their
works; and on the morning of the 17th of March the king’s troops, with
those Americans who were attached to the royal cause, began to embark;
before ten, all of them were under sail. As the rear embarked, general
Washington marched triumphantly into Boston, where he was joyfully
received as a deliverer.

The issue of the campaign was highly gratifying to all classes;
and the gratulation of his fellow-citizens upon the repossession
of the metropolis of Massachusetts, was more pleasing to the
commander-in-chief than would have been the honors of a triumph.
Congress, to express the public approbation of the military
achievements of their general, resolved, ‘That the thanks of congress,
in their own name, and in the name of the thirteen united colonies, be
presented to his excellency general Washington, and the officers and
soldiers under his command, for their wise and spirited conduct in the
siege and acquisition of Boston; and that a medal of gold be struck,
in commemoration of this great event, and presented to his excellency.’
In his letter, informing congress that he had executed their order,
and communicated to the army the vote of thanks, he says, ‘They were,
indeed, at first, a band of undisciplined husbandmen; but it is, under
God, to their bravery and attention to their duty, that I am indebted
for that success which has procured me the only reward I wish to
receive――the affection and esteem of my countrymen.’

Although Halifax was mentioned as the destined place of the British
armament, general Washington apprehended that New York was their object.
On this supposition, he detached several brigades of his army to that
city, before the evacuation of Boston; and as soon as the necessary
arrangements were made in the latter city, he followed with the main
body of his army to New York, where he arrived on the 14th of April.
The situation of New York was highly favorable for an invading army,
supported by a superior naval force; and general Washington doubted the
practicability of a successful defence; but the importance of the place,
the wishes of congress, the opinion of his general officers, and the
expectation of his country, induced him to make the attempt; and the
resolution being formed, he called into action all the resources in
his power to effect it, and, with unremitted diligence, pushed on his
works. Hulks were sunk in the North and East rivers; forts were erected
on the most commanding situations on their banks; and works were
raised to defend the narrow passage between Long and York islands. The
passes in the Highlands, bordering on the Hudson, became an object of
early and solicitous attention. The command of this river was equally
important to the American and the British general. By its possession,
the Americans easily conveyed supplies of provision and ammunition to
the northern army, and secured an intercourse between the southern and
northern colonies essential to the success of the war. If the river
were in the hands of the British, this necessary communication would be
interrupted, and an intercourse between the Atlantic and Canada opened
to them. General Washington ordered the passes to be fortified, and
made their security an object of primary importance through every
period of his command.

While these operations were carrying on in New England, general Arnold,
under all his discouragements, continued the blockade of Quebec; but,
in the month of May, in a council of war, it was unanimously determined,
that the troops were in no condition to risk an assault, and the
army was removed to a more defensible position. The Canadians at this
juncture receiving considerable reinforcements, the Americans were
compelled to relinquish one post after another, and by the 18th of June
they had evacuated Canada.

In Virginia, the zeal and activity which had been excited by the
spirited enterprise of Patrick Henry still continued to manifest
themselves in various parts of the colony. The governor’s family,
alarmed by the threatening march of Mr. Henry towards Williamsburgh,
had already taken refuge on board the Fowey man-of-war; and only a few
weeks elapsed before lord Dunmore himself adopted the same means of
personal safety. Soon after fixing his residence on board the Fowey,
his lordship required the house of burgesses to attend him there; but
instead of obeying the requisition, they passed sundry resolutions,
in which they declared that his lordship’s message was ‘a high breach
of the rights and privileges of the house,’ and that his conduct gave
them reason to fear ‘that a dangerous attack was meditated against
the unhappy people of the colony.’ On the 24th of July the colonial
convention met; they appointed a committee of safety, passed an
ordinance for regulating the militia, and for raising a regular force
of two regiments, the command of which was given to Patrick Henry, who
was also made the commander of all the forces raised, and to be raised,
for the defence of the colony. The ships of war belonging to his
majesty, which had been cruising in James and York rivers during the
whole summer, had committed many petty acts of depredation and plunder
along the shores, which the people now eagerly desired to resent, and
an opportunity of gratification soon offered.

The captain of the Otter sloop of war, on the 2d of September,
ventured upon one of his plundering expeditions in a tender, and was
driven on shore near Hampton by a violent tempest. The crew left the
vessel on the shore, and made their escape in the night, and next
morning the people boarded and set fire to her. This naturally roused
captain Squire’s resentment, and he threatened instant destruction to
the town; but the committee of safety at Williamsburgh, having heard of
the affair, detached colonel Woodford with three companies to repel the
attack, which was so effectually done, that the assailants were soon
glad to make a precipitate flight, with considerable loss. This affair
produced a proclamation from his lordship, (who continued to hold his
head-quarters on board one of the ships,) in which he not only declared
martial law, but freedom to all the slaves who would join his standard.
By this means he soon collected a crew well suited to his designs; and
having fortified himself at the great bridge, near Norfolk, continued
for some time to commit such acts of wanton barbarity and contemptible
depredations, as to disgust even those who had until now continued
friendly to the cause of the king.

The committee of safety finding themselves called upon to put a stop
to his lordship’s savage warfare, despatched colonel Woodford to drive
him from his hold. Having arrived within cannon shot of lord Dunmore’s
position, the Americans halted, and threw up some hasty intrenchments.
His lordship, hearing that the provincials amounted only to three
hundred men, badly armed, conceived the design of surprising them; and
for this purpose captain Leslie, with the regulars and slaves, crossed
the bridge before daylight, and entered the camp of the provincials,
just as they were parading under arms. Captain Fordyce advanced to the
attack of the grenadiers, and was among the first that fell. The whole
number of grenadiers were either killed, wounded, or made prisoners,
and the rest of the royal party were obliged to make a rapid retreat.
Disappointed in their hopes, the governor’s party abandoned their works
the following night, and retired to their shipping, leaving Woodford,
who was now joined by colonel Howe from North Carolina, the complete
command of Norfolk. After continuing to assail the coasts of Virginia
for a considerable time, but almost everywhere unsuccessfully,[113]
lord Dunmore was at length compelled to abandon his hostile designs
against the colonists. Some of his ships were driven upon that
coast, where the wretched fugitives were made prisoners by their own
fellow-citizens, and immured in dungeons. To escape a similar fate,
Dunmore burnt the ships of least value; and the miserable remains
of soldiers and loyalists, assailed at once by tempests, famine, and
disease, sought refuge in Florida, Bermudas, and the West Indies.

Notwithstanding the extent to which hostilities had been carried, a
large portion of the colonists had hitherto continued to entertain
some hope of an amicable termination of the dispute; and it is evident,
from the transactions we are about to record, that many felt sincerely
desirous not to frustrate such a result. The want of more regular and
stable governments had for some time been felt in those colonies where
royal governments had hitherto existed; and in the autumn of 1775,
New Hampshire applied to congress for their advice and direction on
this subject. In November, congress advised the convention of that
colony to call a full and free representation of the people; when the
representatives, if they thought it necessary, should establish such
a form of government as, in their judgment, would best promote the
happiness of the people, and most effectually secure peace and good
order during the continuance of the dispute between Great Britain
and the colonies. On this question the members of congress were not
unanimous. It was viewed by some as a step necessarily leading to
independence; and by some of its advocates it was probably intended
as such. To render the resolution less exceptionable, the duration of
the government was limited to the continuance of the dispute with the
parent country. Soon afterwards similar directions and advice were
given to South Carolina and Virginia.

The last hopes of the colonists for reconciliation rested on the
success of their second petition to the king; and the answer of their
sovereign to this application was expected with extreme solicitude.
Information, however, was soon received from Mr. Penn, who was
intrusted with the petition, that no answer would be given. This
intelligence was followed by that of great additional preparations to
subdue the ‘American rebels.’ The king, in his speech at the opening
of parliament in October, not only accused the colonists of revolt,
hostility, and rebellion, but stated that the rebellious war carried
on by them was for the purpose of establishing an independent empire.
To prevent this he declared that the most decisive and vigorous
measures were necessary; that he had consequently increased his naval
establishment, had augmented his land forces, and had also taken
measures to procure the aid of foreign troops. He at the same time
stated his intention of appointing certain persons with authority to
grant pardons to individuals, and to receive the submission of whole
colonies disposed to return to their allegiance. Large majorities in
both houses assured the king of their firm support in his measures
for reducing the colonists to obedience. The addresses, however, in
answer to the speech, were opposed with great ability. The project of
employing foreign troops to destroy American subjects was reprobated by
the minority in the strongest terms. The plans of the ministry, however,
were not only approved by parliament, but by a majority of the nation.

The idea of making the colonists share their burdens could not easily
be relinquished by the people of Great Britain; and national pride
would not permit them to yield the point of supremacy. War was now
therefore to be waged against the colonies, and a force sent out
sufficiently powerful to compel submission, even without a struggle.
For these purposes the aid of parliament was requisite; and about the
last of December an act was passed, prohibiting all trade and commerce
with the colonies, and authorizing the capture and condemnation, not
only of all American vessels with their cargoes, but all other vessels
found trading in any port or place in the colonies, as if the same were
the vessels and effects of open enemies; and the vessels and property
thus taken were vested in the captors, and the crews were to be treated,
not as prisoners, but as slaves.

The passing of this act shut the door against the application of the
colonies for a reconciliation. The last petition of congress to the
king had, indeed, been laid before parliament, but both houses refused
to hear it, or even to treat upon any proposition coming from such an
unlawful assembly, or from those who were then in arms against their
lawful sovereign. In the house of lords, on the motion of the duke of
Richmond, Mr. Penn was examined on American affairs. He stated, among
other things, that the colonists were desirous of reconciliation, and
did not aim at independence; that they were disposed to conform to
the acts regulating their trade, but not to taxation; and that on this
point a spirit of resistance was universal. After this examination
the duke of Richmond moved a resolution, declaring that the petition
of congress to the king was a ground for a reconciliation of the
differences between the two countries. This motion was negatived, after
a warm debate, by eighty-six to thirty-three. These proceedings of the
king and parliament, with the employment of sixteen thousand foreign
mercenaries, convinced the leading men in each colony that the sword
alone must decide the contest, and that the colonists must now declare
themselves totally independent of Great Britain.

Time, however, was still requisite, to convince the great mass of the
American people of the necessity of a complete separation from their
parent country, and the establishment of independent governments. The
ablest pens were employed throughout America, in the winter of 1775–6,
on this momentous subject. The propriety and necessity of the measure
was enforced in the numerous gazettes, and in pamphlets. Among the
latter, ‘Common Sense,’ from the popular pen of Thomas Paine, produced
a wonderful effect in the different colonies in favor of independence.
Influential individuals in every colony urged it as a step absolutely
necessary to preserve the rights and liberties, as well as to secure
the happiness and prosperity of America.[114]

When the prohibitory act reached America, congress, justly viewing
it as a declaration of war, directed reprisals to be made, both by
public and private armed vessels, against the ships and goods of the
inhabitants of Great Britain, found on the high seas, or between high
and low water mark. They also burst the shackles of commercial monopoly,
which had so long kept them in bondage, and opened their ports to all
the world, except the dominions of Great Britain. In this state of
things, it was preposterous for the colonists any longer to consider
themselves as holding or exercising the powers of government under the
authority of Great Britain. Congress, therefore, on the 10th of May,
recommended to the assemblies and conventions of the colonies where no
sufficient government had been established, ‘to adopt such government
as should, in the opinion of the representatives of the people,
best conduce to the happiness and safety of their constituents in
particular, and America in general.’ They also declared it necessary,
that the exercise of every kind of authority under the crown should
be suppressed, and that all the powers of government should be
exercised ‘under the authority of the people of the colonies, for the
preservation of internal peace, virtue, and good order, as well as
for the defence of their lives, liberties, and properties, against the
hostile invasions and cruel depredations of their enemies.’ This was a
preliminary step to a general declaration of independence. Some of the
colonial assemblies and conventions about the same time began to
express their opinions on this great question. On the 22d of April,
the convention of North Carolina empowered their delegates in congress
‘to concur with those in the other colonies in declaring independency.’
This, it is believed, was the first direct public act of any colonial
assembly or convention in favor of the measure.[115] The convention of
Virginia soon afterwards expressed itself still more decidedly. After
full deliberation, the following resolutions were passed unanimously:――

‘That the delegates appointed to represent this colony in general
congress be instructed to propose to that respectable body, to
_declare the United Colonies free and independent states_, absolved
from all allegiance to or dependence upon the crown or parliament
of Great Britain; and that they give the assent of this colony to
such declaration, and to whatever measures may be thought proper
and necessary by the congress for forming foreign alliances, and a
confederation of the colonies, at such time and in the manner as to
them shall seem best: provided that the power of forming governments
for, and the regulations of, the internal concerns of each colony, be
left to the respective colonial legislatures.

‘That a committee be appointed to prepare a declaration of rights, and
such a plan of government as will be most likely to maintain peace and
order in this colony, and secure substantial and equal liberty to the
people.’[116]

Early in the year the British government had prepared a considerable
expedition to reduce the southern colonies to obedience. The command
was intrusted to Sir Peter Parker and earl Cornwallis. On the 3d of
May, admiral Parker, with twenty sail, arrived at cape Fear. They found
general Clinton ready to co-operate with them. He had left New York,
and proceeded to Virginia, where he had an interview with lord Dunmore;
but finding nothing could be effected in that colony, he repaired to
cape Fear, to await the arrival of the armament from England. Meanwhile,
the Carolinians had been making great exertions. In Charleston the
utmost energy and activity was evinced. The citizens pulled down
the valuable storehouses on the wharves, barricadoed the streets,
and constructed lines of defence along the shore. Abandoning their
commercial pursuits, they engaged in incessant labor, and prepared
for bloody conflicts. The troops, amounting to between five and six
thousand men, were stationed in the most advantageous positions. Amidst
all this bustle and preparation, lead was so extremely scarce, that
the windows of Charleston were stripped of their weights, in order to
procure a small supply of that necessary article for bullets.

Early in June, the armament, consisting of between forty and fifty
vessels, appeared off Charleston bay, and thirty-six of the transports
passed the bar, and anchored about three miles from Sullivan’s island.
Some hundreds of the troops landed on Long island, which lies on the
west of Sullivan’s island, and which is separated from it by a narrow
channel, often fordable. On the 10th of the month, the Bristol, a
fifty-gun ship, having taken out her guns, got safely over the bar; and
on the 25th, the Experiment, a ship of equal force, arrived, and next
day passed in the same way. On the part of the British every thing was
now ready for action. Sir Henry Clinton had nearly three thousand men
under his command. The naval force, under Sir Peter Parker, consisted
of the Bristol and Experiment, of fifty guns; the Active, Acteon,
Solebay, and Syren frigates; the Friendship, of twenty-two, and the
Sphinx, of twenty guns; the Ranger sloop, and Thunder bomb. On the
forenoon of the 28th of June, this fleet advanced against the fort on
Sullivan’s island, which was defended by colonel Moultrie, with about
three hundred and fifty regular troops, and some militia. The Thunder
bomb began the battle. The Active, Bristol, Experiment, and Solebay,
followed boldly to the attack, and a terrible cannonade ensued. The
fort returned the fire of the ships slowly, but with deliberate and
deadly aim; and the contest was carried on during the whole day with
unabating fury. The Sphinx, Acteon, and Syren were ordered to attack
the western extremity of the fort, which was in a very unfinished
state; but, as they proceeded for that purpose, they got entangled with
a shoal, called the Middle-ground. Two of them ran foul of each other:
the Acteon stuck fast; the Sphinx and Syren got off; but, fortunately
for the Americans, that part of the attack completely failed.

It was designed that Sir Henry Clinton, with his corps, should
co-operate with the naval operations by passing the narrow channel
which separates Long island from Sullivan’s island, and assail the fort
by land; but this the general found impracticable, for the channel,
though commonly fordable, was at that time, by a long prevalence
of easterly winds, deeper than usual; and even had the channel been
fordable, the British troops would have found the passage an arduous
enterprise; for colonel Thomson, with a strong detachment of riflemen,
regulars, and militia, was posted on the east end of Sullivan’s island
to oppose any attack made in that quarter. The engagement, which began
about eleven o’clock in the forenoon, continued with unabated fury
till seven in the evening, when the fire slackened, and about nine
entirely ceased on both sides. During the night all the ships, except
the Acteon, which was aground, removed about two miles from the island.
Next morning the fort fired a few shots at the Acteon, and she at
first returned them; but, in a short time, her crew set her on fire
and abandoned her. She blew up shortly afterwards. In this obstinate
engagement both parties fought with great gallantry. The loss of the
British was very considerable, upwards of sixty being killed, and one
hundred and sixty wounded; while the garrison lost only ten men killed,
and twenty-two wounded.

  Illustration: Attack on Fort Moultrie.

Although the Americans were raw troops, yet they behaved with
the steady intrepidity of veterans. One circumstance may serve to
illustrate the cool but enthusiastic courage which pervaded their
ranks. In the course of the engagement the flag-staff of the fort was
shot away; but sergeant Jasper leaped down upon the beach, snatched
up the flag, fastened it to a sponge-staff, and, while the ships were
incessantly directing their broadsides upon the fort, he mounted the
merlon and deliberately replaced the flag. The fate of this expedition
contributed greatly to establish the popular government it was intended
to destroy, while the news of it spread rapidly through the continent,
and exercised an equally unfavorable influence on the royal cause:
the advocates of the irresistibility of British fleets and armies were
mortified and silenced; and the brave defence of fort Moultrie saved
the southern states from the horrors of war for several years.

In South Carolina the government look advantage of the hour of success
to conciliate their opponents in the province. The adherents of royal
power, who, for a considerable time, had been closely imprisoned, on
promising fidelity to their country, were set at freedom and restored
to all the privileges of citizens. The repulse of the British was
also attended with another advantage, that of leaving the Americans
at liberty to turn their undivided force against the Indians, who
had attacked the western frontier of the southern states with all the
fury and carnage of savage warfare. In 1775, when the breach between
Great Britain and her colonies was daily becoming wider, one Stuart,
the agent employed in conducting the intercourse between the British
authorities and the Cherokees and Creeks, used all his influence
to attach the savages to the royal cause, and to inspire them with
jealousy and hatred of the Americans.

He found little difficulty in persuading them that the Americans,
without provocation, had taken up arms against Britain, and were
the means of preventing them from receiving their yearly supplies
of arms, ammunition, and clothing, from the British government. The
Americans had endeavored to conciliate the good will of the Indians,
but their scanty presents were unsatisfactory, and the savages
resolved to take up the hatchet. Deeming the appearance of the British
fleet in Charleston bay a fit opportunity, the Cherokees invaded the
western frontier of the province, marking their track with murder and
devastation. The speedy retreat of the British left the savages exposed
to the vengeance of the Americans, who, in separate divisions, entered
their country at different points, from Virginia and Georgia, defeated
their warriors, burned their villages, laid waste their corn-fields,
and incapacitated the Cherokees for a considerable time from giving the
settlers further annoyance. Thus, in the south, the Americans triumphed
both over the British and the Indians.

On the 7th of June, the great question of independence was brought
directly before congress, by Richard Henry Lee, one of the delegates
from Virginia. He submitted a resolution, declaring ‘that the United
Colonies are, and ought to be, free and independent states; that they
are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown; and that all
political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is,
and ought to be, totally dissolved.’ The resolution was postponed until
the next day, and every member enjoined to attend, to take the same
into consideration. On the 8th it was debated in committee of the
whole house. No question of greater magnitude was ever presented to
the consideration of a deliberative body, or debated with more energy,
eloquence, and ability. On the 10th it was adopted in committee, by
a bare majority. The delegates from Pennsylvania and Maryland were
instructed to oppose it, and the delegates from some of the other
colonies were without special instructions on the subject. To give time
for greater unanimity, the resolution was postponed in the house until
the 1st of July. In the mean time, a committee was appointed to prepare
a declaration of independence. During this interval measures were taken
to procure the assent of all the colonies.

On the day appointed, the resolution relating to independence was
resumed in the general congress, referred to a committee of the
whole house, and assented to by all the colonies, except Pennsylvania
and Delaware. The committee appointed to prepare a declaration of
independence selected Mr. Adams and Mr. Jefferson as a sub-committee,
and the original draft was made by Mr. Jefferson. This draft, without
any amendment by the committee, was reported to congress, and, after
undergoing several amendments, received their sanction.

The course of time has now brought us to the decisive hour when a
new empire, of a character the most extraordinary, springs into being.
The world has known no rest since this grand confederacy took her rank
among the nations of the earth; her example infused a power into the
principles of liberty which for nearly two centuries had been dormant;
although in another hemisphere, it has exercised more influence on
the state of the public mind in Europe than did the great struggle in
the days of the commonwealth; and the world will know rest no more,
till, under whatever form, the great lessons of freedom which American
history enforces, have been listened to, and embodied in action, by
every nation of the globe.


              FROM THE CAMPAIGN OF 1776 TO THAT OF 1779.

General Washington, after compelling the British to abandon Boston,
had made every possible preparation for the defence of New York, where
he had fixed his head-quarters. To second his exertions, the congress
instituted a flying camp, to consist of an intermediate corps, between
regular soldiers and militia; and called for ten thousand men from
the states of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Delaware, to be in constant
service to the first day of the ensuing December; and for thirteen
thousand eight hundred of the common militia from Massachusetts,
Connecticut, New York, and New Jersey. The command of the naval force
destined to operate against New York was given to admiral Howe, while
his brother, Sir William, was intrusted with the command of the army;
and, in addition to their military powers, the brothers were appointed
commissioners for restoring peace to the colonies. General Howe, after
waiting two months at Halifax for expected reinforcements from England,
sailed with the force which he had previously commanded in Boston;
and, directing his course towards New York, arrived on the 25th of
June off Sandy Hook. Admiral lord Howe, with part of the reinforcement
from England, arrived at Halifax soon after his brother’s departure,
and, without dropping anchor, followed, and joined him on the 12th of
July at Staten island. General Clinton arrived there about the same
time with the troops brought back from the expedition of Charleston
and South Carolina; commodore Hotham also appeared there with the
reinforcement under his escort; and in a short time the British army
amounted to about twenty-four thousand men, English, Hessians, and
Waldeckers.

The royal commissioners, before they commenced military operations,
attempted to effect a reunion between the colonies and Great Britain.
Lord Howe announced his pacific powers to the principal magistrates of
the several colonies. He promised pardon to all who, in the late times,
had deviated from their allegiance, on condition of their speedily
returning to their duty; and, in case of their compliance, encouraged
their expectation of the future favor of their sovereign. In his
declaration, he observed, ‘that the commissioners were authorized, in
his majesty’s name, to declare any province, colony, county, district,
or town, to be at peace with his majesty; that due consideration should
be had to the meritorious services of any who should aid or assist in
restoring the public tranquillity; that their dutiful representations
should be received, pardons granted, and suitable encouragement to
such as would promote the measures of legal government and peace,
in pursuance of his majesty’s most gracious purposes.’ These pacific
proposals were regarded by the Americans as only an attempt to sow
dissensions among them, and were never for a moment seriously regarded
by any of the patriotic party. The British forces waited so long
to receive accessions from Halifax, the Carolinas, the West Indies,
and Europe, that the month of August was far advanced before they
commenced the campaign. The commanders, having resolved to make their
first attempt on Long island, landed their troops, estimated at about
twenty-four thousand men, at Gravesend bay, to the right of the Narrows.

The Americans, to the amount of fifteen thousand, under major-general
Sullivan, were posted on a peninsula between Mill creek, a little above
Red Hook, and an elbow of East river, called Whaaleboght bay. Here they
had erected strong fortifications, which were separated from New York
by East river, at the distance of a mile. A line of intrenchment from
the Mill creek inclosed a large space of ground, on which stood the
American camp, near the village of Brooklyn. This line was secured by
abatis, and flanked by strong redoubts. The armies were separated by a
range of hills, covered with a thick wood, which intersects the country
from west to east, terminating on the east near Jamaica. Through
these hills there were three roads; one near the Narrows, a second
by the Flatbush road, and a third by the Bedford road; these were the
only passes from the south side of the hills to the American lines,
excepting a road which led to Jamaica round the easterly end of the
hills; and general Putnam, agreeably to the instructions of general
Washington, had detached a considerable part of his men to occupy them.

On the 26th, the main body of British troops, with a large detachment
of Germans, landed under cover of the ships, on the south-western
extremity of Long island, and advancing in three divisions, took post
upon the south skirt of the wood; general Grant upon their left, near
the coast; the German general, de Heister, in the centre, at Flatbush;
and general Clinton upon their right, at Flatland. Only the range of
hills now separated the two armies, and the different posts of the
British were distant from the American camp from four to six miles.
In the evening, general Clinton, without beat of drum, marched with
the infantry of his division, a party of light-horse, and fourteen
field-pieces, to gain the defile on the Jamaica road. During the night
he surprised an American party stationed here to give the alarm of an
approaching enemy, and, undiscovered by Sullivan, seized the pass. At
daybreak he passed the heights, and descended into the plain on the
side of Brooklyn. Early in the morning, general de Heister, at Flatbush,
and general Grant, upon the west coast, opened a cannonade upon the
American troops, and began to ascend the hill; but they moved very
slowly, as their object was to draw the attention of the American
commander from his left, and give general Clinton opportunity to gain
the rear of the American troops stationed on the heights. General
Putnam, in the apprehension that the serious attack would be made by
de Heister and Grant, sent detachments to reinforce general Sullivan
and lord Sterling at the defiles, through which those divisions of the
enemy were approaching.

When general Clinton had passed the left flank of the Americans,
about eight o’clock in the morning of the 27th, de Heister and Grant
vigorously ascended the hill; the troops which opposed them bravely
maintained their ground, until they learned their perilous situation
from the British columns which were gaining their rear. As soon as
the American left discovered the progress of general Clinton, they
attempted to return to the camp at Brooklyn, but their flight was
stopped by the front of the British column. In the mean time, the
Germans pushed forward from Flatbush, and the troops in the American
centre, under the immediate command of general Sullivan, having also
discovered that their flank was turned, and that the enemy was gaining
their rear, in haste retreated towards Brooklyn. Clinton’s columns
continuing to advance, intercepted them; they were attacked in front
and rear, and alternately driven by the British on the Germans, and
by the Germans on the British. Desperate as their situation was, some
regiments broke through the enemy’s columns and regained the fortified
camp; but most of the detachments upon the American left and centre
were either killed or taken prisoners. The detachment on the American
right, under lord Sterling, maintained a severe conflict with general
Grant for six hours, until the van of general Clinton’s division,
having crossed the whole island, gained their rear.

Lord Sterling perceived his danger, and found that his troops could
be saved only by an immediate retreat over a creek near the cove. He
gave orders to this purpose; and, to facilitate their execution, he in
person attacked lord Cornwallis, who, by this time having gained the
coast, had posted a small corps in a house, just above the place where
the American troops must pass the creek. The attack was bravely made
with four hundred men; but his lordship being reinforced from his own
column, and general Grant attacking lord Sterling in the rear, this
brave band was overpowered by numbers, and those who survived were
compelled to surrender themselves prisoners of war; but this spirited
assault gave opportunity for a large proportion of the detachment to
escape. General Washington passed over to Brooklyn in the heat of the
action; but, unable to rescue his men from their perilous situation,
was constrained to be the inactive spectator of the slaughter of
his best troops. The loss of the Americans on this occasion, for the
number engaged, was great; general Washington stated it at a thousand
men; but his returns probably included only the regular regiments.
General Howe, in an official letter, made the prisoners amount to one
thousand and ninety-seven. Among these were major-general Sullivan,
and brigadier-generals Sterling and Woodhull. The amount of the killed
was never with precision ascertained. The British loss, as stated by
general Howe, was twenty-one officers, and three hundred and forty-six
privates killed, wounded, and taken prisoners.

The British now encamped in front of the American lines, and on the
succeeding night broke ground within six hundred yards of a redoubt
on the left. In this critical state of the American army on Long
island,――in front a numerous and victorious enemy with a formidable
train of artillery, the fleet indicating an intention to force a
passage into East river to make some attempt on New York, the troops
lying without shelter from heavy rains, fatigued and dispirited,――it
was determined to withdraw from the island; and this difficult movement
was effected with great skill and judgment, and with complete success.

The defeat of the 27th made a most unfavorable impression upon the
army. A great proportion of the troops lost their confidence in their
officers, and in themselves. Before this unfortunate event, they met
the enemy in the spirit of freemen fighting for their highest interests,
and under the persuasion that their thorough use of arms rendered them
equal to the disciplined battalions which they were to oppose. But
on this occasion, by evolutions which they did not comprehend, they
found themselves encompassed with difficulties from which their utmost
exertions could not extricate them, and involved in dangers from which
their bravery could not deliver them; and entertaining a high opinion
of the adroitness of the enemy, in every movement they apprehended
a fatal snare.[117] No sooner had the British secured the possession
of Long island, than they made dispositions to attack New York. It
was a serious question whether that place was defensible against so
formidable an enemy; and general Washington called a council of general
officers, to decide whether it should be evacuated without delay, or
longer defended. The general officers, in compliance with the views of
congress, were very averse from the abandonment of the city; and it was
resolved, contrary to the individual opinion of Washington, to endeavor
to defend the city.

The army was accordingly arranged into three divisions, one of which,
consisting of five thousand men, was to remain in New York; another,
amounting to nine thousand, was to be stationed at King’s Bridge; and
the residue of the army was to occupy the intermediate space, so as to
support either extreme. The unexpected movements of the British soon
evinced the correctness of the opinion of the general-in-chief; and in
a second council it was determined, by a large majority, that it had
become not only prudent, but necessary, to withdraw the army from New
York. Several English ships of war passed up North river on the one
side of York island, and East river on the other side; Sir Henry
Clinton embarked at Long island, at the head of four thousand men,
proceeded through Newtown bay, crossed East river, and landed, under
cover of the ships, at Kipp’s bay, about three miles above New York.
Works of considerable strength had been thrown up at this place, to
oppose the landing of the enemy; but they were immediately abandoned by
the troops stationed in them, who, terrified at the fire of the ships,
fled precipitately toward their main body, and communicated their panic
to a detachment marching to their support. General Washington, to his
extreme mortification, met this whole party retreating in the utmost
disorder, and exerted himself to rally them; but, on the appearance of
a small corps of the British, they again broke, and fled in confusion.
Nothing was now left him but to withdraw the few remaining troops from
New York, and to secure the posts on the heights. The retreat from New
York was effected with a very inconsiderable loss of men; but all the
heavy artillery, and a large portion of the baggage, provisions, and
military stores, were unavoidably abandoned.

The British, taking possession of New York, stationed a few troops in
the capital; but the main body of their army was on York island, at no
great distance from the American lines. The day after the retreat from
New York, a considerable body of the British appearing in the plains
between the two camps, the general ordered colonel Knowlton, with a
corps of rangers, and major Leitch, with three companies of a Virginia
regiment, to get in their rear, while he amused them by making apparent
dispositions to attack their front. The plan succeeded; and a skirmish
ensued, in which the Americans charged the enemy with great intrepidity,
and gained considerable advantage; but the principal benefit of this
action was its influence in reviving the depressed spirits of the whole
army. The armies did not long retain their position on York island. The
British frigates having passed up North river under a fire from fort
Washington and the post opposite to it on the Jersey shore, general
Howe embarked a great part of his army in flat-bottomed boats, and,
passing through Hellgate into the sound, landed at Frog’s neck.

The object of the British general was, either to force Washington out
of his present lines, or to inclose him in them. Aware of this design,
general Washington moved a part of his troops from York island to join
those at King’s Bridge, and detached some regiments to West Chester.
A council of war was now called, and the system of evacuating and
retreating was adopted, with the exception of fort Washington, for
the defence of which nearly three thousand men were assigned. After
a halt of six days the royal army advanced, not without considerable
opposition, along the coast of Long Island sound, by New Rochelle,
to White Plains, where the Americans took a strong position behind
intrenchments. This post was maintained for several days, till the
British having received considerable reinforcements, general Washington
withdrew to the heights of North Castle, about five miles from White
Plains, where, whether from the strength of his position, or from the
British general having other objects in view, no attempt at attack was
made.

Immediately on leaving White Plains, general Howe directed his
attention to fort Washington and fort Lee, as their possession would
secure the navigation of the Hudson, and facilitate the invasion of
New Jersey. On the 15th of November, general Howe, being in readiness
for the assault, summoned the garrison to surrender. Colonel Magaw,
the commanding officer, in spirited language, replied, that he should
defend his works to extremity. On the succeeding morning the British
made the assault in four separate divisions; and having, after a brave
and obstinate resistance, surmounted the outworks, again summoned the
garrison to surrender. His ammunition being nearly expended, and his
force incompetent to repel the numbers which were ready on every side
to assail him, colonel Magaw surrendered himself and his garrison,
consisting of two thousand men, prisoners of war. The enemy lost in
the assault about eight hundred men, mostly Germans.

The conquest of fort Washington made the evacuation of fort Lee
necessary. Orders were therefore issued to remove the ammunition and
stores in it; but, before much progress had been made in this business,
lord Cornwallis crossed the Hudson, with a number of battalions, with
the intention to inclose the garrison between the Hackensack and North
rivers. This movement made a precipitate retreat indispensable, which
was happily effected with little loss of men; but the greater part of
the artillery, stores, and baggage was left for the enemy. The loss
at fort Washington was heavy. The regiments captured in it were some
of the best troops in the army. The tents, camp-kettles, and stores,
lost at this place and at fort Lee, could not, during the campaign,
be replaced, and for the want of them the men suffered extremely. This
loss was unnecessarily sustained, as those posts ought, unquestionably,
to have been evacuated before general Howe was in a situation to invest
them; and this event was the more to be deplored, as the American force
was daily diminished by the expiration of the soldiers’ term of
enlistment, and by the desertion of the militia.

These successes encouraged the British to pursue the remaining American
force, with the prospect of annihilating it. General Washington, who
had taken post at Newark, on the south side of the Passaic, finding
himself unable to make any real opposition, withdrew from that place as
the enemy crossed the Passaic, and retreated to Brunswick, on the
Rariton; and lord Cornwallis on the same day entered Newark. The
retreat was still continued from Brunswick to Princeton; from Princeton
to Trenton; and from Trenton to the Pennsylvania side of the Delaware.
The pursuit was urged with so much rapidity, that the rear of one army
was often within shot of the van of the other.[118] The winter being
now set in, the British army went into quarters, between the Delaware
and the Hackensack. Trenton, the most important post and barrier, was
occupied by a brigade of Hessians, under colonel Rawle. General Howe
now issued a proclamation, in the name of his brother and himself, in
which pardon was offered to all persons who, within the space of sixty
days, should take the oath of allegiance, and submit to the authority
of the British government. The effects of this proclamation were
soon apparent. People from several quarters availed themselves of it,
and threw down their arms. No city or town, indeed, in its corporate
capacity, submitted to the British government; but many families
of fortune and influence discovered an inclination to return to
their allegiance. Many of the yeomanry claimed the benefit of the
commissioners’ proclamation; and the great body of them were too much
taken up with the security of their families and their property, to
make any exertion in the public cause. Another source of mortification
to the Americans was the capture of general Lee, who had imprudently
ventured to lodge at a house three miles distant from his corps.[119]

This was the most gloomy period of the revolutionary war. It was the
crisis of the struggle of the United States for independence. The
American army, reduced in numbers, depressed by defeat, and exhausted
by fatigue, naked, barefoot, and destitute of tents, and even of
utensils with which to dress their scanty provisions, was fleeing
before a triumphant enemy, well appointed and abundantly supplied. A
general spirit of despondency through New Jersey was the consequence
of this disastrous state of public affairs. But in this worst of
times congress stood unmoved; their measures exhibited no symptoms
of confusion or dismay; the public danger only roused them to more
vigorous exertions, that they might give a firmer tone to the public
mind, and animate the citizens of United America to a manly defence
of their independence. Beneath this cloud of adversity, too, general
Washington shone with a brighter lustre than in the day of his highest
prosperity. Not dismayed by all the difficulties which encompassed him,
he accommodated his measures to his situation, and still made the good
of his country the object of his unwearied pursuit. He ever wore the
countenance of composure and confidence, by his own example inspiring
his little band with firmness to struggle with adverse fortune.

While Washington was retreating over the Delaware, the British, under
Sir Pelew Parker and general Clinton, took possession of Rhode Island,
and blocked up commodore Hopkins’ squadron and a number of privateers
at Providence; but this measure was disadvantageous to the British,
as it required the presence of troops which might have been much more
advantageously employed.

The neighborhood of Philadelphia now becoming the seat of war,
congress adjourned to Baltimore; resolving at the same time ‘that
general Washington should be possessed of full powers to order and
direct all things relative to the department and the operations of the
war.’ In this extremity, judicious determinations in the cabinet were
accompanied with vigorous operations in the field. The united exertions
of civil and military officers had by this time brought a considerable
body of militia into their ranks. General Sullivan too, on whom the
command of general Lee’s division devolved on his capture, promptly
obeyed the orders of the commander-in-chief, and at this period joined
him, and general Heath marched a detachment from Peck’s Kill.

The army, with these reinforcements, amounted to seven thousand
men, and general Washington determined to commence active and bold
operations. He had noticed the loose and uncovered state of the winter
quarters of the British army, and contemplated the preservation of
Philadelphia, and the recovery of New Jersey, by sweeping, at one
stroke, all the British cantonments upon the Delaware. The present
position of his forces favored the execution of his plan. The troops
under the immediate command of general Washington, consisting of
about two thousand four hundred men, were ordered to cross the river
at M’Konkey’s ferry, nine miles above Trenton, to attack that post.
General Irvine was directed to cross with his division at Trenton ferry,
to secure the bridge below the town, and prevent the retreat of the
enemy that way. General Cadwallader received orders to pass the river
at Bristol ferry, and assault the post at Burlington. The night of
the twenty-fifth was assigned for the execution of this daring scheme.
It proved to be severely cold, and so much ice was made in the river,
that general Irvine and general Cadwallader, after having strenuously
exerted themselves, found it impracticable to pass their divisions,
and their part of the plan totally failed. The commander-in-chief
was, however, more fortunate, and, though with much difficulty and
considerable loss of time, succeeded in crossing the river, and reached
Trenton by eight o’clock in the morning.

The brave colonel Rawle, the commanding officer, assembled his forces
for the defence of his post; but he was mortally wounded by the first
fire, and his men, in apparent dismay, attempted to file off towards
Princeton. General Washington, perceiving their intention, moved a part
of his troops into this road in their front, and defeated the design.
Their artillery being seized, and the Americans pressing upon them,
they surrendered. Twenty of the Germans were killed, and a thousand
made prisoners. By the failure of general Irvine, a small body of the
enemy stationed in the lower part of the town escaped over the bridge
to Bordentown. Of the American troops, two privates were killed and
two frozen to death, and one officer and three or four privates were
wounded. Could the other divisions have crossed the Delaware, general
Washington’s plan, in its full extent, would probably have succeeded.
Not thinking it prudent to hazard the fruits of this gallant stroke by
more daring attempts, the general the same day recrossed the Delaware
with his prisoners, with six pieces of artillery, a thousand stand of
arms, and some military stores.

This display of enterprise and vigor on the part of the Americans
astonished and perplexed general Howe, and, though in the depth of
winter, he found it necessary to commence active operations. Such was
the reviving influence on the minds of the American soldiers, and such
the skill which the commander-in-chief exercised, that, after several
successful operations following that of Trenton, he not only saved
Philadelphia and Pennsylvania, but recovered the greatest part of the
Jerseys, in defiance of an army vastly superior to his, in discipline,
resources, and numbers. Of all their recent extensive possessions
in the Jerseys, the English retained now only the posts of Brunswick
and Amboy. These successful operations on the part of the Americans
were immediately followed by a proclamation, in the name of general
Washington, absolving all those who had been induced to take the oaths
of allegiance tendered by the British commissioners, and promising
them protection on condition of their subscribing to a form of oath
prescribed by congress. The effects of this proclamation were almost
instantaneous. The inhabitants of the Jerseys, who had conceived a
violent hatred to the British army, on account of their unchecked
course of plundering, instantly renounced their allegiance to Great
Britain, and attached themselves to the cause of America. Several
who were resolved to avenge their wrongs, joined the army under
general Washington, while others rendered equal service to the side
to which they attached themselves, by supplying the American army with
provisions and fuel, and by conveying intelligence of the operations
of the British army.

Before entering on the campaign of 1777, it will be proper briefly to
notice the state of affairs in Canada. The Americans still possessed
Crown Point and Ticonderoga, and were masters of lake Champlain. To
dispossess them of these posts was an arduous and a difficult task,
inasmuch as the British had not a vessel on lake Champlain to oppose
the American fleet. Difficult, however, as it was, general Carleton
resolved to use every effort to procure an adequate naval force, and
at length succeeding in the attainment of his object, he acquired
a decided superiority. On the 11th of October, the British fleet
discovered that of their opponents very advantageously posted off the
island Valicour, with an intention of defending the passage between
that island and the western main. A schooner and some gun-boats, being
considerably ahead of the rest of the fleet, began the engagement,
which was continued for some hours on both sides with great intrepidity.
Brigadier-general Waterbury, in the Washington galley, fought with
undaunted bravery, until nearly all his officers were killed or wounded,
and his vessel greatly injured, when Arnold ordered the remaining
shattered vessels to retire up the lake towards Crown Point, to refit.

Two days afterwards they were overtaken by the British, and the
action was renewed. The Washington galley, crippled in the first
action, was soon obliged to strike and surrender. General Arnold,
having obstinately defended himself with great judgment and gallantry
against a superior force, was at length so closely pressed, that he
was compelled to run on shore his own vessel, the Congress galley,
which, with five gondolas, was abandoned and blown up. Of sixteen
American vessels, eleven were taken or destroyed; of the British, two
gondolas were sunk, and one blown up with sixty men. The loss of men
on each side was supposed to be nearly equal; that of the Americans
was estimated at about a hundred. The British army and fleet now
established themselves at Crown Point, and proceeded to strengthen
the old fortifications, originally erected at this place by the French
in 1756; but they very soon abandoned this station, and retired into
Canada.

Having secured the Hessian prisoners on the Pennsylvania side of the
Delaware, Washington recrossed the river two days after the action, and
took possession of Trenton. Generals Mifflin and Cadwallader, who lay
at Bordentown and Crosswix with three thousand six hundred militia,
were ordered to march up in the night of the 1st of January, to join
the commander-in-chief, whose whole effective force, including this
accession, did not exceed five thousand men. The detachments of the
British army which had been distributed over New Jersey, now assembled
at Princeton, and were joined by the army from Brunswick under lord
Cornwallis. From this position they advanced toward Trenton in great
force, on the morning of the 2d of January; and, after some slight
skirmishing with troops detached to harass and delay their march, the
van of their army reached Trenton about four in the afternoon. On their
approach, general Washington retired across the Assumpinck, a rivulet
that runs through the town, and by some field-pieces, posted on its
opposite banks, compelled them, after attempting to cross in several
places, to fall back out of the reach of his guns. The two armies,
kindling their fires, retained their positions on opposite sides of
the rivulet, and kept up a cannonade until night.

The situation of the American general was at this moment extremely
critical. Nothing but a stream, in many places fordable, separated his
army from an enemy in every respect its superior. If he remained in his
present position, he was certain of being attacked the next morning, at
the hazard of the entire destruction of his little army. If he should
retreat over the Delaware, the ice in that river not being firm enough
to admit a passage upon it, there was danger of great loss, perhaps of
a total defeat; the Jerseys would be in full possession of the enemy;
the public mind would be depressed; recruiting would be discouraged;
and Philadelphia would be within the reach of general Howe. In this
extremity, he boldly determined to abandon the Delaware, and, by a
circuitous march along the left flank of the enemy, fall into their
rear at Princeton. When it was dark, the army, leaving its fires
lighted, and the sentinels on the margin of the creek, decamped with
perfect secrecy. About sunrise two British regiments, that were on
their march to join the rear of the British army at Maidenhead, fell in
with the van of the Americans, conducted by general Mercer, and a very
sharp action ensued. The advanced party of Americans, composed chiefly
of militia, soon gave way, and the few regulars attached to them could
not maintain their ground. General Mercer, while gallantly exerting
himself to rally his broken troops, received a mortal wound.

General Washington, however, who followed close in their rear, now
led on the main body of the army, and attacked the enemy with great
spirit. While he exposed himself to their hottest fire, he was so well
supported by the same troops which had aided him a few days before in
the victory at Trenton, that the British were compelled to give way,
and Washington pressed forward to Princeton. A party of the British
that had taken refuge in the college, after receiving a few discharges
from the American field-pieces, surrendered themselves prisoners of
war; but the principal part of the regiment that was left there, saved
itself by a precipitate retreat to Brunswick. In this action upwards
of a hundred of the British were killed, and nearly three hundred were
taken prisoners. Great was the surprise of lord Cornwallis when the
report of the artillery at Princeton, and the arrival of breathless
messengers, apprized him that the enemy was in his rear. Alarmed by
the danger of his position, he commenced a retreat; and, being harassed
by the militia and the countrymen who had suffered from the outrages
perpetrated by his troops on their advance, he did not deem himself
in safety till he arrived at Brunswick, from whence, by means of the
Rariton, he had communication with New York.

The successes of the American arms at Trenton and at Princeton
were followed by important consequences. The affairs of the United
States before these events, appeared to be desperate. Two thousand
of the regular troops had a right, on the 1st of January, to demand
their discharge. The recruiting service was at an end, and general
despondency prevailed. The triumphs of the British through the previous
parts of the campaign produced a common apprehension, in the citizens
of the middle slates, that any further struggle would be useless,
and that America must eventually return to her allegiance to Great
Britain. Many individuals made their peace with the commissioners, and
took protection from the officers of the crown; and more discovered an
inclination to do it, when opportunity should present itself. General
Howe supposed New Jersey restored to the British government, and
thought the war drawing to a close. But these successes were considered
as great victories, and produced important effects upon the public
mind. The character of the commander-in-chief proportionably rose in
the estimation of the great mass of American people, who now respected
themselves, and confided in their persevering efforts to secure the
great object of contention――the independence of their country. Other
causes had a powerful operation upon the minds of the yeomanry of New
Jersey.

The British commanders tolerated, or at least did not restrain, gross
licentiousness in their army. The inhabitants of the state which they
boasted was restored to the bosom of the parent country, were treated
not as reclaimed friends, but as conquered enemies. The soldiers were
guilty of every species of rapine, and with little discrimination
between those who had opposed or supported the measures of Britain. The
abuse was not limited to the plundering of property. Every indignity
was offered to the persons of the inhabitants, not excepting those
outrages to the female sex which are felt by ingenuous minds with the
keenest anguish, and excite noble spirits to desperate resistance.
These aggravated abuses roused the people of New Jersey to repel that
army to which they had voluntarily submitted, in the expectation of
protection and security. At the dawn of success upon the American arms,
they rose in small bands to oppose their invaders. They scoured the
country, cut off every soldier who straggled from his corps, and in
many instances repelled the foraging parties of the enemy. Early in
this year also the Americans were gratified by the arrival of a vessel
from France at Portsmouth, in New Hampshire, with upwards of eleven
thousand stand of arms, and a thousand barrels of powder; and about
the same time ten thousand stand of arms arrived in another part of
the United States.

This supply was, however, in some measure counterbalanced. In the month
of March the British sent out two detachments to destroy the American
stores at Peekskill, on the North river, and at Danbury, in Connecticut.
Both succeeded in their attempt; and although the stores destroyed did
not equal in quantity the report on which the expeditions were planned,
yet their loss was sensibly felt by the Americans in the active season
of the campaign.

Sir William Howe, having in vain attempted to entice or provoke general
Washington to an engagement, had, in June, retired with his army from
the Jerseys to Staten island. After keeping the American general in
long and perplexing suspense concerning his intended operations, he at
length sailed from Sandy Hook with about sixteen thousand men, entered
Chesapeake bay, and on the 24th of August arrived at the head of Elk
river. Generals Grant and Knyphausen having joined him on the 8th of
September with the troops under their command, the whole army moved
onward in two columns toward Philadelphia, the possession of which
was now evidently the object of the British commander. Washington, who
regulated his movements by those of the enemy, had by this time, with
the whole American army excepting the light infantry, which remained on
the lines, taken a position behind Red Clay creek, on the road leading
directly from the enemy’s camp to Philadelphia. The British rapidly
advanced until they were within two miles of the Americans; while
Washington crossed the Brandywine, and took post on a height behind
that river.

At daybreak on the morning of the 11th it was ascertained that Sir
William Howe in person had crossed the Brandywine at the forks, and
was rapidly marching down the north side of the river to attack the
American army. The commander-in-chief now ordered general Sullivan to
form the right wing to oppose the column of Sir William. General Wayne
was directed to remain at Chadd’s ford with the left wing, to dispute
the passage of the river with Knyphausen. General Green, with his
division, was posted as a reserve in the centre between Sullivan and
Wayne, to reinforce either, as circumstances might require. General
Sullivan marched up the river, until he found favorable ground on which
to form his men; his left was near the Brandywine, and both flanks
were covered with thick wood. At half-past four o’clock, when his line
was scarcely formed, the British, under lord Cornwallis, commenced a
spirited attack. The action was for some time severe; but the American
right, which was not properly in order when the assault began, at
length gave way, and exposed the flank of the troops that maintained
their ground to a destructive fire, and continuing to break from the
right, the whole line finally gave way. As soon as the firing began,
general Washington, with general Green’s division, hastened towards the
scene of action, but before his arrival Sullivan was routed, and the
commander-in-chief could only check the pursuit of the enemy, and cover
the retreat of the beaten troops. During these transactions general
Knyphausen assaulted the works erected for the defence of Chadd’s ford,
and soon carried them. General Wayne, by this time learning the fate of
the other divisions, drew off his troops. General Washington retreated
with his whole force that night to Chester. The American loss in this
battle was about three hundred killed and six hundred wounded. Four
hundred were made prisoners, but these chiefly of the wounded.

Perceiving that the enemy were moving into the Lancaster road,
towards the city, general Washington took possession of ground near the
Warren tavern, on the left of the British, and twenty-three miles from
Philadelphia. The protection of his stores at Reading was one object
of this movement. The next morning he was informed of the approach of
the British army. He immediately put his troops in motion to engage the
enemy. The advance of the two hostile armies met and began to skirmish,
when a violent storm came on, which prevented a general engagement,
and rendered the retreat of the Americans absolutely necessary. The
inferiority of the muskets in the hands of the American soldiery,
which had been verified in every action, was strikingly illustrated in
this retreat. The gun-locks being badly made, and the cartridge-boxes
imperfectly constructed, this storm rendered most of the arms unfit for
use; and all the ammunition was damaged. The army was in consequence
extremely exposed, and their danger became the greater, as many of the
soldiers were destitute of bayonets. Fortunately the tempest, which
produced such serious mischief to the Americans, prevented the pursuit
of the British. Washington still continued to make every effort to save
the capital; but Sir William Howe, having secured the command of the
Schuylkill, on the 23d of September, crossed it with his whole army;
on the 26th he advanced to Germantown; and on the succeeding day lord
Cornwallis, at the head of a strong detachment, entered Philadelphia in
triumph.

The American army, reinforced to eight thousand continental troops
and three thousand militia, took a position at Shippack creek, on the
east side of the Schuylkill, about twenty miles from Philadelphia,
and sixteen from Germantown. At the latter place was posted the main
body of the British army. The first object of Sir William Howe was to
subdue the defences, and remove the impediments of the Delaware, that
a communication might be opened with the British shipping. General
Washington made every effort to prevent the execution of his enemy’s
design, in the hope of forcing general Howe out of Philadelphia, by
preventing supplies of provisions from reaching him. Of the attainment
of this important object he had no doubt, could the passage of the
Delaware be rendered impracticable. For this purpose works had been
erected on a bank of mud and sand in the river, near the confluence
of the Schuylkill, and about seven miles below Philadelphia. The
place, from these works, was denominated Fort island, and the works
themselves fort Mifflin. On a neck of land on the opposite shore of
New Jersey, called Red Bank, a fort was constructed and mounted with
heavy artillery, and called fort Mercer. Fort island and Red Bank were
distant from each other half a mile. In the channel of the Delaware,
which ran between them, two ranges of chevaux-de-frise were sunk. These
consisted of large pieces of timber, strongly framed together, and
pointed with iron, and they completely obstructed the passage of ships.
These works were covered by several galleys, floating batteries, and
armed ships.

Sir William Howe having detached a considerable force from Germantown
to operate against the works on the Delaware, general Washington
thought this a favorable opportunity to attack the British army
in their cantonments. The line of the British encampment crossed
the village of Germantown at right angles, near its centre, and its
flanks were strongly covered. The army, having moved from its ground
about seven in the afternoon of the 3d of October, began an attack
about sunrise the next morning. The advance of the column, led by
Sullivan, and accompanied by the commander-in-chief, encountered and
drove in a picket, which presently gave way; and his main body, soon
following, engaged the light infantry and other troops encamped near
the picket, and forced them from their ground. Though closely pursued,
lieutenant-colonel Musgrove, with six companies, took post in a strong
stone house, which lay in the way of the Americans, and severely
galled them by a fire of musketry from the doors and windows. General
Washington immediately ordered a brigade to surround the house; but
colonel Musgrove refused to surrender.

Four pieces of cannon were brought against him, but he sustained the
fire of them until major-general Gray, with the third brigade, and
brigadier-general Agnew, with the fourth, came to his assistance, and
attacked the Americans with great spirit. In the mean time general
Green arrival with his column, and attacked the right wing of the
British. Colonel Matthews routed a party of the British opposed to him;
but being enveloped in a most extraordinary fog, he lost sight of the
brigade to which he belonged, and was taken prisoner with his whole
regiment. At length a part of the right wing of the British attacked
the Americans on the opposite side of the town; and the embarrassments
among the American troops, occasioned by the darkness, gave the English
time to recover from their consternation. Sullivan’s division had
penetrated far into Germantown; but the main body of the American army
now commenced a retreat, and all efforts to rally it proved ineffectual.
In this battle the loss of the Americans in killed, wounded, and
prisoners, was not less than twelve hundred men, while that of the
British did not exceed half that number. The American army encamped
again on Shippack creek, but soon after advanced to White Marsh, while
the royal army removed from Germantown to Philadelphia.

The works in the Delaware now engaged the attention of the British and
American generals. Lord Howe, by continued exertion, having overcome
the obstructions which the Americans had placed in the river at
Billingsport, a joint attack by sea and land was planned against Red
Bank and Fort island. The Augusta, a sixty-four gun ship, the Merlin
frigate, and several small armed vessels, moved up the Delaware to
assault the works on Fort or Mud island. Count Donop crossed into
New Jersey with twelve hundred Germans, and in the evening of the
22d appeared before fort Mercer, on Red Bank. His assault was highly
spirited, and the defence intrepid and obstinate. Colonel Green, the
commandant, whose garrison did not exceed five hundred men, was unable
adequately to map the outworks; but he galled the Germans in their
advance, and on their near approach he quitted them, and retired within
the inner intrenchments. They pressed forward with undaunted bravery,
and the Americans poured upon them a deadly fire. Count Donop was
himself mortally wounded at the head of his gallant corps; the second
in command soon after fell, and the third immediately drew off his
forces. The assailants had four hundred men killed and wounded, while
the garrison, fighting under cover, had only thirty. In the mean time,
fort Mifflin was attacked by the shipping, and by batteries erected
on the Pennsylvania shore. Incessant volleys of bombs and cannon-balls
were discharged upon it. But at ebb tide the Augusta and Merlin
grounded, and were burnt. The garrison supported this tremendous fire
without material injury. The resistance of the forts on the Delaware
far exceeding the expectations of the British commanders, they adopted
measures to overcome it without the hazard of a second assault. They
erected batteries upon Providence island, within five hundred yards of
the American fort. They also brought up their shipping, gun-boats, &c.,
and from the 10th to the 16th of November, battered the American works.
By this time the defences were entirely beaten down, every piece of
cannon was dismounted, and one of the ships approached so near fort
Mifflin as to throw hand-grenades from her tops into it, which killed
the men upon the platform. The brave garrison received orders to quit
the post. Red Bank being no longer useful, its garrison and stores were
also withdrawn on the approach of lord Cornwallis with five thousand
men to invest it.

While these inauspicious operations were carried on in the south, the
northern portion of the country was a theatre of events that more than
counterbalanced them. A principal object of the British in the campaign
of this year, was to open a free communication between New York and
Canada. The British ministry were sanguine in their hopes, that, by
effecting this object, New England, which they considered as the soul
of the confederacy, might be severed from the neighboring states, and
compelled to submission. In prosecution of this design, an army of
British and German troops, amounting to upwards of seven thousand men,
exclusive of artillery, was put under the command of lieutenant-general
Burgoyne, an enterprising and able officer. The plan of operations
consisted of two parts. General Burgoyne with the main body was to
advance by way of lake Champlain, and force his way to Albany, or,
at least, so far as to effect a junction with the royal army from New
York; and lieutenant-colonel St. Leger, with about two hundred British,
a regiment of New York loyalists, raised and commanded by Sir John
Johnson, and a large body of Indians, was to ascend the St. Lawrence
to lake Ontario, and from that quarter to penetrate toward Albany by
the way of the Mohawk river.

General Burgoyne arrived at Quebec in May. In the latter end of June
he advanced with his army to Crown Point, and from thence proceeded
to invest Ticonderoga, which was soon abandoned by the Americans,
under general St. Clair, who, after a distressing march, joined general
Schuyler at fort Edward, on the river Hudson. General Burgoyne, having
with incredible labor and fatigue conducted his army through the
wilderness from Skenesborough, reached fort Edward on the 30th of July.
As he approached that place, general Schuyler, whose forces, even since
the junction of St. Clair, did not exceed four thousand four hundred
men, retired over the Hudson to Saratoga. Early in August St. Leger
invested fort Schuyler, and at first obtained some advantages over
the Americans; but, by stratagem,[120] the Indians were induced to
desert him, and finding himself abandoned by seven or eight hundred of
these important auxiliaries,[121] he decamped in great confusion, and
returned to Montreal, leaving his tents, with most of his artillery
and stores, in the field. While St. Leger was thus unsuccessful at fort
Schuyler, a detachment under colonel Baum, despatched to seize a large
depot in New Hampshire grants, was also defeated by a body of militia
under general Stark.[122] Meanwhile, general Burgoyne, having collected
about thirty days’ provision, and thrown a bridge of boats over the
Hudson, crossed that river on the 13th and 14th of September, and
encamped on the heights and plains of Saratoga. General Gates, who
had recently taken the chief command of the northern department of the
American army, advanced toward the British, and encamped three miles
above Stillwater.

On the night of the 17th, Burgoyne encamped within four miles of
the American army; and about noon on the 19th advanced in full force
against it. The right wing was commanded by general Burgoyne, and
covered by general Frazer and colonel Breyman with the grenadiers
and light infantry, who were posted along some high grounds on the
right. The front and flanks were covered by Indians, provincials, and
Canadians. The left wing and artillery were commanded by major-generals
Phillips and Reidesel, who proceeded along the great road. Colonel
Morgan, who was detached to observe their motions, and to harass them
as they advanced, soon fell in with their pickets in front of their
right wing, attacked them sharply, and drove them in. A strong corps
was brought up to support them, and, after a severe encounter, Morgan
was compelled to give way; but a regiment was ordered to assist him,
and the action became more general. The commanders on both sides
supported and reinforced their respective parties; and about four
o’clock, Arnold, with nine continental regiments and Morgan’s corps,
was completely engaged with the whole right wing of the British army.
The engagement began at three o’clock in the afternoon, and continued
till after sunset, when the Americans thought proper to retire, and
leave the British masters of the field of battle. The loss on each
side was nearly equal, six hundred being killed and wounded on the
part of the British, and the same number on the side of the Americans.
No advantages resulted to the British troops from this encounter; while
the conduct of the Americans fully convinced every one ‘that they were
able to sustain an attack in open plains with the intrepidity, the
spirit, and the coolness of veterans. For four hours they maintained
a contest hand to hand; and when they retired, it was not because they
were conquered, but because the approach of night made a retreat to
their camp absolutely necessary.’

Both armies lay some time in sight of each other, each fortifying its
camp in the strongest manner possible. Meanwhile, the difficulties
of the British general were daily increasing; his auxiliary Indians
deserted him soon after the battle of Stillwater; and his army,
reduced to little more than five thousand men, was limited to half the
usual allowance of provisions; the stock of forage also was entirely
exhausted, and his horses were perishing in great numbers; the American
army had become so augmented as to render him diffident of making good
his retreat; and, to aggravate his distress, no intelligence had yet
been received of the approach of general Clinton, or of any diversion
in his favor from New York. In this exigency, general Burgoyne resolved
to examine the possibility of dislodging the Americans from their
posts on the left, by which means he would be enabled to retreat to
the lakes. For this purpose he drew out fifteen hundred men, which he
headed himself, attended by generals Phillips, Reidesel, and Frazer.
This detachment had scarcely formed, within less than half a mile of the
American intrenchments, when a furious attack was made, which, though
bravely resisted, was decidedly to the advantage of the assailants.
General Burgoyne now became convinced that it was impossible to conduct
any further offensive operations, and endeavored to make good his
retreat to fort George.

Artificers were accordingly despatched, under a strong escort, to
repair the bridges, and open the roads, but they were compelled to make
a precipitate retreat. The situation of general Burgoyne becoming every
hour more hazardous, he resolved to attempt a retreat by night to fort
Edward; but even this retrograde movement was rendered impracticable.
While the army was preparing to march, intelligence was received
that the Americans had already possessed themselves of the fort, and
that they were well provided with artillery. No avenue to escape now
appeared. Incessant toil and continual engagements had worn down the
British army; its provisions were nearly exhausted, and there were no
means of procuring a supply; while the American army, which was daily
increasing, was already much greater than the British in point of
numbers, and almost encircled them. In this extremity, the British
general called a council of war; and it was unanimously resolved to
enter into a convention with general Gates. Preliminaries were soon
settled, and the royal army, to the number of five thousand seven
hundred and fifty, surrendered prisoners of war.

The capture of an entire army was justly viewed as an event that must
essentially affect the contest between Great Britain and America; and
while it excited the highest joy among the Americans, it could not
but have a most auspicious influence on their affairs in the cabinet
and in the field. The thanks of congress were voted to general Gates
and his army; and a medal of gold, in commemoration of this splendid
achievement, was ordered to be struck, to be presented to him by the
president, in the name of the United States.

  Illustration: Surrender at Saratoga.

General Burgoyne’s surrender is certainly, in a considerable degree, to
be attributed to the want of co-operation both on the part of general
Carleton, in Canada, and of Sir Henry Clinton, at New York. The latter,
indeed, performed a service, which, if effected a little earlier,
might possibly have relieved Burgoyne. With nearly three thousand men,
convoyed by some ships of war under commodore Hotham, he conducted an
expedition up Hudson’s river, in October, against the forts Montgomery
and Clinton. When arrived within a mile of the place of destination,
the troops separated into two columns; the one, consisting of nine
hundred men, under lieutenant Campbell, was destined for the attack on
fort Montgomery; the other, under the immediate command of Sir Henry
Clinton, was to storm the stronger post of fort Clinton. The garrison,
when summoned, having refused to surrender, the assault was made on
both forts at the same instant. These fortresses, which were separated
from each other by a creek only, were commanded by governor Clinton,
a brave and intelligent officer, who made a gallant resistance from
four in the afternoon, when the attack began, until dark; but, the
post having been designed principally to prevent the passing of ships,
the works on the land side were incomplete and untenable, and the
assailants entered them with fixed bayonets. Most of the garrison,
however, effected their escape, undercover of the thick smoke and
darkness.

Having noticed the most important features of the military operations
of the year 1777, it will be proper, before entering on those of the
following years, to afford the reader some information on two very
important points――the progress made by the Americans in their foreign
relations, and the steps which had been taken to consolidate the
general government. In both cases it will be necessary, in order to
give a clear and comprehensive view of the subject, slightly to deviate
from strict chronological order.

The contest between Great Britain and her colonies had not long
commenced, before congress directed their attention to the possibility
of attaining foreign assistance. Towards the close of the year 1775,
a committee was appointed to hold secret correspondence with the
friends of America, both in Europe and other parts of the world.[123]
Early in the year 1776, the committee, seeing little prospect of an
accommodation, and well aware that France would be disposed to make
great sacrifices to reduce the power of Great Britain by the separation
of her North American colonies, sent Silas Deane, as a commercial and
political agent, to the French court.[124] Mr. Deane arrived in Paris
about the 1st of July, and was indefatigable in pursuing the objects
of his mission; and through Dr. Dubourg, a friend to America, was in a
few days introduced to Vergennes. His arrival at Paris was immediately
known in London, and lord Stormont was sent express to Paris to watch
his movements. Mr. Deane stated to the French minister the objects of
his mission, agreeably to his instructions, and in his first conference
he touched upon the subject of forming treaties with the Americans in
case of their declaring themselves independent. The American agent was
favorably received by the French minister, and was asked many questions
in relation to American affairs. Vergennes informed Mr. Deane, that
though the French court estimated highly the importance of American
commerce, yet, considering the good understanding between the courts
of Versailles and London, they could not openly encourage the shipping
of warlike stores; but no obstructions of any kind, he said, would be
given. On the subject of independence, he observed that was an event
in the womb of time, and it would be highly improper for him to say
any thing on that point until it had actually taken place. This first
conference with the French minister ended much to the satisfaction of
the American agent.

As soon as the question of independence was decided in the affirmative,
congress took the subject of foreign affairs into their own hands;
and, on the 11th of June, appointed a committee to prepare a plan of
treaties with foreign powers.[125] In the month of September, congress
appointed Dr. Franklin, Mr. Deane, and Mr. Jefferson, commissioners
to proceed to France.[126] Dr. Franklin and Mr. Lee arrived at Paris
in December, and the objects of their mission were soon made known
to the French court. The court was not yet prepared to acknowledge
the independence of the United States, to form treaties with them, or
openly to espouse the cause of the Americans; to prove, however, his
good wishes towards the United States, the king ordered two millions
of livres to be paid to them by quarterly payments, which should be
augmented as the state of his finances would permit. The most profound
secrecy, in relation to this donation, was enjoined. The course of
policy France intended to pursue, in the contest between Great Britain
and her colonies, was now obvious; and with her views of the subject,
was perhaps, as it regarded herself at least, a very natural as well
as wise course, as she evidently entertained serious doubts whether the
states would be able to form a lasting union among themselves, or to
persevere in maintaining their independence.

Although the court were thus undecided, the cause of the United
States was extremely popular in France, both among the people and the
army, and many French officers sought an opportunity of engaging in
their service. Among these the young marquis de la Fayette was most
conspicuous for his rank, and most distinguished for his ardor and
enthusiasm. At an early period he communicated to the American agents
his wish to join the republican armies. At first they encouraged his
zeal, but learning the disasters which preceded the victory at Trenton,
they, with honorable frankness, communicated the information to him,
and added, that they were so destitute of funds, that they could not
even provide for his passage across the ocean. ‘If your country,’
replied the gallant youth, ‘is indeed reduced to this extremity, it is
at this moment that my departure to join her armies will render her the
most essential service.’ He immediately hired a vessel to convey him to
America, where he arrived in the spring of 1777. He was received with
cordial affection by the people, became the bosom friend of Washington,
solicited permission to serve without pay, and was appointed
major-general in the army.

The disastrous state of American affairs at the close of the year 1776,
induced congress to attend more seriously to the subject of securing
foreign aid; and a new committee was appointed. Some of the members
of this committee were disposed to make great sacrifices to obtain the
aid of France, and were almost prepared to offer her the same monopoly
of American commerce as had been enjoyed by Great Britain.[127] On
the 30th of December, congress came to the resolution of sending
commissioners to the courts of Vienna, Madrid, and Berlin, and to
the grand duke of Tuscany.[128] These commissioners were instructed
to assure the courts, to which they were sent, that the Americans
were determined to maintain their independence, notwithstanding the
suggestions of the British to the contrary.

The success of the arms of the United States by the capture of the
army of general Burgoyne, gave a new aspect to their affairs in France,
and indeed throughout Europe. The American commissioners at Paris now
stood on commanding ground. The French court, aware of the views of the
British ministry in relation to the colonies, no longer hesitated about
accepting the propositions of the American envoys. M. Gerard informed
the American commissioners, on the 16th of December, ‘that after a
long and mature deliberation upon their propositions, his majesty had
determined to recognise the independence of, and to enter into a treaty
of commerce and alliance with, the United States of America; and that
he would not only acknowledge their independence, but actually support
it with all the means in his power; that perhaps he was about to engage
himself in an expensive war upon this account, but that he did not
expect to be reimbursed by them; in fine, the Americans were not to
think that he had entered into this resolution solely with a view of
serving them, since, independently of his real attachment to them and
their cause, it was evidently the interest of France to diminish the
power of England, by severing her colonies from her.’ On the 6th of
February, 1778, a treaty of commerce was signed by Franklin, Deane,
and Lee, on the part of the United States, and by M. Gerard on the part
of France, together with a treaty of defensive alliance, in case war
should be the consequence of this commercial connection. The essential
and direct end of this alliance was, ‘to maintain the liberty,
sovereignty, and independence, absolute and unlimited, of the United
States, as well in matters of government as of commerce.’

Before leaving this subject, it is necessary to state, that as,
previous to the recognition of independence by the court of France, it
was imperative that the intercourse with the American agents should be
conducted indirectly and with the utmost secrecy, the French government
rendered their secret assistance through the agency of M. Beaumarchais,
who appears to have been more desirous of serving himself than the
Americans. The mode in which he converted the gratuitous aid of
the French court into articles of charge in his accounts with the
congress, and especially his retaining in his hands a million of livres
out of the subsidy granted by the French king, are circumstances too
extraordinary to be entirely passed over; but our limits compel us to
refer the reader for the details to that very able work, Pitkin’s Civil
and Political History, and to the volumes of Diplomatic Correspondence
already alluded to.

During the first stages of the revolution, the universal enthusiasm
of the people, directed to one common object, in some measure supplied
the place of a general legislative and executive power. The congress
had hitherto possessed no powers but such as were conferred by the
instructions given by the state legislatures to their respective
delegates; but on the 11th of June, 1776, the day following that
in which the resolution in favor of independence had been adopted,
congress determined to appoint a committee to prepare and digest the
form of a confederation. This committee, on the 12th of July following,
reported a plan of confederacy, consisting of twenty articles, and on
the 22d of the same month it was discussed in committee of the whole
house, and was under consideration until the 20th of August, when an
amended draft was reported. The difficulty in agreeing upon the details
of the system, as well as the gloomy aspect of American affairs at
this period, prevented congress from resuming this subject until April,
1777, when they resolved that two days in each week should be employed
upon it, ‘until it shall be wholly discussed.’ The amended draft was
considered and debated accordingly until the 26th of June, when it was
again postponed to the 2d of October, and was not finally adopted by
congress until the 15th of November. The outlines of the system were,
that the thirteen states formed a confederacy, under the style and name
of ‘the United States of America;’ by which they entered ‘into a firm
league of friendship with each other, for their defence, the security
of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding
themselves to assist each other against all force offered to or attacks
made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty,
trade, or any other pretence whatever.’ This plan of union was to be
proposed to the legislatures of all the states, and, if approved, they
were advised to authorize their delegates in congress to ratify the
same; this being done, it was to be conclusive. The plan was considered
by the legislatures of the several states in the winter of 1777–8, and
by some was adopted without amendments, by others various amendments
were proposed.

The effect produced on the British cabinet, and on the nation at
large, by the intelligence of the surrender of general Burgoyne and his
army, can scarcely be described. The most brilliant success had been
anticipated; the most ignominious result had occurred. The pride of
the nation was humbled, and those who had disapproved of the war poured
upon the ministry a torrent of invective; while the embarrassments of
the ministry were increased by the intelligence of the course which
the hereditary enemy and rival of Great Britain had resolved to pursue.
Under these circumstances it was determined in the cabinet to grant to
America all that she had demanded in the beginning of the contest. An
act was passed, declaring that parliament would not, in future, impose
any tax upon the colonies; and commissioners were sent over, authorized
to proclaim a repeal of all the offensive statutes, and to treat with
the constituted authorities of America. The commissioners, arriving at
Philadelphia in the spring, communicated to congress the terms offered
by Great Britain, which were, however, unanimously rejected.[129]

The arms of congress had been successful on the Hudson; but many
difficulties arose in the execution of the convention of Saratoga.
It had been stipulated that general Burgoyne’s army should embark at
Boston for Europe: but, at the time of signing the convention, the
British general seems not to have been aware that it is difficult for
ships to reach the port of Boston during the winter; and that, owing
to this cause, the embarkation of his troops might be delayed till
the ensuing spring. On being apprized of this circumstance, general
Burgoyne immediately applied to the American commander-in-chief,
desiring him to change the port of embarkation, and to appoint Newport,
in Rhode Island, or some other place on the sound, instead of Boston;
and, in case this request should not be complied with, soliciting, on
account of his health and private business, that the indulgence might
be granted to himself and suite. General Washington, not thinking
himself authorized to decide on such an application, transmitted it
to congress, which took no notice of the matter further than to pass
a resolution, ‘That general Washington be directed to inform general
Burgoyne, that congress will not receive or consider any proposition
for indulgence, or altering the terms of the convention of Saratoga,
unless immediately addressed to their own body.’ The application was
accordingly made to congress, who readily complied with the request in
so far as it respected himself personally, but refused the indulgence
to his troops, and ultimately forbade their embarkation.

Congress watched with a jealous eye every movement of the convention
army, and soon gave public indications of that jealousy. Early in
November, they ordered general Heath, who commanded in Boston, ‘to
take the name, rank, former place of abode, and description of every
person comprehended in the convention of Saratoga, in order that,
if afterwards found in arms against the United States, they might be
punished according to the law of nations.’ General Burgoyne showed
some reluctance to the execution of this order; and his reluctance was
imputed to no honorable motives.

The British army in Philadelphia spent the winter in gayety and
revelry, injuring at once their own respectability and the cause which
they were employed to support. They disgusted the sober inhabitants
by their irregularities, and provoked them by their insolence; so that
many who had hailed their arrival with cordial gratulations, felt a
lively satisfaction when the hour of their departure came.

General Washington quitted White Marsh, crossed the Schuylkill at
Sweed’s ford, and, on the 19th of December, took a strong position at
Valley Forge, about twenty-six miles from Philadelphia. Had he retired
during the winter to the shelter of a large town, he must have gone
to a great distance from the British army, and left an extensive tract
of country open to their foraging parties; or had he cantoned his men
in the adjacent villages, his army might have been beaten in detail
and gradually destroyed. But at Valley Forge he was sufficiently near
Philadelphia to check the foraging parties of the enemy, and his army
was so much concentrated as to secure it from any sudden and desultory
attack.

At Valley Forge the American commander-in-chief lodged his army in
huts formed of logs, with the interstices filled with mud, which
constituted very acceptable habitations to men long unaccustomed to
the conveniences of life. But, though sheltered from the storm by their
rude dwellings, the sufferings of the army from want of provisions and
clothing were incredible. The winter was severe, and many of the men
were without stockings or shoes, and almost naked. The non-importation
associations rendered cloth scarce at the commencement of hostilities;
the war rendered importation difficult; and the consumption exceeded
the produce of the home manufacture. Hence the army was left in
a destitute and deplorable condition; and the line of march, from
White Marsh to Valley Forge, over rough and frozen roads, might
have been traced by the blood from the bare and mangled feet of the
soldiers. Under the shelter of the huts their sufferings were at first
considerably alleviated; but in a short time the miseries of want,
amounting almost to famine, were added to those of nakedness. In these
trying circumstances numbers of the troops, especially they who had
been born in Europe, eluded the vigilance of the guards, and deserted
to the enemy in Philadelphia, carrying their arms along with them. Many
loyalists also joined general Howe; so that the strength of his army
was sensibly increased.

  Illustration: Encampment at Valley Forge.

Many representations on the wants and hardships of the army had been
submitted to congress, which had authorized the commander-in-chief
to seize provisions for his army wherever he could find them, within
seventy miles of head-quarters, paying for them with money, or giving
certificates, for the redemption of which the faith of the United
States was pledged. This odious power general Washington was extremely
backward to exercise; but at Valley Forge his necessities were
so pressing that he was constrained to have recourse to it; and,
notwithstanding all his precautions, the manner in which his orders
were executed did not always soften the rigor of this harsh measure.
Men with arms in their hands, and supported by authority, are seldom
delicate in supplying their urgent wants.

The American commander-in-chief was ill-provided with money, and
could make his payments only in paper of very uncertain value; but the
supplies carried into Philadelphia were readily paid for by the British
troops in gold and silver; and the patriotism of the people was not
sufficiently ardent to prevent them from carrying their goods to the
best market. It was, however, no easy matter for the country people to
carry provisions into Philadelphia without detection and punishment;
for the American detachments and patrols, though at a respectful
distance, almost encircled the city.

While the army lay at Valley Forge, a plot was formed to remove
general Washington from the chief command; and in that plot several
members of congress, and a very few military officers, were concerned.
Insinuations against the military talents of general Washington were
industriously circulated; and the public attention was directed towards
general Gates, whose success at Saratoga had thrown a brilliant lustre
round his name. General Thomas Conway was an active agent in the plot;
and many of the inhabitants of Pennsylvania, chagrined by the loss of
their capital, and willing to devolve on the general who had twice,
with inferior forces, fought the enemy in their defence, the blame of
those misfortunes which had arisen from their own pusillanimity and
carelessness in not reinforcing the army, readily joined in the clamor.
The conduct of general Gates was equivocal, but he solemnly disclaimed
all connection with the faction. The officers of general Washington’s
army, strongly attached to him, felt the liveliest indignation against
those intriguers who wished to remove their favorite leader from his
command.

By the uniform tenor of his conduct, general Washington had won the
affection and esteem of almost all his troops, both officers and
privates; and, fortunately for America, there was enough of discernment
in congress to resist the dark machinations of the faction, and to
continue their brave and upright commander-in-chief at the head of
the army. His situation, however, was by no means enviable. His army
was much attached to him; but, weakened by disease, and irritated by
nakedness and hunger, it was almost on the point of dissolution. In
the midst of the difficulties and dangers with which he was surrounded,
general Washington displayed a singular degree of steady perseverance,
unshaken fortitude, and unwearied activity. Instead of manifesting
irritable impatience under the malignant attacks made on his character,
he behaved with magnanimity, and earnestly applied to congress, and
to the legislative bodies of the several states, for reinforcements to
his army, in order that he might be prepared to act with vigor in the
ensuing campaign.

But to recruit and equip the army was no easy task. The great
depreciation of paper money rendered the pay of the soldiers inadequate
to their support; and, consequently, it was not likely that voluntary
enlistment would be successful, especially since the patriotic ardor of
many had begun to cool by the continuance of the war, and all knew that
great hardships and dangers were to be encountered by joining the army.
The pay even of the officers, in the depreciated paper currency, was
wholly unequal to the maintenance of their rank. Some of them who had
small patrimonial estates found them melting away, while their lives
were unprofitably devoted to the service of their country; and they
who had no private fortune could not appear in a manner becoming their
station. A commission was a burden; and many considered the acceptance
of one as conferring rather than receiving a favor: a state of things
highly disadvantageous to the service; for the duties of an office
scarcely reckoned worth holding will seldom be zealously and actively
discharged. There was reason to apprehend that many of the most
meritorious officers would resign their commissions; and that they
only who were less qualified for service would remain with the army.

Congress, moved by the remonstrances of the commander-in-chief, and
by the complaints with which they were assailed from every quarter,
deputed a committee of their body to reside in camp during the winter;
and, in concert with the general, to examine the state of the army, and
report on the measures necessary to be taken for placing it in a more
respectable condition. But the reforms in the army were tardily made.
Congress were fond of their own speculations, although experience had
proved them mischievous; and were slow in rectifying the evils which
arose from their own errors. The state legislatures were backward in
adopting coercive measures for recruiting the army; and each of them
was jealous of bearing more than its share of the war. At length,
however, an efficient commissary-general was appointed; the other
departments were put on a more desirable footing; and vigorous measures
were pursued to prepare for the ensuing campaign.

During the winter there was a good deal of correspondence between the
generals respecting prisoners of war. Complaints were mutual; and a
partial cartel was agreed to.

In consequence of the treaties concluded with her revolted colonies,
Great Britain declared war against France; and the ministry, presuming
that assistance would be sent to the Americans, transmitted orders by
the commissioners, that Philadelphia should be evacuated, and the royal
troops concentrated at New York. The execution of these orders devolved
upon Sir Henry Clinton, who had been appointed commander-in-chief on
the resignation of general Howe. On the 18th of June the enemy quitted
the city, and marched slowly eastward. Washington, leaving his huts
in the forest, hung upon the rear of the British army, watching for a
favorable opportunity to offer battle. On arriving at Monmouth, in New
Jersey, general Lee, who had lately been exchanged, was ordered to take
the command of five thousand men, and, early in the morning of the 28th,
to commence an attack, being assured that he should be supported by the
whole army. Lee made dispositions to attack accordingly, but perceiving
the main body of the English returning to meet him, he began to retreat.
Washington, advancing to render the promised support, saw him retiring,
rode forward, and addressed him in language implying disapprobation of
his conduct.[130] He then directed him to form his men on ground which
he pointed out, and there oppose the progress of the enemy. A warm
engagement ensued, and Washington, arriving with the main body of his
army, compelled the British to fall back.

The day had been intensely hot, and the troops were greatly
fatigued,[131] yet general Washington resolved to renew the engagement;
but there were so many impediments to be overcome, that before the
attack could be commenced it was nearly dark. It was therefore thought
most advisable to postpone further operations until morning, and
the troops lay on their arms in the field of battle.[132] General
Washington, who had been exceedingly active through the day, and
entirely regardless of personal danger, reposed himself at night in
his cloak, under a tree, in the midst of his soldiers. His intention
of renewing the battle was, however, frustrated; the British troops
marched away about midnight in such profound silence, that the most
advanced posts knew nothing of their departure until morning. The
American general, declining all further pursuit of the royal army,
detached some light troops to attend its motions, and drew off his
soldiers to the borders of the North river. Sir Henry Clinton, after
remaining a few days on the high grounds of Middleton, proceeded to
Sandy Hook, whence he passed his army over to New York.

The British having entered New York, Washington conducted his army to
White Plains. Congress returned to Philadelphia; and in July received,
with inexpressible joy, a letter from the count D’Estaing, announcing
his arrival on the coast of Virginia, with twelve sail of the line and
six frigates, with about four thousand troops on board. The count had
intended to surprise admiral Howe in the Delaware, but adverse winds
detained him on the passage, until the British fleet had sailed for New
York. He appeared before that harbor, but on sounding, found that his
largest ships could not pass the bar. By the advice of Washington, a
combined attack upon the British forces at Newport, in Rhode Island,
was resolved on. General Sullivan, who had been appointed to command
the troops, called upon the militia of New England to aid him in the
enterprise. His army soon amounted to ten thousand men, and, as he
was supported by the fleet he felt confident of success. On the 9th
of August, he took a position on the north end of Rhode Island, and
afterwards moved nearer to Newport. Admiral Howe, having received a
reinforcement, now appeared before the harbor, and the count instantly
put to sea to attack him. A furious storm, however, came on, which
damaged and dispersed both fleets. As soon as the weather permitted,
each commander sought the port from which he had sailed; but great
was the disappointment of the Americans when D’Estaing announced his
intention of proceeding to Boston to refit; they earnestly remonstrated,
but the count was inflexible. Deserted by the fleet, the army could
remain no longer with safety on the island. General Sullivan, therefore,
immediately retreated to his first position. He was pursued and
attacked by the enemy; but they were gallantly resisted and repulsed
with loss. The next day the two armies cannonaded each other, and the
succeeding night the American general, deceiving the enemy by a show of
resistance to the last, made a skilful retreat to the continent. It was
a remarkable escape. The delay of a single day would probably have been
fatal to the Americans; for Sir Henry Clinton, who had been impeded
by adverse winds, arrived with a reinforcement of four thousand men
the very next day, when a retreat, it is presumed, would have been
impracticable.

At this period of the war hostilities were carried on with more than
usual acrimony. In several instances the British troops, and their
allies, the American tories and native Indians, exhibited a barbarity
deeply to be lamented, wantonly destroying the property and injuring
the persons of peaceful unarmed inhabitants. While asleep in a barn
at Tappan, colonel Baylor’s troop of light dragoons were surprised
by general Grey, who commanded his soldiers to use the bayonet only,
and to give the rebels no quarter. Incapable of defence, they sued for
mercy; but the most pathetic supplications were heard without awakening
compassion; nearly one-half of the troop were killed. To many, repeated
thrusts were barbarously given as long as signs of life remained; while
some who had nearly a dozen stabs through the body, and were left for
dead, afterwards recovered. A few escaped, and forty were saved by the
humanity of a British captain, who dared to disobey the orders of his
general. With feelings of revenge yet more barbarous, Wyoming, a happy
and flourishing settlement, on the eastern branch of the Susquehannah,
in Pennsylvania, was attacked by a band of tories and Indians. The
conditions of the capitulation were entirely disregarded by the British
and savage forces, and after the fort was delivered up, all kinds
of barbarities were committed by them. The village of Wilkesbarre,
consisting of twenty-three houses, was burnt; men and their wives were
separated from each other and carried into captivity; their property
was plundered, and the settlement laid waste. The remainder of the
inhabitants were driven from the valley, and compelled to proceed
on foot sixty miles through the great swamp, almost without food
or clothing. A number perished in the journey, principally women
and children; some died of their wounds, others wandered from the
path in search of food and were lost; and those who survived called
the wilderness through which they passed ‘The Shades of Death,’ an
appellation which it has since retained. Many other instances might be
adduced; but it is better to suffer the record of them to perish.[133]

In the campaign of 1778 little on either side was accomplished. The
alliance with France gave birth to expectations which events did not
fulfil; but the presence of her fleets on the coast deranged the plans
of the British; induced them to relinquish a part of their conquests;
and prevented their making any progress in the accomplishment of their
designs.

The close of this year was distinguished by a change of the theatre
of war from the northern to the southern section of the confederacy.
The country, weak by its scattered population, the multitude of slaves,
and the number of tories, presented a prospect of easy victory. In
the end of November, lieutenant-colonel Campbell, with two thousand
five hundred men, sailed from New York to the coast of Georgia. Having
landed his troops, he marched towards Savannah, the capital; and
defeating a small body of Americans whom he met on his route, he
immediately took possession of the city. After the fall of the capital,
Sunbury surrendered at discretion; and these were the only military
posts in Georgia.

The campaign of 1779 was opened by general Lincoln, who had been
appointed to the command of the American troops in the southern
department. In April, leaving South Carolina, he marched into the
interior of Georgia; upon which the British army, entering the state
he had left, invested Charleston, the capital. Lincoln hastened back to
its defence; and on his approach, the British retired to Stono ferry,
where an action was fought, and a few days afterwards they continued
their retreat to Savannah. The heat of the season suspended farther
operations until September; when count D’Estaing, with a fleet carrying
six thousand troops, arrived on the coast. The two armies, in concert,
laid siege to Savannah. At the expiration of a month, the count,
impatient of delay, insisted that the siege should be abandoned, or
that a combined assault upon the enemy’s works should immediately
be made. General Lincoln determined upon the latter course. Great
gallantry was displayed by the French and American troops, but the
British repulsed the assailants, killing and wounding nearly a thousand
men,[134] while on their part the loss was small. The next day the
siege was raised, the French returning home, and the Americans to South
Carolina.

The operations of the British in the more northern parts of America
were predatory rather than military. In May, a naval and land force,
commanded by Sir George Collier and general Matthews, made a descent
on Virginia. On their arrival, they took possession of Portsmouth and
of Norfolk; destroyed the houses, vessels, naval stores, and a large
magazine of provisions, at Suffolk; made a similar destruction at
Kemp’s Landing, Shepherd’s, Gosport, Tanner’s Creek, and other places
in the vicinity; and, after setting fire to the houses and other public
buildings in the dockyard at Gosport, embarked with their booty for
New York. A similar expedition was soon after undertaken from New York
against Connecticut, by governor Tryon, with two thousand six hundred
land forces, supported by brigadier-general Garth, and accompanied
by Sir George Collier with armed vessels to cover the transports.
Though checked in their march, they entered New Haven about one in
the afternoon, from which time until eight in the evening the town was
subjected to almost indiscriminate ravage and plunder. The royal army
also plundered and burned the town of Fairfield, and the greatest part
of the neighboring village of Green Farms. A few days afterward they
laid the town of Norwalk in ashes.

Early in the season, colonel Clarke, of Virginia, who was stationed at
Kaskaskia, on the Mississippi, achieved an enterprise conspicuous for
boldness of design, and evincing uncommon hardihood in its execution.
With only one hundred and thirty men, he penetrated through the
wilderness to St. Vincent’s, a British post on the Wabash, in the heart
of the Indian country. His route lay across deep swamps and morrasses;
and in one instance the party waded through water, often as high as
the breast, for nearly five miles. After a march of sixteen days,
they reached the town, which, having no intimation of their approach,
surrendered without resistance; and a short time after, the fort
capitulated. This fortunate achievement arrested an expedition which
the enemy had projected against the frontiers of Virginia, and detached
several tribes of Indians from the British interest.

Congress, though its measures toward the Indians were conciliatory,
could not secure the western frontiers. The Six Nations had been
advised by that body, and had promised, to observe a neutrality in the
war; but, excepting the Oneidas, and a few others who were friendly
to the Americans, those Indians took a decided part against them. The
presents and promises of Sir John Johnson and other British agents,
with the desire of plunder, induced them to invade the frontiers;
and wherever they went, they carried slaughter and devastation. An
expedition was therefore ordered against them, and general Sullivan,
to whom the conduct of it was intrusted, marched into their country.
The Indians, on hearing of the projected expedition, collected their
strength, took possession of proper ground, and fortified it with
judgment. General Sullivan attacked them in their works, and they
sustained a cannonade of more than two hours; but they then gave way,
and, after their trenches were forced, they fled with precipitation.
The victorious army, penetrating into the heart of their country,
laid it desolate. Their villages, their detached habitations, their
corn-fields, their fruit-trees and gardens, were indiscriminately
destroyed.

The campaign of this year, though barren in important events, was
distinguished by one gallant enterprise, which reflected much honor on
the American arms. Stony Point, a fortress on the North river, had been
taken from the Americans, and strongly fortified by the British. It was
at this time garrisoned by about six hundred men, under the command of
lieutenant-colonel Johnson. General Washington, having obtained precise
information of the condition of the works, the nature of the ground in
their vicinity, the strength and arrangements of the garrison, and the
disposition of the guards, and having in person reconnoitred the post,
resolved to attempt the surprise of it. The execution of the plan was
intrusted to general Wayne, and the troops employed on this service
were chiefly from New England. At half-past eleven on the night of the
15th of July, the columns moved on to the charge at opposite points of
the works, the van of each with unloaded muskets and fixed bayonets;
and at twenty minutes after twelve both columns rushed forward under
a tremendous fire of musketry and grape-shot, entered the works at the
point of the bayonet, and, arriving in the centre of them at nearly
the same instant, compelled the garrison to surrender at discretion. A
more gallant exploit has seldom been performed, and the humanity of the
victors was equal to their valor. Notwithstanding the devastations in
Connecticut, and the butchery of Baylor’s troop, the scene of which was
near, not an individual suffered after resistance had ceased.

  Illustration: Capture of Stony Point.

On the approach of the inclement season, the American army built
themselves huts for winter quarters. Positions were chosen most
favorable for the defence of the most important posts, and for covering
the country. The army was formed into two divisions; one of these
erected huts near West Point, and the other at Morristown, in New
Jersey. The head-quarters of the commander-in-chief were with the
last division. Great distress was felt this winter on account of the
deranged state of the American finances. General Green and colonel
Wadsworth, gentlemen in every respect qualified for the duties of their
respective stations, were yet at the head of the quarter-master and
commissary departments, but the credit of the country was fallen, they
had not the means to make prompt payment for articles of supply; and
they found it impossible to lay up large magazines of provisions, and
extremely difficult to obtain supplies to satisfy the temporary wants
of the army. Large sums had been annually raised and expended, and
the ability of the people to pay taxes had progressively decreased. To
supply deficiencies, paper money, to the amount of about a hundred and
fifty millions of dollars, had been issued; but this was depreciated,
and at the close of 1779 thirty dollars in paper were of no more
value than one in specie. To purchase provisions with this money was
therefore first difficult and then impossible, and congress now found
their funds and their credit exhausted. Before the month of January
expired, the soldiers were put upon allowance, and before its close
the whole stock of provision in store was exhausted, and there was
neither meat nor flour to be distributed to the troops. To prevent the
dissolution of the army, the commander-in-chief was reluctantly driven
to very vigorous measures: he apportioned to each county in the state
of New Jersey a quantity of meat and flour, according to the ability
of each, to be brought into camp in the course of six days. At the same
time he wrote to the magistrates, stating the absolute necessity of the
measure, and informing them, that unless the inhabitants voluntarily
complied with the requisition, the exigency of the case would force him
to obtain it by military exaction. To the honor of the inhabitants of
New Jersey, harassed as their country had been, the full quantity of
provisions required was cheerfully and seasonably afforded.


        FROM THE CAMPAIGN OF 1780 TO THE TERMINATION OF THE WAR
                          OF THE REVOLUTION.

During the year 1780, the contest between Great Britain and her
ancient colonies was carried on chiefly in the southern states. As
soon as Sir Henry Clinton ascertained that count D’Estaing had left
the American coast, he hastened to despatch an expedition against
South Carolina, leaving the garrison at New York under the command of
general Knyphausen. Early in February the troops landed within thirty
miles of the capital. Governor Rutledge, to whom the assembly of South
Carolina had recently given extraordinary powers, ordered the militia
to rendezvous; but the repulse at Savannah, at the close of the
preceding campaign, had produced such a dispiriting effect, that
but few complied. The defences of Charleston consisted of a chain of
redoubts, lines, and batteries, extending from Ashley to Cooper river,
on which were mounted upwards of eighty pieces of artillery; and on
all sides of the town where a landing was practicable, batteries were
erected and covered with artillery. General Lincoln, trusting to these
defences and expecting large reinforcements, remained in Charleston at
the earnest request of the inhabitants, and, with the force under his
command, resolved to defend the place.

On the 21st of March the British fleet crossed the bar, and anchored
in Five Fathom Hole. Commodore Whipple, who commanded the American
vessels, finding it impracticable to prevent the enemy from passing
over the bar, fell back to fort Moultrie, and afterwards to Charleston.
In a few days the town was invested by sea and land, and the British
commanders summoned general Lincoln to surrender; the demand was,
however, met with a firm refusal. The batteries of the first parallel
were now opened upon the town, and soon made a visible impression; and
to prevent the reception of the reinforcements which general Lincoln
expected, Sir Henry Clinton detached lieutenant-colonel Webster with
fourteen hundred men by the advanced guard of which detachment the
American cavalry, with the militia attached to them, were surprised in
the night of the 14th of April, and completely routed and dispersed.
The British now extended themselves to the eastward of Cooper river;
and about this time Sir Henry Clinton received a reinforcement of three
thousand men from New York. The garrison having no reasonable hope of
effecting a retreat, an offer was made of surrendering the town; but
the proposed conditions were rejected by the British commanders.

The besiegers in the mean time were daily advancing their works, and
had now completed their third parallel; the garrison of fort Moultrie
surrendered; and the broken remains of the American cavalry under
colonel White were again surprised by colonel Tarleton, and the whole
either killed, taken, or dispersed. Sir Henry Clinton, thus successful
in every operation, renewed his former offers to the garrison in
case of their surrender, but the terms, so far as they respected
the citizens, not being satisfactory, hostilities recommenced. The
batteries of the third parallel now opened on the town, and did great
execution; several houses were burned; numbers of the besieged were
killed at their guns; and the British prepared to make a general
assault by land and water. At length a great number of citizens
of Charleston addressed general Lincoln in a petition, requesting
his acceptance of the terms which had been previously offered. A
capitulation was consequently signed on the 12th of May, and the next
day major-general Leslie took possession of the town.[135]

The capital having surrendered, measures were adopted to overawe
the inhabitants of the country, and induce them to return to their
allegiance to the king. Garrisons were placed in different parts of
the state, and two thousand men were despatched towards North Carolina,
to repel several parties of militia, who were hastening to the relief
of Charleston. Colonel Tarleton, making a rapid march of a hundred and
five miles in fifty-four hours, met, at the Waxhaws, and attacked one
of these parties, commanded by colonel Buford. The Americans, being
defeated by his superior forces, implored quarter; but nearly the whole
of them were either killed or too badly wounded to be removed from the
field. This sanguinary conduct spread dismay throughout the country,
and imparted a similar character to future conflicts.

Indignant at the treatment they received, great numbers of the
inhabitants seized their arms, and resolved on a vindictive war with
their invaders. A party who had taken refuge in North Carolina, chose
colonel Sumpter their leader. At the head of these he returned to his
own state, attacked and defeated several scattered detachments from the
British army; and by a succession of gallant enterprises he kept alive
a spirit of determined hostility to Great Britain in every part of the
state. His exertions were rendered the more effective by the approach
of four thousand men, principally continentals, under the command
of general Gates. Lord Cornwallis, whom Sir Henry Clinton, on his
return to New York, had left chief in command, hastened to oppose
the conqueror of Burgoyne. On the night of the 15th of August he
marched, with his whole force, to attack the Americans in their camp
at Clermont. They at the same hour began to move towards Camden, where
lord Cornwallis had his head-quarters. As the two armies were marching
on the same road, in opposite directions, their advanced guards met
and fired on each other about half-past two in the morning. From some
prisoners made on both sides, the commanders learned each other’s
movements.

Both armies halted, and were formed, and the firing soon ceased, as if
by mutual consent. The ground on which the two armies thus accidentally
met, was exceedingly favorable to lord Cornwallis. A swamp on each side
secured his flanks, and narrowed the ground in front, so as to render
the superiority of the Americans in numbers of less consequence. In
the morning a severe and general action was fought. The charge of the
British was made with such vigor, that the Virginia militia threw down
their arms, and fled with the utmost precipitation; and the greatest
part of the North Carolina militia soon followed their example. The
American reserve was now brought into action, and general Gates, in
conjunction with general Caswell, endeavored to rally the militia at
advantageous passes in the rear of the field of action, but in vain. On
the left and in the centre the contest was more obstinately maintained
by the Americans, whose artillery did considerable execution; but
by the flight of the militia their left flank was exposed, and the
continentals, after a brave resistance of nearly three-quarters of an
hour, were thrown into confusion, and forced to give way. The Americans
lost the whole of their artillery, the greatest part of their baggage,
several hundred men, and some very valuable officers; the loss of the
British was also severe.

Sumpter, who had lately been victorious in a skirmish, retreated
precipitately on hearing of the defeat of Gates; but supposing he was
beyond danger, he halted at the Catawba ford to refresh his troops.
Here his sentinels unhappily slept at their posts, and Tarleton’s
legion rode into his camp before preparations could be made for defence.
Between three and four hundred were killed or wounded. The remainder
were dispersed in the woods, three hundred British prisoners were
released, and all the baggage and stores fell into the power of the
victors.

Apprehending the state to be subdued, Cornwallis adopted measures
of extreme severity to suppress every latent inclination to revolt.
He directed that all who, having once submitted, had lately given aid
to the armies of congress, should be deprived of their property and
imprisoned; and that all who had once borne arms with the British, and
afterwards joined the Americans, should suffer death. In consequence
of these orders several were executed, and many were reduced to
poverty and wretchedness. In these times of confusion and distress,
the mischievous effects of slavery in facilitating the conquest of
the country became apparent. As the slaves had no interest at stake,
the subjugation of the state was a matter of no consequence to them.
Instead of aiding in its defence, they, by a variety of means, threw
the weight of their influence into the opposite scale.

Although his corps had been dispersed, general Sumpter speedily
recollected a band of volunteers, and kept the field in South Carolina
for three months, when there was no continental army in the state.
Varying his position along the Evoree, Broad, and Tyger rivers, he had
frequent skirmishes with the enemy, whom he incessantly harassed. In
November, he was attacked at Broad river by major Wemys, commanding
a corps of infantry and dragoons, but the British were defeated, and
their commanding officer taken prisoner; and in a few days afterward he
was attacked near Tyger river by colonel Tarleton, who, finding himself
unable to dislodge the Americans, retreated with considerable loss,
and left Sumpter in possession of the field. The zeal, activity, and
bravery of this officer, at that trying period, procured him the thanks
of congress and the applause of his country.

While the affairs of the south were in a state by no means
encouraging to the cause of independence, the general army under the
command of Washington was in a state of insufferable destitution,
and of consequent mutiny. Two hundred millions of dollars in paper
currency were at this time in circulation upon the credit of the United
States. Congress had the preceding year solemnly pledged the faith of
government not to issue more than this sum, and the national treasury
was now empty. Congress, the head of the nation, had, therefore,
no further command of the resources of the country. The power of
taxation, and of every coercive measure of government, was vested in
the state sovereignties, and a system which in its execution required
the conjoint agency of thirteen sovereignties, was too complex for
the prompt operations of a military body. In the course of the winter,
forage had failed, and many of the horses attached to the army had died,
or were rendered unfit for use. General Washington therefore struggled
with almost insuperable difficulties in supplying the army. The pay of
the officers also had now scarcely more than a nominal value; and the
officers of whole lines belonging to some of the states, in a body,
gave notice, that on a certain day they should resign their commissions,
unless provision was made for their honorable support.

Congress possessed not the means to apply adequate remedies to these
threatening evils. They passed a resolution, indeed, “That congress
will make good to the line of the army, and to the independent corps
thereof, the deficiencies of their original pay, which had been
occasioned by the depreciation of the continental currency;” but
the promise of future compensation from a country whose neglect was
conceived to be the source of all their sufferings, they deemed a
feeble basis of dependence, at the moment they were severely pressed
by privations of every kind. Murmurs at length broke out into actual
mutiny. Two of the Connecticut regiments paraded under arms, announcing
their intention to return home, or by their arms to obtain subsistence;
but by the spirited and prudent exertions of the officers, the
ringleaders were secured, and the regiments brought back to their duty.

This disaffection was reported to New York, with the customary
exaggerations of rumor. General Knyphausen, the commanding officer at
that post, supposing the American citizens and soldiers ripe for revolt,
passed over into New Jersey with five thousand men, to avail himself of
favorable events; but the behavior of the Americans soon convinced him
he had been deceived in the report of their disaffected disposition.
The troops detached from the army to oppose his progress fought
with obstinate bravery; and the inhabitants, seizing their arms with
alacrity, emulated the spirit and persevering courage of the regular
soldier. The general, finding he must encounter serious opposition,
retreated to Elizabeth Point, opposite to Staten island. In the mean
time, Sir Henry Clinton, returning with his victorious troops from
Charleston, ordered a reinforcement to Knyphausen, who, with the whole
body, advanced a second time towards Springfield. The British were
now opposed by general Green with a considerable body of continental
troops, and a severe action was fought, but the Americans were forced,
by superior numbers, to retire. General Green took post with his troops
on a range of hills, in the hope of being attacked; but the British,
having burned the town, retreated, and the next day set out on their
return to New York.

Late in the spring the marquis la Fayette returned from France with
the pleasing intelligence that his government had resolved to assist
the United States, by employing this year a respectable land and naval
force in America. This grateful information reanimated the public
mind, and gave a new stimulus to the activity of congress, and of the
governments of the several states, that preparation might be made to
co-operate with the French armament on its arrival. Vigorous measures
were in consequence adopted by congress and by the states to recruit
the army, to lay up magazines, and to enable the general to comply
with the reasonable expectations of their allies; but the agency of
different bodies was necessary to carry these public measures into
effect, and their operation was dilatory.

Early in July the first division of French troops reached the American
shore, consisting of between five and six thousand men, with a large
train of battering and field artillery. These forces were commanded by
count de Rochambeau, whose government had placed him under the command
of general Washington. The count brought information that a second
division would follow him as soon as transports could be fitted out
to bring them. The principal French and American officers assiduously
cultivated a mutual affection between the two armies; and the
commander-in-chief recommended to the officers of the United States
to ingraft on the American cockade a white relief, as an emblem of the
alliance of the two powers. On the arrival of the French, the Americans
were unprepared to act with them, nor did the American general know
what force would ultimately be brought into the field; and before
any thing could be effected, information was brought that the second
armament destined for America was blocked up in the harbor of Brest,
and would not this season reach the American continent. The flattering
prospect of terminating the war by the conquest of the British posts
in a moment vanished, and elevated views of brilliant success were
succeeded by grievous disappointment.

In this season of difficulty, of embarrassment, and of gloom, a
circumstance occurred which excited the deepest interest throughout
both armies, and indeed in the breast of the inhabitants of all the
states. The American army was stationed in the strong-holds of the high
lands on both sides of the North river; and for the defence of this
position, and to keep command of the river, a fortress had been built
at West Point, which was deemed impregnable, and had acquired the
appellation of the Gibraltar of America. Of this post general Arnold
solicited the command, and general Washington, far from suspecting
any sinister views in an officer who had been so zealous and active in
the cause of his country, complied with the solicitation. Arnold had,
however, no sooner become invested with the command, than he carried
on a negotiation with Sir Henry Clinton, by which it was agreed, that
he should make such a disposition of his forces, as would enable the
British general effectually to surprise West Point. The agent employed
in this negotiation was major André, adjutant-general of the British
army; and to favor the communications, the Vulture, a British sloop
of war, had been previously stationed in North river, as near Arnold’s
posts as could be without exciting suspicion. On the night of the 21st
of September a boat was sent from the shore to fetch major André, and
Arnold met him at the beach, without the posts of both armies. Their
business not being finished until it was too near morning for André to
return to the Vulture, Arnold, telling him he must be concealed until
the next night, conducted him within one of the American posts, where
he continued with him the following day. The Vulture having in the mean
time been compelled to alter her position, André could return to New
York in no other way than by land; changing his uniform, therefore,
which he had worn under a surtout, for a plain dress, he set out on
horseback, under the name of John Anderson, with a passport, signed
by Arnold, ‘to go to the lines of White Plains, or lower if he thought
proper, he being on public business.’ When advanced a great part of
the way, he was stopped by three of the New York militia, and several
papers, containing exact returns of the state of the forces, ordnance,
and defences at West Point, were found in his boots. The captors,
disdaining a proffered bribe of a purse of gold and permanent provision
and promotion, on condition of their conveying and accompanying him
to New York, delivered him a prisoner to lieutenant-colonel Jameson,
who commanded the outposts. André, with the incautious permission of
Jameson, procured a letter to be sent to Arnold, informing him of his
detention, which gave the traitor opportunity to escape on board the
Vulture,[136] in which he reached New York in safety. At this very
hour Washington arrived on his return from a conference with the French
general at Hartford. He repaired, without delay, to the fort of West
Point, where, however, he could learn nothing of a decisive import. But
some orders, issued by Arnold the day before, redoubled his suspicions;
he returned to the quarters of the general, and at this instant
Jameson’s messenger presented himself, and delivered the packet with
which he was charged. Washington seemed for the moment overwhelmed by
the discovery of a crime which ruined the fame of an American general,
and wounded the honor of the American army. Those who were near him
anxiously interrogated his looks in silence, which he broke by saying,
‘I thought that an officer of courage and ability, who had often shed
his blood for his country, was entitled to confidence, and I gave him
mine. I am convinced now, and for the rest of my life, that we should
never trust those who are wanting in probity, whatever abilities
they may possess. Arnold has betrayed us.’ Meanwhile, the precautions
required by the occasion were everywhere taken. General Heath, a
faithful and vigilant officer, was substituted for Arnold at West Point;
the commanders of the other posts were admonished to be on their guard;
Green, who had been invested with the command of the army during the
absence of Washington, recalled within the forts the garrisons which
the traitor had dispersed, and marched a strong division near to the
lines. General Washington referred the case of André to the examination
and decision of a board, consisting of fourteen officers, who founded
their report on his own statements; they reported it as their unanimous
opinion, ‘that major André ought to be considered as a spy, and that,
agreeably to the laws and usages of nations, he should suffer death;’
and he was, in accordance with their sentence, hung as a spy.[137]

  Illustration: Capture of Major André.

When the winter of 1780 commenced, the troops of the northern army
retired to the quarters which they had last occupied. Again they
endured distress at which patriotism feels indignant and humanity weeps.
The harvest had been abundant; plenty reigned in the land, while want
was still felt in the camp of its defenders. Lassitude had succeeded
enthusiasm in the breasts of the people, and congress exerted its
powers with too little vigor to draw forth the resources of the country.
The soldiers of the Pennsylvania line stationed at Morristown, New
Jersey, complained that, in addition to sustaining sufferings common
to all, they were retained in service contrary to the terms of their
enlistments. In the night of the 1st of January, thirteen hundred, on
a concerted signal, paraded under arms, and declared their intention
of marching to Philadelphia, and demanding of congress a redress of
their grievances. The officers strove to compel them to relinquish
their purpose. In the attempt, one was killed and several were wounded.
General Wayne presented his pistols, as if intending to fire. They held
their bayonets to his breast; ‘We love and respect you,’ said they;
‘but if you fire you are a dead man. We are not going to the enemy.
On the contrary, if they were now to come out, you should see us fight
under your orders with as much alacrity as ever. But we will be amused
no longer; we are determined to obtain what is our just due.’ They
elected temporary officers, and moved off in a body towards Princeton.
General Wayne, to prevent them from plundering the inhabitants,
forwarded provisions for their use. The next day he followed, and
requested them to appoint a man from each regiment, to state to him
their complaints; a conference was accordingly held, but he refused
to comply with their demands. They then proceeded in good order to
Princeton, where three emissaries from Sir Henry Clinton met them,
and made liberal offers to entice them from the service of congress.
The offers were indignantly rejected, and the emissaries seized and
executed as spies. Here they were also met by a committee of congress,
and a deputation from the state of Pennsylvania; and the latter,
granting a part of their demands, succeeded in persuading them to
return to their duty. This mutiny, and another in the Jersey line,
which was instantly suppressed, aroused the attention of the states to
the miserable condition of their troops. The amount of three months’
pay was raised and forwarded to them in specie; it was received with
joy, as affording an evidence that their country was not unmindful of
their sufferings.

  Illustration: Mutiny.

The year on which we now enter decided the important contest which
engaged the attention of Europe, and of all the civilized world,
in favor of liberty, and, we must add, of justice. The boon of
independence was not, however, gained without adding to the long
list of widows and orphans, nor without augmenting the catalogue
of cruelties more horrid than those of the Indian tribes, because
perpetrated by those who had no accumulated antipathy of ages to
palliate their hostility, but who only yesterday were friends and
brothers. The inhabitants of the Carolinas endured calamity and
distress from which humanity revolts. About equally divided in
political sentiments, village was opposed to village, and neighbor to
neighbor, and their hostility became embittered by attack and reprisal,
until pillage, burning, and murder, became familiar to all.[138] Each
party aimed at the extirpation of the other, and the whole country
presented a scene of slaughter and of blood. The American generals
seized every occasion to discountenance such vindictive and barbarous
conduct, while, with few exceptions, the British permitted and even
accelerated their perpetration.

The reduction of Savannah and Charleston encouraged the British to a
vigorous invasion of North Carolina. The whole army of general Green,
which had at the close of last year advanced from Hillsborough to
Charlottetown, consisted of about two thousand men, more than half of
whom were militia. With this inconsiderable body of troops, miserably
provided, general Green took the field against a superior regular force,
which had already marched in triumph two hundred miles from the point
of its debarkation. Soon after Green took the command, he divided his
force, and sent general Morgan with a respectable detachment to the
western extremity of South Carolina, where the tories were destroying
the whigs without mercy and without restraint, and marched with the
main body to Hick’s creek, on the north side of the Pedee. On the
entrance of general Morgan into the district of Ninety-six, lord
Cornwallis, who was preparing for the invasion of North Carolina, that
he might not leave an enemy in his rear, ordered colonel Tarleton to
proceed with about eleven hundred men, and drive him from his position.
Tarleton had two field-pieces, and a superiority both of infantry and
cavalry. With these advantages, he engaged Morgan at the Cowpens, near
Pacolet river, on the 17th of January. The British, led to the attack
by Tarleton himself, advanced with a shout, and poured in an incessant
fire of musketry. The American militia, though they received the
charge with firmness, were soon compelled to fall back in the rear
of their second line; and this line, in its turn, after an obstinate
conflict, was compelled to retreat to the cavalry. At this juncture
lieutenant-colonel Washington made a successful charge on captain
Ogilvie, who, with about forty dragoons, was cutting down the
retreating militia; lieutenant-colonel Howard almost at the same
moment rallied the continental troops, and charged with fixed bayonets,
and the militia instantly followed the example. By these sudden and
unexpected charges, the British, who had considered the fate of the
day decided, were thrown into confusion, and driven from the ground
with great slaughter. Howard and Washington pressed the advantage which
they had respectively gained, until the artillery and a great part of
the infantry had surrendered.[139] Seldom has a victory, achieved by
so small a number, been so important in its consequences. It deprived
Cornwallis of one-fifth of his force, and disconcerted his plans for
the reduction of North Carolina. He sought, however, to repair, by
active exertions, the loss which he had suffered, and determined, if
possible, to intercept Morgan, and compel him to restore the trophies
of his victory. This resolution led to a military race, which maybe,
without exaggeration, termed one of the most celebrated in history.
Each army strove to precede the other at the fords of the Catawba, from
which both were equally distant. The American troops endured almost
incredible hardships, being sometimes without meat, often without flour,
and entirely destitute of spirituous liquors. A large portion of the
troops were without shoes, and, marching over frozen ground, marked
with blood every step of their progress. On the twelfth day after the
engagement, Morgan reached the fords and crossed the Catawba; and two
hours afterwards Cornwallis arrived, and, it being then dark, encamped
on the bank. During the night, a heavy fall of rain made the river
impassable, which gave Morgan an opportunity to remove the prisoners
beyond the reach of his pursuer.

The movements of the royal army induced general Green immediately to
retreat from Hick’s creek; and, leaving the main army under the command
of general Huger, he rode a hundred and fifty miles through the country
to join the detachment under general Morgan, that he might be in front
of lord Cornwallis, and so direct both divisions of his army as to
form a speedy junction between them. Lord Cornwallis, after three days’
delay, effected the passage of the Catawba, and recommenced the pursuit.
The Americans, continuing their expeditious movements, crossed the
Yadkin on the 3d of February, and secured their boats on the north side;
but the British, though close in their rear, were incapable of crossing
it through the rapid rising of the river from preceding rains, and the
want of boats. This second remarkable escape confirmed the impression
on the minds of the Americans, that their cause was favored by Divine
Providence. After a junction of the two divisions of the American army
at Guildford court-house, it was concluded, in a council of officers
called by general Green, that he ought to retire over the Dan, and to
avoid an engagement until he should be reinforced.

Lord Cornwallis kept the upper countries, where only the rivers are
fordable, and attempted to get between general Green and Virginia, to
cut off his retreat, and oblige him to fight under many disadvantages;
but the American general completely eluded him. So urgent was the
pursuit of the British, that, on the 14th of February, the American
light troops were compelled to retire above forty miles; and on that
day general Green, by indefatigable exertions, transported his army
over the Dan into Virginia. Here again the pursuit was so close, that
the van of the British just arrived as the rear of the Americans had
crossed. The continental army being now driven out of North Carolina,
earl Cornwallis left the Dan, and proceeded to Hillsborough, where
he set up the royal standard. Green, perceiving the necessity of
some spirited measure to counteract his lordship’s influence on the
inhabitants of the country, concluded, at every hazard, to recross the
Dan. After manœuvring in a very masterly manner to avoid an action with
Cornwallis three weeks, his army was joined by two brigades of militia
from North Carolina, and one from Virginia, and also by four hundred
regulars.

This reinforcement giving him a superiority of numbers, he determined
no longer to avoid an engagement, and, on the 15th of March, he
accepted battle; but at the first fire the North Carolina militia,
who were in the front line, fled; the second line was also routed. The
continentals, who composed the third, fought with their usual bravery,
and for an hour and half maintained the conflict with great firmness.
They at length gave way, but retreated in good order, the slaughter
they had made in the enemy’s ranks preventing pursuit. The victory,
won by a far inferior force, was more glorious than advantageous to
the British army. Soon after the action, lord Cornwallis began a march
toward Wilmington. General Green, on receiving intelligence of this
movement, put his army in motion to follow him, and continued the
pursuit to Ramsay’s mill, on Deep river. Cornwallis, having halted and
refreshed his men about three weeks at Wilmington, marched across the
country to Petersburg, in Virginia.

Before general Green was aware that lord Cornwallis intended to enter
Virginia, he had formed the bold resolution of returning into South
Carolina. Marching towards Camden, where nine hundred men, under the
command of lord Rawdon, were posted, he took a position on Hobkirk’s
hill, about a mile from the British intrenchments. Here the Americans
were attacked on the 25th of April. In the beginning of the action
their bravery gained advantages, which, in its progress, were lost
by the premature retreat of two companies, occasioned by the death of
their officers. At this reverse of fortune, Green retired a few miles
from the field, both armies having sustained nearly an equal loss.

Several British posts in South Carolina speedily fell into the power
of the brave and active partisans, who, with small bodies of troops,
were ever present where oppression was to be resisted or glory won. Lee
joined Marion; and, on the 15th of April, they unexpectedly presented
themselves before fort Watson, a British post on the Santee. It was
an Indian mound, rising thirty or forty feet above the level of the
plain. Neither the garrison nor the assailants had artillery; but in
a few days the Americans constructed a work on an unusual plan, which
overlooked the fort, and from the top of which the riflemen fired with
such unerring aim that not a man of the garrison could show himself
without certain destruction. On the 23d, the garrison, consisting of
one hundred and fourteen men, capitulated.

  Illustration: Attack on Fort Watson.

Orangeburg and fort Motte surrendered to Sumpter. Lee captured fort
Granby, and Marion drove from Georgetown the troops stationed to defend
it. Immediately after the surrender of fort Granby, lieutenant-colonel
Lee marched to Augusta, and joined brigadier-general Pickens, who, with
a body of militia, had some time before taken post in the vicinity;
and these two able officers jointly carried on their approaches against
fort Cornwallis. Two batteries were erected within thirty yards of
the parapet which overlooked the fort; and from them the American
riflemen shot into the inside of the works with effect. The garrison,
almost entirely burying themselves underground, obstinately refused
to capitulate until resistance became useless, and then the fort, with
about three hundred men, surrendered on honorable terms of capitulation.
The Americans, during the siege, had about forty men killed and wounded.
On the 22d of May, general Green laid siege to Ninety-six, which was
defended by lieutenant-colonel Cruger, with upwards of five hundred
men. The works of the besiegers were carried forward with indefatigable
industry and success until the 18th of June, when, on intelligence
of the approach of lord Rawdon for the relief of the place, it was
concluded to attempt its reduction by assault. The assailants displayed
great resolution; but, failing of success, general Green raised the
siege, and retreated over the Saluda.

Lord Rawdon having returned to England, the command of the British
troops in South Carolina devolved upon lieutenant-colonel Stewart;
who, in the beginning of September, took post at Eutaw Springs.
General Green marched against him from the hills of Santee. The rival
forces were equal, amounting on each side to two thousand men. On
the 8th an attack was made by the Americans; a part of the British
line, consisting of new troops, broke and fled; but the veteran corps
received the charge of the assailants on the points of their bayonets.
The hostile ranks were for a time intermingled, and the officers fought
hand to hand; but lieutenant-colonel Lee, who had turned the British
left flank, charging them at this instant in the rear, their line was
soon completely broken, and driven off the field. They were vigorously
pursued by the Americans, who took upwards of five hundred of them
prisoners. The British, on their retreat, took post in a large
three-story brick house, and in a picketed garden; and from these
advantageous positions renewed the action. Four six-pounders were
ordered up before the house; but the Americans were compelled to leave
these pieces and retire. They formed again at a small distance in
the woods; but general Green, thinking it inexpedient to renew the
desperate attempt, left a strong picket on the field of battle, and
retired with his prisoners to the ground from which he had marched in
the morning. In the evening of the next day, lieutenant-colonel Stewart,
leaving seventy of his wounded men and one thousand stand of arms,
moved from Eutaw towards Charleston. The loss of the British, inclusive
of prisoners, was supposed to be not less than eleven hundred men. The
loss of the Americans, in killed, wounded, and missing, was about half
that number. This battle was attended by consequences very advantageous
to the Americans, and maybe considered as closing the revolutionary war
in South Carolina.

Brilliant as were the successes of general Green in the Carolinas
it was in Virginia that the last great stroke in favor of American
independence was to be effected. The army under the commander-in-chief
had passed another distressing winter, and symptoms of mutiny had
again manifested themselves, but were happily suppressed. Deplorably
deficient of provisions and supplies, and promised reinforcements
being grievously delayed, Washington still remained undiscouraged, and
determined, in conjunction with the French fleet, to resume vigorous
operations. New York was the destined point of the combined attack; but
the large reinforcements which had recently arrived there, and other
unfavorable circumstances, induced the commander-in-chief, so late as
August, entirely to change the plan of the campaign, and to resolve to
attempt the capture of the army of lord Cornwallis, which had now taken
up a position at Yorktown, in Virginia. The defence of West Point, and
of the other posts on the Hudson, was committed to general Heath, and a
large portion of the troops raised in the northern states was for this
service left under his command.

General Washington resolved in person to conduct the Virginia
expedition. The troops under count Rochambeau, and strong detachments
from the American army, amounting to more than two thousand men, and
consisting of the light infantry, Lamb’s artillery, and several other
corps, were destined for it. By the 25th of August the whole body,
American and French, had crossed the North river. An intercepted letter
of general Washington’s, in which he communicated, as the result of a
consultation with the French commanders, the design to attack New York,
had excited the apprehensions of the British general for the safety of
that city. This apprehension was kept alive, and the real object of the
Americans concealed, by preparations for an encampment in New Jersey,
opposite to Staten island, by the route of the American army, and
other appearances, indicating an intention to besiege New York; and the
troops had passed the Delaware, out of reach of annoyance, before Sir
Henry suspected their destination. General Washington pressed forward
with the utmost expedition, and at Chester he received the important
intelligence that count de Grasse had arrived with his fleet in the
Chesapeake, and that the marquis St. Simon had, with a body of three
thousand land forces, joined the marquis de la Fayette. Having directed
the route of his army from the head of the Elk, he, accompanied by
Rochambeau, Chatelleux, Du Portail, and Knox, proceeded to Virginia.
They reached Williamsburg on the 14th of September, and immediately
repaired on board the Ville de Paris, to settle with count de Grasse
the plan of operations. The whole body of American and French troops
reached Williamsburg by the 25th of September. At this place the allied
forces were joined by a detachment of the militia of Virginia, under
the command of governor Nelson, and preparations were soon made to
attack the intrenchments of lord Cornwallis.

Yorktown, the head-quarters of lord Cornwallis, is a village on the
south side of York river, the southern banks of which are high, and
where ships of the line may ride in safety. Gloucester point is a piece
of land on the opposite shore, projecting considerably into the river.
Both these posts were occupied by the British; and a communication
between them was commanded by their batteries, and by several ships
of war. The main body of lord Cornwallis’ army was encamped on the
open grounds about Yorktown, within a range of outer redoubts and
field-works; and lieutenant-colonel Tarleton, with a detachment of six
or seven hundred men, held the post at Gloucester point.

The legion of the duke de Lauzun, and a brigade of militia under
general Weedon, the whole commanded by the French general De Choisé,
were directed to watch and restrain the enemy on the side of Gloucester;
and the grand combined army, on the 30th of September, moved down
to the investiture of Yorktown. On the night of the 6th of October,
advancing to within six hundred yards of the English lines, they began
their first parallel, and labored with such silence and diligence, that
they were not discovered until morning, when the works they had raised
were sufficient to protect them. On the 9th, several batteries being
completed, a heavy cannonade was begun. Many of the British guns were
dismounted, and portions of their fortifications laid level with the
ground. On the night of the 11th, the besiegers commenced their second
parallel, three hundred yards in advance of the first. This approach
was made so much sooner than was expected, that the men were not
discovered at their labor until they had rendered themselves secure
from all molestation in front. The fire from the new batteries was
still more furious and destructive. From two British redoubts, in
advance of their main works, and flanking those of the besiegers, the
men in the trenches were so severely annoyed, that Washington resolved
to storm them.

The enterprise against one was committed to an American force under the
marquis de la Fayette, that against the other to a French detachment.
Colonel Hamilton, who led the van of the former, made such an impetuous
attack that possession was soon obtained, with little slaughter. The
French detachment was equally brave and successful, but sustained
greater loss. On the 16th, a sortie was made from the garrison by
a party of three hundred and fifty, commanded by lieutenant-colonel
Abercrombie, who forced two batteries, and spiked eleven pieces of
cannon; but the guards from the trenches immediately advancing on
them, they retreated, and the pieces which they had hastily spiked
were soon rendered fit for service. In the afternoon of the same day
the besiegers opened several batteries in their second parallel; and in
the whole line of batteries nearly one hundred pieces of heavy ordnance
were now mounted. The works of the besieged were so universally in
ruins as to be in no condition to sustain the fire which might be
expected the next day. In this extremity, lord Cornwallis boldly
resolved to attempt an escape by land with the greater part of his
army. His plan was to cross over, in the night, to Gloucester point,
and forcing his way through the troops under De Choisé, to pass
through Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Jersey, and form a junction with
the royal army at New York. In prosecution of this desperate design,
one embarkation of his troops crossed over to the opposite point; but
a violent storm of wind and rain dispersed the boats, and frustrated
the scheme.

On the morning of the 17th the fire of the American batteries
rendered the British post untenable. Lord Cornwallis, perceiving
further resistance to be unavailing, about ten o’clock beat a parley,
and proposed a cessation of hostilities for twenty-four hours, that
commissioners might meet to settle the terms on which the posts of
York and Gloucester should be surrendered. General Washington, in his
answer, declared his ‘ardent desire to spare the effusion of blood,
and his readiness to listen to such terms as were admissible;’ but to
prevent loss of time, he desired ‘that, previous to the meeting of the
commissioners, the proposals of his lordship might be transmitted in
writing, for which purpose a suspension of hostilities for two hours
should be granted.’ The terms proposed by his lordship were such as led
the general to suppose that articles of capitulation might easily be
adjusted, and he continued the cessation of hostilities until the next
day. To expedite the business, he summarily stated the terms he was
willing to grant, and informed earl Cornwallis, that if he admitted
these as the basis of a treaty, commissioners might meet to put them
into form. Accordingly, viscount de Noailles and lieutenant-colonel
Laurens, on the part of the allies, and colonel Dundas and major Ross,
on the part of the English, met the next day, and adjusted articles of
capitulation, which were to be submitted to the consideration of the
British general.

Resolving not to expose himself to any accident that might be the
consequence of unnecessary delay, general Washington ordered the rough
draft of the commissioners to be fairly transcribed, and sent to lord
Cornwallis early next morning, with a letter expressing his expectation
that the garrison would march out by two o’clock in the afternoon.
Hopeless of more favorable terms, his lordship signed the capitulation,
and surrendered the posts of York and Gloucester, with their garrisons,
to general Washington; and the shipping in the harbor, with the seamen,
to count de Grasse. The prisoners, exclusive of seamen, amounted to
more than seven thousand, of which between four and five thousand only
were fit for duty. The garrison lost, during the siege, six officers
and five hundred and forty-eight privates, in killed and wounded.
The privates, with a competent number of officers, were to remain in
Virginia, Maryland, or Pennsylvania. The officers not required for
this service were permitted on parole to return to Europe, or to any
of the maritime posts of the English on the American continent. The
terms granted to earl Cornwallis were, in general, the terms which
had been granted to the Americans at the surrender of Charleston;
and general Lincoln, who on that occasion resigned his sword to lord
Cornwallis, was appointed to receive the submission of the royal army.
The allied army, to which lord Cornwallis surrendered, amounted to
sixteen thousand;――seven thousand French, five thousand five hundred
continental troops, and three thousand five hundred militia. In the
course of the siege they lost, in killed and wounded, about three
hundred. The siege was prosecuted with so much military judgment and
ardor, that the treaty was opened on the eleventh, and the capitulation
signed on the thirteenth day after ground was broken before the British
lines.

The capture of so large a British army excited universal joy, and on no
occasion during the war did the Americans manifest greater exultation.
From the nature and duration of the contest, the affections of many
had been so concentrated upon their country, and so intense was their
interest in its fate, that the news of this brilliant success produced
the most rapturous emotions, under the operations of which, it is
said, some were even deprived of their reason, and one aged patriot in
Philadelphia expired.

The day after the capitulation general Washington ordered, ‘that
those who were under arrest should be pardoned and set at liberty;’
and announced, that ‘divine service shall be performed to-morrow
in the different brigades and divisions. The commander-in-chief
recommends, that all the troops that are not upon duty do assist at
it with a serious deportment, and that sensibility of heart which
the recollection of the surprising and particular interposition of
Providence in our favor claims.’ Congress, as soon as they received
general Washington’s official letter giving information of the event,
resolved to go in procession to the Dutch Lutheran church, and return
thanks to Almighty God for the signal success of the American arms; and
they issued a proclamation, recommending to the citizens of the United
States to observe the 13th of December as a day of public thanksgiving
and prayer.

While these successful operations had been carrying on in Virginia,
Sir Henry Clinton endeavored, if possible, to recall Washington, or
at least to divert his attention, by some daring enterprise in the
north. Giving to the traitor Arnold, who had just returned from his
destructive expedition to Virginia, the command of a strong detachment,
he sent him against New London, a flourishing city situated upon the
river Thames, in his native state. Nearly opposite, on a hill in Groton,
stood fort Griswold, which was then garrisoned by militia, hastily
summoned from their labors in the field. Against this fort Arnold
despatched a part of his troops. It was assaulted on three sides at
the same moment. The garrison, fighting in view of their property and
their homes, made a brave and obstinate resistance. By their steady and
well-directed fire many of the assailants were killed. Pressing forward
with persevering ardor, the British entered the fort through the
embrasures. Immediately all resistance ceased. Irritated by gallantry
which should have caused admiration, a British officer inquired who
commanded the fort. ‘I did,’ said colonel Ledyard, ‘but you do now;’
and presented him his sword. He seized it, and, with savage cruelty,
plunged it into his bosom. This was the signal for an indiscriminate
massacre. Of a hundred and sixty men, composing the garrison, all
but forty were killed or wounded, and most of them after resistance
had ceased. Seldom has the glory of victory been tarnished by such
detestable barbarity. The British then entered New London, which was
set on fire and consumed. The property destroyed was of immense value.
Perceiving no other object within the reach of his force, Arnold led
back his troops to New York.

A circumstance which evidently exercised a very favorable influence
on American affairs during this period should not be omitted――the
institution of a national bank. The plan of it was projected by Robert
Morris, one of the delegates of Pennsylvania, a man of high reputation,
and well versed in affairs of commerce and finance, whom congress had
appointed treasurer. He assigned to this bank a capital of four hundred
thousand dollars, divided in shares of four hundred dollars each,
in money of gold or silver, to be procured by subscriptions. Twelve
directors were to manage the bank, which was denominated by congress,
‘The President, Directors, and Company of the Bank of North America.’
To the financial skill and indefatigable efforts of Mr. Morris in
the treasury department, it has been thought our country was scarcely
less indebted, than to the valor of her soldiers and the wisdom of
her statesmen. Under his auspices, public credit revived; the army was
pacified; and a new impulse given to every operation in the field and
the cabinet.

During this fortunate year also the compact of the confederation was
rendered complete. Much difficulty had been experienced in obtaining
its ratification. Various and sometimes conflicting amendments had been
proposed by the states respectively; but they had successively yielded
to the opinion that a federal compact would be of vast importance
in the prosecution of the war. One of the greatest impediments had
hitherto been, that within the chartered limits of several states
there were immense tracts of vacant territory, which, it was supposed,
would constitute a large fund of future wealth; and the states not
possessed of this advantage insisted on considering this territory as
a joint acquisition, to be applied to the common benefit. The cession
made by Virginia, the preceding year, of its north-west territory,
was now accepted by congress, and, to the great joy of America, the
confederation was completed.[140]

The result of the last campaign convinced the British nation
that America could not be subdued by force; and led to a change of
administration and pacific overtures. Parliament met on the 27th of
November, 1781; and though the speech from the throne still breathed
a spirit of hostility, and answers from both houses were procured
in accordance with it, yet not long after the recess, the ministers
found themselves in a minority in the house of commons. On the 22d of
February, 1782, general Conway moved an address to the king, praying,
‘that the war on the continent of North America might no longer be
pursued for the impracticable purpose of reducing that country to
obedience by force; and expressing their hope, that the earnest desire
and diligent exertion to restore the public tranquillity, of which
they had received his majesty’s most gracious assurances, might, by a
happy reconciliation with the revolted colonies, be forwarded and made
effectual; to which great end his majesty’s faithful commons would be
ready to give their utmost assistance.’ This motion being lost by a
single vote only, was, five days after, renewed, by the same gentleman,
in a form somewhat different, and was carried; and an address in
pursuance of it presented to the king. Not yet satisfied with the
triumph obtained over the ministry, and considering the answer of the
king not sufficiently explicit, the house of commons, on the 4th of
March, on the motion of general Conway, declared, that all those who
should advise, or by any means attempt, the farther prosecution of
offensive war in America, should be considered as enemies to their king
and country. In this state of things it was impossible for the ministry
longer to continue in power, and on the 19th they relinquished their
places. A new administration was soon after formed――the marquis of
Rockingham was placed at the head of the treasury, and the earl of
Shelburne and Mr. Fox held the important places of secretaries of state.

Soon after their appointment, the new ministers sent a Mr. Oswald
to France, to sound the French court, as well as Dr. Franklin, on
the subject of peace. In a conference with the count de Vergennes,
Mr. Oswald was informed that the French court were disposed to treat
for peace, but could do nothing without the consent of their allies;
and the count expressed a wish that Paris might be the place of meeting
for entering upon this important business. About the 18th of April the
British agent went back to London, and on the 4th of May returned to
France with the assent of the British cabinet to treat of a general
peace, and for that purpose to meet at Paris.

One of the first measures of the new administration was to appoint Sir
Guy Carleton commander-in-chief in America, in the room of Sir Henry
Clinton, and to authorize admiral Digby and himself to treat for peace.
One object of conferring this power was to induce congress to agree
to a separate treaty. Sir Guy Carleton arrived in America on the 5th
of May, and two days afterwards informed general Washington that he
and admiral Digby were authorized to treat for peace, and requested a
passport for their secretary as the bearer of despatches to congress
on the subject. A copy of this letter was forwarded by the general to
that body; but the members being determined not to negotiate without
their allies, refused the passport. The same commissioners, on the 2d
of August following, sent a second letter to the American commander,
informing him that negotiations for a general peace had commenced at
Paris, and that Mr. Grenville had full powers to treat with all the
parties at war, and that, by his instructions, ‘the independency of the
thirteen provinces was to be proposed by him, in the first instance,
instead of being made a condition of a general treaty.’

A majority of the new British cabinet very early determined to offer
America unlimited unconditional independence, as the basis of a
negotiation for peace, and so instructed their minister, Mr. Grenville.
This was a favorite measure with the marquis of Rockingham; on this
point, however, the cabinet was divided. The earl of Shelburne,
though he acquiesced, was still opposed, and it was one of the last
measures to which the king would assent. The illness of the marquis of
Rockingham, and his death, which happened on the 1st of July, produced
no little delay and difficulty in the negotiations. The appointment of
lord Shelburne as first lord of the treasury produced an open rupture
in the cabinet. Lord John Cavendish, Mr. Fox, and some others, resigned
their places. In consequence of this, William Pitt was made chancellor
of the exchequer, and Thomas Townshend and lord Grantham secretaries
of state. There can be little doubt that the king, as well as lord
Shelburne, still entertained a distant hope that some arrangement might
be made with the Americans short of an open and express acknowledgment
of their independence; and the views of the latter on this point,
probably, had no little influence in placing him at the head of the
administration.[141] Parliament adjourned on the 11th of July, having
passed an act at the close of the session, authorizing the king to
conclude a peace or truce with the Americans.

The instructions of congress to the American commissioners not to
conclude peace without the consent of France, rendered their situation
complicated and embarrassing. There were several questions which the
Americans deemed of the first importance, in which the French court
either felt no interest, or were opposed to the American claims. The
principal of these points referred to the right of fishery on the
Grand bank, and the western boundary of the United States. On the
latter point, Spain, who was also a party to the negotiations, was
extremely desirous of limiting as much as possible the extent of the
American territory. These circumstances occasioned much difficulty and
considerable delay. At length the American commissioners determined
to agree to a provisional treaty without the concurrence of the French
court. Mr. Oswald, who had succeeded Mr. Grenville, on the part of
the British government, strongly urged the propriety of the American
loyalists being compensated for the losses they had incurred during the
struggle for independence; but this proposition was met by a counter
one from Dr. Franklin, that a similar arrangement should be made by
Great Britain in favor of the Americans who had suffered in their
property from the destruction carried on by the British troops. This
point was therefore ultimately waved, and other difficulties being
overcome, a provisional treaty was agreed to on the 30th of November;
and after great delay, occasioned by the strenuous endeavors of the
court of Madrid to procure the cession of Gibraltar by Great Britain,
preliminary treaties of peace were signed on the 20th of January, 1783,
between France, Spain, and Great Britain.

On the 24th of March, intelligence of a general peace reached America
by a letter from the marquis de la Fayette; and orders were immediately
issued, recalling all armed vessels cruising under the authority of
the United States. Congress soon after received official information
of the agreement between the ministers of the United States and Great
Britain, and of the exchange of ratifications of the preliminary
articles between Great Britain and France; and, on the 11th of April,
they issued a proclamation, declaring the cessation of arms, as well by
sea as by land, agreed upon between the United States and his Britannic
majesty, and enjoining its strict observance. On the 19th of April,
peace was proclaimed in the American army by the commander-in-chief,
precisely eight years from the day of the first effusion of blood at
Lexington.

The independence of the United States was acknowledged by Sweden on
the 5th of February; by Denmark, on the 25th of February; by Spain,
on the 24th of March; and by Russia, in July; treaties of amity and
commerce were also concluded with each of those powers. On the 8th of
June, general Washington addressed a letter to each of the governors
of the several states in the Union, on the present situation, and
what appeared to him the wisest policy, of the United States. In
this paternal and affectionate letter he stated four things which
he conceived to be essential to their well-being, and even to their
existence, as an independent power: ‘An indissoluble union of the
states under one general head; a sacred regard to public justice; the
adoption of a proper peace establishment; and the prevalence of that
pacific and friendly disposition, among the people of the United States,
which will induce them to forget their local prejudices and politics,
to make those mutual concessions which are requisite to the general
prosperity, and, in some instances, to sacrifice their individual
advantages to the interest of the community.’

The definitive treaty of peace between Great Britain and the United
States of America was signed at Paris on the 3d of September, by David
Hartley, Esq., on the part of his Britannic majesty, and by John Adams,
Benjamin Franklin, and John Jay, on the part of the United States. The
provisions of the treaty attest the zeal and ability of the American
negotiators, as well as the liberal feelings which actuated the British
ministry. The independence of the United States was fully acknowledged.
The right of fishing on the banks of Newfoundland, and certain
facilities in the enjoyment of that right, were secured to them forever;
and territory was ceded to them more extensive than the most sanguine
had dared to anticipate or to hope.

In December, 1782, the officers of the American army, still retained
in service but unemployed, forwarded to congress a petition, praying
that all arrears which were due to them might be discharged, and that,
instead of half-pay for life, a sum equal to five years’ full pay
should be paid or secured to them when disbanded. The delay of congress
to comply with this request produced an alarming agitation in that
portion of the army stationed at Newburgh. An address to the officers
was privately circulated, written with great ability, and admirably
well fitted to work upon those passions which recent sufferings and
gloomy forebodings had excited in every bosom. The writer boldly
recommended that, as all the applications to the sympathy and justice
of congress had failed of success, an appeal should be made to their
fears. Fortunately, the commander-in-chief was in the camp. Though
conscious that the officers had just cause of complaint, he was aware
that duty to his country, and even friendship for them, required that
he should prevent the adoption of rash and disorderly expedients to
obtain redress. Calling them together, he, by a calm and sensible
address, persuaded them to rely still longer upon the disposition of
congress to perform for them whatever the limited means of the nation
would permit. In a letter to that body, giving an account of these
occurrences, he maintained and enforced the claims of the officers with
such pathos and strength of reasoning, that their request was granted.

On the 18th of October, congress issued a proclamation for disbanding
the army. New York was evacuated by the British on the 25th of November,
and the Americans took possession of the city the same day; and a
short time after the army was disbanded, and again mingled with their
fellow-citizens.[142]

General Washington, taking an affectionate leave of his officers,
repaired to Annapolis, where congress was sitting, and there, at a
public audience, with dignity and sensibility, resigned his commission
as commander-in-chief of the American armies. Then, with a character
illustrious throughout the world, he returned to his residence at Mount
Vernon, possessing the sincere love and profound veneration of his
countrymen.


                     WASHINGTON’S ADMINISTRATION.

The exhausting effect of their exertions was felt by the people of
the United States for a considerable period after peace, as well as
independence, had been secured. The enthusiasm of a popular contest
terminating in victory began to subside, and the sacrifices of the
revolution soon became known and felt. The claims of those who toiled,
and fought, and suffered in the arduous struggle, were strongly urged,
and the government had neither resources nor power to satisfy or to
silence them. The federal head had no separate or exclusive fund. The
members of congress depended on the states which they respectively
represented, even for their own maintenance, and money for national
purposes could only be obtained by requisitions on the different
members of the confederacy. On them it became necessary immediately to
call for funds to discharge the arrears of pay due to the soldiers of
the revolution, and the interest on the debt which the government had
been compelled to contract. The legislatures of the different states
received these requisitions with respect, listened to the monitory
warnings of congress with deference, and with silent and inactive
acquiescence. Their own situation, indeed, was full of embarrassment.
The wealth of the country had been totally exhausted during the
revolution. Taxes could not be collected, because there was no money
to represent the value of the little personal property which had not
been, and the land which could not be, destroyed; and commerce, though
preparing to burst from its thraldom, had not yet had time to restore
to the annual produce of the country its exchangeable value. The
states owed each a heavy debt for local services rendered during the
revolution, for which it was bound to provide, and each had its own
domestic government to support.

Under these circumstances, it is not surprising that each state was
anxious to retain for its own benefit the small but rising revenue
derived from foreign commerce; and that the custom-houses in each
commercial city were considered as the most valuable sources of
income which the states possessed. Each state, therefore, made its
own regulations, its tariff, and tonnage duties, and, as a natural
consequence, the different states clashed with each other; one nation
became more favored than another under the same circumstances; and one
state pursued a system injurious to the interests of another. Hence the
confidence of foreign countries was destroyed; and they would not enter
into treaties of commerce with the confederated government, while they
were not likely to be carried into effect. A general decay of trade,
the rise of imported merchandise, the fall of produce, and an uncommon
decrease of the value of lands, ensued.

The distress of the inhabitants was continually on the increase; and
in Massachusetts, where it was most felt, an insurrection of a serious
character was the consequence. Near the close of the year 1786, the
populace assembled to the number of two thousand, in the north-western
part of the state, and, choosing Daniel Shays their leader, demanded
that the collection of debts should be suspended, and that the
legislature should authorize the emission of paper money for general
circulation. Two bodies of militia, drawn from those parts of the state
where disaffection did not prevail, were immediately despatched against
them, one under the command of general Lincoln, the other of general
Shepard. The disaffected were dispersed with less difficulty than had
been apprehended, and, abandoning their seditious purposes, accepted
the proffered indemnity of the government.

The time at length came when the public mind gave tokens of being
prepared for a change in the constitution of the general government――an
occurrence the necessity of which had long been foreseen by Washington
and most of the distinguished patriots of that period. Evil had
accumulated upon evil, till the mass became too oppressive to be
endured, and the voice of the nation cried out for relief. The first
decisive measures proceeded from the merchants, who came forward almost
simultaneously in all parts of the country, with representations of
the utter prostration of the mercantile interests, and petitions for
a speedy and efficient remedy. It was shown, that the advantages of
this most important source of national prosperity were flowing into the
hands of foreigners, and that the native merchants were suffering for
the want of a just protection and a uniform system of trade. The wise
and reflecting were convinced that some decided efforts were necessary
to strengthen the general government, or that a dissolution of the
Union, and perhaps a devastating anarchy, would be inevitable. The
first step towards a general reformation was rather accidental than
premeditated. Certain citizens of Virginia and Maryland had formed
a scheme for promoting the navigation of the Potomac and Chesapeake
bay, and commissioners were appointed by those two states to meet
at Alexandria, and devise some plan of operation. These persons
made a visit to Mount Vernon, and, while there, it was proposed
among themselves that more important objects should be connected
with the purpose at first in view, and that the state governments
should be solicited to appoint other commissioners, with enlarged
powers, instructed to form a plan for maintaining a naval force in
the Chesapeake, and also to fix upon some system of duties on exports
and imports in which both states should agree, and that in the end
congress should be petitioned to allow these privileges. This project
was approved by the legislature of Virginia, and commissioners were
accordingly appointed. The same legislature passed a resolution
recommending the design to other states, and inviting them to unite,
by their commissioners, in an attempt to establish such a system of
commercial relations as would promote general harmony and prosperity.
Five states only, in addition to Virginia, acceded to this proposition,
namely, Maryland, Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York.
From these states commissioners assembled at Annapolis, but they had
hardly entered into a discussion of the topics which naturally forced
themselves into view, before they discovered the powers with which
they were intrusted to be so limited, as to tie up their hands from
effecting any purpose that could be of essential utility. On this
account, as well as from the circumstance that so few states were
represented, they wisely declined deciding on any important measures in
reference to the particular subjects for which they had come together.

This convention is memorable, however, as having been the prelude to
the one which followed. Before the commissioners adjourned, a report
was agreed upon, in which the necessity of a revision and reform of
the articles of the old federal compact was strongly urged, and which
contained a recommendation to all the state legislatures for the
appointment of deputies, to meet at Philadelphia, with more ample
powers and instructions. This proposal was eventually carried into
effect, and, in conformity with it, a convention of delegates from
the several states met at Philadelphia in May, 1787. Of this body of
eminent statesmen, George Washington was unanimously elected president.
They deliberated with closed doors during a period of four months.
One party in the convention was anxious to enlarge, another to abridge
the authority delegated to the general government. This was the first
germ of parties in the United States; not that materials were wanting,
for the dissensions of the revolution had left behind some bitterness
of spirit, and feelings that only awaited an opportunity for their
disclosure. The divisions in the convention proved the foundation of
many a subsequent struggle. At length a constitution was agreed on,
which, after being reported to congress, was submitted for ratification
to conventions held in the respective states. This constitution differs,
in many important particulars, from the articles of confederation;
and, by its regulations, connects the states more closely together,
under a general and supreme government, composed of three departments,
legislative, executive, and judicial; and invested with powers
essential to its being respected, both by foreign nations and the
states whose interest it was designed to secure. The provisions and
characteristics of this interesting and important political code,
will receive the consideration to which they are so justly entitled
in another department of our work.

As that party which was desirous to extend the powers of the
constitution had been the most anxious for the formation of this system,
and the most zealous advocates for its adoption, it almost naturally
followed that the administration of it was committed to their hands.
This party, which might, from their opinions, have been denominated
nationalists, or, in more modern phraseology, centralists, acquired
the name of federalists, while the appellation of anti-federalists was
given to their antagonists. The latter, ardently attached to freedom,
imagined that rulers, possessing such extensive sway, such abundant
patronage, and such independent tenure of office, would become fond
of the exercise of power, and in the end arrogant and tyrannical. The
former, equally devoted to the cause of national liberty, contended
that to preserve it an energetic government was necessary. They
described, with powerful effect, the evils actually endured from the
inefficiency of the confederation, and demanded that a trial at least
should be made of the remedy proposed.

In eleven states, a majority, though in some instances a small one,
decided in favor of the ratification of the constitution. Provision
was then made for the election of the officers to compose the executive
and legislative departments. In the highest station, the electors, by a
unanimous vote, placed the illustrious Washington; and to the office of
vice-president, by a vote nearly unanimous, they elevated John Adams,
who, in stations less conspicuous, had, with equal patriotism, rendered
important services to his country. On the 23d of April the president
elect arrived at New York, where he was received by the governor of the
state, and conducted with military honors, through an immense concourse
of people, to the apartments provided for him. Here he received the
salutations of foreign ministers, public bodies, political characters,
and private citizens of distinction, who pressed around him to offer
their congratulations, and to express their joy at seeing the man who
had the confidence of all, at the head of the American republic. On the
30th of April the president was inaugurated. Having taken the oath of
office in an open gallery adjoining the senate chamber, in the view
of an immense concourse of people, who attested their joy by loud and
repeated acclamations, he returned to the senate chamber, where he
delivered an appropriate address.

The same disinterested spirit which had appeared in the general, was
shown in the president. Having, at his entrance on the military service,
renounced every pecuniary compensation, he now ‘declined any share
in the personal emoluments which may be indispensably included in a
permanent provision for the executive department;’ and requested that
the pecuniary estimates for the station in which he was placed, might,
during his continuance in it, ‘be limited to such actual expenditures
as the public good may be thought to require.’

The government being now completely organized, and a system of revenue
established, the president proceeded to make appointments of suitable
persons to fill the offices which had been created.[143] After a
laborious and important session, in which perfect harmony subsisted
between the executive and the legislature, congress adjourned on the
29th of September to the first Monday in the succeeding January.

At the next session of congress, which commenced in January, 1790,
Mr. Hamilton, the secretary of the treasury, made his celebrated
report upon the public debts contracted during the revolutionary war.
Taking an able and enlarged view of the advantages of public credit,
he recommended that not only the debts of the continental congress,
but those of the states arising from their exertions in the common
cause, should be funded or assumed by the general government; and that
provision should be made for paying the interest, by imposing taxes
on certain articles of luxury, and on spirits distilled within the
country. The report of the secretary was largely discussed, and with
great force of argument and eloquence. In conclusion, congress passed
an act for the assumption of the state debts, and for funding the
national debt. By the provisions of this act, twenty-one millions five
hundred thousand dollars of the state debts were assumed in specific
proportions; and it was particularly enacted, that no certificate
should be received from a state creditor which could be ‘ascertained
to have been issued for any purpose other than compensations and
expenditures for services or supplies towards the prosecution of the
late war, and the defence of the United States, or of some part thereof,
during the same.’

Thus was the national debt funded upon principles which considerably
lessened the weight of the public burdens, and gave much satisfaction
to the public creditors. The produce of the sales of the lands lying
in the western territory, and the surplus product of the revenue, after
satisfying the appropriations which were charged upon it, with the
addition of two millions which the president was authorized to borrow
at five per cent., constituted a sinking fund to be applied to the
reduction of the debt. The effect of these measures was great and rapid.
The permanent value thus given to the debt produced a result equal to
the most favorable anticipations. The sudden increase of monied capital
derived from it invigorated commerce, and consequently gave a new
stimulus to agriculture.

It has already been stated, that when the new government was first
organized, but eleven states had ratified the constitution. Afterwards
North Carolina and Rhode Island, the two dissenting states, adopted it;
the former in November, 1789, the latter in May, 1790. In 1791, Vermont
adopted it, and applied to congress to be admitted into the Union. An
act was also passed, declaring that the district of Kentucky, then part
of Virginia, should be admitted into the Union on the 1st day of June
in the succeeding year.

During the year 1790, a termination was put to the war which, for
several years, had raged between the Creek Indians and the state
of Georgia. Pacific overtures were also made to the hostile tribes
inhabiting the banks of the Scioto and the Wabash. These being rejected,
an army of fourteen hundred men, commanded by general Harmer, was
despatched against them. Two battles were fought near Chillicothe, in
Ohio, between successive detachments from this army and the Indians, in
which the latter were victorious. Emboldened by these successes, they
continued to make more vigorous attacks upon the frontier settlements,
which suffered all the distressing calamities of an Indian war.

In the course of this year was completed the first census or
enumeration of the inhabitants of the United States. They amounted
to three millions nine hundred twenty-one thousand three hundred
and twenty-six, of which number six hundred ninety-five thousand
six hundred and fifty-five were slaves. The revenue, according to the
report of the secretary of the treasury, amounted to four millions
seven hundred and seventy-one thousand dollars; the exports to about
nineteen, and the imports to about twenty millions. A great improvement
in the circumstances of the people began at this period to be visible.
The establishment of a firm and regular government, and confidence in
the men whom they had chosen to administer it, gave an impulse to their
exertions which bore them rapidly forward in the career of prosperity.

Pursuant to the authority contained in the several acts on the subject
of a permanent seat of the government of the United States, a district
of ten miles square for this purpose was fixed on, comprehending
lands on both sides of the river Potomac, and the towns of Alexandria
and Georgetown. A city was laid out, and the sales which took place
produced funds for carrying on the necessary public buildings.

The war in Europe had embraced those powers with whom the
United States had the most extensive relations. The French people
regarded the Americans as their brethren, bound to them by the ties
of gratitude; and when the kings of Europe, dreading the establishment
of republicanism in her borders, assembled in arms to restore monarchy
to France, they looked across the Atlantic for sympathy and assistance.
The new government, recalling the minister whom the king had appointed,
despatched the citizen Genet, of ardent temper and a zealous republican,
to supply his place. In April, 1793, he arrived at Charleston, in South
Carolina, where he was received by the governor and the citizens, in
a manner expressive of their warm attachment to his country, and their
cordial approbation of the change of her institutions. Flattered by
his reception, and presuming that the nation and the government were
actuated by similar feelings, he undertook to authorize the fitting and
arming of vessels in that port, enlisting men, and giving commissions
to cruise and commit hostilities on nations with whom the United States
were at peace; captured vessels were brought into port, and the consuls
of France assumed, under the authority of M. Genet, to hold courts
of admiralty on them, to try, condemn, and authorize their sale. The
declaration of war made by France against Great Britain and Holland
reached the United States early in the same month. The president,
regarding the situation of these states, issued his proclamation of
neutrality on the 9th of May. In July, he requested the recall of
M. Genet, who was soon afterwards recalled, and succeeded by M. Fauchet.

After the defeat of St. Clair by the Indians, in 1791, general Wayne
was appointed to command the American forces. Taking post near the
country of the enemy, he made assiduous endeavors to negotiate a peace.
Failing in these, he marched against them at the head of three thousand
men. On the 20th of August, 1794, an action took place in the vicinity
of one of the British garrisons, on the banks of the Miami. A vigorous
charge roused the savages from their coverts, and they were driven more
than two miles at the point of the bayonet. Broken and dismayed, they
fled without renewing the combat. In this decisive battle, the loss
of the Americans in killed and wounded, including officers, was one
hundred and seven. After remaining on the banks of the Miami three days,
general Wayne returned with the army to Au Glaize, having destroyed
all the villages and corn within fifty miles of the river. The Indians
still continuing hostilities, their whole country was laid waste, and
forts were erected in the heart of their settlements. The effect of the
battle of the 20th of August was instantly and extensively felt. To the
victory gained by the Americans is ascribed the rescue of the United
States from a general war with the Indians north-west of the Ohio.

The year 1794 is distinguished by an insurrection in Pennsylvania. In
1791, congress had enacted laws laying duties upon spirits distilled
within the United States, and upon stills. From the commencement of the
operation of these laws, combinations were formed in the four western
counties of Pennsylvania to defeat them, and violence was repeatedly
committed. In July of the present year, about one hundred persons,
armed with guns and other weapons, attacked the house of an inspector
of the revenue, and wounded some persons within it. They seized the
marshal of the district of Pennsylvania, and compelled him to enter
into stipulations to forbear the execution of his office. Both the
inspector and the marshal were obliged to fly. These and many other
outrages induced president Washington, on the 7th of August, to issue
a proclamation, commanding the insurgents to disperse, and warning all
persons against aiding, abetting, or comforting the perpetrators of
these treasonable acts. On the 25th of September the president issued
a second proclamation, admonishing the insurgents, and declaring his
fixed determination, in obedience to the duty assigned to him by the
constitution, ‘to take care that the laws be faithfully executed.’
Fifteen thousand men, placed under the command of governor Lee, of
Virginia, were marched into the disaffected counties. A few of the
most active leaders were seized and detained for legal prosecution.
The great body of the insurgents, on submission, were pardoned, as
were also the leaders, after trial and conviction of treason.

Great Britain and the United States had each been incessantly
complaining that the other had violated the stipulations contained
in the treaty of peace. For the purpose of adjusting these mutual
complaints, and also for concluding a commercial treaty, Mr. Adams
had been appointed, in 1785, minister to the court of St. James’; the
British ministry then declined negotiating on the subject; but after
the constitution of 1789 was ratified, ministers were interchanged,
and the discussion was prosecuted with no little zeal. In 1794, Mr. Jay
being then minister from the United States, a treaty was concluded,
which, in the spring of the next year, was laid before the senate.
That body advised the president to ratify it, on condition that an
alteration should be made in one of the articles. The democratic
party, however, exclaimed in intemperate language against most of the
stipulations it contained; and the partisans of France swelled the cry
of condemnation.

Public meetings were held in various parts of the Union, at which
resolutions were passed, expressing warm disapprobation of the treaty,
and an earnest wish that the president would withhold his ratification.
General Washington, believing that an adjustment of differences would
conduce to the prosperity of the republic, and that the treaty before
him was the best that could, at that time, be obtained, gave it his
assent, in defiance of popular clamor, and issued his proclamation
stating its ratification, and declaring it to be the law of the land.

A resolution moved in the house to make the necessary appropriations
to carry the British treaty into effect, excited among the members the
strongest emotions, and gave rise to speeches highly argumentative,
eloquent, and animated. The debate was protracted until the people
took up the subject. In their respective corporations meetings were
held, the strength of parties was fully tried, and it clearly appeared
that the great majority were disposed to rally around the executive.
Innumerable petitions were presented to congress, praying them to make
the requisite appropriations. Unwilling to take upon themselves the
consequences of resisting the public will, they yielded to this call.

During the year 1795, a satisfactory treaty was concluded with Spain
and with the regency of Algiers.

The last two or three years had witnessed several changes in
the important offices of the nation. On the first day of the year
1794, Mr. Jefferson resigned the office of secretary of state, and
was succeeded by Mr. Randolph. On the last day of January, 1795,
Mr. Hamilton retired from the office of secretary of the treasury. He
was succeeded by Oliver Wolcott. At the close of the year 1794, general
Knox resigned the office of secretary of war, and colonel Pickering,
of Massachusetts, was appointed in his place. In August, Mr. Randolph
having lost the confidence of the president, and having in consequence
retired from the administration, Mr. Pickering was appointed his
successor in the department of state, and James McHenry, of Maryland,
was made secretary of war. No one of the republican party being now at
the head of any of the departments, many of the leaders of that party
withdrew their support from the administration; but the confidence of
the people in the integrity and patriotism of the president experienced
not the slightest abatement.

The conduct adopted by France towards the American republic continued
to be a source of vexation. M. Fauchet charged the administration
with sentiments of hostility to the allies of the United States, with
partiality for their former foes, and urged the adoption of a course
more favorable to the cause of liberty. Mr. Morris, the minister to
Paris, having incurred the displeasure of those in power, was recalled
at their request, and his place supplied by Mr. Monroe. Being an
ardent republican, he was received in the most respectful manner by the
convention, who decreed that the flags of the two republics, entwined
together, should be suspended in the legislative hall, as a mark of
their eternal union and friendship. M. Adet was appointed soon after
to succeed M. Fauchet. He brought with him the colors of France, which
he was instructed by the convention to present to the congress of the
United States. But France required more than professions and hopes, and
more than by treaty she was entitled to claim. She wished to make the
states a party in the war she was waging with the despots of Europe.
Failing in this, she adopted regulations highly injurious to American
commerce, directing her cruisers to capture in certain cases the
vessels of the United States. In consequence of these regulations,
several hundred vessels, loaded with valuable cargoes, were taken
while prosecuting a lawful trade, and the whole confiscated. Believing
that the rights of the nation were not asserted and vindicated with
sufficient spirit by Mr. Monroe, the president recalled him, and
Charles C. Pinckney, of South Carolina, was appointed in his stead.
In the summer of 1796, he left the United States, instructed to use
every effort compatible with national honor, to restore the amicable
relations which had once subsisted between the sister republics.

As the period for a new election of a president of the United States
approached, after plain indications that the public voice would be in
his favor, and when he probably would have been chosen for the third
time unanimously, Washington determined irrevocably to withdraw to the
seclusion of private life. He published, in September, 1796, a farewell
address to the people of the United States, which ought to be engraven
upon the hearts of all his countrymen.

On the 7th of December, 1796, the president for the last time met
the national legislature. On the 4th of March, 1797, he attended the
inauguration of his successor in office. Having paid his affectionate
compliments to Mr. Adams, as president of the United States, he
bade adieu to the seat of government, and hastened to the delights
of domestic life. He intended that his journey should have been
private, but the attempt was vain; the same affectionate and respectful
attentions were on this occasion paid him which he had received during
his presidency.


           THE ADMINISTRATIONS OF JOHN ADAMS AND JEFFERSON.

When the determination of Washington not again to accept of the
presidentship left open the high office to the competition of the
leaders of the great political parties, no exertion was spared
throughout the Union to give success to their respective claims. The
federalists, desiring that the system of measures adopted by Washington
should be pursued, and dreading the influence of French sentiments
and principles, made the most active efforts to elect John Adams. The
republicans, believing their opponents less friendly than themselves
to the maxims of liberty, and too much devoted to the British nation
and to British institutions, made equal exertions to elect Thomas
Jefferson. The result was the choice of Mr. Adams to be president, and
Mr. Jefferson to be vice-president.

Mr. Pinckney had been appointed minister plenipotentiary to the
French republic in 1796. The object of his mission was stated, in his
letter of credence, to be, ‘to maintain that good understanding which,
from the commencement of the alliance, had subsisted between the two
nations; and to efface unfavorable impressions, banish suspicions, and
restore that cordiality which was at once the evidence and pledge of
a friendly union.’ On inspecting his letter of credence, the directory
announced to him their determination ‘not to receive another minister
plenipotentiary from the United States until after the redress of
grievances demanded of the American government, which the French
republic had a right to expect from it.’ The American minister was
afterwards obliged, by a written mandate, to quit the territories
of the French republic. Besides other hostile indications, American
vessels were captured wherever found; and, under the pretext of
their wanting a document, with which the treaty of commerce had been
uniformly understood to dispense, they were condemned as prizes.

In consequence of this serious state of the relations with France,
the president, by proclamation, summoned congress to meet on the 15th
of June; when, in a firm and dignified speech, he stated the great
and unprovoked outrages of the French government. Having mentioned a
disposition indicated in the executive directory to separate the people
of America from their government, ‘such attempts,’ he added, ‘ought
to be repelled with a decision which shall convince France and all the
world that we are not a degraded people, humiliated under a colonial
spirit of fear and sense of inferiority, fitted to be the miserable
instruments of foreign influence, and regardless of national honor,
character, and interest.’ He expressed, however, his wish for an
accommodation, and his purpose of attempting it. In the mean time, he
earnestly recommended it to congress to provide effectual measures of
defence.

To make a last effort to obtain reparation and security, three
envoys extraordinary were appointed, at the head of whom was general
Pinckney. These ambassadors also the directory refused to receive. They
were, however, addressed by persons verbally instructed by Talleyrand,
the minister of foreign relations, to make proposals. In explicit
terms, these unofficial agents demanded a large sum of money before
any negotiation could be opened. To this insulting demand a decided
negative was given.

When these events were known in the United States they excited general
indignation. The spirit of party appeared to be extinct. The treaty of
alliance with France was declared by congress to be no longer in force;
and authority was given for capturing armed French vessels. Provision
was made for raising immediately a small regular army, and, in case
events should render it expedient, for augmenting it. A direct tax and
additional internal duties were laid. To command the armies of the
United States, president Adams, with the unanimous advice of the senate,
appointed George Washington. He consented, but with great reluctance,
to accept the office, declaring, however, that he cordially approved
the measures of the government.

The first act of hostility between the two nations appears to have
been committed by the Insurgente, which was in a short period after
so signally beaten by an American frigate. The schooner Retaliation,
lieutenant-commandant Bainbridge, being deluded into the power of
this vessel, was captured and carried into Guadaloupe. Several other
United States armed vessels were in company with the Retaliation, and
pursued by the French squadron, but were probably saved from capture
by the address of lieutenant Bainbridge, who, being asked by the French
commodore what was the force of the vessels chased, exaggerated it
with so much adroitness as to induce him to recall his ships. The
Constellation went to sea under the command of captain Truxton. In
February, 1799, he encountered the Insurgente, and, after a close
action of about an hour and a half, compelled her to strike. The rate
of the Constellation was thirty-two guns, that of the Insurgente forty.
The former had three men wounded, one of whom shortly after died,
and none killed; the latter had forty-one wounded, and twenty-nine
killed. This victory, which was so brilliant and decisive, with such
a wonderful disparity of loss, gave great eclat to the victor and to
the navy. Commodore Truxton again put to sea in the Constellation,
being destined to renew his triumphs, and the humiliation of the foe.
In February, 1800, he fell in with the Vengeance, a French ship of
fifty-four guns, with which he began an engagement that lasted, with
great obstinacy and spirit on both sides, from eight o’clock in the
evening till one in the morning, when the Vengeance was completely
silenced, and sheered off. The Constellation, having lost her main-mast,
was too much injured to pursue her. The captain of the Vengeance is
said to have twice surrendered during the contest, but his signals were
not understood amidst the darkness of night and the confusion of battle.

The United States, thus victorious in arms at home and on the ocean,
commanded the respect of their enemy; and the directory made overtures
of peace. The president immediately appointed ministers, who, on their
arrival at Paris, found the executive authority in the possession
of Buonaparte as first consul. They were promptly received, and in
September, 1800, a treaty was concluded satisfactory to both countries.

The services of Washington had not been required in his capacity of
commander-in-chief; but he did not live to witness the restoration
of peace. On Friday, December 13, while attending some improvements
upon his estate, he was exposed to a light rain, which wetted his
neck and hair. Unapprehensive of danger, he passed the afternoon
in his usual manner; but at night was seized with an inflammatory
affection of the windpipe, attended by fever, and a quick and laborious
respiration. Respiration became more and more contracted and imperfect
until half-past eleven on Saturday night, when, retaining the full
possession of his intellect, he expired without a struggle. Thus,
in the sixty-eighth year of his age, died the father of his country.
Intelligence of this event, as it rapidly spread, produced spontaneous,
deep, and unaffected grief, suspending every other thought, and
absorbing every different feeling. Congress, then in session at
Philadelphia, immediately adjourned. The senate of the United States,
in an address to the president on this melancholy occasion, indulged
their patriotic pride, while they did not transgress the bounds of
truth, in speaking of their Washington.

According to the unanimous resolution of congress, a funeral procession
moved from the legislative hall to the German Lutheran church, where an
oration was delivered by general Lee, a representative from Virginia.
The procession was grand and solemn; the oration impressive and
eloquent. Throughout the Union similar marks of affliction were
exhibited; a whole people appeared in mourning. In every part of the
republic funeral orations were delivered, and the best talents of the
nation were devoted to an expression of the nation’s grief.

In the year 1800 the seat of government of the United States
was removed to Washington, in the district of Columbia. After
congratulating the people of the United States on the assembling of
congress at the permanent seat of their government, and congress on
the prospect of a residence not to be changed, the president said:
‘It would be unbecoming the representatives of this nation to assemble
for the first time in this solemn temple, without looking up to the
supreme Ruler of the universe, and imploring his blessing. May this
territory be the residence of virtue and happiness! In this city may
that piety and virtue, that wisdom and magnanimity, that constancy and
self-government, which adorned the great character whose name it bears,
be forever held in veneration! Here, and throughout our country, may
simple manners, pure morals, and true religion, flourish forever!’

At this period a presidential election again occurred. From the
time of the adoption of the constitution, the republican party had
been gradually increasing in numbers. The two parties being now
nearly equal, the contest inspired both with uncommon ardor. The
federalists supported Mr. Adams and general Pinckney; the republicans,
Mr. Jefferson and colonel Burr. The two latter received a small
majority of the electoral votes; and as they received also an equal
number, the selection of one of them to be president devolved upon the
house of representatives. After thirty-five trials, during which the
nation felt intense solicitude, Mr. Jefferson was chosen. Colonel Burr
received the votes of the federalists, and lost, in consequence, the
confidence of his former friends. By the provisions of the constitution
he became, of course, vice-president.

A second census of the inhabitants of the United States was completed
in 1801. They amounted to five millions three hundred and nineteen
thousand seven hundred and sixty-two, having in ten years increased
nearly one million four hundred thousand. In the same number of years
the exports increased from nineteen to ninety-four millions, and
the revenue from four millions seven hundred seventy-one thousand,
to twelve millions nine hundred and forty-five thousand dollars.
This rapid advance in the career of prosperity has no parallel in
the history of nations, and is to be attributed principally to the
institutions of the country, which, securing equal privileges to
all, gave to the enterprise and industry of all free scope and full
encouragement.

In 1802, the state of Ohio was admitted into the Union. It was formerly
a portion of the north-western territory, for the government of which,
in 1787, an ordinance was passed by the continental congress. In thirty
years from its first settlement, the number of its inhabitants exceeded
half a million. The state of Tennessee, which was previously a part
of North Carolina, and which lies between that state and the river
Mississippi, had been admitted in 1796.

The right of deposit at New Orleans, conceded to the citizens of the
United States by Spain, and necessary to the people of the western
country, had, until this period, been freely enjoyed. In October, the
chief officer of that city prohibited the exercise of it in future.
This violation of a solemn engagement produced, throughout the states
of Ohio and Kentucky, indignant clamor and violent commotion. In
congress a proposition was made to take possession by force of the
whole province of Louisiana; but a more pacific course was adopted.
Knowing that the province had been ceded, although not transferred,
to France, the president instituted a negotiation to acquire it by
purchase. In April, 1803, a treaty was concluded, conveying it to the
United States for fifteen millions of dollars. Its acquisition was
considered by the United States of the greatest importance, as it gave
them the entire control of a river which is one of the noblest in the
world.

At this period, also, there was another important acquisition of
territory. The friendly tribe of Kaskaskia Indians, reduced by wars and
other causes to a few individuals, who were unable to defend themselves
against the neighboring tribes, transferred its country to the United
States; reserving only a sufficiency to maintain its members in an
agricultural way. The stipulations on the part of the United States
were, to extend to them patronage and protection, and to give them
certain annual aids, in money, implements of agriculture, and other
articles of their choice. This ceded country extends along the
Mississippi from the mouth of the Illinois to and up the Ohio; and is
esteemed as among the most fertile within the limits of the Union.

The United States had for some time enjoyed the undisputed repose
of peace, with only one exception. Tripoli, the least considerable
of the Barbary states, had made demands founded neither in right
nor in compact, and had denounced war on the failure of the American
government to comply with them before a given day. The president, on
this occasion, sent a small squadron of frigates into the Mediterranean,
with assurances to that power of the sincere desire of the American
government to remain in peace; but with orders to protect our commerce
against the threatened attack. It was a seasonable and salutary measure;
for the bey had already declared war; and the American commerce in the
Mediterranean was blockaded, while that of the Atlantic was in peril.
The arrival of the squadron dispelled the danger. The Insurgente, which
had been so honorably added to the American navy, and the Pickering, of
fourteen guns, the former commanded by captain Fletcher, the latter by
captain Hillar, were lost in the equinoctial gale, in September, 1800.

In 1801, the Enterprise, of fourteen guns, captain Sterrett, fell
in with a Tripolitan ship of war of equal force. The action continued
three hours and a half, the corsair fighting with great obstinacy,
and even desperation, until she struck, having lost fifty killed and
wounded, while the Enterprise had not a man injured. In 1803, commodore
Preble assumed the command of the Mediterranean squadron, and after
humbling the emperor of Morocco, who had begun a covert war upon
American commerce, concentrated most of his force before Tripoli. On
arriving off that port, captain Bainbridge, in the frigate Philadelphia,
of forty-four guns, was sent into the harbor to reconnoitre. While
in eager pursuit of a small vessel, he unfortunately advanced so far
that the frigate grounded, and all attempts to remove her were in vain.
The sea around her was immediately covered with Tripolitan gun-boats,
and captain Bainbridge was compelled to surrender. This misfortune,
which threw a number of accomplished officers and a valiant crew into
oppressive bondage, and which shed a gloom over the whole nation, as it
seemed at once to increase the difficulties of a peace an hundred fold,
was soon relieved by one of the most daring and chivalrous exploits
that is found in naval annals. Lieutenant Stephen Decatur, then one
of commodore Preble’s subalterns, proposed a plan for re-capturing or
destroying the Philadelphia. The American squadron was at that time
lying at Syracuse. Agreeably to the plan proposed, lieutenant Decatur,
in the ketch Intrepid, four guns and seventy-five men, proceeded, under
the escort of the Syren, captain Stewart, to the harbor of Tripoli.
The Philadelphia lay within half gun-shot of the bashaw’s castle, and
several cruisers and gun-boats surrounded her with jealous vigilance.

The Intrepid entered the harbor alone, about eight o’clock in the
evening, and succeeded in getting near the Philadelphia, between ten
and eleven o’clock, without having awakened suspicion of her hostile
designs. This vessel had been captured from the Tripolitans, and,
assuming on this occasion her former national appearance, was permitted
to warp alongside, under the alleged pretence that she had lost all
her anchors. The moment the vessel came in contact, Decatur and his
followers leaped on board, and soon overwhelmed a crew which was
paralyzed with consternation. Twenty of the Tripolitans were killed.
All the surrounding batteries being opened upon the Philadelphia,
she was immediately set on fire, and not abandoned until thoroughly
wrapped in flames; when, a favoring breeze springing up, the Intrepid
extricated herself from her prey, and sailed triumphantly out of the
harbor amid the light of the conflagration. Not the slightest loss
occurred on the side of the Americans to shade the splendor of the
enterprise.

In July, 1804, commodore Preble brought together all his forces before
Tripoli, determined to try the effect of a bombardment. The enemy
having sent some of his gun-boats and galleys without the reef at the
mouth of the harbor, two divisions of American gun-boats were formed
for the purpose of attacking them, while the large vessels assailed the
batteries and town. On the 3d of August this plan was put in execution.
The squadron approached within gun-shot of the town, and opened a
tremendous fire of shot and shells, which was as promptly returned
by the Tripolitan batteries and shipping. At the same time the two
divisions of gun-boats, the first under the command of captain Somers,
the second under captain Stephen Decatur, who had been promoted as
a reward for his late achievement, advanced against those of the
enemy. The squadron was about two hours under the enemy’s batteries,
generally within pistol-shot, ranging by them in deliberate succession,
alternately silencing their fires, and launching its thunders into
the very palace of the bashaw; while a more animated battle was raging
in another quarter. Simultaneously with the bombardment the American
gun-boats had closed in desperate conflict with the enemy. Captain
Decatur, bearing down upon one of superior force, soon carried her by
boarding, when, taking his prize in tow, he grappled with another, and
in like manner transferred the fight to the enemy’s deck.

In the fierce encounter which followed this second attack, captain
Decatur, having broken his sword, closed with the Turkish commander,
and, both falling in the struggle, gave him a mortal wound with a
pistol-shot, just as the Turk was raising his dirk to plunge it into
his breast. Lieutenant Trippe, of captain Decatur’s squadron, had
boarded a third large gun-boat, with only one midshipman and nine
men, when his boat fell off, and left him to wage the unequal fight of
eleven against thirty-six, which was the number of the enemy. Courage
and resolution, however, converted this devoted little band into
a formidable host, which, after a sanguinary contest, obliged the
numerous foe to yield, with the loss of fourteen killed and seven
wounded. Lieutenant Trippe received eleven sabre wounds, and had three
of his party wounded, but none killed. Several bombardments and attacks
succeeded each other at intervals throughout the month. Day after
day death and devastation were poured into Tripoli with unsparing
perseverance, each attack exhibiting instances of valor and devotedness
which will give lustre to history. The eyes of Europe were drawn to the
spot where a young nation, scarcely emerged into notice, was signally
chastising the despotic and lawless infidel, to whom some of her most
powerful governments were then paving tribute.

On the 4th of September, commodore Preble, in order to try new
experiments of annoyance, determined to send a fireship into the
enemy’s harbor. The Intrepid was fitted out for this service, being
filled with powder, shells, and other combustible materials. Captain
Somers, who had often been the emulous rival of Decatur in the career
of glory, was appointed to conduct her in, having for his associates
in the hazardous enterprise lieutenants Wadsworth and Israel, all
volunteers. The Argus, Vixen, and Nautilus, were to convey the Intrepid
as far as the mouth of the harbor. Captain Somers and lieutenant
Wadsworth made choice of two of the fleetest boats in the squadron,
manned with picked crews, to bring them out. At eight o’clock in the
evening she stood into the harbor with a moderate breeze. Several
shot were fired at her from the batteries. She had nearly gained her
place of destination when she exploded, without having made any of the
signals previously concerted to show that the crew was safe. Night hung
over the dreadful catastrophe, and left the whole squadron a prey to
the most painful anxiety. The convoy hovered about the harbor until
sunrise, when no remains could be discovered either of the Intrepid or
her boats. Doubt was turned into certainty, that she had prematurely
blown up, as one of the enemy’s gun-boats was observed to be missing,
and several others much shattered and damaged.

Commodore Preble, in his account, says, that he was led to believe
‘that those boats were detached from the enemy’s flotilla to intercept
the ketch, and without suspecting her to be a fireship, the missing
boats had suddenly boarded her, when the gallant Somers and the heroes
of his party observing the other three boats surrounding them, and
no prospect of escape, determined at once to prefer death, and the
destruction of the enemy, to captivity and torturing slavery, put a
match to the train leading directly to the magazine, which at once
blew the whole into the air, and terminated their existence;’ and
he adds, that his ‘conjectures respecting this affair are founded
on a resolution which captain Somers and lieutenants Wadsworth and
Israel had formed, neither to be taken by the enemy, nor suffer
him to get possession of the powder on board the Intrepid.’[144]
Soon after these events, commodore Preble gave up the command in the
Mediterranean to commodore Barron, and returned to the United States.
His eminent services were enthusiastically acknowledged by his admiring
fellow-citizens, as well as those of his associates in arms, ‘whose
names,’ in the expressive language of congress on the occasion, ‘ought
to live in the recollection and affection of a grateful country, and
whose conduct ought to be regarded as an example to future generations.’

While the squadron remained before Tripoli other deeds of heroism were
performed. William Eaton, who had been a captain in the American army,
was, at the commencement of this war, consul at Tunis. He there became
acquainted with Hamet Caramauly, whom a younger brother had excluded
from the throne of Tripoli. With him he concerted an expedition against
the reigning sovereign, and repaired to the United States to obtain
permission and the means to undertake it. Permission was granted, the
co-operation of the squadron recommended, and such pecuniary assistance
as could be spared was afforded. To raise an army in Egypt, and lead it
to attack the usurper in his dominions, was the project which had been
concerted. In the beginning of 1805, Eaton met Hamet at Alexandria, and
was appointed general of his forces. On the 6th of March, at the head
of a respectable body of mounted Arabs, and about seventy Christians,
he set out for Tripoli. His route lay across a desert one thousand
miles in extent. On his march, he encountered peril, fatigue, and
suffering, the description of which would resemble the exaggerations of
romance. On the 25th of April, having been fifty days on the march, he
arrived before Derne, a Tripolitan city on the Mediterranean, and found
in the harbor a part of the American squadron destined to assist him.
He learnt also that the usurper, having received notice of his approach,
had raised a considerable army, and was then within a day’s march of
the city. No time was therefore to be lost.

The next morning he summoned the governor to surrender, who returned
for answer, ‘My head or yours.’ The city was assaulted, and after a
contest of two hours and a half, possession was gained. The Christians
suffered severely, and the general was slightly wounded. Great
exertions were immediately made to fortify the city. On the 8th of
May it was attacked by the Tripolitan army. Although ten times more
numerous than Eaton’s band, the assailants, after persisting four hours
in the attempt, were compelled to retire. On the 10th of June another
battle was fought, in which the enemy were defeated. The next day the
American frigate Constitution arrived in the harbor, which so terrified
the Tripolitans that they fled precipitately to the desert. The frigate
came, however, to arrest the operations of Eaton in the midst of his
brilliant and successful career. Alarmed at his progress, the reigning
bashaw had offered terms of peace, which being much more favorable
than had before been offered, were accepted by Mr. Lear, the authorized
agent of the government. Sixty thousand dollars were given as a ransom
for the unfortunate American prisoners, and an engagement was made
to withdraw all support from Hamet. The nation, proud of the exploits
of Eaton, regretted this diplomatic interference, but the treaty was
subsequently ratified by the president and senate.

During the year 1804, the Delaware Indians relinquished to the United
States their title to an extensive tract east of the Mississippi,
between the Wabash and Ohio, for which they were to receive annuities
in animals and implements for agriculture, and in other necessaries.
This was an important acquisition, not only for its extent and
fertility, but because, by its commanding the Ohio for three hundred
miles, and nearly half that distance the Wabash, the produce of the
settled country could be safely conveyed down those rivers, and, with
the cession recently made by Kaskaskias, it nearly consolidated the
possessions of the United States north of the Ohio, from lake Erie to
the Mississippi.

Early in the following year Mr. Jefferson was re-elected to fill the
president’s chair by the decided majority of sixty-two votes against
sixteen, a circumstance which he viewed as an indication of a great
decay in the strength of the federal party.[145] George Clinton was
also elected vice-president.

During the year 1806, a circumstance occurred which put to the test
the attachment of the inhabitants of the southern and western states,
as well as the good faith of the American government in her foreign
relations. Colonel Burr, whose character and influence had formerly
encouraged him in the hope of filling the highest office of his country,
subsequently lost the public confidence and fell into obscurity. While
unobserved by his fellow-citizens he was by no means inactive; he was
employed in purchasing and building boats on the Ohio, and in engaging
men to descend that river. His professed intention was to form a
settlement on the banks of the Washita, in Louisiana; but the nature of
his preparations, and the incautious disclosures of his associates, led
to the suspicion that his real object was of a far different character.

‘His conspiracy,’ says president Jefferson, in a letter to the marquis
de la Fayette, ‘has been one of the most flagitious of which history
will ever furnish an example. He meant to separate the western states
from us, to add Mexico to them, place himself at their head, establish
what he would deem an energetic government, and thus provide an example
and an instrument for the subversion of our freedom. The man who could
expect to affect this with American materials must be a fit subject
for Bedlam. Nothing has ever so strongly proved the innate force of
our form of government as this conspiracy. Burr had probably engaged
one thousand men to follow his fortunes, without letting them know his
projects, otherwise than by assuring them the government approved of
them. The moment a proclamation was issued, undeceiving them, he found
himself left with about thirty desperadoes only. The people rose in a
mass wherever he was, or was suspected to be, and by their own energy
the thing was crushed in one instant, without its having been necessary
to employ a man of the military but to take care of their respective
stations. His first enterprise was to have been to seize New Orleans,
which he supposed would powerfully bridle the upper country, and
place him at the door of Mexico. It is with pleasure I inform you that
not a single native Creole, and but one American, of those settled
there before we received the place, took any part with him. His
partisans were the new emigrants from the United States and elsewhere,
fugitives from justice or debt, and adventurers and speculators of
all descriptions.’ In August, 1807, he was tried before chief-justice
Marshall, and the evidence of his guilt not being deemed sufficient he
was acquitted. The people, however, very generally believed him guilty.

The American government at this period began to be seriously affected
by the contest which was raging in Europe. Under the guidance of the
splendid talents of Napoleon the military prowess of France had brought
most of the European nations to her feet. America profited from the
destruction of the ships and commerce of other nations; being neutral,
her vessels carried from port to port the productions of France and
the dependent kingdoms; and also to the ports of those kingdoms the
manufactures of England: indeed, few ships were found on the ocean
except those of the United States and Great Britain. These advantages
were, however, too great to be long enjoyed unmolested. American ships
carrying to Europe the produce of French colonies were, in the early
stage of the war, captured by British cruisers, and condemned by their
courts as lawful prizes; and now several European ports under the
control of France were by British orders in council, dated in May, 1806,
declared in a state of blockade, although not invested with a British
fleet; and American vessels attempting to enter those ports were also
captured and condemned. France and her allies suffered, as well as the
United States, from these proceedings; but her vengeance fell not so
much upon the belligerent as upon the neutral party. By a decree, used
at Berlin in November, 1806, the French emperor declared the British
islands in a state of blockade, and of course authorized the capture of
all neutral vessels attempting to trade with those islands. From these
measures of both nations the commerce of the United States severely
suffered, and their merchants loudly demanded of the government redress
and protection.

This was not the only grievance to which the contest between the
European powers gave rise. Great Britain claimed a right to search
for and seize English sailors, even on board neutral vessels while
traversing the ocean. In the exercise of this pretended right,
citizens of the United States were seized, dragged from their friends,
transported to distant parts of the world, compelled to perform the
duty of British sailors, and to fight with nations at peace with their
own. Against this outrage upon personal liberty and the rights of
American citizens, Washington, Adams, and Jefferson had remonstrated in
vain. The abuse continued, and every year added to its aggravation. In
June, 1807, a circumstance occurred which highly and justly incensed
the Americans. The frigate Chesapeake, being ordered on a cruise in the
Mediterranean sea, under the command of commodore Barron, sailing from
Hampton roads, was come up with by the British ship of war Leopard, one
of a squadron then at anchor within the limits of the United States.
An officer was sent from the Leopard to the Chesapeake, with a note
from the captain respecting some deserters from some of his Britannic
majesty’s ships, supposed to be serving as part of the crew of the
Chesapeake, and inclosing a copy of an order from vice-admiral Berkeley,
requiring and directing the commanders of ships and vessels under
his command, in case of meeting with the American frigate at sea,
and without the limits of the United States, to show the order to
her captain, and to require to search his ship for the deserters from
certain ships therein named, and to proceed and search for them; and
if a similar demand should be made by the American, he was permitted to
search for deserters from their service, according to the customs and
usage of civilized nations on terms of amity with each other.

Commodore Barron gave an answer, purporting that he knew of no such
men as were described; that the recruiting officers for the Chesapeake
had been particularly instructed by the government, through him, not
to enter any deserters from his Britannic majesty’s ships; that he knew
of none such being in her; that he was instructed never to permit the
crew of any ship under his command to be mustered by any officers but
her own; that he was disposed to preserve harmony, and hoped his answer
would prove satisfactory. The Leopard, shortly after this answer was
received by her commander, ranged along side of the Chesapeake, and
commenced a heavy fire upon her. The Chesapeake, unprepared for action,
made no resistance, but having suffered much damage, and lost three men
killed, and eighteen wounded, commodore Barron ordered his colors to
be struck, and sent a lieutenant on board the Leopard, to inform her
commander that he considered the Chesapeake her prize. The commander
of the Leopard sent an officer on board, who took possession of the
Chesapeake, mustered her crew, and, carrying off four of her men,
abandoned the ship. Commodore Barron, finding that the Chesapeake
was very much injured, returned, with the advice of his officers, to
Hampton roads. On receiving information of this outrage, the president,
by proclamation, interdicted the harbors and waters of the United
States to all armed British vessels, forbade intercourse with them,
and ordered a sufficient force for the protection of Norfolk, and
such other preparations as the occasion appeared to require. An armed
vessel of the United States was despatched with instructions to the
American minister at London, to call on the British government for the
satisfaction and security which this outrage required.

Buonaparte having declared his purpose of enforcing with rigor the
Berlin decree; the British government having solemnly asserted the
right of search and impressment, and having intimated their intention
to adopt measures in retaliation of the French decree, the president
recommended to congress that the seamen, ships, and merchandise of
the United States should be detained in port to preserve them from
the dangers which threatened them on the ocean; and a law laying an
indefinite embargo was in consequence enacted. A few days only had
elapsed when information was received that Great Britain had prohibited
neutrals, except upon most injurious conditions, from trading with
France or her allies, comprising nearly every maritime nation of Europe.
This was followed in a few weeks by a decree issued by Buonaparte, at
Milan, declaring that every neutral vessel which should submit to be
visited by a British ship, or comply with the terms demanded, should be
confiscated, if afterwards found in his ports, or taken by his cruisers.
Thus, at the date of the embargo, were orders and decrees in existence
rendering liable to capture almost every American vessel sailing on
the ocean. In the New England states, the embargo, withholding the
merchant from a career in which he had been highly prosperous, and in
which he imagined that he might still be favored by fortune, occasioned
discontent and clamor. The federalists, more numerous there than in any
other part of the Union, pronounced it a measure unwise and oppressive.
These representations, and the distress which the people endured,
induced a zealous opposition to the measures of the government.

The president, in his message on the opening of the tenth congress,
stated the continued disregard shown by the belligerent nations to
neutral rights, so destructive to the American commerce; and referred
it to the wisdom of congress to decide on the course best adapted
to such a state of things. ‘With the Barbary powers,’ he said, ‘we
continue in harmony, with the exception of an unjustifiable proceeding
of the dey of Algiers towards our consul to that regency,’ the
character and circumstances of which he laid before congress. ‘With our
Indian neighbors the public peace has been steadily maintained. From
a conviction that we consider them as a part of ourselves, and cherish
with sincerity their rights and interests, the attachment of the
Indian tribes is gaining strength daily, is extending from the nearer
to the more remote, and will amply requite us for the justice and
friendship practised towards them. Husbandry and household manufacture
are advancing among them, more rapidly with the southern than northern
tribes, from circumstances of soil and climate; and one of the two
great divisions of the Cherokee nation has now under consideration to
solicit the friendship of the United States, and to be identified with
us in laws and government in such progressive manner as we shall think
best.’

Mr. Jefferson, following and confirming the example of Washington,
determined not to continue in office for a longer term than eight years.
‘Never did a prisoner,’ says the president of the American republic,
‘released from his chains, feel such relief as I shall on shaking off
the shackles of power. Nature intended me for the tranquil pursuits
of science, by rendering them my supreme delight. But the enormities
of the times in which I have lived have forced me to take a part
in resisting them, and to commit myself on the boisterous ocean of
political passions. I thank God for the opportunity of retiring from
them without censure, and carrying with me the most consoling proofs of
public approbation. I leave every thing in the hands of men so able to
take care of them, that if we are destined to meet misfortunes it will
be because no human wisdom could avert them.’


                    ADMINISTRATION OF MR. MADISON.

Mr. Jefferson was succeeded in the presidency by Mr. Madison. One of
the first acts of congress under the new president was to repeal the
embargo; but at the same time to prohibit all intercourse with France
and England.

In the non-intercourse law a provision was inserted, that if either
nation should revoke her hostile edicts, and the president should
announce that fact by proclamation, then the law should cease to be
in force in regard to the nation so revoking. On the 23d of April,
Mr. Erskine, minister plenipotentiary from his Britannic majesty to
the United States, pledged his court to repeal its anti-neutral decrees
by the 10th of June; and, in consequence of an arrangement now made
with the British minister, the president proclaimed that commercial
intercourse would be renewed on that day; but this arrangement was
disavowed by the ministry; and, in October, Mr. Erskine was replaced
by Mr. Jackson, who soon giving offence to the American government,
all farther intercourse with him was refused, and he was recalled.

The Rambouillet decree, alleged to be designed to retaliate the act of
congress which forbade French vessels to enter the ports of the United
States, was issued by Buonaparte on the 23d of March. By this decree,
all American vessels and cargoes, arriving in any of the ports of
France, or of countries occupied by French troops, were ordered to be
seized and condemned.

On the 1st of May congress passed an act, excluding British and French
armed vessels from the waters of the United States; but providing, that
if either of the above nations should modify its edicts before the 3d
of March, 1811, so that they should cease to violate neutral commerce,
of which fact the president was to give notice by proclamation, and the
other nation should not, within three months after, pursue a similar
course, commercial intercourse with the first might be renewed, but not
with the other.

In August the French government assured Mr. Armstrong, the American
envoy at Paris, that the Berlin and Milan decrees were revoked,
the revocation to take effect on the first day of November ensuing.
Confiding in this assurance, the president, on the second day of
November, issued his proclamation, declaring that unrestrained commerce
with France was allowed, but that all intercourse with Great Britain
was prohibited.

Great Britain, having previously expressed a willingness to repeal her
orders whenever France should repeal her decrees, was now called upon
by the American envoy to fulfil that engagement. The British ministry
objected, however, that the French decrees could not be considered
as repealed, a letter from the minister of state not being, for that
purpose, a document of sufficient authority; and still persisted to
enforce the orders in council. For this purpose British ships of war
were stationed before the principal harbors of the United States. All
American merchantmen, departing or returning, were boarded, searched,
and many of them sent to British ports as legal prizes. The contempt in
which the British officers held the republican navy, in one instance,
led to an action. Commodore Rogers, in the President frigate, met in
the evening a vessel on the coast of Virginia; he hailed; but, instead
of receiving an answer, was hailed in turn, and a shot was fired, which
struck the main-mast of the President. The fire was instantly returned
by the commodore, and continued for a few minutes, when, finding
his antagonist was of inferior force, and that her guns were almost
silenced, he desisted. On hailing again, an answer was given, that
the ship was the British sloop of war Little Belt, of eighteen guns.
Thirty-two of her men were killed and wounded, and the ship was much
disabled.

For several years the Indian tribes residing near the sources of the
Mississippi had occupied themselves in murdering and robbing the white
settlers in their vicinity. At length, the frontier inhabitants being
seriously alarmed by their hostile indications, in the autumn of 1811
governor Harrison resolved to move towards the Prophet’s town, on the
Wabash, with a body of Kentucky and Indiana militia, and the fourth
United States regiment, under colonel Boyd, to demand satisfaction of
the Indians, and to put a stop to their threatened hostilities. His
expedition was made early in November. On his approach within a few
miles of the Prophet’s town, the principal chiefs came out with offers
of peace and submission, and requested the governor to encamp for the
night; but this was only a treacherous artifice. At four in the morning
the camp was furiously assailed, and a bloody contest ensued; the
Indians were however repulsed. The loss on the part of the Americans
was sixty-two killed, and one hundred and twenty-six wounded, and a
still greater number on the side of the Indians. Governor Harrison,
having destroyed the Prophet’s town, and established forts, returned
to Vincennes.

In November reparation was made by the British for the attack on the
Chesapeake. Mr. Foster, the British envoy, informed the secretary of
the United States, that he was instructed to repeat to the American
government the prompt disavowal made by his majesty, on being apprized
of the unauthorized act of the officer in command of his naval forces
on the coast of America, whose recall from a highly important and
honorable command immediately ensued, as a mark of his majesty’s
disapprobation; that he was authorized to offer, in addition to that
disavowal on the part of his royal highness, the immediate restoration,
as far as circumstances would admit, of the men who, in consequence of
admiral Berkeley’s orders, were forcibly taken out of the Chesapeake,
to the vessel from which they were taken; or, if that ship were no
longer in commission, to such seaport of the United States as the
American government may name for the purpose: and that he was also
authorized to offer to the American government a suitable pecuniary
provision for the sufferers, in consequence of the attack on the
Chesapeake, including the families of those seamen who fell in the
action, and of the wounded survivors. The president acceded to these
propositions; and the officer commanding the Chesapeake, then lying
in the harbor of Boston, was instructed to receive the men who were
to be restored to that ship. The British envoy, however, could give
no assurance that his government was disposed to make a satisfactory
arrangement of the subject of impressment, or to repeal the orders in
council. These orders, on the contrary, continued to be enforced with
rigor; and, on the restoration of a free commerce with France, a large
number of American vessels, laden with rich cargoes, and destined to
her ports, fell into the power of British cruisers, which, since 1803,
had captured nine hundred American vessels.

Early in November, 1811, president Madison summoned the congress. His
message indicating an apprehension of hostilities with Great Britain,
the committee of foreign relations in the house of representatives
reported resolutions for filling up the ranks of the army; for raising
an additional force of ten thousand men; for authorizing the president
to accept the services of fifty thousand volunteers, and for ordering
out the militia when he should judge it necessary; for repairing the
navy; and for authorizing the arming of merchantmen in self-defence. A
bill from the senate, for raising twenty-five thousand men, after much
discussion, was also agreed to by the house.

The American congress, although continuing the preparations for war,
still cherished the hope that a change of policy in Europe would render
unnecessary an appeal to arms till May in the following year. Towards
the close of that season, the Hornet arrived from London, bringing
information that no prospect existed of a favorable change. On the
1st of June, the president sent a message to congress, recounting
the wrongs received from Great Britain, and submitting the question,
whether the United States should continue to endure them, or resort
to war. The message was considered with closed doors. On the 18th,
an act was passed, declaring war against Great Britain; and the next
day a proclamation was issued. Against this declaration, however,
the representatives belonging to the federal party presented a solemn
protest, which was written with great ability.

At the time of the declaration of war, general Hull was also governor
of the Michigan territory, of which Detroit is the capital. On the
12th of July, with two thousand regulars and volunteers, he crossed
the river dividing the United States from Canada, apparently intending
to attack Malden, and thence to proceed to Montreal. Information was,
however, received, that Mackinaw, an American post above Detroit, had
surrendered to a large body of British and Indians, who were rushing
down the river in numbers sufficient to overwhelm the American forces.
Panic-struck, general Hull hastened back to Detroit. General Brock,
the commander at Malden, pursued him, and erected batteries opposite
Detroit. The next day, meeting with no resistance, general Brock
resolved to march directly forward and assault the fort. The American
troops awaited the approach of the enemy, and anticipated victory; but,
to their dismay, general Hull opened a correspondence, which ended in
the surrender of the army, and of the territory of Michigan. An event
so disgraceful, occurring in a quarter where success was confidently
anticipated, caused the greatest mortification and amazement throughout
the Union.

General Van Rensselaer, of the New York militia, had the command of
the troops which were called the army of the centre. His head-quarters
were at Lewistown, on the river Niagara, and on the opposite side was
Queenstown, a fortified British post. The militia displaying great
eagerness to be led against the enemy, the general determined to cross
the river at the head of about one thousand men; though successful
at first, he was compelled, after a long and obstinate engagement, to
surrender. General Brock, the British commander, fell in rallying his
troops.

The army of the north, which was under the immediate command of general
Dearborn, was stationed at Greenbush, near Albany, and at Plattsburgh,
on lake Champlain. From the latter post, a detachment marched a short
distance into Canada, surprised a small body of British and Indians,
and destroyed a considerable quantity of public stores. Other movements
were anxiously expected by the people; but, after the misfortunes of
Detroit and Niagara, the general deemed it inexpedient to engage in any
important enterprise.

While, on land, defeat attended the arms of the republic, on the ocean
we gained victories, which compensated our loss, and gained us immortal
glory. On the 19th of August, captain Hull, commanding the Constitution,
of forty-four guns, fell in with the British frigate Le Guerriere.
She advanced towards the Constitution, firing broadsides at intervals;
the American reserved her fire till she had approached within half
pistol-shot, when a tremendous cannonade was directed upon her, and
in thirty minutes, every mast and nearly every spar being shot away,
captain Dacres struck his flag. Of the crew, fifty were killed and
sixty-four wounded; while the Constitution had only seven killed and
seven wounded. The Guerriere received so much injury, that it was
thought to be impossible to get her into port, and she was burned.
Captain Hull, on his return to the United States, was welcomed with
enthusiasm by his grateful and admiring countrymen. The vast difference
in the number of killed and wounded certainly evinced great skill,
as well as bravery, on the part of the American seamen. But this was
the first only of a series of naval victories. On the 18th of October,
captain Jones, in the Wasp, of eighteen guns, captured the Frolic, of
twenty-two, after a bloody conflict of three-quarters of an hour. In
this action the Americans obtained a victory over a superior force; and,
on their part, but eight were killed and wounded, while on that of the
enemy about eighty. The Wasp was unfortunately captured, soon after her
victory, by a British ship of the line. On the 25th, the frigate United
States, commanded by captain Decatur, captured the British frigate
Macedonian. In this instance, also, the disparity of loss was
astonishingly great: on the part of the enemy, a hundred and four were
killed and wounded; on that of the Americans, but eleven. The United
States brought her prize safely to New York. A most desperate action
was fought on the 29th of December, between the Constitution, of
forty-four guns, then commanded by captain Bainbridge, and the British
frigate Java, of thirty-eight. The combat continued more than three
hours; nor did the Java strike till she was reduced to a mere wreck.
Of her crew, a hundred and sixty-one were killed and wounded, while of
that of the Constitution there were only thirty-four.

These naval victories were peculiarly gratifying to the feelings of
the Americans; they were gained in the midst of disasters on land, and
by that class of citizens whose rights had been violated; they were
gained over a nation whom long continued success had taught to consider
themselves lords of the sea, and who had confidently affirmed that the
whole American navy would soon be swept from the ocean. Many British
merchantmen were also captured, both by the American navy and by
privateers, which issued from almost every port, and were remarkably
successful. The number of prizes made during the first seven months of
the war exceeded five hundred.

At the commencement of the session of congress held in the autumn of
1812, the president, in his message, stated that immediately after the
declaration of war, he communicated to the British government the terms
on which its progress might be arrested; that these terms were, the
repeal of the orders in council, the discharge of American seamen, and
the abandonment of the practice of impressment; and that the ministry
had declined to accede to his offers. He also stated that, at an early
period of the war, he had received official information of the repeal
of the orders in council; that two propositions for an armistice had
been made to him, both of which he had rejected, as they could not
have been accepted without conceding to Great Britain the right of
impressment. The rejection of these propositions was approved by the
national representatives, who, far from abandoning the ground they had
taken, adopted more vigorous measures for the prosecution of the war.

While the war was proceeding in America, a friendly power abroad
interposed for its termination. Soon after the spring session of
congress, an offer was communicated from the emperor of Russia of his
mediation, as the common friend of the United States and Great Britain,
for the purpose of facilitating a peace between them. The offer was
immediately accepted by the American government, and provision made
for the contemplated negotiation. Albert Gallatin, James A. Bayard,
and John Quincy Adams, were appointed commissioners, and invested
with the requisite powers to conclude a treaty of peace with persons
clothed with like powers on the part of Great Britain. They were also
authorized to enter into such conventional regulations of the commerce
between the two countries as might be mutually advantageous. The two
first-named envoys proceeded to join their colleague at St. Petersburgh,
where he then was as resident minister from the United States. A
commission was also given to the envoys, authorizing them to conclude a
treaty of commerce with Russia, with a view to strengthen the amicable
relations, and improve the beneficial intercourse, between the two
countries.

On the 24th of May, congress was convened by proclamation of the
president. Laws were enacted, imposing a direct tax of three millions
of dollars; authorizing the collection of various internal duties;
providing for a loan of seven and a half millions of dollars; and
prohibiting the merchant vessels of the United States from sailing
under British licenses. Near the close of the session, a committee
appointed to inquire into the subject made a long report upon the
spirit and manner in which the war had been conducted by the British.

The scene of the campaign of 1813 was principally in the north, towards
Canada. Brigadier-general Winchester, of the United States army, and
nearly five hundred men, officers and soldiers, were made prisoners
at Frenchtown, by a division of the British army from Detroit, with
their Indian allies, under colonel Proctor. Colonel Proctor leaving
the wounded Americans without a guard, the Indians returned, and deeds
of horror followed. The wounded officers were dragged from the houses,
killed, and scalped in the streets. The buildings were set on fire.
Some who attempted to escape were forced back into the flames, while
others were put to death by the tomahawk, and left shockingly mangled
in the highway. The infamy of this butchery does not fall upon the
perpetrators alone, but extends to those who were able, and were bound
by a solemn engagement, to restrain them. The battle and massacre at
Frenchtown clothed Kentucky and Ohio in mourning. Other volunteers,
indignant at the treachery and cruelty of their foes, hastened to
the aid of Harrison. He marched to the rapids of the Miami, where he
erected a fort, which he called fort Meigs, in honor of the governor of
Ohio. On the 1st of May it was invested by a large number of Indians,
and by a party of British troops from Malden, the whole commanded by
colonel Proctor. An unsuccessful attempt to raise the siege was made
by general Clay, at the head of twelve hundred Kentuckians; but the
fort continued to be defended with bravery and skill. The Indians,
unaccustomed to sieges, became weary and discontented; and, on the 8th
of May, they deserted their allies. The British, despairing of success,
then made a precipitate retreat.

On the northern frontier a body of troops had been assembled, under the
command of general Dearborn, at Sackett’s Harbor, and great exertions
were made by commodore Chauncey to build and equip a squadron on lake
Ontario, sufficiently powerful to contend with that of the British. By
the 25th of April the naval preparations were so far completed, that
the general and seventeen thousand troops were conveyed across the
lake to the attack of York, the capital of Upper Canada. On the 27th,
an advanced party, commanded by brigadier-general Pike, who was born in
a camp, and bred a soldier from his birth, landed, although opposed at
the water’s edge by a superior force. After a short but severe conflict,
the British were driven to their fortifications. The rest of the troops
having landed, the whole party pressed forward, carried the first
battery by assault, and were moving towards the main works, when the
English magazine blew up, with a tremendous explosion, hurling upon the
advancing troops immense quantities of stone and timber. Numbers were
killed; the gallant Pike received a mortal wound; the troops halted for
a moment, but, recovering from the shock, again pressed forward, and
soon gained possession of the town. Of the British troops, one hundred
were killed, nearly three hundred were wounded, and the same number
made prisoners.

The object of the expedition attained, the squadron and troops returned
to Sackett’s Harbor, and subsequently sailed to fort George, situated
at the head of the lake. After a warm engagement, the British abandoned
the fort, and retired to the heights at the head of Burlington bay.

While the greater part of the American army was thus employed, the
British made an attack upon the important post of Sackett’s Harbor. On
the 27th of May, their squadron appeared before the town. Alarm guns
instantly assembled the citizens of the neighborhood. General Brown’s
force amounted to about one thousand men; a slight breastwork was
hastily thrown up at the only place where the British could land, and
behind this he placed the militia, the regulars, under colonel Backus,
forming a second line. On the morning of the 29th, one thousand British
troops landed from the squadron, and advanced towards the breastwork;
the militia gave way, but by the bravery of the regulars, under the
skilful arrangement of general Brown, the British were repulsed, and
re-embarked so hastily as to leave behind most of their wounded.

The sea-coast was harassed by predatory warfare, carried on by large
detachments from the powerful navy of Great Britain. One squadron,
stationed in Delaware bay, captured and burnt every merchant vessel
which came within its reach, while a more powerful squadron, commanded
by admiral Cockburn, destroyed the farm-houses and gentlemen’s
seats along the shore of Chesapeake bay. Frenchtown, Havre-de-Grace,
Fredericktown, and Georgetown were sacked and burnt. Norfolk was
saved from a similar fate by the determined bravery of a small force
stationed on Craney island, in the harbor. A furious attack was made
upon Hampton, which, notwithstanding the gallant resistance of its
small garrison, was captured.

The ocean was the theatre of sanguinary conflicts. Captain Lawrence,
in the sloop of war Hornet, on the 23d of February, met the British
brig Peacock, and a fierce combat ensued. In less than fifteen minutes
the Peacock struck her colors, displaying at the same time a signal
of distress. The victors hastened to the relief of the vanquished;
the same strength which had been exerted to conquer was equally ready
to save; but the Peacock sunk before all her crew could be removed,
carrying down nine British seamen, and three brave and generous
Americans. On his return to the United States, captain Lawrence
was promoted to the command of the frigate Chesapeake, then in the
harbor of Boston. For several weeks the British frigate Shannon, of
superior force, had been cruising before the port; and captain Broke,
her commander, had announced his wish to meet, in single combat,
an American frigate. Inflamed by this challenge, captain Lawrence,
although his crew was just enlisted, set sail on the 1st of June
to seek the Shannon. Towards evening of the same day they met, and
instantly engaged, with unexampled fury. In a very few minutes, and
in quick succession, the sailing master of the Chesapeake was killed,
captain Lawrence and three lieutenants were severely wounded, her
rigging was so cut to pieces that she fell on board the Shannon,
captain Lawrence received a second and mortal wound, and was carried
below; at this instant, captain Broke, at the head of his marines,
gallantly boarded the Chesapeake, when resistance ceased, and the
American flag was struck by the British. Of the crew of the Shannon
twenty-four were killed and fifty-six wounded. Of that of the
Chesapeake, forty-eight were killed and nearly one hundred wounded.
The youthful and intrepid Lawrence was lamented, with sorrow deep,
sincere, and lasting.[146]

The next encounter at sea was between the American brig Argus and the
British brig Pelican, in which the latter was victorious. Soon after,
the American brig Enterprise, commanded by lieutenant Burrows, captured
the British brig Boxer, commanded by captain Blyth. Both commanders
were killed in the action, and were buried, each by the other’s side,
in Portland.

While each nation was busily employed in equipping a squadron on lake
Erie, general Clay remained inactive at fort Meigs. About the last of
July, a large number of British and Indians appeared before the fort,
hoping to entice the garrison to a general action in the field. After
waiting a few days without succeeding, they decamped, and proceeded to
fort Stephenson, on the river Sandusky. This fort was little more than
a picketing, surrounded by a ditch, and the garrison consisted of but
one hundred and sixty men, who were commanded by major Croghan, a youth
of twenty-one. The force of the assailants was estimated at about four
hundred in uniform, and as many Indians; they were repulsed, and their
loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners, is supposed to have exceeded
one hundred and fifty; those of the remainder who were not able to
escape were taken off during the night by the Indians. The whole loss
of major Croghan during the siege was one killed and seven slightly
wounded. About three the next morning the British sailed down the
river, leaving behind them a boat containing clothing and considerable
military stores.

By the exertions of commodore Perry, an American squadron had been
fitted out on lake Erie early in September. It consisted of nine small
vessels, in all carrying fifty-four guns. A British squadron had also
been built and equipped, under the superintendence of commodore Barclay.
It consisted of six vessels, mounting sixty-three guns. Commodore Perry,
immediately sailing, offered battle to his adversary, and on the 10th
of September the British commander left the harbor of Malden to accept
the offer. In a few hours the wind shifted, giving the Americans the
advantage. Perry, forming the line of battle, hoisted his flag, on
which were inscribed the words of the dying Lawrence, ‘Don’t give up
the ship.’ Loud huzzas from all the vessels proclaimed the animation
which this motto inspired. About noon the firing commenced; and
after a short action two of the British vessels surrendered, and the
rest of the American squadron now joining in the battle, the victory
was rendered decisive and complete. The British loss was forty-one
killed, and ninety-four wounded. The American loss was twenty-seven
killed, and ninety-six wounded, of which number twenty-one were killed
and sixty-two wounded on board the flagship Lawrence, whose whole
complement of able-bodied men before the action was about one hundred.
The commodore gave intelligence of the victory to general Harrison in
these words: ‘We have met the enemy, and they are ours. Two ships, two
brigs, one schooner, and one sloop.’

The Americans were now masters of the lake; but the territory of
Michigan was still in the possession of colonel Proctor. The next
movements were against the British and Indians at Detroit and Malden.
General Harrison had previously assembled a portion of the Ohio militia
on the Sandusky river; and on the 7th of September four thousand
from Kentucky, the flower of the state, with governor Shelby at their
head, arrived at his camp. With the co-operation of the fleet, it was
determined to proceed at once to Malden. On the 27th the troops were
received on board, and reached Malden on the same day; but the British
had, in the mean time, destroyed the fort and public stores, and had
retreated along the Thames towards the Moravian villages, together
with Tecumseh’s Indians, amounting to twelve or fifteen hundred.
It was now resolved to proceed in pursuit of Proctor. On the 5th
of October a severe battle was fought between the two armies at the
river Thames, and the British army was taken by the Americans. In this
battle Tecumseh was killed, and the Indians fled. The British loss
was nineteen regulars killed, and fifty wounded, and about six hundred
prisoners. The American loss, in killed and wounded, amounted to
upwards of fifty. Proctor made his escape down the Thames.

On the 29th of September the Americans took possession of Detroit,
which, on the approach of Harrison’s army, had been abandoned by
the British. Preparations were now made for subduing Upper Canada,
and taking Montreal; but owing to the difficulties attending the
concentration of the troops, and perhaps also to the want of vigor
in the commanders, that project was abandoned, and the army under
Wilkinson, marching to French Mills, there encamped for the winter.
This abortive issue of the campaign occasioned murmurs throughout the
nation, and the causes which led to it have never been fully developed.
The severest censure fell upon general Armstrong, who was secretary
of war, and upon general Hampton. The latter soon after resigned his
commission in the army, and general Izard was selected to command the
post at Plattsburgh.

Major-general Harrison, commander-in-chief of the eighth military
district in the United States, issued a proclamation, stating, that
the enemy having been driven from the territory of Michigan, and a
part of the army under his command having taken possession of it, it
became necessary that the civil government of the territory should
be re-established, and the former officers resume the exercise of
their authority. He therefore proclaimed, that all appointments and
commissions which have been derived from British officers were at an
end; that the citizens were restored to all the rights and privileges
which they enjoyed previously to the capitulation made by general Hull
on the 15th of August, 1812; and, until the will of the government
should be known, directed that all persons having civil offices in the
territory of Michigan, at the period of the capitulation of Detroit,
should resume the exercise of the powers appertaining to their offices
respectively.

The United States squadron, chased by commodore Hardy with a
superior naval force, had taken refuge in the harbor of New London,
where the decayed and feeble state of the fortifications afforded a
precarious defence. The menacing appearance of the British squadron
at the entrance of the harbor, and the strong probability that the
town would be destroyed in the conflict, which had been long expected,
produced among the inhabitants the greatest consternation. In this
moment of alarm, the major-general of the third division, and the
brigadier-general of the third brigade, considered themselves justified,
at the earnest entreaty of the citizens, in summoning the militia
to their assistance. Governor Smith, of Connecticut, approved this
proceeding, and immediately forwarded supplies, and adopted measures of
defence. ‘On this occasion,’ said the governor to the legislature, ‘I
could not hesitate as to the course which it became my duty to pursue.
The government of Connecticut, the last to invite hostilities, should
be the first to repel aggression.’

The Indians at the southern extremity of the Union had imbibed the same
hostile spirit as those at the north-western. They had been visited
by Tecumseh, and by his eloquence had been persuaded that the Great
Spirit required them to unite and attempt the extirpation of the whites.
In the fall of 1812, a cruel war was carried on by the Creeks and
Seminoles against the frontier inhabitants of Georgia. General Jackson,
at the head of two thousand five hundred volunteers from Tennessee,
marched into the country of the Indians. Overawed by his presence,
they desisted for a time from hostility; but, after his return, their
animosity burst forth with increased and fatal violence. Dreading their
cruelty, about three hundred men, women, and children, sought safety
in fort Mimms, in the Tensaw settlement. Although frequent warnings of
an intended attack had been given them, yet, at noonday, on the 30th
of August, they were surprised by a party of six hundred Indians, who,
with axes, cut their way into the fort, and drove the people into the
houses which it inclosed. To these they set fire. Many persons were
burnt, and many killed by the tomahawk. Only seventeen escaped to carry
the horrid tidings to the neighboring stations. The whites resolved on
vengeance.

Again general Jackson, at the head of three thousand five hundred
militia of Tennessee, marched into the southern wilderness. A
detachment under general Coffee encountering at Tallushatchie a
body of Indians, a sanguinary conflict ensued. The latter fought with
desperation, neither giving nor receiving quarter, until nearly every
warrior had perished. Yet still was the spirit of the Creeks unsubdued,
and their faith in victory unshaken. With no little sagacity and skill
they selected and fortified another position on the Tallapoosa, called
by themselves Tohopeka, and by the whites Horseshoe Bend. Here nearly
a thousand warriors, animated with a fierce and determined resolution,
were collected. Three thousand men, commanded by general Jackson,
marched to attack this post. To prevent escape, a detachment under
general Coffee encircled the Bend. The main body advanced to the
fortress; and for a few minutes the opposing forces were engaged muzzle
to muzzle at the port-holes; but at length the troops, leaping over the
walls, mingled in furious combat with the savages. When the Indians,
fleeing to the river, beheld the troops on the opposite bank, they
returned and fought with increased fury and desperation. Six hundred
warriors were killed; four only yielded themselves prisoners; the
remaining three hundred escaped. Of the whites, fifty-five were killed,
and one hundred and forty-six wounded.

It was deemed probable that further resistance would be made by the
Indians at a place called the Hickory-ground; but on general Jackson’s
arriving thither in April, 1814, the principal chiefs came out to meet
him, and among them was Wetherford, a half-blood, distinguished equally
for his talents and cruelty. ‘I am in your power,’ said he; ‘do with
me what you please. I have done the white people all the harm I could.
I have fought them, and fought them bravely. There was a time when I
had a choice; I have none now, even hope is ended. Once I could animate
my warriors; but I cannot animate the dead. They can no longer hear
my voice; their bones are at Tallushatchie, Talladega, Emuckfaw, and
Tohopeka. While there was a chance of success I never supplicated peace;
but my people are gone, and I now ask it for my nation and myself.’
Peace was concluded, and general Jackson and his troops enjoyed an
honorable but short repose.

It was the declared intention of the British to lay waste the whole
American coast, from Maine to Georgia. Of this intention demonstration
was made by their descent upon Pettipauge, and the destruction which
followed in that harbor. Early in April, a number of British barges,
supposed to contain about two hundred and twenty men, entered the mouth
of Connecticut river, passed up seven or eight miles, and came on shore
at a part of Saybrook called Pettipauge, where they destroyed about
twenty-five vessels. Guards of militia were placed without delay at
nearly all the vulnerable points on the seaboard, and where troops
could not be stationed patrols of videttes were constantly maintained.

On the 25th of April, admiral Cochrane declared, in addition to the
ports and places blockaded by admiral Warren, all the remaining ports,
harbors, bays, creeks, rivers, inlets, outlets, islands, and sea-coasts
of the United States, from Black Point, on Long Island sound, to the
northern and eastern boundaries between the United States and the
British province of New Brunswick, to be in a state of strict and
rigorous blockade. On the other hand, the president of the United
States issued a proclamation, declaring that the blockade proclaimed
by the British of the whole Atlantic coast of the United States, nearly
two thousand miles in extent, being incapable of execution by any
adequate force actually stationed for the purpose, formed no lawful
prohibition or obstacle to such neutral and friendly vessels as may
choose to visit and trade with the United States; and strictly ordered
and instructed all the public armed vessels of the United States, and
all private armed vessels commissioned as privateers, or with letters
of marque and reprisal, not to interrupt, detain, or molest any vessels
belonging to neutral powers, bound to any port or place within the
jurisdiction of the United States; but, on the contrary, to render all
such vessels all the aid and kind offices which they might need or
require.

The pacification in Europe offered to the British a large disposable
force, both naval and military, and with it the means of giving to the
war in America a character of new and increased activity and extent.
The friends of the administration anticipated a severer conflict, and
prepared for greater sacrifices and greater sufferings. Its opposers,
where difficulties thickened and danger pressed, were encouraged to
make more vigorous efforts to wrest the reins of authority from men
who, they asserted, had shown themselves incompetent to hold them. The
president deemed it advisable to strengthen the line of the Atlantic,
and therefore called on the executive of several states to organize
and hold in readiness for immediate service a corps of ninety-three
thousand five hundred men.

The hostile movements on the northern frontier were now becoming
vigorous and interesting. In the beginning of July, general Brown, who
had been assiduously employed in disciplining his troops, crossed the
Niagara with about three thousand men, and took possession, without
opposition, of fort Erie. In a strong position at Chippewa, a few miles
distant, was intrenched an equal number of British troops, commanded
by general Riall. On the 4th, general Brown approached their works; and
the next day, on the plains of Chippewa, an obstinate and sanguinary
battle was fought, which compelled the British to retire to their
intrenchments. In this action, which was fought with great judgment
and coolness on both sides, the loss of the Americans was about
four hundred men, that of the British was upwards of five hundred.
Soon afterwards, general Riall, abandoning his works, retired to the
heights of Burlington. Here lieutenant-general Drummond, with a large
reinforcement, joined him, and assuming the command, led back the
army towards the American camp. On the 25th was fought the battle of
Bridgewater, which began at four in the afternoon and continued until
midnight. After a desperate conflict the British troops were withdrawn,
and the Americans left in possession of the field.

The loss on both sides was severe, and nearly equal. Generals Brown
and Scott having both been severely wounded, the command devolved upon
general Ripley. He remained a few hours upon the hill, collected the
wounded, and then returned unmolested to the camp. This battle was
fought near the cataract of Niagara, whose roar was silenced by the
thunder of cannon and the din of arms, but was distinctly heard during
the pauses of the fight. The American general found his force so much
weakened, that he deemed it prudent again to occupy fort Erie. On the
4th of August it was invested by general Drummond with five thousand
troops. In the night between the 14th and 15th, the besiegers made
a daring assault upon the fort, which was repelled with conspicuous
gallantry by the garrison, the former losing more than nine hundred
men, the latter but eighty-four. The siege was still continued. On the
2d of September, general Brown, having recovered from his wounds, threw
himself into the fort, and took command of the garrison. For their
fate great anxiety was felt by the nation, which was, however, in some
degree, removed by the march from Plattsburgh of five thousand men to
their relief. After an hour of close fighting they entered the fort,
having killed, wounded, and taken one thousand of the British. The loss
of the Americans was also considerable, amounting to more than five
hundred. On the 21st of September, the forty-ninth day of the siege,
general Drummond withdrew his forces.

The march of the troops from Plattsburgh having left that post
almost defenceless, the enemy determined to attack it by land, and,
at the same time, to attempt the destruction of the American flotilla
on lake Champlain. On the 3d of September, Sir George Prevost, the
governor-general of Canada, at the head of fourteen thousand men,
entered the territories of the United States. On the 6th they arrived
at Plattsburgh. It is situated near lake Champlain, on the northern
bank of the small river Saranac. On their approach, the American troops,
who were posted on the opposite bank, tore up the planks of the bridges,
with which they formed slight breastworks, and prepared to dispute the
passage of the stream. The British employed themselves for several days
in erecting batteries, while the American forces were daily augmented
by the arrival of volunteers and militia. Early in the morning of the
11th, the British squadron, commanded by commodore Downe, appeared off
the harbor of Plattsburgh, where that of the United States, commanded
by commodore M’Donough, lay at anchor prepared for battle. At nine
o’clock the action commenced. Seldom has there been a more furious
encounter than the bosom of this transparent and peaceful lake was now
called to witness. During the naval conflict the British on land began
a heavy cannonade upon the American lines, and attempted at different
places to cross the Saranac; but as often as the British advanced into
the water they were repelled by a destructive fire from the militia.
At half-past eleven the shout of victory heard along the American lines
announced the result of the battle on the lake. Thus deprived of naval
aid, in the afternoon the British withdrew to their intrenchments, and
in the night they commenced a precipitate retreat. Upon the lake the
American loss was one hundred and ten; the British, one hundred and
ninety-four, besides prisoners. On land, the American loss was one
hundred and nineteen; that of the British has been estimated as high
as two thousand five hundred.

The inhabitants of the middle and southern states, anticipating a great
augmentation of the English force, and uncertain where the blow would
fall, made exertions to place every exposed position in a posture of
defence. About the middle of August, a British squadron of between
fifty and sixty sail arrived in the Chesapeake, with troops destined
for the attack of Washington, the capital of the United States.

A body of five thousand of them having landed, an action was fought
at Bladensburg, six miles from Washington. General Winder commanded
the whole American force; commodore Barney the flotilla. The British
were commanded by major-general Ross and rear-admiral Cockburn. The
Americans were repulsed, and the British advanced towards the capital.
A body of militia had been assembled in this emergency; but the
president and heads of departments, on reviewing the force brought out
for defence, despaired of success, and dispersed. General Ross, at the
head of about seven hundred men, took possession of Washington, and
burned the capitol, or senate-house, the president’s house, and public
offices, the arsenal, the navy yard, and the bridge over the Potomac.
The loss of the British in this expedition was nearly a thousand men,
in killed, wounded, and missing; the loss of the Americans was ten
or twelve killed, and thirty or forty wounded. Commodore Barney’s
horse was killed under him, and himself wounded in the thigh and taken
prisoner; but he was parolled on the field of battle for his bravery.
The capture of Washington reflected no credit upon those by whom it
ought to have been defended; but the destruction of the national
edifices was still more disgraceful to the character of the invaders.
The whole civilized world exclaimed against the act, as a violation
of the rules of modern warfare. The capitals of most of the European
kingdoms had lately been in the power of an enemy; but in no instance
had the conqueror been guilty of similar conduct. The act was also as
impolitic as it was barbarous; it naturally excited an indignant spirit
throughout the republic, and led its inhabitants to vie with each other
in exerting all their faculties to overcome the ravagers of their
country.

After the capture of Washington, the British army re-embarked on board
the fleet in the Patuxent, and admiral Cockburn moved down that river,
and proceeded up the Chesapeake. On the 29th of August the corporation
of Alexandria submitted to articles of capitulation, and the city
was delivered up to the British. On the 11th of September the British
admiral appeared at the mouth of the Patapsco, fourteen miles from
Baltimore, with a fleet of ships of war and transports amounting to
fifty sail. The next day six thousand troops were landed at North point,
and commenced their march towards the city. In this march, when the
foremost ranks were harassed by a brisk fire from a wood, major-general
Ross was mortally wounded. A battle was fought on this day. The
American forces, the militia, and the inhabitants of Baltimore, made a
gallant defence, but were compelled to retreat; the British, however,
abandoning the attempt to get possession of the city, retired to their
shipping during the night of the 13th of September.

On the ocean, the Essex, commanded by captain Porter, after a bloody
combat, struck to a British frigate and sloop of war, whose united
force was much superior. The American sloop Peacock captured the
Epervier, of equal force. The sloop Wasp, commanded by captain Blakely,
captured the Reindeer, and afterwards, in the same cruise, sunk the
Avon, both of superior force. She made several other prizes, but never
returned into port; she probably foundered at sea.

The closing scene of this unnecessary and disgraceful war, the more
detestable when contemplated as a series of human sacrifices for the
preservation of a commercial system, was creditable to the genius and
bravery of the American republic. The operations of the British in
Louisiana were commenced by a small expedition, the naval part under
the command of captain Percy, and the troops under colonel Nicholls.
They landed and took forcible possession of Pensacola, and were aided
by the Spaniards in all their proceedings; they collected all the
Indians that would resort to their standard; and colonel Nicholls then
sent an officer to the piratical establishment at Barataria to enlist
the chief, Lafitte, and his followers in their cause; the most liberal
and tempting offers were made them.

These people, however, showed a decided preference for the American
cause; they deceived the English by delay; conveyed intelligence
of their designs to the governor at New Orleans, and offered their
services to defend the country. Disappointed in securing their aid,
the expedition proceeded to the attack of fort Bowyer, on Mobile point,
commanded by major Lawrence, with one hundred and thirty men. The
result, however, was a loss to the besiegers of more than two hundred
men; the commodore’s ship was so disabled that they set fire to
her, and she blew up, and the remaining three vessels, shattered and
filled with wounded men, returned to Pensacola. While the British thus
sheltered in this place, where they were busily occupied in bringing
over the Indians to join them, general Jackson formed an expedition
of about four thousand men, regulars and militia, to dislodge them.
He summoned the town, was refused entrance by the Spanish governor,
and his flag of truce was fired upon; the British soldiers being in
the forts, where their flag had been hoisted, in conjunction with the
Spanish, the day before the American forces appeared. Preparations
were immediately made to carry the place; one battery having been taken
by storm, with slight loss on either side, the governor surrendered,
the English having previously retired on board their ships. The forts
below, which commanded the passage, were blown up, and this enabled the
English fleet to put to sea.

General Jackson then evacuated the Spanish territory, and marched
his troops back to Mobile and New Orleans, which he reached on the
second day of December. Having reviewed a corps of volunteers the
day of his arrival, he immediately proceeded to visit every post
in the neighborhood, to give orders for adding fortifications, and
establishing defensive works and outposts in every spot where the
enemy might be expected, as there was the greatest uncertainty where
a landing would be made; he mingled with the citizens, and infused
into the greater part his own spirit and energy. By his presence and
exhortations they were animated to exertions of which before they were
not supposed to be capable. All who could wield a spade, or carry a
musket, were either put to work upon the fortifications, or trained in
the art of defending them. The Mississippi, upon the eastern bank of
which New Orleans stands, flows to the ocean in several channels; one,
leaving the main stream above the city, runs east of it, and forms in
its course lake Pontchartrain and lake Borgne. Early in December, the
British entered this channel, with a force of about eight thousand
men, a part of whom had just left the shores of the Chesapeake, the
remainder having arrived direct from England.

A small squadron of gun-boats, under lieutenant Jones, was despatched
to oppose their passage into the lake. These were met by a superior
force, and after a spirited conflict, in which the killed and wounded
of the British exceeded the whole number of the Americans, they were
compelled to surrender. The loss of the gun-boats left no means of
watching the movements of the enemy, or of ascertaining where the
landing would be made. Orders were given for increased vigilance at
every post; the people of color were formed into a battalion; the offer
of the Baratarians to volunteer, on condition of a pardon for previous
offences, if they conducted themselves with bravery and fidelity, was
accepted. General Jackson, after applying to the legislature to suspend
the act of _habeas corpus_, and finding that they were consuming
these extreme moments in discussion, proclaimed martial law, and from
that moment his means became more commensurate with the weight of
responsibility he had to sustain.

On the 22d the British, having landed, took a position near the main
channel of the river, about eight miles below the city. In the evening
of the 23d, general Jackson made a sudden and furious attack upon their
camp. They were thrown into disorder; but they soon rallied, and fought
with a bravery at least equal to that of the assailants. Satisfied with
the advantage first gained, he withdrew his troops, fortified a strong
position four miles below New Orleans, and supported it by batteries
erected on the west bank of the river. On the 28th of December, and
the 1st of January, vigorous but unsuccessful attacks were made upon
these fortifications by the English. In the mean time both armies had
received reinforcements; and general Sir E. Packenham, the British
commander, resolved to exert all his strength in a combined attack
upon the American positions on both sides of the river. With almost
incredible industry, he caused a canal, leading from a creek emptying
itself into lake Borgne to the main channel of the Mississippi, to
be dug, that he might remove a part of his boats and artillery to
that river. On the 7th of January, from the movements observed in the
British camp, a speedy attack was anticipated. This was made early on
the 8th. The British troops, formed in a close column of about sixty
men in front, the men shouldering their muskets, all carrying fascines,
and some with ladders, advanced towards the American fortifications,
from whence an incessant fire was kept up on the column, which
continued to advance, until the musketry of the troops of Tennessee
and Kentucky, joined with the fire of the artillery, began to make an
impression on it which soon threw it into confusion.

For some time the British officers succeeded in animating the courage
of their troops, making them advance obliquely to the left, to avoid
the fire of a battery, every discharge from which opened the column,
and mowed down whole files, which were almost instantaneously replaced
by new troops coming up close after the first; but these also shared
the same fate, until at last, after twenty-five minutes’ continual
firing, through which a few platoons advanced to the edge of the ditch,
the column entirely broke, and part of the troops dispersed, and ran
to take shelter among the bushes on the right. The rest retired to the
ditch where they had been when first perceived, four hundred yards from
the American lines. There the officers with some difficulty rallied
their troops, and again drew them up for a second attack, the soldiers
having laid down their knapsacks at the edge of the ditch, that they
might be less encumbered. And now, for the second time, the column,
recruited with the troops that formed the rear, advanced. Again it was
received with the same galling fire of musketry and artillery, till it
at last broke again, and retired in the utmost confusion. In vain did
the officers now endeavor, as before, to revive the courage of their
men; to no purpose did they strike them with the flat of their swords,
to force them to advance; they were insensible of every thing but
danger, and saw nothing but death, which had struck so many of their
comrades.

The attack had hardly begun, when the British commander-in-chief,
Sir Edward Packenham, fell a victim to his own intrepidity, while
endeavoring to animate his troops with ardor for the assault. Soon
after his fall, two other generals, Keane and Gibbs, were carried off
the field of battle, dangerously wounded. A great number of officers
of rank had fallen; the ground over which the column had marched was
strewed with the dead and wounded. Such slaughter on their side, with
scarcely any loss on the American, spread consternation through the
British ranks, as they were now convinced of the impossibility of
carrying the lines, and saw that even to advance was certain death.
Some of the British troops had penetrated into the wood towards the
extremity of the American line, to make a false attack, or to ascertain
whether a real one were practicable. These the troops under general
Coffee no sooner perceived, than they opened on them a brisk fire with
their rifles, which made them retire. The greater part of those who,
on the column’s being repulsed, had taken shelter in the thickets, only
escaped the batteries to be killed by the musketry. During the whole
hour that the attack lasted, the American fire did not slacken for
a single moment. By half after eight in the morning, the fire of the
musketry had ceased. The whole plain on the left, as also the side of
the river, from the road to the edge of the water, was covered with the
British soldiers who had fallen. About four hundred wounded prisoners
were taken, and at least double that number of wounded men escaped into
the British camp; and a space of ground, extending from the ditch of
the American lines to that on which the enemy drew up his troops, two
hundred and fifty yards in length, by about two hundred in breadth,
was literally covered with men, either dead or severely wounded.[147]
Perhaps a greater disparity of loss never occurred; that of the British
in killed, wounded, and prisoners, in this attack, which was not
made with sufficient judgment, and which, besides, was embarrassed by
unforeseen circumstances, was upwards of two thousand men; the killed
and wounded of the Americans was only _thirteen_.

The events of the day on the west side of the river present a striking
instance of the uncertainty of military operations. There the Americans
were thrice the number of their brave assailants, and were protected by
intrenchments; but they ingloriously fled. They were closely pursued,
until the British party, receiving intelligence of the defeat of the
main army, withdrew from pursuit, and recrossed the river. They then
returned and resumed possession of their intrenchments. General Lambert,
upon whom the command of the British army had devolved, having lost all
hopes of success, prepared to return to his shipping. In his retreat
he was not molested; general Jackson wisely resolving to hazard nothing
that he had gained in attempting to gain still more.

The Americans naturally indulged in great joy for this signal victory.
Te Deum was sung at New Orleans, and every demonstration of gratitude
manifested by the inhabitants of the Union generally. The state of
Louisiana passed votes of thanks to several of the officers concerned
in the defence, and omitted general Jackson, in consequence of his
having set aside the action of the civil authorities and proclaimed
martial law.

Although the results of the war had been honorable to the American
arms, a large portion of the inhabitants of the New England states
were unceasingly opposed to the measures of the administration. The
governor of Massachusetts convoked the general court of that state;
the legislature of Connecticut was about to hold its usual semi-annual
session; and the legislature of Rhode Island also assembled. When
these several bodies met, what should be done in this unexampled state
of affairs became a subject of most solemn deliberation. To insure
unity of views and concert in action, the legislature of Massachusetts
proposed a ‘conference,’ by delegates from the legislatures of the
New England states, and of any other states that might accede to the
measure. Their resolution for this purpose, and the circular letter
accompanying it, show, that the duty proposed to be assigned to these
delegates was merely to devise and recommend to the states measures for
their security and defence, and such measures as were ‘not repugnant to
their federal obligations as members of the Union.’

The proposition was readily assented to by several states, and the
delegates appointed in pursuance of it met at Hartford, on the 15th
of December following. The convention recommended, 1. That the states
they represent take measures to protect their citizens from ‘forcible
draughts, conscriptions, or impressments, not authorized by the
constitution of the United States.’ 2. That an earnest application be
made to the government of the United States, requesting their consent
to some arrangement, whereby the states separately, or in concert,
may take upon themselves the defence of their territory against the
enemy, and that a reasonable portion of the taxes collected within the
states be appropriated to this object. 3. That the several governors be
authorized by law to employ the military force under their command in
assisting any state requesting it, to repel the invasions of the public
enemy. 4. That several amendments of the constitution of the United
States, calculated in their view to prevent a recurrence of the evils
of which they complain, be proposed by the states they represent for
adoption either by the states’ legislatures, or by a convention chosen
by the people of each state. Lastly, That if the application of these
states to the government of the United States should be unsuccessful,
and peace should not be concluded, and the defence of these states
be still neglected, it would, in their opinion, be expedient for
the legislatures of the several states to appoint delegates to
another convention, to meet at Boston, in June, with such powers and
instructions as the exigency of a crisis so momentous may require.
The effect of these proceedings upon the public mind in the aggrieved
states was alike seasonable and salutary. The very proposal to call
a convention, and the confidence reposed in the men delegated to that
trust, served greatly to allay the passions, and to inspire confidence
and hope. Nor was the influence of this body upon the national councils
less perceptible. Within three weeks after the adjournment of the
convention and the publication of their report, an act passed both
houses of the national legislature, and received the signature of the
president, authorizing and requiring him to ‘receive into the service
of the United States any corps of troops which may have been or may
be raised, organized, and officered, under the authority of any of the
states,’ to be ‘employed in the state raising the same, or an adjoining
state, and not elsewhere, except with the consent of the executive of
the state raising the same.’ Before the commissioners who were sent to
confer with the government could reach Washington, a bill passed the
senate, providing for the payment of the troops and militia already
called into service under the authority of the states. The arrival of
the treaty of peace at this juncture rendered all farther proceedings
unnecessary.

During the preceding year the British government had declined to treat
under the mediation of Russia, and a direct negotiation had been agreed
on. Ghent was ultimately determined as the place of meeting; and in
the autumn of 1814 the commissioners prosecuted their labors, but at
first with very doubtful success. By the 24th of December a treaty
was agreed upon and signed by the plenipotentiaries of the respective
powers at Ghent; and in February of the following year it received the
ratification of the president.[148]

While the people of the United States were rejoicing at the return of
peace, their attention was called to a new scene of war. By a message
from the president to the house of representatives, with a report
of the secretary of state, it appeared that the dey of Algiers had
violently, and without just cause, obliged the consul of the United
States, and all the American citizens in Algiers, to leave that
place, in violation of the treaty then subsisting between the two
nations; that he had exacted from the consul, under pain of immediate
imprisonment, a large sum of money, to which he had no just claim;
and that these acts of violence and outrage had been followed by the
capture of at least one American vessel, and by the seizure of an
American citizen on board of a neutral vessel; that the captured
persons were yet held in captivity, with the exception of two of them,
who had been ransomed; that every effort to obtain the release of the
others had proved abortive; and that there was some reason to believe
they were held by the dey as means by which he calculated to extort
from the United States a degrading treaty. The president observed, that
the considerations which rendered it unnecessary and unimportant to
commence hostile operations on the part of the United States were now
terminated by the peace with Great Britain, which opened the prospect
of an active and valuable trade of their citizens within the range of
the Algerine cruisers; and recommended to congress the consideration
of an act declaring the existence of a state of war between the United
States and the dey of Algiers, and of such provisions as might be
requisite for the prosecution of it to a successful issue. A committee
of congress, to whom was referred a bill ‘for the protection of the
commerce of the United States against the Algerine cruisers,’ after a
statement of facts, concluded their report by expressing their united
opinion, ‘that the dey of Algiers considers his treaty with the United
States as at an end, and is waging war with them;’ and in March war was
declared against the Algerines.

An expedition was immediately ordered to the Mediterranean, under
the command of commodore Bainbridge. The squadron in advance on that
service, under commodore Decatur, lost not a moment after its arrival
in the Mediterranean in seeking the naval force of the enemy, then
cruising in that sea, and succeeded in capturing two of his ships,
one of them commanded by the Algerine admiral. The American commander,
after this demonstration of skill and prowess, hastened to the port
of Algiers, where he readily obtained peace, in the stipulated terms
of which the rights and honor of the United States were particularly
consulted by a perpetual relinquishment, on the part of the dey,
of all pretensions to tribute from them. The impressions thus made,
strengthened by subsequent transactions with the regencies of Tunis
and Tripoli, by the appearance of the larger force which followed under
commodore Bainbridge, and by the judicious precautionary arrangements
left by him in that quarter, afforded a reasonable prospect of future
security for the valuable portion of American commerce which passes
within reach of the Barbary cruisers.

President Madison, in his message to the congress of 1816, having
adverted to the peace of Europe and to that of the United States with
Great Britain, said, he had the ‘satisfaction to state, generally, that
they remained in amity with foreign powers.’ He proceeded to say, that
the posture of affairs with Algiers at that moment was not known; but
that the dey had found a pretext for complaining of a violation of the
last treaty, and presenting as the alternative war or a renewal of the
former treaty, which stipulated, among other things, an annual tribute.
‘The answer,’ says the president, ‘with an explicit declaration that
the United States preferred war to tribute, required his recognition
and observance of the treaty last made, which abolishes tribute, and
the slavery of our captured citizens. The result of the answer had
not been received. Should he renew his warfare on our commerce, we
rely on the protection it will find in our naval force actually in the
Mediterranean. With the other Barbary states our affairs have undergone
no change. With reference to the aborigines of our own country,’ he
continues, ‘the Indian tribes within our limits appear also disposed
to remain in peace. From several of them purchases of lands have been
made, particularly favorable to the wishes and security of our frontier
settlements as well as to the general interests of the nation. In some
instances, the titles, though not supported by due proof, and clashing
those of one tribe with the claims of another, have been extinguished
by double purchases, the benevolent policy of the United States
preferring the augmented expense to the hazard of doing injustice, or
to the enforcement of justice against a feeble and untutored people,
by means involving or threatening an effusion of blood. I am happy
to add that the tranquillity which has been restored among the tribes
themselves, as well as between them and our own population, will
favor the resumption of the work of civilization, which had made
an encouraging progress among some tribes; and that the facility is
increasing for extending that divided and individual ownership, which
exists now in movable property only, to the soil itself; and of thus
establishing, in the culture and improvement of it, the true foundation
for a transit from the habits of a savage to the arts and comforts of
social life.’

The doubtful state of the relations between the United States and the
dey of Algiers, to which the president alluded in his message, arose
either from a strong impulse of the love of extortion in the dey, or
from the influence of some foreign personages; the rising differences
were, however, settled by the prudent management of the American consul,
Mr. Shaler, and peace has not since been broken on the part of the
Algerines.

Among the incidents of domestic interest which indicate the rapid
growth and increasing prosperity of the republic, we may notice
the formation of the territory of Indiana into a state, and its
admission into the Union; the progress of canals in various states;
the institution of a national bank; and the arrival of many thousand
emigrants, chiefly from Great Britain. Treaties were, during this year,
negotiated with the Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Cherokee Indians, ceding
large portions of their respective territories to the United States,
and acknowledging their tribes to be under the protection of the
republic.


                    ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MONROE.

The term of Mr. Madison’s administration having expired in the year
1817, James Monroe was inaugurated president, and Daniel D. Tompkins
vice-president. In his speech to congress on his inauguration, the
president expresses sentiments in which every true friend to the human
race will fully concur. ‘It is particularly gratifying to me,’ says
Mr. Monroe, ‘to enter on the discharge of these official duties at a
time when the United States are blessed with peace. It is a state most
consistent with their prosperity and happiness. It will be my sincere
desire to preserve it, so far as depends on the executive, on just
principles, with all nations, claiming nothing unreasonable of any,
and rendering to each what is its due.’

During this year the republic received another accession by the
erection of the territory of Mississippi into a state, and its
admission into the Union. By the act of admission it is provided, that
the public lands, while belonging to the United States, and for five
years from the day of sale, shall be exempted from all taxes; that
lands belonging to the citizens of the United States residing without
the state shall never be taxed higher than lands belonging to persons
residing within the state; and that the river Mississippi, and the
navigable rivers and waters leading into it, or into the gulf of Mexico,
shall be common highways, and forever free of toll or duty to all the
citizens of the United States. In return for this concession, congress
provided, that, after paying a debt to Georgia and indemnifying certain
claimants, five per cent. of the net proceeds of the public lands lying
within the state shall be devoted to the making of roads and canals for
the benefit of the state.

In the summer of this year an expedition was undertaken against East
Florida by persons claiming to act under the authority of some of the
revolted Spanish colonies. The leader of this expedition styled himself
‘Citizen Gregor M‘Gregor, brigadier-general of the armies of the united
provinces of New Grenada and Venezuela, and general-in-chief, employed
to liberate the provinces of both the Floridas, commissioned by the
supreme governments of Mexico and South America.’ The persons that
combined for this purpose took possession of Amelia island, at the
mouth of St. Mary’s river, near the boundary of the state of Georgia.
The president, apprized of this transaction, ordered an expedition,
consisting of naval and land forces, to repel the invaders, and to
occupy the island. A squadron, under the command of J. D. Henley,
with troops under the command of James Banhead, arrived off Amelia
island on the 22d of December, and the next day took possession of it,
hoisting the American flag at Fernandina. The president, in a message
to congress relative to the capture, observed: ‘In expelling these
adventurers from these posts it was not intended to make any conquest
from Spain, or to injure, in any degree, the cause of the colonies.’
The real reason of the measure seems to have been, that the invasion
interfered with endeavors which were then making on the part of the
United States to obtain the cession of the Floridas from the Spaniards.

In the following year the Union received the accession of another state,
that of Illinois. At the time of its admission, the government of the
United States granted to the state one section or thirty-sixth part of
every township for the support of schools, and three per cent. of the
net proceeds of the United States’ lands lying within the state for the
encouragement of learning, of which one-sixth part must be exclusively
bestowed on a college or university. The constitution happily provides
that no more slaves shall be introduced into the state. In 1819,
the Alabama territory was admitted as a state into the Union; and
the Arkansaw territory was, by an act of congress, erected into a
territorial government. In the following year the district of Maine
was separated from Massachusetts, formed into a distinct state, and
admitted into the Union.

During this year the American congress did themselves honor by
providing more effectually against carrying on the slave-trade. The
enactment declared, that if any citizen of the United States, being
of the ship’s company of any foreign ship or vessel engaged in the
slave-trade, or any person whatever being of the crew or ship’s company
of any ship or vessel owned by, or navigated for, any citizens of
the United States, shall on foreign shore seize any negro or mulatto,
not held to service or labor by the laws either of the states or
territories of the United States, with intent to make him a slave, or
shall decoy or forcibly bring or receive him on board with such intent,
he shall be adjudged a pirate, and on conviction shall suffer death.

A treaty for the cession of the Floridas was concluded at Washington,
February 22, 1819, between Spain and the United States. In the year
1821, it was reluctantly ratified by the king of Spain, and possession
was taken of those provinces according to the terms of the treaty. On
the 1st of July, general Jackson, who had been appointed governor of
the Floridas, issued a proclamation, declaring ‘that the government
heretofore exercised over the said provinces under the authority
of Spain has ceased, and that that of the United States of America
is established over the same; that the inhabitants thereof will
be incorporated in the union of the United States, as soon as may
be consistent with the principles of the federal constitution, and
admitted to the enjoyment of all the privileges, rights, and immunities
of the citizens of the United States; that in the mean time they shall
be maintained and protected in the free enjoyment of their liberty,
property, and the religion they profess; that all laws and municipal
regulations which were in existence at the cessation of the late
government remain in full force, and all civil officers charged
with their execution,’ with certain exceptions and limitations,
‘are continued in their functions.’ On the 7th of July, the colonel
commandant, Don Jose Gallava, commissioner on the part of his Catholic
majesty, made to major-general Jackson, the commissioner of the
United States, a delivery of the keys of the town of Pensacola, of the
archives, documents, and other articles, mentioned in the inventories,
declaring that he releases from their oath of allegiance to Spain
the citizens and inhabitants of West Florida who may choose to remain
under the dominion of the United States. On the same day, colonel
Joseph Coppinger, governor of East Florida, issued a proclamation
to the inhabitants, announcing that, on the 10th day of this month,
‘possession will be given to colonel Robert Butler, the commissioner
legally authorized by the United States.’ The American authorities were
accordingly put in possession of the Floridas.

During this year Missouri was admitted as a state into the Union,
forming the eleventh state added to the thirteen confederated states
which signed the declaration of independence, making the present number
of the United States twenty-four. The proposition for the admission of
this state, which was brought forward in the session of 1819, produced
vehement discussion in the congress, and excited an intense interest
throughout the whole Union. The inhabitants of Missouri, the territory
having been considered as a part of Louisiana, had derived from their
connection with the Spaniards and French the custom, which they deemed
equivalent to the right, of possessing slaves; it was proposed, however,
in admitting the territory to the privileges of a state, to prevent
the increase and to insure the ultimate abolition of slavery, by
the insertion of the following clause: ‘Provided, that the further
introduction of slavery or involuntary servitude be prohibited, except
for the punishment of crimes whereof the party shall have been duly
convicted; and that all the children born within the said state after
the admission thereof into the Union shall be free at the age of
twenty-five years.’ Judging from the previous views and measures of
the general government, in similar and analogous cases, it could hardly
have been conjectured, that the result of proposing such a limited and
qualified restriction would be doubtful. The house of representatives,
after a short but animated debate, refused to pass the bill without
the restriction; but the senate refused to pass the bill with it;
consequently the bill itself was lost, and Missouri still continued
under her former territorial government.

Such was the rapidity with which the several proceedings passed
in the two houses of congress, that it was scarcely known beyond
its walls that such a question was agitated, before it was decided.
When, however, it came to be generally known what principles had been
advanced, what votes had been given, with what ardor and vehemence
the advocates of slavery had urged their demands, not merely upon
the justice, the reason, and good sense of congress, but upon their
interests, their prejudices, and their fears, by how slender a majority
a measure had been checked, which, in the estimation of many of
the best friends of American liberty, would have been productive
of incalculable and interminable mischiefs, it excited a feeling
of universal surprise and alarm. It is instructive to observe that
many of the staunchest advocates of liberal ideas, who delighted
in appropriating to themselves exclusively the name of republicans,
suffered their jealousy of the interference of the congress in the
internal government of an individual state to engage them on the
side of the perpetuators of slavery. Jefferson, who prided himself
in being the devoted friend of liberty, thus expresses himself: ‘The
real question, as seen in the states afflicted with this unfortunate
population, is, are our slaves to be presented with freedom and a
dagger? For, if congress has the power to regulate the conditions of
the inhabitants of the states within the states, it will be but another
exercise of that power to declare that all shall be free. Are we then
to see again Athenian and Lacedemonian confederacies? to wage another
Peloponnesian war to settle the ascendency between them? Or is this
the tocsin of merely a servile war? That remains to be seen; but not,
I hope, by you or me. Surely they will parley awhile, and give us
time to get out of the way.’[149] The consequence of this combination
was the passing of the bill for the admission of Missouri in the next
session of the congress, without the restricting clause.

No circumstances of particular interest in the transactions of the
general government occurred till the year 1824, when articles of a
convention between the United States of America and Great Britain for
the suppression of the African slave-trade were subscribed at London
by plenipotentiaries appointed for that purpose. By the first article,
the commanders and commissioned officers of each of the two high
contracting parties, duly authorized by their respective governments
to cruise on the coasts of Africa, America, and the West Indies,
for the suppression of the slave-trade, are empowered, under certain
restrictions, to detain, examine, capture, and deliver over for
trial and adjudication by some competent tribunal, any ship or vessel
concerned in the illicit traffic of slaves, and carrying the flag of
the other.

In the spring of this year a convention was also concluded between
the United States of America and the emperor of Russia. By the third
article of this convention it was agreed, ‘that, hereafter, there
shall not be formed by the citizens of the United States, or under
the authority of the said states, any establishment upon the northern
[north-west] coast of America, nor in any of the islands adjacent, to
the north of fifty-four degrees and forty minutes of north latitude;
and that, in the same manner, there shall be none formed by Russian
subjects, or under the authority of Russia, south of the same parallel.’

This year is signalized in American history by the visit of the
venerable la Fayette, on the express invitation of congress. He
arrived in the harbor of New York on the 13th of August, and proceeded
to the residence of the vice-president at Staten island. A committee
of the corporation of the city of New York, and a great number of
distinguished citizens, proceeded to Staten island to welcome him to
their capital. A splendid escort of steam-boats, decorated with the
flags of every nation, and bearing thousands of citizens, brought him
to the view of assembled multitudes at New York, who manifested their
joy at beholding him, by acclamations and by tears. At the city hall
the officers of the city and many citizens were presented to him; and
he was welcomed by an address from the mayor. While he was at New York,
deputations from Philadelphia, Baltimore, New Haven, and from many
other cities, arrived with invitations for him to visit them. After
remaining a few days at New York, he proceeded to Boston, where he met
with the same cordial reception. The general soon after returned to New
York, visited Albany and the towns on Hudson’s river, and afterwards
passed through the intermediate states to Virginia. He returned to
Washington during the session of congress, and remained there several
weeks. Congress voted him the sum of two hundred thousand dollars, and
a township of land, as a remuneration, in part, of his services during
the war of the revolution, and as a testimony of their gratitude.

In the year 1825, John Quincy Adams was inaugurated president of the
United States, and John C. Calhoun, vice-president. In his speech to
congress the president took a retrospective view to the epoch of the
confederation. ‘The year of jubilee since the first formation of our
union,’ observed Mr. Adams, ‘has just elapsed; that of the declaration
of our independence is at hand. Since that period, a population of
four millions has multiplied to twelve. A territory bounded by the
Mississippi has been extended from sea to sea. New states have been
admitted to the Union, in numbers nearly equal to those of the first
confederation. Treaties of peace, amity, and commerce, have been
concluded with the principal dominions of the earth. The people of
other nations, inhabitants of regions acquired, not by conquest, but
by compact, have been united with us in the participation of our rights
and duties, of our burdens and blessings.’ Having noticed the progress
of agriculture and of settlements, of commerce and arts, of liberty and
law, Mr. Adams thus sketches the features of the administration of the
preceding president: ‘In his career of eight years, the internal taxes
have been repealed; sixty millions of public debt have been discharged;
provision has been made for the comfort and relief of the aged and
indigent among the surviving warriors of the revolution; the regular
armed force has been reduced, and the constitution revised and
perfected; the accountability for the expenditure of public moneys
has been made more effective; the Floridas have been peaceably
acquired, and our boundary has been extended to the Pacific ocean;
the independence of the southern nations of this hemisphere has
been recognised, and recommended, by example and by counsel, to the
potentates of Europe; progress has been made in the defence of the
country, by fortifications and the increase of the navy; towards the
effectual suppression of the African traffic in slaves; in alluring
the aboriginal hunters of our land to the cultivation of the soil
and of the mind; in exploring the interior regions of the Union; and
in preparing, by scientific researches and surveys, for the further
application of our national resources to the internal improvement of
our country. In this brief outline of the promise and performance of my
predecessor, the line of duty for his successor is clearly delineated.
To pursue to their consummation those purposes of improvement in our
common condition instituted or recommended by him, will embrace the
whole sphere of my obligations.’

The transactions between the United States and the Indian tribes have
occasioned considerable discussion among the philanthropists of both
the new and the old world; we shall, therefore, notice the treaties
which were formed somewhat particularly. In February, a treaty was
concluded with the Creek nation of Indians. The commissioners on
the part of the United States represented to the Creeks, that it
is the policy and wish of the general government, that the several
Indian tribes within the limits of any of the states of the Union
should remove to territory to be designated on the west side of the
Mississippi river, as well for the better protection and security of
the said tribes, and their improvement in civilization, as for the
purpose of enabling the United States, in this instance, to comply with
a compact entered into with the state of Georgia, on the 24th of April,
1802. The chiefs of the Creek towns assented to the reasonableness of
the proposition, and expressed a willingness to emigrate beyond the
Mississippi, those of Tokaubatchee excepted. The Creeks accordingly,
by the first article of the treaty, ceded to the United States all
the lands within the boundaries of the state of Georgia now occupied
by them, or to which they have title or claim, lying within certain
described boundaries; and by the second it was agreed, that the United
States will give in exchange for the lands hereby acquired the like
quantity, acre for acre, westward of the Mississippi, on the Arkansas
river. Other stipulations favorable to the equitable claims of the
emigrating parties were made; particularly that a deputation may be
sent to explore the territory herein offered them in exchange; and
if the same be not acceptable to them, then they may select any other
territory west of the Mississippi, on Red, Canadian, Arkansas, or
Missouri rivers, the territory occupied by the Cherokees and Choctaws
excepted; and if the territory to be selected shall be in the occupancy
of other Indian tribes, then the United States will extinguish the
title of such occupants for the benefit of the said emigrants.

The Kansas Indians, by treaty, ceded to the United States all their
lands both within and without the limits of Missouri, excepting a
reservation beyond that state on the Kansas river, about thirty miles
square, including their villages. In consideration of this cession, the
United States agreed to pay three thousand five hundred dollars a year
for twenty years; to furnish the Kansas immediately with three hundred
head of cattle, three hundred hogs, five hundred fowls, three yoke
of oxen, and two carts, and with such farming utensils as the Indian
superintendent may deem necessary; to provide and support a blacksmith
for them; and to employ persons to aid and instruct them in their
agricultural pursuits, as the president may deem expedient. Of the
ceded lands, thirty-six sections on the Big Blue river were to be laid
out under the direction of the president, and sold for the support of
schools among the Kansas. Reservations were also made for the benefit
of certain half-breeds; and other stipulations mutually satisfactory.
It was also agreed, that no private revenge shall be taken by the
Indians for the violation of their rights; but that they shall make
their complaint to the superintendent or other agent, and receive
justice in a due course of law; and it was lastly agreed, that the
Kansas nation shall never dispose of their lands without the consent
of the United States, and that the United States shall always have the
free right of navigation in the waters of the Kansas.

A treaty was also concluded with the Great and Little Osages, at St.
Louis, Missouri. The general principles of this treaty are the same as
those of the treaty with the Kansas. The Indians cede all their lands
in Arkansas and elsewhere, and then reserve a defined territory, west
of the Missouri line, fifty miles square; an agent to be permitted
to reside on the reservation, and the United States to have the right
of free navigation in all the waters on the tract. The United States
pay an annuity of seven thousand dollars for twenty years; furnish
forthwith six hundred head of cattle, six hundred hogs, one thousand
fowls, ten yoke of oxen, six carts, with farming utensils, persons to
teach the Indians agriculture, and a blacksmith, and build a commodious
dwelling-house for each of the four principal chiefs, at his own
village. Reservations were made for the establishment of a fund for the
support of schools for the benefit of the Osage children; and provision
was made for the benefit of the Harmony missionary establishment. The
United States also assume certain debts due from certain chiefs of the
tribes; and agree to deliver at the Osage villages, as soon as may be,
four thousand dollars in merchandise, and two thousand six hundred in
horses and their equipments.

In May a general convention of peace, amity, navigation, and commerce,
between the United States of America and the republic of Colombia, was
signed by the president, at Washington.

The fiftieth anniversary, the jubilee, as it was termed, of
American independence, was observed throughout the states with great
enthusiasm, and was rendered additionally interesting by the remarkable
circumstance that both Adams and Jefferson, eminent men among the
fathers of their country, died on that day.

The opposition to the administration of Mr. Adams gained strength and
development by daily increase, and numerous parties combined for its
support or overthrow in various parts of the country. These parties
were generally of a geographical character, and in the nineteenth
congress it was usually found that the representatives from the
southern, took sides directly opposed to those from the northern and
western states. A resolution was expressed in some quarters to put down
the administration at every hazard, no matter what might be its policy,
its integrity, or its success. The cry of corruption was re-echoed by
office seekers, and the more desperate portion of the oppositionists,
till it began to gain currency with the public, and proved sufficient
to secure the downfall of the administration against which it was
raised.

The Panama mission was a fruitful subject of clamor and opposition. It
was stigmatized as imprudent, unnecessary, at variance with our true
and prevailing policy, and pregnant with peril. Charges of extravagance
in expenditures were next brought against the heads of the government,
and resolutions were introduced in congress, intimating that the
executive patronage was too large, and ought to be diminished. The
assertion of the president of his constitutional authority to appoint,
during the vacation of congress, diplomatic agents to transact the
foreign business of the country, was represented as the assumption of
an undelegated power. Every opportunity was seized to represent the
policy of the federal authorities as tending towards consolidation, and
as indicating a disposition for an expensive and magnificent scheme of
government.

In conformity with the views of the opposition, a nomination for
the next presidency was immediately made, and in October, 1825, the
legislature of Tennessee recommended general Jackson to the suffrages
of the people of the United States for the highest office in their
gift. The nomination he formally accepted, in an address delivered
before both houses of the legislature of that state, in which he
resigned his seat in the senate. In this address he plainly intimated
his dissatisfaction at the result of the late presidential election,
and a willingness to sanction an opposition to the administration on
the ground of its corrupt origin. This same ground had been taken by
the adherents of the vice-president in the discussion of Mr. M’Duffie’s
proposed amendment of the constitution in the first session of the
nineteenth congress. The public mind was irritated and exasperated
by these charges, which were diffused with an industry and zeal to be
paralleled only by their baseness. Accusation and recrimination became
frequent and passionate, and the most bitter and indignant feelings
took place of the tranquillity that had so long reigned in the
political world.

At length the charge of corruption was brought from a responsible
quarter, and an investigation ensued, which resulted in the complete
acquittal of the parties accused. Directly after the adjournment of
the eighteenth congress, a letter appeared, bearing date the 8th of
March, 1825, purporting to relate a conversation with general Jackson,
in which he said that a proposition had been made to him by Mr. Clay’s
friends to secure his election to the presidency, on condition that Mr.
Adams should not continue as secretary of state. This proposition was
said to have been indignantly repelled. A correspondence immediately
ensued on this subject between Mr. Beverly, the author of the letter in
question, and general Jackson, in which an account of the negotiation
alluded to was given at length, and the general disclaimed making any
charge against Mr. Clay, and denied having accused him of being privy
to the communication. Testimony was now produced by Mr. Clay and his
friends, which completely refuted the charge of bargain, and hurled
it with scorn in the teeth of his enemies. It was proved beyond a
question that in voting for Mr. Adams in the house of representatives,
Mr. Clay and his friends had acted with entire consistency, and
that any other course would have indeed laid them open to the charge
of gross and palpable violation of the principles they had always
professed in relation to the election. But the accusation had been made
to answer the purpose for which it was framed, and the opposition to
the administration had found a permanent basis to build upon.

Mr. Adams continued to act on the principles which he had professed
in his inaugural speech, of administering the government without
regard to the distinctions of party. In the distribution of offices he
asked merely as to the qualifications of the candidates, not of their
political opinions. No one suffered by that ruthless policy, which
bears so close a resemblance to the proscription of the Roman emperors;
the one striking at life itself, the other at the means of life.
It is difficult to say which of the two is the more cruel, but they
are surely equally unjust and vindictive. The system which makes the
presidential chair a mere scramble for office, and the chief executive
of the nation a dispenser of loaves and fishes to political adherents,
is too mean, narrow, and contemptible, not to be subversive of all
the best purposes of government, and must end in the subversion of
government itself. The political forum is converted into an arena
of battle, and the first moments of victory are sacred to spoil,
devastation, and rapine. The lust of gold stifles the cry of mercy,
and all the rules of honorable warfare are violated in the fierceness
and vindictiveness of triumph. Office holders should be content with
fulfilling the duties of their respective stations, and not consider
themselves in the light of mere partisans, rewarded for upholding
a particular man or set of men. The people pay them for a different
service. Mr. Adams regarded this subject in its true bearings, and
he acted in it with the stern and fearless integrity which has marked
the whole course of his political life. Regardless of consequences, he
was perhaps often injudicious in the diffusion of executive patronage,
and sometimes furnished the enemy with artillery to be employed in the
destruction of his own citadel.

But however the efforts of the opposition might embarrass the
movements of the administration, they could not retard the rapid
progress of the country in wealth and prosperity. The great works
of internal improvement contemplated by the act of April, 1824, were
prosecuted with great spirit and vigor. Many routes for roads and
canals were surveyed, and a great mass of topographical knowledge was
thus collected at Washington. The attention of the general government
was also directed to many other subjects of internal improvement, such
as the navigation of several important rivers, building lighthouses,
piers, and removing obstructions from bays and harbors. The navigation
of the Mississippi and Ohio was much improved during this year, by the
removal of snags and other impediments from their channels. An impulse
was thus given to the efforts of the state governments, and canals and
roads were laid out in various directions. Manufacturing establishments
flourished with great vigor, and gave proofs of becoming lasting
sources of wealth and employment to the national industry. In the year
ending September 30, 1826, the value of domestic manufactures exported
amounted to five millions eight hundred and fifty-two thousand seven
hundred and thirty-three dollars, of which one million one hundred and
thirty-eight thousand one hundred and twenty-five dollars consisted
of cotton piece goods. The increase of tonnage in the United States
during 1826, was one hundred eleven thousand and seventy-nine tons,
being double the increase of any one of the preceding twelve years. In
conformity with the plan proposed for the settlement of the remaining
tribes of the aborigines on the west of the Mississippi, provision
was made for the removal thither of such Indians as were disposed to
emigrate. Fourteen hundred Shawnees, and about seven hundred Creeks,
removed in this manner to spots selected by themselves. The Cherokees
refused to cede another foot of land, notwithstanding the efforts made
by the general government to procure such a cession of territory as
would satisfy the claims of Georgia. The north-western Indians now gave
hostile indications, and attacked and murdered some American citizens;
but by the prompt measures adopted by governor Cass, the murderers were
given up and tranquillity again restored.

Congress having adjourned without passing any law for the purpose of
meeting the restrictive measures of the British government in respect
to the colonial trade, the president issued a proclamation, dated March
17th, closing the ports of the United States against vessels from the
British colonies, which had been opened by the act of 1822. By this
measure the British restrictions were completely reciprocated, and the
president was sustained in it by public opinion.

The second session of the nineteenth congress commenced on the 4th of
December, 1826, when the two houses were organized in the usual manner.
The message of the president on this occasion gave a clear account of
our foreign relations, and made particular reference to the controversy
with Great Britain on the colonial trade. The death of the emperor
Alexander of Russia was mentioned in terms which the friendly feelings
displayed by that monarch towards this country seemed to require. Our
commercial connections with France and the Netherlands were represented
to be placed on a more favorable basis than at the commencement of the
preceding congress. In the post-office there had been received during
the year a surplus of eighty thousand dollars above the expenditures.
The revenue was sufficiently large to authorize the application of
seven millions sixty-seven thousand and thirty-nine dollars to the
reduction of the public debt, and three millions nine hundred and
forty-four thousand three hundred and fifty-nine dollars to the payment
of interest. A system was recommended for the permanent increase of
the navy; the unsettled land claims in Florida and Louisiana; the works
of internal improvement, reported by the board of engineers; and the
attention of congress was particularly called to the irregularities
of the Brazilian and Buenos-Ayrean squadrons towards neutral flags.
The estimates of appropriations for the different departments of the
government were submitted with the message; and a system of cavalry
tactics prepared during the summer under the direction of the war
department. These were the most important topics suggested by the
message.

The Creek controversy, which might have been considered as happily
settled by the treaty of 22d of April, was still to continue a subject
of excitement. Instead of waiting till the tribes had removed from
their ceded lands, governor Troup ordered the surveyors employed by him
to enter the Indian territories and commence the surveys, previous to
the time prescribed by the treaty for the removal. The Indians resisted
these encroachments, and the governor ordered out a force of militia.
In this posture of affairs, the president determined to support the
laws of the Union by the authority which the constitution had placed
in his hands, previously submitting the affair to congress, to have
it determined whether it were necessary to resort to any new measures.
On the 5th of February he transmitted to both houses of congress a
message, in which he gave a plain statement of the facts, and declared
his determination to enforce the laws, and fulfil the duties of the
nation by all the force committed for that purpose to his charge. ‘That
the arm of military force will be resorted to only in the event of the
failure of all other expedients provided by the laws, a pledge has been
given by the forbearance to employ it at this time. It is submitted
to the wisdom of congress to determine, whether any further acts of
legislation may be necessary or expedient to meet the emergency which
these transactions may produce.’

Great excitement was displayed in both houses on the receipt of
this message. The committee of the representatives, to which it was
referred reported that it ‘is expedient to procure a cession of the
Indian lands in the state of Georgia, and that until such a cession is
procured, the law of the land, as set forth in the treaty at Washington,
ought to be maintained by all necessary, constitutional, and legal
means.’ The firmness of the president brought the governor of Georgia
to reason, and he addressed a letter to the delegation of that state
at Washington, submitting to the decision of congress, and denying any
intention of a resort to force, except the sovereignty of the state
came into collision with the United States. A cession of the Creek land
in Georgia was finally procured, and the dispute in respect to this
portion of the Indian territory was put at rest.

A bill for an additional protection on woollens was agitated during
this session, and finally laid on the table by the casting vote of the
vice-president. The defeat of this measure occasioned much discussion
in all parts of the Union, and stimulated the friends of this branch
of industry to renewed exertions. In Pennsylvania a state convention
was proposed, to choose delegates to attend a general convention
at Harrisburg on the 30th of July, 1827. Other states answered with
alacrity to this invitation, and a meeting was held at the appointed
time, of delegates in the highest degree respectable in point of talent,
weight of character, and dignity of standing. The reports of their
committees, on various subjects connected with domestic industry,
exhibited the importance and the necessity of increased protection, and
a memorial to congress, drawn up in conformity with these views, was
unanimously adopted. These proceedings were received in the southern
states with much dissatisfaction. They were represented as at war
with their best interests, and with the spirit of the constitution. No
means were omitted to raise a strong excitement in the community, in
opposition to all increase of the woollen duty; but at the time of the
twentieth congress, the public mind was more and more impressed with
the opinion that effectual measures would be resorted to for the relief
of this branch of national industry.

We have not room for a detailed account of the various measures of
Mr. Adams’ administration. During the whole of it the United States
enjoyed uninterrupted peace; for the foreign policy of the government
had nothing in view but the maintenance of our national dignity, the
extension of our commercial relations, and the successful prosecution
of the claims of American citizens upon foreign governments.

A portion of these claims upon Sweden and Denmark was obtained, and
the claims which arose against the Brazilian government, during the
war between that power and Buenos Ayres, were speedily adjusted by the
liquidation of the claims. The exorbitant pretensions of Great Britain
respecting the West India trade were resisted, although at the expense
of the direct trade between the United States and the British islands.

The difficulties which occurred in carrying into effect the treaty
of Ghent, relative to deported slaves, and other property taken away,
having been found insurmountable, the sum of one million two hundred
and four thousand nine hundred and sixty dollars, which was amply
sufficient, was obtained from the British government in satisfaction
of these claims. A convention was also concluded with that government,
and a mode provided for the peaceable settlement of the long pending
and finally threatening dispute concerning the north-east boundary of
the United States. The treaty of commerce between the United States and
Great Britain, and the convention effecting a temporary compromise of
their conflicting claims to the territory west of the Rocky mountains,
both of which expired by their own limitation, October 20th, 1828
were renewed for an indefinite period, with liberty to either party
to terminate them, on giving one year’s notice. Some commercial
difficulties, which grew out of an adherence of the government of the
Netherlands to the principles of discriminating duties, were adjusted
to mutual satisfaction. New treaties of amity, navigation, and commerce,
in which the liberal principles maintained by the United States, in
her commercial and foreign policy, were generally recognised, were
concluded with Colombia, Austria, Sweden, Denmark, Guatemala, and the
Hanseatic league.

It was, however, in the domestic policy of the government, that the
character of the administration was most strongly displayed. During its
continuance in office, new and increased activity was imparted to those
powers vested in the federal government, for the development of the
resources of the country; and the public revenue liberally expended in
prosecuting those national measures to which the sanction of congress
had been deliberately given, as the settled policy of the government.

In the condition which we have described, in peace with all the world,
with an increasing revenue, and with a surplus of five millions one
hundred and twenty-five thousand six hundred and thirty-eight dollars
in the public treasury, the administration of the government of the
United States was surrendered by Mr. Adams, who became a private
citizen, to general Jackson, his successor.

Thus ended the administration of Mr. Adams; an administration marked
by definite and consistent policy and energetic councils, governed by
up-right motives, but from the beginning devoted to the most violent
opposition and a signal overthrow. The election which terminated in the
defeat of Mr. Adams was marked with extreme bitterness, asperity, and
profligacy. On both sides the press was virulent, libellous, and mean.
No privacy was safe, no confidence was sacred; even the tombs of the
illustrious dead were violated, and their ashes defiled. The arts of
party warfare were more insidious than the arts of savage treachery,
and its arms more ruthless than the tomahawk or the scalping knife.
Calumny and falsehood were the usual resources of the most violent
partisans, and the only weapons that they never for a moment laid
aside. The brave soldier was described as a malignant savage, and the
experienced statesman as a man who had purchased by intrigue a position
that he was determined to maintain by corruption. It must be most
sincerely hoped that an era may never again arrive in our history to be
stamped so indelibly with the brand of shame; that public opinion will
ever require of the public press a more decent regard to the charities
of life and the duties of truth.


                   ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JACKSON.

As the election of General Jackson to the presidency of the United
States brought the democratic party into power, and was hailed by that
party as an event, in their view, most auspicious to the interests
of the country, unusual efforts were made to render the occasion of
his inauguration, one of great interest and attraction. On the 4th
of March, 1829, the ceremony took place, and was, in all respects,
grand and imposing. At half past eleven of that day, the president
elect, preceded by the marshal of the district, and the committee of
arrangements, entered the senate chamber, and took his seat in front
of the secretary’s desk. On the right of the president’s chair sat the
distinguished chief justice of the United States, and the associate
judges. The left was occupied by the foreign ministers and their suites,
in their official costumes. The rear of the senators and the lobby
under the eastern gallery were occupied by ladies; while the western
gallery was assigned to members of the house of representatives.

At noon, all repaired in solemn procession to the eastern portico of
the capitol; where, in the presence of an immense concourse of people,
filling the portico, the steps, and the inclosure, the president
delivered his inaugural address.

After expressing his gratitude to the nation for the honor conferred
on him, and a determination to promote the welfare of his country, he
proceeded, as is usual on similar occasions, to state his political
creed; or those principles which would guide him in the administration
of the government. “I shall keep steadily in view,” said he, “the
limitation, as well as the extent of executive power.” With foreign
nations, he would study to preserve peace, and cultivate friendship.
The rights of the separate states should be respected, and the power,
which they had reserved to themselves should not be confounded with
those, which had been granted to the confederacy. A due solicitude
should be exercised in the management of the public revenue, and a
strict and faithful economy observed in the administration of the
government. Agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, should be equally
favored. Internal improvement and the diffusion of knowledge should
be promoted, as far as might be consistent with the constitution.
An increase of the standing army for the present would not be deemed
advisable; but a gradual increase of the navy, would be urged as
important to the national honor, and national security.

He next spoke of the Indian tribes――towards whom it would be his
desire to observe a just and liberal policy――to secure their rights and
administer to their wants, as far as duty to the government and justice
to the people would admit.

One task――that of _reform_――would demand his speedy and vigilant
attention. Abuses had sprung up, which had brought the patronage of the
federal government into conflict with the freedom of elections. These
must be corrected and those causes counteracted, which had disturbed
the rightful course of appointment to office, and which had too often
placed, or continued power in unfaithful, or incompetent hands.

In the selection of men to office, it would be his endeavor to place
power in the hands of those whose diligence and talents would insure
the faithful performance of their respective duties.

In conclusion, he said――“A diffidence, perhaps too just, in my own
qualifications, will teach me to look with reverence to the examples of
public virtue, left by my illustrious predecessors, and with veneration
to the lights that flow from the mind that founded, and the mind
that reformed, our system. The same diffidence induces me to hope for
instruction and aid from the coordinate branches of the government, and
for the indulgence and support of my fellow-citizens generally. And a
firm reliance on the goodness of that Power whose providence mercifully
protected our national infancy, and has since upheld our liberties in
various vicissitudes, encourages me to offer up my ardent supplications,
that He will continue to make our beloved country the object of his
divine care and gracious benediction.”

The oath to support the constitution was next administered to him by
Chief Justice Marshall. This was announced by the prolonged discharge
of artillery from various points; during which the president was
conducted to his mansion, where he received the congratulations of
the people.

Antecedently to the formation of his cabinet, much speculation existed
in the country, as to the persons whom General Jackson would call to
his counsels. As he was in a great measure uncommitted in respect to
the future policy of his government, no inconsiderable anxiety was felt,
especially by office holders, on the subject of these appointments,
as these would furnish some indications as to his future course. All
speculation, however, was soon terminated by the nomination of Martin
Van Buren, of New York, as secretary of state; John H. Eaton, of
Tennessee, as secretary of war; Samuel D. Ingham, of Pennsylvania,
secretary of the treasury; John Branch, of North Carolina, secretary
of the navy; William T. Barry, of Kentucky, postmaster-general; John M.
Berrien, of Georgia, attorney-general. These several nominations were
ratified by the senate, without opposition.

At the time of his appointment, Mr. Van Buren was governor of the
state of New York. This office he immediately resigned――retiring with a
complimentary address from the legislature of that state. Mr. Van Buren
was considered as a man distinguished for tact and self-possession,
and as destined to act a distinguished part in the public counsels
to which he had been called. The attorney-general was considered a
man of liberal attainments, and fully qualified, by his learning and
eloquence, for the station to which he was elevated. The other members
of the cabinet had not been particularly distinguished for their public
services. Mr. Eaton was the personal friend of the president. Mr.
Ingham had been an active partisan in Pennsylvania, the state which
brought General Jackson into the field, as a candidate. The motives
which influenced the appointment of Mr. Branch as secretary of the
navy were never satisfactorily ascertained. Previously to this time,
the postmaster-general had not been a constituent of the cabinet, but
it was now determined to introduce him as a member. Mr. Barry, who
succeeded John M’Lean, in this office, the latter being removed to the
bench of the Supreme Court, was one of the leaders of the relief party
in Kentucky.

The cabinet was now constituted; and, after confirming the nominations
of several individuals to diplomatic posts, and lucrative stations in
the land office, custom-house, and navy, the senate adjourned on the
17th of March, the Executive having informed that body, that he had no
further business to lay before them.

In the course of his inaugural address, General Jackson had expressed
his conviction of the necessity of _reform_, in regard to the
distribution of the public offices, within the control of the executive.
To this “task of reform,” as he termed it, he immediately addressed
himself, on the adjournment of the senate. Availing himself of the
right of the Executive to fill vacancies occurring in the recess,
he removed the principal officers of the treasury, the marshals, and
district attorneys in most of the eastern, middle, and western states,
the revenue officers of the chief Atlantic ports, the greater part
of the receivers and registers in the land office, and changed the
ministers plenipotentiary to Great Britain, France, Netherlands, and
Spain.

But a still more unprecedented change was made in the post office
department――the number of removals here, between the 4th of March,
1829, and the 22d of March, 1830, being four hundred and ninety-one.
These removals contrasted strongly with those of former administrations.
Washington, during his administration of eight years, removed but
nine; Mr. Adams, ten; Mr. Jefferson, thirty-nine; Mr. Madison, five;
Mr. Monroe, nine; John Quincy Adams, two.

The removals thus effected by General Jackson, so sudden, and so
numerous, were strongly censured by the opposers of the administration.
The president was charged with usurping an authority not conferred by
the constitution, which it was contended only gave him the right to
fill vacancies, either accidentally occurring, or caused by some
official misconduct. It was charged, also, that prior to his election,
he had expressed an opinion, that members of congress should not be
appointed to office, during the term for which they had been elected,
nor for two years after. Yet, in direct opposition to his express views,
he was conferring a greater number of offices on members of congress,
in the compass of a single year, than any of his predecessors had done,
during the entire period of their administration.

On the other hand, the friends of the president justified his course.
They maintained that he was “solely invested with the right of removal;
that it was a discretionary right, for the exercise of which he was
responsible solely to the nation; that that power was given to enable
him, not only to remove incumbents for delinquency, or incapacity,
but with the view of reforming the administration of the government,
and introducing officers of greater efficiency, or sounder principles
into its various departments. Occasion was also taken, owing to the
defalcation of a few of those removed, to assert the necessity of
reform; and great efforts were made to create an impression on the
public mind of the necessity of a general removal of the officers of
the federal government.”[150]

The preceding changes were the subject of much discussion, on the
assembling of congress. A spirited opposition was instituted by the
minority in the senate, against the principles of the Executive, in
relation to removals, both on the ground of their unconstitutionality
and inexpediency. Most of those who had been appointed by the president
to office were, notwithstanding this opposition, confirmed; but several
were rejected by strong votes.

On the 7th of December, 1829, commenced the first session of the
twenty-first congress. Andrew Stevenson was again elected speaker of
the house. On the day following, the president communicated his first
message. It embodied several topics of interest and importance. The
principal of these related to an amendment of the constitution, to
the choice of president and vice-president――a modification of the
tariff――a provision for the disposition of the surplus revenue, after
the extinguishment of the national debt――the assignment of a territory
west of the Mississippi for the Indian tribes, within the states――and a
consideration of the expediency of extending the charter of the Bank of
the United States.

The foreign relations of the state, the president said, were
satisfactory, except in relation to England and France. The boundary
line between Maine and the British Provinces of Canada and New
Brunswick was still the subject of controversy; for although by mutual
consent the question had been submitted to the king of the Netherlands,
neither party would abide his decision.

Another controversy between these two governments respected the West
India trade. The treaty of commerce between the two countries, on the
termination of the late war, although reciprocal, did not extend to
the colonial possessions of Great Britain. In consequence of this, the
policy of England was to render the intercourse of the United States
with the West Indies, chiefly, if not exclusively, advantageous to
herself. Accordingly, in different years, various acts had been passed
by the British government, having the above monopoly in view. Measures
retaliatory had, from time to time, been adopted by the United States.
In effect, the trade was lost to the United States. This important
subject was now brought to the attention of congress, and before the
close of the session the controversy was adjusted. It was conceded to
the British government, what it had long claimed, but denied by the
American government――the exclusive power to the former of regulating
her colonial trade. The president was also authorized to confer on
British vessels all those privileges, as well in the circuitous, as in
the direct voyage, which Great Britain had demanded. These concessions
being deemed sufficient by the British government, her West India ports
were opened _by her_ to the United States, on terms satisfactory to the
latter. A renewal of the trade was the immediate consequence.

The controversy between the United States and France related to
depredations upon the property of American citizens, during the
reign of Napoleon. Claims growing out of these depredations remained
unpaid. The president informed congress that he had given instructions
to our minister to press these demands on the French government, with
appropriate earnestness.

He next proceeded to recommend “such an amendment of the constitution,
as would remove all intermediate agency in the election of president
and vice-president.” “The mode,” said he, “may be so regulated as to
preserve to each state its present relative weight in the election; and
a failure in the first attempt may be provided for, by confining the
second to a choice between the two highest candidates. In connexion
with such an amendment, it would seem advisable to limit the service of
chief magistrate to a single term, of either four, or six years.”

Next, adverting to the surplus revenue, he expressed his belief, that
the most safe, just and federal disposition, which could be made of the
surplus revenue, would be its apportionment among the several states
according to their ratio of representation; and should this measure not
be found warranted by the constitution, that it would be expedient to
propose to the states an amendment, authorizing it.

In regard to the disposal of the Indian tribes, the president
suggested the propriety of setting apart an ample district, west of
the Mississippi, and without the limits of any state or territory, now
formed, to be guarantied to the tribes as long as they shall occupy
it; each tribe having a distinct control over the portion designated
for its use. “There,” said the president, “they may be secured in
the enjoyment of governments of their own choice, subject to no other
control from the United States, than such as may be necessary to
preserve peace on the frontier, and between the several tribes.”

Another important subject, included in the message, and one which, as
years have succeeded, has occasioned great political dissension, was
the subject of the renewal of the charter of the United States Bank.
Although several years would elapse, before the charter would expire,
the Executive deemed it a subject of sufficient importance, thus early
to bring it before the legislature and the people. In so doing, and
in the terms employed, he was understood to be opposed to such an
institution. “Both the constitutionality and the expediency of the
law creating this bank,” he observed, “are well questioned by a large
portion of our fellow-citizens; and it must be admitted by all, that
it has failed in the great end of establishing a uniform and sound
currency.”

“Under these circumstances, if such an institution is deemed essential
to the fiscal operations of the government, I submit to the wisdom of
the legislature, whether a national one, founded upon the credit of the
government, and its revenues, might not be devised, which would avoid
all constitutional difficulties; and, at the same time, secure all the
advantages to the government and country that were expected to result
from the present bank.”

The message of the president, embracing subjects of great importance,
and unfolding, as it did, his views in relation to them, excited an
intense interest throughout the country. It gave birth to strong and
animated debates in the national legislature, in which many of the
ablest statesmen of both political parties participated. The subjects
of greatest interest debated, related to the Indian affairs――the public
lands――the United States Bank――the tariff――and internal improvements.

One of the most embarrassing subjects which fell under the cognizance
of the new administration, related to the Indian tribes, within the
limits of the states already admitted into the Union; but especially
to the Cherokees, a powerful tribe, within the limits of Georgia.
This state laid claim to the territory occupied by the tribe; and,
encouraged by the views of the executive, viz., that he could not
interpose to prevent a state from extending her laws over the tribes,
within her limits, authorized an intrusion upon the Indian territory
for the purpose of surveying it, and extending her jurisdiction over it.
The state laws were accordingly attempted to be enforced. One George
Tassel, a Cherokee, was arraigned for the murder of another Cherokee,
tried, and condemned.

About this time, Samuel Worcester and other missionaries were
arrested, by order of the governor, and taken before the superior
court of Gwinnett county, for refusing to obtain a permit from the
government of Georgia to reside within the territory, or to take an
oath of allegiance to the state. Mr. Worcester and Mr. Thompson, being
missionaries, were discharged by the court, on the alleged ground, that
they were agents of the government, having been employed to disburse
among the Indians a portion of their annuities. This decision of the
court gave great offence to the state authorities; and the governor
obtained from the general government a disavowal that the missionaries
were its agents. No sooner was this disavowal received, than Mr.
Worcester and Ezra Butler were warned to quit the nation, with which
order, not complying, they were arrested, tried, and sentenced to four
years confinement at hard labor, in the penitentiary of Georgia. Much
indignation was manifested throughout the country at this violation of
personal rights, superadded to what this course was claimed to be, a
complete disregard of the federal compact, and the faith of treaties.
The decision of the president, however, sustained Georgia in the ground
she had taken, and she proceeded to carry out her policy towards the
Cherokees.

The case of the missionaries, however, was, at length, brought
before the Supreme Court of the United States. The decision of that
court, March 30, 1832, involved the question of jurisdiction over
the country of the Cherokees. The claims of Georgia were set aside by
this decision, as unconstitutional; and her laws by which the Indians
had been deprived of their rights, and the missionaries confined and
imprisoned, were pronounced null and void. This decision of the supreme
judicial tribunal of the United States was resisted by Georgia, and
the missionaries continued in prison. This unpleasant controversy
was, at length, ended by a letter addressed, January 8th, 1833, by the
missionaries to the governor of Georgia, in which they informed his
Excellency, that they had forwarded instructions to their counsel, to
prosecute the case no farther. Upon this, January 14th, his Excellency
issued his proclamation remitting the farther execution of the sentence,
and discharging the missionaries from prison. We shall only add,
that on the 23d of May, 1838, a military force of several thousand
men, under the command of Gen. Scott, was assembled on the Cherokee
territory, for the purpose of removing the nation to the territory
assigned them beyond the great river of the west, a bill having passed
congress in 1831, authorizing the president to set apart such portions
of the public territory, west of the Mississippi, as he should deem
necessary for the permanent residence of the Cherokees, and other
emigrating tribes. This bill, at the time of its introduction into
congress, 22d of February, 1830, gave rise to a long and spirited
debate in both houses, during which the whole subject of the relations
of the federal government with the Indians was developed. The
final vote on it in the house was close, being one hundred and two
affirmative, and ninety-seven negative. In the senate, the majority was
larger. The passage of this bill, connected with the course taken by
the president in relation to the Indians, formed an era in the policy
of the United States, respecting the aboriginal tribes.

Another exciting topic agitated in congress, related to the public
lands. These lands were acquired by the federal government in two
modes. The portion west of the Mississippi, forming much the larger
part, is held under the Louisiana treaty, having been acquired by
purchase from France. The residue was acquired at the treaty of 1783,
the fruits of conquest from the crown of Great Britain. Out of these
territories, new states had been formed. Prior to the adoption of the
federal constitution, but few sales had been made. In 1800, the acts
containing the principal features of the present land system were
passed. These have been subsequently modified, and in 1820 cash sales
were substituted for sales on credit.

Acting upon the new principle advanced by Georgia, in relation to the
sovereignty of the state over all lands within its limits, some of the
new states have set up a claim to the property in the soil of all lands,
not owned by individuals, as an incident of sovereignty.

In consequence of these claims, and memorials of some of the western
legislatures against the existing mode of disposing of the public lands,
Mr. Foot, of Connecticut, on the 29th of December, 1829, introduced
into the senate the following resolution:――“Resolved, that the
committee on public lands be instructed to inquire into the expediency
of limiting, for a certain period, the sales of the public lands, to
such lands only as have heretofore been offered for sale, and are
subject to entry at the minimum price, and also whether the office of
surveyor-general may not be abolished, without detriment to the public
interest.”

This resolution was immediately and strongly opposed, as a part of a
systematic policy for crippling the growth of the west. It was urged
that it would serve to prevent emigration to those states, within
whose territory these lands lay. The debate to which this resolution
gave rise continued for several weeks, during which Messrs. Hayne
and Webster made speeches, which will long be remembered for their
eloquence, ingenuity and power. Others mingled in the warm and animated
discussion, wandering from the subject of the public lands to discuss
almost every topic of general interest connected with the politics of
the day.

In his message to congress, the President had expressed an opinion
against renewing the charter of the United States Bank, which would
expire in 1836. The bank had not applied for such renewal, but being
pressed on the attention of congress, it was referred to the committee
on finance in both houses of congress for examination. On the 30th
of April, 1830, Mr. M’Duffie, the chairman of the committee of ways
and means, in the house, made a report diametrically opposite to the
recommendations of the President. Respecting the first proposition
contained in the message, that congress had not constitutional power
to incorporate a bank, the committee deemed that question no longer
open for discussion. They also came to a different opinion from that
contained in the message, respecting the expediency of the measure.
The report from the committee on finance in the senate concurred with
that of the house in its conclusions, and was equally decisive in its
condemnation of the sentiments of the President. The effect produced
in the public mind by the message was entirely done away, and the stock
of the bank, which had fallen, upon the delivery of the message, from
one hundred and twenty-six to one hundred and twenty, rose, after the
publication of these reports, to one hundred and twenty-seven, and
finally attained the price of one hundred and thirty dollars per share.

In December, 1832, a memorial was presented to congress from the
president and directors of the United States Bank for a renewal of
its charter. Soon after, a committee was appointed by the house to
investigate the proceedings of the bank. A majority of this committee,
adopting the views of the Executive, reported against a renewal of the
charter, principally on the ground of a violation of its charter by
illegal transactions. A counter report was presented by the minority,
in the conclusion of which they bore unequivocal testimony to the
fidelity of the officers of that institution. On the 10th of June,
the question was taken in the senate on a bill to incorporate the bank,
which passed that body by a vote of twenty-eight to twenty. On the 3d
of July the question was taken in the house, and the charter renewed by
a vote of one hundred and seven to eighty-five. On the 10th, the bill
was returned by the President with his objections.

Although not unexpected to the country, the veto put upon the bill by
the President gave great dissatisfaction to the friends of the bank
in every section of the United States. A general disturbance of the
currency was predicted as the necessary consequence. “We have arrived
at a new epoch,” said one of the advocates of the bank on the floor
of the senate: “We are entering on _experiments_ with the government
and constitution of the country, hitherto untried and of fearful and
appalling aspects.” Another subject of importance introduced in the
message respected _internal_ improvements. During the administration of
Washington and the elder Adams, no application was made of the public
revenue to internal improvements; the government having as many demands
upon the treasury, growing out of debts incurred in the Revolution, as
could be met. But during the presidency of Mr. Jefferson, the internal
improvement policy was begun, by an act passed May 1st, 1802, making
appropriations for opening roads in the north-west territory. This
was followed by other similar appropriations. During Mr. Madison’s
administration, the appropriations were increased, and still further
augmented, while Mr. Monroe was in office. On the accession of
Mr. Adams, the policy was still pursued; and as he was understood to
give a still more liberal construction of the constitution on this
subject, more appropriations were made for the above object during
his administration than during those of all his predecessors. General
Jackson, while holding a seat in the senate of the United States,
had voted with the friends of internal improvements. It was therefore
anticipated by a numerous class in the United States, and among them
were some of his friends, that he would follow out the policy of his
predecessors. In his message to congress, however, he first manifested
an unwillingness to the exercise of this power by congress. As the
session advanced, it became more and more apparent that he was hostile
to all appropriations to the above object. And, finally, all doubt was
ended by his return of several bills appropriating money for internal
improvements, with objections.

A decided majority in congress being in favor of such appropriations,
notwithstanding the views of the Executive, several bills were
introduced into the house similar to those which the President had
rejected, and were passed by both houses by decided majorities. The
President and his cabinet thus found themselves compelled to yield to
public opinion expressed in congress, and although their determination
checked the action of the federal government in relation to internal
improvements, still they had surrendered every principle, upon which
their opposition to the system could be founded. By these decisive
votes in congress, this policy was considered as firmly established,
and nothing was required to carry it into effect with moderation and
discretion, but the harmonious co-operation between different branches
of the government.

During the summer of 1831 a new cabinet was organized, consisting of
Edward Livingston, of Louisiana, secretary of state; Louis M’Lane, of
Delaware, secretary of the treasury; Lewis Cass, of Ohio, secretary of
war; Levi Woodbury, of New Hampshire, secretary of the navy; Roger B.
Taney, of Maryland, attorney-general.

The public press had for some time been filled with rumor that there
existed but little, if any harmony in the first cabinet. The question
of the succession, it is said, was a matter of jealousy and disunion
even at this early day. But the chief difficulty, according to a
communication from the attorney-general, arose from a determination
on the part of the president to compel the families of the dismissed
members to associate with the wife of the secretary of war. By this
statement it appeared, that these ladies had, in accordance with the
general understanding of the female part of society at Washington,
declined to visit the family of the secretary of war, and that this
neglect, being resented by that gentleman, had produced a coolness
between him and the heads of those families. As the President
warmly espoused the feelings of the secretary of war, as of an old
and confidential friend, it was rumored early in the year, that
their removal would be a consequence of this resentment; and the
attorney-general stated, that about that time a confidential friend
of the President (Richard M. Johnson), called upon him and other
refractory members, as from the President, and intimated to them that,
unless they would consent to at least a formal intercourse between
their families and that of the secretary of war, he had determined to
remove them from office. They replied, that while they felt bound to
maintain a frank and harmonious intercourse with their colleague, they
would not permit any interference with the social relations of their
families, and wholly refused to comply with the request. Other friends,
however, interfered, and the president was induced to waive any further
prosecution of the subject at that time. To that refusal, however, he
attributed the want of harmony in the cabinet, and its consequent
dissolution.

On the 4th of July, 1831, a treaty settling the claims of American
citizens on France for spoliations during Napoleon’s government was
signed by Mr. Rives, and Sebastiani, at Paris, and the ratifications
in due time were exchanged between the two governments.

By this treaty, the French government agreed to pay to the United
States, for seizures, captures, sequestration, or destruction of their
vessels, cargoes, or other property, 25,000,000 francs, in six equal
annual instalments. The government of the United States on their
part, agreed to pay 1,500,000 francs to the government of France,
in satisfaction of all claims in behalf of France, its citizens, or
the royal treasury, either for ancient supplies or accounts, or for
unlawful seizures, captures, detentions, arrests or destruction of
French vessels, cargoes, or other property, in six annual instalments,
to be reserved out of the instalments payable to the United States;
interest at the rate of four per cent., is to be allowed on the above
sums, from the exchange of the ratifications. The sum thus stipulated
to be paid by France did not amount to more than one-third of the just
claims of the citizens of the United States, but their liquidation,
even upon terms comparatively unfavorable, was so desirable, that the
conclusion of this treaty was hailed by all parties.

During the spring of 1832 hostilities were commenced by the Sac and
Fox Indians on the western borders of the United States, under the
celebrated chief, Black Hawk. This aggression created a necessity
for the interposition of the Executive, who ordered a portion of the
troops under Generals Scott and Atkinson, together with a detachment of
militia from the state of Illinois, into the field. After a harassing
warfare, prolonged by the nature of the country and the difficulty of
procuring subsistence, the Indians were defeated, and Black Hawk and
the Prophet were taken prisoners. The confederated tribes of the Sacs
and Foxes have long been distinguished for their spirit of adventure,
as well as their restless and savage disposition. During the late war
with Great Britain they aided her by their arms. In 1829 and 1830,
these tribes, claiming a part of the country upon Rock river, attempted
to establish themselves in that quarter, and the necessary consequence
of which was frequent collisions with the white inhabitants. In 1831,
their aggressions were so serious as to require a detachment of troops
in the field. The appearance of these alarming the Indians they agreed
to confine themselves to their own lands west of the Mississippi.
Scarcely, however, had this arrangement been settled, before a party
of these Indians assaulted and murdered a number of the Menomonies,
a tribe friendly to the United States, while encamped in the village
of Prairie du Chien. This wanton outrage, it was deemed necessary to
rebuke, lest these disaffected Indians should harass and disturb the
border settlements. Accordingly, General Atkinson was ordered, March
7th, 1832, to demand the surrender of the Menomonie murderers. This
demand was disregarded. Hostilities immediately ensued, which were
terminated in the month of August following by a general battle, which
led to the entire rout of the Indians, and of the delivery of Black
Hawk and the Prophet, on the 27th of August, as prisoners of war. These
leaders of the war were conducted to Washington, whence they passed
through some of the principal cities of the United States, and were
sent home, having pledged to conduct themselves with due regard to the
United States.

On the 3d of December, 1832, the twenty-second congress commenced
its second session. In his message, the President, having alluded in
brief but appropriate terms to the cholera, which had been spreading
its desolations over portions of the United States, represented the
relations of the country with foreign powers in a state of amity. The
finances of the country were in a prosperous state; the national debt
on the first of January, 1833, would be reduced to about seven millions;
doubts were expressed as to the safety of the deposits in the United
States Bank, and a decision of the question as to the disposal of
public lands was urged.

December 10th, the President issued a solemn and impressive
proclamation addressed to the citizens of the United States, in
relation to the hostile attitude of South Carolina to the Union, in
consequence of the acts of congress of 29th May, 1828, and of 14th of
July, 1833, altering and amending the several acts imposing duties on
imports――which acts had, in a convention of the above state, held at
Columbia, November 24th, been pronounced to be unconstitutional, and
therefore void, and of no binding force within the limits of that state.
This proclamation was an able document, furnishing a sound exposition
of the principles and powers of the government, and breathing a spirit
of patriotic devotion to the constitution and union of the states.
It evinced a fixed determination to maintain the laws and to resist
all treasonable and disorganizing measures. Happily, this firmness
of the Executive, with subsequent conciliatory measures of congress,
saved the Union. For a considerable period the southern states, with
the exception of South Carolina, had been considered, opposed to the
exercise of power by the federal government. This state, although
voting with the adjacent states on all local and on most national
questions, had on some occasions, as in 1816, been foremost in
asserting the right of congress to legislate on certain disputed
points. Among these were the subjects of internal improvement, the
United States Bank, and the tariff. A change of opinion had now taken
place there, and it began to go beyond any of the advocates of state
rights in its assertion of state sovereignty. A vehement opposition
to the tariff, both in 1824 and on the subsequent modification in
1828, had been led by the talented delegation from South Carolina in
congress; and when they were defeated in the halls of legislation,
with characteristic energy they renewed their efforts to overturn the
system, and to render it unpopular with the people. In the latter part
of November, 1832, a state convention assembled at Columbia, which, at
length, passed an ordinance, by which they declared: “That the several
acts and parts of acts of the congress of the United States, purporting
to be laws for the imposing of duties and imports on the importation of
foreign commodities, and now having actual operation and effect within
the United States, and more especially” two acts for the same purposes
passed on the 29th of May, 1828, and on the 14th of July, 1832, “are
unauthorized by the constitution of the United States, and violate the
true meaning and intent thereof, and are null and void, and no law,”
nor binding on the citizens of that state or its officers; and by the
said ordinance it is further declared to be “unlawful for any of the
constituted authorities of the state or the United States, to enforce
the payment of the duties imposed by the said acts within the same
state, and that it is the duty of the legislature to pass such laws
as may be necessary to give full effect to the said ordinance.” This
tone of menace naturally aroused the Executive to corresponding energy
and decision. He immediately issued a proclamation, which will be long
admired for its sound and able exposition of the principles of the
constitution――for its breathings of a spirit of exalted patriotism――and
its eloquent appeal to Carolina herself and to the other states, which
were perhaps ready to join her standard, to remember the toil and blood
which American liberty cost――the sacredness of the constitution――and
the importance of the preservation of the Union. While the proclamation
of the President was commended by most of the states of the Union,
as an able and judicious document, it served to increase, rather than
allay, the excited citizens of South Carolina. The legislature of that
state being in session, authorized and instructed her governor to issue
a counter proclamation, which he did on the 20th of December, in which,
in consonance with the legislative resolutions, he “solemnly warned
the citizens of South Carolina against all attempts to seduce them from
their primary allegiance to the state.” “I charge you,” said he, “to
be faithful to your duty as citizens of South Carolina, and earnestly
exhort you to disregard those ‘vain measures’ of military force, which,
if the President, in violation of all his constitutional obligations,
and your most sacred rights, should be tempted to employ, it would
become your solemn duty at all hazards to resist.” On the same day
general orders were issued by authority of the legislature, to raise
volunteers, either in companies, troops, battalions, squadrons, &c.,
for the purpose of repelling invasion and in support of the rights of
the state. Under a deep sense of the importance of energy befitting
the emergency, the President, January 16th, 1833, addressed a message
to congress, in which, after giving a history of proceedings both on
the part of Carolina and the general government, he recommended the
adoption of such measures as would clothe the Executive with competent
power to suppress the risen spirit of insubordination――sustain the
public officers in the discharge of their duties――and give power to
the courts to carry out their constitutional decisions. While the storm
was apparently thus gathering strength, and was ready to burst in still
greater violence upon the nation, two events occurred which served to
allay it, and indeed were the harbingers of comparative peace and amity.
The first of these was an affectionate appeal of the general assembly
of Virginia to the patriotism and magnanimity of South Carolina,
expressed in a preamble and resolutions, as honorable to the “Ancient
Dominion” as any act of her life, and worthy of her in the days of
Patrick Henry and his contemporaries. The other event was the passage
of a bill introduced by Mr. Clay, termed the “compromise bill,” which
was designed as an act of pacification between the north and south――a
middle course between extremes; and although not entirely satisfactory
perhaps to either party, it was accepted by both, and was the means,
under Providence, of staying the risen storm. A convention was soon
after held in South Carolina, which, in view of the appeal of Virginia,
and the modification of the tariff, proceeded to recommend the
following ordinance: “Whereas, the congress of the United States by an
act recently passed has made such a reduction and modification of the
duties upon foreign imports, as amounts substantially to an ultimate
reduction of the duties to the revenue standard, and that no higher
duties shall be made than may be necessary to defray the expenditures
of the government:” “It is therefore _ordained_ and _declared_, that
the ordinance, entitled ‘An ordinance to nullify certain acts of the
congress of the United States, purporting to be laws laying duties
on the importation of foreign commodities,’ and all acts passed in
pursuance thereof, be henceforth deemed and held to have no effect;
provided, that the act entitled ‘An act further to amend the militia
laws of this state,’ passed on the 20th day of December, 1832, shall
remain in force until it shall be repealed, or modified by the
legislature.”

The excitement at Washington at this time was seldom if ever surpassed.
Every day was prominent with important measures and occurrences. The
reception of, and debate upon, Mr. Clay’s “compromise bill” were things
not to be forgotten. The senate, we are told, was a scene of the most
intense interest. A multitude of both sexes filled the hall. Profound
silence and gravity prevailed, and a deep sensation was evinced, as
much by that general silence, as by the marked interruption of it once
or twice by audible emotions. There was an opinion expressed on many
sides that the “tariff bill would not, after all, pass the senate.”
But the opinion was not, we see confirmed, by the issue. It passed that
body by a vote of twenty-nine to sixteen. It was called the “bloody
bill,” by the government journal, and was held by it to represent “the
mortal remains of state rights.”

Congress adjourned on Friday morning, March the 1st, at one o’clock.
On the following Monday, General Jackson, who had been re-elected
President, was inaugurated with much parade and amid great shoutings.
His address on the occasion, was received with great applause. The oath
was administered to him and Mr. Van Buren by the chief justice. The
President in his address recognised the importance of state rights, but
properly insisted upon the equal, if not superior value of the Union,
and the sacred duty of every state to contribute to its preservation
by a liberal support of the government. He recognised the interest and
importance of the time, and promised all his powers to sustain that
principle which should make and continue us a united and happy people.

During the summer of 1833, the President visited New England, by the
way of Philadelphia and New York; and, having proceeded as far as
Concord in Massachusetts, returned again to the seat of government.

In this tour, the President was received in every place through
which he passed with those demonstrations of respect and attention
which are overdue to the chief magistrate of a free and enlightened
people. Whatever opinions were entertained of his administration by
his political opponents, they united in every suitable expression of
honor to the man, whom the suffrages of a majority had elevated to the
highest office in the nation. The President’s tour commenced on the
6th of June, and was suddenly terminated in the beginning of July――his
return to Washington being hastened, as was said, by the state of his
health, which had become too feeble to endure the fatigue incidental
to such an expedition.

About this time several changes were effected in the cabinet. Edward
Livingston, secretary of state, received the appointment of envoy
extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary of the United States to the
court of France, and Louis M’Lane, secretary of the treasury, took his
place, and William J. Duane, the office of Mr. M’Lane.

On the 18th of September, a communication was read to the cabinet by
the President, showing his decision on the subject of the removal of
the public deposits from the Bank of the United States. His own mind
was determined upon that of removal; and he begged his cabinet “to
consider the proposed measure as his own――in which he should require no
one to sacrifice opinion or principle.” Mr. Duane being opposed, as was
thought, to this course of the President, was removed, and R. B. Taney
appointed in his place.

On Monday, the 30th of June, congress terminated its session. A few
days before the close of the session, Andrew Stevenson was nominated
as minister to the court of St. James, and Roger B. Taney, as secretary
of the treasury. The latter gentleman had received his appointment from
the President, during the recess of the senate. It had been the uniform
practice for appointments of this kind to be laid before the senate,
at the commencement of the session; but General Jackson had withheld
his name till near its close; and for nearly seven months Mr. Taney had
been permitted to discharge the duties of an office, which, according
to the substantial meaning, if not the literal construction of the
constitution, he had no right to hold.

The rejection of Mr. Stevenson was justified, on the principles
early advanced by General Jackson, that the appointment of members of
congress to important offices was calculated to introduce corruption
into the government. But other reasons operated, and among them, the
disclosure made to the senate of the assurance of the President months
previously, through the secretary of state, to Mr. Stevenson, that
he should have the appointment. This promise was made, it was said,
under the expectation that Mr. Stevenson would carry out the views and
several measures of the Executive; and in this view the ratification of
his nomination was deemed highly improper.

Before the session closed, the following nominations were made and
confirmed. John Forsyth, of Georgia, to be secretary of state; Levi
Woodbury, of New Hampshire, secretary of the treasury; Mahlon Dickerson,
of New Jersey, secretary of the navy; William Wilkins, of Pennsylvania,
minister to Russia.

Just before the termination of the session, June 21st, the President
communicated to congress, in a special message, the death of the
illustrious La Fayette, which took place at his residence, La Grange,
in France, on the 20th of May, at the advanced age of seventy-six. At
the same time, orders were issued to the army and navy to honor the
memory of the last of the generals of the Revolution. The house and
senate chamber were both hung in black, agreeably to a resolution,
unanimously adopted. It was also recommended by resolution, to the
people of the United States to wear a badge of mourning for thirty days;
and John Quincy Adams was appointed to deliver at the next session of
congress, an oration on the life and character of our country’s friend.

The second session of the twenty-third congress commenced December
1st, 1834. The foreign relations of the country were represented by the
President in his message to be unimpaired, and with all countries, save
France, the understanding was such as was desirable. That government,
however, still continued to persevere in her omission to satisfy
the conceded claims of our citizens. The other prominent subjects
regarded the United States Bank――the regulation of the deposits――and
the impolicy and unconstitutionality of appropriations for internal
improvements. The conduct of France towards the United States,
in neglecting the payment of a just and already allowed debt, was
generally censured in the United States. The President informed
congress, “that, in his opinion, the United States ought to insist
on a prompt execution of the treaty, and should an appropriation not
be made by the French Chambers at their next session, prompt measures
would not only be most honorable and just, but have the best effect
on our national character.” This recommendation of the President was
considered by some, in its practical effect, as a declaration of war,
and especially as he recommended, in case of longer neglect, a law
authorizing reprisals upon French property. But the expediency of
reprisals upon French property recommended by the President, or indeed
of any immediate action on the part of the national government, was
considered by many extremely doubtful; and the senate, on the 14th
of January, by a unanimous vote, stated this to be its opinion in a
resolution to that effect. A similar resolution was adopted by the
house. The prospect of a serious collision between these two nations,
for a time so dark, at length passed away. In 1835, the President
announced that France had acknowledged the validity of our claims as
liquidated by the treaty of 1831, although payment was still withheld.

It may here be added, that during the year 1836, the President
announced to the great satisfaction of the country that the
appropriations having been made, our diplomatic relations with France
had been resumed, and promised to be mutually beneficial to the two
countries.

On the 6th of July, occurred the death of the venerable John Marshall,
in Philadelphia, in the eighty-eighth year of his age. He had long been
an ornament to the legal profession, and for several years had filled
with distinguished ability the office of chief justice of the United
States. To great talents and distinguished attainments, he united
that integrity which inspired all parties with confidence, and that
Christian principle which caused the nation to mourn over him at his
decease, as “a great man fallen in Israel.”

The twenty-fourth congress commenced its first session on the 7th
of December, 1835. James K. Polk was elected speaker. Among the
appointments by the President at this period, were those of Roger B.
Taney, as chief justice of the United States, and Andrew Stevenson,
minister to Great Britain. The nomination of the latter met with strong
opposition in the senate.

During this session the committee on naval affairs in the senate
reported a bill, directing an “exploring expedition” to the Pacific
Ocean and the South Seas, and authorizing the President to send out
a sloop of war for that purpose. Mr. Reynolds, who may be considered
the father of the scheme, presented the subject with much eloquence in
the hall of representatives, at Washington. But the most important act
of the legislature, was the “deposit or distribution act”――or a law
requiring and regulating the deposits of the money of the United States
with the banks of the several states, and the distribution of the
surplus revenue among the several states. In the senate, the vote on
the engrossment of the bill was, yeas, forty; nays, six. In the house,
yeas, one hundred and sixty-three; nays, forty-four.

In April, an act had passed congress establishing the territory of
Wisconsin. In June, Arkansas was admitted into the Union on an equal
footing with the original states――together with Michigan, under certain
conditions. The act of admission settled the boundary dispute between
Ohio and Michigan――and Michigan was admitted on her assent to the act.

Congress adjourned on the 4th of July――without any other event of much
importance within the walls of the capitol. The only appointment of
note made near the close of the session, was that of Lewis Cass, as
minister to France.

One week after the close of the session, (July 11th,) an important
circular was issued from the treasury department in relation to money
to be received in payment for public lands. By this circular the
receivers of public money were instructed, after the 15th day of August
next ensuing, to receive in payment of the public lands nothing except
what is directed by the existing laws, viz., gold and silver, and in
proper places, Virginia land scrip. In order to secure the faithful
execution of these instructions, all receivers were strictly prohibited
from accepting for land sold, any draft, certificate, or other evidence
of money or deposit, though for specie, unless signed by the treasurer
of the United States, in conformity to the act of April 24th, 1820.

The last annual message of General Jackson was transmitted to the
twenty-fourth congress, on the 6th of December, 1836, that body having
entered upon its second session the preceding day.

The foreign relations of the country the President represented as
amicable. In regard to the “deposit or distribution act,” passed by the
last congress, it had received, he said, his “reluctant approval,” and
“the consequences apprehended from it had been measurably realized. It
was an act merely for the deposit of the surplus moneys of the United
States in the state treasuries for safe keeping, until wanted for
the service of the general government――but it had been spoken of as
a _gift_――would be so considered――and might be so used.”

Contrary to the views of a large portion of the citizens of the United
States, the President represented the “specie circular” of the 11th
of July, as producing many “salutary consequences.” “It is confidently
believed,” said he, “that the country will find in the motive which
induced that order, and the happy consequences which will have ensued,
much to commend and nothing to condemn.” In opposition to this opinion
of the President, there were those who attributed to the operation
of that circular a great part of the pecuniary embarrassment and
disturbances of the currency, which afflicted the country.

Early in 1837, (January 14th,) a resolution called the “expunging
resolution,” originally introduced into the senate, March 18th, 1833,
and which had given birth to long and even acrimonious debates, was
adopted by a majority of that body. The object of this resolution was
to obliterate, or expunge from the senate journal a resolution adopted
March 28th, 1834, censuring the President for removing Mr. Duane,
and assuming power over the public revenue not conferred by the
constitution. This latter resolution had given the President and his
friends serious annoyance, and frequent but vain efforts had been
made to blot it from the journal. At length, Mr. Benton succeeded by
a small majority; and late at night, on the 10th of January, 1837, the
secretary of the senate, by order, brought the journal of 1833–4, into
the senate chamber, and spread open the condemned page upon the table.
He then proceeded to draw black lines on the four sides of the recorded
resolution, and on the face of it wrote――“_expunged by order of the
senate, January 16th, 1837_.” Against this proceeding, Daniel Webster,
in behalf of himself and colleague, read a solemn protest.

The time for the election of a successor to General Jackson having
arrived, the ceremony of counting the votes given by the several
electoral colleges for that object took place in the presence of both
houses of congress, on the 8th of February, 1837, when Martin Van Buren
was declared to be elected President for four years from the 4th day
of March. The candidates were five in number. Mr. Van Buren, received
of the votes cast, one hundred and seventy; William Henry Harrison,
seventy-three; Hugh L. White, twenty-six; Daniel Webster, fourteen;
and William L. Magnum, eleven.

In reviewing the administration of General Jackson, it is not to
be denied that he was a remarkable man. He doubtless possessed many
of those great qualities which give to one the indisputable command
over the many. He was early inured to hardship and danger, and early
acquired great independence of thought and action, and a contempt of
opposition, which followed him through all the vicissitudes of his
career. He made no pretensions to learning, or scholarship of any
kind; indeed, his education was superficial and but barely sufficient
to conduct him decently through life. In an accurate knowledge of
the theory and science of government, and the details of legislation,
many of his contemporaries were immeasurably his superior; but what he
lacked in knowledge, he made up in boldness and decision. His measures
were often hastily conceived, but pertinaciously adhered to. Obedience
to his commands were as much required, while President of the United
States, as while a general at the head of our armies. It is not to be
denied, that he entered upon the discharge of his duties as president
with an honest desire to serve his country faithfully, but such was
the natural pertinacity of his character, that in the opinion of his
political opponents, he was led to insist upon measures, the wisdom of
which, under other circumstances, he himself would have questioned. The
destruction of the United States Bank was in reality the great measure
of his administration, he early conceived a prejudice against the
officers of that institution, and was probably honest in the belief
that its management was wrong. Hence, he was led with characteristic
ardor to commence measures of hostility against it, which, it is
well known, ended in the ruin of that great fiscal institution of
the country. Its fall involved the fortunes of hundreds and thousands,
whose entire means of subsistence were embarked in its immense capital.
The ruin of this institution, in the belief of many, was conducive
to the interests of the country, notwithstanding the sufferings it
entailed upon thousands. Another portion of the community believe its
downfall to have been the precursor of that wide spread commercial
embarrassment――that derangement of the currency――that blight and
bankruptcy of thousands, which for years distressed and harrassed the
country. General Jackson, as a military commander, had doubtless his
defects. He was stern, imperious, and determined. Yet, for his bravery,
his patriotism, his success, he deserves a grateful remembrance; and
due respect will doubtless be paid to his memory by the generations
that follow. His reputation as a statesman will not be so unequivocal.
Different estimates will be made――different views will be entertained.
All will accord to him energy, independence, promptness, and
determination; while some will not give him credit for having pursued
that line of policy which resulted in the greatest prosperity to his
country.


                  ADMINISTRATION OF MARTIN VAN BUREN.

On the 4th of March, 1837, the inauguration of Mr. Van Buren took place
in accordance with the form prescribed by the constitution, in the
presence of a large assemblage from all quarters of the country. The
ex-president, the President elect, and the chief justice of the United
States, arrived at the scene about twelve o’clock; the two former in a
beautiful carriage, made from the timber of the frigate Constitution,
escorted by the Potomac Dragoons, and a corps of infantry.

The address of Mr. Van Buren, on the occasion of his inauguration,
may be said to have disappointed both political parties throughout the
country. The _temper_ of it was conceded even by his opposers to be
good, and its entire exemption from invidious comparisons and allusions
was worthy of all commendation. It was even less partisan, perhaps,
than the political friends of the new President expected or desired;
but to his opponents it induced the hope, that the vindictive strife
which had long harassed the country, would be followed by a more
tolerant policy. “If any exception be taken to the address,” said a
distinguished journal, soon after its delivery, “it certainly will
not be from the south, whose good-will its language is particularly
adapted to conciliate.” By way of conciliating the south, he repeated
an expression of opinion made before his election, that no bill which
had for its object the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia
against the wishes of the slave-holding states, would receive his
sanction during his presidential career. To this he added: “For myself
I desire to declare, that the principle that will govern me in the high
duty to which my country calls me, is a strict adherance to the letter
and spirit of the constitution, as it was designed by those who framed
it. Looking back to it as a sacred instrument carefully and not easily
framed; remembering that it was throughout a work of concession and
compromise; viewing it as limited to national objects; regarding it
as leaving to the people and to the states all power not explicitly
parted with, I shall endeavor to preserve, protect, and defend it, by
anxiously referring to its provisions for direction in every action. To
matters of domestic concernment, which it has intrusted to the federal
government, and to such as relate to our intercourse with foreign
nations, I shall zealously devote myself; beyond those limits I shall
never pass.”

On retiring from the presidential chair, General Jackson published
a farewell address to his fellow-citizens, after the example of
Washington. By his political friends this address was highly extolled,
both for the wisdom and importance of its political maxims, and the
warm regard expressed for the country and its institutions.

Others regarded it with less favor. They could admit that it
expressed sound constitutional opinions on some important points,
and developed the true policy of the federal government in relation to
its intercourse with foreign nations――in relation to the several state
sovereignties, and to the means of defence by an increase of the navy,
and the establishment of more and better constructed fortifications.
But they were not prepared to unite with this “second father of his
country”――as his warm admirers denominated him――in his views of the
_currency_ of the country, nor in the wisdom of the measures which he
had pursued, and which he still recommended in relation to it. They
also dissented from some of his statements respecting the success of
his administration, and particularly from the declaration, that he had
left the “people prosperous and happy.”

Immediately after the termination of the twenty-fourth congress, the
senate, in conformity with a previous summons issued by the President
of the United States, held an extra session, for the purpose of
transacting executive business. The following gentlemen having been
nominated by the President, were confirmed by the senate, for the
offices which they respectively filled, and composed the new cabinet,
viz.: John Forsyth, secretary of state; Levi Woodbury, secretary of
the treasury; Joel R. Poinsett, secretary of war; Mahlon Dickerson,
secretary of the navy; Benjamin F. Butler, attorney-general. These
gentlemen, with the exception of Mr. Poinsett, were members of the
cabinet of General Jackson.

From whatever source it originated, there was no doubt of the fact,
that a most extraordinary pressure in pecuniary affairs was now
experienced throughout the country. From New York city a committee
of merchants proceeded to Washington to confer with the President,
upon the present and the threatening difficulties, and to obtain, if
possible, the repeal of the treasury circular. The answer they received
was, that it would neither be repealed nor modified. In the month of
May, the financial affairs of the country reached a crisis towards
which they had for some months past been rapidly hastening. The banks
of New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore having suffered a heavy run
for specie, which they could now no longer endure, resolved to suspend
specie payments; which suspension was soon generally followed by a
like suspension on the part of the banks throughout the whole country.
Numerous failures of the merchants in all the principal cities were,
about the same time, matters of almost daily occurrence. In New York
they became at length so much a matter of course that they ceased to
excite notice.

The banks in which the United States government deposited the
national revenue were involved in the greatest calamity; and of course
the law of congress which required these revenues to be deposited
in specie-paying banks could not be complied with. The consequent
embarrassment experienced by the government, induced the President
on the fifteenth day of May, to issue his proclamation for an extra
session of congress, to be convened on the first Monday of September
following.

The extraordinary condition in which the country now found itself,
led to a variety of measures for the purpose of affording temporary
relief. Several of the state legislatures passed acts legalizing the
suspension of specie payments on the part of the banks, and declaring
that it should work no forfeiture of their charters. Some of the city
governments passed by-laws, directing the issue of certificates for
small sums, from five cents to two dollars, which should be receivable
for taxes and debts due to the city government. Baltimore, for example,
passed an ordinance for the issue of such certificates for an amount
not exceeding one hundred thousand dollars, and Philadelphia a like
ordinance for certificates to the amount of one hundred and thirty
thousand dollars. The banks themselves were obliged to adopt new rules
of business, and the entire pecuniary condition of the country seemed
suddenly changed.

On the 4th of September, in compliance with the proclamation of the
President, congress assembled in extra session. In his message of
the following day, the President alleged as the reason for convening
congress in extra session, the inability of the government to comply
with the law requiring the revenues to be deposited in specie-paying
banks, the apprehension that the suspension of specie payments in
addition to the before existing pecuniary embarrassments of the
country would so far diminish the public revenue, that it would be
insufficient to defray the unavoidable expenses of the government,
and the difficulties experienced by the mercantile interest in meeting
their engagements. “Sensible that adequate provisions for these
unexpected exigencies could only be made by congress, convinced that
some of them would be indispensably necessary to the public service
before the regular period of your meeting, and desirous also to enable
you to exercise your full constitutional powers for the relief of the
country,” the President remarks, “I could not with propriety avoid
subjecting you to the inconvenience of assembling at as early a day
as the state of the popular representation would permit.” The message
proceeds to ascribe the pecuniary embarrassments of the country to the
redundancy of credit acquired by excessive issues of bank paper, and by
means of foreign loans, contracted by the states and state institutions;
and above all, by the lavish accommodations extended by foreign dealers
to our merchants, and as the consequence of this redundancy of credit,
to what the message terms, “a spirit of adventurous speculation,
embracing the whole range of human enterprise.” The President next
adverted to the best mode of keeping the public funds. A national
bank, as a fiscal agent, he repudiated, and also local banks, they
having failed to answer the expectations of the government in this
particular. He would propose “a separation of the fiscal operations
of the government from those of individuals or corporations;” a
divorcement of the government from banks and banking, and a thorough
change of the custodaries of the public revenue. As a means of
immediate relief, he advised to the postponement of the fourth
instalment of the deposits with the states, and the issue of treasury
notes receivable for all public dues, but without interest. Both by the
President and the secretary of the treasury a new mode was proposed of
keeping the public revenue. They proposed to place it in the custody
of commissioners, or receivers-general, at certain central points; into
their hands it was to be paid, and kept by them, subject to the call
and control of the treasurer. Most of the money, it was supposed, could
be paid out near the places where it was collected, and thus save the
expense and hazard of transmission to the seat of government. “This
organization,” said the secretary, “would be advantageous as a separate
establishment for this business alone, and as an independent check
on most of those collecting the revenues. But it would require some
addition to the present number of offices, and in the first instance
would more increase the public expense.” The whole additional offices
supposed to be necessary were ten. The annual increase of expenses was
estimated at sixty thousand dollars. The danger of losses would be no
greater, and probably less, under this organization, than at present.
Such was the general plan proposed for keeping the public moneys,
and which it was urged would render the government more independent,
and less subject to be affected by the vicissitudes of trade and
speculation, and less under the control of selfish and moneyed
corporations.

In accordance with the recommendation of the President and secretary of
the treasury, a bill was early introduced into the senate for the safe
keeping of the public funds, commonly denominated the _Sub-Treasury_
bill. This was intended to be the prominent measure of the session,
and was urged with great power and by numerous considerations upon
the senate and house of representatives. By the senate it was adopted
by a vote of twenty-six to twenty. In the house, after undergoing an
animated and protracted discussion, it was laid upon the table, by a
vote of one hundred and twenty to one hundred and seven. Subsequently,
an effort was made to reconsider the vote by which the bill was laid
upon the table, but was lost; the motion for reconsideration being
itself disposed of in the same manner by a vote of one hundred and
nineteen to one hundred and four.

The extra session of congress was brought to a close on the 16th of
October. The two principal measures adopted, designed for the relief of
the government, were the postponement to the first day of January, 1839,
of the payment of the fourth instalment of the deposits with the states,
and the issue of treasury notes to an amount not exceeding ten millions
of dollars, reimbursable in one year, and of the denomination of not
less than fifty dollars.

In the autumn of 1837, an insurrection broke out in the British
provinces of Upper and Lower Canada. Citizens of the United States,
sympathizing with the insurgents, enlisted into their cause, and
attempts were made, in violation of the laws of the United States,
to raise troops in our territory to aid the revolutionists. Great
excitement prevailed among the inhabitants along the line of our
north-western frontier. The President of the United States in order
to sustain the laws, issued his proclamation under date of the 5th of
January, declaring that all persons who should compromit the neutrality
of the United States, would render themselves liable to punishment
under those laws, which would be rigidly enforced. At the same time
orders were issued from the war department to General Scott to repair
to the Canada frontier with an armed force, to be furnished by the
States of New York and Vermont, for the purpose of repelling an
apprehended invasion of our soil. The immediate occasion of issuing
these orders was an attack made by an armed force from Canada upon the
American steamboat Caroline. This vessel, owned by an American citizen,
and bound for Schlosser, upon the east side of the Niagara river, and
within the United States, was boarded about midnight, on the 29th of
December, by seventy or eighty armed men, who immediately commenced an
attack upon the crew and passengers with muskets, swords, and cutlasses,
and soon set her on fire, towed her into the current of the river,
and abandoned her to the mercy of the cataract. Out of thirty-three
individuals known to have been on board of her, twelve could not be
found, and of those found, one, Amos Durfee, was dead, having been shot
through the head with a musket hall, and several others were wounded.

Immediate steps were taken by the department of state to bring the
whole subject to the notice of the British government. Sir Allen N.
M’Nabb, the commander of the British forces on the Niagara frontier,
in justification of this attack on the Caroline, alleged that he had
the most positive information that she had been sold to the pirates
on Navy Island, and, loaded with provisions and munitions of war, was
destined to co-operate with the British rebels. Although the civil war
in Canada was soon brought to a close, the difficulties between the two
governments, growing out of the attack on the Caroline, still remained
unadjusted.

The second session of the twenty-fifth congress commenced on
the first Monday of December, 1837. The message of the President
represented the condition of our foreign relations as not materially
changed since the last annual message of his predecessor. Of questions
pending between the United States and foreign governments, the most
important regarded our north-eastern boundary. “The sole result of
long pending negotiations and a perplexing arbitration,” the President
observed, “appears to be a conviction, that a conventional line must be
adopted, from the impossibility of ascertaining the true one, according
to the description contained in the treaty. Without coinciding in
this opinion, which is not thought to be well founded, my predecessor
gave the strongest proof of the earnest desire of the United States
to terminate satisfactorily the dispute, by proposing the substitution
of a conventional line, if the consent of the states interested in the
question could be obtained. To this proposition the British government
have not yet replied.” The President urges upon the consideration of
congress the claims of the government upon Mexico; that government
having as yet declined to do any thing satisfactorily for the
adjustment of our demands upon her for many cases both of public and
private wrongs. The subject of the collection, transfer, and safe
keeping of the public moneys was again represented as requiring the
attention of the legislative department. The President considered
congress as having decided, at the last session, against the creation
of a national bank, and also against the deposit system. He therefore
brought forward again the sub-treasury scheme as the only remaining
expedient. A graduation of the prices of the public lands according
to a valuation to be made, and an extension of the pre-emption laws
in favor of settlers, were measures which the President seemed to
regard with favor. The system of removing the Indians commenced by
Mr. Jefferson in 1804, having been steadily persevered in by every
succeeding president, was well nigh terminating in complete success,
almost all the Indian tribes having been removed and established west
of the Mississippi. The war in Florida still continuing, the principal
part of the army had been concentrated there, with a view and in the
expectation of bringing the war in that territory to a speedy close.

The second session of the twenty-fifth congress was terminated on
the 9th of July, 1838, without however any thing having been done
for the safe keeping, transfer, collection, and disbursement of the
public moneys; and on the 14th of the same month, the secretary of the
treasury issued his circular to the collectors and receivers announcing
this fact, and urging upon them the necessity of scrupulously enforcing
the regulations and instructions of the department, of accuracy in
their accounts, punctuality in their returns, promptness in their
payments, and of an entire forbearance to use any part of the public
moneys. The acts passed at this session of congress were chiefly of
a private nature, and few, if any of the measures recommended by the
President in his message, were adopted.

On the 13th of August, 1838, by previous concert, many of the banks
resumed specie payments. On the 23d of July previous, a convention
was held in the city of Philadelphia, in which the banks of the states
of Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, Delaware,
Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, and Missouri, were represented, and which
unanimously resolved to recommend the 13th of August as a suitable
and convenient time, on which to resume. Accordingly, on the arrival
of that day, the resumption was generally effected without commotion,
without injury to themselves, and without inconvenience to the
mercantile part of the community. This was an event which had been
devoutly looked for, and was welcomed by the whole country. Some
anxiety was felt as to the effect resumption would have upon the
specie-paying banks; but generally, it was accomplished with ease. In
Philadelphia, where this anxiety was perhaps the greatest, the demands
for specie were confined to the wants of the community for change.

On the 3d of December, 1838, the twenty-fifth congress commenced its
_third_ session. On the following day the President transmitted his
message, in which he represented the foreign relations of the country
as generally friendly. With Mexico an advance had been made toward an
adjustment of difficulties by the conclusion of a treaty, which, when
ratified, would refer all subjects of controversy to the arbitrament
of a friendly power. The work of removing the Indians west of the
Mississippi was yet in successful progress, the entire removal of the
Cherokees having been now effected.

Of the financial state of the government and country, the President
spoke in tones of exultation. “When we call to mind,” said he, “the
recent extreme embarrassments produced by excessive issues of bank
paper, aggravated by the unforeseen withdrawal of much foreign capital,
and the inevitable derangement arising from the distribution of the
surplus revenue among the states as required by congress; and consider
the heavy expenses incurred by the removal of Indian tribes; by the
military operations in Florida; and on account of the unusually large
appropriations made at the last two annual sessions of congress for
other objects, we have a striking evidence in the present official
state of our finances, (estimated at $2,765,000 in the treasury on
the 1st of January, 1839,) of the abundant resources of the country
to fulfil all its obligations.”

This, by the opposition, was considered an extraordinary
representation on the part of the President, when it was considered
that the government had resorted to the issue of treasury notes by
millions; and had withheld more than nine millions from the states,
in order to maintain its credit and continue its operations. But
still more extraordinary was it, in the view of some, that all the
improvements in the condition of the country should be ascribed to
the agency of the general government; when it was well known that the
government as such, had done little, if any more than look after its
own interest. Not a measure had been adopted for the relief of the
banks, except extending the time of payment of the public deposits,
which the government could not collect――and nothing for the people,
except postponing the payment of bonds for duties to the amount of four
or five millions of dollars.

The President also renewed his recommendation of the sub-treasury,
and urged its adoption on the ground, as it was then understood, of a
recent remarkable defalcation of a collector in one of the principal
cities of the Union. This collector, it was subsequently made known to
congress by a special message, was Samuel Swartwout, collector of the
customs at New York. He was appointed to the office of the customs by
General Jackson, in April, 1829, during the recess of the senate. On
the 29th of March, 1830, he was nominated to the senate, and confirmed
for four years. In 1834, he was appointed again. His term expired
in March, 1838. To the nation this defalcation was surprising and
distressing, and the more startling, as from the secretary’s report
it appeared, that during the whole time of Mr. Swarlwout’s continuance
in office, no suspicions had been excited at the treasury, that he
was guilty of default. Yet, on investigation, it appeared that his
peculations began with the first year of his holding the office, and
continued to roll up rapidly to the close. It amounted to about one
million and a quarter of dollars.

On the 26th of February, a message from the President was transmitted
to congress, in relation to difficulties which existed between Maine
and “the disputed territory.” Portions of this territory were under
the actual jurisdiction and sovereignty of the British authorities,
and other portions was under the jurisdiction and sovereignty of the
State of Maine. Pending the negotiations between the government of
the United States and that of Great Britain, for a final adjustment
of the question, it seems to have been understood by the State of
Maine, that the actual state of things in the territory was to remain
undisturbed――Great Britain exercising her sovereignty where she already
held it, and Maine doing the same. It appears, however, that a numerous
band of depredators, chiefly from the adjoining British provinces,
but without the sanction of their own government, entered on a part
of the territory actually held by the State of Maine, and proceeded
to cut down and destroy the timber. The governor of Maine, on being
apprised of this fact, and under a special resolve of the legislature,
despatched the land agent of the state, with what was deemed a
sufficient force to repel the aggression. While the agent was
proceeding in the accomplishment of his duty, he was seized by
the trespassers and conveyed a prisoner into the province of New
Brunswick. Thereupon, the governor of Maine dispatched a sheriff, and
an officer appointed in place of the land agent, with an armed force,
to vindicate the authority and honor of the state. Sir John Harvey, the
lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick, took fire, and a warm, if not an
angry, correspondence ensued between him and the governor of Maine. The
whole country, both on the side of Maine and in the British provinces,
was thrown into a state of intense excitement; troops were raised
and other hostile preparations made by both parties, and every thing
seemed to threaten an immediate collision. In this crisis of affairs,
the President of the United States transmitted a special message to
congress, inviting their attention to the subject; and Major Gen. Scott
received orders to repair to the scene of threatened hostilities, for
the purpose of arresting any hostile movement, until an opportunity
could be afforded for the two governments to treat upon the matter in
dispute. The message to congress resulted in the passing of the act
before mentioned, conferring additional powers on the President, and
General Scott soon succeeded in restoring the _quasi_ belligerents to
a more amicable temper, and in effecting a temporary adjustment of the
immediate difficulties. The military forces were to be withdrawn, and
a small civil _posse_ was to be left under the land agent to protect
the timber, already cut, and to prevent further depredations, and the
questions of possession and jurisdiction, were to remain as they were
before the strife began.

During the third session of the twenty-fifth congress, an event
occurred which excited the sensibilities of the whole nation, and
called forth expressions of decided disapprobation from the candid
of all parties. This was a _duel_ fought with rifles near the city of
Washington, between Jonathan Cilley and William J. Graves, both members
of the house, the former from Maine, the latter from Kentucky. On the
third fire, Mr. Cilley fell, mortally wounded.

The remains of the murdered man were attended to the grave by the
President, the heads of departments, the members of both houses of
congress, and a large concourse of citizens. The judges of the Supreme
Court, then in session, were invited to attend the funeral. Most
honorable to themselves, and honorable to the exalted stations they
held, they entered upon their record the following resolves:

_Resolved_, That the justices of the Supreme Court entertain a high
respect for the character of the deceased, sincerely deplore his
untimely death, and sympathize with his bereaved family in the heavy
affliction which has fallen upon them.

_Resolved_, That with every desire to manifest their respect for the
house of representatives, and the committee of the house by whom they
have been invited, and for the memory of the deceased, the justices of
the Supreme Court _cannot, consistently with the duties they owe to the
public, attend in their official characters the funeral of one who has
fallen in a duel_.

_Resolved_, That these proceedings be entered on the minutes of the
court, and that the chief justice inclose a copy to the chairman of the
committee of the house of representatives.

The above tragical event justly excited the indignation of the nation.
From every quarter a demand was made for some law to prevent such
“wickedness in high places.” At length, a bill for an act was reported
by a committee appointed for that purpose, which passed by a vote of
one hundred and ten to twenty-one. The first section provided, that
if any person shall, in the District of Columbia, challenge another
to fight a duel, or accept a challenge, or shall knowingly carry a
challenge to fight a duel in or out of the District of Columbia; and
such duel shall be fought in or out of said district, and either of
the parties shall be slain or mortally wounded, the surviving party and
others connected, shall, on conviction, be punished by imprisonment and
hard labor in the penitentiary for a term not exceeding _ten_ years.

A second section provided, that the mere challenge, or aiding and
abetting a challenge, which resulted in no duel, should be punished as
above, for a term of _five_ years.

A third section provided, that if any person be guilty of assaulting,
striking or wounding another, for refusing to accept a challenge, or
who shall post or publish any person, or use toward them opprobrious
language for refusing to accept a challenge, shall, on conviction, be
punished as above for a term not exceeding _three_ years.

In August following (26th, 1839,) an event of a novel and
interesting character occurred in the capture of the schooner Amistad,
a Spanish vessel, found lying in the waters near Long Island. On board
of her were two white men, Spaniards, Jose Ruiz and Pedro Montez,
and fifty-four African negroes, under the command of one of their
own number, whose name was Cinquez. The Amistad, it appeared from
subsequent investigations, had sailed from Havana, in the Island of
Cuba, for another port in the West India Islands, with a cargo of
merchandise, and the Africans on board, claimed as slaves by the two
Spaniards, Ruiz and Montez. After having been four nights at sea,
the negroes rose upon the whites, killed the captain and crew, took
possession of the schooner, and, in endeavoring to return to Africa,
were at length found conveyed to the shores of Long Island.

The Amistad was first discovered by the United States revenue brig
Washington, which took possession of her, with her cargo and crew,
and brought her into the port of New London. The negroes, after an
investigation before the district judge, were committed to take their
trial before the circuit court of the United States, to be holden at
Hartford, on the 17th of September, on a charge of piracy and murder on
the high seas. The grand jury, however, under the charge of the court,
found no bill against them, and they were discharged from the complaint,
but retained in custody under a claim of property interposed by Ruiz
and Montez――of the captors for salvage――and of the United States, made
in compliance with a demand of the Spanish minister, that they should
be surrendered to Spain, in accordance with a treaty existing between
that government and the United States. The district attorney also
filed a claim on behalf of the United States, that they should be
delivered into the hands of the President to be sent back to Africa.
On this state of the case, a writ of _habeas corpus_ was obtained from
the circuit court then in session at Hartford, to try their right to
their liberty. That court decided, that as the Africans were held in
custody under a regular process from the district court, they could
not be discharged by _habeas corpus_, but must take their trial on
the merits of the case. When the cause came on before the district
court, the several claims aforesaid, with a single exception, were
declared unfounded, and the Africans were ordered to be delivered to
the President to be restored to Africa. From this decree an appeal was
taken to the circuit court, which affirming the decree as a matter of
form, the case was carried to the Supreme Court of the United States,
which adjudged the Africans entitled to their unqualified discharge.
The negroes rested their claim on the ground that they were free
inhabitants of Africa, had been seized and sold to a slave trader, who
had carried them to Cuba in violation of the existing laws of Spain.
The conduct of the President of the United States, in making the United
States government a party against these Africans, and in appealing from
the decree of the district court in their favor, at the instance of
the Spanish minister, was regarded by the friends of the Africans as an
unwarranted and illegal exercise of power, and was severely reprobated
and condemned by many of the public journals. The President was charged
with being desirous of delivering up the Africans to the Spanish
government, and was said to have ordered a vessel of war to proceed
to New Haven, Connecticut, to be ready to take the Africans, for this
purpose, from the hands of the district court. The friends of the
President, however, claimed that he acted in this matter from a desire
merely to ascertain the treaty obligations of the United States, and to
preserve them inviolate.

On the 9th of October, 1839, another suspension of specie payments
commenced at Philadelphia. It was soon followed on the part of the
banks in the interior of Pennsylvania, in Baltimore, in Washington,
and in Richmond, until in a short time it became general throughout
the south and south-west. In this suspension the banks of New York and
New England did not in general participate, but with the exception of
the Rhode Island banks, continued to meet the demands made upon them
for specie. This suspension was supposed to have for its immediate
cause the difficulties and embarrassments of the United States
Bank of Pennsylvania, whose drafts on Paris had been protested for
non-acceptance. The drafts, however, were, on arriving at maturity,
with a single exception, honored by Rothschild.

On the assembling of the twenty-sixth congress, on the 2nd of
December, much difficulty was experienced in organizing the house of
representatives. Five persons belonging to New Jersey had received
certificates of election from the governor, which certificates, it
was contended, of right belonged to others. On this question the two
political parties in congress were suddenly arrayed against each other,
and the state of feeling which followed can scarcely be described. At
length the following resolution was offered to the house by Mr. Graves.

_Resolved_, That the acting clerk of the house shall proceed with the
call of the members from the different states of the Union in the usual
way, calling the names of such members from New Jersey as hold the
regular and legal commissions from the Executive of that state. The
discussion of the above resolution was continued until it was apparent
to the whole house――the clerk refusing to put it――that unless some
other and extraordinary measure was adopted, commensurate with the
difficulties in which they were involved, no organization could be
effected. In this juncture a resolution was offered, appointing Mr.
Adams _chairman_ of the house, which being adopted by a large majority,
he was conducted to the chair.

Under the guidance of Mr. Adams, the house proceeded on the 12th to
ballot for a speaker. Six ballotings were taken, when no choice having
been made, an adjournment to the 16th was moved and carried. On this
latter day, the balloting was resumed and resulted, on the eleventh
balloting, in the choice of Robert M. T. Hunter,――the New Jersey
members not voting.

On the 20th, the question was taken on a resolution to administer
the oath to the five gentlemen from the State of New Jersey, who had
presented credentials to the speaker and demanded to be sworn, and
decided in the negative, one hundred and sixteen to one hundred and
twelve.

This decision created a great sensation throughout the Union. It was a
wide departure from precedent, and deeply wounding to the pride of New
Jersey, as well as injurious to her interests.

The subsequent history of this case is interesting, but, in the opinion
of the whig party, reflected great discredit on the majority in the
house of representatives. An investigation of the subject was ordered,
and the committee on elections entered upon the duty assigned them.
They were proceeding in their investigations, when, on the 28th of
February, the house directed the committee “to report forthwith which
five of the ten individuals, claiming seats from the state of New
Jersey, received the greatest number of lawful votes from the whole
state for representatives in the congress of the United States, at the
election of 1838, in said state.”

This committee reported in favor of the five administration candidates.
A minority report was at the same time presented, which was ordered to
lie on the table.

On the 10th of March, a resolution was introduced by Mr. Petriken,
declaring the five persons who had brought no legal certificates,
entitled to their seats, and directing the speaker to qualify them.

The previous question being moved by the author of the resolutions,
debate was suppressed, and the vote taken, and the resolution adopted
by a vote of one hundred and eleven to eighty-one; several whig members
refusing to vote.

To a portion of the American people, no act could have appeared more
arbitrary and unjust, however right and proper it might have seemed to
the party in power; nor could many divest themselves of the impression,
that this course was adopted to secure certain objects, which the
administration had in view.

The opposition to Mr. Van Buren’s administration, growing out of
his views and his course in relation to the currency, and augmented
and heightened by the commercial revulsions which the country had
experienced, and the pecuniary embarrassments under which it had been
laboring for years, was now fast approaching to its crisis. On the 4th
of December, 1839, a Whig National Convention, composed of delegates
from the different states assembled at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, for
the purpose of nominating candidates for president and vice-president
of the United States. The convention remained in session between two
and three days, when having selected William Henry Harrison, of Ohio,
as candidate for president, and John Tyler, of Virginia, as candidate
for vice-president, and with great unanimity of feeling, resolved to
support them, it adjourned.

The nomination thus made was unexpected to a considerable portion
of the whig party. For a long time, their attention had been turned
towards Henry Clay, and an anxious wish prevailed on the part of his
special friends, that he should be put in nomination. They confidently
expected it. But antecedently to the meeting of the convention, it
had been the general, and even the universal opinion, that when that
body should assemble and an interchange of views had been made, the
man should be selected, who, it was thought, would concentrate the
greatest strength against the existing administration. Preferences
were, therefore, to be surrendered at the shrine of the country’s
good――while, therefore, it was at first with painful emotions that
the friends of Mr. Clay yielded, it was done with great unanimity and
even cheerfulness, when it was perceived that by the nomination of Gen.
Harrison other influences and interests would be secured, which were
likely to result in his election.

From this time, General Harrison was distinctly before the people
of the United States, as the candidate of the whig party for the
presidency. With unexampled unanimity they rallied about him; and from
this time the two great parties took the field, and never since the
adoption of the constitution, did political enthusiasm rise higher,
or were greater efforts made to elect the candidates, which each
party proposed. The powers of the press were called into requisition,
conventions, mass-meetings, varying from one thousand to twenty-five
thousand, were assembled in various sections of the country; clubs were
formed――log cabins erected, and the excitement and enthusiasm rolled
up and were prolonged by the long and patriotic appeals of many of
the first orators and statesmen in the country. The entire country was
moved; the common business of men was visibly neglected and forgotten;
the one all-absorbing theme was the approaching election and its issue.
On that issue thousands were staked, and as men had thousands depending,
their efforts were correspondingly vigorous and varied. Happy would
the historian feel, if he could in truth exempt either party from the
imputation of unfairness in every political transaction connected with
the presidential election. Which party was the most censurable, we
shall not attempt to decide. Individuals belonging to both were in some
transactions sufficiently wrong.

On the 21st of July, 1840, the twenty-sixth congress adjourned. Two
acts only of a public character are worthy of notice. The one providing
“for taking the sixth census of the United States,” and the other “for
the collection, safe-keeping, transfer, and disbursement of the public
revenues.”

The act, viz., that for the collection, &c., of the public revenue,
usually denominated the sub-treasury system, may be regarded as the
_great financial measure_ of Mr. Van Buren’s administration. It was
early proposed by him, and in every subsequent message was urged
upon the consideration of congress, as the best scheme which could
be devised, by which the public revenue could be collected, safely
kept, transferred, and disbursed. The debates on this system, by
the supporters and opposers of the administration during the several
sessions in which it was agitated, would fill volumes. By the President
and his friends, it was eulogized and warmly recommended; by the
opposition party, it was pointedly resisted and condemned. On this
measure, and others, of a financial character connected with it,
perhaps more than any other Mr. Van Buren staked his political
fortune. With this, he entered into the election as a candidate for
the presidency a second term.

On the 7th of December, 1840, the second session of the twenty-sixth
congress commenced. Mr. Van Buren presented his last annual message;
in which, after representing the foreign relations of the country as
amicable, he proceeded to express his pleasure, that notwithstanding
the various embarrassments which the government had to encounter; the
great increase of public expenditure by reason of the Florida war; the
difficulty of collecting moneys still due from certain banks, and the
diminution of the revenue, &c., the business of the government had been
carried on _without the creation of a national debt_.

Nominally the government had no such debt, but the foundation of a
large debt had been laid, and only a few months from the time Mr. Van
Buren left the presidential chair, the disclosure was made, that the
country was involved in debt, and congress was called upon to provide
means to sustain the waning credit of the government.

On the 10th of February, the ceremony of counting the votes for
president and vice-president, took place in the hall of the house
of representatives, in the presence of both houses of congress. The
result was at length announced by the vice-president, as follows: For
president――William Henry Harrison, of Ohio, two hundred and thirty-four;
Martin Van Buren, of New York, sixty. For vice-president――John Tyler,
of Virginia, two hundred and thirty-four; Richard M. Johnson, of
Kentucky, forty-eight; Littleton W. Tazewell, of Virginia, eleven;
James K. Polk, of Tennessee, one.

The majority for General Harrison in the electoral college was one
hundred and forty-eight; a greater majority than any president had
had, since the days of Washington. And thus a question was officially
decided, which had excited the two great political parties of the
country for months, and called forth more efforts on either side, than
had been made at any previous election, since the formation of the
government. The press, daily and weekly, had continued to pour out
its political sentiments, and spread abroad its influences for and
against the respective candidates; considerations of great interest
and importance were urged; much truth was uttered and disseminated, and
much calumny, falsehood, and detraction; popular meetings in numbers,
character, and enthusiasm, never before known on the American soil,
were held towards the conclusion of the political contest in every
state, and in almost every county. Statesmen and orators of the highest
reputation and ability itinerated the country, urging the freemen of
the nation, on the one hand to retain the then president in power, and
to carry out the principles and policy of his administration, as they
valued the prosperity and perpetuity of the government; and, on the
other hand, endeavoring to persuade them to discard a man, who by his
selfishness, his disregard of the wants and necessities of the country,
his obstinate adherence to measures after they were proscribed by the
people, was laying the foundation of the ruin of the country; and to
elevate a man to his place, one of the remnants of the “olden time;” a
friend and companion of the earlier patriots of the country, who would
restore the ancient order of things, and bring back the government to
its original principles of action.


       ADMINISTRATIONS OF WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON AND JOHN TYLER.

William Henry Harrison was inducted into the office of President of the
United States, on the 4th of March, 1841. The ceremony of inauguration
was attended by an immense concourse of people from all parts of the
Union, who now united in giving an appropriate welcome to the hero,
whom they had elevated to this proud distinction. For a period of
twelve years, the government had been under the control of a party,
whose principles and policy were opposed to those of General Harrison,
and his political friends. It was quite natural, therefore, that on
the occurrence of a change of administration so grateful to the latter,
they should give expression to their feelings in demonstrations of
unwonted joy.

The inaugural procession was grand and imposing, comprising several
military companies, officers and soldiers, who fought under General
Harrison, with a flag displayed at their head, taken from the enemy
at the battle of the Thames, the President elect on a beautiful white
charger, the committee of the senate, ex-presidents of the United
States, the judiciary, foreign ministers, members of congress, members
of the Harrisburg convention, governors, and ex-governors of states,
members of state legislatures, officers of the army and navy, citizens,
Tippecanoe clubs, corporate authorities, &c.

The inaugural address of General Harrison was a clear, plain,
comprehensible document, and was delivered in a full, clear, unbroken
voice, interrupted occasionally by the shouts of the multitudes
responding to the principles and sentiments, which the address
contained. The President elect spoke of his political sentiments and
of the principles, which should govern him in the administration of
the government. He declared himself clearly and explicitly in favor
of a single presidential term, recognised the peculiar principles of
the party which had chosen him to office in regard to the currency,
spoke of the abuse of the veto power, the importance of preserving
the elective franchise in its purity, the impropriety of Executive
interference with the legislation of congress, the necessity of
maintaining the national honor, of keeping the public faith with
the aborigines of the country, and pledged himself to preserve the
Constitution, so far as in him lay, in its original purity. Just as
the President elect came to the concluding paragraph of his address,
he paused to receive the oath of office from the hands of the chief
justice of the United States; which done, he concluded with the
following solemn and impressive declaration. “I deem the present
occasion,” he said, “sufficiently important and solemn to justify me in
expressing to my fellow-citizens a profound reverence for the Christian
religion, and a thorough conviction that sound morals, religious
liberty, and a just sense of religious responsibility, are essentially
connected with all true and lasting happiness; and to that good Being,
who has blessed us by the gifts of civil and religious freedom, who
watched over and prospered the labors of our fathers, and who has
hitherto preserved to us institutions far exceeding in excellence
those of any other people, let us unite in fervently commending every
interest of our beloved country in all future time.”

The new senate having been convened, proceeded shortly after
the induction of General Harrison into office, to confirm the
nominations made by him of gentlemen, whom he wished to constitute
his cabinet――viz., Daniel Webster, of Massachusetts, secretary
of state; Thomas Ewing, of Ohio, secretary of the treasury; John
Bell, of Tennessee, secretary of war; George E. Badger, of North
Carolina, secretary of the navy; John J. Crittenden, of Kentucky,
attorney-general; and Francis Granger, of New York, postmaster-general.

Thus was the government organized under the presidency of General
Harrison, and in a manner which the friends of the President regarded
as highly auspicious to the best interests of the country. Many great
and difficult questions, connected both with the foreign and domestic
policy of the government, met the administration at the very threshold
of its coming into power, and required all their wisdom, and skill, and
patriotism, for a safe and satisfactory adjustment. On the one hand,
there were the north-eastern boundary question, still pending with
Great Britain, and certain difficulties and delicate matters growing
out of the burning of the steamer Caroline, and the subsequent arrest
and imprisonment, in the state of New York, of one Alexander M’Leod,
a British subject, for the murder of Amos Durfee, one of the crew of
that boat; and on the other, the agitating and embarrassing questions
relating to the currency and financial condition of the country. The
party, however, which had placed General Harrison in power, flattered
themselves, that with the aid of the able cabinet he had selected, he
would soon be able to adjust and arrange those difficult matters in a
manner highly conducive to the national welfare. On the 17th of March,
the President issued his proclamation convening congress to assemble in
extra session, on the 31st of May following, for the purpose of taking
into consideration the condition of the revenue and finances of the
country. The great subject which had been the gist of the political
controversy just ended, was thus to receive the almost immediate
attention of congress; and the friends of the administration indulged
the hope that the measures, which they believed the good of the country
demanded, would soon be adopted, and on a footing promising the most
complete success. What then was their disappointment and their grief,
when, in less than a month reports were spread throughout the country,
that the President was dangerously sick, and in a few days after, that
he was no more! On the 4th of April, 1841, the following circular,
signed by the different members of the cabinet, was issued, announcing
to the nation the intelligence of his death.

“An all-wise Providence having suddenly removed from this life
William Henry Harrison, late President of the United States, we have
thought it our duty, in the recess of congress, and in the absence of
the vice-president from the seat of government, to make this afflicting
bereavement known to the country, by this declaration, under our hands.
He died at the President’s house, in this city, this 4th day of April,
Anno Domini, 1841, at thirty minutes before one o’clock in the morning.

“The people of the United States, overwhelmed like ourselves, by an
event so unexpected and so melancholy, will derive consolation from
knowing that his death was calm and resigned, as his life has been
patriotic, useful, and distinguished; and that the last utterance
of his lips expressed a fervent desire for the perpetuity of the
Constitution, and the preservation of its true principles. In death, as
in life, the happiness of his country was uppermost in his thoughts.”

A bereavement like this, unprecedented in the annals of the country,
excited a universal sentiment of grief; and men of all parties
united to do homage to the memory of the illustrious dead. After
the performance of appropriate religious service at the presidential
mansion, the body, followed by a magnificent cortege, was conveyed to
the receiving tomb, in the city of Washington, whence it has been since
transferred, at the request of the family friends, to a rural mound on
the banks of the Ohio, near the former abode of the deceased.

The sad event was subsequently celebrated in all the principal cities
and towns in the nation, by funeral processions, and funeral orations,
in honor of the departed President.

On the very night of the melancholy catastrophe, the cabinet
despatched a special messenger to the residence of the vice-president,
in Virginia, to acquaint him with the national loss, that he might
enter on the duties of the presidential office, which were now devolved
on him by the Constitution. The vice-president, on receiving the
intelligence, hastened to the seat of government, took the oath to
discharge the duties of the office of President of the United States,
invited the cabinet chosen by General Harrison to remain in their
places, and immediately entered on the administration of the government.
Thus, for the first time, in the history of the United States, was the
vice-president called to discharge the functions of President.

President Tyler, having no public opportunity of presenting to
the nation an exposition of the policy, which would guide his
administration, in the form of an inaugural address, early after
entering upon the duties to which Providence had called him, issued an
official address to the people, containing a brief exposition of the
principles, which he designed should govern him in the administration
of public affairs. These were in general in accordance with those of
his predecessor, and of the great political party, which had elevated
him to the second office in the nation.

On the 13th of April, President Tyler addressed to the people of the
United States, a recommendation of a national fast, to be observed
on the 14th of May, with reference to the recent melancholy national
bereavement. This recommendation of the President was strictly regarded
throughout the country, and the 14th of May, 1841, was solemnly and
religiously observed as a day of national fasting, humiliation and
prayer.

On the 31st of May, 1841, congress assembled in accordance with
the proclamation, which had been issued by President Harrison, and
forthwith entered upon the business for which they had been assembled.

The first bill of importance, matured and adopted, was one to establish
a uniform system of bankruptcy throughout the United States. As a
reason for the adoption of such a system, it was urged with just weight,
that owing to the extraordinary revulsions in trade and the pecuniary
embarrassments resulting therefrom, which had taken place in the
country within the last four years, there were more than five hundred
thousand debtors in the United States, insolvent and for ever cut off
from the prospect of being able to do any thing, either for themselves
or their creditors, unless a bankrupt law should be passed for their
relief. Petitions against the passage of this bill were also presented:
and it met with strenuous opposition from members of congress of
both political parties. The chief exception taken to the bill was its
retrospective operation――discharging, as it did, contracts made before
its passage. The operation of this measure was doubtless to furnish
relief to many honest debtors; but it is needless to say, that the
dishonest, in too many instances, took advantage of its provisions, and
released themselves from solemn obligations, which they were able, but
which they were unwilling, to fulfil.

The sub-treasury law, which Mr. Van Buren had so often and strenuously
recommended to congress, and which had been adopted towards the close
of his administration, was among the earliest laws repealed at the
extra session. The vote on the question of repeal in the senate was
twenty-nine to eighteen; in the house, one hundred and thirty-four to
eighty-seven.

Another important measure adopted, was a bill providing for the
distribution of the net proceeds of the public lands, and to allow to
actual settlers certain pre-emption rights.

The main provisions of the bill are, that from and after the
thirty-first day of December, 1841, there shall be allowed and paid to
the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Alabama, Missouri, Mississippi,
Louisiana, Arkansas, and Michigan, over and above what each of the said
states is entitled to by the terms of the compacts entered into between
them and the United States upon their admission into the Union, the sum
of ten per cent. upon the net proceeds of the sales of the public lands,
which subsequent to the thirty-first day of December, 1841, shall be
made within the limits of the said states respectively; and that after
deducting the said ten per cent. and what by the before-mentioned
compacts has been allowed to the states aforesaid, the residue of the
net proceeds, after paying the expenses of the General Land Office,
the expenses of surveying, and selling the said lands, &c., shall be
divided among the twenty-six states of the Union, and the district
of Columbia, and the territories of Wisconsin, Iowa, and Florida,
according to their respective federal representative population, as
ascertained by the last census, to be applied by the legislatures of
the said states to such purposes as the said legislatures may direct;
the share of the district of Columbia, however, to be applied to free
schools, or education in some form, as Congress may direct. The net
proceeds of the said sales are to be paid to the agents of the states,
at the treasury of the United States, half yearly, that is, on the
first day of January, and the first day of July, in each year.

The act grants to each of the states to which the ten per cent.
distribution is to be made, five hundred thousand acres of land for
purposes of internal improvement; or in cases where such grants have
heretofore been made to any state, such number of acres as together
with the previous grants, shall amount to five hundred thousand acres.

The provisions of this act in regard to pre-emption, are, substantially,
that, with certain limitations, and restrictions provided in the act,
every person being the head of a family, or widow, or single man, over
the age of twenty-one years, and a citizen of the United States, or
having filed a declaration of an intention to become a citizen in
accordance with the naturalization laws, who since the first day of
June, 1840, has settled, or shall hereafter settle on the public lands,
may have the privilege of purchasing such land in which he has settled
or shall settle, not exceeding one hundred and sixty acres, on paying
to the United States the minimum price of such land.

The act is to continue in force until it shall be otherwise provided
by law, unless the United States shall become involved in war with any
foreign power, in which event, it is to be suspended during the war;
and if at any time during the existence of the act, there shall be an
imposition of duties on imports inconsistent with the provisions of the
revenue act of 1832, and other revenue laws, and beyond the twenty per
cent. duty on the value of the imports established by that act, in such
case, the act is to be suspended until this cause of suspension shall
be removed.

The duties on imports, having been constantly decreasing for several
years, in accordance with the provisions of the revenue act of 1832,
the revenue had at length become insufficient for the purposes of
the government. A bill, therefore, was passed by congress for the
imposition of duties of twenty per cent. on the value of all articles
of import not expressly excepted therein. It was to take effect on the
1st of October, 1841.

But the great measure of the extra session however, was the
establishment of a Bank of the United States. Whether there should be
such an institution in the country, existing by any law of congress,
had, indeed, been a great and exciting question for the twelve previous
years. Both General Jackson and Mr. Van Buren, and the party, which
they represented, were hostile to any such institution. During the
then recent presidential contest this question had been extensively
discussed, and the rival candidates, it was very well understood,
entertained opposite views on the subject. The election of Gen.
Harrison was considered, therefore, as an expression in favor of such
an institution, by that majority of the people, which elevated him
to the presidency; and the creation of such a bank, it was understood,
was among the weighty and important matters on account of which the
new President issued his proclamation for an extra session of congress.
President Tyler, too, in his message to congress, on the assembling,
seemed to join in the intimation before given by President Harrison,
that some suitable agency ought forthwith to be established, for the
purpose of collecting, keeping, and disbursing the public revenues.

Accordingly, soon after the opening of congress, a bill for the
establishment of a National Bank, prepared by the secretary of the
treasury, Mr. Ewing, was referred to a committee of the senate. This
bill being drawn up by a member of the cabinet, it was generally
supposed was in accordance with the views of the President, and
if passed, would receive his sanction.――The bill provided for the
establishment of a bank in the district of Columbia, to be termed, the
“Fiscal Bank of the United States,” with power to establish branches
in the states, with the consent of the states.――The committee of the
senate to whom the subject had been referred, after due deliberation,
reported a bill for the establishment of a Fiscal Bank, concurring in
the main with the bill framed by the secretary of the treasury, but
differing from it in one important feature, namely, in the power of the
parent bank to establish branches in the different states without their
assent. The charter of the bank of 1816 was assumed as the basis of the
bill. The parent bank was to be located at the city of Washington, and
to be under the control of nine directors, to be appointed annually,
and to receive an annual stipend for their services, but not to be
allowed any accommodation from the bank, in the shape of loans or
discounts. The parent bank was to make no loans or discounts except
to the United States government, and to that, only such as should be
authorized by law. The capital stock of the bank was to be the sum of
thirty millions of dollars; congress retaining the power to increase it
to fifty millions. The dividends were to be limited to seven per cent.
on the capital stock, the excess over that sum to be reserved until it
should constitute a fund of two millions of dollars to be appropriated
to the purpose of making good any losses which might be sustained, and
the excess beyond that sum of two millions to be paid into the United
States treasury. The directors were to have power to establish branches
in the different states, and to commit the management of them to such
persons as they should see fit. Foreigners were prohibited from holding
any part of the capital stock. The United States were to subscribe for
one-sixth part of the shares, and the individual states were also to
be allowed to subscribe. Such were the main features of the bill as
reported by the committee of the senate.

This bill, on being reported to the senate, encountered strenuous
opposition from the anti-administration senators, who used all their
efforts and skill, first to render it a nullity by means of different
amendments which they proposed, and finally to destroy it altogether.
The great advocate of the bill was the chairman of the committee who
reported it, the Hon. Henry Clay. The most serious opposition to it
came in the shape of an amendment, prepared by the Hon. Wm. C. Rives,
of Virginia. This senator, perceiving in the bill what he deemed
an infringement upon the rights of the states, reserved to them by
the constitution, moved so to amend it, that no branches should be
established in the states without the assent of their legislatures;
branches being once established, however, not to be withdrawn without
the assent of congress. This amendment was regarded by Mr. Clay and
those who acted with him, as calculated to affect the bill in a vital
part, and was strenuously resisted. After considerable debate, however,
and a calculation of the probable chances of its passage unless some
concession were made to the views of the friends of state-rights, Mr.
Clay consented to a compromise, and the bill was so modified as to give
the parent bank power to establish branches in such states as should
not at the first session of their legislature, holden after its passage,
express their dissent, and to make it imperative on the directors to
establish a branch in any state in which two thousand shares should
have been subscribed, or should be holden, whenever upon application of
the legislature of such state congress should by law require the same.
In case the legislature of any state should express neither assent
nor dissent, its assent was to be presumed; and it was to be the duty
of the directors to establish branches in the states, at all events,
whether with the assent of the states or against their dissent, in
case congress should by law so direct, for the purpose of carrying into
effect any of their constitutional powers.

With this amendment, and some others of less importance, the bill
finally passed the senate, and in a few days thereafter the house of
representatives, and was presented to the President for his approval.
The President, after retaining the bill in his hands until the
constitutional period of ten days, allowed him for the purpose of
consideration, had nearly expired, and during which time the whole
country was awaiting his decision with the most anxious solicitude, at
last, on the 16th of August, returned it to the senate with his veto.

In his assigning his reasons for such a measure, the President says,
“the power of congress to create a National Bank to operate _per
se_ over the Union has been a question of dispute from the origin
of the government. Men most justly and deservedly esteemed for their
high intellectual endowments, their virtue, and their patriotism,
have in regard to it, entertained different and conflicting opinions.
Congresses have differed. The approval of one President has been
followed by the disapproval of another. The people at different times
have acquiesced in decisions both for and against. The country has
been and still is agitated by this unsettled question. It will suffice
for me to say, that my own opinion has been uniformly proclaimed to
be against the exercise of any such power by this government. On all
suitable occasions, during a period of twenty-five years, the opinion
thus entertained has been unreservedly expressed.”

This exercise of the veto power by the President, produced a great
sensation both in congress and elsewhere throughout the country. With
the political friends of the President, that is, with those to whom
he owed his elevation to power, it was generally a subject of extreme
regret; and it was even rumored that, in consequence of the veto, the
cabinet would be dissolved, and an open separation would ensue between
the President and the whig party. By the anti-administration party, on
the other hand, the veto was hailed with joy, and the President, it was
said, had saved his country. The message, however, met with a milder
reception from the dominant party in congress than had generally been
anticipated. The President seemed to be generally regarded as honest
in his convictions and conscientious in his scruples, and a desire was
soon manifested, on the part of those whose views differed from his,
to have a new bill introduced into congress which should be free from
what the President regarded as constitutional objections. The reasoning
of the President in regard to the bill which he had returned, seemed
to be directed mainly against the power to discount, and the power to
establish offices of discount in the different states. In regard to the
power to deal in exchanges, he expressed himself with more favor, and
it was pretty generally inferred by those who read the message, that he
would not disapprove a bill to establish a bank whose object should be
to deal in exchanges. Accordingly, in a few days after the reception
of the veto, a bill to establish such a bank under the title of the
“Fiscal Corporation of the United States,” was introduced into the
house of representatives, by the Hon. John Sergeant, of Pennsylvania,
soon passed, sent to the senate, there confirmed, and transmitted to
the President for his signature. This bill, it was supposed, had been
drawn up by those well acquainted with the President’s views, and
in such a manner that he would surely give it his sanction. It was
supposed that the party in power would not hazard a second experiment
of the kind without having satisfactorily ascertained that such was the
fact. But rumor soon began to whisper, that this bill also was to meet
the fate of its predecessor. Nothing, however, was definitely known
on the subject, until the 9th of September, when the President fully
confirmed all that rumor had said, by returning the bill to the house
of representatives with his _veto_.

This was a result sufficiently mortifying to the party, which had
contributed to the election of Mr. Tyler as the associate of the
lamented Harrison, and tended, in no small degree, to weaken the
confidence which that party had reposed in him. From this time, it was
obvious, that the President and his former political friends could no
longer act in concert.

On the 13th of September, congress adjourned. Two days before, the
whig members of the senate and of the house of representatives held a
meeting in the city of Washington, at which it was resolved to publish
an address to the people of the United States, containing a succinct
exposition of the prominent proceedings of the extra session.

In that address, after speaking of the repeal of the sub-treasury
law――the enactment of the land bill――and the passage of the bankrupt
act――on account of which, considering their importance, they might
well congratulate themselves and the country――they proceeded to profess
their “profound and poignant regret,” that they had been defeated in
two attempts to create a fiscal agent, of the necessity and importance
of which they had satisfactory proof. “Twice have we,” said they, “with
the utmost diligence and deliberation matured a plan for the collection,
safe-keeping, and disbursing of the public moneys through the agency
of a corporation adapted to that end, and twice has it been our fate
to encounter the opposition of the President, through the application
of the veto power. The character of that veto in each case, the
circumstances in which it was administered, and the grounds upon which
it has met the decided disapprobation of your friends in congress, are
sufficiently apparent in the public documents, and the debates relating
to it. This subject has acquired a painful interest with us, and will
doubtless acquire it with you, from the unhappy developments, with
which it is accompanied. We are constrained to say that we find no
ground to justify us in the conviction that the veto of the President
has been interposed on this question solely upon conscientious and well
considered opinions of constitutional scruples as to his duty, in the
case presented.” In another part of that address they say, “It is with
profound sorrow we look to the course pursued by the President. He has
wrested from us one of the best fruits of a long and painful struggle,
and the consummation of a glorious victory; he has even, perhaps,
thrown us once more upon the field of political strife, not weakened
in numbers nor shorn of the support of the country, but stripped of
the arms which success had placed in our hands, and left us again to
rely upon that high patriotism, which, for twelve years, sustained
us in a conflict of unequal asperity, and which finally brought us to
the fulfilment of those brilliant hopes which he had done so much to
destroy.”

The dissatisfaction thus manifested by the dominant party in congress
soon extended itself to the cabinet of the President, which, in less
than a week following the second veto of the President, was dissolved;
the different members, with the exception of the secretary of state,
resigning their places. The reasons for this step were given in detail,
in a letter addressed to the President by Mr. Ewing, the secretary
of the treasury, and published in the public journals. These reasons
mainly referred to the exercise of the veto power by the President,
and more especially to the course which Mr. Ewing stated the President
had pursued in relation to the bill for the establishment of a fiscal
corporation. This bill, Mr. Ewing says, was drawn up at the President’s
request, considered and approved by him, and at his instance introduced
into congress. On the resignation of his cabinet, the President
nominated the following gentlemen to fill their places, viz.: Walter
Forward, of Pennsylvania, secretary of the treasury; John M’Lean, of
Ohio, secretary of war; Abel P. Upshur, of Virginia, secretary of the
navy; Hugh S. Legare, of South Carolina, attorney-general; and Charles
A. Wickliffe, of Kentucky, postmaster-general; which nominations the
senate confirmed.

It may be here added, that great surprise was manifested, and deep
regret expressed, that Mr. Webster, the secretary of state, still
continued to occupy his place in the cabinet. His political friends,
while they believed he was actuated by pure and patriotic motives,
would have been better pleased, had he by resignation borne signal
testimony against a course pursued by the President, subversive of
some of the most favorite measures of the party, which had elevated him
to the high office he held. The continuance of Mr. Webster in office
proved, however, of signal advantage to the country, as through his
instrumentality, more than that of any other man, that long agitated
and most vexatious question, relative to the north-eastern boundary,
was settled to the satisfaction of both the governments, interested
therein.

On the 6th of December following, the twenty-seventh congress commenced
its second session. In his message on the following day, the President
adverted to several topics of national interest――the principal of which
were our relations with Great Britain――the Florida war――the census――the
tariff――and the adoption of some plan for the safe-keeping of the
public funds.

Great Britain had made known to this government, the President
said, that the expedition, which was fitted out from Canada for the
destruction of the steamboat Caroline, in the winter of 1837, and
which had resulted in the destruction of said boat, and the death
of an American citizen, was undertaken by order from the authorities
of the British government; and that if Alexander M’Leod, a British
subject, indicted for that murder, was engaged in that expedition,
that government demanded his release, on the ground that he was acting
under orders of the government. Fortunately for the peace of the two
countries, before this demand was made, M’Leod had been tried in the
state of New York and acquitted. The affair of the Caroline, however,
remained unadjusted; and, having now been publicly sanctioned by the
British government, it would become a matter of grave negotiation with
that government.

The war with the Indian tribes on the peninsula of Florida during the
summer and fall, had been prosecuted with untiring activity and zeal.
In despite of the sickness incident to the climate, our troops had
penetrated the fastnesses of the Indians, broken up their encampments,
and harassed them exceedingly.

The census for 1840, had been completed, and exhibited a grand total of
17,069,453; making an increase over the census of 1830, of 4,202,646,
and showing a gain in a ratio exceeding thirty-two and a half per cent.,
for the last ten years.

Apprehending that a revision of the tariff might be deemed necessary,
the President expressed a wish, that in that case, moderate counsels
might prevail. In regard to discrimination as to articles, on which a
duty might be laid, he admitted that so long as reference was had to
revenue to the wants of the treasury, no well founded objection could
exist against such discrimination, although by that means incidental
protection should be furnished to manufactures. It might, however,
he said, be esteemed desirable that no such augmentation of the taxes
should take place, as would have the effect of annulling the land
proceeds distribution act of the last session, which act is declared
to be in operation the moment the duties are increased beyond twenty
per cent., the maximum rate established by the compromise act.

Next, he adverted to a pledge, which he had given at a former day,
to suggest a plan for the control and safe-keeping of the public
funds. “This plan contemplates,” said he, “the establishment of a
board of control, at the seat of government, with agencies at prominent
commercial points, or wherever else congress shall direct, for the
safe-keeping and disbursement of the public moneys; and a substitution,
at the option of the public creditors, of treasury notes, in lieu
of gold and silver. It proposes to limit the issues to an amount
not to exceed 15,000,000 dollars――without the express sanction of
the legislative power. It also authorizes the receipt of individual
deposits of gold and silver to a limited amount, and the granting
of certificates of deposit, divided into such sums, as may be called
for by the depositors. It proceeds a step further, and authorizes the
purchase and sale of domestic bills, and drafts resting on a real and
substantial basis, payable at sight, or having but a short time to
run, and drawn on places not less than one hundred miles apart――which
authority, except in so far as may be necessary for the government
purposes exclusively, is only to be exerted upon express condition,
that its exercise shall not be prohibited by the state in which the
agency is situated.

“In order to cover the expenses incident to the plan, it will be
authorized to receive moderate premiums for certificates issued on
deposits, and on bills bought and sold, and thus, as far as its
dealings extend, to furnish facilities to commercial intercourse at the
lowest possible rates, and to subduct from the earnings of industry,
the least possible sum. It uses the state banks at a distance from the
agencies as auxiliaries, without imparting any power to trade in its
name. It is subjected to such guards and restraints as appear to be
necessary. It is the creature of law, and exists only at the pleasure
of the legislature. It is made to rest on an actual specie basis, in
order to redeem the notes at the places of issue――produces no dangerous
redundancy of circulation――affords no temptation to speculation――is
attended by no inflation of prices――is equable in its operation――makes
the treasury notes, which it may use along with the certificates of
deposit, and the notes of specie paying banks――convertible at the place
where collected, receivable in payment of government dues――and, without
violating any principle of the Constitution, affords the government and
the people such facilities as are called for by the wants of both. Such,
it has appeared to me, are its recommendations, and in view of them it
will be submitted, whenever you require it, to your consideration.”

Among the measures adopted by the second session of the twenty-fifth
congress, the first we shall notice was an act for apportioning the
representatives, among the several states according to the fourth
census. Several different ratios were proposed, but at length the
number of one representative for every 50,179 was adopted by the
house. This number was changed in the senate for 70,680; and after a
long discussion in the house, the amendment was agreed to. A further
amendment was also concurred in, viz., that each state having a
fraction greater than a moiety of the said ratio should be entitled
to an additional representative. This act received the approval
and signature of the President on the twenty-fifth of June. But
accompanying the message, announcing that approval, was an intimation
that he had caused the act to be deposited in the office of the
secretary of state, accompanied by an exposition of his reasons for
giving it his sanction. Such a course on the part of a president, being
unprecedented, a resolution was adopted, calling on the secretary for
an authenticated copy of those reasons.

When furnished, it appeared that the chief objection which the
President had to the bill, was its mandatory requisition upon the
states to form districts for the choice of representatives to congress,
in single districts. Of the constitutional power of congress in this
respect, as well as in regard to the policy of the act, he had serious
doubts; but he had signed the bill “from respect to the declared will
of the two houses.”

The course thus taken by the President, in depositing this act, with
his reasons, in the office of the secretary of state, being entirely
novel, and in the view of many highly exceptionable, the subject was
referred to a committee, who submitted a long report, in which they
said, “the committee consider the act of the President, notified by
him to the house of representatives, in his message of the 23d ult.,
as unauthorized by the constitution and laws of the United States,
pernicious in its immediate operation, and imminently dangerous in
its tendencies. They believe it to be the duty of the house to protest
against it, and to place upon their journal an earnest remonstrance
against its ever being again repeated.”

On the 31st of March, 1842, an interesting scene transpired in the
Senate. This was the withdrawal of Mr. Clay from his senatorial office,
to private life, after a continuous service of nearly thirty-six years
in the public councils, in conformity to a letter of resignation, which,
on the 16th of February, he had addressed to the general assembly of
Kentucky. Previously to retiring, Mr. Clay made use of the occasion of
presenting the credentials of his appointed successor, to address to
the senate some valedictory remarks, in which he touched briefly and
successively on the high constitutional attributes and character of the
senate, on his long service in that and other departments of the public
service, on the state of public affairs, with some references personal
to himself. This address, delivered with unusual earnestness and depth
of intonation, was received by the senate, and an immense concourse of
auditors, with deep silence and the most profound attention. As it was
an event, and a moment calculated to fill the veteran statesman with
emotion, it was one which imparted a sympathetic interest to the public;
and, in the expectation and hope of hearing again, and for the last
time, the manly tones of that voice which had so often thrilled every
heart with delight and admiration, the chamber and galleries were early
filled with an eager and anxious auditory of both sexes. Seldom have
the anticipations of any assemblage in the capitol been more richly
realized, or their sensibilities more profoundly excited. The scene
was indeed most impressive, and will never be forgotten by any of the
thousand individuals who witnessed it. At one moment, when the orator
approached the theme of his gratitude to the noble state, which had so
long honored and cherished him, when his utterance was choked, and his
voice failed, and he paused to wipe the tears from his eyes, it is
believed there were few other eyes present which remained dry.

In the course of his valedictory, he said: “I go from this place
under the hope that we shall mutually consign to perpetual oblivion,
whatever personal collisions may at any time unfortunately have
occurred between us; and that our recollections shall dwell in future
only on those conflicts of mind with mind, those intellectual struggles,
those noble exhibitions of the powers of logic, argument, and eloquence,
honorable to the senate, and to the nation, in which each has sought
and contended for what he deemed the best mode of accomplishing one
common object, the interest and the most happiness of our beloved
country. To these thrilling and delightful scenes, it will be my
pleasure and my pride to look back in my retirement with unmeasured
satisfaction.”

In conclusion, he added: “In retiring as I am about to do, for ever
from the senate, suffer me to express my heartfelt wishes that all the
great and patriotic objects of the wise framers of our constitution
may be fulfilled; that the high destiny designed for it, may be fully
answered; and that its deliberations, now and hereafter, may eventuate
in securing the prosperity of our beloved country, in maintaining its
rights and honors abroad, and upholding its interests at home. I retire,
I know, at a period of infinite distress and embarrassment. I wish I
could take my leave of you under more favorable auspices; but, without
meaning at this time to say whether on any, or on whom reproaches
for the sad condition of the country should fall, I appeal to the
senate and to the world to bear testimony to my earnest and continued
exertions to avert it, and to the truth that no blame can justly attach
to me.

“May the most precious blessings of Heaven rest upon the whole senate,
and each member of it, and may the labours of every one redound to the
benefit of the nation, and the advancement of his own fame and renown.
And when you shall return to the bosom of your constituents, may you
receive that most cheering and gratifying of all human rewards――their
cordial greeting of ‘Well done, good and faithful servant.’

“And now, Mr. President, and senators, I bid you a long, a lasting, and
a friendly farewell.”

During the month of June, 1842, the Exploring Expedition returned
to the United States, having been absent three years and ten months,
and having sailed nearly 90,000 miles. The vessels attached to this
expedition left the Capes of the Chesapeake, August 19th, 1838, and
sailed for Rio Janeiro, whence, on the 6th of January, 1839, they
sailed for the north of Patagonia, and thence to Nassau Bay, in Terra
del Fuego. The Peacock, Porpoise, and two schooners thence made cruises
towards the pole; but as the season was far advanced, they did not
quite reach the highest latitude attained by Cook. The Vincennes
remained at Nassau Bay to carry on surveys, and magnetic observations.
In May, the vessels were again together at Valparaiso, and in July
they left the South American coast, and after surveying fourteen or
fifteen of the Pawmotee Islands, two of the Society Islands, and all
the Navigator’s group, on the 28th of November, they reached Sidney,
in New South Wales. On their second antarctic cruise, land was first
discovered in longitude 160 degrees east, and latitude 66 degrees,
30 minutes south. The Vincennes and Porpoise pursued the barrier of ice
to the westward, as far as 97 degrees east longitude, seeing the land
at intervals for fifteen hundred miles. They could not land, however,
though many specimens of rocks were collected and brought home. On the
24th of April, the vessels proceeded to the Feejees, where nearly four
months were occupied in surveys and scientific observations. They next
visited the Sandwich Islands――the Vincennes spending the winter at
the group. The Peacock and Flying Fish were cruising in the equatorial
regions of the Pacific, visiting and making charts of the various
groups of islands scattered throughout the seas. In the spring of
1841, the Vincennes and Porpoise were on the coast of Oregon, where
the former was wrecked. They made several land expeditions into the
interior, of from five hundred to a thousand miles each, and one of
eight hundred miles to San Francisco, in California. The vessels left
California in November, 1841; and, after touching at the Sandwich
Islands, and visiting Manilla, Singapore, and the Cape of Good Hope,
reached New York as above stated.

During their absence, they surveyed nearly two hundred and eighty
different islands, besides eight hundred miles in Oregon, and one
thousand, five hundred miles along the icy barrier of the antarctic
continent. The number of sketches of natural scenery brought home,
were about five hundred; the number of portraits about two hundred. Of
birds about one thousand species, and twice that number of specimens
were collected; besides great numbers of fishes, reptiles, insects,
shells, &c. This expedition was fitted out at a great expense, and its
results have proved highly honorable to the nation which projected, and
the officers who executed it. Several volumes containing a history of
the expedition, with its discoveries, scientific researches, &c., have
been published, at the national expense.

On the 20th of August, 1842, an important treaty with England, the
first it is believed ever negotiated with that power in the United
States, was ratified by the senate, by a vote of 39 to 9. By this
treaty, the north-eastern boundary between the United States and Great
Britain was settled. For nearly half a century, this question had
agitated both countries; and while the question had thus remained
unsettled, events were frequently occurring to create new difficulties
in reference to it, until, at length, such was the sensitiveness of
parties interested, it was perceived that the controversy must be
settled, and that, too, in a spirit of conciliation and compromise,
or the countries might find themselves, ere long, involved in war. But
in this state of things, the English ministry resolved to gratify at
once their sense of the importance of immediate adjustment, and their
respect for the government of the United States, by sending a special
and extraordinary mission. For this work of reconciliation, they
selected Lord Ashburton, a gentleman fully acquainted, for many years,
with affairs between his own country and ours; and who was ready to sit
down to existing topics in a business-like way, to treat them frankly
and fairly, and to remove all obstacles, as far as he was able. He is
reported to have said of himself, “I came not to make difficulty, but
to make a treaty.” Fortunately for the country, at this most important
juncture, Mr. Webster was still in the cabinet. Perhaps no other
citizen in the United States was so competent to negotiate on this
confessedly important, but difficult subject. The President also
manifested a sincere desire to arrange the questions in difference
between the United States and England, in a manner honorable and
satisfactory. As the states of Massachusetts and Maine were interested
in the divisional or boundary line, which should be agreed upon,
commissioners were appointed by the legislature of those states,
to protect their respective interests――on the part of Maine, EDWARD
KAVANAUGH, EDWARD KENT, N. P. PREBLE, and JOHN OTIS; on the part of
Massachusetts, ABBOT LAWRENCE, JOHN MILLS, and CHARLES ALLEN.

By the first article of this treaty, the north-eastern boundary line
is defined and established. “It is hereby agreed and declared, that
the line of boundary shall be as follows:――Beginning at the monument
at the source of the river St. Croix, as designated and agreed to by
the commissioners under the 5th article in the treaty of 1794, between
the governments of the United States and Great Britain; thence, north,
following the exploring line run and marked by the surveyors of the two
governments, in the years 1817 and 1818, under the 5th article of the
treaty of Ghent, to its intersection with the river St. John, and to
the middle of the channel thereof; thence, up the middle of the main
channel of said river St. John, to the mouth of the river St. Francis;
thence up the middle of the main channel of said river St. Francis,
and of the lakes through which it flows, to the outlet of the lake
Pohenagamook; thence, south-westerly, in a straight line, to a point on
the north-west branch of the river St. John, which point shall be ten
miles distant from the main branch of the St. John, in a straight line,
and in the nearest direction; but if said point shall be found to be
less than seven miles from the nearest point of the summit or crest of
the highlands that divide those rivers, which empty themselves into the
river St. Lawrence, from those which fall into the river St. John, then
the said point shall be made to recede down the said north-west branch
of the river St. John, to a point seven miles in a straight line from
the said summit or crest; thence, in a straight line, in a course about
south eight degrees west, to the point where the parallel of latitude
of 46 degrees, 25 minutes north, intersects the south-west branch of
the St. John; thence, southerly, by the said branch, to the source
thereof in the highlands, at the Metjarmette portage; thence, down
along the said highlands which divide the waters which empty themselves
into the river St. Lawrence, from those which fall into the Atlantic
ocean, to the head of Hall’s stream; thence, down the middle of said
stream, till the line thus run intersects the old line of boundary
surveyed and marked by Valentine and Collins, previously to the year
1774, as the 45th degree of north latitude, and which has been known
and understood to be the line of actual division between the states of
New York and Vermont on one side, and the British province of Canada on
the other; and, from said point of intersection, west along the said
dividing line as heretofore known and understood, to the Iroquois or
St. Lawrence river.”

It was also stipulated that each country should maintain on the coast
of Africa, a naval force of vessels sufficient to carry in all not
less than eighty guns, to be independent of each other, but to act
in concert and co-operation, for the suppression of the slave trade.
By the 10th article, it was stipulated that fugitives from justice
found in either country should be delivered up by the two governments
respectively upon complaint and upon what should be deemed sufficient
evidence to sustain the charge.

On the 10th of November, 1842, the President issued his proclamation,
announcing the ratification of the treaty, and the exchange of
ratifications between the two governments, which was done at London on
the 13th of October, 1842, by Mr. Everett and the Earl of Aberdeen.

Thus was settled a controversy, which for half a century had disturbed
the harmony of the two governments――which had given birth to frequent
disturbances, within and in the neighborhood of the disputed territory,
and which as the controversy remained unsettled, was becoming more
perplexed and intricate, and every year more likely to engender
hostilities between the two nations.

Among the measures of a public nature, which occupied the attention of
the 2d session of the 27th congress, no one excited more interest than
the revision of the tariff. The government was in debt, and its credit
in the wane. Authorized loans could not be negotiated. The revenue was
falling off. The manufacturing interests were suffering; all branches
of industry were drooping. Said the Committee, to whom the subject
was referred, in their report, “A well regulated tariff, on a scale
sufficient for the wants of the government is the only effectual remedy
for the evils the government and the people are now suffering. It will
inspire confidence throughout the country. It will again set every
wheel in motion. It will improve and enlarge the currency. It will send
out its life, giving influence to the extremity of the nation, and give
vigor and activity to the whole system. It will (and nothing else will)
restore credit to the country. The people of this country know that
our resources are abundant. Let them but see that congress has provided
a proper revenue, and has done it in such a manner, as at the same
time to encourage and protect their own protective industry in all its
branches, whether it relates to commerce, agriculture, manufactures,
or the mechanic arts, throughout the broad extent of our lands, and the
credit of the government will commence at once, and receive all the aid
it may need.”

In accordance with these views, a bill was reported by the above
committee, providing, 1st, a general ad valorem duty of 30 per cent.
with free exceptions, where the duty was on that principle. 2. A
discrimination was made for the security of such interests as could
not be preserved without it, as well as for revenue, by specific duties
on valuations, some higher, and some lower than the general ad valorem
duty.

This measure was powerfully sustained by the friends of the
manufacturing interests in the country. But it met with great
opposition. Every inch was contested. Great excitement prevailed, both
in and out of congress. Parties were nearly equally balanced on the
question; and, for a time, serious apprehensions were entertained as to
its fate. But, at length, (July 16th,) the bill passed――in the house,
by a vote of 116 to 112,――in the senate, (August 5th,) by a vote of
25 to 23.

Thus was decided, a question, which, in the view of many, was of
incalculable importance to the country; one, certainly, which had
interested all hearts, and had given birth to debates, as warm and
animated, as any which had been listened to for years. All eyes were
now turned towards the Executive, upon whom devolved the fearful
responsibility of approving or rejecting it.

In a few days, the decision of the President was communicated to
congress――he had _rejected it_――had added another _veto_ to those which
had already filled his friends with surprise and regret.

At the opening of the extra session of congress, the President had
himself recommended a distribution of the proceeds of the public lands
among the states; and an act was accordingly passed to that effect;
but it ordained “that if at any time, during the existence of that act
there should be an imposition of duties or imposts, inconsistent with
the provision of the act of the 2d of March, 1833, and beyond the rate
of duties fixed by that act, to wit., 20 per cent. on the value of such
imposts, or any of them, then the distribution should be suspended, and
should continue so suspended, until the cause should be removed.” The
bill now presented to the President for his consideration provided,
that notwithstanding the duties were raised beyond 20 per cent., the
distribution should be made. On this ground principally the veto was
based.

The friends of a judicious tariff were thus placed in a most
embarrassing situation. It had been their intention to adjourn soon
after the passage of this important measure; but, under this unexpected
defeat and embarrassment, what should they do? Not a few were for
closing the session, and placing the responsibility upon the President.
But the country was suffering; the credit of the government was sinking
lower and lower. Something must be done. Another effort must be put
forth. Sacrifice must be made.

While the judicious and patriotic men in congress were thus
deliberating as to the path of duty, a committee of the house, at the
head of which was Mr. Adams, to whom the veto message of the President
had been referred, reported. After reviewing the course which the
Executive had pursued――his repeated attempts to frustrate the action
of congress by the exercise of the veto――“that regal power of the
constitution,” they observed; “the whole legislative power of the Union
has been for the last fifteen months, with regard to the action of
congress, upon measures of vital importance, in a state of suspended
animation, strangled by the five repeated strictures of the executive
cord.” “The will of one man has frustrated all the labours of congress,
and prostrated all their powers.” “The power of the present congress to
enact laws essential to the welfare of the people, has been struck with
apoplexy by the Executive hand.” In such terms, did the committee speak
of the alarming and unreasonable exercise of the veto power by the
President. Two counter reports were made by members of the committee,
who dissented from the report.

On the 17th of August, the house passed upon the tariff bill returned
by the President. The vote stood 96 to 87――two thirds not voting in the
affirmative, as required by the constitution, the bill was rejected.

On the 22d of August, the same revenue bill, which had been vetoed by
the President, was passed by the house, 105 to 102, with the exception
of the section concerning the land fund, and the duties upon the
articles of tea and coffee, which were omitted. “We do not remember
ever to have witnessed, during thirty-five years attendance at the
house of representatives,” said the editor of the Intelligencer, “a
more exciting scene, a severer contest, a greater earnestness and self
devotion, than characterized the proceedings and votes on this bill.”
Many were reluctant to strike out the land clause, and thus yield
to what they considered prejudice and obstinacy on the part of the
President――but the exigencies of the country demanded the sacrifice
at their hands, and in the spirit of patriotism they made it.

On the 27th of August, the bill with amendments passed the senate
by the close vote of 24 to 23, and on the 29th these amendments were
concurred in by the house; and the bill, soon after, received the
signature of the President, and became a law of the land.

The report of the committee on the veto of the President of the
revenue bill has already been noticed. Against this report, the
President on the 30th of August entered his solemn protest, transmitted
to the house in a special message. “I protest,” said he, “against this
whole proceeding of the house of representatives, as _ex parte_ and
_extra judicial_. I protest against it, as subversive of the common
right of all citizens to be condemned only upon a fair and impartial
trial, according to law and evidence before the country. I protest
against it as destructive of all the comity of intercourse between the
departments of this government, and destined, sooner or later, to lead
to conflict fatal to the peace of the country, and the integrity of the
constitution. I protest against it in the name of that constitution,
which is not only my own shield of protection and defence, but that of
every American citizen. I protest against it in the name of the people,
by whose will I stand where I do, and by whose authority I exercise
the power which I am charged with having usurped, and to whom I am
responsible for a firm and faithful discharge, according to my own
convictions of duty, of the high stewardship confided to me by them. I
protest against it in the name of all regulated liberty and all limited
government, as a proceeding tending to the utter destruction of all
checks and balances of the constitution. And I respectfully ask that
this, my protest, may be entered upon the journal of the house of
representatives, as a solemn and formal declaration, for all time to
come, of the injustice and unconstitutionality of such a proceeding.”

On receiving this protest, the house passed these resolutions. 1. That
the President had no right to make a formal protest against votes and
proceedings of this house, declaring such votes and proceedings to be
illegal and unconstitutional, and requesting the house to enter such
protest on its journal. 2. That the aforesaid protest is a breach of
the privileges of the house, and that it be not entered on the journal.
3. That the President of the United States has no right to send a
protest to this house against any of its proceedings.

On the 31st of August, the 2d session of the 27th congress was
terminated. It will be memorable in the history of the country for
the length and arduousness of its labours, the obstacles which it
encountered in the path of its duty, and the variety and importance
of the legislation which it accomplished in despite of all the
difficulties thrown in its way.

It was the longest session ever held under the government; extending
through a period of 269 days. The session next to this in length was
the second under Mr. Van Buren, which lasted 229 days. At this latter
session the reports made were 716; bills reported, 524; bills passed by
the house, 211. By the former, reports made, 1098; bills reported, 610;
bills passed, 299.

The third session of the 27th congress commenced on the 5th day
of December, 1842. In his message transmitted to congress two days
after, there being no quorum in the senate earlier, the President
represented the foreign relations of the country as in general amicable.
The late treaty with Great Britain was cause of congratulation, as
thereby it was to be hoped the good understanding existing between
the two governments would be preserved for an indefinite period.
Some misunderstanding had arisen in regard to the 10th article,
which related to the suppression of the slave trade. A practice had
threatened to grow up on the part of British cruisers, of subjecting to
visitation ships sailing under the American flag. This was regarded as
in fact a right of search, which would not be tolerated, and such had
been the representation of the Executive to the British government. The
President expressed his regret, that the treaty had not also embraced
the Oregon Territory――but he indulged the hope that an early settlement
of the question of title to this portion of the continent would remove
all grounds of future collision between the two governments.

The vexatious, harassing, and expensive war which so long prevailed
with the Indian tribes inhabiting the peninsula of Florida, had
been terminated; the army was relieved from a service of the most
disagreeable character; and the treasury of a large expenditure. Only
such a number of troops would be continued there as were necessary to
preserve peace.

The President again urged upon congress his plan of an exchequer,
which at the late session had received no favour. In conclusion, he
recommended a reimbursement of a fine imposed on General Jackson at
New Orleans, at the time of the attack and defence of that city.

On the 9th of January, 1843, the committee of ways and means to whom
had been referred the plan of the President of an exchequer, reported
adversely thereto; and on the 27th this report was accepted, and the
resolution accompanying it adopted by the strong vote of 193 to 18.
The resolution was, that the plan presented to congress of an exchequer
ought not to pass.

Among the important acts passed at this session was one for the repeal
of the bankrupt law.

On the 13th of December, 1842, a bill was introduced into the house for
the repeal of the bankrupt law passed on the 19th of August, 1841. On
the 16th of January, 1843, the bill passed the house by a vote of 140
to 71. The question on its repeal was taken in the senate February 25th,
1843, and the repeal passed by a majority of 32 to 13. It was provided
in the bill that the act should not affect any case or proceeding in
bankruptcy commenced before the passage of this act, or any pains,
penalties, or forfeitures incurred under the said act; but every such
proceeding may be continued to its final consummation in like manner,
as if this act had not been passed. At the time of the passage of the
original act, there existed a strong sentiment in its favour throughout
the country. Such a system had been called for for years――such a
measure it was supposed would relieve many unfortunate debtors, who,
but for such relief, would find no opportunity, and possess no ambition
to attempt to retrieve their fortunes. It was urged also for the
continuance of the act, that if harm had resulted from it, the harm
was not likely to continue. The dishonest had received its benefit――the
mass of insolvency had been swept away by the law already in force. A
fair field was open for amendments to the law if found objectionable;
and amended as it might be, it would operate for the benefit of the
creditor more than the debtor. Besides, it was hardly to be hoped that
the present generation would see another law in force, should this
be repealed. Such were some of the considerations urged in favour of
continuing the law. But a great change had been effected in public
opinion throughout the country, and not a few of the members of
congress, who had originally urged the passage of the act, and were
firm in their belief that its operation would be beneficial, now voted
for its repeal.

On the 1st of March, Mr. Forward resigned the office of secretary of
the treasury, and John C. Spencer, then secretary of war, was soon
after nominated to fill his place. His confirmation passed the senate
by a majority of one.

On the 3d of March, an act was approved by the President for promoting
the means of future intercourse between the United States and the
government of China. By this act 40,000 dollars were placed at the
disposal of the President to enable him to establish commercial
relations with China. Under this act, Edward Everett, then minister
and envoy extraordinary to England, was nominated and confirmed as
commissioner. It may be here added, that Mr. Everett declining this
honor, Caleb Cushing, of Newburyport, Massachusetts, was appointed to
take his place, and John Tyler, son of the President, was appointed his
private and confidential secretary. Fletcher Webster of Boston acted as
secretary of the mission.

At the above date (March 3d) the President approved of another
important act, viz., to provide for carrying into effect the treaty
between the United States and Great Britain, concluded at Washington,
August 9th, 1842. By this act, 300,000 dollars were to be paid in equal
moieties to Maine and Massachusetts. Also the President was authorized
to employ so much of the naval force as was requisite to fulfil the 8th
article relating to the suppression of the slave trade.

The third session of the 27th congress closed on the 3d of March, 1843.
Several important bills failed, among which may be mentioned a bill
to reduce the postage on letters――a bill to authorize the adoption of
measures for the occupation and settlement of the Oregon Territory, and
for extending certain laws of the United States over the same――and a
bill for the relief of Andrew Jackson.

On the 8th of May, Daniel Webster having accomplished the great object
for which he retained his place in the cabinet, when his associates
resigned, viz., the settlement of the north-eastern boundary between
the United States and Great Britain, resigned the office of secretary
of state, and Hugh S. Legare, attorney-general of the United States,
was appointed temporarily to fill that office.

On the 8th of June, the President, accompanied by the secretary of the
treasury and the postmaster-general, left Washington, for a visit to
Boston to attend the celebration of the completion of the Bunker Hill
Monument. During his progress, he was received with the honors due to
the chief magistrate of a great and powerful nation. The celebration
took place on the 17th. An oration was pronounced by Daniel Webster,
commemorative of the great events by which our country had arisen to
its exalted station, and of the virtues of those noble men who laid the
foundation of our civil and religious institutions. It was a grand and
imposing scene. Thousands were gathered to the spot once moistened by
the blood of patriots; and grateful homage went up to Him, under whose
fostering care the nation enjoyed a measure of prosperity unknown to
any other nation on the globe.

But scarcely were the festivities of the occasion ended, when
the melancholy intelligence was circulated that Mr. Legare, the
attorney-general, and acting secretary of state, had suddenly deceased
at his lodgings in Boston. He had followed the President to mingle in
the joys of the occasion, but sickness fell upon him, and in a brief
space he was numbered with the dead. He sustained the reputation of a
man of rare endowments――of great requisitions, and exalted character.
In consequence of this death, the President and suite soon returned to
the seat of government.

On the 8th of July, 1843, the cabinet of the President was reorganized
by the appointment of Abel P. Upshur, secretary of state; John C.
Spencer, secretary of the treasury; J. M. Porter, secretary of war;
C. A. Wickliffe, postmaster-general, and John Nelson, attorney-general.

The 1st session of the 28th congress commenced on the 5th of December,
1843. On the organization of the house of representatives, a flagrant
violation of law was perpetrated by the majority. On the 25th of June,
1842, an act was passed by congress providing for the election of
representatives in the several states by districts. This law, some
of the states saw fit to set at defiance. New Hampshire, Georgia,
Mississippi and Missouri, severally nullified this eminently democratic
measure. In Georgia, indeed, the legislature framed and passed a
districting bill, but the governor vetoed it, avowing in his message
that he did this less from hostility to the district system, than to
avoid the appearance of complying with the requisitions of congress.

On the organization of the house, the members from those states,
twenty-one in number, appeared and claimed the right to vote. A protest
from the whig majority was read, but in defiance of that, and the plain
and explicit act of congress to the contrary, they were suffered to
vote for speaker and clerk, and subsequently they were appointed upon
various committees. When these flagrant violations of law had been
perpetrated, the house directed the committee on elections to inquire
into and report on the matter. That committee, as was foreordained,
reported that the second section of the apportionment act _was
unconstitutional_. The house promptly adopted the report, and thus
the whole matter was settled, virtually on the basis that no law is of
binding force, which conflicts with the interests or the will of the
triumphant democracy. The choice of speaker fell on John W. Jones of
Virginia, who had been returned by 33 majority, and whose seat was then
contested by his opponent, John M. Botts.

In his annual message, the President represented the question between
the United States and Great Britain, relating to the title of the
Oregon Territory, as still unadjusted. Our minister at London had
received instruction to submit to the British government propositions
for the final settlement of the question, and the hope was indulged
that this controversy of increasing interest might be brought to a
speedy and happy termination.

But the prominent subject of the message related to Texas. The
annexation of that territory to the United States was supposed to be
occupying a large share of the executive attention, and intimation
had been given in the official organ, that considerable progress
had already been made towards the accomplishment of that object. The
message was less explicit on the subject than the people had reason
to anticipate from what had been semi-officially published; but it was
apparent that the interest taken in Texas by the Executive foreshadowed
his ultimate purpose in relation to her becoming a part of the Federal
Republic.

On the 8th of January, 1844, an act passed the house of representatives,
reimbursing a fine imposed upon General Jackson at New Orleans, at the
time of the attack and defence of that city. The repayment of this fine
had been recommended by the President in his annual message in December,
1842, but so much opposition to the measure had been manifested, that
until now a favorable vote could not be obtained. The history of the
imposition of this fine, according to a writer on the spot, is briefly
as follows.

After the signal defeat of the British on the 8th of January, they
withdrew on board their ships. News of peace with Great Britain
meanwhile reached the city. General Jackson, notwithstanding, persisted
in continuing martial law. This created dissatisfaction among the
volunteers on the line. One of them, Louallier, a member of the
legislature, who had acted in a highly meritorious manner in the
defence, setting an example to the native citizens which had a
great effect (in fact he had more of the American feeling than any
Louisianian I had become acquainted with,) conceived that the unbending
military discipline of Jackson towards the citizens and volunteers was
oppressive, and wrote an anonymous letter on the subject, which was
published in a New Orleans paper. The editor of the paper was ordered
to appear before the general, escorted by a military guard, and being
threatened with _punishment_, gave up the author. The displeasure of
the general was now turned against Louallier, who was immediately put
under strict arrest, while an order was issued forbidding any further
publications on these subjects――thus silencing the press. Louallier was
ordered to be tried _for treason by a court martial_, and if the court
had been sufficiently compliant, there is no doubt that he would have
been shot: but, fortunately, General Gaines, who presided, was the
means of preventing so shocking a catastrophe. In the mean time, the
friends of Louallier applied for a habeas corpus, which was issued
by Judge Hall, after it had been refused by Judge Lewis. Jackson not
satisfied with simply disregarding the writ, sent a file of men, who
seized the judge, carried him ten or twelve miles out of the city,
and left him with orders not to return. It was soon after the official
announcement of peace, and the cessation of martial law, that Judge
Hall returned to New Orleans and summoned General Jackson to appear
before him and answer for his disobedience of the writ of habeas corpus.
This General Jackson refused, for which refusal Judge Hall fined him
one thousand dollars.

This was the fine which the President recommended Congress to reimburse.
The payment of it was strenuously resisted, on the ground that it would
be reflection upon Judge Hall, who imposed it in the discharge of his
official duty, for a violation on the part of General Jackson of the
laws of the constitution. The act for reimbursing the fine, however,
passed both houses of congress――the vote in the former being taken
January 8th, 1844, the anniversary of the battle of New Orleans, and
standing 158 to 28. The vote in the senate was taken February 14th, and
stood 30 to 16. The act disclaimed any reflection upon Judge Hall. The
original fine was 1000 dollars. This with the interest amounted to 2700
dollars, which was forwarded to the general from the public treasury at
Washington by a special messenger.

On the 2d of March, 1814, a most tragical event occurred on board the
United States steamship Princeton, during her return from an excursion
down the Potomac. Captain Stockton, the commander of the ship, had
invited the President, the secretaries with their families, and several
members of congress to an excursion down the river. The day was fine;
the company large and brilliant――probably not less than 400 of both
sexes. During the passage, one of the large guns on board, called the
Peacemaker, carrying a ball of 225 pounds, was fired several times,
exhibiting the great power and capacity of that formidable weapon
of war. The ladies had partaken of a sumptuous repast; the gentlemen
had succeeded them at the table, and some of them had left it. The
vessel was on her return up the river, opposite the fort, when Captain
Stockton consented to fire another shot from the same gun, around and
near which, to observe its effects, many persons had gathered, though
by no means so many as had witnessed the previous discharge.

The gun was fired. The explosion was followed, before the smoke cleared
away so as to observe its effects, by shrieks of woe which announced
a dire calamity. The gun had burst three or four feet from the breech,
and scattered death and desolation. Mr. Upshur, secretary of state;
Mr. Gilmer, recently appointed secretary of the navy; Commodore Kennon,
one of its gallant officers; Virgil Maxcy, lately returned from a
diplomatic residence at the Hague; Mr. Gardener of New York, formerly
a member of the senate of that state were among the slain. Besides
these, seventeen seamen were wounded, and several of them mortally.
Captain Stockton, Colonel Benton of the senate, Lieutenant Hunt of
the Princeton, and W. D. Robinson of Georgetown were stunned by the
concussion.

The scene baffles description. Wives widowed in an instant by the
murderous blast! Daughters smitten with the heart-rending sight of
their fathers’ lifeless bodies! The wailings of agonized females! The
piteous grief of the unhurt but stricken spectators! The wounded seamen
borne down below! The silent tears and quivering lips of their brave
and honest comrades, who tried in vain to conceal their feelings! What
_words_ can adequately depict a scene like this!――A few days after,
the funeral ceremonies, which were conducted with appropriate order
and solemnity, took place at the presidential mansion, at which were
present the surviving officers of government, civil, military and
naval; the foreign ministers, members of both houses of congress, and
relatives and personal friends of the deceased.

Shortly after the above sad event, Mr. Upshur’s place in the department
of state was supplied by the appointment of John C. Calhoun, of South
Carolina, and the vacancy occasioned by the death of Mr. Gilmer was
filled by the appointment of John Y. Mason.

On the 22d of April, a message was transmitted to the senate by
the President, announcing to that body the negotiation of a treaty
with Texas; the object of which was to annex that territory to the
United States. “I transmit herewith,” said he, “for your approval and
ratification, a treaty which I have caused to be negotiated between
the United States and Texas, whereby the latter, on conditions therein
set forth, has conveyed all its rights of separate and independent
sovereignty and jurisdiction to the United States. In taking so
important a step, I have been influenced by what appeared to me to be
the most controlling considerations of public policy, and the general
good; and in having accomplished it, should it meet with your approval,
the government will have succeeded in reclaiming a territory, which
formerly constituted a portion, as it is confidently believed, of its
domain under the treaty of cession of 1803, by France to the United
States.”

By this treaty, the republic of Texas was to be annexed to the United
States as one of the territories. Her public lands were ceded and
subject to the laws regulating public lands in the other territories of
the United States. Her public debt and other liabilities to be assumed
by the United States, &c.

The annunciation that such a treaty had been negotiated by the
President so secretly, excited no small surprise throughout the country,
and immediately awakened deep concern and anxiety in the bosoms of
those who were opposed to the measure. In the view of this portion of
the community, the admission of Texas was a serious calamity, inasmuch
as it involved the extension of slavery, if not an open rupture with
Mexico, which still laid claim, with what justice we do not here
pretend to decide, to the republic, as a part of her rightful domain.
On the other hand, these and other objections had no force with a
large party, who were in favor of her admission. They saw in such a
measure not merely the extension of the great principle of liberty,
and the wider diffusion and enjoyment of our inestimable privileges and
institutions, but the means of great wealth, inasmuch as her rich lands
might be devoted to the production of cotton and other agricultural
products, and would furnish a mart for such surplus slave population,
as was not needed in contiguous states. It was confidently asserted
that it would not increase slavery in the land, but serve to place what
was deemed a necessary evil at a farther remove from the non-holding
slave states.

On the 8th of June, a direct vote was taken on the question of
ratifying the above treaty, when it appeared that 35 members were
against its ratification, and 10 in favor of it. It would have required
34 votes (two thirds) according to the constitution to ratify the
treaty, whereas more than two thirds voted against it.

On the rejection of this treaty, the President transmitted a message to
the house of representatives, informing that body of the action of the
senate, and virtually requesting them to adopt some course, by which
his object should be obtained. He said, “While I have regarded the
annexation to be accomplished by treaty, as the most suitable form in
which it could be effected, should congress deem it proper to resort
to any other expedient conformably with the constitution, and likely
to accomplish the object, I stand prepared to yield my most prompt
and active co-operation. The great question is not as to the manner in
which it shall be done, but whether it shall be accomplished or not.”

During the progress of these interesting measures in congress, not
less interesting events were transpiring in other parts of the country.
Another presidential election was approaching, and already the several
parties were marshalling their forces for the contest. Within a few
days, three conventions were held for the purpose of nominating
candidates for the two first offices in the country, to be voted for
in November, 1844.

The first of these was a whig convention convened on the 1st of May,
in the city of Baltimore. Over the deliberations of this convention,
the Hon. Ambrose Spencer of New York presided. By this convention,
composed of a large delegation from every state in the Union, Henry
Clay of Kentucky was unanimously recommended, as the whig candidate
for the presidency of the United States. At the same time Theodore
Frelinghuysen of New Jersey was nominated to the office of
vice-president.

On the following day the foregoing nominations were ratified by a grand
national mass convention, composed of young men from all parts of the
Union――probably the largest political assemblage ever convened in the
United States in a regular convention. John M. Clayton, of Delaware,
presided.

On the 27th of the same month, May, the democratic national
convention assembled in the city of Baltimore for a similar object of
this convention. H. C. Wright of Pennsylvania was elected president
of the convention. Previous to the meeting of this convention, it was
generally anticipated that Martin Van Buren, of New York, would be its
unanimous choice for the presidency. Not a few of the delegates had
been specially instructed to give their votes for him. The popularity
of Mr. Van Buren, however, had, from various causes, been for some
time diminishing. His letter in opposition to the annexation of Texas
had served to cool the friendship of many of his southern political
friends. In addition to these considerations, there were probably
others which have not yet transpired from the bosoms of some who
exercised a paramount influence in the Baltimore convention. Be this,
however, as it may, a plan was projected to pass Mr. Van Buren, and
select another candidate. This was accomplished by requiring a majority
of two thirds of the delegates present in favor of the candidates
elected. To the adoption of such a rule, the friends of Mr. Van Buren,
for a time, strenuously objected. They were, however, overruled, and
at length it came to pass, that the man, who, it is believed, nearly
every state in the Union had in one way or another recommended to the
suffrages of the convention, was laid aside, and a candidate in the
person of James K. Polk was selected, whose name, previously to the
convention, had scarcely ever been heard in connection with the first
office in the land. Most remarkable was it, that the man who, during
the first seven ballotings of a convention so large, did not receive
a single vote, and in the eighth balloting but forty-four, should on
the ninth receive every vote of the convention, being 266 in number.
At the same time George M. Dallas, of Pennsylvania, was nominated for
vice-president.

On the same day, in another part of the city of Baltimore, a Tyler
national convention, as it was called, was assembled for the purpose
of nominating John Tyler to the office of President. Of this convention
Judge White, of Connecticut, was elected president. The convention
was composed of delegates from various parts of the union, without
restriction as regards to number from any state or district, or any
question as to the manner of their appointment; by this convention
John Tyler was nominated for the presidency. It adjourned without
nominating a candidate for the vice-presidency, but adopted a
resolution recommending the appointment of a committee, who should
report a candidate for the vice-presidency through the public papers.

The candidates thus nominated by these several conventions,
accepted their nominations, and from this time the political campaign
opened with all that activity and busy bustle, which of late have
characterized our presidential elections. Immense mass meetings of old
and young were held in every section of the country, for the purpose
of approving of the several nominations, and of stimulating the friends
of the respective candidates to every effort to secure their election.
It may here be added, that on the 30th of August, Mr. Tyler, finding
himself without a party adequate either in numbers or zeal to elect
him, wisely withdrew from the presidential canvass. The course he had
pursued was popular with no party. Yet, on withdrawing his name, he
seems, for reasons not well understood, to have aided the election
of Mr. Polk, by removing from office those who were friendly to the
election of Mr. Clay, and substituting in their place men well known
to favor the pretensions of his rival.

The 28th congress closed its first session of 196 days, on the
17th of June. Little business of importance had been accomplished.
Several bills deeply affecting the interests of the country were lost.
Fortunately for the manufacturing interests, a bill having for its
object an essential alteration of the tariff, and which was urged by
its advocates with great force, was laid upon the table of the house by
a vote of 105 to 99. A post-office bill, reducing the rates of postage
was passed by the senate, but was neglected by the house, as was also
its own bill for regulating postage, and the franking privilege of
members of congress.

On the 2d of December congress again assembled――it being the 2d
session of the 28th congress. In his message, the President represents
the relations of the country with foreign powers as satisfactory. The
negotiations with Great Britain in relation to Oregon were in hopeful
progress. The condition of the public treasury, and of the public
credit were highly gratifying. The annexation of Texas was again
brought to the consideration of Congress, and a joint resolution was
recommended as the form by which that annexation might be perfected――to
be made binding on the two countries when adopted in a like manner by
the government of Texas.

On the 10th of January, 1845, an important treaty between the United
States and the Chinese empire, was ratified by the senate by a
unanimous vote. This treaty was concluded by Caleb Cushing, United
States commissioner to China, and Tsiyeng, governor-general of the Two
Kwangs, on the part of the Emperor, at Wang-Hiya, on the 3d of July,
1844. By this treaty our relations with China were placed on a new
footing eminently favorable to the commerce and other interests of the
United States. An abstract of the most important articles are subjoined.

Art. 1, Provides that there shall be a perfect and universal peace, and
a sincere and cordial amity between the United States of America and
the Ta Tsing Empire.

Art. 2, Provides that citizens of the United States resorting to China
for the purpose of commerce, will pay the duties of import and export
prescribed in the tariff annexed to the treaty, and no other duties or
charges whatever; and that the United States shall participate in any
future concession granted to other nations by China.

Art. 3, Provides for the provision of citizens of the United States at
the five ports of Kwang-chow, Hiyamen, Fa-chow, Ningpo and Shang-hai.

Art. 4, Provides for citizens of the United States to import and sell,
or buy and export, all manner of merchandise at the five ports.

Art. 16, Provides for the collection of debts due from Chinese to
Americans, or from Americans to Chinese through the tribunal of the
respective countries.

Art. 17, Provides for the residence of citizens of the United States;
the construction by them of dwellings, storehouses, churches,
cemeteries and hospitals, and regulates the limits of residence――and
trade permitted to citizens of the United States at the five ports, and
the ―――― appertaining thereto.

Art. 18, Empowers citizens of the United States freely to employ
teachers and other literary assistants, and to purchase books in China.

Art. 19, Provides the means of assuring the personal security of
citizens of the United States in China.

Art. 21, Provides that subjects of China and citizens of the United
States in China, charged with crimes shall be subject only to the
exclusive jurisdiction each of the laws and officers of their
respective governments.

Art. 22, Provides that the merchant vessels may freely carry between
the five ports and any country with which China may happen to be at war.

Art. 34, Provides that citizens of the United States engaged in
contraband trade, or trading clandestinely with such of the ports of
China as are not open to foreign commerce, shall not be countenanced or
protected by their government.

A treaty similar to the preceding was made by Great Britain with
China somewhat earlier. A new era has commenced in the history
of that extensive empire. And now that access to her population
is comparatively easy, and religious instruction is allowed to be
disseminated by means of missionaries, tracts, &c., a happy change may
be anticipated in respect to a people where religion, laws and customs
have remained without alteration for centuries. Thus good has resulted
from evil. The conduct of England in respect to the opium trade a few
years since, was reprobated by all civilized nations; but Providence
has overruled events so that the light of Christianity will at no
distant day enlighten and bless China, with her hundreds of millions
of now ignorant and superstitious idolators.

The rejection by the senate of the treaty concluded by the President
with Texas, noticed page 824, in no wise abated the ardor of the
Executive in respect to her annexation to the United States. In
his annual message, as already observed, he proposed to effect
her admission into the Union by a joint resolution of congress.
Unconstitutional as such a mode of annexation was deemed to be by
many sound and patriotic men, the measure found favor with a large
party in the United States, and a corresponding party in congress.
The resolution was opposed with great force, and by powerful argument.
The consequences were clearly set forth――those which were certain,
and other consequences which were probable. It was urged as an act of
injustice to Mexico, and that hostilities with that government would
likely ensue――that our territory was sufficiently extended――that our
public debt should not be enlarged by the assumption of hers――and
finally, and more than all, that the evils of slavery would be greatly
augmented as its theatre would be widely extended. But the President
and other friends of the measure regarded it with great favor. General
Jackson, now in the decline of life, and even on the verge of the grave,
was appealed to, and not in vain, to urge the democratic party to
consummate the annexation before his departure. The discussion of the
subject in congress, and in the public papers was strong and animated.
At length on the 23d of January, 1845, the question was taken in the
house of representatives, and the resolution adopted by a vote of 118
to 101.

The democratic votes in favor of the resolution were 53 from free,
and 59 from slave states. Eight whigs, all from slave states, voted
in favor. Of the votes in the negative, 28 were democratic from free
states; 70 were whig――52 from free states, and 18 from slave states.

The resolution from the house underwent important amendments in
the senate, in which body it passed by a vote of 27 to 25. In these
amendments the house concurred by a vote of 132 to 76.

The resolution thus passed was as follows.

_Resolved_, &c., That congress doth consent that the territory properly
included within, and rightfully belonging to, the republic of Texas,
may be created into a new state, to be called the state of Texas, with
a republican form of government to be adopted by the people of said
republic by deputies in convention assembled, with the consent of the
existing government in order that the same may be admitted under the
states of this Union.

The consent of congress to this resolution was given upon certain
conditions――the first was that a constitution adopted by the people
of said republic should be laid before congress on or before the
1st day of January, 1846――the second was, that all mines, minerals,
fortifications, harbors, arms, navy, &c., should be ceded to the United
States――public lands to be retained by Texas for the payment of her
debts――a third condition was, that new states might hereafter be formed
out of the said territory of Texas.

An amendment of the above resolutions proposed by Mr. Walker was
adopted by a vote of 27 to 25.

This amendment allowed the President of the United States, instead
of proceeding to submit the foregoing resolutions to the republic of
Texas as an overture on the part of the United States for admission,
to negotiate with that republic, then

_Be it resolved_, That a state to be formed out of the present
republic of Texas, with suitable extent and boundaries, and with
two representatives in congress until the next apportionment of
representation, shall be admitted into the Union by virtue of this act,
on an equal footing with the existing states, as soon as the terms and
condition of such admission and the cession of the remaining Texian
territory to the United States shall be agreed upon by the governments
of Texas and the United States. This amendment was concurred in by the
house by a vote of 132 to 76.

As these measures in regard to the admission of Texas were adopted
at the close of the session of congress, it was expected that
Mr. Tyler would leave it to his successor to consummate the wishes
of congress, and it was also understood that Mr. Polk had determined
to negotiate a treaty with Texas under the alternative offered by Mr.
Walker’s amendment. President Tyler, however, determined to forestall
the action of his successor, and hence despatched an express to
communicate to Texas, that he had decided to invite Texas into the
Union, under the provisions of the resolutions as they passed the house
of representatives, without the exercise of farther treaty making power.

During the preceding session of congress, the subject of a change
in existing rates of postage had been discussed, and a bill making
alterations had passed one branch of the national legislature. At
the present session, the subject was revived, and a bill reducing
the rates introduced. It was understood to find no favor with the
postmaster-general and some others――but a reduction of rates had
long been demanded by the public, and, in accordance with the public
sentiment, the bill passed the senate February 8th, by a vote of 38 to
12: in the house, on the 16th, 158 to 74――to go into operation the 1st
of July, following.

On the 12th of February, the ceremony of opening and counting the
votes of the electors of President and vice-president of the United
States took place in the presence of both houses of congress. Tellers
were appointed as usual, who, having read and counted the votes, made
duplicate lists thereof. These being delivered to the president of the
senate, he made declaration of the result; viz., That the whole number
of votes given was 275, of which James K. Polk, of Tennessee, had 170,
and was duly elected President of the United States for four years
from the 4th day of March ensuing. Henry Clay had 105 for the same
office. The vote for vice-president stood 170 for George M. Dallas,
of Pennsylvania; for Theodore Frelinghuysen, of New York, 105.

On the 4th of March, at half past two in the morning, the second
session of the 28th congress was brought to a close, and at the same
time was terminated the presidential career of John Tyler, who soon
after retired to his farm in Virginia.

In reviewing the presidential career of Mr. Tyler, it is impossible to
free him from the charge of inconsistency. In the Harrisburg convention,
he was a member, a vice-president, and an ardent supporter of Mr.
Clay――and when, after some three days’ deliberation, it was decided to
place General Harrison in nomination, few, if any, appeared more deeply
aggrieved than Mr. Tyler, that the claims of Mr. Clay were set aside.

The selection of a candidate for vice-president, next became an object
of deep solicitude. The friends of General Harrison were naturally
anxious that the choice should fall upon a known and ardent Clay
man. To this end, the name of John J. Crittenden was brought forward,
but his friends felt unauthorized to pledge his assent. Others were
named――Governor Dudley――ex-Governor Owen, and Benjamin Watkins Leigh;
but for various reasons their names were withdrawn. At length the
name of John Tyler was introduced, and under a belief that he was an
uncompromising whig, he received the unanimous vote of the convention.

On the death of General Harrison, Mr. Tyler succeeded to the
presidency. Thereupon he issued an address to the people, which was
plainly and generally understood to indicate his resolution to unite
in such measures with regard to the currency, as the new whig congress
(which General Harrison had called to meet in extra session at an early
day) should deem advisable. A variety of circumstances concurred to
evince that such was at that time his intention. But the tenor and
language of his conduct were soon changed. He differed from the party
which elevated him to office――repeatedly vetoed their most important
and most valued measures――removed from office nearly all who had
contributed to his election, and threw his entire influence into the
hands of the opposite political party.

The retirement of Mr. Tyler, is, perhaps, too recent to justify a
decided opinion as to the merits of his administration. During the heat
of party strife, an impartial judgment is seldom apt to be exercised.
We look at men and measures, at such times, through a false medium.
In order to [give] a fair and full estimate of the measures of a
government, it is necessary that years should pass by, and with them
the political pride and party prejudice of the principal actors at the
time of their adoption and influence. But whatever may be the ultimate
decision of posterity in regard to the administration of Mr. Tyler,
as a whole, it is certain, that nothing can rescue him from the charge
of a vacillating policy, by which he alienated from his society and
friendship nearly every man, who aided in elevating him to office; and
that without securing the esteem of the party whose cause he espoused,
and the members of which he honored with office. Measures beneficial
to the country, were indeed adopted during his administration; but it
is also true that, through his exercise of the veto power beyond all
former precedent, other measures of no less importance in the view
of his former friends, and which had been perfected at the expense
of much time and labor, were frustrated. In short, during nearly the
whole of his administration, Mr. Tyler went counter, in the opinion
of his friends, to those principles which he had avowed prior to,
and early after, his accession to the presidency. And in so doing, he
sadly disappointed his early political friends and associates, while he
secured to himself, it is well known, neither the respect nor support
of the democratic party.


                   ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES K. POLK.

On the 4th of March, 1845, James K. Polk was duly inaugurated as
President of the United States. The ceremonies at the Capitol on the
occasion were witnessed by a large concourse of citizens, both from the
vicinity and a distance. As is usual, the President elect, on taking
the oath of office, delivered an address explanatory of his political
sentiments, or those fundamental principles, by which he designed to
administer the government during his presidential term.

After expressing his thanks to his countrymen for the unsolicited
confidence reposed in him, and invoking the aid of the Almighty Ruler
of the universe, he said: “It will be my first care to administer the
government in the true spirit of the constitution, and to assume no
powers not expressly granted or clearly implied in its terms.” It would
also be his aim to see that the general government did not trench on
the rights of the states, nor the states overstep the limits of power
reserved to them. He should steadily aim to perpetuate the blessings
enjoyed under the constitution, and especially to preserve the Federal
Union in its integrity, and in all that pertains to its honor and
prosperity. He expressed himself opposed, to a national bank, and all
other extraneous institutions planted around the government to control
or strengthen it, in opposition to the will of its authors. In respect
to the expenditure of the public money, he should feel it to be his
duty to recommend the strictest economy compatible with the public
interest. In regard to the adjustment of our revenue laws, and the
levying of taxes necessary to the support of the government, he
considered it a cardinal principle, that no more money should be
collected than the necessities of an economical administration required.
He was in favor of a tariff for revenue, and such as would afford
incidental protection to our home industry, but was opposed to a tariff
for protection merely. He was in favor of the annexation of Texas,
and congratulated the country that measures were in progress for her
_reunion_. In respect to Oregon, he claimed our title to it to be
“clear and unquestionable.” In the management of foreign relations,
he would aim to preserve a careful respect for the rights of other
nations, while our own would be the subject of constant watchfulness.
Public officers would be held to a strict performance of their duties,
especially those charged with the collection and disbursement of the
public revenues. Although chosen by a party, in his official actions he
would not be the President of a part only, but of the whole people of
the United States. In conclusion he said, “I enter upon the discharge
of the high duties which have been assigned me by the people, humbly
supplicating that Divine Being, who has watched over and protected our
beloved country from its infancy to the present hour, to continue his
gracious benedictions upon us, that we may continue a prosperous and
happy people.”

The President immediately after his induction into office, proceeded
to the formation of his cabinet. The new senate being in session,
he nominated James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, as secretary of state;
Robert J. Walker, of Mississippi, secretary of the treasury; William L.
Marcy, of New York, secretary of war; George Bancroft, of Massachusetts,
secretary of the navy; Cave Johnson, of Tennessee, postmaster-general,
and John Y. Mason, of Virginia, attorney-general.

On the evening of the 8th of June, an event occurred calculated to
make a deep impression upon the whole people of the United States.
This was the death of General Jackson, who breathed his last, at his
residence at the Hermitage, Tennessee, in the 79th year of his age.
His funeral solemnities took place on Tuesday, the 10th, the Rev. Dr.
Edgar preaching a most impressive and eloquent sermon on the occasion.
After the religious services were ended, the body was conveyed to the
vault prepared many years since for its reception. Several thousands of
persons were present at the solemn ceremonies, which were closed by the
discharge of three volleys over the grave.

We have elsewhere spoken of General Jackson in respect to his military
and political character. That he was “a soldier of dauntless courage,
vigor, and perseverance, an officer of skill and sagacity, of quickness
of perception, and of prompt and resolute execution of his purpose,
there is, probably, and hereafter there will probably, be no division
of opinion, either at home or abroad. That he was sometimes stern
and severe, too stern and severe, none can doubt; nor will it be
questioned probably, that while in general he sought to distinguish
himself by exalting the character and honor of his country, he was not
unfrequently rash, and too obstinately bent on pursuing his plans and
purposes to their end, in despite of the opinion and advice of his
political friends and associates.”

To all, however, whatever estimates they may have formed of the
excellence or defects of his administration, it must be pleasant to
learn that the closing days of his life were devoted, according to
statements made to the public, to a wise preparation for that eternity
to which he was hastening. He claimed to rest his hopes for acceptance
with God, on the merits of Jesus Christ. His final interview with his
family was deeply tender and impressive. He took leave of each one with
great deliberation, and in a manner most kind and affectionate. He took
leave with similar tenderness of his servants, who had collected in his
room, or at the windows, and in conclusion he expressed the hope, that
he should meet them all again in a world of glory.

The solemn event was every where received with due sensibility, and its
announcement followed by appropriate demonstrations of respect to the
memory of the departed. The President of the United States issued his
public order, directing suitable demonstrations of public sorrow and
sympathy to be made at the several naval and military stations of the
country. With great propriety did that public order conclude by saying,
“Let the virtues of the illustrious dead retain their influence, and
when energy and courage are called to trial, emulate his example.”

The first session of the 29th congress commenced December 1st, 1845.
The Hon. John W. Davis, of Indiana, was elected speaker of the house of
representatives.

On the following day, the President transmitted his message to both
houses of congress. The principal topics of public interest contained
in the message related to Texas――to Oregon――to our relations with
Mexico――to the public lands――and to the sub-treasury.

In regard to Texas, the President informed congress, that the terms of
annexation which were offered by the United States to that government,
by the joint resolution of the last congress, had been accepted
by Texas, and that nothing, therefore, remained to consummate that
annexation, but the passage of an act by congress, to admit the state
of Texas into the Union, upon an equal footing with the original states.
“Strong reasons exist,” he observed, “why this should be done at an
early period of the session. By the constitution of Texas, the existing
government is continued only till congress can act; and the third
Monday of the present month is the day appointed for holding the
first general election. I cannot,” added the Executive, “too earnestly
recommend prompt action on this important subject.”

The President next spoke of our relations with Mexico, “which,” he
observed, “have not since the last session been of the most amicable
character. On the 6th of March, the Mexican envoy extraordinary and
minister plenipotentiary to the United States, made a formal protest
against the annexation of Texas; in which he regarded that annexation
as a violation of the rights of Mexico, and in consequence of it, he
had demanded his passports. Thus, by the act of Mexico, all diplomatic
intercourse between the two countries had been suspended.” Nor was this
all. The belligerent conduct of Mexico had rendered it necessary, in
the opinion of the President, to take measures to protect and defend
Texas against her menaced attack. “I deemed it proper, therefore,”
observed the President, “as a precautionary measure, to order a strong
squadron to the coast of Mexico, and to concentrate a sufficient
military force on the western frontier of Texas. Our army was ordered
to take position in the country between the Neuces and the Del Norte,
and to repel any invasion of the Texan territory which might be
attempted by the Mexican forces. Our squadron in the Gulf was ordered
to co-operate with the army.” Up to the date of the message, however,
Mexico had made no aggressive movement, nor had the American forces,
on their part, committed any act of hostility. Such was the position of
our affairs with Mexico on the opening of the session of congress.

The President next adverted to the subject of the Oregon territory.
Previous to his induction to office, three several attempts had been
made to settle the questions in dispute about Oregon between the two
countries by negotiation, upon the principle of compromise, each of
which, however, had proved unsuccessful.

These negotiations look place at London, in the years 1818, 1824,
and 1826: the first two under the administration of Mr. Monroe, the
last under that of Mr. Adams. The negotiations of 1818 having failed
to accomplish its object, resulted in the convention of the 20th of
October of that year. By the third article of that convention, it was
“agreed that any country that may be claimed by either party, on the
north-west coast of America, westward of the Stony mountains, shall,
together with its harbors, bays, and creeks, and the navigation of all
rivers within the same, be free and open for the term of ten years from
the date of the signature of the present convention, to the vessels,
citizens, and subjects of the two Powers; it being well understood that
this agreement is not to be construed to the prejudice of any claim
which either of the two high contracting parties may have to any part
of the said country, nor shall it be taken to affect the claims of any
other Power or State to any part of said country; the only object of
the high contracting parties in that respect, being to prevent disputes
and differences among themselves.”

The negotiation of 1824 was productive of no result, and the convention
of 1818 was left unchanged.

The negotiation of 1826 having also failed to effect an adjustment
by compromise, resulted in the convention of August the 6th, 1827, by
which it was agreed to continue in force, for an indefinite period,
the provisions of the third article of the convention of the 20th of
October, 1818; and it was further provided, that it shall be competent,
however, to either of the high contracting parties, in case either
should think fit, at any time after the 20th of October, 1828, on
giving due notice of twelve months to the other contracting party,
to annul and abrogate this convention; and it shall, in such case, be
accordingly entirely annulled and abrogated after the expiration of
said term of notice.

From this time, for several years, the subject rested in quietness. At
length, in October, 1843, the minister of the United States in London,
made a similar offer to those of 1818 and 1826. Thus stood the question
when the negotiation was transferred to Washington. On the 26th of
August, 1844, the British plenipotentiary offered to divide the Oregon
territory by the 49th parallel of north latitude, leaving the free
navigation of the Columbia river to be enjoyed in common by both
parties. This proposition was rejected by the American plenipotentiary
on the day it was submitted. The British plenipotentiary next, in turn,
requested that a proposal should be made by the United States, for an
equitable adjustment of the question.

Such was the state of the negotiation on the accession of Mr. Polk
to the presidency. “Anxious to settle this long pending controversy,
I was induced,” he observed, “to make a further proposition, which
was a repetition of the offer of the parallel for 49 degrees of north
latitude, without the free navigation of the Columbia river. This
proposition was rejected by the British plenipotentiary, and here all
negotiation ceased.”

Such was the state of this important and delicate question on the
meeting of congress. Attempts at compromise had failed. Great anxiety
was beginning to be felt by statesmen on both side the waters in
relation to this subject. More and more sensitiveness was prevailing,
in reference to the claims of the respective parties. The President,
under a belief that the question should be settled, advised that the
year’s notice, required by the convention of the 6th of August, 1827,
should be given to Great Britain.

“By so doing, at the expiration of a year, we shall have reached a
period,” said the President, “when our national rights in Oregon must
either be abandoned, or firmly maintained.”

In regard to the tariff, the message was explicit. The President
reaffirmed doctrines, which, before his elevation to the Executive
chair, he was known to profess in regard to the protective system.
He was against it――against the tariff act of 1842――a revision and
modification of which he strongly recommended.

In respect to the public domain, the President proposed to reduce
the price to one dollar per acre, and to graduate the price to lower
rates upon such portions as should remain for any considerable time
unsold. Next, he adverted to the safe keeping of the public money.
“Entertaining the opinion,” said he, “that the separation of the moneys
of the government from banking institutions is indispensable for the
safety of the funds of the government, and the rights of the people, I
recommend to congress that provision be made by law for such separation,
and that a constitutional treasury be created for the safe keeping of
the public money. The constitutional treasury recommended is designed
as a secure depository for the public money, without any power to make
loans or discounts, or to issue any paper whatever, as a currency or
circulation. I cannot doubt that such a treasury as was contemplated by
the constitution, should be independent of all banking corporations.”

Such were the views of the Executive in regard to these great questions
of national policy. Great differences of opinion existed among the
American people in relation to several of them. It was foreseen that
the public discussion of them would intensely excite the nation, and
great apprehensions were entertained lest hostilities should grow out
of the question pending between the United States and Great Britain.
A war with Mexico at even an earlier day had been predicted, and the
message of the President was not calculated to allay anxiety respecting
it.

Indeed, this anxiety was destined to be increased by the course
adopted by certain political leaders in congress. As early as the 9th
of December, General Cass introduced into the senate the following
resolutions:

“_Resolved_, That the committee on military affairs be instructed to
inquire into the condition of the national fortifications, and of their
armaments; and whether other defensive works are necessary; and into
the condition and quantity of the military supplies; and into the state
of the means possessed by the government for the defence of the country.

“_Resolved_, That the committee on the militia be instructed to inquire
into the present condition of that great branch of the public service;
and into the state of the militia laws; and that they be further
instructed to report such changes in the existing system, as will give
more experience and efficacy to that arm of defence, and will place it
in the best condition for protecting the country, should it be exposed
to foreign invasion.

“_Resolved_, That the committee on naval affairs be instructed to
inquire into the condition of the navy of the United States, and into
the quantity and condition of supplies now on hand; and whether an
increase of them is not necessary to the efficient operation of the
navy, and to its preservation and augmentation; and, generally, into
its capacity for defending our coasts and our commerce; and for any
service the exigencies of the country may probably require.”

The belligerent aspect of these resolutions was not to be mistaken;
and, at length, when taken up for consideration, the mover of them,
while he disclaimed any wish to hasten hostilities between Great
Britain and America, expressed his conviction that a crisis was
approaching.

The United States would not and could not relinquish her claim upon
Oregon. “Shall we recede?” he inquired. “No, sir, as to receding it
is not to be thought of for a moment. It is a thing I allude to, only
to denounce it. War,” he added, “was a great calamity, and should if
possible be avoided: but there were other calamities more to be dreaded
than war, and among those calamities was national dishonor.”

To these resolutions, thus introduced, it was replied, that there could
be nothing urged by way of objection in themselves considered. It was
right to inquire into the state of our national defence, and to provide
against the possible contingency of war; but it was the remarks of the
mover of them which gave them their peculiar significance. They were
in effect a declaration of war. They would be so considered, and would
awaken the anxieties of the entire country. They might also seriously
interfere with and retard the settlement of a question of vast moment
pending between the United States and Great Britain. After a full
consideration of these resolutions, however, and suitable explanations
on both sides, the resolutions were unanimously referred to the
committee on military affairs.

In accordance with the recommendation of Mr. Polk, at an early day of
the session, joint resolutions for the admission of the state of Texas
into the Union were introduced into the house of representatives. These
resolutions with a preamble were as follows.

“Joint resolutions for the admission of the state of Texas into the
Union.

“Whereas the congress of the United States, by a ‘_joint resolution_,’
approved March the 1st, 1846, did consent, that the territory properly
included within, and rightfully belonging to, the republic of Texas,
might be erected into a new state, to be called the _state of Texas_,
with a republican form of government, to be adopted by the people of
said republic by deputies in convention assembled, with the consent of
the existing government, in order that the same might be admitted as
one of the states of the Union; which consent of congress was given
upon certain conditions specified in the 1st and 2d sections of said
joint resolutions: and whereas the people of the said republic of Texas,
by deputies in convention assembled, with the consent of the existing
government, did adopt a constitution, and erect a new state, with a
republican form of government, and in the name of the people of Texas,
and by their authority, did ordain and declare, that they assented to
and accepted the proposals, conditions, and guaranties contained in
said 1st and 2d sections of said resolutions: and whereas the said
constitution, with the proper evidence of its adoption by the people
of the republic of Texas, has been transmitted to the President of
the United States, and laid before congress, in conformity to the
provisions of said joint resolutions; Therefore

“_Be it resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the
United States of America in Congress assembled_, That the state of
Texas shall be one, and is hereby declared to be one, of the United
States of America, and admitted into the Union on an equal footing with
the original states in all respects whatever.

“_Be it further enacted_, That until the representatives in congress
shall be apportioned, according to an actual enumeration of the
inhabitants of the United States, the state of Texas shall be entitled
to choose two representatives.”

It was scarcely within the reasonable hopes of the opposers of the
annexation of Texas, that after the adoption of the measures, with that
object in view, by the preceding congress, the present congress would
do any thing by which to prevent her admission into the Union. A few,
perhaps, indulged the belief, that further proceedings might be stayed;
and with that object in view, petitions and remonstrances were sent
in from various parts of the Union. The President had, indeed, in his
message congratulated congress and the nation that “this accession
(of Texas) to our territory had been a bloodless achievement. No arm
of force had been raised to produce the result. The sword has had
no part in the victory. We have not sought to extend our territorial
possessions by conquest, or our republican institutions over a
reluctant people.” This was admitted by the opposite party, but they
predicted war as a consequence, and this danger of a collision with
Mexico they would have avoided, by preventing the admission of Texas.
Besides, the extension of slavery was more distressing to many in all
quarters of the Union; and, moreover, it was urged that it was of
dangerous tendency and doubtful consequences to enlarge the boundaries
of this government or territory over which our laws are now established.
“There must be some limit,” said a wise and aged statesman, “to the
extent of our territory if we would make our institutions permanent.”

The opposers of annexation, in various parts of the country, were
anticipating a warm and exciting debate on the subject in congress,
and members of that body, who represented this party, were themselves,
it is believed, prepared to present strong, and to themselves,
satisfactory reasons, why the project should be abandoned. But to the
surprise of all, when the subject came up for consideration, discussion
was prevented by an early movement of the previous question. To such a
summary process strong remonstrances were made; but to the friends of
the measure in congress, who believed the most valuable benefits would
result to the Union by its consummation, debate seemed needless; and,
consequently, the resolutions were urged to a speedy adoption. On the
16th of December, the question was taken, and the resolutions were
adopted by a majority of 141 to 56. A few days after they received the
sanction of the senate. In this latter body, however, an opportunity
was given for the opposers of annexation to urge their objections. This
was done with great dignity; but a majority in the senate, as in the
house, if not in the country, were found in favour of the measure.

Thus by a novel, and to many an unconstitutional process, was
Texas admitted into the Union, and “without any intermediate time
of probation, such as other territories had undergone before their
admission, she was vested with a right to send _two_ representatives to
congress, while her population was insufficient to entitle her to one,
except, under the specific provision of the constitution, that each
state shall have at least one representative.”

As early as October, 1845, an inquiry had been made by order of the
President, of the Mexican minister for foreign affairs, whether his
government “would receive an envoy from the United States, intrusted
with full powers to adjust all questions in dispute between the two
governments.” During the same month, an affirmative answer having
been received; in November, the Hon. John Slidell, of Louisiana, was
commissioned as such, and on the 30th of the same month arrived at Vera
Cruz. The government of Mexico, notwithstanding its pledge, refused to
receive him in the diplomatic character to which he had been appointed;
and, after spending some time in the country, he returned to the United
States.

The military force, which the President in his annual message informed
congress he had ordered to take a position “between the Neuces and the
Del Norte,” was for some months concentrated under General Taylor at
Corpus Christi: but, on learning the probable refusal of the Mexican
government to receive our envoy; and moreover, Texas having by her act
of a previous date, declared the Rio del Norte to be her boundary, the
President, in January, directed General Taylor to remove from Corpus
Christi, and to concentrate his troops on the left bank of the Del
Norte. At the same time all aggressive acts were strictly forbidden.

Accordingly, on the 11th of March the troops were put in motion, and
on the 28th of that month arrived on the left bank of the Del Norte,
opposite to Matamoras. About the same time a depôt was established at
Point Isabel, near the Brasos Santiago, thirty miles in the rear of the
encampment.

These measures, adopted by the President, by which the American troops
passed the Neuces, the boundary claimed by Mexico, was considered by
a large portion of the people of the United States as impolitic, if
not unjust; and strongly tending to strengthen the misunderstanding
already existing between the two governments. At least, the territory
thus occupied was a subject of dispute, and by many its occupation was
deemed a belligerent act.

It was naturally so considered by Ampudia, who was commanding the
Mexican forces at Matamoras, and who notified the American general
to break up his camp within twenty four hours, and retire beyond
the Neuces. On the 24th of April, General Arista superseded Ampudia
in command, and forthwith communicated to General Taylor, that “he
considered hostilities commenced, and should prosecute them.” On the
same day, a party of dragoons of sixty-three men and officers from the
American camp, who had been despatched up the Del Norte to reconnoitre,
were attacked by a body of Mexican troops. Sixteen were killed and
wounded, and the remainder taken prisoners.

For a time following the occupation of the left bank of the Del Norte,
the situation of the American army was considered exceedingly critical.
In point of numbers, it fell far short of the Mexican force under
General Arista, and supplies of food were difficult to be obtained. In
this situation, General Taylor availed himself of authority given him
by the President to call upon the governor of Texas for four regiments
of state troops, and on the governor of Louisiana for four regiments,
to be sent him as soon as practicable. These eight regiments were
expected to make a force of nearly 5000 men, and were, in the opinion
of General Taylor, sufficient: but General Gaines, having command in
the southern department, under an apprehension that a much larger force
would be necessary, made requisitions upon several of the governors
of the southern states for a large volunteer force. In consequence
of this call, a large force was ultimately concentrated under General
Taylor――more than was deemed needful, and they were dismissed, while
General Gaines, though considered patriotic in his measures, was
adjudged to have transcended his authority.

Before, however, any of the above troops had reached the camp of
General Taylor, his situation had become alarming. His provisions
were nearly exhausted. The Mexicans were surrounding him, and his
communication with Point Isabel was liable to be interrupted. At
length, leaving a garrison of 700 or 800 men at his works opposite
Matamoras, he set out with his other forces on Friday, the 1st of May,
for Point Isabel to give protection to that place, and re-establish
his communication with his supplies.

This movement upon Point Isabel was effected, without encountering
a single Mexican. In place of molesting General Taylor, the enemy
concentrated his forces about the camp which he had just left. On the
morning of the 3d, the American works were attacked by the Mexican
batteries from the opposite side of the river, while a detachment of
their forces made a simultaneous attack on this side of the Rio Grande,
in the rear. The Americans returned the fire with so much effect as
to silence, in a short time, the Mexican batteries, while the attack
in the rear was still more easily repulsed. The Americans lost but
a single man. The Mexican loss was considerable. Matamoras itself
suffered considerably.

On the 7th General Taylor commenced his return to his camp. He
anticipated opposition, but little did anyone apprehend such attacks
and such victories as the Americans won.

On the 8th, the Mexican forces had reached Palo Alto, with an intention
to intercept the American general, and if practicable to prevent his
return to his camp. The two armies met, and for five hours such a
battle raged as the annals of history seldom record. The Mexican force
exceeded 5000 men, with seven pieces of artillery and 800 cavalry. The
American troops were 2300, with but two eighteen pounders and two light
batteries. The loss of the Americans was comparatively trifling. Two
brave officers were severely wounded. Major Ringgold and Captain Page,
the former of whom soon after died. The loss of the Mexicans, according
to the official report of General Arista, was, in killed, 98――wounded
and missing, 142. The American army encamped on the field.

On the following day, General Taylor again moved with his forces
towards his camp opposite Matamoras; and, on reaching Resaca de la
Palma, a few miles only from his destination, he again encountered
the enemy, and a battle, shorter in its continuance, but far more
severe, ensued. The Americans were still more triumphant, capturing
eight pieces of artillery, with a large quantity of ammunition; three
standards, and several hundred prisoners, among whom was General
La Vega. The loss of the Americans in this action exceeded that of
the preceding day. According to the report of General Taylor in both
actions there were 3 officers and 40 men killed, and 13 officers and
400 men wounded. General Arista reported as killed, officers and men,
154; wounded, 205, and missing, 156; making a total of 515.

“The glory of the American arms,” says a writer, “never shone brighter
than in the brilliant contest of Palo Alto of the 8th, and in the even
more brilliant contest of Resaca de la Palma of the 9th of May. On both
days our soldiers

               “‘Fought like brave men, long and well.’

“They fought at great odds, with a foe superior in numbers, and
in a position which the enemy had selected. But these only gave
opportunities for more striking displays of personal valor. These
disadvantages only served to show the decided superior power of the
American arms.”

It was the wish of the American general to follow up the advantage thus
obtained, but having no adequate means of crossing the river, he was
obliged to content himself with the victories he had won. The American
force once more took up its quarters at the camp opposite Matamoras,
while the Mexican general retreated up higher into the country.

While affairs were thus progressing in the south between the two
contending armies, an intense interest was kindling up in every
part of the United States――and while, with but few exceptions, the
people regretted the occurrence of any misunderstanding with Mexico,
a general sympathy was felt for the American army (intelligence had
not yet been received of the battles of the 8th and 9th,) environed
as it was supposed to be by a superior force, and nearly destitute of
supplies. In this state of things, a bill for “an act providing for the
prosecution of the existing war, &c., was introduced into congress, the
preamble to which was as follows. “Whereas, by the act of the republic
of Mexico, a state of war exists between that government and the United
States,” &c. To this preamble strong objections were expressed by some,
but the bill, nevertheless passed both houses by large majorities. By
this act, the President was authorized to employ the militia, naval,
and military forces of the United States, and to call for, and accept
the services of any number of volunteers not exceeding 50,000, either
cavalry, artillery, infantry, or riflemen, &c. Besides the above, the
regular army was increased several thousand, the enlistments being made
for five years.

On the day the foregoing act was approved, the President issued his
proclamation announcing the existence of war, “by the act of the
republic of Mexico,” and calling upon the “good people of the United
States to exert themselves in preserving order, and in maintaining
the authority of the laws, and in supporting such measures as might be
adopted for obtaining a speedy, a just, and an honorable peace.”

The winter had been spent by congress in the discussion of topics
of great national interest, among which the most prominent related
to Oregon; and particularly to the question arising out of the
recommendation of the President in his annual message, whether the
convention of August 6th, 1827, between the United States and Great
Britain, in relation to the joint occupation of that territory, should
be abrogated by giving to the latter government the year’s notice
required by said convention.

Since the formation of the government, no question perhaps excited
greater interest, or elicited warmer discussion than this. By not a few
it was apprehended that the practical effect of such notice would be
a war between the two governments. The debate took a wide range, and
several were the modes suggested, or the resolutions offered, according
to the terms of which the notice should be given. But, at length, on
the 16th of April, the question was taken in the senate on a resolution,
which had originated in the house and been amended in the senate, to
give said notice, and decided in the affirmative by a majority of 40 to
14. On being returned to the house, the latter agreed to the senate’s
amendments, but added still further amendments. These latter, however,
were negatived by the senate, and the house insisting, a conference was
solicited by the latter. This being accepted by the senate, a committee
of conference was appointed, who reported the following preamble and
resolution, which passed the senate by a vote of 42 to 10, and the
house by a vote of 142 to 46.

“_A Joint Resolution concerning the Oregon territory._――Whereas, by
the convention concluded the twentieth day of October, eighteen hundred
and eighteen, between the United States of America and the King of
the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, for the period of
ten years, and afterwards indefinitely extended and continued in force
by another convention of the same parties, concluded the sixth day
of August, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and
twenty-seven, it was agreed that any country that may be claimed by
either party on the north-west coast of America westward of the Stony
or Rocky mountains, now commonly called the Oregon territory, should,
together with its harbors, bays, and creeks, and the navigation of all
rivers within the same, be “free and open” to the vessels, citizens,
and subjects of the two powers, but without prejudice to any claim
which either of the parties might have to any part of said country;
and with this further provision, in the second article of the said
convention of the sixth of August, eighteen hundred and twenty-seven,
that either party might abrogate and annul said convention, or give due
notice of twelve months to the other contracting party――

“And whereas it has now become desirable that the respective claims of
the United States and Great Britain should be definitely settled, and
that said territory may no longer than need be remain subject to the
evil consequences of the divided allegiance of its American and British
population, and of the confusion and conflict of national jurisdictions,
dangerous to the cherished peace and good understanding of the two
countries――

“With a view, therefore, that steps be taken for the abrogation of
the said convention of the sixth of August, eighteen hundred and
twenty seven, in the mode prescribed in its second article, and that
the attention of the governments of both countries may be the more
earnestly and immediately directed to the adoption of all proper
measures for a speedy and amicable adjustment of the difficulties and
disputes in respect to said territory――

“_Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United
States, in Congress assembled_, That the President of the United States
be, and he is hereby authorized, at his discretion, to give the British
government the notice required by its said second article for the
abrogation of the said convention of the sixth of August, eighteen
hundred and twenty-seven.”

Thus was decided a question which had greatly agitated the entire
country, and which, in the progress of discussion, had occasioned
observations and reflections strongly calculated to disturb the
harmony of the two governments, and which, in the opinion of some,
were designed to produce such an effect. But the folly and guilt of
engendering war between two nations so allied, and in which Christian
principle was bound to hold sway, was, on several occasions, and by
some of the principal men of the nation, pointed out. Solemn warning
was given to those, who would madly have rushed to arms by setting up
claims of doubtful validity, and which, it was well known, would never
be acceded to by the British government. But, at length, the troubled
waters grew calmer; and, while to a small portion of congress and of
the nation, the resolutions adopted were still obnoxious, a vast
majority of the people were gratified at their mild and conciliatory
tenor.

It still remained to be known in what spirit this resolution would be
received by her majesty’s government: but it was devoutly desired that
it might lead to a final and harmonious settlement of all questions
pertaining to the territory of Oregon.

And so it resulted fortunately, for the peace of the two powers
immediately concerned, and to the peace of the continental powers of
Europe.

On the 28th of April, the President gave official notice to her
Majesty, Queen Victoria, that “the convention of August 6th, 1827,
would terminate at the end of twelve months from and after the delivery
of these presents.”

Before the delivery of this notice, however, the subject of an amicable
settlement of all questions relating to Oregon, had occupied her
Majesty’s government, and, on the 18th of May, Mr. M’Lane, our minister,
informed Mr. Buchanan that the British minister at Washington would
soon receive instructions to submit a new and further proposition, on
the part of the British government, for a partition of the territory in
dispute.

On the 10th of June, the President made a special and confidential
communication to the senate, informing that body, that such a proposal
had been made, and requesting their advice as to the action, which,
in their judgment, it was proper to take in reference to it. At the
same time he reiterated the views which he had expressed in his annual
message, “that no compromise which the United States ought to accept,
could be affected;” “that our title to the whole of Oregon” was
maintained “by irrefragable facts and arguments,” and that the claim
“could not be abandoned without a sacrifice of both national honor and
interests.” Such was the tenor of the President’s communication. But he
solicited advice.

On the 12th, the senate adopted, 38 to 12, the following resolution.
“_Resolved_, (two-thirds of the senate concurring,) That the President
of the United States be and he is hereby advised to accept the proposal
of the British government accompanying his message to the senate, dated
June 10th, 1846, for a convention to settle boundaries, &c., between
the United States and Great Britain, west of the Rocky or Stony
mountains.”

On the 16th of June, the President communicated to the senate a copy
of a convention, or treaty, which had been concluded and signed on the
15th inst. settling boundaries, &c., in relation to Oregon――whereupon
the senate by a vote of 41 to 14 advised and consented to the
ratification of the same.

The two principal articles of this treaty are as follows.

“Art. 1, From the point on the 49th parallel of north latitude, where
the boundary laid down in existing treaties and conventions between
Great Britain and the United States terminates, the line of boundary
between the territories of her Brittannic Majesty and those of the
United States shall be continued westward along the 49th parallel
of north latitude to the middle of the channel which separates the
continent from Vancouver’s Island, and thence southerly through the
middle of the said channel, and of Fuca’s Straits, to the Pacific Ocean;
provided, however, that the navigation of the said channel and straits,
south of the 49th parallel of north latitude, remain free and open to
both parties.

“Art. 2, From the point at which the 49th parallel of north latitude
shall be found to intersect the great Northern branch of the Columbia
river, the navigation of the said branch shall be free, and open to
the Hudson’s Bay Company, and to all British subjects trading with the
same, to the point where the said branch meets the main stream of the
Columbia, and thence down the said main stream to the ocean, with free
access into and through the said river or rivers――it being understood
that all the usual portages along the line thus described, shall in
like manner be free and open. In navigating the said river or rivers,
British subjects, with their goods and produce, shall be treated on
the same footing as citizens of the United States――It being, however,
always understood, that nothing in this article shall be construed as
preventing, or intended to prevent, the government of the United States
from making any regulations respecting the navigation of the said river
or rivers, not inconsistent with the present treaty.”

Thus was finally settled (ratifications being afterwards duly exchanged)
a question which had involved the two governments in discussions long
and wearisome for a series of years, and which, in its progress, was
threatening the peace and amity of the two nations. The treaty thus
confirmed was not in all its provisions quite acceptable, nor was it
considered the most advantageous that could have been negotiated; but
the senate received, as it was entitled to, the thanks of the country
for terminating a controversy fraught with dangers every month that it
continued.

Several important bills were passed during the session, among which
was a bill to protect the rights of citizens of the United States
residing in Oregon――a bill for the establishment of the Smithsonian
Institute, for the Increase and Diffusion of Knowledge among men――a
bill re-establishing the sub-treasury――a warehousing bill――a bill
for the improvement of certain rivers and harbors within the United
States――and a bill to indemnify citizens of the United States for
French spoilations. The two last of these bills, to the great regret
of persons interested therein, as well as many others who desired to
see the intents of navigation advanced and protected, and that numerous
class of citizens indemnified for losses which they had years since
sustained by reason of French depredations, and which, according to
agreement, the government of the United States were solemnly bound to
pay, were vetoed. Loud complaints were uttered against the President
for his course pursued in relation to these bills, which had been
discussed with signal ability, and had received the decided sanction
of both houses of congress.

Towards the close of the session, a bill for the reduction of the
duties on the importation of foreign goods and manufactures, passed the
house of representatives by a majority of nineteen votes. In the senate
it was carried by the casting vote of the vice-president. To those who
were satisfied with the tariff of 1842, the alterations proposed by
this bill were strongly condemned. They predicted as a consequence,
and one which could not be avoided, the ruin of several important
branches of manufactures, while it was exceedingly doubtful whether the
revenues arising under this new tariff would suffice for the wants of
the government. The Democratic party, however, stood pledged to alter
the tariff of 1842, and although the friends of protection for a time
cherished hopes that the interests of the manufacturers, and as they
believed, the interests of the country, would be regarded; those hopes
were dispelled by the action of congress on the subject.

On the 10th of August, at noon, congress brought its long and stirring
session to a close. It had lasted for 253 days, or more than two thirds
of a year. During few sessions were there ever more important subjects
under debate. The results of several measures adopted remain to be seen.
But, while it is occasion of congratulation, that our difficulties
with Great Britain have been amicably and timely adjusted, it is
matter of serious regret, that a war should be continued with Mexico.
The final result of this, in regard to Mexico, may, perhaps, not
be problematical――but the “end is not yet;” and before that end is
reached, the people of the United States may as much regret that it
was commenced, as the Mexicans themselves. The American army is at this
present time, September, 1846, on its way from Matamoras to Monterey
and other points. Santa Anna has superseded Paredes in the government,
but what are his wishes in regard to peace have not transpired. Should
he decide for war, the Americans can “apparently conquer a peace” only
by taking up their march to the “Halls of Montezuma.”




                               APPENDIX.


                         CANALS AND RAILROADS.

            A CONDENSED SUMMARY OF THE CANALS AND RAILROADS
                         IN THE UNITED STATES;
                 THEIR LENGTHS AND TERMINATING POINTS.

            Name.          │      From.      │      To.       │Miles.
  ─────────────────────────┼─────────────────┼────────────────┼──────
            MAINE.         │                 │                │
           _Canal._        │                 │                │
  Cumberland and Oxford    │Near Portland    │Long Pond       │ 20,50
          _Railroad._      │                 │                │
  Bangor and Orono         │Bangor           │Orono           │ 10,00
  ─────────────────────────┼─────────────────┼────────────────┼──────
                           │                 │                │
       NEW HAMPSHIRE.      │                 │                │
          _Canals._        │                 │                │
  Bow Falls                │                 │                │  0,75
  Hookset Falls            │                 │                │  0,13
  Amoskeag Falls           │                 │                │  1,00
  Union                    │                 │                │  9,00
  Sewall’s Falls           │                 │                │  0,25
                           │                 │                │
        _Railroads._       │                 │                │
  Eastern                  │Massachusetts    │Portsmouth      │ 15,47
                           │  Line           │                │
  Nashua and Lowell        │Massachusetts    │Nashua          │    5¼
                           │  Line           │                │
  Boston and Maine         │Massachusetts    │Exeter          │ 14,00
                           │  Line           │                │
  ─────────────────────────┼─────────────────┼────────────────┼──────
                           │                 │                │
          VERMONT.         │                 │                │
          _Canals._        │                 │                │
  White River Falls        │                 │                │  0,50
  Bellows Falls            │                 │                │  0,16
  Waterquechy              │                 │                │  0,40
  ─────────────────────────┼─────────────────┼────────────────┼──────
                           │                 │                │
       MASSACHUSETTS.      │                 │                │
          _Canals._        │                 │                │
  Middlesex                │Boston           │Chelmsford      │ 27,00
  Pawtucket                │Lowell           │                │  1,59
  Blackstone               │Providence       │Worcester       │ 45,00
  Hampshire and Hampden    │Connecticut      │Northampton     │ 22,00
                           │  Line           │                │
  Montague Falls           │                 │                │  3,00
  South Hadley Falls       │                 │                │  2,00
                           │                 │                │
        _Railroads._       │                 │                │
  Eastern                  │Boston           │N. Hampshire    │ 38,00
                           │                 │  Line          │
  Boston and Lowell        │Boston           │Lowell          │ 26,00
  Boston and Portland      │Wilmington       │N. Hampshire    │ 20,00
                           │                 │  Line          │
  Lowell and Nashua        │Lowell           │N. Hampshire    │  9,00
                           │                 │  Line          │
  Charlestown              │Charlestown      │                │    1½
  Boston and Worcester     │Boston           │Worcester       │ 45,00
  Millbury Branch          │                 │Millbury        │    3¼
  Western                  │Worcester        │West Stockbridge│116,00
  Boston and Providence    │Boston           │Providence      │ 41,00
  Dedham Branch            │                 │Dedham          │  2,00
  Taunton Branch           │Mansfield        │Taunton         │ 11,00
  Taunton and New Bedford  │Taunton          │New Bedford     │ 20,00
  Norwich and Worcester    │Worcester        │Connecticut Line│ 20,00
  Quincy                   │Granite Quarry   │Quincy Landing  │  3,00
  ─────────────────────────┼─────────────────┼────────────────┼──────
                           │                 │                │
        RHODE ISLAND.      │                 │                │
         _Railroad._       │                 │                │
  Providence and Stonington│Providence       │Stonington      │ 47,00
  ─────────────────────────┼─────────────────┼────────────────┼──────
                           │                 │                │
        CONNECTICUT.       │                 │                │
          _Canals._        │                 │                │
  Farmington               │New Haven        │Massachusetts   │ 56,00
                           │                 │  Line          │
  Enfield Falls            │                 │                │  5,50
                           │                 │                │
        _Railroads._       │                 │                │
  Norwich and Worcester    │Norwich          │Worcester       │ 58,50
  New Haven and Hartford   │New Haven        │Hartford        │ 36,00
  Housatonic               │Bridgeport       │New Milford     │ 35,00
  ─────────────────────────┼─────────────────┼────────────────┼──────
                           │                 │                │
          NEW YORK.        │                 │                │
          _Canals._        │                 │                │
  Erie                     │Albany           │Buffalo         │363,00
  Champlain                │West Troy        │Whitehall       │ 76,00
  Chenango                 │Utica            │Binghamton      │ 97,00
  Black River              │Rome             │Carthage        │ 85,00
  Oswego                   │Syracuse         │Oswego          │ 38,00
  Cayuga and Seneca        │Seneca Lake      │Cayuga Lake     │ 23,00
  Crooked Lake             │Pennyan          │Seneca Lake     │  7,75
  Chemung                  │Seneca Lake      │Elmira          │ 23,00
  Branch of Chemung        │Elmira           │Knoxville       │ 16,00
  Delaware and Hudson      │Eddyville        │Lackawaxen      │ 83,00
  Genesee Valley           │Rochester        │Olean           │119,63
  Dansville Branch         │Mount Morris     │Dansville       │ 11,00
  Harlaem                  │Hudson River     │East River      │  3,00
  Croton Aqueduct          │Croton River     │New York        │ 40,56
                           │                 │                │
        _Railroads._       │                 │                │
  Long Island              │Brooklyn         │Hicksville      │ 27,00
  Harlaem                  │New York         │Harlaem         │  8,00
  Hudson and Berkshire     │Hudson West      │Stockbridge     │ 33,00
  Catskill and Canajoharie │Catskill         │Canajoharie     │ 78,00
  Rensselaer and Saratoga  │Troy             │Ballston        │ 23,50
  Mohawk and Hudson        │Albany           │Schenectady     │ 15,86
  Saratoga and Schenectady │Schenectady      │Saratoga        │ 21,50
  Utica and Schenectady    │Schenectady      │Utica           │ 77,00
  Syracuse and Utica       │Utica            │Syracuse        │ 53,00
  Syracuse and Auburn      │Syracuse         │Auburn          │ 26,00
  Auburn and Rochester     │Auburn           │Rochester       │ 80,00
  Tonawanda                │Rochester        │Attica          │ 45,00
  Buffalo and Niagara Falls│Buffalo          │Niagara Falls   │ 23,00
  Lockport and Niagara     │Lockport         │Niagara Falls   │ 20,00
    Falls                  │                 │                │
  Buffalo and Black Rock   │Buffalo          │Black Rock      │  3,00
  Rochester                │Rochester        │Port Genesee    │  3,00
  Ithaca and Owego         │Ithaca           │Owego           │ 29,00
  Bath                     │Bath             │Crooked Lake    │  5,00
  Port Kent and Keesville  │Port Kent        │Keesville       │  4,50
  ─────────────────────────┼─────────────────┼────────────────┼──────
                           │                 │                │
         NEW JERSEY.       │                 │                │
          _Canals._        │                 │                │
  Delaware and Raritan     │Bordentown       │New Brunswick   │ 42,00
  Morris                   │Jersey City      │Easton, Pa.     │101,75
  Salem                    │Salem Creek      │Delaware River  │  4,00
                           │                 │                │
        _Railroads._       │                 │                │
  Camden and Amboy         │Camden           │South Amboy     │ 61,00
  Trenton Branch           │                 │Trenton         │  8,00
  Jobstown Branch          │Jobstown         │Craft’s Creek   │ 13,00
  Peterson and Hudson      │Jersey City      │Paterson        │ 16,30
  Camden and Woodbury      │Camden           │Woodbury        │  9,00
  New Jersey               │Jersey City      │New Brunswick   │ 34,00
  Trenton and Brunswick    │Trenton          │New Brunswick   │ 27,00
  Morris and Essex         │Newark           │Morristown      │ 22,00
  Elizabethport and        │Elizabethport    │Somerville      │ 25,00
    Somerville             │                 │                │
  ─────────────────────────┼─────────────────┼────────────────┼──────
                           │                 │                │
        PENNSYLVANIA.      │                 │                │
          _Canals._        │                 │                │
  ◆ Central Division       │Columbia         │Hollidaysburg   │172,00
  ◆ Western Division       │Johnstown        │Pittsburg       │104,25
  ◆ Susquehanna Division   │Duncan’s Island  │Northumberland  │ 39,00
  ◆ West Branch Division   │Northumberland   │Farrandsville   │ 73,00
  ◆ North Branch Division  │Northumberland   │Lackawana       │ 72,50
  ◆ Delaware Division      │Bristol          │Easton          │ 59,75
  ◆ Beaver Division        │Beaver           │Shenango River  │ 30,75
      ◆ Penn. Canals.      │                 │                │
  Schuylkill Navigation    │Philadelphia     │Port Carbon     │108,00
  Union                    │Reading          │Middletown      │ 82,08
  Lehigh                   │Easton           │Stoddartsville  │ 84,48
  Lackawaxen               │Delaware River   │Honesdale       │ 25,00
  Conestoga                │Lancaster        │Safe Harbor     │ 18,00
  Codorus                  │York             │Susquehanna     │ 11,00
                           │                 │  River         │
  Bald Eagle               │West Branch Canal│Bellefonte      │ 25,00
  Susquehanna              │Wrightsville     │Havre de Grace  │ 45,00
  Minor Canals             │                 │                │ 24,00
                           │                 │                │
        _Railroads._       │                 │                │
  Columbia and Philadelphia│Philadelphia     │Columbia        │ 81,60
  Portage                  │Hollidaysburg    │Johnstown       │ 36,69
  Philadelphia City, &c.   │                 │                │  6,00
  Valley                   │Norristown       │Columbia        │ 20,25
                           │                 │  Railroad      │
  West Chester             │Columbia Railroad│West Chester    │ 10,00
  Harrisburg and Lancaster │Harrisburg       │Lancaster       │ 35,50
  Cumberland Valley        │Harrisburg       │Chambersburg    │ 50,00
  Franklin                 │Chambersburg     │Williamsport    │ 30,00
  York and Wrightsville    │York             │Wrightsville    │ 13,00
  Strasburg                │Cumberl. Val.    │Strasburg       │  7,00
                           │  R. R.          │                │
  Philadelphia and Reading │Philadelphia     │Pottsville      │ 95,00
  Little Schuylkill        │Port Clinton     │Tamaqua         │ 23,00
  Danville and Pottsville  │Pottsville       │Sunbury         │ 44,54
  Little Schuylkill and    │Tamaqua          │Williamsport    │106,00
    Susquehanna            │                 │                │
  Beaver Meadow Branch     │Lindner’s Gap    │Beaver Mead.    │ 12,00
                           │                 │  R. R.         │
  Williamsport and Elmira  │Williamsport     │Elmira          │ 73,50
  Corning and Blossburg    │Blossburg        │Corning         │ 40,00
  Mount Carbon             │Mount Carbon     │Norwegian Creek │  7,24
  Schuylkill Valley        │Port Carbon      │Tuscarora       │ 10,00
  Branches of Schuylkill   │                 │                │ 15,00
    Valley                 │                 │                │
  Schuylkill               │Schuylkill       │Valley          │ 13,00
  Mill Creek               │Port Carbon      │Coal Mine       │  9,00
  Mine Hill and Schuylkill │Schuylkill Haven │Mine Hill Gap   │ 20,00
    Haven                  │                 │                │
  Mauch Chunk              │Mauch Chunk      │Coal Mine       │  9,00
  Branches of Mauch Chunk  │                 │                │ 16,00
  Room Run                 │Mauch Chunk      │Coal Mine       │  5,26
  Beaver Meadow            │Parryville       │Coal Mine       │ 20,00
  Hazelton and Lehigh      │Hazelton Mine    │Beaver Mead.    │  8,00
                           │                 │  R. R.         │
  Nesquehoning             │Nesquehoning Mine│Lehigh River    │  5,00
  Lehigh and Susquehanna   │White Haven      │Wilkesbarre     │ 19,58
  Carbondale and Honesdale │Carbondale       │Honesdale       │ 17,67
  Lykens Valley            │Broad Mountain   │Millersburg     │ 16,50
  Pine Grove               │Pine Grove       │Coal Mine       │  4,00
  Philadelphia and Trenton │Philadelphia     │Morrisville     │ 26,25
  Philadelphia, Ger., and  │Philadelphia     │Norristown      │ 17,00
    Norrist’n.             │                 │                │
  Germantown Branch        │                 │                │  4,00
  Philadelphia and         │Philadelphia     │Wilmington      │ 27,00
    Wilmington             │                 │                │
  ─────────────────────────┼─────────────────┼────────────────┼──────
                           │                 │                │
          DELAWARE.        │                 │                │
        _Railroads._       │                 │                │
  New Castle and Frenchtown│New Castle       │Frenchtown, Md. │ 19,19
  Railroads from New Castle│                 │                │
    to Wilmington, and from│                 │                │
    Wilmington to Nanticoke│                 │                │
    Creek; are proposed.   │                 │                │
                           │                 │                │
          _Canal._         │                 │                │
  Chesapeake and Delaware  │Delaware City    │Back Creek      │ 13,63
  ─────────────────────────┼─────────────────┼────────────────┼──────
                           │                 │                │
          MARYLAND.        │                 │                │
        _Railroads._       │                 │                │
  Baltimore and Ohio       │Baltimore        │Harper’s Ferry  │ 80,50
  Washington Branch        │Patapsco River   │Washington      │ 30,35
  Baltimore and Port       │Baltimore        │Havre de Grace  │ 36,00
    Deposit                │                 │                │
  Baltimore and Susquehanna│Baltimore        │York, Pa.       │ 56,00
  Reistertown Branch       │6 m. from        │Reistertown     │  8,00
                           │  Baltimore      │                │
  Wilmington and           │Havre de Grace   │Wilmington, Del.│ 32,00
    Susquehanna            │                 │                │
  Annapolis and Elkridge   │Washington Branch│Annapolis       │ 19,75
                           │                 │                │
          _Canal._         │                 │                │
  Chesapeake and Ohio      │Georgetown       │Hancock         │136,00
  ─────────────────────────┼─────────────────┼────────────────┼──────
                           │                 │                │
          VIRGINIA.        │                 │                │
        _Railroads._       │                 │                │
  Richm., Fredericksb., and│Richmond         │Aquia Creek     │ 75,00
    Potomac                │                 │                │
  Louisa Branch            │24 m. from       │Gordonsville    │ 49,00
                           │  Richm’d.       │                │
  Richmond and Petersburg  │Richmond         │Petersburg      │ 23,00
  Petersburg and Roanoake  │Petersburg       │Weldon          │ 59.00
  Greensville              │Near Hicksford   │Gaston, N. C.   │ 18,00
  City Point               │Petersburg       │City Point      │ 12,00
  Chesterfield             │Coal Mines       │Richmond        │ 13,50
  Portsmouth and Roanoke   │Portsmouth       │Weldon, N. C.   │ 80,00
  Winchester and Potomac   │Harper’s Ferry   │Winchester      │ 32,00
                           │                 │                │
          _Canals._        │                 │                │
  Alexandria Canal         │Georgetown       │Alexandria      │  7,25
  James River and Kanawha  │Richmond         │Buchannan       │175,00
  Dismal Swamp             │Deep Creek       │Joyce’s Creek   │ 23,00
  Branches                 │                 │                │ 11,00
  ─────────────────────────┼─────────────────┼────────────────┼──────
                           │                 │                │
       NORTH CAROLINA.     │                 │                │
        _Railroads._       │                 │                │
  Wilmington and Raleigh   │Wilmington       │Weldon          │161,00
  Raleigh and Gaston       │Raleigh          │Gaston          │ 85,00
                           │                 │                │
          _Canals._        │                 │                │
  Weldon Canal             │Weldon           │Head Roanoke    │ 12,00
                           │                 │  F’lls.        │
  Club Foot and Harlow     │Club Foot Creek  │Harlow Creek    │  1,50
  ─────────────────────────┼─────────────────┼────────────────┼──────
                           │                 │                │
       SOUTH CAROLINA.     │                 │                │
        _Railroads._       │                 │                │
  South Carolina           │Charleston       │Hamburg         │135,75
  Columbia Branch          │Branchville      │Columbia        │ 66,00
                           │                 │                │
          _Canals._        │                 │                │
  Santee                   │Cooper River     │Santee River    │ 22,00
  Winyaw                   │Kinloch Creek    │Winyaw Bay      │  7,40
  Saluda                   │Shoals           │Granby          │  6,20
  Drehr’s                  │Saluda Falls     │Head of Falls   │  1,33
  Lorick                   │Broad River      │Head of Falls   │  1,00
  Lockharts                │Head Falls Br.   │To Foot         │  2,75
                           │  Riv.           │                │
  Wataree                  │Jone’s Mill      │Elliott’s       │  4,00
  Catawba                  │At various points│                │  7,77
                           │  on the Catawba │                │
  ─────────────────────────┼─────────────────┼────────────────┼──────
                           │                 │                │
          GEORGIA.         │                 │                │
        _Railroads._       │                 │                │
  Georgia                  │Augusta          │De Kalb County  │165,00
  Athens Branch            │Georgia Railroad │Athens          │ 33,00
  Western and Atlantic     │De Kalb County   │Tennessee River │130,00
  Central                  │Savannah         │Macon           │193,00
  Monroe                   │Macon            │Forsyth         │ 25,00
  Macon and Talbotton      │Macon            │Talbotton       │ 70,00
                           │                 │                │
          _Canals._        │                 │                │
  Savannah, Ogeechee, and  │Savannah         │Alatamaha River │ 16,00
    Alatamaha              │                 │                │
  Brunswick                │Alatamaha        │Brunswick       │ 12,00
  ─────────────────────────┼─────────────────┼────────────────┼──────
                           │                 │                │
          FLORIDA.         │                 │                │
         _Railroad._       │                 │                │
  Wimico and St. Joseph    │Lake Wimico      │St. Joseph      │ 12,00
  ─────────────────────────┼─────────────────┼────────────────┼──────
                           │                 │                │
          ALABAMA.         │                 │                │
        _Railroads._       │                 │                │
  Alabama, Florida, and    │Pensacola        │Montgomery      │150,46
    Georgia                │                 │                │
  Montgomery and West Point│Montgomery       │West Point      │ 87,00
  Tuscumbia, Courtl’d., &  │Tuscumbia        │Decatur         │ 44,00
    Decatur                │                 │                │
  Selma and Cahawba        │Selma            │Cahawba         │ 10,00
  Wetumpka                 │Wetumpka         │                │ 10,00
                           │                 │                │
          _Canals._        │                 │                │
  Muscle Shoals Canal      │Head of Falls    │Florence        │ 35,75
  Huntsville               │Triana           │Huntsville      │ 16,00
  ─────────────────────────┼─────────────────┼────────────────┼──────
                           │                 │                │
        MISSISSIPPI.       │                 │                │
        _Railroads._       │                 │                │
  West Feliciana           │St. Francisville │Woodville, Mp.  │  7,75
  Vicksburg and Clinton    │Vicksburg        │Clinton         │ 54,00
  Grand Gulf               │Grand Gulf       │Port Gibson     │  7,25
  Jackson and Brandon      │Jackson          │Brandon         │ 14,00
  ─────────────────────────┼─────────────────┼────────────────┼──────
                           │                 │                │
         LOUISIANA.        │                 │                │
        _Railroads._       │                 │                │
  Pontchartrain            │New Orleans      │Lake            │  4,50
                           │                 │  Pontchartrain │
  West Feliciana           │St. Francisville │Woodville, Mp.  │ 20,00
  Atchafalaya              │Point Coupee     │Opelousas       │ 30,00
  Alexandria and           │Alexandria       │Cheneyville     │ 30,00
    Cheneyville            │                 │                │
  New Orleans and Carrolton│New Orleans      │Lafayette       │ 11,25
  Orleans Street           │New Orleans      │Bayou St. John  │  1,50
                           │                 │                │
          _Canals._        │                 │                │
  Orleans Bank             │New Orleans      │Lake            │  4,25
                           │                 │  Pontchartrain │
  Canal Carondelet         │New Orleans      │Bayou St. John  │  2,00
  Barataria                │Near New Orleans │Berwick’s Bay   │ 85,00
  Lake Veret               │Lake Veret       │La Fourche River│  8,00
  ─────────────────────────┼─────────────────┼────────────────┼──────
                           │                 │                │
         TENNESSEE.        │                 │                │
        _Railroads._       │                 │                │
  La Grange and Memphis    │La Grange        │Memphis         │ 50,00
  Somerville Branch        │Moscow           │Somerville      │ 16,00
  Highwassee               │Knoxville        │West. & Atlan.  │ 98,50
                           │                 │  R. R.         │
  ─────────────────────────┼─────────────────┼────────────────┼──────
                           │                 │                │
          KENTUCKY.        │                 │                │
        _Railroads._       │                 │                │
  Lexington and Ohio       │Louisville       │Lexington       │ 92,75
  Portage                  │Bowling Green    │Barren River    │  1,50
  ─────────────────────────┼─────────────────┼────────────────┼──────
                           │                 │                │
          ILLINOIS.        │                 │                │
        _Railroads._       │                 │                │
  Meredosia and            │Meredosia        │Jacksonville    │ 20,00
    Jacksonville           │                 │                │
  Coal Mine Bluffs         │Illinois         │Coal Mine       │  6,00
                           │                 │                │
          _Canal._         │                 │                │
  Illinois and Michigan    │Chicago          │Near Peru       │105,90
  ─────────────────────────┼─────────────────┼────────────────┼──────
                           │                 │                │
          INDIANA.         │                 │                │
          _Canals._        │                 │                │
  Wabash and Erie          │Lafayette        │Lake Erie       │187,00
  Whitewater               │Lawrenceburg     │Brookville      │ 30,00
                           │                 │                │
         _Railroad._       │                 │                │
  Madison and Indianapolis │Madison          │Indianapolis    │ 95,00
  ─────────────────────────┼─────────────────┼────────────────┼──────
                           │                 │                │
            OHIO.          │                 │                │
          _Canals._        │                 │                │
  Ohio and Erie            │Portsmouth       │Cleveland       │307,00
  Columbus Branch          │Columbus         │Canal           │ 10,00
  Lancaster Branch         │Lancaster        │Canal           │  9,00
  Hocking                  │Lancaster        │Athens          │ 50,00
  Zanesville Branch        │Zanesville       │Canal           │ 14,00
  Walhonding Branch        │Walhonding River │Canal           │ 23,00
  Miami                    │Cincinnati       │Defiance        │178,00
  Warren Branch            │Middletown       │Lebanon         │ 20,00
  Sandy and Beaver         │Bolivar          │Ohio River      │ 76,00
  Mahoning                 │Akron            │Beaver River    │ 77,00
  Little Miami             │Cincinnati       │Springfield     │ 85,00
                           │                 │                │
        _Railroads._       │                 │                │
  Mad River and Lake Erie  │Tiffin           │Sandusky City   │ 40,00
  Ohio                     │Manhattan        │Sandusky City   │ 40,00
  Monroeville and Sandusky │Monroeville      │Sandusky City   │ 15,00
    City                   │                 │                │
  ─────────────────────────┼─────────────────┼────────────────┼──────
                           │                 │                │
          MICHIGAN.        │                 │                │
        _Railroads._       │                 │                │
  Central                  │Detroit          │Dexter          │ 49,00
  Erie and Kalamazoo       │Toledo           │Adrian          │ 33,00
  Detroit and Pontiac      │Detroit          │Pontiac         │ 25,00
  Palmyra and Jacksonburgh │Palmyra          │Clinton         │ 17,00
  Southern                 │Monroe           │Adrian          │ 35,00


           SUMMARY OF THE PRINCIPAL RELIGIOUS DENOMINATIONS
                         IN THE UNITED STATES.

                             Churches or    Members or
  Denominations. Ministers. Congregations. Communicants.  Population.
  ────────────── ────────── ────────────── ─────────────  ───────────
  Baptists           4,239          6,319       452,000 }
    Freewill           612            753        33,876 }  4,300,000
    Seventh-Day         46             42         4,503 }
    Six-Principle       10             16         2,117 }

  Methodists         2,764                      650,103 }
    Protestant         400                       50,000 }  3,000,000

  Presbyterians      2,225          2,807       274,084 }
    Cumberland         450            500        50,000 }
    Associate           87            183        16,000 }  2,175,000
    Reformed            20             40         3,000 }
    Associate                                           }
        Reformed       116            214        12,000 }

  Congregationalists 1,150           1,300      160,000     1,400,000
  Catholics            389             443                    800,000
  Episcopalians        849             850                    600,000
  Universalists        317             653                    600,000
  Lutherans            267             750       62,226       540,000
  Dutch Reformed       192             197       22,515       450,000
  Christians           800           1,000      150,000       300,000
  German Reformed      180             600       30,000       250,000
  Unitarians           174             200                    180,000
  Unitarian Mennonites                 200       30,000       120,000
  Friends                              500                    100,000
  Tunkers               40              40        3,000        30,000
  Jews                                                         15,000
  Moravians or United
      Brethren          33              24        5,745        12,000
  Mormonites                                     12,000        12,000
  Shakers               45              15        6,000         6,000
  New Jerusalem Church  33              27                      5,000


                         IMPORTS AND EXPORTS.

     TABLE, EXHIBITING THE VALUE OF IMPORTS FROM, AND EXPORTS TO,
          EACH FOREIGN COUNTRY, DURING THE YEAR ENDING ON THE
                         30TH SEPTEMBER, 1839.

                                            Value of Exports.
                                ──────────────────────────────────────
                    Value of      Domestic      Foreign
     Countries.     Imports.      Produce.      Produce.      Total.
     ──────────── ────────────  ────────────  ───────────  ────────────
   1 Russia         $2,393,894      $434,567     $804,659    $1,239,246
   2 Prussia            70,412        29,313       43,500        72,813
   3 Sweden and
       Norway        1,553,684       337,000       26,502       363,502
   4 Swedish West
       Indies           12,458       103,282        4,130       107,412
   5 Denmark            80,997        50,634       38,177        88,811
   6 Danish West
       Indies        1,465,761     1,014,381      303,154     1,317,535
   7 Hanse Towns
       and ports
       of Germany    4,849,150     2,067,608      733,459     2,801,067
   8 Holland         2,149,732     1,677,352      295,651     1,973,003
   9 Dutch East
       Indies          692,196        86,619      396,934       483,553
  10 Dutch West
       Indies          582,284       282,042       70,975       353,017
  11 Dutch Guiana       49,008        58,863        2,803        61,666
  12 Belgium           465,701       541,641       66,269       607,910
  13 England        64,863,716    54,615,327    3,953,108    58,568,435
  14 Scotland          950,183     1,025,832        1,256     1,027,088
  15 Ireland           150,689       330,719                    330,719
  16 Gibraltar          99,178       902,247      148,387     1,050,634
  17 Malta              24,943        65,870       34,126        99,996
  18 Mauritius                        30,466        1,500        31,966
  19 Cape of Good
       Hope             43,059        88,379        5,020        93,399
  20 British East
       Indies        2,135,152       246,845      337,597       584,442
  21 British West
       Indies          941,699     2,472,833       90,642     2,563,475
  22 British Guiana     14,215        34,906          218        35,124
  23 British
       Honduras        164,027       181,861       29,339       211,200
  24 British North
       American
       Colonies      2,155,146     3,418,770      144,684     3,563,454
  25 Australia          58,344         6,790                      6,790
  26 Other British
       Colonies                                     2,360         2,360
  27 France on the
       Atlantic     30,918,450    14,919,848    2,088,655    17,008,503
  28 France on the
       Mediterranean 1,612,871     1,046,260      176,186     1,222,446
  29 French West
       Indies          702,798       585,916      105,905       691,821
  30 French Guiana                     1,643                      1,643
  31 Spain on the
       Atlantic        263,193       316,144       32,014       348,158
  32 Spain on the
       Mediterranean 1,597,978       209,724       19,000       228,724
  33 Tenneriffe and
       other Canaries  196,755        15,572       11,939        27,511
  34 Manilla and
       Philippine
       Islands         876,477        98,553       38,255       136,808
  35 Cuba           12,599,843     5,025,626    1,091,205     6,116,831
  36 Porto Rico      3,742,549       779,049       87,348       866,397
  37 Portugal          587,778        59,711        6,093        65,804
  38 Madeira           539,800        64,082       15,046        79,128
  39 Fayal and the
       other Azores     15,222         9,130        4,739        13,869
  40 Cape de Verd
       Islands          39,523        77,138        8,415        85,553
  41 Italy           1,182,297       315,399      122,753       438,152
  42 Sicily            592,951       192,462       84,607       277,069
  43 Sardinia            1,348
  44 Trieste           477,539       429,578      162,671       592,249
  45 Turkey, Levant
       &c.             629,190        83,320      266,054       349,374
  46 Morocco and
       Barbary States   96,493
  47 Hayti           1,377,989       991,265      131,294     1,122,559
  48 Texas             318,116     1,379,065      308,017     1,687,082
  49 Mexico          3,127,153       816,660    1,970,702     2,787,362
  50 Central
       Republic of
       America         192,845       111,752      104,490       216,242
  51 New Grenada        90,514        35,219       29,585        64,804
  52 Venezuela       1,982,702       413,245      272,736       665,981
  53 Brazil          5,292,955     2,133,997      503,488     2,637,465
  54 Cisplatine
       Republic        625,432        50,998       38,302        89,300
  55 Argentine
       Republic        525,114       233,593      142,470       376,063
  56 Chili           1,186,641     1,307,143      487,410     1,794,553
  57 Peru              242,813
  58 South America,
       generally                      23,618       27,257        50,875
  59 China           3,678,509       430,464    1,103,137     1,533,601
  60 Europe,
       generally                     128,105                    128,105
  61 Asia,
       generally        63,525       158,321      400,431       558,752
  62 Africa,
       generally       419,054       443,218       47,061       490,279
  63 West Indies,
       generally                     457,968       33,060       491,028
  64 South Seas        318,143        85,938       39,750       125,688
  65 Atlantic Ocean
  66 Uncertain
       places           11,944
                  ────────────  ────────────  ───────────  ────────────
     _Total_      $169,092,132  $103,533,891  $17,494,525  $121,028,416


                  IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF EACH STATE.

           IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF EACH STATE AND TERRITORY,
        DURING THE YEAR ENDING ON THE 30TH OF SEPTEMBER, 1839.

                          Value of Imports.                      Value of Exports.
                ─────────────────────────────────────  ─────────────────────────────────────
  States and     In American  In Foreign                 Domestic     Foreign
  Territories.    vessels.     vessels.     Total.       Produce.     Produce.     Total.
                ──────────── ─────────── ────────────  ──────────── ─────────── ────────────
  Maine             $839,336    $143,388     $982,734      $878,434     $17,051     $895,485
  New
    Hampshire         50,665         742       51,407        74,914       7,030       81,944
  Vermont            413,513                  413,513       193,886                  193,886
  Massachusetts   18,622,681      62,542   19,385,223     5,526,455   3,749,630    9,276,085
  Rhode Island       610,431       1,626      612,057       175,808       9,426      185,234
  Connecticut        442,847       3,344      446,191       583,226                  583,226
  New York        88,360,867  11,521,571   99,882,438    23,296,995   9,971,104   33,268,099
  New Jersey           3,782         400        4,182        78,434      19,645       98,079
  Pennsylvania    14,023,150   1,027,565   15,050,715     4,148,211   1,151,204    5,299,415
  Delaware                                                    8,680                    8,680
  Maryland         6,079,985     915,300    6,995,285     4,313,189     263,372    4,576,561
  Dist. of
    Columbia         105,921      26,590      132,511       497,965       5,752      503,717
  Virginia           828,300      85,162      913,462     5,183,424       3,772    5,187,196
  North Carolina     217,304      11,929      229,233       426,934         992      427,926
  South Carolina   2,210,635     875,442    3,086,077    10,318,822      66,604   10,385,426
  Georgia            293,745     120,242      413,987     5,970,443                5,970,443
  Alabama            614,849     280,352      895,201    10,338,159               10,338,159
  Mississippi
  Louisiana        9,723,230   2,341,712   12,064,942    30,995,936   2,185,231   33,181,167
  Ohio                14,309       4,971       19,280        95,854                   95,854
  Kentucky            10,480                   10,480         3,723                    3,723
  Tennessee              146                      146
  Michigan           174,169       2,052      176,221       133,305                  133,305
  Florida            186,943      92,950      279,893       291,094      43,712      334,806
  Missouri            46,964                   46,964
                ──────────── ─────────── ────────────  ──────────── ─────────── ────────────
    _Total_     $143,874,252  18,217,880 $162,992,132  $103,533,891 $17,494,525 $121,028,416


         TONNAGE OF THE SEVERAL STATES AND TERRITORIES ON THE
                       30TH OF SEPTEMBER, 1839.

                                         Tons and
                          State.          95ths.
                    ──────────────────  ──────────
                    Maine               282,285.37
                    N. Hampshire         29,224.07
                    Vermont               4,232.37
                    Massachusetts       526,364.21
                    Rhode Island         44,572.16
                    Connecticut          83,014.34
                    New York            468,593.58
                    New Jersey           62,540.87
                    Pennsylvania        112,359.17
                    Delaware             19,203.19
                    Maryland            116,203.87
                    Virginia             51,808.39
                    North Carolina       40,841.45
                    South Carolina       33,414.21
                    Georgia              20,942.83
                    Alabama              21,742.00
                    Louisiana           109,076.36
                    Tennessee             4,240.94
                    Kentucky              8,125.87
                    Ohio                 23,925.55
                    Michigan             10,999.59
                    Missouri              9,735.00
                    Dist. Columbia       23,142.26
                    Florida               8,672.68

  Total United States Tonnage in 1815, 1,368,127.78;
                              in 1820, 1,280,166.24;
                              in 1825, 1,423,110.77;
                              in 1830, 1,191,776.43;
                              in 1835, 1,824,940.14;
                              in 1839, 2,096,478.81.


                 TONNAGE OF THE SIX LARGEST DISTRICTS.

                                         Tons and
                         District.        95ths.
                    ──────────────────  ──────────
                    New York            430,200.88
                    Boston              203,615.82
                    New Orleans         109,076.36
                    Philadelphia         96,862.09
                    New Bedford          86,524.75
                    Baltimore            71,533.14




                              Footnotes.


    1 – J. T. Buckingham.

    2 – Among the Enchanted Mountains, a name given to several spurs
        of the Cumberland Ridge, are some very singular footprints
        marked in the solid limestone rock. These are tracks of men,
        horses, and other animals, as distinctly marked as though
        but yesterday impressed in clay or mortar. Their appearance
        often indicates that the feet which made them had slidden,
        as if in descending a declivity of soft clay. The human feet
        have uniformly six toes, with the exception of one track,
        which is thought to be that of a negro. One of the tracks
        is sixteen inches long, and thirteen inches wide from toe
        to heel, with the ball of the heel five inches in diameter.
        On the shore of the Mississippi is a similar impression
        of the human feet in a mass of limestone. No satisfactory
        explanation has been given of these singular appearances.

    3 – Table Mountain, in Pendleton district, near the north-west
        corner of South Carolina, is thus described by Dr. Ramsay.
        ‘Its height exceeds three thousand feet, and thirty farms
        may be distinguished at any one view from its top by the
        unaided eye. Its side is an abrupt precipice nine hundred
        feet deep, and nearly perpendicular. The valley underneath
        appears to be as much below the level as the top of the
        mountain towers above it. This precipice is called the
        Lover’s Leap. To those who are in the valley it looks like
        an immense wall stretching up to heaven. At its base lie
        whitening in the sun the bones of various animals that had
        incautiously advanced too near its edge. Its summit is often
        surrounded with clouds.

        ‘The gradual ascent of the country from the seacoast to this
        western extremity of the State, added to the height of this
        mountain, must place its top more than four thousand feet
        above the level of the Atlantic ocean. Large masses of snow
        tumble down from the side of this mountain in the winter
        season, the fall of which has been heard seven miles. Its
        summit is the resort of deer and bears. Wild pigeons resort
        to it in such flocks as sometimes to break the limbs of the
        trees on which they alight.’

    4 – It is common in our own country, says the London Monthly
        Review, for ground mists to assume the appearance of water,
        to make a meadow seem inundated, and to change a valley into
        a lake; but these mists never reflect the surrounding trees
        and hills. Hence the _mirage_ must consist of a peculiar gas,
        of which the particles are combined by a stronger attraction
        of cohesion than the vapors of real water; the _liquor
        silicum_ of the alchemists is described as exhibiting in
        some circumstances this glossy surface, yet as being equally
        evanescent.

    5 – The following very graphic description of a flood on the
        Mississippi, is from the pen of the celebrated naturalist,
        Audubon:

        ‘There the overflow is astonishing; for no sooner has the
        water reached the upper part of the banks, than it rushes
        out and overspreads the whole of the neighboring swamps,
        presenting an ocean overgrown with stupendous forest trees.
        So sudden is the calamity, that every individual, whether
        man or beast, has to exert his utmost ingenuity to enable
        him to escape from the dreaded element. The Indian quickly
        removes to the hills of the interior, the cattle and game
        swim to the different stripes of land that remain uncovered
        in the midst of the flood, or attempt to force their way
        through the waters until they perish from fatigue. Along the
        banks of the river the inhabitants have rafts ready made,
        on which they remove themselves, their cattle, and their
        provisions, and which they then fasten with ropes or grape
        vines to the larger trees, while they contemplate the
        melancholy spectacle presented by the current, as it carries
        off their houses and wood-yards piece by piece. Some who
        have nothing to lose, and are usually known by the name
        of _squatters_, take this opportunity of traversing the
        woods in canoes, for the purpose of procuring game, and
        particularly the skins of animals, such as the deer and bear,
        which may be converted into money. They resort to the low
        ridges surrounded by the waters, and destroy thousands of
        deer, merely for their skins, leaving the flesh to putrefy.

        ‘The river itself, rolling its swollen waters along,
        presents a spectacle of the most imposing nature. Although
        no large vessel, unless propelled by steam, can now make
        its way against the current, it is seen covered by boats
        laden with produce, which, running out from all the smaller
        streams, float silently towards the city of New-Orleans,
        their owners, meanwhile, not very well assured of finding a
        landing-place even there. The water is covered with yellow
        foam and pumice, the latter having floated from the rocky
        mountains of the north-west. The eddies are larger and more
        powerful than ever. Here and there tracts of forests are
        observed undermined, the trees gradually giving way, and
        falling into the stream. Cattle, horses, bears, and deer,
        are seen at times attempting to swim across the impetuous
        mass of foaming and boiling water; whilst here and there a
        vulture or an eagle is observed perched on a bloated carcass,
        tearing it up in pieces, as regardless of the flood as
        on former occasions it would have been of the numerous
        _sawyers_ and _planters_ with which the surface of the
        river is covered when the water is low. Even the steamer is
        frequently distressed. The numberless trees and logs that
        float along, break its paddles and retard its progress.
        Besides, it is on such occasions difficult to procure
        fuel to maintain its fires; and it is only at very distant
        intervals that a wood-yard can be found which the water has
        not carried off.

        ‘Following the river in your canoe, you reach those parts of
        the shores that are protected against the overflowing of the
        waters, and are called _levées_. There you find the whole
        population of the district at work, repairing and augmenting
        those artificial barriers which are several feet above
        the level of the fields. Every person appears to dread
        the opening of a _crevasse_, by which the waters may rush
        into his fields. In spite of all exertions, however, the
        _crevasse_ opens, and water bursts impetuously over the
        plantations, and lays waste the crops which so lately were
        blooming in all the luxuriance of spring. It opens up a new
        channel, which, for aught I know to the contrary, may carry
        its waters even to the Mexican gulf.

        ‘But now, kind reader, observe this great flood gradually
        subsiding, and again see the mighty changes which it has
        effected. The waters have now been carried into the distant
        ocean. The earth is every where covered by a deep deposit
        of muddy loam, which, in drying, splits into deep and narrow
        chasms, presenting a reticulated appearance, and from which,
        as the weather becomes warmer, disagreeable, and at times
        noxious, exhalations arise, and fill the lower stratum of
        the atmosphere, as with a dense fog. The banks of the river
        have almost every where been broken down in a greater or
        less degree. Large streams are now found to exist, where
        none were formerly to be seen, having forced their way in
        direct lines from the upper parts of the bends. These are,
        by the navigator, called _short cuts_. Some of them have
        proved large enough to produce a change in the navigation
        of the Mississippi. If I mistake not, one of these, known
        by the name of _Grand Cut-off_, and only a few miles in
        length, has diverted the river from its natural course,
        and has shortened it by fifty miles. The upper parts of the
        islands present a bulwark consisting of an enormous mass of
        floated trees of all kinds, which have lodged there. Large
        sand-banks have been completely removed by the impetuous
        whirls of the waters, and have been deposited in other places.
        Some appear quite new to the eye of the navigator, who has to
        mark their situation and bearings in his log-book. The trees
        on the margins of the banks have in many parts given way.
        They are seen bending over the stream, like the grounded
        arms of an overwhelmed army of giants. Every where are heard
        the lamentations of the farmer and planter, whilst their
        servants and themselves are busily employed in repairing
        the damages occasioned by the floods. At one _crevasse_,
        an old ship or two, dismantled for the purpose, are sunk,
        to obstruct the passage opened by the still rushing waters,
        while new earth is brought to fill up the chasms. The
        squatter is seen shouldering his rifle, and making his way
        through the morass, in search of his lost stock, to drive
        the survivors home, and save the skins of the drowned. New
        fences have every where to be formed; even new houses must
        be erected, to save which from a like disaster, the settler
        places them on an elevated platform, supported by pillars
        made of the trunks of trees. The lands must be ploughed anew;
        and if the season is not too far advanced, a crop of corn
        and potatoes may yet be raised. But the rich prospects of
        the planter are blasted. The traveller is impeded in his
        journey, the creeks and smaller streams having broken up
        their banks in a degree proportionate to their size. A bank
        of sand which seems firm and secure, suddenly gives way
        beneath the traveller’s horse, and the next moment the
        animal has sunk in the quicksand, either to the chest in
        front, or over the crupper behind, leaving its master in a
        situation not to be envied.

        ‘Unlike the mountain torrents and small rivers of other
        parts of the world, the Mississippi rises but slowly during
        these floods, continuing for several weeks to increase at
        the rate of about an inch in the day. When at its height, it
        undergoes little fluctuation for some days, and after this
        subsides as slowly as it rose. The usual duration of a flood
        is from four to six weeks, although, on some occasions,
        it is protracted to two months.

        ‘Every one knows how largely the idea of floods and
        cataclysms enters into the speculations of the geologist.
        If the streamlets of the European continent afford
        illustrations of the formation of strata, how much more
        must the Mississippi, with its ever-shifting sand-banks,
        its crumbling shores, its enormous masses of drift-timber,
        the source of future beds of coal, its extensive and varied
        alluvial deposits, and its mighty mass of waters rolling
        sullenly along, like the flood of eternity!’

    6 – Lewis and Clarke.

    7 – ‘The American Fur Company have sent their steam-boats
        _twenty-one hundred miles_ above the mouth of the Missouri,
        and in high water, steam-boats of light draft can ascend
        _two thousand and six hundred miles_. The Mississippi is
        navigable by steam between _six and seven hundred miles_
        above St. Louis. These rivers pass through an exceedingly
        fertile country; and when a just system of internal
        improvement shall be carried into operation, not only New
        Orleans and the great valley of the Mississippi will be
        benefitted, but every portion of the United States will feel
        the invigorating influence of such a course.’――_St. Louis
        Republican._

    8 – Lewis and Clarke

    9 – Appropriations have recently been made by Congress for the
        removal of obstructions in the Arkansas and Red rivers.
        The officer employed on that service is confident in the
        practicability of removing the Raft by means of boats.

   10 – Long’s Expedition.

   11 – On the banks of this stream, about twenty miles from the
        Ohio, are extensive salt-works, owned by the United States’
        government.

   12 – ‘The river expands into a noble bay, four or five miles-wide,
        called the Tappan Sea, about thirty miles from New York, at
        the top of which, ten miles farther on, the banks approach
        each other so closely, that the channel through which the
        river has at a distant period forced its way by some violent
        convulsion, is not perceived until you almost enter it.
        Here we suddenly found ourselves in a narrow pass between
        precipitous mountain tops, rising on both sides from the
        water’s edge to an elevation of twelve or fifteen hundred
        feet. These mountains or hills, as we should call them,
        are what are called the Highlands of the Hudson; and the
        entry to them seemed to us the most remarkable point on the
        river, not to be contemplated without feelings of the deepest
        interest. The river course continues to run in this defile
        among romantic hills covered with wood, sweetly inlaid with
        plateaus of green pasture, and of table-land for about
        twenty miles. The farm-houses and villages look as if they
        hung on the cliffs, or rose by terraces from the water’s
        edge. The river is of various breadths, from a mile and a
        half to two miles. The projecting rocks often force it to
        change its direction, so much, indeed, that you frequently
        appear to be sailing in a lake, from which you cannot
        discover an outlet.

        ‘After leaving the Highlands, the banks of the river are
        comparatively low, one hundred, or one hundred and fifty
        feet in height. The hills through which we had passed
        incline to the right, and do not break off till they reach
        the St. Lawrence. The river, for sixty or seventy miles,
        frequently opens into beautiful lakes and bays, with
        projecting and marked shores. Great part of this district,
        which is called the Valley of the Hudson, consists of
        good land and fine corn-fields, and is one of the richest
        parts of the state of New York. The town of Newburg on the
        one side, the village of Fishkill on the other, the noble
        terrace of Hyde Park, the Dutchess County, famed for its
        fertility, are all situated in the southern part of this
        reach. On the upper part of it, the grand range of mountains
        called the Catskills, about three thousand feet high, which
        are a spur from the Alleghanies, and the populous city of
        Hudson, strikingly placed on a fine promontory, are the most
        prominent objects. From Hudson to Albany, about forty miles,
        the Hudson has more the appearance of a river than below. It
        is here ornamented with many islands, the shores become less
        steep, the country rich looking, and more peopled. Villas on
        the banks appear more frequently in approaching Albany, the
        view of which, from the river, is very striking. The oldest
        part of the city reaches to the water’s edge, but a great
        part of it is on a fine elevation on the face of a hill.

        ‘Whether the glorious scenery of the Hudson be superior to
        that of the Rhine, the Danube, or any of the European rivers,
        which many of the Americans who have travelled in Europe
        maintain, I, who have not seen the greatest of those rivers,
        do not pretend to say; but I am very much mistaken, if there
        be any where continuously in Great Britain, so remarkable a
        combination of natural beauty and romantic scenery as on the
        Hudson between New York and Albany. Nowhere in the British
        dominions can so great a variety of interesting and pleasing
        objects be seen in the course of a single day. The Trosachs,
        though in miniature, resemble the passage through the
        Highlands of the Hudson, in all respects but one, the
        grandeur of the bounding objects. The lofty mountains of
        the Highlands of Scotland impart a character of sublimity
        to those justly celebrated works of nature, which is here
        to a certain extent wanting.’――_Stuart’s America._

   13 – We set off a little before sunrise; and about an hour
        afterward entered the first lake formed by the Columbia. It
        is between eleven and twelve leagues long, and about one and
        a half in breadth; the current smooth and steady, and pretty
        free from snags or sunken trees. The shores are bold and
        well wooded with a variety of timber of fine size; and in
        the distance we first caught a view of the most western
        chain of the Rocky Mountains covered with snow. A head wind,
        during the greater part of the day, considerably retarded
        our progress; and we encamped late, near the upper end of
        the lake, where a few Indians visited us. They appeared
        to be very poor, and brought about a dozen beaver skins
        to trade, which we told them we could not purchase, as we
        were obliged to cross the mountains; but that our party,
        going downwards in the autumn, would stop a few days with
        them, and trade all the skins they had. They were rather
        disappointed; but a little tobacco, and some trifling
        presents, sent them away in good humor.

        Shortly after embarking on the morning of the 18th, we left
        the lake, and entered that part of the river called the
        straits, which separates the upper from the lower lake. It
        is only a few miles in length, and quickly brought us to
        the upper lake, which is not so long as the first. The high
        hills in its immediate vicinity were covered with snow, the
        chilling influence of which we sensibly experienced by the
        cold blasts from the shore. Encamped at sunset at the upper
        end of the lake, on a fine sandy beach. During the day we
        struck on two sand-banks, and were slightly injured by a
        sunken tree. Saw no Indians.

        19th. About two miles above our encampment of last night,
        the Columbia becomes very narrow, with steep and thickly
        wooded banks, covered with immense quantities of fallen
        trees. The current is very strong, and, owing to the great
        height of the water, the men at intervals had scarcely
        any beach on which to walk in dragging up the canoes. Our
        progress was consequently slow; and we put ashore for the
        night about fifteen miles above the lake. At nine o’clock
        on the morning of the 20th we reached the second Dallas, or
        narrows, which are formed by a contraction of the channel
        of the river into a very small compass. There are high and
        slippery rocks on each side, which make it a work of great
        danger and difficulty to pass them. The baggage was all
        carried by the men, and the canoes were towed up with strong
        lines, after being in great danger of filling, from the
        frightful whirlpools close along the shore. The weather
        became much cooler from the proximity of the mountains.
        Several patches of snow were observable on the beach during
        the day, and towards evening some rain fell.

        From dawn of day until noon on the 21st, we did not make
        three miles, owing to the impetuosity of the current, the
        shelving banks, and the extreme weakness of our men, several
        of whom were knocked up. We were detained at one place
        upwards of four hours to repair our shattered canoes, and
        encamped about six o’clock on a low gravelly point. We had
        several smart showers during the afternoon.

        22d. About two, P. M. arrived at a place called the Upper
        Dallas, where the river is again confined for a considerable
        distance between a line of high slippery rocks. Got about
        half way through this channel, and stopped for the night in
        a small nook formed by the rocks, on which we lay scattered
        and exposed to severe rain during the night.

        We rose wet and unrefreshed on the morning of the 23d, and
        in five hours passed the Dallas, the upper part of which
        consists of a chain of whirlpools, which compelled us to
        carry both canoes and baggage some distance over the rocks;
        in the execution of which duty, some of the men narrowly
        escaped with their lives. Those who carried our canoe, from
        mere exhaustion fell several times, by which it was much
        damaged; and we were detained until three, P. M. to get it
        repaired. Encamped at dusk on a sandy beach, for which we
        had been some time on the lookout. The rain continued during
        the evening and the night to pour down in torrents.

        Our progress on the 24th was equally slow. The various
        tributary streams which we passed on this and the last
        two days, and which take their rise from the surrounding
        mountains, had by the recent rains been swollen into
        torrents, the waters of which, as they rushed with headlong
        force into the Columbia, repeatedly drove us back with
        irresistible strength, and at times we were in danger of
        filling. On two occasions, where the opposite shore of
        the Columbia consisted of perpendicular rocks, we were
        obliged after various fruitless attempts to pass the minor
        streams, to unload and carry the canoes and baggage some
        distance along the banks until we reached a smooth space of
        current, when we crossed, and by that means surmounted the
        difficulties of their respective embouchures.――_Adventures
        on Columbia River._

   14 – This is an Iroquois word, said to signify _the thunder of
        waters_, and the word as still pronounced by the Senecas,
        is _O-ni-áá-gáráh_, being strongly accented on the third
        syllable, while the interjection O, is so feebly uttered,
        that, without a nice attention, it may escape notice.

   15 – The grandeur of these rapids is worthy of the cataract
        in which they terminate. In the greater branch, the river
        comes foaming down with prodigious impetuosity, and presents
        a surface of agitated billows, dashing wildly through
        the rocks and islands. This scene of commotion continues
        till within about thirty yards of the Fall. There the
        great body of the stream resumes its tranquility, and in
        solemn grandeur descends into the cloudy and unfathomable
        abyss. Never was there a nobler prelude to a sublime
        catastrophe.――_Colonel Hamilton._

   16 – The Table Rock was a favorite point of view for many years,
        and the day preceding the night on which it fell with
        tremendous noise, a number of visitors had stood with
        careless security upon it.

   17 – One of these, the Island of Yellow Sands, derives its chief
        interest from the traditions and fanciful tales which the
        Indians relate concerning its mineral treasures, and their
        supernatural guardians. They pretend that its shores are
        covered with a heavy shining yellow sand, which they would
        persuade us is gold, but that the guardian spirit of the
        island will not permit any of it to be carried away. To
        enforce his commands, he has drawn together upon it, myriads
        of eagles, hawks, and other birds of prey, who by their
        cries warn him of any intrusions upon the domain, and assist
        with their claws and beaks to expel the enemy. He has also
        called from the depths of the lake, large serpents of the
        most hideous forms, who lie thickly coiled upon the golden
        sands, and hiss defiance to the steps of the invader. A
        great many years ago, it is pretended, that some people
        of their nation were driven, by stress of weather, to take
        shelter upon the enchanted island, and being struck with the
        beautiful and glittering appearance of the treasure, they
        put a large quantity of it into their canoes, and attempted
        to carry it off, but a gigantic spirit strode into the water,
        and, in a voice of thunder, commanded them to bring it back.
        Terrified with his amazing size, and threatening aspect,
        they obeyed, and were afterwards suffered to depart without
        molestation, but they have never since attempted to land
        upon it.

                 ‘Listen, white man――go not there,
                  Unseen spirits stalk the air;
                  Ravenous birds their influence lend,
                  Snakes defy――and kites defend.
                  There the star-eyed panther prowls,
                  And the wolf in hunger howls;
                  There the speckled adder breeds,
                  And the famished eagle feeds;
                  Spirits keep them――fiends incite,
                  They are eager for the fight,
                  And are thirsting night and day,
                  On the human heart to prey;
                  Touch not then the guarded lands
                  Of the Isle of Yellow Sands.’
                                ――_Journal of Travels._

   18 – Charlevoix observes, ‘when a storm is about to rise on
        Lake Superior, you are advertised of it two or three days
        previous. At first you perceive a gentle murmuring on the
        surface of the water, which lasts the whole day without
        increasing in any sensible manner; the day after, the lake
        is covered with pretty large waves, but without breaking
        all that day, so that you may proceed without fear, and even
        make good way, if the wind is favorable; but on the third
        day, when you are the least thinking of it, the lake becomes
        all on fire, the ocean in its greatest rage is not more tost,
        in which case you must take care to be near shelter, to save
        yourself. This you are always sure to find on the north
        shore, whereas on the _south_ you are obliged to secure
        yourself the second day at a considerable distance from the
        water side.’ Although we are not prepared to corroborate
        this remark, yet something of the kind has this day been
        witnessed, for notwithstanding the prevalence of a calm
        during the whole day, with the exception of about two hours
        in the morning, when the wind was however light, the lake
        towards evening has been in a perfect rage, and we effected
        a landing with greater hazard than has yet been encountered.
        At the same time scarce a breath of air was stirring, and
        the atmosphere was beautifully clear.――_Schoolcraft._

   19 – There is reason to conclude, that a well conducted series
        of experiments will prove that there are no regular tides
        in the lakes, at least that they do not ebb and flow twice
        in twenty-four hours like those of the ocean; that the
        oscillary motion of the waters is not attributable to
        planetary attraction; that it is very variable as to the
        periods of its flux and reflux, depending upon the levels
        of the several lakes, their length, depth, direction and
        conformation――upon the prevalent winds and temperatures,
        and upon other extraneous causes, which are in some
        measure variable in their nature, and unsteady in their
        operations.――_Schoolcraft._

   20 – The mountains are all primitive: they form a double
        barrier, between which the lake, scarcely a mile wide, but
        occasionally expanded into a large bay, winds its way. They
        are steep and precipitous to the very water’s edge. They
        are still clothed with grand trees, and possessed by wild
        animals――deer, rattlesnakes and bears. They give, in some
        places, the most distinct and astonishing echoes, returning
        every flexion of the voice with the most faithful response.
        We saw them hung with the solemn drapery of thunder clouds,
        dashed by squalls of wind and rain, and soon after decorated
        with rainbows, whose arches did not surpass the mountain
        ridges, while they terminated in the lake, and attended our
        little skiff for many miles. The setting sun also gilded
        the mountains and the clouds that hovered over them, and the
        little islands, which in great numbers rise out of the lake,
        and present green patches of shrubbery and trees apparently
        springing from the water, and often resembling, by their
        minuteness and delicacy, the clumps of a park, or even the
        artificial groups of a green-house. Fine as is the scenery
        at the southern end of the lake, and in all the wider parts
        of it, within the compass of the first twelve miles from
        Fort George, its grandeur is very much augmented, after
        passing Tongue Mountain and entering the narrow part, where
        the mountains close in upon you on both sides, and present
        an endless diversity of grand and beautiful scenery. It
        is a pleasing reflection, that even after this part of the
        United States shall have become as populous as England or
        Holland, this lake will still retain the fine peculiarities
        of its scenery; for they are too bold, too wild, and too
        untractable, ever to be materially softened and spoiled by
        the hand of man.

        The deer are still hunted with success upon the borders
        of this lake. The hounds drive them from the recesses of
        the mountains, when they take refuge in the water, and the
        huntsmen, easily overtaking them in an element not their
        own, seize them by the horns, knock them on the head, and
        dragging their necks over the side of the boat, cut their
        throats. There is a celebrated mountain about fourteen
        miles from Ticonderoga called Buck Mountain, from the fact
        that a buck, pursued by the dogs, leaped from its summit,
        overhanging the lake in the form of a precipice, and was
        literally impaled alive upon a sharp pointed tree, which
        projected below.――_Journal of Science._

   21 – From Lake Maurepas, to Fort Bute, or Manshac, on the
        Mississippi, is sixty computed miles, following the course
        of the Amité; and Manshac is one hundred and one miles
        above New Orleans, by the windings of the Mississippi. From
        Manshac to the Amité there is a natural canal of twenty-one
        miles, navigable for vessels drawing four feet water, when
        the Mississippi is high; thence the Amité is navigable all
        the way to Maurepas and Pontchartrain Lakes, and thence in
        the sea. This natural canal, which is dry for ten months
        in the year, is very absurdly termed the river Ibberville,
        for in the dry months, the surface of the Mississippi is
        twenty-four feet lower than the bed of this natural canal.
        The river Amité itself, even from where the Ibberville
        joins in the inundations, is not navigable above four
        months annually, for the first ten miles; but three mile
        farther down, it has from two to six feet water; and all the
        remaining part of its course to Lake Maurepas, there is from
        two to four fathoms water.

   22 – Every fact which tends to disclose that hidden operation of
        nature, by which the salt springs of the west are produced,
        is interesting to the geologist. I took a specimen of
        the rock, called water limestone, from a hill adjoining
        Nine-mile Creek, a few miles west of the Onondaga salt
        springs. If this specimen be pulverized and examined ever so
        minutely, it presents nothing to the senses resembling common
        salt (muriate of soda.) I do not mean that the elementary
        constituents cannot be found in it, but I do not propose
        here to have any reference to a chemical analysis of the
        rock. On exposing a fresh fracture of a specimen from this
        rock, for two or three weeks in a damp cellar, it shoots
        out crystals of common salt, sufficient to cover the whole
        surface. It may be proper to state, that I have made the
        trial only in very cold weather; during which time a fire
        was sometimes made in the cellar room. I do not know,
        however, that these circumstances had any influence on the
        result. This proves conclusively, that one rock at least,
        reposing over the floor of the salt springs, contains in
        itself the materials for the spontaneous manufacture of salt.
        I say the floor, because I have ascertained that all the
        salt springs along the canal route from Lenox to Montezuma,
        are supported on the same continuous rock.

        It has long been a prevailing theory, that a vast mine
        of salt exists in the vicinity of these springs, which is
        continually dissolving, and thus yields the supply of salt
        water. Much time and money has been spent without success,
        in boring to great depths, with expectation of discovering
        this mass of rock salt. But if such rocks as that of
        Nine-mile Creek be found of sufficient extent, the origin
        of the salt water of the west will find a more satisfactory
        solution. And there may be many kinds of rocks, beside the
        water limestone, which contain the elementary constituents
        of common salt.――_Silliman’s Journal._

   23 – The following letter, from the New York Journal of Commerce,
        bears date the 8th of August, 1833. ‘The number of visitors
        here at the present time is great beyond all former example,
        and far exceeds the limits of comfortable accommodations.
        Every house is full, and every thing which can answer the
        purposes of a bed, is occupied. Many are fain to secure a
        lodging in the railway cars. The number is estimated at
        three thousand, and embraces age and infancy, belles and
        matrons, invalids and dandies, from every quarter of the
        Union. The public houses are reaping a good harvest; they
        have already had a double season, and made ample amends
        for the dull business of the last year. Ballston is also
        crowded, contrary to the expectations of its inhabitants,
        who apprehended that the rail-road to Saratoga would not
        leave them a single visitor. The rail-road, for the whole
        route from Albany to Saratoga, has proved to be capital stock.
        More than five hundred persons are daily transported on the
        Saratoga and Schenectady rail-road. It is said, that in the
        last three days, the fifth, sixth, and seventh, seventeen
        hundred dollars were received from it. As the entire stock
        of the Company is but two hundred and seventy thousand
        dollars, it must yield, at this rate, an enormous dividend.
        The road is to be continued to Whitehall, crossing the
        Hudson at Sandy Hill, above the bridge. In anticipation
        of the great increase of company which the facilities of
        travelling will hereafter bring to the Saratoga fountains,
        extensive arrangements are making for accommodations of
        increased space and elegance. A large and splendid hotel
        is to be erected on the hill immediately south of Congress
        Springs, a fine situation, shaded with forest trees, through
        which extensive and beautiful walks are to be made. At the
        north end of the village, some handsome hotels are to be
        built. A number of pretty cottages are, it is also stated,
        to be erected in the vicinity, as summer residences, by some
        wealthy citizens of Albany and New York. We may well imagine,
        therefore, that some few years hence, the little village
        will present all the pomp, bustle and ostentation of a city;
        and then, I fear, it will cease to be, what it now is, a
        quiet and rural retreat. There is now, indeed, more of the
        ostentation of wealth and fashion, and more of city-like
        amusements and habits, than is consistent with the object of
        rural retirement and healthful recreation. Besides the balls,
        which take place twice a week, and extend to a late hour
        of the night, there is a theatre which is open almost every
        evening. All the itinerant showmen and minstrels also find
        their way hither. Those who are disposed to attend church,
        have occasional opportunities to hear some of our most
        celebrated divines from different parts of the Union.’

   24 – There are from fifteen to twenty thousand pounds’ weight of
        wool annually produced on this island, the average quality
        of which is acknowledged to be superior for manufacturing
        purposes, to most of the native wool grown on the continent.
        We have no woollen factories, and but very small quantities
        of the staple article are wrought into fabrics by domestic
        labor. Consequently, says the _Nantucket Inquirer_, it may
        be an object for wool purchasers occasionally to look this
        way for a part of their supplies.

   25 – The shores of Staten Island are finely indented, and
        sprinkled with the white, clean looking villas of this
        country. The island rises quickly to a considerable height,
        containing an area of about fifty-two square miles.

        The quarantine establishment and the adjoining village are
        pictures of cleanliness, all painted of a bright white. The
        houses, hotels, &c. generally disjoined, and many of them
        inclosed in small gardens. The whole buildings are situated
        on a bank gently rising from the shore, and overhanging a
        beautiful bay below, in which there were some large ships,
        as well as a few of the elegant sailing craft, with which
        the Bay of New-York is always adorned. Behind the village
        the ground becomes abrupt, to a point at which a building
        is erected called the Pavilion, expressly on account of
        the splendor of the view, the top of which is, I think,
        nearly two hundred and fifty feet above the sea, consisting
        of handsome saloons, with balconies, piazzas, &c. on all
        sides, and a look-out place from the summit, from which the
        prospect is most glorious. I have never been more delighted
        with any of the prospects of this description which have
        charmed me most, on the Frith of Forth, the Clyde, the Bay
        of Dublin, or in the Isle of Wight. I cannot help doubting
        whether there be a more magnificent prospect in the world.
        All the features which it contains are beautiful, and many
        of them splendid. Then the moving ships, pilot-boats, and
        small craft, never allow the view of the water to be for two
        moments the same.

        The view comprehends half a dozen friths, dividing, by
        marked headlands, tracts of well wooded and waving country;
        and it embraces not only the city of New-York, surrounded
        with a vast mass of shipping, but the city of New-Jersey,
        projected into the bay, quite as much as Burnt Island is
        into the Frith of Forth, as well as the village of Newark.
        The cities lie too low, but they serve to convince the
        beholder that he is in the heart of a densely peopled
        country. Peninsulas, promontories, islands, isthmuses,
        land, in a variety of shapes, lie before him, and beyond
        all, the boundless Atlantic. New-York, the magnificent
        Hudson, the Frith of Newark, and lands and hills of Jersey
        are on the north; Long Island and its Sound, the Narrows,
        and the Quarantine Ground, with the Atlantic on the east;
        and the coast of New-Jersey, Raritan Bay, Sandy Hook, and the
        Atlantic to the south; the whole forming a noble prospect in
        the heart of as rich looking a country as is in the world.

        I have hitherto seen nothing in this country to be compared
        to the prospect which I have endeavored to describe from the
        Pavilion at Staten Island. There are finer views of New York
        itself from the opposite shores of New-Jersey, on the one
        side, and from Brooklyn and the heights of Long Island, on
        the other; but Staten Island is unquestionably the place
        for seeing New York in combination with its noble harbor,
        and the surrounding seas and the shipping which adorn them.
        After I had once found my way under the guidance of my
        friends to the Pavilion, I frequently bent my steps to it
        when I had leisure, to spend an hour or two in the island,
        and never returned without being equally delighted with
        the scenery above the quarantine ground. Strange it is, but
        not less strange than true, that I have never observed in
        any of the published tours relative to the United States,
        the slightest reference made to the beauties of Staten
        Island, or to the prospect from the Pavilion. Captain Hall’s
        Travels were brought me while I was writing the notes of
        this excursion, but it does not appear from them that he
        had ever visited this island, though only five miles from
        New York, where he resided for a considerable period. At a
        subsequent period I procured at Philadelphia, Mr. Darby, the
        geographer’s, valuable view of the United States, and was
        glad to find that he recommended Staten Island as possessing
        the most variegated landscapes on the Atlantic coast of the
        United States. ‘No traveller ought (he writes) to neglect it.
        In a clear day, a single hour on some of the hills of Staten
        Island is worth a voyage of considerable extent. How many
        who visit New-York with all the means of gratification, and
        who travel for mere amusement, lose the invaluable pleasure
        of scanning the rich perspective from Staten Island.
        Thousands and tens of thousands.’――_Stuart’s America._

   26 – There are about one hundred and twenty-five islands of
        considerable size, and a multitude of small ones, in that
        part of the Mississippi between New Orleans and the junction
        of the Ohio. Wolf Island, about twenty-four miles below the
        confluence, is situate in a fine part of the river, where
        the banks are high and the current rapid. This island is
        about twenty miles in circumference, and contains fifteen
        thousand acres of good land, with a fine prairie in the
        centre.

        There are many beautiful scenes in passing the islands
        upon the river, which I saw to great advantage, it being
        full, and yet only in a few places overflowing its proper
        course; but natural beauties of this kind, where all that
        sort of variety of feature is wanting which depends upon the
        neighborhood of mountain and hill, and where nothing but the
        forest is to be seen, excepting, at considerable distances
        from each other, patches of cultivated ground, soon cease
        to be very interesting, and the river, the prodigious length
        of which, as well as its great volume of water, astonish
        the beholder for the first time, is the only object that
        on such a voyage as this continues powerfully to arrest the
        attention.――_Stuart’s America._

   27 – The Indian tradition concerning the name of this little
        barren island is curious. They say that _Michapous_, the
        chief of spirits, sojourned long in that neighborhood; and
        they believe that a mountain on the border of the lake was
        the place of his residence, which they still call by his
        name. It was here, say they, that he first instructed men
        to make nets for fishing, and where he has collected the
        greatest quantity of fish. On the island he left spirits
        named _Imakinakos_, and from these aerial possessors it has
        received the appellation of Michilimackinac.

   28 – The whole cost of this work was estimated by the
        commissioners at two million two hundred and sixteen
        thousand eight hundred and seventy dollars. The amount
        hitherto expended is not far from one million dollars. Two
        or three years more will be required, in order to carry
        the work to its completion. When finished, according to
        the original plan, it will afford a harbor sufficiently
        capacious for the anchorage of upwards of sixty vessels.
        ‘The water surface will comprise an area of one mile square,
        having a depth at low water of from three to six fathoms,
        between the pitch of the cape and the western extremity of
        the ice-breaker. This place will be completely secured from
        all gales from the north-east and north-west, these being
        the only points of attack which there has been a necessity,
        in the plan of the work, to secure and fortify.’ There is
        but one breakwater in the world that can claim a comparison
        with it, viz. that at Plymouth, England, the length of
        which is about a mile. Its cost was upwards of one million
        rounds sterling, and the quantity of stone employed in its
        construction, about two million tons.

   29 – Fort Monroe is already finished, and is at this moment in
        admirable condition, if its armament were completed. The Rip
        Raps, when finished, will be a monument worthy of the people
        who have lavished their means in its erection, and of the
        genius of the engineers by whom it was planned. The area of
        the structure, as originally staked off, includes five acres;
        great part of which was twenty-two feet below the surface of
        the sea, and that nearest the surface eighteen feet. To get
        a foundation above water for the fort, or castle, an island
        has been raised, by throwing rocks into the water, until,
        by gradual accumulation, it has emerged above the tides. The
        rock of which this island is formed, has been brought from
        great distances and at vast expense.

        After a foundation was obtained for the castle above high
        water, the building of the castle was begun, and carried
        up so as to form the first embrasures. It was found that
        the settling of the artificial mound of stone, cracked
        the walls. The building was, therefore, discontinued;
        but immense masses of granite have since been brought and
        lodged upon the line of the work, that the weight of the
        material, designed for its completion, might be employed in
        consolidating its foundations. For some years this marine
        pyramid sunk between six and eight inches; during the last
        year, although pressed with the weight of all the material
        gathered for the superstructure, it settled about three
        inches. It is stated that the erection of the castle may now
        proceed with safety, and that its immediate completion is
        contemplated by government.

   30 – Washington Irving describes Hell Gate ‘to be as pacific at
        low water as any other stream. As the tide rises, it begins
        to fret; at half-tide it rages and roars, as if bellowing
        for more water; but when the tide is full, it relapses
        again into quiet, and for a time seems almost to sleep as
        soundly as an alderman after dinner. It may be compared to
        an inveterate hard drinker, who is a peaceable fellow enough
        when he has no liquor at all, or when he has his skin full:
        but when half-seas-over, plays the very devil.’

        The borders of the sound, all about this strait, are broken
        and indented by rocky nooks, and the bay towards the city
        is so beautifully shaped, and the views on both sides so
        interesting, that the shores and neighborhood of the bay are
        adorned with a great number of handsome and expensive villas.

   31 – Major Rennel considers the winds the principal cause of
        currents in the ocean, in which opinion he is supported
        by several eminent writers; but allowing to the wind great
        influence, still that influence is not sufficient to account
        satisfactorily for the various and contradictory facts which
        are recorded concerning these mighty streams.

   32 – When the course of this stream is stated to be three
        thousand geographical miles, some idea may be formed of the
        force with which it issues through the strait of Florida;
        a force so great as to be destructive to the land in
        that quarter. On the north side of Delaware Bay, the
        encroachments of the sea average nine feet a year, from
        observations made between 1804 and 1820, and at Sullivan’s
        Island on the north side of the entrance to the harbor of
        Charleston, South Carolina, the sea carried away a quarter
        of a mile of land in three years; which destructive power
        arises from the narrowness of the strait, and the great
        volume of water that passes through it. As the narrowest
        part of the strait of Florida is thirty-six nautic miles in
        breadth, and the annual mean velocity about seventy-three
        miles per day, a surface of two thousand six hundred and
        twenty eight square miles of gulf water will be poured into
        the Atlantic every day, or about two-thirds of a square
        equatorial degree.

   33 – Humboldt is of opinion that this weed is produced in large
        beds, at the bottom of the ocean, and that from these beds
        it is detached in a ripened state, and collects in large
        masses on that part of the Atlantic called the Sargasso, or
        Weedy Sea. Hans Sloane, in his history of Jamaica, quotes
        many authorities for the weed’s being found on the shores
        of the Cape Verd and Canary islands, as well as among those
        of the West Indies, and that it is carried to sea, by means
        of winds and currents. The opinion of Humboldt appears to
        account more satisfactorily for the accumulation of such
        vast masses than that of the historian of Jamaica.

   34 – Magellan set sail from Europe in September, 1519, with five
        ships, with the intention by sailing west and south, and
        following a course never before attempted, to try to make
        the Molucca Islands at least, by an entirely new passage.
        Reaching first a southern part of the South American
        Continent, where he rested for the winter and refreshed
        his followers, he leisurely proceeded still southerly;
        and in the October following, first discovered the strait
        which now bears his name. Neither the dangerous currents of
        this tempestuous region, however, nor the unknown nautical
        terrors of the stormy Cape Horn, could damp the ardor of
        this bold adventurer; and having at length surmounted all
        the difficulties of the strait, and cleared the wild shores
        by which they were surrounded, Magellan and his discovery
        ships first emerged into the great South Sea.

        Sea-room, almost boundless, the great delight of the sailor,
        together with steady breezes and salubrious weather, carried
        these first adventurers on into this new region, with high
        hopes, and spirits dancing as the waves over which they rode.
        Finding that the stream of wind which so pleasingly wafted
        them into a warmer climate, followed the course of the sun
        and blew steadily in one direction, in that manner which in
        all similar cases has since been denominated trade-wind; and
        that, favored by this breeze, the trader and his companions
        proceeded on with an ease and rapidity beyond their most
        sanguine expectations, the sea and sky seemed to Magellan
        equally to be at peace with each other and with the hopeful
        mariner who had intrusted himself to both; and thinking this
        unexplored world of waters worthy to be called a _Pacific
        Ocean_, he gave it the name, which, however inappropriate,
        it will probably forever retain.

   35 – ‘In the afternoon,’ says Mr. Stuart, ‘we hired a carriage to
        take us to Gennessee, that we might have an opportunity of
        seeing Mr. Wadsworth’s flats or meadows, which are thought
        the finest and most productive in this country; they consist
        of a great tract of low-lying land along the river side,
        covered with luxuriant herbage. The farm of Mr. Wadsworth
        is of great extent, about four thousand acres; but the
        beautiful tract of alluvial land does not exceed sixteen
        or seventeen hundred acres, of the most fertile soil that
        can be conceived. A few noble oaks, single trees, which are
        seldom met with here, adorn the fields. I measured one of
        them, which was twenty-eight feet in circumference.’

   36 – Before quitting New Orleans, I made a trip to visit the
        Delta of the Mississippi, in one of the steamers employed
        in towing vessels to and from the mouth of the river. Though
        with three large vessels attached, our bark made good way
        under the co-operative influence of steam and stream.
        About seven miles below the city is the field of battle.
        It is a plain about half a mile in breadth, bounded by the
        Mississippi on one side, and the forest on the other. Below
        is a bend of the river, which, from what reason I know
        not, is called ‘the English Turn.’ Plantations continue at
        intervals for about forty miles, when cultivation entirely
        ceases.

        Below this, nature is to be seen only in her dreariest and
        most desolate aspect. At first, there are forests springing
        in rank luxuriance from swamps impassable even by the foot
        of the Indian hunter. But these soon pass, and nothing but
        interminable cane brakes are to be seen on either side. From
        the shrouds of the steam-boat, though the range of vision
        probably extended for many leagues, no other objects were
        discernible but the broad muddy river, with its vast masses
        of drift-wood, and the wilderness of gigantic bulrushes
        shaking in the wind.

        There are four passes or outlets by which the Mississippi
        discharges its mighty burden into the Gulf of Mexico. Two
        of these are navigable, but changes are ever taking place,
        and the passage formerly preferred by the pilots, is now
        rarely attempted even by vessels of the smallest class. On
        approaching the Gulf, verdure appears only at intervals, and
        the eye rests on tracts of mere mud, formed by the deposit
        of the river on the drift-wood which some obstacle has
        arrested in its passage to the ocean. It is by this process
        that land is formed, and it may be traced in every step of
        its progress, from the island resting on a few logs, up to
        the huge tract in whose bosom are imbedded many millions.
        Encountering no obstacle, the river sends out arms in every
        direction, which, after winding through the half-formed
        region in a thousand fantastic flexures, are again united to
        the main branches.

        It would be difficult to convey an idea by words, of the
        effect which this most dismal scene produces on the heart
        and imagination of the spectator. It seems as if the process
        of creation were incomplete, and the earth yet undivided
        from the waters, for he beholds only an intermediate mass
        which admits of being absolutely assigned to neither element.
        He feels that he has forsaken the regions of the habitable
        world. Above, beneath, around, there is nothing to excite
        his sympathies, and, probably, for the first time in
        his life, he becomes conscious of the full sublimity of
        _desolation_.――_Hamilton’s America._

   37 – It is fortunate that habit makes us so little observant
        of what is disagreeable or inconsistent in climate. Every
        nation thinks that to which it is accustomed, combines,
        on the whole, the greater number of advantages. Colonel
        Hamilton considers it preposterous to compare the climate of
        the United States with that of England; and Count Pecchio,
        an Italian exile, is much amused that the English should
        attempt to persuade themselves that they have a climate
        even endurable. We have placed the two following extracts
        in juxta-position, to exhibit the respective views of these
        intelligent travellers on the climate of the two counties:

        ‘When on the subject of climate, I may just mention, that
        there is no topic on which Americans are more jealously
        sensitive. It delights them to believe that theirs is, in
        all respects, a favored land; that between the St. Lawrence
        and Mississippi the sky is brighter, the breezes more
        salubrious, and the soil more fertile, than in any other
        region of the earth. There is no harm in all this; nay,
        it is laudable, if they would only not insist that all
        strangers should view the matter in the same light, and
        express admiration as rapturous as their own.

        ‘Judging from my own experience, I should certainly
        pronounce the climate of the northern and central states to
        be only one degree better than that of Nova Scotia, which
        struck me, when there in 1814, as being the very worst in
        the world. On making the American coast, we had four days
        of denser fog than I ever saw in London. After my arrival
        at New York in November, the weather, for about a week,
        was very fine. It then became cloudy and tempestuous,
        and, during the whole period of my residence at Boston, I
        scarcely saw the sun. At Philadelphia there came on a deluge
        of snow, by which the ground was covered from January till
        March. At Baltimore there was no improvement. Snow lay deep
        on the ground, during the whole period of my residence at
        Washington, and the roads were only passable with difficulty.
        On crossing the Alleghany Mountains, however, the weather
        became delightful, and continued so during the voyage to
        New Orleans. While I remained in that city, three days out
        of every four were oppressively close and sultry, and the
        atmosphere was damp and oppressive to breathe.

        ‘During my journey from Mobile to Charleston, though
        generally hotter than desirable, the weather was, in the
        main, bright and beautiful; but the very day of my arrival
        at the latter place, the thermometer fell twenty degrees;
        and in the thirty-third degree of latitude, in the month of
        May, the inmates of the hotel were crowding round a blazing
        fire. On my return to New York, I found the population still
        muffled in cloaks and great coats, and the weather bitterly
        cold. Not a vestive of spring was discernible, at a season
        when, in England, the whole country is covered with verdure.
        During the last week of May, however, the heat became
        very great. At Quebec, it was almost intolerable, the
        thermometer ranging daily between eighty-four and ninety-two
        degrees. At New York, in July, the weather was all that a
        salamander could desire; and I embarked for England, under
        a sun more burning than it is at all probable I shall ever
        suffer from again.

        ‘In the northern and central states――for of the climate of
        the southern states it is unnecessary to speak――the annual
        range of the thermometer exceeds a hundred degrees. The
        heat of summer is that of Jamaica; the cold in winter is
        that of Russia. Such enormous vicissitudes must necessarily
        impair the vigor of the human frame; and when we take into
        calculation the vast portion of the United States in which
        the atmosphere is contaminated by marshy exhalations,
        it will not be difficult, with the auxiliary influences
        of dram-drinking and tobacco-chewing, to account for the
        squalid and sickly aspect of the population. Among the
        peasantry, I never saw one florid and robust man, nor any
        one distinguished by that fulness and rotundity of muscle,
        which every where meets the eye in England.

        ‘In many parts of the state of New York, the appearance of
        the inhabitants was such as to excite compassion. In the
        Maremma of Tuscany, and the Campagna of Rome, I had seen
        beings similar, but scarcely more wretched. In the “fall,”
        as they call it, intermittent fevers come as regularly
        as the fruit season. During my journey, I made inquiries
        at many cottages, and found none of them had escaped
        the scourge. But inquiries were useless. The answer was
        generally too legible in the countenance of the withered
        mother, and in those of her emaciated offspring.

        ‘It seems ridiculous to compare such a climate with that
        of England, and yet there is nothing to which Americans are
        more addicted. It is a subject regularly tabled in every
        society. “How delightful our climate must appear to you,”
        observed a lady, “after the rain and fogs of your own
        country!”――“Whether, on the whole, do you prefer, our
        climate, or that of Italy?” inquired a gentleman of New
        York, in a tone of the most profound gravity. My answer,
        I fear, gave offence, for it became the signal for a general
        meteorological attack. “I was three months in England,”
        observed one, “and it rained every hour of the time.”

        ‘Though attached to the soil of my country, I had really
        no inclination to vindicate its atmosphere. I, therefore,
        simply replied, that the gentleman had been unfortunate in
        the period of his visit. But I was not suffered to escape
        thus. Another traveller declared he had been nine months
        there, without better luck; and as the nine months, added
        to the three, precisely made up the whole year, of course,
        I had nothing farther to say.

        ‘But this tone of triumph is not always tenable. During
        the days, weeks, and months, when the weather is manifestly
        indefensible, the Io Pœans give place to apologies. A
        traveller is entreated, nay, sometimes even implored, not
        to judge of the climate by the specimen he has seen of
        it. Before his arrival, the sky was cloudless, and the
        atmosphere serene. He has just come in the nick of bad
        weather. Never in the memory of the oldest inhabitant, was
        the snow so deep or permanent. Never was spring so tardy in
        its approach, and never were vicissitudes of temperature so
        sudden and frequent. In short, he is desired to believe that
        the ordinary course of nature is suspended on his approach;
        that his presence in an American city deranges the whole
        action of the elements.’――_Men and Manners in America._

        Count Pecchio holds the mirror up to the English with an
        equally obstinate determination to expose the deformity of
        their climate; though not quite so libellous, he is equally
        amusing with the gallant colonel.

        ‘When on his first arrival in England, the foreigner is
        seated on the roof of a carriage which bears him towards
        London at the rate of eight miles an hour, he cannot help
        believing himself hurried along in the car of Pluto, to
        the descent into the realms of darkness, especially if he
        have just left Spain or Italy, the favorite regions of the
        sun. In the midst of wonder, he can hardly avoid, at first
        setting off, being struck with an impression of melancholy.
        An eternal cloud of smoke which involves and penetrates
        every thing; a fog, which during the months of November and
        December, now gray, now red, now of a dirty yellow, always
        obscures, and sometimes completely extinguishes the light
        of day, cannot fail to give a lugubrious and _Dantesque_
        air to this immeasurable and interminable capital. He, above
        all, who is just arrived from a sunny country, experiences,
        as I said before, the same effect as when, from the bright
        light of noon, he enters a half closed chamber; at the
        first glance he sees nothing, but afterwards, by little and
        little, he discerns the harp, the lady, the sofa, and the
        other agreeable objects in the apartment. Caracciolo, the
        ambassador to George the Third, was not in the wrong when
        he said, that the moon of Naples was warmer than the sun
        of London. In fact, for several days, the sun only appears
        in the midst of the darkness visible, like a great yellow
        spot. London is a “panorama of the sun,” in which he is
        often better seen than felt. On the 29th of November, 1826,
        there was an eclipse visible in England; the sky that day
        happened to be clear, but nobody took the least notice of
        the phenomenon, because the fog produces in one year more
        eclipses in England than there ever were, from other causes,
        perhaps, since the creation of the world.

        ‘One day I was strolling in Hyde Park, in company with a
        Peruvian: it was one of the fine days of London, but the sun
        was so obscured by the fog, that it had taken the form of a
        great globe of fire. “What do you think of the sun to-day?”
        said I to my companion. “I thought,” replied the adorer
        of the true sun, “that the end of the world was come! Was
        it not a singular caprice of fortune, that where there is
        the least light, the great Newton should have been born to
        analyze it?” It appears to me like the other singularity,
        that Alfieri, who analyzed liberty so well, should have been
        born in Italy, where they have less of it, perhaps, than
        any where else. After all, what of it? The English, by force
        of industry, have contrived to manufacture for themselves
        even a sun. Is it not indeed a sun――that gas, which, running
        under ground through all the island, illuminates the whole
        in a _fiat lux_? It is a sun, without twilight, and without
        sitting; that rises and disappears like a flash of lightning,
        and that too just when we want it. The gas illumination of
        London is so beautiful, that M. Sismondi had good reason
        to say, that, in London, in order to see, you must wait
        till night. The place of St. Antonio, at Cadiz, on a
        stormy summer’s evening――the noisy Strado Toledo of Naples,
        silvered by the moon――the Parisian Tivoli, blazing with
        fire-works;――none of them can sustain a comparison with
        the Regent-street of London, lighted by gas. Nor is this
        artificial sun an exclusive advantage of the capital; it
        shines every where with the impartiality of the great planet,
        illuminating alike the palace and the hovel. Whoever travels
        in England by night, in the country around Leeds, Nottingham,
        Derby or Manchester, imagines he sees, on every side, the
        enchanting palaces of the fairies, shining in the light of
        a thousand torches; but they are, in reality, no other than
        very large and very lofty manufactories of cotton, woollen,
        or linen.

        ‘But the English have another remedy for the scarcity of sun.
        They follow the example of poets and philosophers, who, when
        they are deficient in riches, take to praising poverty;――not
        being able to praise the sun, they sing the praises of the
        fireside, and the delights of winter. Ossian, (or rather
        Macpherson, the author of Ossian,) instead of the sun,
        apostrophises the moon. He takes pleasure in describing, as
        if they were delightful, the whistling of the winds, and the
        roaring of the torrents. He compares the locks of a youthful
        beauty to mist gilded by the sun. Instead of depicting
        a valley enamelled with flowers, he spurns so soft and
        effeminate an image, to paint the aspect of a frozen lake,
        and the shaking thistle on its banks. Cowper, in his poem
        of The Task, seems completely to enjoy himself in describing
        a winter’s evening, when the rain rattles down, the wind
        whistles, and the wagoner growls and grumbles on his way;
        whilst in doors, the fire burns, the newspaper arrives, the
        exhilarating tea glows on the table, and the family are all
        collected round the hearth.

        ‘Some poet, whose name I forget, (I think it is Byron,) even
        gives to darkness the epithet “lovely.” Thomson, the bard of
        the seasons, was a better poet than usual, when he sung of
        winter. He calls the horrors of winter “congenial horrors;”
        and after describing the mountains of snow, that, with the
        roar of thunder, dart from precipice to precipice, to the
        bottom of the Grison valleys, destroying and burying in
        the depth of night, shepherds and their flocks, huts and
        villages, single travellers and whole troops of marching
        soldiers, he imagines himself, with epicurean voluptuousness,
        in a solitary and well sheltered country-house, before a
        blazing fire, and lighted by splendid chandeliers, rending
        at his ease the finest works of the ancients.

        ‘Thus all the poets have conspired to make their countrymen
        in love with their cloudy heavens, and induce them to
        believe themselves fortunate that they are born in a
        delightful climate. And what matter is it that it is not
        true? Are not the tricks and illusions of the imagination
        as substantial as actual reality? Montesquieu said, “If the
        English are not free, at least they believe they are, which
        is much the same.” So we may say, if the English have not a
        fine climate, they believe they have, and that is as good.
        I was once praising to a young English lady, the pure, lofty,
        mother-of-pearl heavens of Madrid, of Naples, of Athens, of
        Smyrna. She replied, “I should be tired to death by such a
        perpetual sunshine; the variety and phantasmagoria of our
        cloud must surely be much more beautiful.”’――_Observations
        of an Italian Exile._

   38 – There were several severe thunder-storms while we were
        in the neighborhood of New-York, very different in their
        appearance from those which occur in Britain, but not
        attended with more accidents. One of them, in the middle
        of June, was, however, very tremendous; it occurred in the
        night, and the flashes of vivid lightning followed each
        other with so great rapidity, that the sky was altogether
        illuminated for a long period, and until a violent storm
        of wind, accompanied with a deluge of rain, came on. The
        roaring of the thunder never ceased during the continuance
        of the storm. Several casualties occurred in New York; some
        trees were torn up by the roots, the shipping was damaged,
        one vessel upset, and the crew drowned. There is more
        appearance of devastation occasioned by thunder-storms in
        the forests and woods of this country than any where else.
        Large portions of the forest are sometimes seen almost torn
        to pieces.

        Subsequently to this period, and when I was travelling in
        the southern states, I was again and again witness to very
        terrifying and magnificent thunder-storms, where I have seen
        the whole atmosphere illuminated by the never ceasing balls
        of fire bursting from cloud to cloud, and the appearance
        every moment of forked flashes of lightning. Few nights,
        during the summer and beginning of autumn, in this country,
        occur, in which lightning is not visible in some part of the
        horizon.――_Stuart’s America._

   39 – The following account of the climate in the neighborhood of
        Charleston, South Carolina, is extracted from a letter of
        the intelligent correspondent of the Portland Advertiser,
        dated March 29, 1833.

        ‘Vegetation is quite advanced, and rapidly advancing. The
        air this day was not so warm as it has been; but we had
        this morning copious showers with loud thunder and vivid
        lightning. The gardens in the vicinity of Charleston are
        now beautiful beyond description. All vegetation is in that
        lively hue, which charms the eye and delights the feelings.
        The trees that border the wayside are rapidly putting on
        their green covering. The open fields are verdant with the
        growing grass. Corn is up and advanced. The vegetables in
        the gardens are as forward as they will be in ours the first
        of July. The market is well stocked with the luxuries of an
        early summer. A southern spring is spring indeed. There are
        music and life in every thing. If they could have here our
        captivating and musing scenery, our variety of hill and dale,
        it would be at this season another paradise on earth.

        ‘Charleston is considered healthy by the inhabitants.
        They boast of their exemption from diseases, and say their
        bill of mortality is not so fatal as that of New York and
        Philadelphia. The city itself may be thus healthy when the
        yellow fever does not prevail, but it is as much as one’s
        life is worth to venture into the lowlands in the vicinity,
        in the country round. No resident of Charleston, even those
        born Carolinians, or the best acclimated, dare run the risk.
        For a citizen to sleep in the country in the summer months,
        is considered almost certain death, for the country fever,
        as it is termed, immediately seizes him. The country,
        this side of the middle region――a rolling country of South
        Carolina for about one hundred miles from the seacoast――is
        swampy, or a pine barren. There is in the swamps a
        _mal-aria_, very fatal to health, the effects of which no
        white man is willing to run the risk of encountering. Hence
        the planters in the lowlands, particularly such as live on
        the rice plantations, remove in the sickly months to the
        seacoast, or go back into the country, to Buncumbe county
        in North Carolina, near the Saluda Gap, or to the Virginia
        Springs, or to the seacoast, or to the northern states. The
        slaves on the rice plantations are said to be healthy and
        happy, and to suffer no affliction from the burning sun of
        August, or the noxious effluvia from the rice grounds.

        ‘A white overseer is usually left in care of the plantation
        and the negroes, who, though born in the country, often,
        and commonly, has a fever every year. I am told that many
        of them die at middle age, and that few seldom obtain an
        old age. If such be the fact, it would seem that negroes
        are necessary to cultivate the rice grounds, though it is
        with difficulty that I can come to the conclusion, that the
        white man, well acclimated, is not as well fitted by nature
        to cultivate the land he lives on as the negro. But the
        universal opinion is, that it is exceedingly hazardous for a
        planter to continue with his family on his estate, and hence,
        no matter what the expense, the estates are deserted from
        June to the first frost in autumn, and the planter dare not
        visit his property, nor sleep in his house in that time,
        though he may be on the seacoast but a few miles off, or in
        a settlement on a pine barren, which is considered healthy.
        The swampy rice grounds no doubt are sickly. The effluvia
        from so much putrid water must be noxious. The pallor and
        ghastliness of many of the overseers bear testimony to the
        truth of the general assertion. And it is probable, yea,
        certain, that the habits, the manners, the long practice of
        the negroes, have better fitted them to undergo the danger
        than the white man is or can be, with his training. Hence,
        one of the great arguments in favor of slavery here, is, “we
        cannot do without the negroes.”’

   40 – The first notice of gold from North Carolina, on the record
        of the United States’ Mint, occurs in the year 1814, when
        it was received to the amount of eleven thousand dollars.
        In 1825 the amount received was seventeen thousand dollars;
        in 1826, twenty thousand, in 1828, nearly forty-six thousand,
        and in 1829, one hundred and twenty-eight thousand dollars.
        In the year 1830, gold to the value of four hundred and
        sixty-six thousand dollars was coined at the mint, received
        from the gold region of the southern states. Of this amount,
        two hundred and twelve thousand dollars were received from
        Georgia, a state which had not furnished even a specimen
        in any previous year. In the year 1831, the southern gold
        region furnished the mint with gold to the value of more
        than half a million; of this, two hundred and ninety-four
        thousand dollars were received from North Carolina, and one
        hundred and seventy-six thousand from Georgia. But a part of
        the gold obtained at these mines is received at the United
        States’ Mint; by far the larger part is sent to Europe,
        particularly to Paris. It is stated that the whole number of
        men employed in the mines of the southern states, is twenty
        thousand.

   41 – The coal is conveyed to Mauch Chunk village, in wagons
        running upon the railway. Fourteen of them, containing
        each one ton and a half of coal, are connected by iron
        bars, admitting of a slight degree of motion between two
        contiguous wagons; a single man rides on one of the wagons,
        and, by a very simple contrivance, regulates their movement:
        a perpendicular lever causes a piece of wood to press
        against the circumference of each wheel on the same side
        of the car, acting both ways from the central point between
        them, so that, by increasing the pressure, the friction
        retards or stops the motion, and as all the levers are
        connected by a rope, they are made to act in concert. The
        traveller is much interested in seeing the successive groups
        of wagons moving rapidly in procession and without apparent
        cause; they are heard, at a considerable distance, as they
        come thundering along with their dark burdens, and give an
        impression of irresistible energy: at a suitable distance
        follows another train, and thus three hundred tons a day,
        and some days three hundred and forty tons, are regularly
        discharged into the boats as already described. At first,
        they descended at the rate of fifteen or twenty miles an
        hour, but they were obliged to reduce the speed, as it
        injured the machines, and, by agitating and wearing the
        coal, involved the driver in a cloud of black dust. The
        empty wagons are drawn back by mules; fourteen wagons to
        eight mules; twenty-eight mules draw up forty-two coal and
        seven mule wagons, and the arrangement is so made, that the
        ascending parties shall arrive in due season at the proper
        places for turning out. The same is true of the pleasure
        cars, which are allowed to use the rail-way; only they must
        not interfere with its proper business, and should they do
        it, it would be at their peril, as they might be crushed by
        the momentum of the descending wagons. When they happen to
        be caught out of their proper place, the drivers make all
        possible haste to remove them out of the rail-way track; but
        they carefully avoid these meetings, and they rarely happen,
        unless the cars go out of their proper time.

        The mules ride down the rail-way; they are furnished with
        provender placed in proper mangers, four of them being
        inclosed in one pen mounted on wheels; and seven of these
        cars are connected into one group, so that twenty-eight
        mules constitute the party, which, with their heads all
        directed down the mountain, and apparently surveying its
        fine landscapes, are seen moving rapidly down the inclined
        plane with a ludicrous gravity, which, when observed for the
        first time, proves too much for the severest muscles.

        They readily perform their duty of drawing up the empty cars,
        but having once experienced the comfort of riding down, they
        appear to regard it as a right, and neither mild nor severe
        measures, not even the sharpest whipping, can ever induce
        them to descend in any other way.

        The return of the traveller, in the pleasure cars, is
        so rapid that it is not easy entirely to suppress the
        apprehension of danger; we perform the eight miles from
        the summit in thirty-three minutes; should an axle-tree
        break――an accident which sometimes happens with the coal
        wagons――it would be impossible that the passengers should
        escape unhurt, especially in the turnings of the road, and
        in places where trees, rocks and precipices allow no safe
        place of landing. All danger would however be avoided by
        checking the motion, so that it should not exceed eight or
        ten miles an hour, and this is easily done in the same way
        as that practised in the coal wagons. Happily, no accident
        has yet occurred. It would be prudent, at least, to require
        the manager to check the motion of the car at the steepest
        places; but these are the very situations where he chooses
        to make a display of cracking his whip and cheering his
        wheels, instead of his horses, and the increased impulse,
        given by gravity, as he relaxes the pressure of the
        lever, when the car springs forward like spirited horses
        at the word of their master makes the illusion almost
        complete.――_Silliman’s Journal._

   42 – _Cougar Hunt._ The hunters made their appearance, one fine
        morning, at the door of the cabin, just as the sun was
        emerging from beneath the horizon. They were five in number,
        and fully equipped for the chase, being mounted on horses,
        which in some parts of Europe might appear sorry nags, but
        which in strength, speed and bottom, are better fitted for
        pursuing a cougar, or a bear, through woods and morasses
        than any in that country. A pack of large ugly curs were
        already engaged in making acquaintance with those of the
        squatter. He and myself mounted his two best horses, whilst
        his sons were bestriding others of inferior quality.

        Few words were uttered by the party until we had reached
        the edge of the swamp, where it was agreed that all should
        disperse and seek for the fresh track of the painter, it
        being previously settled that the discoverer should blow
        his horn, and remain on the spot until the rest should join
        him. In less than an hour, the sound of the horn was clearly
        heard, and, sticking close to the squatter, off we went
        through the thick woods, guided only by the now and then
        repeated call of the distant huntsman. We soon reached the
        spot, and in a short time the rest of the party came up. The
        best dog was sent forward to track the cougar, and in a few
        moments the whole pack were observed diligently trailing,
        and bearing in their course for the interior of the swamp.
        The rifles were immediately put in trim, and the party
        followed the dogs, at separate distances, but in sight of
        each other, determined to shoot at no other game than the
        panther.

        The dogs soon began to mouth, and suddenly quickened
        their pace. My companion concluded that the beast was on
        the ground, and putting our horses to a gentle gallop, we
        followed the curs, guided by their voices. The noise of the
        dogs increased, when all of a sudden their mode of barking
        became altered, and the squatter, urging me to push on, told
        me that the beast was _treed_, by which he meant that it
        had got upon some low branch of a large tree to rest for
        a few moments, and that should we not succeed in shooting
        him when thus situated, we might expect a long chase of it.
        As we approached the spot, we all by degrees united into a
        body, but on seeing the dogs at the foot of a large tree,
        separated again and galloped off to surround it.

        Each hunter now moved with caution, holding his gun ready,
        and allowing the bridle to dangle on the neck of his horse,
        as it advanced slowly towards the dogs. A shot from one of
        the party was heard, on which the cougar was seen to leap to
        the ground, and bound off with such velocity as to show that
        he was very unwilling to stand our fire longer. The dogs set
        off in pursuit with great eagerness and a deafening cry. The
        hunter who had fired came up and said that his ball had hit
        the monster, and had probably broken one of his fore legs
        near the shoulder, the only place at which he could aim. A
        slight trail of blood was discovered on the ground, but the
        curs proceeded at such a rate that we merely noticed this,
        and put spurs to our horses, which galloped on towards the
        centre of the swamp. One bayou was crossed, then another
        still larger and more muddy; but the dogs were brushing
        forward, and as the horses began to pant at a furious rate,
        we judged it expedient to leave them and advance on foot.
        These determined hunters knew that the cougar being wounded,
        would shortly ascend another tree, where in all probability
        he would remain for a considerable time, and that it would
        be easy to follow the track of the dogs. We dismounted, took
        off the saddles and bridles, set the bells attached to the
        horses’ necks at liberty to jingle, hoppled the animals, and
        left them to shift for themselves.

        Now, reader, follow the group marching through the swamp,
        crossing muddy pools, and making the best of their way
        over fallen trees and amongst the tangled rushes that
        now and then covered acres of ground. If you are a hunter
        yourself, all this will appear nothing to you; but if crowded
        assemblies of ‘beauty and fashion,’ or the quiet enjoyment
        of your ‘pleasure-grounds,’ alone delight you, I must mend
        my pen before I attempt to give you an idea of the pleasure
        felt on such an expedition.

        After marching for a couple of hours, we again heard the
        dogs. Each of us again pressed forward, elated at the
        thought of terminating the career of the cougar. Some of the
        dogs were heard whining, although the greater number barked
        vehemently. We felt assured that the cougar was treed, and
        that he would rest for some time to recover from his fatigue.
        As we came up to the dogs, we discovered the ferocious
        animal lying across a large branch, close to the trunk of a
        cotton-wood tree. His brood breast lay towards us; his eyes
        were at one time bent on us and again on the dogs beneath
        and around him; one of his fore legs hung loosely by his
        side, and he lay crouched, with his ears lowered close to
        his head, as if he thought he might remain undiscovered.
        Three balls were fired at him, at a given signal, on which
        he sprang a few feet from the branch, and tumbled headlong
        to the ground. Attacked on all sides by the enraged curs,
        the infuriated cougar fought with desperate valor; but the
        squatter advancing in front of the party, and almost in the
        midst of the dogs, shot him immediately behind and beneath
        the left shoulder. The cougar writhed for a moment in agony,
        and in another lay dead.――_Audubon._

   43 – Godman.

   44 – The prairie wolves are much smaller than those which inhabit
        the woods. They generally travel together in numbers, and
        a solitary one is seldom met with. Two or three of us have
        often pursued from fifty to one hundred, driving them before
        us as quickly as our horses could charge.

        Their skins are of no value, and we do not therefore waste
        much powder and ball in shooting them. The Indians, who
        are obliged to pay dear for their ammunition, are equally
        careful not to throw it away on objects that bring no
        remunerating value. The natural consequence is, that the
        wolves are allowed to multiply; and some parts of the
        country are completely overrun by them. The Indians catch
        numbers of them in traps, which they set in the vicinity
        of those places where their tame horses are sent to graze.
        The traps are merely excavations covered over with slight
        switches and hay, and bated with meat, &c., into which
        the wolves fall, and being unable to extricate themselves,
        they perish by famine, or the knife of the Indian. These
        destructive animals annually destroy numbers of horses;
        particularly during the winter season, when the latter get
        entangled in the snow; in which situation they become an
        easy prey to their lightfooted pursuers, ten or fifteen of
        which will often fasten on one animal, and with their long
        fangs in a few minutes separate the head from the body. If,
        however, the horses are not prevented from using their legs,
        they sometimes punish the enemy severely; as an instance
        of this, I saw one morning the bodies of two of our horses
        which had been killed the night before, and around were
        lying eight dead and maimed wolves; some with their brains
        scattered about, and others with their limbs and ribs broken
        by the hoofs of the furious animals in their vain attempts
        to escape from their sanguinary assailants.

        While I was at Spokan, I went occasionally to the horse
        prairie, which is nearly surrounded by partially wooded
        hills, for the purpose of watching the manœuvres of the
        wolves in their combined attacks. The first announcement of
        their approach was a few shrill currish barks at intervals,
        like the outpost firing of skirmishing parties. These were
        answered by similar barking from an opposite direction,
        until the sounds gradually approximated, and, at length,
        ceased on the junction of the different parties. We prepared
        our guns, and concealed ourselves behind a thick cover.
        In the mean time, the horses, sensible of the approaching
        danger, began to paw the ground, snort, toss up their heads,
        look wildly about them, and exhibit all the symptoms of fear.
        One or two stallions took the lead, and appeared to wait
        with a degree of comparative composure for the appearance of
        the enemy.

        The allies, at length, entered the field in a semicircular
        form, with their flanks extended for the evident purpose
        of surrounding their prey. They were between two and three
        hundred strong. The horses, on observing their movement,
        knew from experience its object, and dreading to encounter
        so numerous a force, instantly turned round, and galloped
        off in a contrary direction. Their flight was the signal
        for the wolves to advance; and immediately uttering a
        simultaneous yell, they charged after the fugitives, still
        preserving their crescent form. Two or three of the horses,
        which were not in the best condition, were quickly overtaken
        by the advance guard of the enemy. The former, finding
        themselves unable to keep up with the band, commenced
        kicking at their pursuers, several of which received some
        severe blows; but these being reinforced by others, they
        would have shortly despatched the horses, had we not,
        just in time, emerged from our place of concealment, and
        discharged a volley at the enemy’s centre, by which a few
        were brought down. The whole battalion instantly wheeled
        about, and fled towards the hills in the utmost disorder;
        while the horses, on hearing the fire, changed their course,
        and galloped up to us. Our appearance saved several of them
        from the fangs of their foes; and by their neighing they
        seemed to express their joy and gratitude at our timely
        interference.

        Although the wolves of North America are the most daring
        of all the beasts of prey on that continent, they are by
        no means so courageous or ferocious as those of Europe,
        particularly in Spain or the south of France, in which
        countries they commit dreadful ravages both on man and beast,
        whereas an American wolf, except forced by desperation, will
        seldom or never attack a human being; a remarkable instance
        of which is mentioned in the detail of my wanderings, in
        the eighth chapter. The lynxes are by no means so numerous
        as the wolves, but they are equally destructive, and
        individually more daring. They generally travel alone, or
        in couples, and seldom fly, as the wolves do, on the first
        approach of man. The largest American lynx does not exceed
        in size an English mastiff.――_Ross Cox._

   45 – A very young whelp of this fox was, some time ago, brought
        to the Philadelphia Museum in company with its foster mother,
        a common cat, which had adopted and appeared to be very fond
        of it. She continued to nurse the little fox for several
        weeks, expressing much affectionate solicitude when he
        wandered from her, notwithstanding the frequent ungrateful
        bites inflicted by her vicious foundling. How long this
        singular relation might have continued, or to what result it
        would have led, is unknown. The fox strayed too far from his
        cautions nurse, fell from the platform of a tall staircase
        to the ground, and was killed; the poor cat evinced as much
        sorrow for her loss as if it had been really her own
        offspring.

   46 – For a very full, minute, and interesting account of the
        beaver, we refer our readers to the second volume of
        Godman’s Natural History.

   47 – Flying squirrels are said to be found in the north of
        Europe, but they are very scarce.

   48 – Nuttall.

   49 – The figure of this noble bird is well known throughout
        the civilized world, emblazoned as it is on our national
        standard, which waves in the breeze of every clime, bearing
        to distant lands the remembrance of a great people living in
        a state of peaceful freedom. May that peaceful freedom last
        forever!

        The great strength, daring, and cool courage of the
        white-headed eagle, joined to his unequalled power of
        flight, render him highly conspicuous among his brethren.
        To these qualities did he add a generous disposition towards
        others, he might be looked up to as a model of nobility. The
        ferocious, overbearing, and tyrannical temper which is ever
        and anon displaying itself in his actions, is, nevertheless,
        best adapted to his state, and was wisely given him by the
        Creator to enable him to perform the office assigned to him.

        To give you some idea of the nature of this bird, permit
        me to place you on the Mississippi, on which you may float
        gently along, while approaching winter brings millions of
        water-fowl on whistling wings, from the countries of the
        north, to seek a milder climate in which to sojourn for a
        season. The eagle is seen perched, in an erect attitude,
        on the highest summit of the tallest tree by the margin of
        the broad stream, his glistening but stern eye looks over
        the vast expanse. He listens attentively to every sound that
        comes to his quick ear from afar, glancing now and then on
        the earth beneath, lest even the light tread of the fawn may
        pass unheard. His mate is perched on the opposite side, and
        should all be tranquil and silent, warns him by a cry to
        continue patient. At this well-known call, the male partly
        opens his broad wings, inclines his body a little downwards,
        and answers to her voice in tones not unlike the laugh of a
        maniac. The next moment, he resumes his erect attitude, and
        again all around is silent.

        Ducks of many species, the teal, the wigeon, the mallard and
        others, are seen passing with great rapidity, and following
        the course of the current; but the eagle heeds them not:
        they are at that time beneath his attention. The next moment,
        however, the wild trumpet-like sound of a yet distant but
        approaching swan is heard. A shriek from the female eagle
        comes across the stream,――for she is as fully on the alert
        as her mate. The latter suddenly shakes the whole of his
        body, and with a few touches of his bill, aided by the
        action of his cuticular muscles, arranges his plumage in
        an instant. The snow-white bird is now in sight: her long
        neck is stretched forward, her eye is on the watch, vigilant
        as that of her enemy; her large wings seem with difficulty
        to support the weight of her body, although they flap
        incessantly. So irksome do her exertions seem, that her very
        legs are spread beneath her tail, to aid her in her flight.
        She approaches, however. The eagle has marked her for his
        prey. As the swan is passing the dreaded pair, the male bird,
        in full preparation for the chase, starts from his perch
        with an awful scream, that to the swan’s ear brings more
        terror than the report of the large duck-gun.

        Now is the moment to witness the display of the eagle’s
        powers. He glides through the air like a falling star,
        and, like a flash of lightning, comes upon the timorous
        quarry, which now, in agony and despair, seeks, by various
        manœuvres, to elude the grasp of his cruel talons. It mounts,
        doubles, and willingly would plunge into the stream, were
        it not prevented by the eagle, which, long possessed of the
        knowledge that by such a stratagem the swan might escape him,
        forces it to remain in the air by attempting to strike it
        with his talons from beneath. The hope of escape is soon
        given up by the swan. It has already become much weakened,
        and its strength fails at the sight of the courage and
        swiftness of its antagonist. Its last gasp is about to
        escape, when the ferocious eagle strikes with his talons the
        under side of its wing, and with unresisted power forces the
        bird to fall in a slanting direction upon the nearest shore.

        It is then, reader, that you may see the cruel spirit of
        this dreaded enemy of the feathered race, whilst, exulting
        over his prey, he for the first time breathes at ease.
        He presses down his powerful feet, and drives his sharp
        claws deeper than ever into the heart of the dying swan. He
        shrieks with delight, as he feels the last convulsions of
        his prey, which has now sunk under his unceasing efforts to
        render death as painfully felt as it can possibly be. The
        female has watched every movement of her mate; and if she
        did not assist him in capturing the swan, it was not from
        want of will, but merely that she felt full assurance that
        the power and courage of her lord were quite sufficient for
        the deed. She now sails to the spot where he eagerly awaits
        her, and when she has arrived, they together turn the breast
        of the luckless swan upwards, and gorge themselves with
        gore.――_Audubon._

   50 – Bonaparte

   51 – When the female is disposed to lay, she appears restless and
        dejected, and separates from the unregarding flock. Stealing
        through the woods and thickets, she pries into the bushes
        and brambles for the nest that suits her, into which she
        darts, in the absence of its owner, and in a few minutes
        is seen to rise on the wing, cheerful and relieved from the
        anxiety that oppressed her, and proceeds back to the flock
        she had so reluctantly forsaken. If the egg be deposited in
        the nest alone, it is uniformly forsaken; but if the nursing
        parent have any of her own, she immediately begins to sit.
        The red-eyed flycatcher, in whose beautiful basket-like
        nests I have observed these eggs, proves a very affectionate
        and assiduous nurse to the uncouth foundling. In one of
        these I found an egg of each bird, and the hen already
        sitting. I took her own egg and left the strange one; she
        soon returned, and, as if sensible of what had happened,
        looked with steadfast attention, and shifted the egg about,
        then sate upon it, but soon moved off, again renewed her
        observation, and it was a considerable time before she
        seemed willing to take her seat; but at length I left her
        on the nest. Two or three days after, I found that she had
        relinquished her attention to the strange egg, and forsaken
        the premises. Another of these birds, however, forsook the
        nest, on taking out the cow-bird’s egg, although she had
        still two of her own left. The only example, perhaps, to
        the contrary of deserting the nest when solely occupied by
        the stray egg, is in the blue-bird, who, attached strongly
        to the breeding places, in which it often continues for
        several years, has been known to lay, though with apparent
        reluctance, after the deposition of the cow-bird’s egg. My
        friend, Mr. C. Pickering, found two nests of the blue-eyed
        yellow warbler, in which had been deposited an egg of the
        cow-bird previously to any of their own; and unable to eject
        it, they had buried it in the bottom of the nest, and built
        over it an additional story! I also saw, in the summer of
        1830, a similar circumstance with the same bird, in which
        the cow-bird’s egg, though incarcerated, was still visible
        on the upper edge, but could never have been hatched. At
        times, I think it probable, that they lay in the nests
        of larger birds, who throw out the egg, or that they drop
        their eggs on the ground without obtaining a deposit, as
        I have found an egg of this kind thus exposed and broken.
        I have also remarked sometimes two of these eggs in the
        same nest; but in this case one of them commonly proves
        abortive.――_Nuttall._

   52 – Wilson.

   53 – _Turkey Shooting._――Good dogs scent the turkeys, when in
        large flocks, at extraordinary distances,――I think I may
        venture to say half a mile. Should the dog be well trained
        to this sport, he sets off at full speed, and in silence,
        until he sees the birds, when he instantly barks, and
        pushing as much as possible into the centre of the flock,
        forces the whole to take wing in different directions. This
        is of great advantage to the hunter, for should the turkeys
        all go one way, they would soon leave their perches and
        run again. But when they separate in this manner, and the
        weather happens to be calm and lowering, a person accustomed
        to this kind of sport finds the birds with ease, and shoots
        them at pleasure.

        When turkeys alight on a tree, it is sometimes very
        difficult to see them, which is owing to their standing
        perfectly motionless. Should you discover one, when it
        is down on its legs upon the branch, you may approach it
        with less care. But if it is standing erect, the greatest
        precaution is necessary, for should it discover you, it
        instantly flies off, frequently to such a distance that it
        would be vain to follow.

        When a turkey is merely winged by a shot, it falls quickly
        to the ground in a slanting direction. Then, instead of
        losing time by tumbling and rolling over, as other birds
        often do when wounded, it runs off at such a rate, that
        unless the hunter be provided with a swift dog, he may
        bid farewell to it. I recollect coming on one shot in this
        manner, more than a mile from the tree where it had been
        perched, my dog having traced it to this distance, through
        one of those thick cane-brakes that cover many portions of
        our rich alluvial lands near the banks of our western rivers.
        Turkeys are easily killed if shot in the head, the neck, or
        the upper part of the breast; but if hit in the hind parts
        only they often fly so far as to be lost to the hunter.
        During winter, many of our _real_ hunters shoot them by
        moonlight, on the roosts, where these birds will frequently
        stand a repetition of the reports of a rifle, although they
        would fly from the attack of an owl or even perhaps from his
        presence. Thus sometimes nearly a whole flock is secured by
        men capable of using these guns in such circumstances. They
        are often destroyed in great numbers when most worthless,
        that is, early in the fall or autumn, when many are killed
        in their attempt to cross the rivers, or immediately after
        they reach the shore.

        Whilst speaking of the shooting of turkeys, I feel no
        hesitation in relating the following occurrence, which
        happened to myself. While in search of game, one afternoon
        late in autumn, when the males go together, and the females
        are by themselves also, I heard the clucking of one of the
        latter, and immediately finding her perched on a fence, made
        towards her. Advancing slowly and cautiously, I heard the
        yelping notes of some gobblers, when I stopped and listened
        in order to ascertain the direction in which they came.
        I then ran to meet the birds, hid myself by the side of a
        large fallen tree, cocked my gun, and waited with impatience
        for a good opportunity. The gobblers continued yelping in
        answer to the female, which all this while remained on the
        fence. I looked over the log and saw about thirty fine cocks
        advancing rather cautiously towards the very spot where I
        lay concealed. They came so near that the light in their
        eyes could easily be perceived, when I fired one barrel,
        and killed three. The rest, instead of flying off, fell a
        strutting around their dead companions, and had I not looked
        on shooting again as murder without necessity, I might have
        secured at least another. So I showed myself, and marching
        to the place where the dead birds were, drove away the
        survivors. I may also mention, that a friend of mine shot a
        fine hen, from his horse, with a pistol, as the poor thing
        was probably returning to her nest to lay.

        Should you, good-natured reader, be a sportsman, and now and
        then have been fortunate in the exercise of your craft, the
        following incident, which I shall relate to you as I had it
        from the mouth of an honest farmer, may prove interesting.
        Turkeys were very abundant in his neighborhood, and,
        resorting to his corn-fields, at the period when the maize
        had just shot up from the ground, destroyed great quantities
        of it. This induced him to swear vengeance against the
        species. He cut a long trench in a favorable situation, put
        a great quantity of corn in it, and having heavily loaded
        a famous duck-gun of his, placed it so as that he could
        pull the trigger by means of a string, when quite concealed
        from the birds. The turkeys soon discovered the corn in
        the trench, and quickly disposed of it, at the same time
        continuing their ravages in the fields. He filled the trench
        again, and one day seeing it quite black with the turkeys,
        whistled loudly, on which all the birds raised their heads,
        when he pulled the trigger by the long string fastened to
        it. The explosion followed of course, and the turkeys were
        seen scampering off in all directions, in utter discomfiture
        and dismay. On running to the trench, he found nine of them
        extended in it. The rest did not consider it expedient to
        visit his corn again for that season.

        During spring, turkeys are _called_, as it is termed, by
        drawing the air in a particular way through one of the
        second joint bones of a wing of that bird, which produces a
        sound resembling the voice of the female, on hearing which
        the male comes up, and is shot. In managing this, however,
        no fault must be committed, for turkeys are quick in
        distinguishing counterfeit sounds, and when _half civilized_
        are very wary and cunning. I have known many to answer to
        this kind of call, without moving a step, and thus entirely
        defeat the scheme of the hunter, who dared not move from
        his hiding-place, lest a single glance of the gobbler’s eye
        should frustrate all further attempts to decoy them. Many
        are shot when at roost, in this season, by answering with
        a rolling gobble to a sound in imitation of the cry of the
        barred owl.

        While at Henderson, on the Ohio, I had, among many other
        wild birds, a fine male turkey, which had been reared from
        its earliest youth under my care, it having been caught by
        me when probably not more than two or three days old. It
        became so tame that it would follow any person who called
        it, and was the favorite of the little village. Yet it would
        never roost with the tame turkeys, but regularly betook
        itself at night to the roof of the house, where it remained
        until dawn. When two years old, it began to fly to the woods,
        where it remained for a considerable part of the day, to
        return to the enclosure as night approached. It continued
        this practice until the following spring, when I saw it
        several times fly from its roosting place to the top of
        a high cotton tree, on the bank of the Ohio, from which,
        after resting a little, it would sail to the opposite shore,
        the river being there nearly half a mile wide, and return
        towards night.

        One morning I saw it fly off, at a very early hour, to the
        woods, in another direction, and took no particular notice
        of the circumstance. Several days elapsed, but the bird did
        not return. I was going towards some lakes near Green River
        to shoot, when having walked about five miles, I saw a fine
        large gobbler cross the path before me, moving leisurely
        along. Turkeys being then in prime condition for the table,
        I ordered my dog to chase it, and put it up. The animal went
        off with great rapidity, and as it approached the turkey,
        I saw, with great surprise, that the latter paid little
        attention. Juno was on the point of seizing it, when she
        suddenly stopped, and turned her head towards me. I hastened
        to them, but you may easily conceive my surprise when I saw
        my own favorite bird, and discovered that it had recognised
        the dog, and would not fly from it: although the sight of
        a strange dog would have caused it to run off at once. A
        friend of mine happening to be in search of a wounded deer,
        took the bird on his saddle before him, and carried it
        home for me. The following spring it was accidentally shot,
        having been taken for a wild bird, and brought to me on
        being recognised by the red ribbon which it had around
        its neck. Pray, reader, by what word will you designate
        the recognition made by my favorite turkey of a dog
        which had been long associated with it in the yard and
        grounds? Was it the result of instinct, or of reason,――an
        unconsciously revived impression, or the act of an
        intelligent mind?――_Audubon._

   54 – _Duck Shooting on the Chesapeak._――To a stranger, visiting
        these waters, the innumerable ducks, feeding in beds of
        thousands, or filling the air with their careering, with
        the great numbers of beautiful white swans resting near
        the shores, like banks of driven snow, he would naturally
        suppose the facilities for their destruction were equal
        to their profusion, and with so large an object in view, a
        sportsman could scarcely miss his aim. But when he considers
        the great thickness of their covering, the velocity of their
        flight, the rapidity and duration of their diving, and the
        great influence that circumstances of wind and weather have
        on the chances of success, it becomes a matter of wonder how
        so many are destroyed.

        The usual mode of taking these birds has been, till recently,
        by shooting from the points during the flight, or from the
        land or boats, on their feeding grounds, or by _toling_,
        as it is strangely termed, an operation by which the ducks
        are sometimes induced to approach within a few feet of the
        shore, from a distance often of several hundred yards. This
        process, though it has been frequently described, may not
        be uninteresting to repeat. A spot is usually selected where
        the birds have not been much disturbed, and where they feed
        at three or four hundred yards from, and can approach to
        within forty or fifty yards of the shore, as they will never
        come nearer than they can swim freely. The higher the tides
        and calmer the day, the better, for they feed closer to the
        shores and see more distinctly. Most persons on these waters
        have a race of small, white or liver-colored dogs, which are
        familiarly called the _toler_ breed, but which appear to be
        the ordinary poodle.

        These dogs are extremely playful, and are taught to run up
        and down the shore, in sight of the ducks, either by the
        motion of the hand, or by throwing chips from side to side.
        They soon become perfectly acquainted with their business,
        and as they discover the ducks approaching them, make their
        jumps less high, till they almost crawl on the ground,
        to prevent the birds discovering what the object of their
        curiosity may be. This disposition to examine rarities,
        has been taken advantage of, by using a red or black
        handkerchief, by day, and white, by night, in toling,
        or even by gently splashing the water on the shore. The
        nearest ducks soon notice the strange appearance, whatever
        the plan attempted, raise their heads, gaze intently for
        a moment, then push for the shore. The rest follow suit,
        and the author has, on many occasions, seen thousands of
        them swimming in a solid mass, direct to the object; and
        by removing the dog further into the grass, they have been
        brought within fifteen feet of the bank. When they have
        approached to about thirty or forty yards, their curiosity
        is generally satisfied, when they swim laterally up and
        down for a few seconds, and then retrograde in their old
        spot. Whilst presenting the side view, is the moment to
        shoot, and forty or fifty ducks have often been killed
        by a small gun. The _black-heads_ tole the most readily,
        then the _red-heads_, next the _canvass-backs_, and the
        _bald-pates_ rarely; and this is the ratio of their approach
        to the points in flying, although if the canvass-back has
        determined on his direction, few circumstances will change
        his course. The total absence of cover or precaution against
        exposure to sight, or even a large fire, will not turn these
        birds aside on such occasions.

        In _flying_ shooting, the _bald-pate_ is a great nuisance,
        for they are so shy, that they not only avoid the points
        themselves, but by their whistling and confusion of flight
        at such times, alarm others; and few days occur during the
        season, without many maledictions on their very existence.

        As simple as it may appear to shoot, with success, into
        a solid mass of ducks, sitting on the water at forty or
        fifty yards’ distance, yet, when you recollect, that you are
        placed nearly level with the water, the object opposed to
        the visual line, even though composed of hundreds, may be in
        appearance but a foot or two in width. To give, therefore,
        the best promise of success, old duckers recommend that the
        _nearest_ duck should be in perfect relief above the sight,
        whatever the size of the column, to avoid the common result
        of over-shooting. The correctness of this principle was
        illustrated to the writer, in an instance in which he had
        _toled_, to within a space between forty and seventy yards
        of the shore, a bed of certainly hundreds of ducks. Twenty
        yards beyond the outside birds of the solid mass, were
        five black-heads, one of which was alone killed out of the
        _whole_ number, by a deliberate aim into the _middle_ of the
        large flock, from a rest, by a heavy, well-proved duck-gun.

        Before I leave the subject of _sitting_ shooting, I will
        mention an occurrence that took place on Bush river, a few
        years since. A man whose house was situated near the bank,
        on rising early one morning, observed the river had frozen,
        except an open space of ten or twelve feet in diameter,
        at about eighty yards from the shore, nearly opposite his
        house. The spot was full of ducks, and with a heavy gun he
        fired into it; many were killed, and those that flew soon
        returned, and were again and again shot at, till fearful he
        was injuring those already his own, he ceased the massacre,
        and brought on shore ninety-two ducks, most of which were
        canvass-backs.

        Canvass-backs, when wounded, on the streams near the bay,
        instantly direct their course for it, where they nestle
        among the grass, on the shores, till cured, or destroyed
        by eagles, hawks, gulls, foxes, or other vermin, that are
        constantly on the search; and if a dead canvass-back be not
        soon secured, he becomes a prey to the gulls, who rarely
        touch any other kind, so refined is their taste. I have seen
        severe contests take place between crippled canvass-backs
        and gulls, and although a pounce or two generally prevents
        further resistance, sometimes they are driven off. If the
        bird is remarkably savory, the gull makes such a noise, that
        others are soon collected, when possession is determined by
        courage or strength.――_Doughty’s Cabinet._

   55 – When wounded in the wing alone, a large swan will readily
        beat off a dog, and is more than a match for a man in four
        feet water, a stroke of the wing having broken an arm, and
        the powerful feet almost obliterating the face of a good
        sized duck shooter. They are often killed by rifle balls
        thrown from the shore into the feeding column, and as a ball
        will _ricochet_ on the water for several hundred yards, a
        wing may be disabled at the distance of half a mile.

        These birds are often brought within shooting range, by
        sailing down upon them whilst feeding, and, as they arise
        against the wind, and cannot leave the water for fifteen
        or twenty yards, against which they strike their enormous
        feet and wings most furiously, great advantage is gained in
        distance. They must be allowed on _all_ occasions to turn
        the side, for a breast shot rarely succeeds in entering.

        When two feeding coves are separated by a single point,
        by disturbing the swans in one or the other occasionally,
        they will pass and repass very closely to this projection of
        land, and usually taking as they do, the straight line, each
        gunner, to prevent dispute, names the bird he will shoot at.

        In winter, boats covered by pieces of ice, the sportsman
        being dressed in white, are paddled or allowed to float
        during the night into the midst of a flock, and they have
        been oftentimes killed, by being knocked on the head and
        neck by a pole. There is, however, much danger in this mode,
        as others may be engaged in like manner, but shooting, and
        at a short distance, the persons might not be distinguished
        from the swan. These birds seem well aware of the range
        of a gun, and I have followed them in a skiff for miles,
        driving a body of several hundreds before me, without the
        possibility of getting quite within shooting distance.

        It is a curious circumstance, that Wilson has neither
        figured nor described this beautiful and common bird
        in his ornithology; but Mr. Lawson, the engraver of his
        splendid plates, and also his personal friend, informs me,
        he had waited for another southern expedition, which he did
        not live to perform. A particular history, in detail, of
        this splendid bird has heretofore never been given to the
        public.――_Sharpless._

   56 – The rock fish is universally known in all the rivers, and
        smaller tide-water streams, throughout the United States.
        The following description of the mode in which this fish is
        trolled for in the Susquehannah may be interesting. It is
        taken from the American Sporting Magazine.

        ‘The season for trolling begins in the latter part of May,
        and commonly ends about the middle of July; but some years
        lasts during August. In the month of June the rock fish
        generally bite best. To make good fishing, the river should
        not be very high nor low, muddy nor clear, but betwixt
        extremes in these respects. If the water be clear, the fish
        dart off at sight of the line; and it is thought, they leave
        the rapids, when the river is rising, or muddy, to feed upon
        the flats in the Chesapeak.

        ‘Trolling is very much practised from Port Deposit, to
        almost any given distance up the river, but not below. The
        grass that the ducks feed upon, grows too thick on the flats
        in tide-water for trolling, and the channel is uniformly
        too deep. The rapids above, where the water is in many parts
        shoal, and the rocky bottom clear of grass, is the proper
        place for trolling.

        ‘Two persons generally fish from the same boat; one of
        them steers with one hand, and fishes with the other.
        Each fisherman lets his line out over the side of the boat
        nearest to him, and close to the stern, (where they sit,)
        holding it in his hand, a few inches from the water, and
        leaves the end attached to the cork in the bottom of the
        boat. He pays out nearly all his line, and keeps constantly
        pulling it, by short jerks, to feel if it is running over
        a rock or tree top. The boat is rowed as fast as possible
        across the river, from shore to shore, above, and as near
        to the falls as they can go, to avoid being swept down them.
        The rock fish lie below the falls and ripples, waiting for
        the small fish that are carried over by the current. Here
        then the bait falls over, with a constant rotary motion,
        like a live fish whirled over, side foremost, and struggles
        in vain against the falls. The swivels turn every time the
        bait turns, and prevent the line from twisting up into knots;
        and as there are no sinkers, the rapid head-way of the boat
        drags them along so fast that the lines have no time to
        sink. At sight of the bait tumbling over the falls, the
        rock fish darts upwards from his cavern in the rocks, and
        swallows hook and all. The bite of the rock fish is quick
        as lightning, and gives a sudden jerk to the arm of the
        fisherman. When he first discovers he is snared, he rises
        to the top of the water, and begins to lash it furiously
        with his forked tail, like “a spirit conjured from the vasty
        deep,” then plunges down again to the bottom. He is dragged
        from thence by the fisherman, who hauls in his long line,
        hand over hand, until he brings his fish alongside of the
        boat. If he is of tolerable size, weighing only seven or ten
        pounds, the troller lifts him into the boat by the line; but
        if the fish is large, he runs his arm down into the water,
        and lifts him in by his gills.

        ‘The excitement that this scene produces in all those in
        the boat, is not to be described. One instant you see the
        fish making the water foam with his tail, the next you lose
        sight of him; one instant the troller feels him jerking
        desperately backwards, the next he darts ahead towards the
        boat, carrying the line with him; and the fisherman, who
        ceases to feel him, is distressed for fear he has broken
        loose from the hook. The black oarsmen ease up rowing to
        laugh and shout with great glee. The troller’s anxiety
        to secure his fish is so great, that he alone, of all the
        company, is silent, and full of uneasiness, until he gets
        him into the boat. In this manner, it is not unusual to
        catch, with two lines, ten or twenty fish, varying in weight
        from five to twenty pounds each, in an hour――sometimes they
        are caught much larger. When the fish do not bite fast, the
        troller does not become wearied soon; his line is always
        out, and he is in constant expectation of feeling a bite,
        as the boat glides backwards and forwards across the river,
        in search of luck; he is not confined to one rock, like the
        sleepy angler.

        ‘This would be very dangerous sport to persons unaccustomed
        to it; let no presumptuous cits venture upon it by
        themselves. The flat-bottomed boat must be rowed through the
        most dangerous falls and whirlpools in the river. Sometimes
        she is forced, at an imperceptible progress, against a
        current running down at an angle of forty-five degrees. If
        one of the oarsmen happens to fail in strength, or to dip
        his oar with a false stroke, the current will snatch it
        upwards out of his hands, and the frail skiff will be dashed
        to pieces amongst the rocks. Often they are obliged to get
        out of the boat on some rock above water, and haul her over.
        A person unaccustomed to it, cannot rely upon his senses
        of hearing or seeing. He is first deafened by the stunning
        roar of the incessant flood, then sickened by the tossing of
        the skiff amongst the waves and eddies. The huge rocks that
        rear themselves thick to oppose the rushing waters, covered
        with eagles, and cormorants, and the little islands all
        _seem to be_ swimming backwards. And now she flies across
        a shoal――at first glimpse, the little skiff seems to rest
        securely on the bottom; at the next, the solid bottom
        appears deceitfully to recede from beneath her, and leave
        her to founder in the dark waters of a bottomless swirl.
        And again, before _he_ is aware of it, she seems to have
        approached so near the falls that nothing can prevent her
        from going over side foremost. All these false appearances
        rushing in succession, quick as thought, upon the mind of
        the troubled cockney, turn his brain with dizziness.’

   57 – A curious incident occurred at this spot to one of our men
        named La Course, which was nearly proving fatal. This man
        had stretched himself on the ground, after the fatigue of
        the day, with his head resting on a small package of goods,
        and quickly fell asleep. While in this situation I passed
        him, and was almost petrified at seeing a large rattlesnake
        moving from his side to his left breast. My first impulse
        was to alarm La Course; but an old Canadian, whom I had
        beckoned to the spot, requested me to make no noise,
        alleging it would merely cross the body, and go away. He
        was mistaken; for on reaching the man’s left shoulder, the
        serpent deliberately coiled itself, but did not appear to
        meditate an attack. Having made signs to several others,
        who joined us, it was determined that two men should advance
        a little in front, to divert the attention of the snake,
        while one should approach La Course behind, and with a long
        stick endeavor to remove it from his body. The snake, on
        observing the men advance in front, instantly raised its
        head, darted out its forked tongue, and shook its rattles;
        all indications of anger. Every one was now in a state of
        feverish agitation as to the fate of poor La Course, who
        still lay slumbering, unconscious of his danger; when the
        man behind, who had procured a stick seven feet in length,
        suddenly placed one end of it under the coiled reptile, and
        succeeded it pitching it upwards of ten feet from the man’s
        body. A shout of joy was the first intimation La Course
        received of his wonderful escape, while in the mean time
        the man with the stick pursued the snake which he killed. It
        was three feet six inches long, and eleven years old, which,
        I need not inform my readers, we easily ascertained by the
        number of rattles. A general search was then commenced about
        the encampment, and under several rocks we found upwards of
        fifty of them, all of which we destroyed. There is no danger
        attending their destruction, provided a person has a long
        pliant stick, and does not approach them nearer than their
        length, for they cannot spring beyond it, and seldom act
        on the offensive except closely pursued. They have a strong
        repugnance to the smell of tobacco, in consequence of which
        we opened a bale of it, and strewed a quantity of loose
        leaves about the tents, by which means we avoided their
        visits during the night――_Ross Cox._

   58 – Silliman’s Journal.

   59 – For a list of the counties in this and the other states,
        with their population, see the statistical tables at the end
        of the volume.

   60 – Baltimore has the honor, I believe, of being the first city
        which has raised an architectural memorial of its gratitude
        to Washington. It consists of a column of white marble,
        rising from a quadrangular base. The shaft of the column is
        about one hundred and twenty feet high, and is surmounted
        by a colossal statue, which, from its throne, seems proudly
        to overlook the city. The design of this monument, which is
        yet unfinished, is simple and grand, and does honor to the
        taste of the city. Its gross height, including the statue
        and pedestal, is about a hundred and sixty feet.

        In one of the squares of the city, there is what is called
        the Battle Monument, a sort of trophy column, erected to
        commemorate the repulse of the attack on the city during
        the late war, and the names of those who fell in its
        defence. This structure, which is about fifty feet in
        height, consists of a column representing the Roman fasces,
        symbolical of the union, rising from a square pedestal,
        which tapers in the Egyptian style, with a griffin at each
        corner. Above is the statue of Victory, with an eagle at
        her side. The effect of the whole is sadly injured by a most
        anomalous perplexity of petty details. Indeed so vicious
        is this monument, in point of taste, that it is difficult
        to believe it the production of the same period which has
        adorned the city with the noble structure to Washington.

        I remember being asked by a lady, in one of the first
        visits I paid in Baltimore, whether I had seen this monument.
        Having answered in the negative, she proceeded to inform
        me that it was very beautiful, but, as if struck by a
        sudden recollection, somewhat eagerly apologised for the
        introduction of the subject, on account of the painful
        feelings which this memorial of failure in his country’s
        arms, could not fail to excite in an English spectator. In
        reply, I took the liberty to assure her that her regrets
        on this matter were entirely gratuitous; that I should
        have great pleasure in examining the monument, and really
        entertained no apprehension of suffering from any pungency
        of feeling on the occasion. It was easy to observe, however,
        that my disclaimers, like the inaugural _nolo episcopari_
        of the bishops, went for nothing with my fair auditor. Her
        apologies for having wounded my feelings, became even more
        strenuous than before; and as it was evidently agreeable
        that I should appear in the light of a mortified man, I at
        length judged it better to desist from farther disclamation.
        If I know any thing of John Bull, he is not quite so
        sensitive a person, as it pleases the good people on
        this side of the water to believe him; and the idea of an
        Englishman, at the present day, being distressed by regret
        at the failure of the attack on Baltimore, is, perhaps,
        somewhat closely connected with the ludicrous.

        Baltimore is celebrated for its hospitality and the beauty
        of its women, and I can bear testimony to the justice of
        its reputation for both. In no other city of the United
        States is the former so frequent and habitual, and in
        none are there so few of the sordid characteristics of
        traffic apparent to a stranger. There struck me as being
        at Baltimore, more effort than elsewhere, to combine the
        pleasures of social life with professional labor. The
        effect of this is generally felt in society. The tone of
        conversation is lighter and more agreeable, and topics of
        mere commercial interest are rarely obtruded at the dinner
        table.

        In Baltimore, there is not much pretension of any sort, and
        the average of literary accomplishment is, perhaps, lower
        than in Philadelphia or Boston. In such matters, however,
        a transient visitor can form, at best, but an uncertain and
        very fallible judgment; but I can with truth assert, that my
        recollections of Baltimore are of the most agreeable kind,
        and that I quitted it with a strong sentiment of regard for
        several of its inhabitants, which time has yet done nothing
        to diminish.

        The ladies of Baltimore, I have already intimated, are
        remarkable for personal attraction; indeed, I am not aware
        that, in proportion to the numbers assembled, I have ever
        seen so much beauty as in the parties of Baltimore. The
        figure is, perhaps, deficient in height, but sylph-like and
        graceful; the features are generally regular and delicately
        modelled, and the fair Baltimoreans are less remarkable
        than the American ladies usually are, for the absence of a
        certain fulness and grace of proportion, to which, from its
        rarity, one is led, perhaps, to attach somewhat too much
        value as an ingredient of beauty.――_Hamilton’s America._

   61 – The road, as we approached Boston, lay through a more
        populous country, and we passed a height, which commanded a
        fine view of the bay. At length, entering on a long street,
        I found myself surrounded by the busy hum of a great city.
        The first impression was decidedly favorable. There is in
        Boston less of that rawness of outline, and inconsistency of
        architecture, which had struck me in New York. The truth is,
        that the latter has increased so rapidly, that nine tenths
        of the city have been built within the last thirty years,
        and probably one half of it within a third of the period. In
        Boston, both wealth and population have advanced at a slower
        pace. A comparatively small portion of the city is new, and
        the hand of time has somewhat mellowed even its deformities,
        contributing to render that reverend, which was originally
        rude.

        There is an air of gravity and solidity about Boston; and
        nothing gay or flashy, in the appearance of her streets, or
        the crowd who frequent them. New York is a young giantess,
        weighing twenty stone, and yet frisky withal. Boston, the
        matron of stayed and demure air, a little past her prime,
        perhaps, yet showing no symptom of decay. The former is
        brisk, bustling, and annually outgrowing her petticoats. The
        latter fat, fair, and forty, a great breeder, but turning
        her children out of doors, as fast as she produces them. But
        it is an old and true apophthegm, that similes seldom run on
        all fours, and therefore it is generally prudent not to push
        them too far.

        Boston stands on an undulating surface, and is surrounded
        on three sides by the sea. The harbor is a magnificent
        basin, encircled by a beautiful country, rising in gentle
        acclivities, and studded with villas. There is nothing
        very handsome about the town, which is rather English
        in appearance, and might in truth be easily mistaken for
        our more populous seaports. A considerable number of the
        buildings are of granite, or, more properly speaking, of
        sienite; but brick is the prevailing material, and houses
        of framework are now rarely to be met with in the streets
        inhabited by the better orders. The streets are narrow, and
        often crooked, yet, as already stated, they exhibit more
        finish and cleanliness than are to be found in New York.
        In architecture, I could discover little to admire. The
        state house stands on an eminence commanding the city; it
        is a massive square building, presenting in front a piazza
        of rusticated arches, surmounted by a gratuitous range of
        Corinthian columns, which support nothing. The building in
        front has a small attic with a pediment, and from the centre
        rises a dome, the summit of which is crowned by a square
        lantern.

        The comparative diffusion of literature in Boston has
        brought with it a taste for the fine arts. The better houses
        are adorned with pictures; and in the Athenæum――a public
        library and reading room――is a collection of casts from the
        antique. Establishments for the instruction of the people in
        the higher branches of knowledge, are yet almost unknown in
        the United States, but something like a Mechanics’ Institute
        has at length been got up in Boston, and I went to hear
        the introductory lecture. The apartment, a large one, was
        crowded by an audience whose appearance and deportment
        were in the highest degree orderly and respectable. The
        lecture was on the steam engine, the history, principle,
        and construction of which were explained most lucidly by
        the lecturer, who belonged, I was assured, to the class of
        operative mechanics.――_Men and Manners in America._

   62 – _Mount Auburn._――If the taste of our readers resembles
        our own, we can assure them that they will have no reason
        to regret the exertion, if they take a walk through the
        retreats of Mount Auburn, at the present season of the year.
        They may suppose that the fall of the leaf has deprived
        the place of most of its attractions; but it is one of the
        recommendations of this beautiful spot, that it remains
        pleasant through so many months. As the spring opens, it is
        a favorable place to watch the restoration of nature――the
        returns of the bird to his favorite home, and the opening of
        the sealed urns of the flower; in the summer, a fine retreat
        from the sultriness is offered by its deep caverns of green,
        formed by heavy masses of rich and various foliage, such as
        is found in no other part of this region; and now, in the
        closing year, even after the splendid drapery of autumn is
        taken down, and the rustle of the dead leaf, together with
        the sullen whistle of the wind through its deserted avenues,
        seems to speak of nothing but desolation, the lover of
        nature still finds every thing in perfect harmony with the
        feelings which such a place is desired to awaken. There
        is something melancholy in the sight, indeed, but the
        associations are neither painful nor oppressive. We know
        that the spring will return, and the voice of the bird will
        wake the earth from its slumber; the trees will be covered
        with beauty, and the streams move on again with music in
        their flow; by a familiar association, we are reminded that
        a similar happy and reviving change awaits those who have
        gone down to the dust in peace, when that which is sown in
        weakness shall be raised in power. When thoughts like these
        are brought home to the breast, there is consolation in them;
        even the eye filled with tears, may brighten with the hope
        of immortality.

        We trust that the same good judgment which has presided over
        the work thus far, will conduct it to its close. It stands
        in complete and honorable contrast with most resting places
        of the dead. There are few of those monuments, which seem
        intended to commemorate the folly of the living, rather than
        the memory of the departed――few of those inscriptions which
        tell us of those who sleep below, not what they were, but
        what they ought to have been. We cannot say that we admire
        the rocky cells of the tomb, with their heavy iron grates;
        but the taste in this respect is generally governed by early
        associations, and we shall not presume to censure feelings
        which we do not understand. Among the monuments are many
        of great beauty; we were struck with a plain black marble
        obelisk of exquisite polish, ornamented only by a single
        cross, in relief, on the surface of the stone. There
        are several granite obelisks, of plain and almost severe
        simplicity, which are admirably suited to the place and the
        purpose: several fine monuments of white marble, among which
        are an unfinished column, and a cenotaph erected by the
        mechanics of Boston to the memory of a lamented young man,
        who died at a distance from his home. We apprehend that the
        whitest of this marble, however bright at first, will be
        soon defaced and blackened by the droppings from the trees
        above; it is generally less firm and hard than such as is
        veined and shaded, and therefore not so well suited for
        memorials that are meant to resist the elements and the
        waste of time. The classical form is generally preferred
        for this purpose, and with good reason; the ancients have
        left us little to do in these respects but to follow their
        example. We did not see a single copy of the tomb discovered
        by Dr. Clarke, in Naxos, which is in our view one of the
        most imposing, and is found in some places in this country.
        The _cippus_ is well calculated also for our purposes: we
        want monuments of simple outline; for there is taste enough
        in our community generally, to feel that fine decorations
        are out of their place in cities of the dead. The outline
        is more to be regarded than the color: marble of pearly
        whiteness would contrast beautifully with the green
        back-ground; but since it is less suited to the exposure
        required, it is well to use the hardier material in which
        our country abounds.

        The generations of men are so rapidly passing away, that a
        few years will make this interesting place rich in mournful
        and sacred associations. We noticed the monument of Hannah
        Adams, the first tenant of the place, remarkable for
        her fair and discriminating mind, and still more so for
        her child-like singleness of heart. Spurzheim also is
        there――honored for his enlarged and liberal feeling,
        by those who had no confidence in his philosophical
        speculations. We have already alluded to the cenotaph
        elected to a young man of high promise, by which his friends
        have commemorated his virtues and their own loss. But it
        is not always those whose loss is most widely felt, whose
        memory is most fondly remembered; many who go to the grave
        almost unknown, will give sacredness to this place in the
        feeling of those who loved them. The parent will regard
        it with emotion, because there he saw his child laid upon
        a colder pillow than a mother’s breast――or the youth, who
        perished in the brightness of his rising, and left his
        friends to mourn not only for all he was, but all they
        hoped he would have been. The community will turn to it,
        as the place where the generous and enlightened, the useful
        and honored, rest from their labors; where those who have
        passed through the various changes of public confidence,
        carry their rivalship and ambition down to the dust. Each
        inclosure will have its recollections gathered about it like
        the summer leaves over the monument; the feelings of men
        of various pursuits and characters will be drawn from all
        directions toward this single point of melancholy attraction.
        The memorial which one passes coldly by, will fix the
        attention of another: the stone which is to one simply a
        memorial of a stranger, will be gazed upon by another till
        ‘his heart is faint, and his eyes are dim.’

        We cannot but hope that this example will be followed; the
        community at large have yet to learn the right feeling of
        respect for the dead. That respect is not shown only by
        the care which guards the sepulchre from violation――nor by
        setting up ghastly monuments, covered with tales of idle
        vanity or unmeaning affection. Whoever goes into the burial
        places of many of our villages, sees naked marbles, which
        after a few years lean with age, and find no hand to restore
        them. Nature, as if ashamed of man, seems endeavoring to
        hide what he has done with her tall golden rod and towering
        plants, which grow as luxuriantly as if they were fed from
        the graves below;――and all is surrounded, not protected, by
        a vile paling of unpainted wood, which defends it from no
        animal but man. The true respect for the dead will be shown
        by making their resting place such, that the stranger shall
        not retreat from it in disgust and scorn, by employing the
        decorations of nature, which are always at command. One
        tenth part of the expense which is now lavished on the
        absurd and ungraceful head-stones in almost every village
        of New England, would make their burial grounds, places
        which could be pointed out to the traveller without regret
        and shame; and what is still better, would permit the
        living to go and draw instruction from communion with the
        dead.――_Boston Daily Advertiser._

   63 – There are seventeen other towns, named Concord, in different
        parts of the United States.

   64 – Though New Orleans is rapidly increasing in size and
        commercial importance, as the emporium of the rich valley
        of the Mississippi must necessarily continue to do, yet
        no improvement has taken place in the climate and in the
        salubrity of the atmosphere, and even _acclimated_ whites
        are afraid to remain when a greenish scum of vegetable
        matter begins to appear on the shallow pools in August. It
        is distressing to record the fact, that, on an average, six
        hundred Irish perish yearly in and about New Orleans, who
        come in search of employment, and high wages, (a dollar a
        day), from New York and Charleston, to the ungenial clime
        of Louisiana. They are commonly employed trenching in the
        country, and digging the foundation of houses in towns,
        inhale deadly vapors, and more deadly rum, have none to
        advise or guide them, and perish miserably.

        It may not be intrusive to state, in this place, the
        precautions I took to guard against the formidable malady. I
        slept in an upper story, performed my ablutions as regularly
        as a Hindoo, ate animal food only once a day, and in small
        quantities, (farinaceous substances form the natural food
        of men,) drank no spirits, but two or three glasses of wine
        per day, took three or four hours’ active exercise, kept
        the mind employed, took once or twice a little precautionary
        quinine, and avoided the night air, which crept insidiously
        through the dull streets loaded with pestilential effluvia
        from the slimy banks of the river, and from the creeks
        of cypress swamps, the haunts of loathsome alligators and
        snakes.

        On the first of September, the thermometer at eight, P. M.
        was about eighty-four degrees, without a breath of air, but
        myriads of mammoth musquetoes.

        New Orleans is called the ‘wet grave,’ because, in digging
        ‘the narrow house,’ water rises within eighteen inches of
        the surface. Coffins are therefore sunk three or four feet,
        by having holes bored in them, and two black men stand on
        them till they fill with water, and reach the bottom of the
        moist tomb. Some people are particular, and dislike this
        immersion after death; and, therefore, those who can afford
        it have a sort of brick oven built on the surface of the
        ground, at one end of which the coffin is introduced, and
        the door hermetically closed; but the heat of the southern
        sun on this ‘whited sepulchre,’ must bake the body inside,
        so that there is but a choice of disagreeables after all.
        The plan on which penitentiaries are built, has suggested
        to the Louisianians a new plan for interment: a broad brick
        wall is built with rows of cells on each side, and in these
        the dead are laid to wait for the awful blast of the angel
        Gabriel, when the dead shall burst the cerements of the tomb,
        and come forth to judgment.

        Though it was the season of disease and death, yet the
        gamblers still continued to reap their harvest in the city.
        Night after night I was kept awake by the roulette table
        in the neighboring house; and it is said that a revenue
        of thirty-five thousand dollars a year is derived by the
        city from licensed gambling houses, which sum supports an
        hospital. Cock-fighting is a favorite amusement with both
        whites and colored, and vice in every shape seems to hold
        high carnival in this city of the great valley. However,
        let no one judge of America from New Orleans, for it is
        altogether _sui generis_; and, above all, let no future
        traveller visit it in autumn, unless he wishes ‘to shake
        off this mortal coil,’ and save the coroner some trouble.

        The population of New Orleans was――
                          In 1802    10,000
                          “  1810    17,242
                          “  1820    27,176
                          “  1831    50,000

        This increase is quite astonishing, especially when we
        consider that the population of the whole state of Louisiana
        under the French, in 1763, was only eleven thousand. The
        whites are said to be at present two hundred and twenty
        thousand, and the slaves about one hundred and nineteen
        thousand in the state.

        In 1822, there were exported from the port of New Orleans,
        one hundred and sixty-seven thousand seven hundred and
        forty-two bales of cotton; and in this year, four hundred
        and seventeen thousand four hundred and thirteen. In 1822,
        twenty-six thousand two hundred and thirty-three hogsheads
        of tobacco; and in this year, thirty-one thousand nine
        hundred and thirty-three. Sugar and molasses, in 1829,
        fifty-six thousand five hundred and sixty-six hogsheads,
        and two thousand five hundred and eleven barrels of the
        former, and twenty thousand nine hundred and forty hogsheads,
        and eight thousand two hundred and forty-five barrels of
        the latter. This season, fifty-two thousand one hundred and
        forty-two hogsheads, and two thousand six hundred and fifty
        barrels of sugar; and twenty-two thousand eight hundred
        and seventy-two hogsheads, and fourteen thousand seven
        hundred and ninety-four barrels of molasses. Commerce
        will be facilitated by another canal from the city to lake
        Pontchartrain, to be commenced next year; and I travelled
        from the city to the lake, four miles on a rail-road, on
        which there are now locomotive engines. The citizens seem
        determined to avoid the one hundred and ten miles of river
        navigation.

        At New Orleans, in the gay season, they have very pleasant,
        though expensive amusements, called ‘Bals de Bouquet,’ given
        by the bachelors, but at the house of a lady. The _garcon_
        who gives the dance, is distinguished by the title of king;
        and his first care, when invested with the sovereignty, at
        the beginning of the season, is to select among the ladies
        of his acquaintance a queen to share his power, which he
        delegates by crowning his fair partner with a wreath of
        flowers. At her house, and in her name, is the ball then
        given. After two or three quadrilles, the first queen rises
        from her chair of state, and is conducted into the middle
        of the room by the king, when gracefully raising a wreath
        of flowers, which she bears in her hand, she places it on
        the brow of a future king, (another bachelor of the party);
        and he, after a low obeisance, having fixed upon his mate
        in like manner, adorns her with the regalia of the bal
        de bouquet. The new queen then accepts the proffered arm
        of the king, the band plays a march, and followed by the
        rest of the company, they polonoise round and round the
        room. Dancing in its various branches succeeds; quadrilles,
        Anglaises et Espagnoles are resumed with the greatest spirit,
        and continued until after day breaks, when the first King
        and queen cease to reign.

        After an unusually hot and sultry day, the sun assuming at
        the same time a greenish hue, and the streets in the evening,
        as I walked home to my empty hotel, sending forth a most
        disgusting effluvium; in the middle of the night I was awoke
        by the noise of the doors and window’s violently agitated
        by the wind; it increased to the hurricane roar, lulled, and
        rose again, and blew with appalling force from the opposite
        point of the compass, rain, at the same time, deluging the
        city. Thus it continued all next day: the sea rushed into
        lake Pontchartrain; behind the town it burst its banks, and
        the city was under water, the levee only being dry. There
        was no moving out of the house for many hours, and this led
        me to believe that, one day this city, rapidly increasing
        as it is in wealth and consequence, will be swept into the
        gulf of Mexico, if the Mississippi happens to rise unusually
        high at the annual inundation, and at the same time the
        south-east wind raise the sea at its mouth and in the lakes.
        More vessels were driven on shore in this hurricane; the
        unburied dead were laid in their coffins in the grave-yard,
        and floated about till the waters subsided to allow of their
        being buried――the stench was horrible. Many houses were
        unroofed, and almost all damaged in some way or other. Many
        lives were lost; some boats and canoes upset in crossing the
        river; and, as usual (whether it proceed from the alligators
        or under current,) none who fall into the Mississippi at
        New Orleans, are ever seen again; and, lastly, the huts of
        several fishermen were swept off to sea, and the poor people
        miserably perished.’――_Alexander’s Transatlantic Sketches._

   65 – That the Americans, however, were not unmindful of the
        respect paid to his remains by the British, appears from the
        following part of the inscription upon the monument:

                          ‘His bravery in action
               Was only equalled by his modesty in triumph,
                  And his magnanimity to the vanquished.
                              In private life
           He was a gentleman of the most generous and endearing
                                qualities;
                 And so acknowledged was his public worth,
                  That the whole nation mourned his loss,
                And the enemy contended with his countrymen
                    Who most should honor his remains.’

        There is a monument near it to the memory of General
        Hamilton, who had served with distinction under Washington,
        and ranked high as a statesman. He was killed in a duel by
        Colonel Burr, the vice president of the United States.

        The inscription is as follows:

                    To the memory of Alexander Hamilton
                     The corporation of Trinity church
                        Have erected this monument,
                     In testimony of their respect for
                  The patriot of incorruptible integrity,
                      The soldier of approved valor,
                    The statesman of consummate wisdom;
                      Whose talents and whose virtues
                  Will be admired by a grateful posterity
          Long after this marble shall have mouldered into dust.
                He died July 2d, 1804, aged forty-seven.
                                          ――_Subaltern’s Furlough._

   66 – The new Mint appears to be a favorite place of resort for
        the curious among our fellow citizens. Visitors pass in by
        the Chesnut street front at all hours of the morning, and
        are at once ushered into a beautiful and capacious building,
        well adapted for the important purposes for which it was
        erected. When we look round its ample dimensions, we wonder
        how it was possible to accommodate so extensive a business
        as was done in the miserably confined apartments of the old
        coining house in Seventh street, and fail not, at the same
        time, to admire the neat and simple beauty of the present
        building. The first object which attracts attention on
        entering, is a huge steam engine, at the opposite end of the
        building, the noise of which, added to the incessant jarring
        of the dies, gives token of the laborious purpose to which
        it is applied. This engine, of thirty horse power, is the
        most highly-finished specimen of the steam engine we have
        ever witnessed. The shafts, upright and horizontal, are of
        polished metal, and most of the cogwheels are of brass. The
        huge fly-wheels run with the precision of a watch-wheel,
        while the various and totally different purposes to which
        its power is applied, strike the beholder with admiration
        of the skill and ingenuity of the machinist. Rush and
        Muhlenburg, of this city, constructed this engine; its cost
        was about eight thousand dollars.

        From the hot rooms in which the bullion is converted into
        ingots, we entered the rooms where the ingots are passed
        through a succession of steel rollers, until they assume
        the flatness and thinness of a common iron hoop. Thence
        we ascended into a room where these thin bars are passed
        through a steel guage, to give them a uniform thickness,
        equal to that of the half-dollar. A punch, worked by the
        same engine, cuts out the silver of a proper size; the
        scraps of silver are melted over again into ingots. From
        this room the prepared bits are taken down into the die
        room, where they are passed on their edges, through a machine
        which gives them the impression they bear upon the edge.
        They are thence handed over to the coiners, by whom they are
        placed in a tube, in a pile a foot high, whence they drop
        one at a time, on a slide which conveys them directly to
        the dies. Here they receive the proper impression on each
        side, from dies forced together by means of an iron bar
        ten or twelve feet long, worked horizontally by three men.
        The instant the coin receives its proper impression, it
        is forced off the die into a box ready to receive it, and
        gives place to another, which immediately occupies the same
        position, and undergoes the same operation.

        After having gone through the whole establishment, the
        impression left upon the mind is that of astonishment
        and wonder, that an end of such immense importance as the
        supply of coin for a whole nation, can be attained by means,
        apparently, so simple, and of such ready comprehension.
        The spectator, going through alone, needs no one to explain
        this or that operation. Every thing explains itself on the
        instant; for every thing is free from mystery or concealment,
        while the excellent condition of the establishment, and the
        extreme politeness to strangers, manifested by every person
        about it materially enhances the pleasure of a visit to the
        Mint of the United States.――_Philadelphia paper._

   67 – We reached Rochester under the influence of a burning sun.
        The hotel was excellent, and the luxury of cold baths, and
        the civility of the landlord, induced me to delay progress
        to the following day. In the cool of the evening, I strolled
        out to see the falls of the Gennessee. The height of the
        uppermost is considerable, being about ninety feet, and the
        water rushes over it gracefully enough; but the vicinity
        of sundry saw and corn mills has destroyed the romantic
        interest which invested it in the days when ‘the cataract
        blew his trumpet from the steep,’ amid the stillness of the
        surrounding forest.

        The old proverb _de gustibus_, &c. receives illustration in
        every country. An eccentric man, called Sam Patch, having an
        aversion to honest industry, made it his profession to jump
        over all the water-falls in the country. Niagara was too
        much for him, but he sprang from a lofty rock, some distance
        below the Horse-shoe fall, with impunity. His last jump
        was at the fall I have just described, of the Gennessee, in
        the autumn of 1829. From a scaffold, elevated twenty-five
        feet above the table rock, making a descent altogether of a
        hundred and twenty-five feet, he fearlessly plunged into the
        boiling caldron beneath. From the moment of his immersion,
        he was seen no more. His body was not discovered for many
        months, and was at length found at the mouth of the river,
        six miles below.

        Rochester is a place worth seeing. Thirty years ago there
        was not a house in the neighborhood, and now there is a
        town, containing twenty thousand good Americans and true,
        with churches, banks, theatres, and all other oppidan
        appurtenances to match. Such growth is more like forcing in
        a hot-bed, than the natural progress of human vegetation.
        For a great deal of its prosperity, Rochester is indebted
        to the Erie canal, which brought its advantageous proximity
        to lake Ontario into full play. The canal runs through the
        centre of the town, and crosses the Gennessee by an aqueduct,
        which, according to the Northern Tourist, ‘cost rising
        of eighty thousand dollars,’ whatever sum that may amount
        to. There are several streets in Rochester which might be
        backed at reasonable odds against any in Hull or Newcastle,
        to say nothing of Cork, Falmouth, or Berwick-upon-Tweed.
        The appearance of the shops indicates the prevalence of
        respectable opulence. Those of the jewellers display a stock
        of Paris trinkets and silver snuff-boxes. There are silks
        and Leghorn bonnets for the seduction of the ladies, and
        the windows of the tailors are adorned by colored prints of
        gentlemen in tight-fitting swallow-tails, with the epigraph,
        ‘New York fashions for May.’――_Men and Manners in America._

   68 – A recent traveller, who entertains no great partiality for
        the institutions of our country, but whose volume is well
        written, and entertaining, makes the following observations
        on the society of our metropolis:

        Washington is, undoubtedly, the gayest place in the union;
        and must, I should imagine, be the very paradise of hackney
        coachmen. If these gentlemen do not get rich, it must be
        owing to some culpable extravagance, for their vehicles are
        in continual demand from the hour of dinner till five in
        the morning, and long distances and heavy charges are all in
        their favor. Washington, too, is the only place in the union
        where people consider it necessary to be agreeable; where
        pleasing, as in the old world, becomes a sort of business,
        and the enjoyments of social intercourse enter into the
        habitual calculations of every one.

        The reason of this is obvious enough. The duties of
        legislation bring together a large body of gentlemen from
        all quarters of the union, whose time in the morning is
        generally passed in the capitol; but who, without the
        _delassements_ of dinner parties and balls, would find their
        evening hours a burden somewhat difficult to dispose of.
        Idle men are always pleasant; they feel the necessity of
        being so, and make it their occupation, when they have no
        other. Your lawyer, or your merchant, on the other hand,
        is so engrossed by weightier matters, that he has no time
        to cultivate the graces of life, or those thousand arts
        of courtesy which contribute so materially to enhance the
        enjoyments of society. The experience of the world is in
        favor of the assertion, that it is impossible to excel both
        in pleasure and business. A man of talent may select the
        sphere of his ambition, the bar, the pulpit, the exchange,
        the senate, or the drawing-room; but to attempt the honors
        of a double triumph is, in general, to secure but duplicity
        of failure.

        In Washington, all are idle enough to be as agreeable as
        they can. The business of congress is no great burden on the
        shoulders of any of its members; and a trip to Washington is
        generally regarded as a sort of annual _lark_, which enables
        a man to pass the winter months more pleasantly than in
        the country. A considerable number of the members bring
        their families, with a view of obtaining introduction to
        better society than they can hope to meet elsewhere; but
        the majority leave such incumbrances at home; some, it may
        be presumed, from taste, and others from economy.

        There are few families that make Washington their permanent
        residence, and the city, therefore, has rather the aspect
        of a watering place, than the metropolis of a great nation.
        The members of congress generally live together in small
        boarding-houses, which, from all I saw of them, are shabby
        and uncomfortable. Gentlemen with families take lodgings, or
        occupy apartments in a hotel; and it is really marvellous,
        at the Washington parties, to see how many people are
        contrived to be stowed away in a drawing-room, somewhat
        smaller than an ordinary-sized pigeon-house. On such
        occasions, one does not suffer so much from heat as from
        suffocation; for not only does the whole atmosphere become
        tainted in quality, but there seems an absolute deficiency
        in quantity for the pulmonary demands of the company.

   69 – Encyclopedia Americana.

   70 – Mr. Stuart, during his residence in the United States,
        appears to have made particular inquiries in respect to its
        agriculture and horticulture. The following paragraph, in
        which a comparison is drawn between the productions of our
        gardens and those of Great Britain, is interesting:――

        The farms in the neighborhood of New-York are all cultivated;
        but having been long accustomed to the plough, and the
        soil very different from that of Illinois, the application
        of manure is indispensably necessary. The contiguity to
        New-York insures tolerable prices for green crops, and a
        great part of the land is devoted to them. Even the Lima bean
        is cultivated in the field. The varieties of the bean in an
        American garden last during great part of the summer; but
        the heat of the sun is too great for green peas after the
        first or second crop. Neither do artichokes thrive well, nor
        cauliflowers, nor broccoli; but the tomato is excellent and
        abundant, and pumpkins and vegetable marrow are plentiful.
        Asparagus, too, is often cultivated on the field in Long
        Island, and is nowhere of better quality. It is sometimes
        sold in the New York market at two pence sterling per
        hundred. Upon the whole, I think the vegetables for the
        table in Great Britain are fully equal in variety and
        quality to those in the United States; but they are much
        higher in price. A great distinction is to be drawn between
        the two countries respecting the article _fruit_. The
        Americans have peaches, melons, apples, strawberries, and
        cherries, all of excellent quality, and in such abundance,
        that there is not a single individual in the whole country,
        even the very shoe-black, whose funds do not enable him
        to have as much of these fruits as he likes at the proper
        season. There are also abundance of walnuts, and of
        various sorts of nuts for every body. In many places,
        but not universally, there are plums, pears, and grapes.
        The plums, so far as have seen them, are not equal to
        the English,――the pears, especially the sickle pear of
        Pennsylvania, excellent,――the grapes quite inferior to those
        in the open air in France, or in the south of England; but
        the great difference between the countries exists in the
        abundance of the first-mentioned fruits for the whole mass
        of the people. Peaches are raised on standard trees only,
        and, though universally good, are not superior in flavor to
        those raised on garden walls, or in hot-houses in England.
        They are reckoned better at Philadelphia than anywhere else.
        Melons are considered best-flavored in Virginia and the
        Carolinas; but they are so plentiful in New York, that there
        is hardly a laborer who does not partake of a watermelon
        every day during the hot season. Apples are as good in
        the neighborhood of New York as anywhere. Apricots, and
        nectarines, and figs, are hardly ever seen. It is therefore
        clear, that a man of wealth may obtain greater variety of
        fine fruit in England than in the United States, the melon
        and apple alone being inferior to the melons and apples in
        America; but all in this country have plenty of excellent
        fruit.

   71 – For this chapter we have been altogether indebted to the
        excellent Address before the American Institute of New
        York, by the Honorable Edward Everett. For a variety of
        interesting statistical matter on Manufactures, see the
        tables at the end of the volume.

   72 – For further information and details in respect to the
        commerce of the United States, see the tabular views and
        summaries at the end of the volume.

   73 – On the thirtieth of December, 1826, it had swelled to one
        million, five hundred and thirty-four thousand.

   74 – The following extract from the Lowell Journal possesses
        sufficient interest to entitle it to preservation.

        ‘The excavation which is now about being made in a hill in
        this town for the bed of the contemplated rail-way, may be
        considered, next to the various manufacturing establishments,
        the most wonderful “lion” of the place. This hill is near
        the _terminus_ of the rail-way, in the neighborhood of the
        brewery, but not in a populous part of the town. It consists
        of a _ledge_ of rock, which is about three hundred yards
        in length, and the average depth of the excavation is about
        forty feet. It is thirty feet wide at the bottom, and sixty
        at the top, and the masses of stone which have already been
        riven from the ledge by blasting, seem to be immense.

        ‘A contract was originally made with a person to effect
        a sufficient passage through this hill, for the sum of
        seventy-two thousand dollars. He commenced the undertaking,
        employed sixty workmen for about four months, _and failed_.
        Another person then undertook to finish the work for the
        same amount; but after a few months, he also abandoned
        the undertaking. Those individuals are said to have both
        been acquainted with the nature of the business which they
        undertook, but they were deceived by the quality of the
        rock, which consists principally of gneiss and mica, through
        which, although much lighter and softer than limestone or
        granite, it was found much more difficult and expensive to
        effect a passage, than if it was composed of those more solid
        materials. The _drilling_ may not be so difficult; but the
        rocks, lying in numerous horizontal strata, almost defy the
        power of gunpowder, and heavy blasts, which would shiver
        an immense mass of granite, are frequently found here to
        produce but little effect. In addition to this, the ledge
        is found to be full of springs of water, which sometimes
        render it necessary for the workmen to expend much time,
        and exercise no inconsiderable ingenuity, in counteracting
        its effects. There are also found in the lower part of the
        ledge, huge masses of quartz, and a species of rock composed
        almost entirely of hornblende, which is, of course, almost
        impenetrable to the drill.

        ‘The Locks and Canal company have now undertaken to complete
        this work, at the expense of the Rail-road company. About
        seventy men are constantly employed, and the work advances
        as rapidly as the attending circumstances will allow. Seven
        hundred kegs of powder have been used in blasting, since the
        latter part of April, when the work was recommenced.’

   75 – In addition to the above, the following Rail-road companies
        were incorporated at the session of the New York legislature
        in 1832.

                        Name.                     Capital.
          Lake Champlain and Ogdensburgh         $3,000,000
          Watertown and Rome                      1,000,000
          Utica and Susquehanna, (from Utica
            to the New York and Erie rail-road)   1,000,000
          Black river, (from the Erie canal, at
            Rome or Herkimer, to the
            St. Lawrence)                           900,000
          Ithaca and Geneva                         800,000
          Buffalo and Erie                          650,000
          Dutchess, (from Poughkeepsie to
            Connecticut line)                       600,000
          Tonawanda, (from Rochester to Attica)     500,000
          Hudson and Berkshire, (from Hudson to
            Massachusetts line)                     350,000
          Schoharie and Otsego, (from the
            Catskill and Canajoharie rail-road
            to the Susquehanna river)               300,000
          Dansville and Rochester                   300,000
          Aurora and Buffalo                        300,000
          Rensselaer and Saratoga                   300,000
          Brooklyn and Jamaica                      300,000
          Fish-house and Amsterdam                  250,000
          Warren county, (from Glen’s Falls to
            Caldwell)                               250,000
          Saratoga and Fort Edward                  200,000
          Otsego, (from Cooperstown to
            Collierville)                           200,000
          Albion and Tonawanda                      200,000
          Auburn and Erie canal                     150,000
          Mayville and Portland                     150,000
          Elvira and Williamsport                    75,000

   76 – The following account of a visit to the Point of Rocks,
        along the track of the rail-road from Baltimore to that
        place, a distance of seventy-three miles, is interesting,
        and may be not improperly introduced in this connection. It
        is taken from the Baltimore American of June, 1832.

        ‘In the middle of the merry month of May, the governor of
        Maryland, president of the Baltimore and Ohio rail-road
        company, several of the directors and other gentlemen,
        visited the Point of Rocks in one of the rail-road cars.
        The road is so well known from Baltimore to Ellicott’s mill
        that it requires no description, further than that point
        has become a very desirable retreat, both on account of the
        wild magnificence of the surrounding scenery and the elegant
        accommodations of the hotel. From thence to the Monocacy, it
        leads along the margin of the Patapsco river and Bush creek,
        through a woody region rarely intersected by some cultivated
        spots, and improvements indicating much comfort. The viaduct
        across the Monocacy is a light, airy and tasteful structure,
        reflecting great credit on the architect, and of sufficient
        solidity to insure its safety and duration. From that point
        is a view of the bridge below, the mountains six miles
        distant, and a short distance up and down the river. Here
        the branch road leading to Frederick leaves the continuous
        line which proceeds through a finely cultivated champaign
        country for eleven miles to the Potomac. I formed one of
        the party, and as every spot at the Point and the opposite
        shore was familiar to me, I enjoyed a satisfaction, mingled
        with some pleasing, melancholy recollections of former days,
        which was not felt by others, although I believe that every
        one was highly gratified with the trip, which took up about
        twelve hours, allowing time to breakfast at the Mills, dine
        at Frederick, and an hour to examine the long-contested
        Point, which rises in almost a perpendicular line from the
        river, to the height of three or four hundred feet, on the
        top of which is an Indian barrow where lay mouldering the
        bones of some mighty Tecumsehs or valiant Little Turtles,
        commingled with the arrows which probably have often been
        dyed in the blood of many a noble tawny Hector or implacable
        Achilles. Here the soaring eagle and boding raven have
        immemorably pitched their eyries in social proximity, and
        looked down upon the humble fish hawk perched upon a jutting
        rock, or hovering with equal poise over his finny prey,
        and from which there is a view of Harper’s Ferry, the Blue
        ridge and Washington’s beloved river, studded with isles,
        for several miles. The stillness of the scene is often broken
        by the refreshing murmurs of Hook’s falls. Instead of the
        low cabin under the pendant rock where I have often felt
        the genial warmth of a blazing fire while waiting for the
        ferry boat, there is now rising, as if by magic, the town
        of Port Johnson. Already there are several houses, shops and
        warehouses finished and occupied, and a large tavern nearly
        completed on the rail-road, which will enable visiters to
        spend time enough to enjoy all the beauties of the prospect
        and a cheerful repast.

        ‘The distance from Baltimore is seventy miles, and may
        be travelled going and returning in less than twenty-four
        hours. But if the eye is delighted, and the senses gratified
        with the objects on the Maryland side, they will be doubly
        increased by passing to the other shore, where a tavern
        and ferry house are erecting directly opposite the point
        where the boats land. Immediately in the rear of the ferry
        house, is a tunnel cut out of the solid rock three hundred
        yards, at the base of the mountain; half a mile farther the
        most extensive beds of excellent iron ore and a favorable
        appearance of bituminous coal. The tunnel was made to let
        the waters of Catoctin creek into a run which supplied
        a furnace, saw and extensive merchant mills, destroyed
        some years ago by fire. If the view charms from the Indian
        barrows, it almost enraptures from the Virginia promontory,
        which rises several hundred feet above it, looking down, as
        it were, upon the little hillock of its Maryland neighbor.
        The summit is gained by a circuitous road from the river,
        about a mile in length, where immediately bursts upon the
        eye the most beautiful and extensive prospect in the country.
        On the one side you behold Harper’s Ferry gap, at twelve
        miles distance, the whole valley of the Blue ridge as far
        as vision can extend, on either side of the river the rich
        settlements of the Maryland tract, the Friends, German
        and Tunkerville districts, and the Blue ridge mountains.
        The whole of these tracts are in the highest state of
        cultivation, and from the height you occupy, appear like
        large and beauteous gardens, irrigated with perennial
        streams and adorned with tasty summer houses. On the other
        side are seen the rich Loudon lands, the town of Leesburg,
        the lofty Sugar-Loaf Peak in Maryland, and the verdant
        fields of Carrollton manor, and from one point, the Potomac
        for miles up and down, with its numerous islands, gentle
        falls and smooth bosom. On both sides of the river at the
        point will arrive in boats and wagons, hundreds of thousands
        of barrels of flour, large quantities of lumber, iron, coal
        and other productions for transportation on the rail-road.
        A new energy will be imparted to the enterprising and
        industrious population of both states by the choice of
        markets at the district and Baltimore, and the facilities
        of transportation. If, as Mr. Jefferson says, the view at
        Harper’s Ferry is worth a voyage across the Atlantic, surely
        that from the Virginia summit is worth a ride from Baltimore,
        Philadelphia, New York, or even the cradle city of
        independence.’

   77 – An intelligent friend, who has just visited the Petersburg
        and Roanoke rail-road, writes us as follows:――

        ‘The locomotive engines travel at the rate of twenty
        miles the hour, with ease, and with a train of from ten
        to twenty cars, all loaded――some with passengers, and
        others with produce of every description. The whole line
        of the Petersburg road presents a scene of cheerfulness
        and industry, not to be seen on any other road in Virginia.
        Plantations that have been abandoned are now re-settling;
        houses repairing, and fences, of the best kind, erecting.
        In the bodies of wood through which the road passes, workmen
        are employed, some getting staves, some sawing, and others
        clearing, and, in fact, on the whole line, there is a spirit
        and animation that is delightful to behold.’――_Fredericksburg
        Arena._

   78 – Aggregate length of the canals, including
          eight miles of navigable feeders               492 miles

          Aggregate cost                            $10,946,443.68
          Aggregate tolls in 1830                     1,056,799.67
          Aggregate tolls in 1831                     1,222,801.90

        The canal tolls received in the month of July, 1833,
        amounted to the sum of one hundred and forty-seven thousand,
        eight hundred and ninety-nine dollars; exceeding, by
        forty-two thousand, two hundred and eighty-two dollars, and
        two cents, the sum collected in the corresponding month the
        preceding year. The following is a comparison of the tolls
        for July on all the canals of the state, for 1832 and 1833,
        to wit:

                                                      Increase
            Canal           1833          1832       since 1832
          Erie          $125,488.04    $91,747.57    $33,740.47
          Champlain       17,293.94     11,112.23      6,181.71
          Cayuga and
            Seneca         2,084.63      1,890.03        194.60
          Oswego           3,032.72      1,867.48      2,165.24
                        ―――――――――――   ―――――――――――    ――――――――――
                        $147,899.33   $106,617.31    $42,282.02

        The receipts for tolls to the close of July, are greater by
        _one hundred thousand, five hundred and twenty-two dollars,
        and ninety-eight cents_, than they were for the same period
        last year. Some estimate of the great increase of business
        upon the canals may be formed from the fact, that the
        diminution in the rates of toll, operating upon the articles
        which were transported upon the canals in 1832, would
        probably diminish the aggregate amount of tolls one hundred
        and fifty thousand dollars for the whole season. At the
        diminished rates of toll, such has been the increase of
        articles transported, that in three months and eight days,
        the aggregate amount exceeds that of the corresponding
        months of 1832, by the sum of more than _one hundred
        thousand dollars_.

   79 – The following canals are projected or in progress, the first
        two by the state, the remainder by private corporations.

        _Chenango_ canal, to extend from the Erie canal, in Oneida
        county, to Binghampton, in Broome county, on Susquehannah
        river. Length, ninety-two and three-fourths miles.

          Elevation from the Erie canal to the
            summit level                                  706 feet
          Descent from thence to the Susquehannah
            river                                         303 feet
          Total lockage                                 1,009 feet
          Estimated cost                               $944,775.36

        _Black River_ canal, to extend from Rome to the High falls
        on the Black river, thirty-six miles, with a navigable
        feeder of nine miles at Boonville, and the improvement
        of forty miles’ river navigation from the High falls to
        Carthage.

          Length of canal and river navigation           76 miles
          Rise and fall from Rome to the Black river   1,078 feet
          Estimated cost                                 $602,544

        _Chittenango_ canal. Company incorporated in 1818. Length
        one and a half mile. Extends from Chittenango mill to the
        Erie canal, with four locks.

        _Sodus_ canal. Company incorporated in 1829. Capital, two
        hundred thousand dollars. Canal to extend from Seneca river
        to Great Sodus bay, on lake Ontario.

        The following canal companies have been incorporated, which
        have not yet commenced operations. Harlem river, Owasco
        and Erie, Auburn and Owasco, New York and Sharon, Niagara,
        Jefferson county, Oswego, Greenville, Black river, and Long
        Island.

   80 – This clause is annulled. See amendments, Art. 12.

   81 – Pitkin’s Civil History.

   82 – Pitkin’s Civil History.

   83 – Mansfield’s Political Grammar.

   84 – This article has been furnished by the intelligent writer to
        whom we have been indebted for a portion of the chapter on
        the Indians.

   85 – The learned writer is at fault here. We have seen similar
        beads dug from another mound. They were made of some shell,
        which is a more durable material than the human bone. In
        point of finish, and the labor and ingenuity required to
        make them, they were much inferior to the wampum beads which
        the Indians were wont to make of marine shells.

   86 – As our limits allow nothing but a brief notice of the
        different denominations of Christians in this country, we
        refer those of our readers who wish for fuller information
        on this subject to “THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE;”
        a beautiful royal octavo volume of 1250 pages, with maps
        and engravings; which ought to have a place in every family
        library. It is strictly impartial, the account of each
        denomination being written by some leading man _belonging
        to it_. It is designed for a complete book of _reference_
        on _all_ religious subjects.

   87 – There are several small sects denominated _Baptists_, but
        differing from the main body which is known under that
        designation. Among them are _Seventh Day Baptists_, or
        _Sabbatarians_, observing the seventh day of the week as
        the Sabbath; _Open Communion Baptists_, only differing from
        the main body in uniting with Pedobaptists at the sacrament
        of the Lord’s supper; _Free-Will Baptists_; _Tunkers_
        or _Dunkers_, who believe in universal salvation, and
        are a very singular sect; _Mennonites_, &c. &c. See the
        _Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge_ above referred to.

   88 – On the demoralizing effects of infidelity, and to show what
        would be the result of throwing off the salutary restraints
        of religion in this country, we quote a few paragraphs from
        ‘Dick on the Improvement of Society,’ a cheap and valuable
        work, worthy of universal perusal. Without revealed religion
        ‘the present world would be considered as the only scene
        of action and enjoyment; the hope of immortality, which
        supports and gladdens the pious mind, would be exterminated,
        and every thing beyond the shadow of death involved in gloom
        and uncertainty. The only true principles of moral action,
        which revealed religion inculcates, being overlooked or
        discarded, every one would consider himself as at liberty to
        act according as his humor and passions might dictate; and
        in such a case, a scene of selfishness, rapacity, and horror
        would quickly ensue, which would sap the foundations of
        social order, and banish happiness from the abodes of men.

        ‘That these are not imaginary forebodings might be
        illustrated from the scenes which were lately exhibited in
        a neighboring nation. The first revolution in France, in
        1789 was a revolution not merely in politics and government,
        but in religion, in manners, in moral principle, and in the
        common feelings of human nature. Revelation was not only
        impugned, but entirely set aside; the Deity was banished
        from the universe, and an imaginary phantom, under the name
        of the Goddess of Reason, substituted in his place. Every
        thing was reduced to a system of pure materialism; the
        celestial spark of intelligence within us was assimilated
        to a piece of rude matter, and the fair prospects of
        immortality which Christianity presents transformed into the
        gloom of an eternal night. Every previous standard of morals
        was discarded; every one was left to act as selfishness,
        avarice, and revenge might dictate; religion of every
        description fled from the torch of the prevailing philosophy;
        while “justice and morality” were proclaimed as “the order
        of the day,” every moral principle and every humane feeling
        was trampled under foot. It is stated on good authority,
        that a little before the revolution, a numerous assembly
        of French _literati_, being asked, in turn, at one of their
        meetings, by the president, “whether there was any such
        thing as moral obligation,” answered, in every instance,
        that _there was not_. Soon after that revolution, the great
        body of French infidels, who then ruled the nation, not only
        denied all the obligations which bind us to truth, justice,
        and kindness, but pitied and despised, as a contemptible
        wretch, the man who believed in their existence. Atheism
        was _publicly_ preached, and its monstrous doctrines
        disseminated among the mass of the people, an occurrence
        altogether novel in the history of man. A professor was even
        named by Chaumette, to instruct the children of the state
        in the mysteries of atheism. De la Metherie, the author
        of a philosophical journal, when discussing the doctrine
        of crystallization, made the wild and hideous assertion,
        “that the highest and most perfect form of crystallization
        _is that which is vulgarly called God_.” In the national
        convention, Gobet, archbishop of Paris, the rector Vangirard,
        and several other priests, abjured the Christian religion;
        and for this abjuration _they received applauses and the
        fraternal kiss_. A priest from Melun stated, that there
        is no true religion but that of nature, and that all the
        mummery with which they had hitherto been amused is only old
        wives’ fables; _and he was heard with loud applause_. The
        convention decreed, that “all the churches and temples of
        religious worship known to be in Paris should be instantly
        shut up, and that every person requiring the opening of a
        church or temple should be put under arrest, as a suspected
        person, and an enemy to the state.” The carved work of all
        religious belief and moral practice was boldly cut down by
        Carnot, Robespierre, and their atheistical associates, and
        the following inscription was ordered to be displayed in
        all the public burying-grounds――“_Death is only an eternal
        sleep_;” so that the dying need no longer be afraid to step
        out of existence. Nature was investigated by these pretended
        philosophers only with a view to darken the mind, to prevent
        mankind from considering any thing as real but what the hand
        could grasp or the corporeal eye perceive, and to subvert
        the established order of society.

        ‘The consequence of the operation of such principles were
        such as might have been expected. They are written in
        characters of blood, and in crimes almost unparalleled in
        the history of nations. A scene of inhumanity, cruelty,
        cold-blooded malignity, daring impiety, and insatiable
        rapacity was presented to the world, which excited in the
        mind of every virtuous spectator amazement and horror.
        Savage atrocities were perpetrated which would have been
        shocking in the most barbarous and unenlightened age;
        and, perhaps, at no era has there been more wretchedness
        occasioned by licentious principles and moral degeneracy.
        The ties of friendship were cut asunder, the claims of
        consanguinity disregarded, and a cold-blooded selfishness
        pervaded the great mass of society. “The kingdom appeared to
        be changed into one great prison, the inhabitants converted
        into felons, and the common doom of man commuted for the
        violence of the sword, and the bayonet, and the stroke of
        the guillotine.” Such was the rapidity with which the work
        of destruction was carried on, that within the short space
        of ten years, not less than three millions of human beings
        (one-half more than the whole population of Scotland) are
        supposed to have perished in that country alone, chiefly
        through the influence of immoral principles, and the
        seductions of a false philosophy. The following is a brief
        sketch of some of the scenes to which we allude, drawn
        by one who was an eye-witness of the whole, and an actor
        in several parts of that horrid drama. “There were,” says
        the writer, “multiplied cases of suicide; prisons crowded
        with innocent persons; permanent guillotines; perjuries of
        all classes; parental authority set at naught; debauchery
        encouraged by an allowance to those called unmarried mothers;
        nearly six thousand divorces in the city of Paris within
        a little more than two years; in a word, whatever is most
        obscene in vice and most dreadful in ferocity.”

        ‘Notwithstanding the incessant shouts of “Liberty and
        equality,” and the boasted illuminations of philosophy, the
        most barbarous persecutions were carried on against those
        whose religious opinions differed from the system adopted
        by the state. While infidelity was enthroned in power, it
        wielded the sword of power with infernal ferocity against
        the priests of the Romish church, who were butchered
        wherever found, hunted as wild beasts, frequently roasted
        alive, or drowned in hundreds together, without either
        accusation or trial. At Nantes, no less than three hundred
        and sixty priests were shot, and four hundred and sixty
        drowned. In one night, fifty-eight were shut up in a barge,
        and drowned in the Loire. Two hundred and ninety-two priests
        were massacred during the bloody scenes of the 10th of
        August and 2d September, 1792; and eleven hundred and
        thirty-five were guillotined under the government of the
        national convention, from the month of September, 1792,
        till the end of 1795, besides vast numbers, hunted by the
        infidel republicans, like owls and partridges, who perished
        in different ways, throughout the provinces of France.

        ‘Such were some of the dismal effects which flowed from the
        attempt to banish religion from science, from government,
        and from the intercourses and employments of society. Were
        such principles universally to prevail, the world would
        soon become one vast theatre of mischief and of misery――an
        immense den of thieves and robbers,――a sink of moral
        pollution――a scene of impiety, injustice, rapine, and
        devastation; a Golgotha, strewed with carcasses and
        “dead men’s bones.” All confidence and friendship between
        intelligent beings would be destroyed; the dearest and
        most venerable relations would be violated by incestuous
        pollutions; appetite would change every man into a swine,
        and passion into a tiger; jealousy, distrust, revenge,
        murder, war, and rapine would overspread the earth, and a
        picture of hell would be presented wherever the eye roamed
        over the haunts of men.’

   89 – That there is reason for alarm is evident to all who have
        paid particular attention to the subject. It has lately been
        proved, that there exists in _Austria_ an organized society
        sustained by all the wealth and influence of that popish
        empire, and seconded by the whole popish influence of Europe,
        whose object is the conversion of this nation to popery, and
        the consequent overthrow of our free institutions. We quote
        the following from the _New York Observer_, of Jan. 1835. It
        contains a statement of facts which exhibit with clearness
        the nature of popery, its tendency to subvert our political
        institutions, and _to transfer the power delegated to
        magistrates for the preservation of order in the community
        to Romish priests_, WHO OWE ALLEGIANCE TO A FOREIGN PRINCE.
        Facts,――things already done and threatened――proclaim
        the existence of a power in this country hostile to its
        liberties and the dearest rights of the people.

          POPISH POWER AND THREATS.――Last summer, our readers will
          recollect, there were dreadful riots and murders among
          the Irish laborers on a rail-road in Maryland. The _civil_
          authority endeavored to put a stop to them, but in vain.
          A considerable military force was then sent from Baltimore,
          and succeeded, while they were actually present, in
          restoring peace and order; but the moment their backs
          were turned, the rioters renewed their outrages, and
          the military companies were compelled to return, and
          that repeatedly, until, at length, wearied with the
          harassing duty, a _popish priest_ was called upon to
          visit the contending parties, and through his influence
          a reconciliation was effected and peace restored. The
          editors of some of our daily papers were full of thanks
          and expressions of obligation to this priest; but we
          confess that we had no heart for any thing but mourning
          for the humiliation of our country. We ask ourselves, Is
          it indeed so? Has it come to this? Is the _government_ of
          this country already surrendered into the hands of popish
          priests? Are the civil and military authorities under our
          free institutions incapable of preserving public order,
          and must we beg the interference of _ecclesiastics_,
          and especially of ecclesiastics under the control of a
          _foreign_ head, and that head the mere tool of the Holy
          Alliance!

          This case might have passed without remark, if it had been
          a solitary one: but, soon after, at the burning of the
          convent in Charlestown, the Boston editors, without one
          sigh for the virtual extinction of _popular_ government,
          announced, in terms of unmingled commendation, that bishop
          Fenwick and a popish priest in Charlestown had promised
          to use their influence to restrain the Irish, and that,
          _therefore_, no retaliation need be apprehended! It was
          stated, too, in one of our daily papers, some time since,
          that it was seriously contemplated, during the election
          riots in this city, to call in the aid of the _Catholic
          priests_ to restore order.

          Here are three distinct cases, all occurring within a
          few months, in three different sections of our country,
          in which our editors admit that there is a class of
          our population which cannot be governed by the laws and
          institutions under which the rest of our people have lived
          so happily for more than two centuries. It is admitted
          that this population can be governed only as the Europeans
          govern it, by calling in the aid of a standing army,
          or by going on, as we have begun, taking off our hats
          to popish priests, and saying to these minions of his
          holiness, ‘Please, gentlemen, do not let your people cut
          our throats.’ We confess that our American blood boils at
          the thought of such humiliation.

          And who are these miserable creatures, that set our laws
          at defiance, and how came they here? They are the most
          ignorant and turbulent people of Europe, whom we have
          imported to dig our canals and make our rail-roads, to hew
          our wood and to draw our water. They have nearly all come
          over within the last twenty years. In 1775 there were but
          five Catholic families in Boston. In New York, within the
          memory of men now living, all the male heads of Catholic
          families were collected at one time in one small parlor;
          and in Philadelphia, at no remote period, their number,
          we presume, was equally small. They began to come over in
          large numbers in 1817, and since that time the torrent has
          been continually swelling, until now it is pouring in upon
          us at the rate of from seventy to one hundred thousand
          annually. Already they constitute nearly one-fourth part
          of the population of our five largest cities, and they
          are scattering themselves in immense numbers over all our
          interior.

          We shall soon have more papists in the north than they
          have slaves in the south. And who would not prefer two
          million of slaves, under the control of two million
          of masters, owners of the soil, and prompted by every
          consideration of duty and interest to promote the peace
          and prosperity of our country, to two million of papists,
          under the control of two thousand priests, educated
          in the schools of Austria and Ireland――two thousand
          _bachelors_, bound to the country by no tie of interest or
          affection――two thousand emissaries of a _foreign prince_,
          whose supremacy they acknowledge, and who is our natural
          _enemy_, became our prosperity is working the ruin of his
          despotism? Is it probable that we shall long continue to
          enjoy tranquillity with such a population remaining among
          us in all the ignorance to which their masters would doom
          them? Will the Holy Alliance of despotic sovereigns in
          Europe consent that the examples of peace and prosperity
          in this free republic should continually endanger the
          stability of their thrones, when one word from the pope
          would give them security, by carrying riot and uproar
          through all our borders?

          We are happy to find that the friends of liberty in all
          parts of the north and west are opening their eyes to the
          dangers that menace us from the progress of popery. The
          following remarks of the Boston Recorder on the threat of
          the superior of the convent at Charlestown, in relation to
          the ten thousand Irishmen, are very pointed and forcible.

          THE ‘BISHOP OF BOSTON.’――‘Mr. Cutter told me he was afraid
          the mob would destroy the convent, and then I told him
          that if they did, “the right reverend bishop’s influence
          over ten thousand brave Irishmen might lead to the
          destruction of his (Mr. Cutter’s) property, and that of
          others also.”’

          Such is the testimony, given under oath, in open court, by
          Mary Anne Ursula Moffat, _alias_ Mary Edmond St. George,
          superior of the Ursuline community at Charlestown. In
          all important particulars it agrees with Mr. Cutter’s
          statements. It fully sustains the most important
          points――the bishop’s influence over the ‘ten thousand
          brave Irishmen,’ and the reasonableness of expecting that
          he will use that influence in a certain way. She adds,
          ‘I said this without much thought.’ It was no story,
          deliberately made up for the occasion, for the purpose
          of frightening Mr. Cutter with imaginary dangers. It was
          the real truth, well known to her, and uttered without
          premeditation. It is true, he did not wield this power for
          the destruction of Mr. Cutter’s property. He told his ‘ten
          thousand brave Irishmen’ to keep still, and they obeyed
          him; and he and they were praised for it.

          Here we have a _government_, wielding a physical force
          according to its pleasure, for the protection of its
          subjects. The superior wished Mr. Cutter to be in fear
          of it. She placed some reliance on in existence, and
          on the terror it might inspire, for her own safety, and
          the safety of her community. It is a government which
          may operate for the defence of its subjects, or for the
          punishment of those who injure them by the destruction of
          the property of our citizens. The officer who wields this
          power is not known to our constitution. He is not elected
          by our freemen. He is not officially responsible to the
          United States, or to the commonwealth of Massachusetts.
          He is not even elected by those whom he governs. He is
          appointed by a foreign state, to which he still retains
          his allegiance, and by which he is liable to be removed
          from office, whenever his official acts shall not be
          such as the rulers of that state approve. One of his
          predecessors has been removed from this office to another
          by that foreign power. His conduct had pleased his
          superiors, and he was promoted. Bishop Fenwick is equally
          liable to be promoted, if his conduct pleases, or deposed,
          if it displeases. We invite attention to the fact, that
          _we have among us a body of ‘ten thousand brave Irishmen,’
          ready to destroy our property at the bidding of an officer
          who holds his office at the will of a foreign government_.
          On the destruction of the convent, many of them came
          together to receive his orders. He told them not to
          destroy the property of our citizens, and they obeyed.
          But whether this was any thing more than an adjournment of
          vengeance, is doubtful. The superior who has better means
          of knowing the bishop’s intentions than any Protestant,
          ‘cannot answer’ that Mr. Cutter’s property is _yet_ safe
          from those under the ‘right reverend bishop’s influence.’
          It does not become us to be confident while she is in
          doubt.

          In reference to the testimony quoted above, and to
          documents which have been published in the Boston papers,
          the Recorder remarks:

          What, then, is the amount of her testimony? We think it
          establishes the following points: viz.

          1. That there is, within the limits of bishop Fenwick’s
          diocese, a large Roman Catholic force which he can command.

          2. That, if he signifies his pleasure, this Roman Catholic
          force will destroy the property of our citizens.

          3. That he may be expected to use this Roman Catholic
          force in this manner, whenever it shall seem expedient,
          for the protection of Roman Catholic interests.

          4. That some well-informed Roman Catholics do rely upon
          him to protect them and theirs in that way. And,

          5. That the danger of a Roman Catholic mob, which shall
          destroy the property of Protestants, at the bishop’s
          bidding, in ‘retaliation’ for the burning of the convent,
          is not yet over. The superior, _at the date of her letter_
          published last week, ‘could not answer, that Mr. Cutter’s
          property would not be destroyed.’

          That the things are so, is proved, be it remembered, by
          the testimony of the superior, who from her situation must
          be presumed to know.

          Now, if there is a power established among us, having
          its regular government, to which government its subjects
          look for protection of personal property, and which may be
          expected to issue orders for their protection by physical
          force, which orders will be obeyed,――if this be a fact,
          does it not deserve the attention of all our citizens?
          Does it deserve attention any the less because that power
          pretends to be spiritual? If it really exists as a civil
          government for the protection of the persons and property
          of its subjects, armed, or able to arm itself at will,
          with a military force, whether in the shape of a militia
          or a mob, do its spiritual claims render it an affair
          of no consequence? And if it is known to avow, us a
          fundamental principle of its existence, a spiritual
          allegiance to a foreign power, which foreign power is
          known to be civil and military as well as spiritual, does
          not this fact also deserve notice?

   90 – Mr. Hamilton observes――I passed an hour or two very
        agreeably at one of a series of meetings, which are called
        ‘Wistar parties,’ from the name of the gentleman at whose
        house they were first held. Their effect and influence on
        society must be very salutary. These parties bring together
        men of different classes and pursuits, and promote the free
        interchange of opinion, always useful for the correction of
        prejudice. Such intercourse, too, prevents the narrowness
        of thought, and exaggerated estimate of the value of our
        own peculiar acquirements, which devotion to one exclusive
        object is apt to engender in those who do not mix freely
        with the world.

        These meetings are held by rotation at the houses of the
        different members. The conversation is generally literary
        or scientific, and as the party is usually very large, it
        can be varied at pleasure. Philosophers eat like other men,
        and the precaution of an excellent supper is by no means
        found to be superfluous. It acts, too, as a gentle emollient
        on the acrimony of debate. No man can say a harsh thing
        with his mouth full of turkey, and disputants forget their
        differences in unity of enjoyment.

        At these parties, I met several ingenious men, of a
        class something below that of the ordinary members. When
        an operative mechanic attracts notice by his zeal for
        improvement in any branch of science, he is almost uniformly
        invited to the Wistar meetings. The advantage of this policy
        is obviously very great. A modest and deserving man is
        brought into notice. His errors are corrected, his ardor
        is stimulated, his taste improved. A healthy connection is
        kept up between the different classes of society, and the
        feeling of mutual sympathy is duly cherished. During my stay
        in Philadelphia, I was present at several of these Wistar
        meetings, and always returned from them with increased
        conviction of their beneficial tendency.

   91 – For interesting sketches of western manners and customs, see
        the Transatlantic Sketches, by Alexander, and the valuable
        works of Mr. Flint.

   92 – For a full description, see Captain Franklin’s Narrative.

   93 – At the period when the prison was erected, the legislature
        of the state, and the public, had become so dissatisfied
        with the mode of penitentiary punishment, without solitary
        confinement, then existing, which seemed rather to harden
        than to have a tendency to reform the delinquents, that it
        was generally believed, that, unless a severe system was
        adopted, the old sanguinary criminal code must be restored.
        The legislature of New York state, therefore, in the year
        1821, directed a selection of the oldest and most heinous
        offenders to be made, who should be confined constantly in
        solitary cells. Eighty convicts were accordingly put into
        solitary cells, on the twenty-fifth of December, 1821. Five
        of those convicts died during the year preceding January,
        1823, while only five died out of one hundred and forty
        convicts confined at the same time in prison, but who were
        kept to labor. The health of the solitary convicts was very
        soon seriously impaired. Some of them became insane; and the
        effect of this constant imprisonment was not more favorable
        to reformation than to mental and bodily health.

        Before the end of 1823, exclusive solitary confinement was
        entirely discontinued, and the present successful system,
        combining solitude and silence with labor, introduced;
        a majority of the commissioners, who examined the prison,
        having reported, that they were entirely averse to solitary
        confinement without labor, on the grounds of its being
        injurious to health, expensive, affording no means of
        reformation, and unnecessarily severe. La Fayette, when he
        was lately in the United States, and heard of the experiment
        of exclusive solitary confinement, said it was just a
        revival of the practice in the Bastile, which had so
        dreadful an effect on the poor prisoners. ‘I repaired,’
        he said, ‘to the scene on the second day of the demolition,
        and found that all the prisoners had been deranged by their
        solitary confinement, except one; he had been a prisoner
        twenty-five years, and was led forth during the height of
        the tumultuous riot of the people, whilst engaged in tearing
        down the building. He looked around with amazement, for he
        had seen nobody for that space of time; and, before night,
        he was so much affected, that he became a confirmed maniac,
        from which situation he never recovered.’

   94 – The following judicious remarks are from the excellent work
        of Mr. Stuart, and indicate the estimation in which our
        penitentiary system is held by intelligent foreigners.

        No attempt to regulate any of the prisons in this country
        according to the Auburn plan has, so far as I have learned,
        been made. This appears the more extraordinary, because it
        is stated, in the printed report of the agent of the Auburn
        prison for 1827, that the British minister at Washington,
        Mr. Vaughan, after a critical examination of the institution,
        declared in ardent language, that he hoped in God it would
        be made the model of imitation, not only for this country,
        but for all Europe. And Mr. Vaughan would, of course, not
        fail to make his opinion, and the results on which it was
        founded, known in the proper quarter. Great Britain ought,
        of all countries on the face of the earth, to be the most
        grateful to the state of New York, for having set such an
        example before her; for in what country are there so many
        convicts in reference to the population?――where are they
        maintained at so great expense to the state?――and where has
        so little yet been done towards accomplishing the great end
        of punishment,――the diminution of offences by the terror
        of punishment?――or in promoting the reformation of the
        offenders?

        The Auburn system embraces all the objects which Howard, and
        the philanthropists of this and the last century, have been
        endeavoring to attain. In the Maison de Force, at Ghent,
        which both Howard and Buxton visited, at different periods,
        thirty-four years apart, and which both of them eulogize,
        the same management in respect to solitary cells, silence,
        and labor, prevailed as at Auburn, and was attended with
        excellent effects; but the convicts were allowed a certain
        portion of their earnings, and the system was not adhered
        to with the exactness, precision, and regularity, which
        are indispensably necessary, so that at one period, the
        earnings of the prisoners were much reduced in amount,
        and there was great laxity of discipline. Mr. Western, one
        of the magistrates of the county of Essex, and one of the
        representatives of that county in parliament, a gentleman
        whose benevolent and patriotic views are well known, has,
        in a pamphlet on prison discipline, which he published a
        few years ago, suggested the following plan, the details of
        which he has well explained:――‘Solitary confinement, marching
        and remarching to the cells, as practised at Auburn; hard
        labor for eight instead of eleven hours, as at Auburn, but
        without restriction as to conversation, and with liberty for
        airing and exercise for three hours.’ And he asks, ‘if each
        successive day was spent in this manner, can it be doubted
        that the frequent commission of crime would be checked,
        and more done to deter, correct, and reform, than could
        be accomplished by any other punishment? A period of such
        discipline, longer or shorter, according to the nature of
        the offence, would surely be sufficient for any violation
        of the law short of murder, or that description of outrage
        which is likely to lead to the perpetration of it. This sort
        of treatment is not to be overcome: it cannot be braved, or
        laughed at, or disregarded by any force of animal spirits,
        however strong or vigorous of mind or body the individual
        may be. The dull, unvarying course of hard labor, with hard
        fare and seclusion, must in time become so painfully irksome,
        and so wear and distress him, that he will, inevitably,
        in the end, be subdued.’ If Mr. Western’s plan would
        be attended with the effects he describes, ‘to deter,
        correct, and reform,’ how much more certainly would those
        consequences attend that followed at Auburn, where the
        offenders suffer the penalty of total exclusion from society,
        deprived of all knowledge of their friends and relations,
        and of their associates, even if confined in the same prison
        with them; are doomed to constant hard labor, their earnings
        altogether applied for the benefit of the state; subjected
        to stripes, inflicted summarily and instantly, by any one
        of the keepers, for every infraction of the prison rules,
        even for the slightest attempt to break silence, or for
        inattention to work, or not working constantly and well.

        The punishment of stripes has been found fault with; but
        both at Ghent and Auburn, the keepers have given it as their
        opinion, that constant labor, and the maintenance of the
        very strict discipline enjoined, cannot be enforced without
        their having the power to inflict this summary punishment.
        It is only permitted to be inflicted on the back of the
        convict, in such manner as to produce personal suffering,
        without danger to the health or any vital part. In point of
        fact, however, the certainty of punishment following every
        offence is so thoroughly understood, that the power is, as
        already noticed, seldom exercised.

   95 – _Education in Maine._――A writer in the Saco Republican
        furnishes some details respecting the public provision for
        education in the state of Maine. After its separation from
        Massachusetts, a law was passed, requiring every town to
        raise annually, for the support of schools, a sum equal to
        forty cents for each person in such town, to be distributed
        among the school districts, in proportion to the number
        of inhabitants in each. In 1825, the number of districts,
        as appears from the reports made to the legislature, was
        two thousand, four hundred and ninety-nine; the number
        of children, between the ages of four and twenty-one,
        one hundred and thirty-seven thousand, nine hundred and
        thirty-one; the number who usually attend schools, one
        hundred and one thousand, three hundred and twenty-five, and
        the total annual expenditure, one hundred and thirty-seven
        thousand, eight hundred and seventy-eight dollars, and
        fifty-seven cents. The present number of scholars is
        estimated by this writer at one hundred and forty thousand.
        The schools kept by male teachers are open, on the average,
        two months in the year, and those kept by female teachers,
        about two weeks longer. The writer suggests, that if the
        sum of one dollar and six cents, instead of forty cents,
        for every inhabitant, were required to be raised, that the
        schools might be kept open during the year, and believes
        that the additional tax would not be regarded as a burden.

   96 – The following observations are from the pen of a writer,
        who has done as much for the really useful literature of the
        country as any other man. We refer to Mr. Flint, of whose
        valuable writings we have so often taken the liberty to
        avail ourselves.

        I. Our national and state governments do little or nothing
        for literature, by furnishing example, premiums, excitement,
        money. They have taken no pains to inspire a taste for it,
        or to cause it to become part and parcel of the national
        glory. To produce a rail-road, a canal, a joint stock
        company, is felt to confer more national renown, as well
        as advantage, than to rear a Milton, Burke, or Walter Scott.
        We hardly retain our West Point. Beside our solemn farce
        of sending among the few respectable examiners, a large
        proportion of ignorant and incompetent men to examine
        the pupils, legislators have not been found wanting, who,
        availing themselves of the miserable appeal of demagogues,
        to the sordid appetite, miscalled economy, have wished
        to put forth their unhallowed hands to demolish this only
        vestige of national show of a disposition to foster the
        sciences. Profound respect for our country interdicts the
        thoughts that arise in our mind upon this head. Literature,
        science, what are they at Washington, more than they
        would have been in the day of Attila? The members of the
        legislature have more than they can do to write letters
        to their constituents, and secure the means of a future
        election, and to make excuses for refusing their names
        to the thousand applicants for patronage to new books and
        periodicals.

        In reply to all this, we are sometimes asked, what a
        government, with the genius and limitations of ours,
        could do to foster literature? Every one must be aware,
        that if the constituent parts that compose the government
        felt keenly and saw clearly, that advances in science and
        literature constituted the true interest and glory of the
        country, they would be at no loss to apply the adequate
        excitement. Had they the strong impulse, the inward
        perception, the munificent and fostering spirit, we should
        discover what they could do. The feeling, the will, and not
        the means, are wanting. The single solitary expedition of
        Lewis and Clarke twinkles, as a kind of evening star above
        the western mountains, in the midst of the darkness of our
        efforts for science and letters. That single mission gained
        the administration of Jefferson more true glory abroad
        and at home, than any single act of that or any subsequent
        administration; and every village orator annually announces,
        that Athens, of amaranthine and imperishable memory, was
        less extensive and less populous than one of our states of
        the second class, and assigns as the cause of this freshness
        and perpetuity of her fame, nothing but intellectual
        pre-eminence. But the people and the rulers have alike
        waxed too gross and sordid, too blind and hardened to every
        impulse but personal aggrandizement and the love of money,
        to perceive or regard what constitutes national glory.

        II. We have no literary metropolis, no central point, from
        which information, excitement and emulation might radiate
        in every direction, so as to fill the whole circumference of
        our land. The interests and tastes of our numerous literary
        capitals not only have no decided concurrence, but clash and
        oppose each other. The favorite author, poet, editor of one
        capital, glides in the steamboat, and whirls on the railway,
        in a few hours, out of the orbit of his own little universe,
        and is surprised to find himself in a new planet, as little
        known as the man in the moon. There is no common point of
        union for literary men, where they may meet and replenish
        their oil from each other’s lamps, guide and encourage each
        other, review and pass upon the books and literary efforts
        of the past year, and impart counsels touching their own
        embryo projects for the coming one. A censurate, thus
        constituted, would be able to do much toward breaking
        down sectional, and building up in its stead a national,
        literature. Hundreds of trumpery books, on which so much
        paper and ink are wasted, would, in this case, hereafter
        cease to see the light――and much talent, that is now as
        an unwrought gem in the mines; would be brought to view.
        We shall be told, that there would be infinite jealousy,
        rivalry, clanship, envy, intrigue. Perhaps there might.
        But political associations are not abandoned, because
        the same evil attaches to them. Such meetings have long
        been practised in Germany, and have proved remarkable for
        their amenity, courtesy, and good fruits. Men, especially
        intellectual men, when brought together, mutually catch the
        spirit of their station. Envy and jealousy are the natural
        heritage of ignorance. Intellectual men, if proverbially
        irritable, have been in all countries and all times
        proverbially generous, kind-hearted, beneficent. Such men
        would feel themselves impelled to act according to their
        station and responsibility, and would have a noble disdain
        at the idea of bringing a stain upon their escutcheon.
        These men, being charged that the republic of letters should
        receive no detriment, would scorn prejudiced, narrow, and
        illiberal views, and would promulgate generous thoughts and
        broad principles. The books which they patronized would be
        received by the public with confidence, while those to which
        they affixed their veto would cease to circulate; and thus
        transfer more than half the patronage of literature, which
        is now thrown away upon worthless books and periodicals, to
        such as are important and useful.

        III. The remaining slavery of our colonial literary
        dependence upon Great Britain. It is humiliating to
        reflect, that a great nation, sometimes not a little
        tempted to bluster about its greatness and independence,
        notwithstanding all the taunts and reproaches we have
        received from the writers of that nation for our servility
        and imbecile dependence upon it for our literary opinions,
        as well as our books, should still look beyond the seas for
        literary fame. But every one knows, that an American writer
        must delve on, uncheered and unblest, until he has contrived
        to get an echo of his name from beyond the Atlantic. What
        efforts, what arts, what servility to obtain it? This is
        not all. In the greedy competition of the press, the books
        of that country, the great estimated mart of fame, can be
        republished here without copy-right. On this head, there
        is no need, as we have no space, to enlarge. Every one can
        see that American writers have no adequate incitement to put
        forth their powers, while obliged to work up against such a
        wind and tide opposed to them.

   97 – For this succinct, able, and interesting account of the
          banking system of the United States, we have been indebted
          to the Annual Register for 1831–2, published by Fessenden
          & Co.

   98 – ‘It would perhaps be difficult to find any individual who
        experienced more gallant adventures, and daring enterprises,
        of a highly romantic character, in various countries, than
        captain Smith. His life, without any fictitious additions,
        might easily be taken for a mere romance. He appears to have
        possessed many great qualities, and to have been deficient
        in nothing but that mean cunning and sordid spirit, by the
        aid of which inferior men were able to thwart his views, and
        deprive him of those stations and rewards which his services
        amply merited. He was one of the earliest and most ardent of
        those who undertook the settlement of Virginia; his bravery
        and capacity more than once saved that infant colony from
        destruction, and kept the enterprise from being abandoned
        for several years, though the absurdity of the schemes,
        and the profligacy, folly, and dishonesty of those who
        were to execute them, exposed the colony for many years
        to every calamity, and often brought it to the brink of
        ruin.’――_North Am. Review._

   99 – ‘In the morning, a considerable number of Miantonimoh’s men
        came on and joined the English. This encouraged many of the
        Nihanticks also to join them. They soon formed a circle,
        and made protestations how gallantly they would fight, and
        what numbers they would kill. When the army marched the
        next morning, the captain had with him nearly five hundred
        Indians. He marched twelve miles, to the ford in Pawcatuck
        river. The day was very hot, and the men, through the great
        heat, and a scarcity of provision, began to faint. The
        army, therefore, made a considerable halt, and refreshed
        themselves. Here the Narraganset Indians began to manifest
        their dread of the Pequods, and to inquire of captain
        Mason, with great anxiety, what were his real intentions. He
        assured them, that it was his design to attack the Pequods
        in their forts. At this they appeared to be panic struck,
        and filled with amazement. Many of them drew off, and
        returned to Narraganset. The army marched on about three
        miles, and came to Indian corn-fields; and the captain,
        imagining that he drew near the enemy, made a halt; he
        called his guides and council, and demanded of the Indians
        how far it was to the forts. They represented that it was
        twelve miles to Sassacus’ fort, and that both forts were in
        a manner impregnable. Wequash, a Pequod captain, or petty
        sachem, who had revolted from Sassacus to the Narragansets,
        was the principal guide, and he proved faithful. He gave
        such information respecting the distance of the forts from
        each other, and the distance which they were then at from
        the chief sachem’s, as determined him and his officers
        to alter the resolution which they had before adopted, of
        attacking them both at once, and to make a united attack
        upon that at Mystic. He found his men so fatigued in
        marching through a pathless wilderness with their provisions,
        arms, and ammunition, and so affected with the heat, that
        this resolution appeared to be absolutely necessary. One of
        captain Underhill’s men became lame at the same time, and
        began to fail. The army, therefore, proceeded directly to
        Mystic, and continuing their march, came to a small swamp
        between two hills just at the disappearing of the daylight.
        The officers supposing that they were now near the fort,
        pitched their little camp between or near two large rocks,
        in Groton, since called Porter’s rocks. The men were faint
        and weary, and though the rocks were their pillows, their
        rest was sweet. The guards and sentinels were considerably
        advanced in front of the army, and heard the enemy singing
        at the fort, who continued their rejoicings even until
        midnight. They had seen the vessels pass the harbor some
        days before, and had concluded that the English were afraid,
        and had no courage to attack them. They were therefore
        rejoicing, singing, dancing, insulting them, and wearying
        themselves, on this account. The night was serene, and,
        towards morning, the moon shone clear. The important crisis
        was now come, when the very existence of Connecticut, under
        Providence, was to be determined by the sword in a single
        action, and to be decided by the good conduct of less than
        eighty brave men. The Indians who remained were now sorely
        dismayed, and though at first they had led the van, and
        boasted of great feats, yet were now all fallen back in the
        rear. About two hours before day, the men were roused with
        all expedition, and, briefly commending themselves and their
        cause to God, advanced immediately towards the fort. After
        a march of about two miles, they came to the foot of a large
        hill, where a fine country opened before them. The captain,
        supposing that the fort could not be far distant, sent for
        the Indians in the rear to come up. Uncas and Wequash at
        length appeared. He demanded of them where the fort was.
        They answered, on the top of the hill. He demanded of them
        where were the other Indians. They answered, that they were
        much afraid. The captain sent to them not to fly, but to
        surround the fort at any distance they pleased, and see
        whether Englishmen would fight. The day was nearly dawning,
        and no time was now to be lost. The men pressed on in two
        divisions, captain Mason to the north-eastern, and captain
        Underhill to the western entrance. As the object which
        they had been so long seeking came into view, and while
        they reflected they were to fight not only for themselves,
        but their parents, wives, children, and the whole colony,
        the martial spirit kindled in their bosoms, and they
        were wonderfully animated and assisted. As captain Mason
        advanced within a rod or two of the fort a dog barked, and
        an Indian roared out, “Owanux! Owanux!” That is, Englishmen!
        Englishmen! The troops pressed on, and, as the Indians were
        rallying, poured in upon them, through the palisadoes, a
        general discharge of their muskets, and then wheeling off
        to the principal entrance, entered the fort sword in hand.
        Notwithstanding the suddenness of the attack, and the
        blaze and thunder of the arms, the enemy made a manly and
        desperate resistance. Captain Mason and his party drove the
        Indians in the main street towards the west part of the fort,
        where some bold men, who had forced their way, met them,
        and made such a slaughter among them, that the street was
        soon clear of the enemy. They secreted themselves in and
        behind their wigwams, and taking advantage of every covert,
        maintained an obstinate defence. The captain and his men
        entered the wigwams, where they were beset with many Indians,
        who took every advantage to shoot them, and lay hands upon
        them, so that it was with great difficulty that they could
        defend themselves with their swords. After a severe conflict,
        in which many of the Indians were slain, some of the English
        killed, and others sorely wounded, the victory still hung
        in suspense. The captain, finding himself much exhausted,
        and out of breath, as well as his men, by the extraordinary
        exertions which they had made in this critical state of
        action, had recourse to a successful expedient. He cries out
        to his men, “We must burn them.” He immediately, entering
        a wigwam, took fire and put it to the mats with which the
        wigwams were covered. The fire instantly kindling, spread
        with such violence, that all the Indian houses were soon
        wrapped in one general flame. As the fire increased, the
        English retired without the fort, and compassed it on every
        side. Uncas and his Indians, with such of the Narragansets
        as yet remained, took courage, from the example of the
        English, and formed another circle in the rear of them. The
        enemy were now seized with astonishment; and, forced by the
        flames from their lurking places into open light, became
        a fair mark for the English soldiers. Some climbed the
        palisadoes, and were instantly brought down by the fire
        of the English muskets. Others, desperately sallying forth
        from their burning cells, were shot, or cut in pieces with
        the sword. Such terror fell upon them, that they would run
        back from the English into the very flames. Great numbers
        perished in the conflagration. The greatness and violence
        of the fire, the reflection of the light, the flashing and
        roar of the arms, the shrieks and yellings of the men, women,
        and children, in the fort, and the shoutings of the Indians
        without, just at the dawning of the morning, exhibited a
        grand and awful scene. In little more than an hour, this
        whole work of destruction was finished. Seventy wigwams were
        burnt, and five or six hundred Indians perished, either by
        the sword, or in the flames. A hundred and fifty warriors
        had been sent on the evening before, who, that very morning,
        were to have gone forth against the English. Of these,
        and all who belonged to the fort, seven only escaped, and
        seven were made prisoners. It had been previously concluded
        not to burn the fort, but to destroy the enemy, and take
        the plunder; but the captain afterwards found it the only
        expedient to obtain the victory, and save his men. Thus
        parents and children, the sannup and squaw, the old man
        and the babe, perished in promiscuous ruin.’――_Trumbull’s
        History of Connecticut._

  100 – Smith’s History of New York, p. 207.

  101 – The following account of the origin of the name Pennsylvania,
        given by its founder, in a letter dated January 5, 1681, is
        curious and interesting. ‘This day,’ says Penn, ‘after many
        waitings, watchings, solicitings, and disputes, in council,
        my country was confirmed to me under the great seal of
        England, with large powers and privileges, by the name of
        Pennsylvania; a name the king would give it in honor of my
        father. I chose New Wales, being a hilly country; and when
        the secretary, a Welshman, refused to call it New Wales, I
        proposed Sylvania, and they added Penn to it; though I much
        opposed it, and went to the king to have it struck out. He
        said ’twas past, and he would take it upon him; nor could
        twenty guineas move the under-secretary to vary the name;
        for I feared it should be looked on us a vanity in me, and
        not as a respect in the king to my father, as it really
        was. Thou mayest communicate my grant to friends, and expect
        shortly my proposals. ’Tis a dear and just thing, and my
        God, that has given it me through many difficulties, will,
        I believe, bless and make it the seed of a nation. I shall
        have a tender care to the government, that it be well laid
        at first.’

  102 – On receiving his mortal wound, Wolfe was conveyed into the
        rear, where, careless about himself, he discovered, in the
        agonies of death, the most anxious solicitude concerning
        the fate of the day. From extreme faintness, he had reclined
        his head on the arm of an officer, but was soon aroused by
        the cry of ‘They fly, they fly!’ ‘Who fly?’ exclaimed the
        dying hero. ‘The French,’ answered his attendant. ‘Then,’
        said he, ‘I die contented,’ and immediately expired. A death
        more full of military glory has seldom been recorded by
        the pen of the historian, or celebrated by the pencil of
        the painter. General Wolfe was only thirty-three years of
        age. He possessed those military talents, which, with the
        advantage of years and opportunity of action, ‘to moderate
        his ardor, expand his faculties, and give to his intuitive
        perception and scientific knowledge the correctness of
        judgment perfected by experience,’ would have ‘placed him
        on a level with the most celebrated generals of any age or
        nation.’――Montcalm was every way worthy to be a competitor
        of Wolfe. He had the truest military genius of any officer
        whom the French had ever employed in America. After he had
        received his mortal wound, he was carried into the city; and
        when informed that it was mortal, his reply was, ‘I am glad
        of it.’ On being told that he could survive but a few hours,
        ‘So much the better,’ he replied; ‘I shall not then live to
        see the surrender of Quebec.’

  103 – Pitkin, vol. i. p. 157.

  104 – Tudor’s Life of Otis, p. 61.

  105 – Hutchinson’s History of Massachusetts from 1749 to 1774.

  106 – ‘Declaiming, us usual, one evening on American affairs,
        he addressed himself particularly to the ministers. “You
        are cowards,” he said; “you are afraid of the Americans;
        you dare not tax America.” This he repeated in different
        language. Upon this Townshend took fire, immediately rose
        and said, “Fear! fear! cowards dare not tax America! I dare
        tax America.” Grenville stood silent for a moment, and then
        said, “Dare you tax America? I wish to God I could see it.”
        Townshend replied, “I will, I will.”’――_Manuscript papers
        of Dr. William S. Johnson_, then in England as agent for
        Connecticut, quoted in Pitkin’s History, vol. i. p. 217.

  107 – Bradford’s History of Massachusetts, p. 205.

  108 – Hutchinson, p. 270.

  109 – Wirt’s Life of Henry, p. 105, 106.

  110 – Lord Chatham had shown this bill to Dr. Franklin before he
        submitted it to the house of lords, but the latter had not
        an opportunity of proposing certain alterations which he
        had sketched. Dr. Franklin, however, at the special request
        of lord Chatham, was present at the debates upon it. Lord
        Dartmouth was at first disposed to have the bill lie upon
        the table; but lord Sandwich opposed its being received,
        and moved that it be immediately ‘rejected with the contempt
        it deserved. He could never believe,’ he said, ‘that it was
        the production of a British peer; it appeared to him rather
        the work of some American.’ Turning his face towards Dr.
        Franklin, then standing at the bar, ‘He fancied,’ he said,
        ‘he had in his eye the person who drew it up, one of the
        bitterest and most mischievous enemies this country had ever
        known.’ To this part of the speech of lord Sandwich, the
        great Chatham replied, by saying ‘that it was entirely his
        own. This declaration,’ he said, ‘he thought himself the
        more obliged to make, as many of their lordships appeared to
        have so mean an opinion of it; for if it was so weak or so
        bad a thing, it was proper in him to take care that no other
        person should unjustly share in the censure it deserved.
        It had been heretofore reckoned his vice not to be apt to
        take advice; but he made no scruple to declare, that if he
        were the first minister of this country, and had the care of
        settling this momentous business, he should not be ashamed
        of publicly calling to his assistance a person so perfectly
        acquainted with the whole of American affairs as the
        gentleman alluded to, and so injuriously reflected on; one
        whom all Europe held in estimation for his knowledge and
        wisdom, and ranked with our Boyles and Newtons; who was
        an honor, not to the English nation only, but to human
        nature.’――_Franklin’s Works_, vol. i. p. 322, 323. _Pitkin_,
        vol. i. p. 312. Among the papers which had been laid before
        the house by lord Dartmouth, was the petition of the congress
        to the king, in behalf of which the American agents, Dr.
        Franklin, Mr. Bollan, and Mr. Lee, petitioned to be heard
        at the bar of the house. But this privilege was refused
        to them by the ministers, on the ground that the congress
        was an illegal body, and their petition was rejected by an
        unusually large majority.

  111 – In Montgomery the Americans lost one of the bravest and most
        accomplished generals that ever led an army to the field.
        But he was not more illustrious for his skill and courage as
        an officer, than he was estimable for his private virtues.
        All enmity to him on the part of the British ceased with his
        life, and respect to his private character prevailed over
        all other considerations. His body was taken up the next day,
        and he was decently interred.――Montgomery was a gentleman
        of good family in Ireland, who, having married a lady and
        purchased an estate in New York, considered himself as an
        American, and had served with reputation in the late French
        war. Congress directed a monument to be erected to his
        memory, with an inscription expressive of their veneration
        for his character, and of their deep sense of his ‘many
        signal and important services; and to transmit to future
        ages, as examples truly worthy of imitation, his patriotism,
        conduct, boldness of enterprise, insuperable perseverance,
        and contempt of danger and death.’ A monument of white
        marble, with emblematic devices, has accordingly been
        erected to his memory, in front of St. Paul’s church in New
        York.

  112 – Not long after his appointment, Dr. Church was detected in a
        traitorous correspondence with the British in Boston. He had
        sustained a high reputation as a patriot, and was at this
        time a member of the Massachusetts house of representatives.
        He was tried, convicted, and expelled from the house of
        representatives; and congress afterwards resolved, that
        he be closely confined in some secure gaol in Connecticut,
        without the use of pen, ink, or paper; and that no person
        be allowed to converse with him, except in the presence and
        hearing of a magistrate, or the sheriff of the county.

  113 – On the 1st of January, 1776, the town of Norfolk, in
        Virginia, was set on fire by the British, under the
        direction of lord Dunmore, and reduced to ashes. On the
        arrival of the Liverpool man-of-war from England, a flag was
        sent on shore to put the question, whether the provincials
        would supply his majesty’s ship with provisions, and a
        negative answer being returned, it was determined to destroy
        the town. The whole loss was estimated at three hundred
        thousand pounds sterling. The provincials themselves
        destroyed the houses and plantations near the water, to
        deprive the ships of every resource of supply.

  114 – The chief justice of South Carolina, William Henry Drayton,
        appointed under the new form of government just adopted, in
        his charge to the grand jurors, in April, after justifying
        the proceedings of that colony in forming a new government,
        on the principles of the revolution in England in 1688, thus
        concludes: ‘The Almighty created America to be independent
        of Great Britain: let us beware of the impiety of being
        backward to act as instruments in the Almighty hand, now
        extended to accomplish his purpose; and by the completion
        of which alone, America, in the nature of human affairs, can
        be secure against the crafty and insidious designs of her
        enemies, who think her power and prosperity already by far
        too great. In a word, our piety and political safety are
        so blended, that to refuse our labors in this divine work,
        is to refuse to be a great, a free, a pious, and a happy
        people.’――_Pitkin_, vol. i. p. 359.

  115 – Pitkin’s Political and Civil History, vol. i. p. 361.

  116 – ‘This measure was followed by the most lively demonstrations
        of joy. The spirit of the times is interestingly manifested
        by the following paragraph from Purdie’s paper of the 17th
        of May, which immediately succeeds the annunciation of the
        resolutions:――“In consequence of the above resolutions,
        universally regarded as the only door which will lead
        to safety and prosperity, some gentlemen made a handsome
        collection for the purpose of treating the soldiery,
        who next day were paraded in Waller’s grove, before
        brigadier-general Lewis, attended by the gentlemen of the
        committee of safety, the members of the general convention,
        the inhabitants of this city, &c. The resolutions being read
        aloud to the army, the following toasts were given, each of
        them accompanied by a discharge of the artillery and small
        arms, and the acclamations of all present:――1. The American
        Independent States.――2. The grand congress of the United
        States, and their respective legislatures.――3. General
        Washington, and victory to the American arms.――The union
        flag of the American states waved upon the capitol during
        the whole of this ceremony; which being ended, the soldiers
        partook of the refreshments prepared for them by the
        affection of their countrymen, and the evening concluded
        with illuminations and other demonstrations of joy; every
        one seeming pleased that the domination of Great Britain was
        now at an end, so wickedly and tyrannically exercised for
        these twelve or thirteen years past, notwithstanding our
        repeated prayers and remonstrances for redress.”’――_Wirt’s
        Life of Henry_, p. 195.

  117 – These melancholy facts were thus narrated by general
        Washington, in his letter to congress:――‘Our situation is
        truly distressing. The check our detachment sustained on the
        27th ultimo, has dispirited too great a proportion of our
        troops, and filled their minds with apprehension and despair.
        The militia, instead of calling forth their utmost efforts
        to a brave and manly opposition, in order to repair our
        losses, are dismayed, intractable, and impatient to return.
        Great numbers of them have gone off; in some instances
        almost by whole regiments, half ones, and by companies
        at a time. This circumstance of itself, independent of
        others, when fronted by a well-appointed enemy, superior in
        number to our whole collected force, would be sufficiently
        disagreeable; but when their example has infected another
        part of the army,――when their want of discipline, and
        refusal of almost every kind of restraint and government,
        have produced a like conduct, but too common to the whole,
        and an entire disregard of that order and subordination
        necessary to the well doing of an army, and which had been
        inculcated before as well as the nature of our military
        establishment would admit of,――our condition is still more
        alarming; and with the deepest concern I am obliged to
        confess my want of confidence in the generality of the
        troops.’

  118 – ‘On the 17th of December, our army marched from Brunswick
        at four o’clock in the morning, and about the same hour
        in the afternoon arrived at Princeton. This place general
        Washington, in person, with Stirling’s brigade, left not one
        hour before the British arrived. At Princeton the British
        general waited seventeen hours, marched at nine o’clock
        in the morning of the 8th, and arrived at Trenton at
        four o’clock in the afternoon, just when the last boat of
        general Washington’s embarkation crossed the river, as if
        he had calculated, it was observed, with great accuracy,
        the exact time necessary for his enemy to make his
        escape.’――_Steadman’s History of the American War_,
        vol. i. p. 220.

  119 – General Lee had been a British officer, and had engaged
        in the American service before the acceptance of the
        resignation of his commission. Sir William Howe for
        this reason pretended to view him as a traitor, and at
        first refused to admit him to his parole, or to consider
        him as a subject of exchange. Congress directed the
        commander-in-chief to propose to Sir William Howe to
        exchange six field-officers for general Lee. In case
        the proposal was rejected, that body resolved, that these
        officers should be closely confined, and in every respect
        receive the treatment that general Lee did. The proposition
        not being acceded to, the resolution of congress was carried
        into effect, by the executives of the states in whose
        custody the selected field-officers were, with a degree of
        severity which perhaps even the treatment of general Lee
        hardly warranted.

  120 – Thacher’s Military Journal, p. 107.

  121 – It has ever been a source of reproach against the British,
        that they employed the sanguinary Indians as their allies.
        The atrocities they committed might be somewhat exaggerated
        by general Gates and others; but that instances did occur,
        to the disgrace of their civilized associates, cannot be
        denied. The melancholy case of Miss M’Rea will long be
        remembered. Captain Jones, her lover, an officer in the
        British army, anxious on her account, engaged some Indians
        of two different tribes to convey her away from among the
        Americans for the purpose of security; fearing for her,
        probably, on account of her father’s being interested in
        the royal cause, and of her attachment to himself. Having
        promised to reward the person who should bring her safe to
        him with a barrel of rum, the two Indians, who had already
        conveyed her to some distance, disputed which of them
        should present to captain Jones the object of his affections.
        Each was anxious for the reward; and that the other might
        not receive it, one of them killed her with a blow of his
        tomahawk. Upon the first intelligence of what had happened,
        Burgoyne obliged the Indians to deliver up the murderer,
        and threatened to put him to death. Many thought the threat
        would have been executed; but he was pardoned upon the
        Indians agreeing to terms enjoined them by Burgoyne, which
        the general thought would be more efficacious than an
        execution to prevent similar mischiefs.――_Gordon_, vol. ii.
        p. 544.

  122 – ‘The colonel was furnished with the following curious
        instructions, which fell into the hands of general
        Stark:――“To proceed to New Hampshire grants, cross the
        mountains, scour the country, with Peter’s corps (tories)
        and the Indians, from Rockingham to Otter creek, to
        get horses, carriages, and cattle, and mount Reidesel’s
        regiment of dragoons; to go down Connecticut river as far
        as Brattleborough, and return by the great road to Albany,
        there to meet general Burgoyne; to endeavor to make the
        country believe it was the advanced body of the general’s
        army, who was to cross Connecticut river and proceed to
        Boston, and that at Springfield they were to be joined
        by the troops from Rhode island. All officers, civil
        and military, acting under the congress, were to be
        made prisoners. To tax the towns where they halted with
        such articles as they wanted, and take hostages for the
        performance, &c. You are to bring all horses fit to mount
        the dragoons or to serve as battalion horses for the troops,
        with as many saddles and bridles as can be found. The number
        of horses requisite, besides those for the dragoons, ought
        to be thirteen hundred; if you can bring more, so much the
        better. The horses must be tied in strings of ten each, in
        order that one man may lead ten horses.” This redoubtable
        commander surely must be one of the happiest men of the
        age, to imagine that such prodigious achievements were at
        his command,――that such invaluable resources were within
        his grasp. But, alas! the wisest of men are liable to
        disappointment in their sanguine calculations, and to
        have their favorite projects frustrated by the casualties
        of war. This is remarkably verified in the present
        instance.’――_Thacher’s Military Journal_, p. 109.

  123 – The committee consisted of Mr. Harrison, Dr. Franklin,
        Mr. Johnson, Mr. Dickinson, and Mr. Jay.

  124 – ‘He was to appear in the character of a merchant, and
        was directed, among other things, immediately after his
        arrival at Paris, to solicit an interview with the count
        de Vergennes, the French minister, and to inform him, that
        congress, being unable to obtain for America the quantity
        of arms and ammunition necessary for its defence, had
        despatched him to apply to some of the European powers
        for a supply. That he was instructed to make his first
        application to France, from an opinion that, in case of a
        total separation of America from Great Britain, which every
        circumstance seemed to indicate, it would be most proper
        to obtain and cultivate her friendship. That in such case
        the commercial advantages formerly enjoyed by Great Britain
        would be transferred to France. That the Americans were
        in want of clothing and arms for twenty-five thousand
        men, with a suitable quantity of ammunition, and a hundred
        field-pieces. Mr. Deane was also directed to sound the
        French minister with regard to forming an alliance with
        the colonies, in case they should be forced to declare
        themselves independent.’――_Pitkin_, vol. i. p. 387. The
        instructions will be found at length in the Diplomatic
        Correspondence of the American Revolution, edited by
        J. Sparkes, vol. i. p. 5–9.

  125 – This important committee consisted of Mr. Dickinson,
        Dr. Franklin, John Adams, Mr. Harrison, and Robert Morris.

  126 – Mr. Jefferson, on account of the situation of his family,
        being unable to accept the appointment, Arthur Lee, then in
        London, was substituted.

  127 – ‘To induce Franco to embark in the war, the American envoys
        were authorized to stipulate, that all the trade between
        the United States and the West India islands, should be
        carried on either in French or American vessels; and were
        specially instructed to assure the French king, that if,
        by their joint efforts, the British should be excluded from
        any share in the cod-fishery of America, by the reduction
        of the islands of Newfoundland and Cape Breton, and ships of
        war should be furnished, at the expense of the United States,
        to reduce Nova Scotia, that the fishery should be enjoyed
        equally between them, to the exclusion of all other nations;
        and that one-half of Newfoundland should belong to France,
        and the other half, with Cape Breton and Nova Scotia, to
        the United States. Should these proposals be insufficient
        to induce France to join in the war, and the commissioners
        were convinced that the open co-operation of France could
        not otherwise be obtained, they were directed to assure his
        most Christian majesty, that such of the West India islands
        as might, in the course of the war, be reduced, should be
        yielded to him in absolute property.’――_Pitkin_, vol. i.
        p. 392.

  128 – William Lee was appointed commissioner to the courts of
        Vienna and Berlin, Ralph Izard to the duke of Tuscany, and
        Dr. Franklin to Spain. Arthur Lee was afterwards appointed,
        in the room of Dr. Franklin, to the Spanish court. While Mr.
        Lee was at Berlin, his papers were stolen from his lodgings
        in a most extraordinary manner and the British envoy at the
        Prussian court was implicated in this transaction.

  129 – The letter communicating the refusal was signed by the
        president; and it illustrates the character of congress,
        and the history of this year. ‘I have received the letter
        from your excellencies, dated the 9th instant, with the
        inclosures, and laid them before congress. Nothing but
        an earnest desire to spare the further effusion of human
        blood could have induced them to read a paper containing
        expressions so disrespectful to his most Christian majesty,
        the good and great ally of these states, or to consider
        propositions so derogatory to the honor of an independent
        nation. The acts of the British parliament, the commission
        from your sovereign, and your letter, suppose the people
        of these states to be subjects of the crown of Great
        Britain, and are founded on the idea of dependence, which
        is utterly inadmissible. I am further directed to inform
        your excellencies, that congress are inclined to peace,
        notwithstanding the unjust claims from which this war
        originated, and the savage manner in which it hath been
        conducted. They will therefore be ready to enter upon
        the consideration of a treaty of peace and commerce, not
        inconsistent with treaties already subsisting, when the king
        of Great Britain shall demonstrate a sincere disposition
        for that purpose. The only solid proof of this disposition
        will be an explicit acknowledgment of these states, or the
        withdrawing his fleets and armies.’――_Journals of Congress_,
        vol. iv. p. 353.

  130 – Lee, irritable and proud, could not forget the manner in
        which Washington had addressed him, and in two passionate
        letters demanded reparation. A court-martial was instituted;
        he was found guilty of misconduct on the day of battle, and
        of disrespect to the commander-in-chief, and was suspended
        from command for one year. He never afterwards joined the
        army, but died in seclusion just before the close of the war.

  131 – In consequence of heat and fatigue, fifty-nine British
        soldiers perished without a wound; and several of the
        American soldiers died through the same cause.

  132 – The loss of the Americans in this battle was eight officers
        and sixty-one privates killed, and about a hundred and
        sixty wounded. Among the slain, and much regretted, were
        lieutenant-colonel Bonner, of Pennsylvania, and major
        Dickenson, of Virginia. The loss of the British army, in
        killed, wounded, and missing, is stated to have been three
        hundred and fifty-eight men, including officers. Among their
        slain was lieutenant-colonel Monckton, who was greatly and
        deservedly lamented. About a hundred were taken prisoners;
        and nearly a thousand soldiers, principally foreigners, many
        of whom had married in Philadelphia, deserted the British
        standard during the march.

  133 – We insert the following as an antidote to the feelings with
        which the ‘glory’ of war is apt to inspire the breasts even
        of the generous and noble:――‘A short distance below the
        battle ground there is a large island in the river, called
        Monockonock island. Several of the settlers, while the
        battle and pursuit continued, succeeded in swimming to this
        island, where they concealed themselves among the logs and
        brushwood upon it. Their arms had been thrown away in their
        flight, previous to their entering the river, so that they
        were in a manner defenceless. Two of them in particular
        were concealed near and in sight of each other. While in
        this situation, they observed several of the enemy, who had
        pursued and fired at them while they were swimming the river,
        preparing to follow them to the island with their guns. On
        reaching the island they immediately wiped their guns and
        loaded them. One of them with his loaded gun soon passed
        close by one of these men, who lay concealed from his view,
        and was immediately recognized by him to be the brother
        of his companion who was concealed near him, but who,
        being a tory, had joined the enemy. He passed slowly along,
        carefully examining every covert, and directly perceived
        his brother in his place of concealment. He suddenly stopped
        and said, “So it is you, is it?” His brother, finding that
        he was discovered, immediately came forward a few steps,
        and, falling on his knees, begged him to spare his life,
        promising to live with him and serve him, and even to be
        his slave as long as he lived, if he would only spare his
        life. “All this is mighty good,” replied the savage-hearted
        brother of the supplicating man; “but you are a d――――d rebel;”
        and, deliberately presenting his rifle, shot him dead upon
        the spot. The other settler made his escape from the island,
        and having related this fact, the tory brother thought it
        prudent to accompany the British troops on their return to
        Canada.’――_History of Wyoming_, p. 127.

  134 – Count Pulaski was mortally wounded in this assault; and
        congress resolved that a monument should be erected to his
        memory. He was a Polander of high birth, who with a few
        men had carried off king Stanislaus from the middle of his
        capital. The king, after being some time a prisoner, made
        his escape, and soon after declared Pulaski an outlaw.
        Thus proscribed, he came to America, and offered his
        service to congress, which honored him with the rank of
        brigadier-general.

  135 – By the articles of capitulation, the garrison were to march
        out of the town and to deposit their arms in front of the
        works; but the drums were not to beat a British march, nor
        the colors to be uncased. The continental troops and seamen
        were to keep their baggage, and remain prisoners of war
        until exchanged. The militia were to be permitted to return
        home as prisoners on parole; and, while they should adhere
        to their parole, were not to be molested by the British
        troops in person or property. The inhabitants of all
        conditions were to be considered as prisoners on parole, and
        to hold their property on the same terms with the militia.

  136 – General Arnold early and warmly embraced the American cause.
        His enterprising spirit, his invincible fortitude, his
        heroic and persevering ardor in battle, had exalted his
        military character in his own country and in Europe. Being
        incapacitated for the duties of the field by the wounds he
        received before Quebec and at Saratoga, he was appointed
        commandant in Philadelphia when the British evacuated that
        city. In this flattering command, he adopted a style of
        living above his means, and soon found himself loaded with
        debt. To relieve himself he entered into various schemes of
        speculation, and was unsuccessful in all. Hollow at heart,
        he had recourse to fraud and peculation. These practices
        rendered him odious to the citizens, and gave offence to
        government. At length formal complaints were lodged against
        him, and congress ordered his trial by a court-martial.
        By this court he was found guilty, and sentenced to be
        reprimanded by the commander-in-chief. The sentence was
        approved by congress, and carried into execution by general
        Washington. In the gold that was to reward his treason,
        Arnold expected relief from his pecuniary embarrassments;
        and his implacable spirit sought its revenge of his country
        by betraying into the hand of her enemy the Gibraltar of
        America. Upon his establishment in the army of Great Britain,
        he found it necessary to make some exertions to secure the
        attachment of his new friends. With the hope of alluring
        many of the discontented to his standard, he published
        an address to the inhabitants of America, in which he
        endeavored to justify his conduct. This was followed by
        a proclamation addressed ‘to the officers and soldiers of
        the continental army, who have the real interest of their
        country at heart, and who are determined to be no longer
        the tools and dupes of congress and of France.’ These
        proclamations did not produce the effect designed. And in
        all the hardships, sufferings, and irritations of the war,
        Arnold remains the solitary instance of an American officer
        who abandoned the side first embraced in the contest, and
        turned his sword upon his former companions in arms. He
        survived the war but to drag on, in perpetual banishment
        from his native country, a dishonorable life. He transmitted
        to his children a name of hateful celebrity. He obtained
        only a part of the debasing stipend of an abortive treason,
        and his complaints soon caused it to be known, that all the
        promises by which he had been inveigled were not fulfilled.
        He enjoyed, however, the rank of brigadier-general, but the
        officers of the British army manifested a strong repugnance
        to serve with him. He possessed their esteem while he fought
        against them; they loaded him with contempt when treason
        brought him over to their side. He resided principally in
        England after the conclusion of the war, and died on the
        14th of June, 1801.

  137 – The general officers who reported his case lamented the
        necessity they were under to advise that as a spy he should
        be hung, and the heart of general Washington was wrung with
        anguish when he signed his death warrant. But the fatal
        wound that would have been inflicted on the country had
        Arnold’s treason succeeded, made the sacrifice necessary
        for the public safety. The American officers universally
        discovered a sympathy for the unfortunate sufferer, and
        the sensibility of the public was greatly excited on the
        occasion. His character is thus beautifully painted by
        the late general Hamilton, who without envy might have
        contemplated his eminent qualities, for they were not equal
        to his own. ‘There was something singularly interesting
        in the character of André. To an excellent understanding,
        well improved by education and travel he united a peculiar
        elegance of mind and manners, and the advantages of a
        pleasing person. It is said that he possessed a pretty taste
        for the fine arts, and had himself attained some proficiency
        in poetry, music, and painting. His knowledge appeared
        without ostentation, and embellished by a diffidence that
        rarely accompanies so many talents and accomplishments,
        which left you to suppose more than appeared. His sentiments
        were elevated, and inspired esteem; they had a softness
        that conciliated affection. His elocution was handsome, his
        address easy, polite, and insinuating. By his merit he had
        acquired the unlimited confidence of his general, and was
        making rapid progress in military rank and reputation. But
        in the height of his career, flushed with new hopes from the
        execution of a project the most beneficial to his party that
        could be devised, he is at once precipitated from the summit
        of prosperity, sees all the expectations of his ambition
        blasted, and himself ruined.’ A handsome monument is erected
        to his memory in Westminster abbey.

  138 – The following instance will illustrate the horrible spirit
        of these times:――‘In the hour of festivity, one Brown had
        indulged himself in indiscreet censure of the revolutionary
        party. He had done worse,――he had committed a fault less
        easily forgiven,――he had ridiculed them. Being apprized that
        their resentment was excited, he attempted to escape; but he
        was closely pursued, brought back to Augusta, tried before
        a committee of surveillance, and sentenced to be tarred and
        feathered and carted, unless he recanted and took the oath
        of allegiance prescribed by the administration of Georgia.
        Brown was a firm man, and resisted with a pertinacity that
        should have commanded the respect of his persecutors. But
        the motions of a mob are too precipitate to admit of the
        intrusion of generous feeling. After undergoing the painful
        and mortifying penance prescribed by the committee without
        yielding, it is too true that he was doomed to have his
        naked feet exposed to a large fire, to subdue his stubborn
        spirit; but in vain; and he was at length turned loose by a
        group of men, who never once dreamed that the simple Indian
        trader would soon reappear an armed and implacable enemy.
        He first visited the loyalists of Ninety Six, concerted
        his measures with them, then made his way to St. Augustine,
        received a colonel’s commission, placed himself at the head
        of a band of desperate refugees, and accompanied Provost in
        his irruption into Georgia. His thirst for revenge appeared
        afterward insatiable, and besides wantonly hanging many of
        his prisoners, he subjected the families of the whigs who
        were out in service to accumulated sufferings and distress.
        It was not long after he was left in command at Augusta by
        the British general, that colonel Clarke, with a determined
        party of the militia, whose families he had persecuted,
        aimed a well-directed blow at his post. But Brown proved
        himself a man of bravery and conduct, and he well knew that
        at all times he was fighting for his life. After a severe
        and partially successful contest, the approach of a party
        of Indians obliged Clarke to retreat, and leave his wounded
        behind him, with a letter addressed to Brown, requesting
        that he would parole them to their plantations. But Brown’s
        thirst for revenge knew no bounds. It had been irritated in
        this instance by a wound which confined him to his bed. The
        unhappy prisoners, twenty-eight in number, were all hung;
        thirteen of them were suspended to the railing of the
        staircase, that he might feast his eyes with their dying
        agonies.’――_Johnson’s Life of General Green._

  139 – Upwards of three hundred of the British were killed
        or wounded, and above five hundred taken prisoners;
        eight hundred muskets, two field-pieces, two standards,
        thirty-five baggage wagons, and one hundred dragoon horses,
        fell into the hands of the conquerors. Of the Americans,
        twelve men only were killed, and sixty wounded. Congress, in
        honor of the good conduct of general Morgan, presented him
        a gold medal; to lieutenant-colonels Washington and Howard,
        medals of silver; and to colonel Pickens, a sword.

  140 – Marshall’s Life of Washington, b. iv. chap. 8.

  141 – Among the papers of Dr. Franklin was found the following
        memorandum: ‘Immediately after the death of lord Rockingham,
        the king said to lord Shelburne, “I will be plain with
        you; the point next my heart, and which I am determined,
        be the consequence what it may, never to relinquish but
        with my crown and life, is, to prevent a total unequivocal
        recognition of the independence of America. Promise to
        support me on this ground, and I will leave you unmolested
        on every other ground, and with full power as the
        prime minister of this kingdom.” The bargain was
        struck.’――_Franklin’s Works_, vol. v. p. 326.

  142 – The following eulogium from the lips of an eloquent living
        statesman, when pleading for the relief of the illustrious
        survivors, conveys a just idea of the honorable conduct of
        this band of patriots:――‘The army was to be disbanded; but
        it was unpaid. It was to lay down its own power; but there
        was no government with adequate power to perform what had
        been promised to it. In this critical moment what is its
        conduct? Does it disgrace its high character? Is temptation
        able to seduce it? Does it speak of righting itself? Does
        it undertake to redress its own wrongs by its own sword?
        Does it lose its patriotism in its deep sense of injury and
        injustice? Does military ambition cause its integrity to
        swerve? Far, far otherwise. It had faithfully served and
        saved the country, and to that country it now referred, with
        unhesitating confidence, its claim and its complaints. It
        laid down its arms with alacrity; it mingled itself with the
        mass of the community; and it waited till, in better times,
        and under a new government, its services might be rewarded,
        and the promises made to it fulfilled. We can hardly recur
        to this example too often, or dwell on it too much, for the
        honor of our country, and of its defenders.’――_The Speeches
        and Forensic Arguments of Daniel Webster_, p. 356, 357.

  143 – At the head of the department of state he placed Mr.
        Jefferson; at the head of the treasury, colonel Hamilton;
        at the head of the war department, general Knox; in the
        office of attorney-general, Edmund Randolph; at the head
        of the judicial department, Mr. Jay. The associate justices
        were John Rutledge, of South Carolina, James Wilson, of
        Pennsylvania, William Cushing, of Massachusetts, Robert
        Harrison, of Maryland and John Blair, of Virginia.

  144 – Goldsborough’s Naval Chronicle.

  145 – Memoirs and Correspondence of Thomas Jefferson, vol. iv.
        p. 34.

  146 – The capture of this ill-fated ship by the English frigate
        Shannon was mainly owing to a bugleman’s desertion of his
        quarters. Notwithstanding the fall of captain Lawrence and
        the principal officers of the Chesapeake early in the action,
        had the bugleman whose duty it was to call the boarders
        sounded his horn when ordered, the crew would have promptly
        repaired to the deck, and the issue of the engagement been,
        in all probability, different. As it was, the usual signal
        was not sounded that the enemy were boarding, and when some
        midshipmen ran below to pass the word, the seamen knew not
        what was meant, were thrown into confusion, and abandoned
        their quarters.

        Previous to the two ships falling foul of each other, the
        fire of the Chesapeake made unexampled destruction on board
        the Shannon. All the damage that the enemy received was
        before they boarded. In the short space of eight minutes,
        the Shannon was so cut in her hull by the Chesapeake’s
        broadsides that it was with difficulty she could be kept
        afloat during that night, and she had eighty-eight of
        her crew killed and wounded, while the Chesapeake was
        comparatively uninjured.

        The Chesapeake was rated as a thirty-six gun frigate but
        mounted forty-nine; the Shannon mounted fifty-two carriage
        guns and had a picked crew of four hundred men. The seamen
        of the Chesapeake were fresh recruits, and little or no
        opportunity had been afforded to exercise and discipline
        them.

        It was on the morning of the first of June that the Shannon
        appeared off our harbor and tauntingly displayed her colors.
        The Chesapeake was lying at anchor below fort Independence.
        As soon as the enemy’s flag was seen, she fired a gun and
        ran up the American flag. Preparation was at once made for
        sailing, and when the tide served, she got under way. The
        Shannon stood immediately down the bay, followed by the
        Chesapeake under a press of sail.

        Every elevated spot in Boston which commanded a view of
        the sea was crowded with anxious spectators. But the ship
        proceeded so far to the eastward that the conflict could not
        be seen. A large number of boats sailed out to witness the
        result, and brought back the melancholy tidings, that when
        the smoke of the cannonade had dispersed, the English colors
        were seen flying on board the Chesapeake, and soon after
        both vessels standing towards Halifax. The suspense that
        ensued for more than a fortnight was painful in the extreme.
        The fate of no one was known, though it was generally
        anticipated from the intrepid character of captain Lawrence
        that he had fallen a martyr to his country.

        Captain Lawrence was first wounded in the leg, but he
        refused to be carried below until he was mortally wounded
        by a grape-shot. He continued, however, to issue his orders
        from the cockpit; ‘Fight her till she sinks――keep the guns
        going;’ and when told that the enemy had carried the upper
        deck, he sent that emphatic and memorable message, ‘Don’t
        give up the ship.’ When apprized of the unhappy issue, he
        exclaimed, ‘The Shannon was whipped when I left.’

        Captain Broke, of the Shannon, was dangerously wounded at
        the close of the action by the stroke of a sabre. He was
        delirious for a long period, but recovered and went to
        England. He lived long enough to be made an admiral, but
        within a year or two has deceased. He was a generous as well
        as brave officer, and never would have allowed the carnage
        to take place which was committed on board the Chesapeake,
        after her surrender, had he been aware of it. If it be true,
        as there is good reason to believe, that he was wounded
        while stooping to save the life of one of the Chesapeake’s
        crew whom one of his men was mangling, his memory
        deserves to be embalmed, as well by Americans as by his
        countrymen.――_Boston Atlas._

  147 – Historical Memoir of the War in Louisiana, by Major A. L.
        Latour, Engineer in the United States Army. Philadelphia,
        1816.

  148 – By the first article of this treaty it was agreed that there
        shall be a firm and universal peace between his Britannic
        majesty and the United States, and between their respective
        countries, territories, cities, towns, and people, of every
        degree, without exception of places or persons; and that all
        hostilities, both by sea and land, shall cease as soon as
        this treaty shall have been ratified by both parties. By the
        third article, all prisoners of war taken on either side,
        as well by land as by sea, shall be restored as soon as
        practicable after the ratifications of this treaty. By the
        fourth article, the decision of the conflicting claims of
        the United States and of Great Britain to several islands in
        the bay of Passamaquoddy was referred to two commissioners,
        one to be appointed by his Britannic majesty, and one by the
        president of the United States, with the advice and consent
        of the senate; and it was agreed, in the event of the two
        commissioners differing upon all or any of the matters
        referred to them, or of their not acting, they shall make
        report or reports to their respective governments, which
        report or reports they agreed to refer to some friendly
        sovereign or state, to be then named for that purpose, and
        engaged to consider such decision to be final and conclusive.
        By the ninth article, the United States engaged to put
        an end, immediately after the ratification of the present
        treaty, to hostilities with all the tribes or nations of
        Indians with whom they may be at war at the time of such
        ratification, provided they shall agree to desist from all
        hostilities against the United States; and his Britannic
        majesty, on his part, entered into a correspondent
        engagement on the like condition of their desisting from all
        hostilities against him and his subjects. The tenth article
        has respect to the abolition of the slave-trade; ‘Whereas
        the traffic in slaves is irreconcilable with the principles
        of humanity and justice; and whereas both his majesty and
        the United States are desirous of continuing their efforts
        to promote its entire abolition; it is hereby agreed that
        both the contracting parties shall use their best endeavors
        to accomplish so desirable an object.’

  149 – Memoirs, vol. iv. p. 347.

  150 – Annual Register.




                         Transcriber’s Notes.


The following corrections have been made in the text:

  Page 26:
    Sentence starting: 6. Moosehillock Mt.,...
      – ‘Mooshillock’ replaced with ‘Moosehillock’
        (Moosehillock Mt., Grafton County, New Hampshire)

  Page 65:
    Sentence starting: It appeared to me....
      – text missing from imprint
        (appeared to me to owe)

  Page 75:
    Sentence starting: It abounds in fish,...
      – ‘In’ replaced with ‘It’
        (It abounds in fish,)

  Page 143:
    Sentence starting: The climate of Massachusetts....
      – ‘Masachusetts’ replaced with ‘Massachusetts’
        (climate of Massachusetts is)

  Page 145:
    Sentence starting: The northern parts, however,...
      – ‘agreable’ replaced with ‘agreeable’
        (more agreeable and healthy)

  Page 149:
    Sentence starting: The peninsula is visited....
      – ‘peninsular’ replaced with ‘peninsula’
        (The peninsula is visited)

  Page 150:
    Sentence starting: A series of thermometrical observations....
      – ‘themometrical’ replaced with ‘thermometrical’
        (A series of thermometrical observations)

  Page 173:
    Sentence starting: The chase is commenced....
      – ‘chace’ replaced with ‘chase’
        (The chase is commenced)

  Page 190:
    Sentence starting: ‘When it plunges into....
      – ‘disapppear’ replaced with ‘disappear’
        (to disappear for an instant.)

  Page 201:
    Sentence starting: The general color of this....
      – ‘siaty’ replaced with ‘slaty’
        (a dark slaty ash,)

  Page 208:
    Sentence starting: He is extremely fond of....
      – ‘His’ replaced with ‘He’
        (He is extremely fond of)

  Page 247:
    Sentence starting: The common kinds of water-plants....
      – ‘mashy’ replaced with ‘marshy’
        (found in the marshy grounds)

  Page 327:
    Sentence starting: The fur-trade, the lead mines,...
      – ‘Misissippi’ replaced with ‘Mississippi’
        (on the upper Mississippi)

  Page 333:
    Sentence starting: It is divided into three distinct....
      – ‘Pensylvania’ replaced with ‘Pennsylvania’
        (and the Pennsylvania avenue.)

  Page 347:
    Sentence starting: There are at present....
      – ‘tobaccco’ replaced with ‘tobacco’
        (two sorts of tobacco raised)

  Page 355:
    Sentence starting: It has been, within a few....
      – ‘iritating’ replaced with ‘irritating’
        (not in the irritating measures)

  Page 379:
    Sentence starting: The number of its locks....
      – ‘it’ replaced with ‘is’
        (The number of its locks is twenty-six.)

  Page 398:
    Sentence starting: The present constitution....
      – ‘182’ replaced with ‘1822’
        (was formed in 1822.)

  Page 405:
    Sentence starting: The convention proposed....
      – ‘Virgina’ replaced with ‘Virginia’
        (proposed by Virginia,)

  Page 409:
    Sentence starting: _Mr. President_――The....
      – ‘mperfection’ replaced with ‘imperfection’
        (the imperfection of the human understanding.)

  Page 414:
    Sentence starting: ‘When you become men,’....
      – ‘cuning’ replaced with ‘cunning’
        (and cunning in war,)

  Page 432:
    Sentence starting: ....
      – ‘probally’ replaced with ‘probably’
        (will probably ere long)

  Page 523:
    Sentence starting: On the downfall of....
      – ‘downfal’ replaced with ‘downfall’
        (On the downfall of the)

  Page 527:
    Sentence starting: Between 1777 and 1779,....
      – ‘1799’ replaced with ‘1779’
        (Between 1777 and 1779,)

  Page 572:
    Sentence starting: This confederacy, which was....
      – duplicated word removed ‘to’
        (declared to be perpetual,)

  Page 608
    Sentence starting: The young men, burning....
      – ‘neigboring’ replaced with ‘neighboring’
        (and the neighboring plantations;)

  Page 613:
    Sentence starting: This letter perplexed and....
      – ‘delieving’ replaced with ‘believing’
        (and others believing it to contain)

  Page 615:
    Sentence starting: As soon, however, as....
      – ‘be’ replaced with ‘by’
        (to be secured by a distribution)

  Page 722:
    Sentence starting: New York was evacuated....
      – ‘Yew’ replaced with ‘New’
        (New York was evacuated)

  Page 764:
    Sentence starting: It is instructive to observe....
      – ‘goverment’ replaced with ‘government’
        (the internal government of)

  Page 770:
    Sentence starting: It is submitted to the wisdom....
      – ‘transanctions’ replaced with ‘transactions’
        (which these transactions may produce.’)

  Page 823:
    Sentence starting: The explosion was followed,...
      – ‘wo’ replaced with ‘woe’
        (by shrieks of woe which)

  Page 830:
    Sentence starting: In order to [give] a ....
      – word omitted from text ‘[give]’
        (In order to [give] a fair)

  Page 834:
    Sentence starting: Attempts at compromise had....
      – ‘begining’ replaced with ‘beginning’
        (was beginning to be felt)

  Page 849 Appendix:
    Sentence starting: Western and Atlantic,...
      – ‘Wetsern’ replaced with ‘Western’
        (Western and Atlantic,)

  Page 849 Appendix:
    Sentence starting: Selma and Cahawba,...
      – ‘Cawhaba’ replaced with ‘Cahawba’
        (Selma and Cahawba,)

  Footnote 23:
    Sentence starting: There is now, indeed,...
      – duplicated word removed ‘of’
        (and more of city-like amusements)

  Footnote 60:
    Sentence starting: The Washington Monument is built....
      – Footnote was not marked in the text. Footnote anchor placed
        by transcriber.

  Footnote 96:
    Sentence starting: It is humiliating to reflect,...
      – ‘dependdence’ replaced with ‘dependence’
        (imbecile dependence upon it)

  Footnote 146:
    Sentence starting: Notwithstanding the fall....
      – ‘Nothwithstanding’ replaced with ‘Notwithstanding’
        (Notwithstanding the fall of)





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