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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 57954 ***
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note: Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
+
+
+ * * * * *
+
+_Frontispiece to Vol. II._
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+USEFUL KNOWLEDGE:
+
+OR
+
+_A FAMILIAR ACCOUNT_
+
+OF THE
+
+VARIOUS PRODUCTIONS
+
+OF
+
+Nature,
+
+MINERAL, VEGETABLE, AND ANIMAL,
+
+WHICH ARE CHIEFLY EMPLOYED FOR THE USE OF MAN.
+
+_Illustrated with numerous Figures, and intended as a Work
+both of Instruction and Reference._
+
+----
+
+BY THE
+
+REV. WILLIAM BINGLEY, AM. FLS.
+
+LATE OF PETERHOUSE, CAMBRIDGE, AND AUTHOR OF
+ANIMAL BIOGRAPHY.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+IN THREE VOLUMES.
+
+VOL. II. VEGETABLES.
+
+----
+
+_FOURTH EDITION._
+
+----
+
+LONDON: PRINTED FOR BALDWIN, CRADOCK, AND JOY;
+HARVEY AND DARTON;
+AND C. AND J. RIVINGTON.
+
+----
+
+1825.
+
+
+
+
+EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES
+
+OF THE
+
+_SECOND VOLUME_.
+
+
+----
+
+
+
+FRONTISPIECE: PLATE I.
+
+ Fig.
+ 1. Olive.
+ 2. Ginger plant.
+ 3. Black pepper.
+ 4. Cardamom plant.
+ 5. Sugar cane.
+ 6. Saffron.
+ 7. Scammony plant.
+ 8. Jalap plant.
+ 9. Coffee-tree.
+ 10. Peruvian bark tree.
+ 11. Tobacco plant.
+ 12. Annual capsicum.
+
+
+PLATE II.
+
+ 13. Wheat.
+ 14. Oats.
+ 15. Barley.
+ 16. Rye.
+ 17. Vernal grass.
+ 18. Cotton grass.
+ 19. Bull-rush.
+ 20. Meadow fox-tail grass.
+ 21. Cat's-tail grass.
+ 22. Fiorin, or Orcheston long grass.
+ 23. Canary grass.
+ 24. Purple melic grass.
+
+
+PLATE III.
+
+ 25. Meadow soft grass.
+ 26. Reed meadow grass.
+ 27. Smooth-stalked meadow grass.
+ 28. Annual meadow grass.
+ 29. Crested dog's-tail grass.
+ 30. Hard fescue grass.
+ 31. Flote fescue grass.
+ 32. Sheep's fescue grass.
+ 33. Common reed.
+ 34. Sea matweed.
+ 35. Rye, or Ray grass.
+ 36. Couch, or Squitch grass.
+
+
+PLATE IV.
+
+ Fig.
+
+ 37. Flax.
+ 38. Socotrine Aloe.
+ 39. Rice.
+ 40. Cinnamon-tree.
+ 41. Camphor-tree.
+ 42. Cashew Nut tree.
+ 43. Logwood-tree.
+ 44. Mahogany-tree.
+ 45. All-spice, or Pimento-tree.
+ 46. Almond-tree.
+ 47. Pomegranate.
+ 48. Caper plant.
+
+
+PLATE V.
+
+ 49. Tea-tree.
+ 50. Clove-tree.
+ 51. Tamarind-tree.
+ 52. Cotton plant.
+ 53. Cowhage plant.
+ 54. Chocolate-tree.
+ 55. Orange-tree.
+ 56. Lemon-tree.
+ 57. Bread-fruit-tree.
+ 58. Maize, or Indian corn.
+ 59. Cucumber.
+ 60. Indian rubber tree.
+
+
+PLATE VI.
+
+ 61. Common elm.
+ 62. Broad-leaved elm.
+ 63. Alder.
+ 64. Beech-tree.
+ 65. Sweet chesnut.
+ 66. Horse chesnut.
+ 67. Hazel.
+ 68. Oak.
+ 69. Walnut-tree.
+ 70. Sycamore.
+ 71. Plane-tree.
+ 72. Mulberry-tree.
+
+
+PLATE VII.
+
+ 73. Hornbeam.
+ 74. White poplar.
+ 75. Black poplar.
+ 76. Flowering ash.
+ 77. Lignum-vitæ tree.
+ 78. Quassia-tree.
+ 79. Ash-tree.
+ 80. Nutmeg-tree.
+ 81. Hop plant.
+ 82. Hemp.
+ 83. Fig-tree.
+ 84. Morell.
+
+_Pl. 2._
+
+[Illustration]
+
+_Pl. 3._
+
+[Illustration]
+
+_Pl. 4._
+
+[Illustration]
+
+_Pl. 5._
+
+[Illustration]
+
+_Pl. 6._
+
+[Illustration]
+
+_Pl. 7._
+
+[Illustration] USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.
+
+----
+
+VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS.
+
+----
+
+
+
+_INTRODUCTION._
+
+1. VEGETABLES or PLANTS are natural bodies endowed with organization and
+life, but destitute of voluntary motion and sense; and BOTANY is that
+branch of natural science which treats of their structure and functions,
+the systematical arrangement and denomination of their several kinds, and
+their peculiar properties and uses.
+
+2. The principal parts of plants are the _root_; the _herb_ or plant
+itself; and the _fructification_, or flower and fruit.
+
+3. As it is the sole object of this introduction to describe, in a concise
+manner, the Linnæan arrangement of plants, for the purpose of explaining
+the classification adopted in the present volume, the parts of
+_fructification_ only will be mentioned. These are the calyx, corolla,
+stamens, pistil, seed-vessel, seeds, and receptacle.
+
+4. The CALYX, or flower cup, is the green part which is situated
+immediately beneath the blossom. In some plants this consists of one, in
+others of several leaves; and it is frequently tubular, as in the
+polyanthus, and cowslip.
+
+5. The COROLLA, or blossom, is that coloured part of every flower on which
+its beauty principally depends. The leaves that compose it are denominated
+_petals_. Some flowers, as the convolvolus and campanula, have only a
+single petal; and others, as the rose and peony, have several petals.
+
+6. In the centre of the flower there are two kinds of organs on which the
+fructification and re-production of the species more particularly depend.
+These are the stamens, and the pistil. The STAMENS are slender,
+thread-like, substances, which surround the pistil. They each consist of a
+_filament_ or thread, and an _anther_ or summit: the latter contains, when
+ripe, a fine dust or powder called _pollen_. This, though, to the naked
+eye, it appears a fine powder, is so curiously formed, and is so various in
+different plants, as to be an interesting object for the microscope. Each
+grain of it is, commonly, a membranous bag, round or angular, rough or
+smooth, which remains entire till it meets with any moisture; it then
+bursts and discharges a most subtile vapour.
+
+7. The PISTIL is a prominent part, immediately in the centre of each
+flower, which adheres to the fruit, and is destined for the reception of
+the pollen. Some flowers have only one pistil; others have two, three,
+four, &c. and others more than can be easily counted.
+
+8. At the foot of the pistil is situated the _germen_. This, when grown to
+maturity, has the name of pericarp or SEED-VESSEL, and is that part of the
+fructification which contains the seeds: whether it be a _capsule_ as in
+the poppy, a _nut_ as the filbert, a _drupe_ as the plum, a _berry_ as the
+gooseberry, a _pome_ as the apple, a _pod_ as in the pea, or a _cone_ as of
+the fir-tree.
+
+9. That part of every vegetable, which, at a certain state of maturity, is
+separated from it, and contains the rudiments of a new plant, is called the
+SEED.
+
+10. The RECEPTACLE is the base which connects all the parts of
+fructification together, and on which they are seated. In some plants this
+is very conspicuous; and in none more so than the artichoke, of which it
+forms the eatable part, called the bottom.
+
+11. The Linnæan system of classification of plants is founded upon a
+supposition that the stamens represent the _male_, and the pistils the
+_female_ parts of fructification. The whole vegetable creation has been
+distributed, by Linnæus, into twenty-four _classes_. These are divided into
+_orders_, which are subdivided into _genera_ or tribes; and these genera
+are further divided into _species_ or individuals.
+
+12. Of the CLASSES the discriminating characters are taken from the number,
+connexion, length, or situation of the stamens. In each of the first twenty
+classes there are stamens and pistils in the same flower; in the
+twenty-first class, the stamens and pistils are in distinct flowers on the
+same plant; in the twenty-second, in distinct flowers on different plants;
+in the twenty-third, in the same flower and also in distinct flowers; and
+in the twenty-fourth class they are not at all discernible. Thus:
+
+ The stamens considered according to their:
+
+ _Classes._
+ {One 1. Monandria.
+ CLASSES. {Two 2. Diandria.
+ {Three 3. Triandria.
+ {Four 4. Tetrandria.
+ {Five 5. Pentandria.
+ {Number {Number only {Six 6. Hexandria.
+ { { {Seven 7. Heptandria.
+ { { {Eight 8. Octandria.
+ { { {Nine 9. Enneandria.
+ { { {Ten 10. Decandria.
+ { { {About twelve 11. Dodecandria.
+ { {
+ { {and their {Insertion {On the calyx: more than
+ { { { nineteen 12. Icosandria.
+ { { {Not on the calyx: more
+ { { { than nineteen 13. Polyandria.
+ { {
+ { {Proportion {Four: two long andtwo
+ { { unequal { short 14. Didynamia.
+ { {Six: four long andtwo
+ { { short 15. Tetradynamia.
+ {
+ {Connexion by {Filaments {In one set 16. Monadelphia.
+ { { united {In two sets 17. Diadelphia.
+ { { {In three or more sets 18. Polyadelphia.
+ { {Anthers united 19. Syngenesia.
+ { {Stamens upon the pistil 20. Gynandria.
+ {
+ {Separation of {On the same plant 21. Monoecia.
+ { Pistils {On two plants 22. Dioecia.
+ { {With flowers of both sexes 23. Polygamia.
+ {
+ {Not being discernible 24. Cryptogamia.
+
+13. The characters of the ORDERS are most commonly taken from the number of
+the pistils; but sometimes from circumstances relative to the stamens,
+pistils, or seed. Those of the _first thirteen classes_ are taken from the
+number of pistils, thus:
+
+ Monogynia 1 pistil.
+ Digynia 2 pistils.
+ Trigynia 3 pistils.
+ Tetragynia 4 pistils.
+ Pentagynia 5 pistils.
+ Hexagynia 6 pistils.
+ Heptagynia 7 pistils.
+ Octagynia 8 pistils.
+ Enneagynia 9 pistils.
+ Decagynia 10 pistils.
+ Dodecagynia about 12 pistils.
+ Polygynia many pistils.
+
+The orders of the fourteenth class, _Didynamia_, are taken from the
+situation of the seeds; and are
+
+ Gymnospermia naked seeds.
+ Angiospermia seeds in a capsule.
+
+The orders of the fifteenth class, _Tetradynamia_, are formed from a
+difference in the shape of the seed-vessel:
+
+ Siliculosa a broad pod.
+ Siliquosa a long pod.
+
+In the classes _Monadelphia_, _Diadelphia_, _Polyadelphia_, and
+_Gynandria_, the orders are taken from the number of stamens:
+
+ Pentandria 5 stamens.
+ Hexandria, &c. 6 stamens, &c.
+
+In the nineteenth class, _Syngenesia_, the orders are taken from the
+structure of the flower:
+
+ Polygamia æqualis,--all the florets alike.
+
+ Polygamia superflua,--the florets of the centre perfect or united; those
+ of the margin with pistils only, but all producing perfect seeds.
+
+ Polygamia frustranea,--the florets of the centre perfect or united; those
+ of the margin, in general, without either stamens or pistils.
+
+ Polygamia necessaria,--the florets of the centre with stamens only; those
+ of the margin with pistils only.
+
+The classes _Monoecia_ and _Dicoecia_ take their orders from the number and
+other peculiarities of the stamens:
+
+ Monandria 1 stamen.
+ Diandria, &c. 2 stamens, &c.
+ Polyandria 7 stamens.
+ Monadelphia stamens united into one set.
+ Polyadelphia stamens united into several sets.
+ Gynandria stamens upon the pistil.
+
+In the class _Polygamia_ there are three orders:
+
+ Monoecia. Dioecia. Trioecia.
+
+The twenty-fourth class, _Cryptogamia_, has five orders:
+
+ 1. Ferns.
+ 2. Mosses.
+ 3. Liverworts.
+ 4. Flags.
+ 5. Mushrooms.
+
+The Linnæan system is professedly artificial. Its sole aim (observes Sir J.
+E. Smith) is to help any one to learn the name and history of an unknown
+plant in the most easy and certain manner. This is done by first
+determining its class and order; after which its genus is to be made out,
+by comparing the parts of fructification with all the generic characters of
+that order; and, finally, its species, by examining all the specific
+definitions of the genus.
+
+
+
+
+----
+
+CLASS I.--MONANDRIA.
+
+----
+
+
+MONOGYNIA.
+
+
+ 14. _GINGER is the dried root of a somewhat reed-like plant_ (Amomum
+ zingiber, Pl. 1. Fig. 2.) _which grows wild in several parts of Asia; and
+ is much cultivated both in the East and West Indies._
+
+ _The flowers of the ginger plant issue from stalks distinct from those
+ which support the leaves, and form a kind of ear or spike, of beautiful
+ colours and very fragrant smell._
+
+The cultivation of ginger is nearly similar to that of potatoes. The land
+is first well cleansed from weeds: it is then dug into trenches similar to
+those which our gardeners make for celery; and the plants are set in these
+trenches in March or April. They flower about September; and, in January or
+February, when the stalks are withered, the roots are in a proper state to
+be dug up.
+
+These are prepared for use in two ways. When intended for what is called
+_white ginger_ they are picked, scraped, separately washed, and afterwards
+dried with great care, by exposure to the sun. For _black ginger_ they are
+picked, cleansed, immersed in boiling water, and dried. This process is
+much less laborious and expensive than the last, consequently the price of
+the article is not so great. By boiling, the ginger loses a portion of its
+essential oil; and its black colour is owing to this.
+
+The uses of ginger, both in medicine, and as a spice, are numerous and well
+known. In the West Indies this root is frequently eaten fresh in salads,
+and with other food: and the roots when dug up young, namely, at the end of
+three or four months after they have been planted, are preserved in syrup,
+and exported as a sweet-meat to nearly all parts of the world. The ginger
+which is brought into this country from the East Indies is much stronger
+than any we have from Jamaica.
+
+ 15. _CARDAMOMS are the seeds of an East Indian plant[1]_ (_Fig. 4_),
+ _which has shining reed-like stalks and spear-shaped glossy leaves. They
+ are brought into Europe in their pods, which are small, oblong,
+ triangular, and each divided into three cells._
+
+ _The roots are thick, fleshy, and knotted. The stalks grow from seven to
+ twelve feet high; and the flowers are of irregular shape, and, in colour,
+ are green, pink, and white._
+
+In those woody parts of India where cardamom plants spontaneously grow, the
+inhabitants form plantations of them by a very simple process. They clear,
+from particular spots, the greater number of the trees; and, towards the
+close of the fourth rainy season afterwards, they look for the first crop
+of cardamoms (raised from the scattered seeds which have lain dormant in
+the ground), and they are seldom disappointed.
+
+The cardamom harvest usually commences in October, and lasts till December.
+Women or children pluck the fruit-stalks from the roots, carry them into
+the houses, and there spread them upon mats to dry. The pods are then
+separated from the stalks by stripping them with the fingers: they undergo
+some further processes of drying; after which they are packed for
+exportation, in large chests, which are well pitched at the joints and
+seams, to prevent them from being injured by moisture. It is estimated that
+about 15,000 pounds weight of these seeds are annually vended at the East
+India Company's sales.
+
+Cardamoms have a pleasant aromatic smell; and, when chewed, impart to the
+mouth a warmth and pungency, which, to most persons, are extremely
+grateful. The Indians use them, in considerable quantity, in their food;
+and also mix them with betel (22), and chew them, under a belief that they
+tend to facilitate digestion. They are sometimes used with us in medicine,
+but more frequently for the purpose of concealing the nauseous taste of
+other medicines.
+
+ 16. _TURMERIC is a thick, fleshy, and solid East Indian root, which is
+ usually seen in pieces from half an inch to two inches and upwards in
+ length; has a yellowish and rugged surface, and is of a shining saffron
+ brown colour within._
+
+ _The flowers of the turmeric plant_ (Curcuma longa) _are white, and form
+ an ear or spike, which issues immediately from the root. The leaves are
+ spear-shaped, and each eight or nine inches long._
+
+This root, which has an aromatic smell somewhat resembling that of ginger,
+is much cultivated in the East Indies, where it is in common use as a
+seasoning for ragouts and other dishes. It constitutes a principal
+ingredient in _curry powder_; and, under this form, is used, in great
+quantities, both in India and Europe. Some years ago it had considerable
+repute as a medicine for the removal of jaundice, diseases of the liver,
+and other complaints: but the chief purpose for which it is now esteemed is
+its imparting a rich yellow dye to silks, linen, or woollen; and for
+heightening and rendering brighter the red colours dyed with cochineal and
+vermilion. It is in much request by glovers, for dyeing yellow gloves. Some
+of the Indian tribes use it in painting their bodies.
+
+ 17. _ARROW ROOT, in the state that we see it, is a kind of starch,
+ manufactured from the root of a plant which is cultivated both in the
+ East and West Indies._
+
+ _This plant_ (Maranta arundinacea) _is about two feet high, has broad,
+ pointed, and somewhat hairy leaves; small white flowers in clusters, and
+ a nearly globular fruit about the size of a currant._
+
+The arrow-root plant has its name from the Indians using its juice as a
+remedy for wounds inflicted by poisoned arrows. They likewise consider it
+efficacious against the stings of those venomous insects with which the
+countries of nearly all hot climates abound.
+
+The starch or powder of arrow-root is obtained by the following process.
+The roots, when a year old, are dug up, washed, and beaten to a milky pulp,
+in deep wooden mortars. This pulp is afterwards well washed in clean water,
+and the fibrous parts, that are found amongst it, are carefully separated
+and thrown away. It is next passed through a sieve, or coarse cloth, and
+suffered to stand for some time to settle. The water that remains is
+subsequently drawn off, and the white mass at the bottom is again washed.
+After this the water is entirely cleared away, and the pulp, when dried in
+the sun, is an extremely pure kind of starch; which requires only to be
+reduced to powder to attain the state in which we import it.
+
+There is no European vegetable, if we except the _salep_ or _orchis root_
+(219), which yields so large a proportion of nutritive mucilage as this.
+Consequently, as an article of diet for children, and persons recovering
+from illness, it has of late years been found extremely valuable. Care,
+however, should be taken to obtain it genuine, as the high price for which
+it is sold is frequently the cause of its being adulterated. It is even
+said that the article usually sold in London under the name of arrow-root,
+consists chiefly of starch made from potatoes.
+
+
+
+
+----
+
+CLASS II.--DIANDRIA.
+
+----
+
+
+MONOGYNIA.
+
+
+ 18. _The OLIVE_ (Olea Europea) _is a low evergreen tree, which, in its
+ general form and appearance, somewhat resembles a willow. It is
+ cultivated in several parts of the continent, and has spear-shaped
+ leaves, and clusters of small white flowers, that arise at the junction
+ of the leaves and branches_ (_Fig. 1._)
+
+The fruit of this tree has the name of _olives_. These are usually about
+the size of a damson plum, and each contains a hard, rough stone. When
+first gathered they have an acrid, bitter, and unpleasant taste; and it is
+not until they have been steeped, for several days, in a ley of wood ashes,
+and then pickled in salt and water, that they are in the state to be
+introduced at table after dinner, in desserts. Lucca olives, being smaller
+than any others, have the weakest taste. The larger ones are imported from
+Spain, and are the strongest; but those most esteemed are the olives of
+Provence, which are of middle size. If olives be eaten by persons of
+delicate habits, especially after a solid or heavy dinner, they are
+considered injurious, on account of the great quantity of oil they contain.
+
+It is to this fruit that we are indebted for the _salad_ or _olive oil_,
+which is so much in use throughout every part of Europe. The preparation of
+it is as follows:--The olives, when sufficiently ripe, are carefully
+picked, by hand, off the trees, and those that are bad are taken out and
+thrown aside. After having been left a little while to wither, they are
+first bruised, and then more completely crushed, by an upright millstone
+rolling upon an horizontal plane. The paste thus formed is submitted to the
+operation of the press. The finest oil flows first: when no more is found
+to flow, the pulp is moistened with boiling water, and the mass is again
+pressed. This done, the remaining oil is drawn from the surface of the
+water, but it contains some impurities from which it cannot, without
+difficulty, be cleared. What remains of the pulp is squeezed into lumps or
+balls, and dried for fuel. If the olives be indiscriminately gathered and
+heaped together, sound and unsound, without selection, the oil is always
+bad. The wild trees yield a very small kind of fruit, which furnishes,
+though in less quantity, a peculiarly excellent oil.
+
+The olive tree has ever been considered the symbol of peace; and the
+ancient poets have asserted that Minerva well merited the honour of giving
+her name to the city of Athens for having planted it in Attica. As a
+_wood_, this tree is in considerable request by cabinet makers, from its
+being beautifully veined, and taking an excellent polish. In some parts of
+Spain, ornamental boxes are made of the roots of the olive tree.
+
+Olive oil is employed in various branches of culinary and domestic economy.
+When united with soda, it is manufactured into soap. It is likewise used in
+medicine; is adopted as a softening ingredient in almost all kinds of
+ointments and plasters, and is supposed to be efficacious as a remedy
+against the poison of the viper. Persons copiously anointed with oil are
+said to have escaped the infection of the plague and yellow fever.
+
+
+TRIGYNIA.
+
+
+ 19. _THE COMMON JASMINE_ (Jasminum officinale) _is a well known shrub,
+ with white, salver-shaped flowers, and opposite, winged leaves, the
+ leaflets somewhat pointed; and is a native of Malabar and other parts of
+ the East._
+
+As an ornamental shrub, jasmine has long been cultivated in Europe. It is
+chiefly trained against walls and trellis-work, and is interesting, not
+only from the elegance of its foliage, but also from the number of
+beautiful white flowers with which it is adorned throughout the summer and
+autumn. These exhale a sweet and penetrating odour, particularly after
+rain, and in the night.
+
+The Italians, by a very simple operation, prepare from the flowers of
+jasmine a grateful perfume. They soak cotton-wool in some kind of scentless
+vegetable oil, and then place, in glass vessels, alternate layers of this
+and of the flowers. After having been left in this state some days, the
+flowers are found to have given the whole of their fragrance to the oil in
+the cotton: they are then separated, and the oil is pressed out and removed
+into small glass bottles for use.
+
+ 20. _BLACK PEPPER is the dried berry of a climbing or trailing plant_
+ (Piper nigrum, Fig. 3) _which grows in the East Indies, and in most of
+ the islands of the Indian Sea._
+
+ _Its stem has numerous joints, and throws out roots at every joint. The
+ leaves, which are somewhat egg-shaped, and pointed, are of a brownish
+ colour, and have each seven very strong nerves. The flowers are small and
+ white._
+
+In the cultivation of pepper it is customary to mark out the grounds into
+regular squares of about six feet each, which is the usual distance allowed
+for the plants. And, as these have not sufficient strength to support
+themselves in an upright growth, they are generally placed near a thorny
+kind of shrub, among the branches of which they creep like ivy. When they
+have run to a considerable height, the twigs, on which the berries hang,
+bend down, and the fruit appears in long slender clusters, of from twenty
+to fifty grains, somewhat resembling, but much more compact than, bunches
+of currants. The berries are green when young, but change to a bright red
+colour when ripe. As soon as they begin to redden, they are in a fit state
+to be gathered. When gathered, they are spread upon mats in the sun, where
+they are suffered to remain till they become dry, black, and shrivelled, as
+we see them. In this state they have the denomination of _black pepper_.
+
+_White pepper_ is nothing more than the best and soundest of the berries,
+gathered when they are fully ripe, and stripped of their external coat or
+skin. To effect this they are steeped, for about a week, in salt water, by
+the end of which time the skins burst. They are then dried in the sun,
+rubbed between the hands, and winnowed. Thus cleared from their skins they
+are rendered smaller and more smooth than black pepper.
+
+As the acridity of pepper lies principally in the skin, this kind becomes,
+of course, much less pungent than the other; but it has one recommendation,
+that it can be made only of the best and soundest grains, taken at their
+most perfect state of maturity.
+
+Pepper is an article of considerable traffic betwixt this country and the
+East Indies. That which is imported from Malabar is considered better than
+any other. The quantity of pepper vended at the East India Company's sales
+has, in some years, exceeded six millions of pounds' weight, of which seven
+or eight hundred thousand pounds have been retained for home consumption.
+
+Both black and white pepper are in daily use, not only as a spice, but also
+in cookery. When coarsely ground, pepper is eaten with peas, cabbages,
+cucumbers, and other flatulent and cold vegetables; and occasionally also
+with fish. It is sometimes employed in medicine as a stimulant.
+
+A singular imposition respecting pepper is occasionally practised in retail
+shops in London: artificial pepper-corns, both black and white, are mixed
+and sold with real pepper. The detection of this fraudulent mixture,
+however, is easy. If a handful of the suspected pepper be thrown into
+water, the artificial corns will fall to powder, or be partially dissolved,
+while the true pepper-corns will remain whole. The fraudulent grains are
+said to be made of peas-meal.
+
+ 21. _LONG PEPPER is the fruit of a slender climbing shrub_ (Piper longum)
+ _which grows in the East Indies._
+
+ _It is of cylindrical shape, about an inch and half in length, and a
+ quarter of an inch in thickness; and is formed by the union of a great
+ number of small rounded grains. The shrub that produces it has dark green
+ and heart-shaped leaves, each with seven strong nerves._
+
+A considerable quantity of long pepper is annually imported in this country
+from Bengal and other parts of the East, for use, both in domestic economy
+and in medicine.
+
+The inhabitants of India drink water in which long pepper has been infused,
+and esteem it a valuable remedy for some disorders of the stomach. They
+also distil an ardent spirit from it; and they pickle this fruit in
+vinegar, for use at table.
+
+The fruit that is collected for exportation is gathered before it is quite
+ripe.
+
+ 22. _BETEL is the leaf of a climbing East Indian plant_ (Piper betel)
+ _which belongs to the same tribe as pepper; and, in shape and appearance,
+ is not much unlike that of ivy, but is more tender, and full of juice._
+
+There is an almost incredible consumption of betel over the whole continent
+of India. The inhabitants chew it almost incessantly, and in such quantity
+that their lips become quite red, and their teeth black, a colour greatly
+preferred by them to the whiteness which Europeans so much affect. They
+carry it, in little white boxes, about their persons, and present it to
+each other, by way of compliment and civility, in the same manner as the
+Europeans do snuff. This is done by women as well as by men: and it would
+be considered an offence if those to whom it was offered should refuse to
+accept of, and chew it. The leaves are sometimes used alone, but much more
+commonly covered with a kind of lime made of sea shells, and wrapped round
+slices of the areca nut (245).
+
+
+
+
+----
+
+CLASS III.--TRIANDRIA.
+
+----
+
+
+MONOGYNIA.
+
+
+ 23. _SAFFRON is the orange-coloured pistil, or centre part, of a purple
+ species of crocus_ (Crocus sativus) _which flowers in the autumn, and is
+ chiefly distinguished by having the three extremities of the pistil so
+ long as to hang out of the flower_ (Fig. 6.)
+
+In Cambridgeshire there is a town called Saffron Walden, that has its name
+from the quantity of saffron which is annually produced in its
+neighbourhood.
+
+The roots of the saffron crocuses are planted at the distance of about five
+inches from each other, and two inches deep in the ground. As soon as the
+flowers appear, they are gathered by hand every morning, just before they
+open; and, as they continue to open in succession for several weeks, the
+saffron harvest of course continues so long. When the flowers are gathered,
+they are spread on a table: the upper part of the pistil only is picked
+out, and the rest of the flower is thrown away. As soon as a sufficient
+quantity of the pistils have been collected, they are dried in a kind of
+portable kiln; over this a hair cloth is stretched, and upon it a few
+sheets of white paper. The saffron is scattered upon these to the thickness
+of two or three inches, and is then covered with several sheets of paper,
+over which is laid a coarse blanket five or six times doubled, or a canvas
+bag filled with straw. As soon as the fire has heated the kiln, a board, on
+which a weight is put, is placed upon the blanket to press the saffron into
+a cake. By the end of the first hour, a strong fire being employed, the
+cake is formed. This is then turned, and, for another hour, is subjected to
+an equal degree of heat. It is then turned a second time, and a more gentle
+heat is employed, till the cake becomes dry, during which time it is turned
+every half hour.
+
+A field of saffron will continue in perfection for three or four years,
+yielding progressively, during this period, more numerous and larger
+flowers, as well as an increase of the bulbous roots; after which the
+offsets may be advantageously transplanted to other situations.
+
+The saffron which is grown in England is considered superior to any that is
+imported from other countries. The best saffron may be known by the breadth
+of the blades. It ought not to be of too deep a red or orange colour, and
+should be fresh and tough, and have a strong but pleasant aromatic odour.
+Saffron should not be kept more than twelve months.
+
+Saffron was much used by the ancients as a perfume, but, in this respect,
+their taste was very different from ours. Not only were the halls,
+theatres, and courts, through which they wished to diffuse an agreeable
+smell, strewed with this substance, but it was used by them for a scent, in
+vinous extracts. From saffron, with the addition of wax, the Greeks, as
+well as the Romans, prepared scented salves. In our own country it was
+formerly much used in medicine; having been esteemed an excellent remedy in
+hysterical and other complaints. When taken in small doses, it tends to
+exhilarate the spirits; but it ought to be used with great moderation. It
+is sometimes used by bakers, to colour and flavour different kinds of cakes
+and biscuits. With water or spirits it gives out a beautiful yellow colour;
+but this is not useful as a dye, as, on exposure to the air, it soon fades;
+and no means have hitherto been discovered by which it can be fixed and
+rendered permanent.
+
+ 24. _ORRIS ROOT is the root of a white flowered kind of iris, called_
+ Florentine Iris (Iris Florentina), _which is a native of Italy, and is
+ distinguished by having two flowers on each stalk, the petals bearded,
+ and the leaves sword-shaped._
+
+In a dried state this root is well known on account of its grateful odour,
+which somewhat approaches that of the violet. It is consequently much used
+in the manufacture of hair-powder, and other articles for which an
+agreeable scent is required. It is sometimes employed in medicine as a
+pectoral or expectorant, and sometimes in dropsies. In a recent state the
+root is extremely acrid; and, when chewed, it excites in the mouth a
+pungent taste, which continues for several hours; but this acrimony is
+almost wholly dissipated by drying.
+
+Orris-root is chiefly imported from Leghorn.
+
+ 25. _The YELLOW WATER-FLAG, or COMMON IRIS_ (Iris pseudacorus) _is a very
+ conspicuous plant in most of our marshes. It has sword-shaped leaves,
+ and, about the middle of July, bears large and beautiful yellow flowers._
+
+The roots of this plant possess qualities which render them capable of
+being applied to many useful purposes. Their astringency is such that it is
+supposed they might be employed with great advantage in the tanning of
+leather. In the island of Jura, one of the Hebrides, they are used for
+dyeing a black colour; and the inhabitants of some parts of Scotland adopt
+them instead of galls in the making of ink. For this purpose they are cut
+into thin slices, and boiled, or infused in water, till the liquid is
+deeply tinged with blue. This is poured clear off, and the blade of a
+knife, or some other piece of iron, is put into it, and rubbed hard with a
+rough white pebble, by which process, after a little while, the liquor
+becomes perfectly black.
+
+A slice of the fresh root, if held between the teeth, will, it is said,
+almost instantly remove the sensibility, and thus alleviate the pain, of
+tooth-ache. The leaves of this plant are considered poisonous to all cattle
+except sheep.
+
+ 26. _The PAPYRUS is a sedge-like plant_ (Cyperus papyrus), _which grows
+ in watery places in Egypt, Syria, Sicily, and Madagascar._
+
+ _It has a three-sided stem, many feet in height, which is terminated by a
+ bushy head, consisting of a large and compound clustre of flowers._
+
+From this plant the ancients made their paper; and the process of
+manufacturing it is described by Pliny, the Roman naturalist, to have been
+very simple. The inner rind of the stem was merely cut into strips, and
+laid in parallel and transverse rows; and these, on being heavily pressed
+with weights, adhered together. The substance thus formed, though of rude
+texture, was capable of being written upon; and there are many manuscripts
+still extant on paper of this description. The ancients also sometimes
+employed the sword-shaped leaves of this plant for writing upon. With the
+former a kind of ink was used; but on the latter the letters were formed by
+a metallic, pointed instrument, called by the Romans a stylus.
+
+But the papyrus plant was not merely useful for writing upon. The
+inhabitants of the countries where it is found manufacture it, even to this
+day, into sail-cloth, mattresses, ropes, and sometimes even into wearing
+apparel. When the stems are compactly woven together, and plastered,
+externally, with a kind of resinous substance, so as to prevent the
+admission of water, they are made into boats. These, though they resemble
+great baskets in appearance, are of considerable use to the inhabitants.
+The "ark of bulrushes daubed with slime and pitch," in which the infant
+Moses was placed, is supposed, by the best commentators, to have been a
+boat made of this plant.
+
+The floral _thyrsus_ which was used to adorn the temples and statues of the
+gods, was a representation of the tuft of the papyrus.
+
+
+DIGYNIA.
+
+
+ 27. _SUGAR is the concrete or crystallized juice of the_ sugar cane
+ (Saccharum officinarum, Fig. 5), _a plant, much cultivated both in the
+ East and West Indies, which has a jointed stem eight or nine feet high,
+ long and flat leaves of greenish yellow colour, and flowers in bunches._
+
+The cultivation of the sugar-cane is pursued to great extent in the islands
+of the West Indies, where, about three centuries ago, it was first
+introduced from China, or some other parts of the East, and where it
+flourishes with great luxuriance, particularly in moist and rich ground.
+
+The season for planting it commences about the beginning of August. This
+operation is performed by laying the canes in rows, in trenches formed for
+the purpose. Roots issue from each joint; and, in the course of nine or ten
+months, the stems which rise from these respective roots, and constitute
+the sugar crop, attain their perfect state. The saccharine juice is
+contained in a spongy pith with which the interior of the plant is filled.
+
+When cut down, the leaves are thrown aside as of no use in the manufacture
+of sugar, and the stems or canes are divided into pieces, each about a yard
+in length. These are tied together in bundles, and conveyed to the
+sugar-mill; where they are bruised betwixt three upright wooden rollers
+covered with iron. The juice, which flows from them, is conducted, by
+canals, into a large vessel formed for receiving it. The quantity of juice
+prepared by some of these mills is upwards of ten thousand gallons in a
+day.
+
+The next operation is called clarifying. For this purpose the juice is
+conducted, along a wooden gutter lined with lead, to a place called the
+boiling house, where it is received into copper pans, or caldrons, each
+placed over a separate fire. A certain proportion of powdered lime is now
+added to it, for the purpose of taking up any acid which the juice may
+happen to contain. The heat is then increased until the liquor is nearly in
+a boiling state. By this process the greatest part of the impurities that
+were contained in the juice rise to the surface in a scum. The purified
+liquor is then carefully drawn off, either by a syphon or a cock, leaving
+the scum at the bottom of the pan.
+
+From these pans it is conveyed, by another gutter, or channel, to the grand
+copper, or evaporating boiler, where the scum, which rises to the surface,
+is skimmed off as the liquor boils. After undergoing a similar process in
+smaller boilers, with a farther mixture of lime, until it has attained a
+certain degree of thickness, it is transferred into a large shallow wooden
+vessel, where, as it cools, it granulates or runs into an imperfect
+crystallization, by which it is in some degree separated from the
+_molasses_ or _treacle_, an impure part of the juice, which is incapable of
+being crystallized, and which, in large casks, is exported, for various
+useful purposes, to the different countries of Europe.
+
+From the cooler the sugar is removed to the curing-house. This is a large,
+airy building, furnished with a capacious cistern, for the reception of the
+molasses. Over the cistern is an open frame of strong joist-work; upon
+which are placed several empty hogsheads, each open at the head, and having
+a few holes at the bottom, closed by stalks of the plantain tree thrust
+through them. The mass of saccharine matter is now put into these
+hogsheads; the molasses are separated from the sugar, by draining, into the
+cistern, through the spongy stalks of the plantain; and the remainder, thus
+entirely crystallized, has the name of _muscovado_ or _raw sugar_.
+
+The article denominated _clayed sugar_ undergoes a process somewhat
+different. For the preparation of this, the sugar, when taken from the
+coolers, is put into conical vessels of earthen-ware, each having, at its
+bottom, a hole, about half an inch in diameter, which, at the commencement
+of the process, is stopped with a plug. This plug, after the sugar has
+become perfectly cool, is removed, and the molasses drain through the hole.
+When these have ceased to run, the surface of the sugar, in the vessel, is
+covered with fine clay, to a certain thickness, and water is poured upon
+the clay. This, oozing through it, pervades the whole mass of sugar,
+re-dissolves the molasses still remaining in it, with some parts of the
+sugar itself, carries these off through the hole at the bottom, and renders
+the sugar, that is left, much purer than that which is made the other way.
+
+The further refining of sugar, or forming it into the white conical loaves
+which are so much used in this country, is the business of the European
+sugar-bakers. This is done by dissolving the raw sugar in water, boiling
+the solution in lime water; and then clarifying it with bullock's blood, or
+the white of eggs, and straining it through woollen bags. After due
+evaporation it is suffered to cool to a certain degree. It is then poured
+into conical moulds of unglazed earthen-ware, the summits of which are
+perforated. Here it concretes into a hard white mass, leaving that part of
+the syrup, which will not crystallize, to run off through the hole in the
+point of the cone. The broad end of the cone is then covered with moist
+clay, the water from which penetrates into the sugar, and displaces and
+carries off the impurities which, otherwise, would be retained in and
+discolour it. It is then carefully dried, and receives the name of _loaf_,
+or _lump sugar_.
+
+_Sugar-candy_ is formed by boiling down a solution of sugar till it becomes
+thick; and then removing it into a very hot room, to crystallize upon
+sticks or strings, placed across small tubs, or other vessels. It is
+denominated brown or white sugar-candy, according to the quality of the
+sugar of which it is made.
+
+_Barley sugar_ is sugar boiled in barley water, but now more frequently in
+common water, till it is brittle. It is then rolled on a stone anointed
+with oil of sweet almonds, and formed into twisted sticks. To give it a
+colour, a small quantity of saffron is sometimes mixed with it.
+
+When sugar was first introduced into this country, it was employed only as
+a medicine; but it has now become an essential article both of luxury and
+use. It is the basis of syrups; and is used in cooking, and in confections,
+preserves, sweetmeats, and liqueurs of every description. Sugar is also
+sometimes employed in medicine.
+
+The juice of the sugar-cane is so palatable, and at the same time so
+nutritive, that, during the sugar harvest, every creature which partakes
+freely of it, whether man or animal, appears to derive health and vigour
+from its use. The meagre and sickly negroes exhibit, at this season, a
+surprising alteration; they now become fat and healthy. The labouring
+horses, oxen, and mules, being allowed, almost without restraint, to eat of
+the refuse plants, and of the scummings from the boiling-house, improve now
+infinitely more than they do at any other season of the year.
+
+_Rum_ is a spirituous liquor distilled from molasses, scummings of the hot
+cane juice from the boiling house, or raw cane liquor from canes expressed
+for that purpose, lees (or, as it is called in Jamaica, _dunder_), and
+water. The dunder answers the purpose of yeast for the fermentation.
+
+Sugar-canes, as large and juicy as those of the West Indies, are cultivated
+in several parts of Spain, but particularly in the country betwixt Malaga
+and Gibraltar. They were originally introduced, by the Moors, several
+centuries ago; and the sugar made from them is of excellent quality. There
+are sugar mills, in more than twelve different places, on the coast of
+Grenada, all of which are fully employed: in one village there are four,
+which cost at least 5,000_l._ sterling each.
+
+ 28. _OATS are the seeds or grain of an annual plant_ (Avena sativa, Fig.
+ 14), _too well known, and too much cultivated throughout every part of
+ Europe, to need any description._
+
+ _The country from which they were originally imported is not known._
+
+The principal use of oats in this country is for the feeding of horses. In
+the northern parts of England, and in Scotland, they are applied also to
+the nutriment of man. When simply freed from their husks they are called
+_groats_ or _grits_; and, in this state, are much used in broths, and other
+kinds of nutriment for sick and infirm persons. More frequently, however,
+they are ground into _oatmeal_, which is made into cakes, biscuits, &c. The
+husks, infused in water, and allowed to remain till the water becomes
+somewhat acid, are boiled to a jelly called _sowins_. A grateful and
+nutritive kind of jelly, which has the name of _flummery_, is also made of
+oatmeal, boiled with water, and flavoured with a little orange-flower
+water, and sugar.
+
+Oats will thrive in almost any soil, but they are chiefly productive on
+land that has been newly broken up. They are usually sown in February or
+March, and the harvest commences about August. Several kinds or varieties
+are cultivated in different parts of England, such as _white oats_, _black
+oats_, _brown_ or _red oats_, _Tartarian_ or _reed oats_, _Friezeland
+oats_, _Poland oats_, and some others, but, of these, the first are
+considered the most valuable.
+
+ 29. _WHEAT is a well known kind of corn_ (Triticum hybernum, Fig. 13)
+ _which is cultivated in most of the civilized countries of the world, and
+ is supposed to have been originally introduced into Europe, from some
+ part of Asia._
+
+No grain is so valuable to the inhabitants of nearly all climates as this;
+and, by a wonderful ordination of Providence, it is rendered capable of
+sustaining, without injury, almost the two extremes of heat and cold. Not
+only does it ripen in Egypt and Barbary, but it ripens equally well in
+Scotland, Denmark, and Sweden.
+
+It constitutes the chief food of the British nation; and its abundance or
+scarcity regulates, in a great degree, the welfare and prosperity of the
+inhabitants. The whole annual consumption of grain, in this island, amounts
+to nearly 25,000,000 quarters; and in London alone, to more than 1,162,100
+quarters. Of this by far the greatest proportion is wheat.
+
+For the cultivation of this important grain the best lands are rich clays
+and heavy loam; and, although light soils will produce wheat of excellent
+quality, yet the crops on the other soils are by far the most abundant. The
+best season for committing the seed to the ground is September, and the
+earlier in the month the better. Some farmers consider it necessary to
+steep the seed in brine or other pickle before it is used, to prevent it
+from being devoured by vermin, and render the corn less liable to disease
+than it would be without this process. In a good season the wheat harvest
+commences in August, and is finished in the course of the ensuing month.
+This species of corn is usually cut with instruments called reaping-hooks,
+but in some parts it is mown with scythes.
+
+The different kinds or varieties of wheat that are cultivated in this
+country are too numerous to be particularized.
+
+Wheat is liable to injury, not only from the attack of insects, but from
+several kinds of disease, the principal of which are _blight_, _mildew_,
+and _smut_. In the former the fibres and leaves of the plants are
+contracted and enfeebled, and the grain is ultimately deprived of
+sufficient nourishment: by mildew the straw and ear are affected: and by
+smut the grains, instead of containing their proper substance, become
+filled with a black or dark brown powder.
+
+_Wheat flour_ consists of four distinct principles, gluten, starch,
+albumen, and a sweet kind of mucilage. And it is a remarkable circumstance,
+that the _gluten_, if not similar, has a very near alliance to animal
+substances.
+
+To enumerate the various ways in which preparations from wheat serve for
+nutriment would be unnecessary, as they are known to every one.
+
+_Starch_ is a substance frequently prepared from wheat, and is obtained by
+the following process. The wheat is put into tubs of water, and exposed,
+for some days, to the heat of the sun, in order to bring on a proper degree
+of fermentation, the water being changed twice a day. Having now become
+sufficiently soft, it is poured into large canvass bags, which are worked
+or beaten, on a board over an empty vessel, to extract the farinaceous
+particles. Fresh water is put to it, and after being considerably agitated,
+it is allowed to subside. As the sediment increases, the water is gradually
+drained off, and, at length, the starch is formed into small pieces, and
+dried for use.
+
+During the late war, when the intercourse betwixt France and the West
+Indian islands was entirely cut off, several attempts were made in that
+country to obtain _sugar_ from starch. The process was a long and intricate
+one; and the success with which it was attended was not such as to render
+it either practically or permanently useful.
+
+_Bran_ is the husk of wheat, separated in grinding. Infusions of bran are,
+not unfrequently, employed both externally and internally in medicine. They
+are also sometimes used to cleanse the hands instead of soap. And, in times
+of scarcity, bran has been advantageously employed in the making of
+household bread.
+
+_Wheat straw_, when chopped or cut small, forms a wholesome provender for
+horses and oxen, especially when mixed with green food. It is also used as
+litter for horses, and is employed as thatch for cottages, houses, and
+barns. When cut into certain lengths, bleached by means of sulphur, and
+split, it is plaited, and formed into hats and bonnets.
+
+A nutritive substance called _Semolina_ is formed from wheat flour,
+granulated by a particular process. A patent was granted in the year 1780
+to Mr. Jacob Levy, for a method of making it. Previously to this, semolina
+had been imported from Poland, under the name of _Cracow groats_. It
+constitutes a light and wholesome food for invalids, being considered, in
+this respect, preferable to sago; it may also be made into excellent
+puddings.
+
+_Macaroni_ is a preparation from the finest wheat flour, mixed with eggs,
+or other glutinous substance. It is chiefly imported from Italy, Sicily,
+and Germany. Its name implies _cut paste_, and it is eaten in various ways;
+on the continent with milk, and with us in soups and puddings, or served up
+in a dish with grated cheese, milk, and other ingredients.
+
+_Vermicelli_ is made by a mixture of flour, cheese, the yolks of eggs,
+sugar and saffron. This, being reduced to a proper consistency, is formed
+into long slender pieces or threads, like worms, by being forced, with a
+piston, through a number of little holes, in the end of a pipe made for the
+purpose. Vermicelli was first brought from Italy, and it is chiefly used in
+soups and other culinary preparations.
+
+ 30. _BARLEY is a well known kind of corn_ (Hordeum distichon, Fig. 15.)
+ _which grows wild in the island of Sicily, and some other parts of the
+ south of Europe._
+
+Next to wheat, this is, in Europe, the most valuable of all the species of
+grain, especially for growth on light and sharp soils. The seed-time for
+barley usually commences about the end of March or the beginning of April,
+and sometimes lasts until the first week in June; and, for the produce,
+four quarters per acre are considered a fair average crop, and eight
+quarters a very extraordinary one.
+
+Few instances of fecundity in corn are more remarkable than what has been
+related of two grains of SIX-ROWED BARLEY (_Hordeum hexastichon_) which
+were planted in a garden: they produced 113 stalks, nearly all of which
+yielded ears; and these contained, in the whole, more than 2,500 grains.
+
+The principal use to which barley is applied in this country is for the
+making of _malt_, from which beer and ale are brewed. For this purpose it
+is first steeped in water for three or four days. It is then taken out, and
+suffered to lie, until it begins to sprout or germinate. As soon as the
+germination has approached a certain state its further progress is
+prevented by drying the barley in a kiln, heated with coke, charcoal, or
+straw. The grain has now become mellow and sweet; and, after having been
+crushed in a kind of mill contrived for the purpose, its saccharine
+qualities are easily extracted by the boiling water, in brewing. The liquor
+that is thus produced has the name of _wort_; and this, after having
+undergone the process of fermentation, and having received a bitter flavour
+by a mixture of hops, becomes ale or beer. Hence has originated the general
+appellation of _malt liquor_. What remains of the malt after brewing is
+called _grains_. These, in London, are employed for the feeding of horses,
+cows, and swine.
+
+Besides the use of barley in brewing, there is in some countries,
+especially in Scotland and Germany, a great consumption of this grain, for
+broths, soups, and other food. For this purpose it is freed from its husks
+and formed into round granules, about the size of small shot, and of a
+pearly whiteness, which thence have the name of _pearl-barley_. All except
+the heart or best part of the grain is thus taken away. The barley, in this
+state, when boiled, forms a nutritive food; and a decoction of it, properly
+flavoured with acid, is said to be one of the best beverages that can be
+adopted in acute diseases. The making of pearl barley is a German
+invention. In Scotland the lower classes make it by means of hand-mills;
+and many persons are satisfied with merely ridding the grain of its husks
+by stamping it in mortars.
+
+_Barley-meal_ is occasionally made into bread by the poor; and it is
+likewise used for the fattening of poultry and swine. From _barley-straw_ a
+yellowish coloured paper has been manufactured; the making of which was,
+some years ago, attempted in this country upon a large scale, but without
+success.
+
+ 31. _RYE_ (Secale cereale, Fig. 16.) _is a kind of grain supposed to have
+ been first introduced into the northern parts of Europe from the island
+ of Crete._
+
+As bread corn, sometimes alone, but more commonly mixed with wheat, rye was
+formerly in great request, particularly in the northern counties of
+England. This mixture, which is denominated _blend-corn_, or _maslin_, is
+at present partially used, in certain districts, not only from motives of
+economy, but also because the rye is supposed to render the bread more
+moist and palatable than it would otherwise be. In some part of the
+country, rye is much used by ginger-bread bakers, for the dark colour of
+its flour is not perceptible, when mixed with treacle. This species of
+grain is frequently used for the distillation of spirits.
+
+It has been remarked, in some districts of France, that rye, from bad
+seasons, or from other causes, has proved noxious and even poisonous. The
+grains of the corn, thus degenerated, are black on the outside and
+tolerably white within; and, when dry, are harder and closer than good
+grain. Bread that is made of rye which contains even a great quantity of
+this bad corn, is not distinguishable by the taste, from other rye bread;
+and it seldom produces its ill effects till some time after it has been
+eaten, it is then said to occasion gangrenes in the legs and other parts of
+the body, and dangerous fevers. The poorer people, however, are those
+chiefly who are subject to these diseases, as many of them have little
+other substantial food to subsist upon than bread made of this species of
+corn.
+
+In several parts of England rye is sown either by itself, or mixed with
+tares to be cut whilst green, for the feeding of sheep, cows, and horses.
+Rye straw is used by brick-makers, and collar-manufacturers; and is
+considered an excellent material for the thatching of cottages and barns.
+
+ 32. GRASSES.--_By grasses we are to understand such plants as have a
+ round, jointed, and hollow stem, surrounded at each joint with a single
+ leaf, long, narrow, and pointed; and the flowers of which are a kind of
+ chaffy husk. According to this definition, wheat, barley, oats, and rye,
+ properly belong to the grasses, although they are known by the peculiar
+ appellation of corn or grain._[2]
+
+To the grasses it is that the face of nature is indebted for a great
+portion of its cheerful appearance, and its beauty. They constitute the
+general herbage of every country, covering to an immense extent the whole
+surface of the ground. They are very various in their kinds, the British
+species alone being nearly a hundred and twenty in number. To many species
+of animals their leaves afford an indispensable article of sustenance; and
+their seed supply food to birds.
+
+33. _SWEET-SCENTED VERNAL GRASS_ (_Anthoxanthum odoratum_, Fig.
+17).[3]--This species is usually considered (though it perhaps ought not
+exclusively to be so) as that to which the hay fields are indebted for
+their well-known and delightful fragrance. When partially dried it is very
+odorous; and, if chewed, in a recent state, its _stalks_ are highly
+aromatic, tasting not unlike those of fresh lavender. The _root_ has an
+odour somewhat resembling that of musk. A distilled water, which serves as
+a vehicle for some perfumes, is occasionally prepared from the leaves and
+flowers of the vernal grass. The dried flowers are employed in some parts
+of the Continent for imparting an agreeable flavour to snuff and tobacco.
+
+The vernal grass is not very productive, and by some farmers it is
+considered not palatable for cattle. Others, however, esteem it an useful
+addition in their meadows; and, from its being generally found in great
+abundance on such pastures as sheep are fond of, and afford excellent
+mutton, it is at least thought to be a good grass for them.
+
+34. _COTTON GRASS_ (_Eriophorum angustifolium_, Fig. 18).--The seeds of
+this grass are encompassed with long cottony or wool-like hairs; and so
+abundant are the plants in many tracts of marshy land, particularly in the
+northern parts of England, that the ground appears almost as if covered
+with snow.
+
+Poor people sometimes stuff their pillows with the down of the cotton
+grass; but there is a prevailing opinion that it is not wholesome to sleep
+on. This down is probably too brittle to be manufactured by itself into
+thread, yet, in combination either with wool or cotton, it may be spun into
+a strong and uniform yarn, from which gloves, stockings, and cloth, in
+small quantity, have been made. Its brittleness has been much corrected by
+a simple chemical process. Wicks for candles have sometimes been made of
+it.
+
+35. _BULL-RUSH_ (_Scirpus lacustris_, Fig. 19).--Of the stems of this plant
+the rush bottoms of chairs are made. Being of soft and pliant texture,
+totally destitute of roughness, the bull-rush is also sometimes used for
+the stuffing of pack saddles, making of mats, and thatching of cottages.
+
+36. _MEADOW FOX-TAIL GRASS_ (_Alopecurus pratensis_, Fig. 20) is a very
+common but valuable kind, which grows freely in moist and fertile pastures
+and meadows. It possesses, in a superior degree to any other grass, the
+three great requisites of quantity, quality, and early growth. The best hay
+which is brought to London is said to be from meadows where this grass
+abounds; and, in many parts adjacent to the metropolis, it is extremely
+abundant.
+
+37. _TIMOTHY GRASS, or MEADOW CATS-TAIL_ (_Phleum pratense_, Fig. 21), is a
+grass much cultivated in several parts of North America, and particularly
+in wet, loamy grounds, where, though coarse and hard, it is found extremely
+productive and useful. Such has been the celebrity of Timothy grass, that a
+gentleman (William Strickland, Esq.) was requested by the Board of
+Agriculture to make inquiries concerning it; and, from his remarks, it
+appears that this grass is the chief support of cattle wherever the meadows
+of it abound. He saw extraordinary crops of Timothy grass growing, as
+thickly as it could stand upon the ground, three or four feet high, and, in
+some instances, as coarse as wheat straw. It is cut before it arrives at
+maturity; and horses are said to prefer the hay that is made of it to every
+other kind, and to thrive peculiarly well upon it.
+
+Though a native and very common grass in our own country, it is doubtful
+whether our climate be sufficiently warm to bring it to the same perfection
+in which it is found in America. It has, however, been cultivated in
+England with considerable success; and, when used for green food, for which
+it is particularly calculated, it may be cut two or three times in one
+season; but, when intended for hay, it should be cut at least a week before
+it flowers.
+
+38. _FIORIN, or ORCHESTON LONG GRASS_ (_Agrostis stolonifera_, Fig. 22), is
+known as a troublesome weed in moist meadows and pastures, and also in cold
+and stiff arable land, by name of _Black Squitch_ or _Bent-grass_. It grows
+with such luxuriance, lying upon the ground, and taking root at the
+different joints, that the stems are sometimes several feet in length; and,
+when cultivated as a crop, it has been known to produce, at two cuttings,
+betwixt seven and eight tons per acre. This grass was first brought into
+notice as a grass for hay, by a small tract of meadow ground, in which it
+was cultivated several years ago, at a village called Orcheston, in
+Wiltshire. Horses, sheep, and cattle are said to be extremely partial to
+it, and to prefer the hay which is made from it to any other. To be in
+perfection, it requires a moist climate, or a wet soil; and it will grow on
+cold clays, that are unfitted for other grasses.
+
+In Ireland it is called fiorin grass, and, under this appellation, it was
+first introduced to the public notice in that country, in the year 1810, by
+the Rev. Dr. Richardson, of Clonfecle, in the county of Antrim.
+
+39. _The MEADOW SOFT GRASS, or YORKSHIRE WHITE GRASS_ (_Holcus lanatus_,
+Fig. 25), though it vegetates late in the season, produces an abundant
+crop, and flourishes well in any moist situation. Both its foliage and
+flowers are soft and woolly. It is chiefly calculated for the feeding of
+sheep, and has answered extremely well, when close fed. The hay that is
+made from it is said to be very injurious to horses, and it is not much
+relished by cattle.
+
+40. _CANARY GRASS_ (_Phalaris Canariensis_, Fig. 23).--This grass grows
+wild in Worcestershire, and some other parts of England. It is, however,
+often cultivated for the sake of its seeds, which are extensively used as
+food for small birds.
+
+41. _PURPLE MELIC GRASS_ (_Melica cærulea_, Fig. 24) is found in great
+luxuriance on the turf moors, near Glastonbury, in Somersetshire. The
+people of that neighbourhood make of its stalks a neat kind of besoms,
+which are used as a cheap and tolerably good substitute for hair brooms.
+This grass occurs in the most barren, sandy, and boggy situations; but,
+more especially, about pools upon mountainous heaths.
+
+42. _REED MEADOW GRASS_ (_Poa aquatica_, Fig. 26) is one of the most useful
+of the British grasses, particularly if grown in wet meadows, or upon the
+banks of rivers or brooks. In the fenny lands of Cambridgeshire and
+Lincolnshire it not only affords a rich pasturage for cattle in summer, but
+forms also the chief part of their winter sustenance. In situations
+favourable to its growth it sometimes attains the height of five or six
+feet, When cut for hay, it is first dried, then bound up into sheaves, and
+formed into ricks, in which it undergoes a slight fermentation that much
+improves it. Cows and sheep are both partial to this grass. As hay, it is a
+valuable food for cattle, and particularly for milch cows.
+
+43. _SMOOTH-STALKED MEADOW GRASS_ (_Poa pratensis_, Fig. 27) is a favourite
+grass for cattle; and flourishes even on the driest soils, growing wild in
+meadows, on dry banks, and even on walls. In rich meadows of Somersetshire
+it forms a considerable part of the herbage; and, in those that have been
+flooded during the winter, it flourishes with such luxuriance as nearly to
+exclude every other grass. Notwithstanding this, it possesses the valuable
+property of resisting excessive drought, and is frequently green in high
+gravelly pastures, after almost every other grass has been withered. It
+flowers early, and makes an extremely valuable hay.
+
+44. _ANNUAL MEADOW GRASS_ (_Poa annua_, Fig. 28).--No grass is more common
+than this, and none makes a finer turf. It occurs in almost every
+situation, by the sides of roads, on open and extensive commons; and in
+many parts of England there are whole meadows of it, without any mixture of
+other grasses. In those districts of Suffolk which produce the best butter,
+the annual meadow grass is found in great abundance.
+
+It is a remarkable circumstance respecting this grass, that it does not
+suffer injury, but that, on the contrary, it is improved by persons
+frequently walking over it. Mr. Stillingfleet states that, on the hill near
+Malvern, in Worcestershire, a walk which had been made for the convenience
+of the water drinkers, was, in less than a year, nearly covered with it,
+though no plant of it could be found about any part of the hill. This was
+attributed, in a great measure, to the constant treading upon it, by
+persons passing to and from the well.
+
+45. _CRESTED DOG'S-TAIL GRASS_ (_Cynosurus cristatus_, Fig. 29) is
+extremely common in meadows and pastures, and constitutes a principal part
+of the turf, on high gravelly or chalky soils, in parks, lawns, and sheep
+walks: and, from the close and thick turf which it makes, it affords good
+nourishment to cattle and deer. Parks that are famous for excellent venison
+contain a great proportion of this grass. In the summer time its seeds
+afford sustenance to pigeons and small birds.
+
+46. _SHEEP'S FESCUE GRASS_ (_Festuca ovina_, Fig. 32) has great celebrity
+as food for horses and cattle, and, in particular, for sheep, which are
+said to prefer it to all other grasses, and to become fat upon it sooner
+than upon any other. Though of short growth, its leaves are numerous and
+succulent. The Tartars are said generally to fix their habitations, during
+the summer, in places where there is the greatest plenty of this grass,
+from its yielding an abundant supply of excellent food for their cattle.
+And it has been remarked that the sepulchral monuments of the ancient
+Tartars are chiefly observed in situations where Sheep's Fescue Grass
+abounds; this has been considered a test of the great value which that
+people set upon it.
+
+47. _HARD FESCUE GRASS_ (_Festuca duruscula_, Fig. 30) is common in
+pastures, meadows, and waste grounds. It springs early, affords excellent
+food for all kinds of cattle; and, in good ground, yields a plentiful crop.
+
+48. _FLOTE FESCUE GRASS_ (_Festuca fluitans_, Fig. 31).--This plant, which
+grows almost exclusively in wet ditches, and in ponds, is so favourite a
+food of horses and swine, that they will sometimes even endanger their
+lives to obtain it. A farmer, who resided some years ago at Ruscomb, in
+Berkshire, assured Mr. Stillingfleet that he had known a field of four
+acres (which was nearly always covered with water) afford sufficient
+nutriment to maintain five farm horses, in good condition, from April to
+the end of harvest, without any other food; and that it yielded even more
+than they could eat. The Cottenham and Chedder cheeses are said, in a great
+measure, to derive their celebrity from the cows feeding on this grass.
+
+Its seeds are small, and are remarkable for their sweet flavour and
+nutritious qualities. They are annually collected in Poland, and are
+exported thence, into Germany, and other parts of the continent, under the
+name of _manna seeds_. These are used in soups, gruel, and puddings, even
+by persons of the first rank and consequence. When ground into flour, they
+are convertible into bread, which is little inferior to that made of wheat.
+The bran of these seeds is stated by Linnæus to be useful as a medicine for
+horses that are troubled with worms. Geese are fond of the seeds, and well
+know where to find them. It is remarkable that these seeds have hitherto
+been entirely neglected in England; though without difficulty they might be
+obtained in sufficient quantity to prove beneficial.
+
+49. _The COMMON REED_ (_Arundo phragmites_, Fig. 33) grows in ditches,
+ponds, and by the sides of rivers, attaining the height of six or seven
+feet, and flowering about the month of July.
+
+Reeds are frequently made into screens or fences for gardens, and they are
+considered particularly eligible for sheltering tender plants from injury
+by cold, or blighting winds. They likewise make excellent _weavers' combs_;
+and, when nailed across a frame of wood-work, are frequently employed as a
+foundation for plaster floors. They are sometimes made into chair bottoms;
+and into thatch for cottages and out-buildings.
+
+From the flowers of the reed the country people of Sweden extract a green
+dye, which they occasionally use for woollen cloth; and we are informed
+that, from the dried roots, a flour may be made, which is capable of being
+converted into a wholesome and nutritive bread.
+
+50. _SEA MATWEED_ (_Arundo arenaria_, Fig. 34) is an useful and common
+plant on most of our sandy sea shores. Its cultivation has, at various
+times, been much encouraged, and even acts of parliament have been passed
+for its preservation, in consequence of its spreading roots giving
+stability to the loose, blowing sand, and thus raising a bulwark against
+the encroachments of the waves. The Dutch are said to have availed
+themselves of the advantage of these plants in securing and rendering firm
+several parts of their coasts, which would otherwise have suffered much
+injury.
+
+At Newborough, a town on the south coast of the island of Anglesea, the
+inhabitants manufacture this plant into mats and ropes; and the Danes
+employ the fibrous roots for making whisk brushes.
+
+The common people of Iceland collect the seeds of the sea matweed for
+making bread.
+
+51. _RYE GRASS, or RAY GRASS_ (_Lolium perenne_, Fig. 35), has, of late
+years, been cultivated in some countries, to considerable extent, as fodder
+for cattle. Its agricultural merits were first discovered in Norfolk, and,
+thence, the seeds have been distributed through the greater part of the
+kingdom; those who purchase them little suspecting that the plant was a
+weed in their own fields. In dry pastures, and by road sides, this kind of
+grass is extremely common.
+
+When sown in high or sandy lands, either alone or mixed with clover, it
+yields an earlier crop than most other grasses; and thus affords food at a
+season when it is sometimes difficult otherwise to be obtained. The ray
+grass that grows wild is stated to be much superior to that which is
+obtained by cultivation; and we are informed that, if sown in a rich and
+fertile soil, it will dwindle in a few years to a poor and insignificant
+grass.
+
+52. _COUCH, or SQUITCH GRASS_ (_Triticum repens_, Fig 36), is, in general,
+considered a troublesome and pernicious weed. The roots strike so deeply
+into the ground, and extend so widely, that the eradicating of them is
+frequently attended with difficulty. As the plant lies upon the ground it
+strikes out fibres from every joint; and so luxuriant is it sometimes seen,
+that a single joint, when transplanted, has, in the course of twelve
+months, covered a square yard of land.
+
+The roots of couch grass are collected in large quantities at Naples, and
+sold in the market as food for horses. They have a sweetish taste, somewhat
+resembling that of liquorice; and, in times of scarcity, when dried and
+ground into meal, they have been converted into bread. A decoction of the
+roots is sometimes used in medicine.
+
+
+
+
+----
+
+CLASS IV.--TETRANDRIA.
+
+----
+
+
+MONOGYNIA.
+
+
+ 53. _TEASEL_ (Dipsacus fullonem) _is a plant, with a somewhat egg-shaped
+ head of flowers, and hard reflected scales, which is cultivated in
+ several parts of England, to be used in the carding of woollen cloth._
+
+ _The Fullers Teasel is distinguished from other plants of the same tribe
+ by having its leaves connected at the base, the flower scales hooked, and
+ the general calyx reflected or bent back._
+
+The seeds of this plant are usually sown in strong rich land, about the
+commencement of spring. The flowers appear in July, and the blossoms begin
+to decay in the following month. Shortly after this the heads are cut off,
+and exposed daily to the sun until they are perfectly dried.
+
+In the clothing counties of England the fuller's teasel is an article of
+considerable importance. The crooked scales accompanying the flowers are so
+hard and rough that the heads are employed for raising the nap of woollen
+cloths. For this purpose they are either set into flat boards like cards,
+or are fixed round the circumference of a large and broad wheel. The former
+are used with the hand; and the latter is turned round whilst the cloth is
+held against it.
+
+ 54. _MADDER_ (Rubia tinctorum) _is a rough, trailing plant, that grows
+ wild in several parts of the South of Europe, and is much cultivated in
+ England and Holland on account of its roots, which are used by dyers and
+ calico-printers._
+
+The land best adapted for the cultivation of madder is a soft, sandy loam.
+When the roots have attained sufficient growth, they are taken up,
+carefully peeled, and dried in an airy shed. After this they are conveyed
+to a kiln, where they undergo a kind of management somewhat similar to that
+adopted in the drying of hops (260). The next process is to pulverize them,
+which is done by pounding or grinding; a secret that was long exclusively
+possessed by the Dutch.
+
+Madder is extensively used in dyeing, not only on account of its yielding a
+fine red colour, but also as forming a first tint for several other shades.
+The madder used for dyeing cottons in the East Indies, is, in some
+respects, different from that cultivated in Europe. And, in the
+neighbourhood of Smyrna, and in the island of Cyprus, a kind of madder is
+grown which affords a peculiarly bright and beautiful colour.
+
+This root is sometimes employed in medicine, in obstructions of the bowels,
+rickets, and a few other complaints. It tinges water a dull red colour, and
+spirit of wine a deep bright red. When eaten by animals, it stains even
+their most solid bones.
+
+Cows are remarkably fond of the madder plant; and when they freely eat of
+it their milk becomes red, yet the cream which it affords makes a yellow
+butter,
+
+ 55. _SANDAL WOOD, or YELLOW SAUNDERS, is a yellowish, odoriferous wood,
+ which is imported from the East Indies in logs or short pieces, chiefly
+ as a perfume, or for the manufacture of ornamental articles._
+
+ _The tree that produces it_ (Santalum album) _grows principally on the
+ coast of Malabar, and in the island of Timor. It has somewhat the
+ appearance of a large myrtle, with stiff branches, and smooth, shining,
+ spear-shaped leaves, each about two inches long. The flowers grow in
+ clusters, small and red, and are succeeded by berries about the size of
+ peas._
+
+When the sandal wood trees are cut down they are stripped of their bark;
+after which the wood is usually chopped into billets or small pieces, and
+buried in a dry place for about two months. During this time the ants eat
+the outer part of it, without penetrating to the heart, which is the
+sandal. The billets are then taken up, smoothed, and sorted; and the deeper
+the colour the higher is found the perfume.
+
+In China this elegant wood, when cut into large planks, is sometimes made
+into coffins for the principal persons; and such coffins are said to resist
+the effects of air and moisture for many years. The Chinese also reduce the
+wood to powder, and, with the addition of water, convert it into a paste,
+which they apply to their bodies, their furniture, and about their houses,
+as a perfume. The powder of sandal wood is likewise employed as an incense
+in their idolatrous temples. Hence it is that a considerable trade in this
+wood exists between the East Indies and China.
+
+Besides the logs, the chips and cuttings of the roots of sandal wood are an
+article of commerce. From these chips, and from the waste wood, an
+odoriferous oil is sometimes prepared, which is considered nearly equal in
+fragrance to oil of roses.
+
+Sandal wood is at present seldom used in medicine; though, from its
+powerful qualities, it might probably be applied to many medicinal purposes
+with success. It has a bitterish aromatic taste, accompanied by a degree of
+pungency which is by no means unpleasant,
+
+
+TETRAGYNIA.
+
+
+ 56. _HOLLY_ (Ilex aquifolium) _is a small evergreen tree, with shining,
+ irregular, and spinous leaves, and white flowers which grow in clusters
+ round the branches, and are succeeded by small red berries._
+
+In those parts of the country where hollies are very abundant they afford a
+cheerfulness to the scenery in winter which is extremely pleasing. It is on
+this account principally that they are planted in gardens and shrubberies.
+The barbarous taste of our ancestors was such that they frequently clipped
+them into the shape of birds, quadrupeds, and other fantastic
+representations of nature.
+
+As a fence, holly is eminently serviceable. When formed into hedges, it
+admits of being cropped, and retains its verdure and beauty, without
+injury, even through the severest winters. Its growth is slow, and its
+duration longer than that of most other trees. The _wood_, which is hard
+and close-grained, is much used in veneering, and is frequently stained
+black, to imitate ebony. It is likewise advantageously used in making
+handles for knives, cogs for mill-wheels, and other articles. The _leaves_
+in winter afford a grateful food to sheep and deer; and the _berries_ yield
+a subsistence, during this inclement season, to the feathered tribes. In
+some places, particularly in the island of Corsica, the inhabitants employ
+the seeds of holly for making a beverage somewhat similar, but much
+inferior, to coffee.
+
+The _bark_ of the holly is smooth, and replete with a strong mucilaginous
+substance, from which the article called _bird-lime_ is made. For this
+purpose it is boiled ten or twelve hours; and, when the green rind is
+separated, it is covered up in a moist place, to stand for a fortnight. It
+is afterwards reduced to a tough paste, and washed in a running stream
+until no impurities are left. The next part of the process is to suffer it
+to ferment for four or five days; after which it is mixed, over the fire,
+with a third part of nut-oil (241), or some other oily fluid, and is thus
+rendered fit for use.
+
+Bird-lime has a remarkably adhesive quality, particularly to feathers and
+other dry substances. It is, on this account, employed for the smearing of
+twigs to ensnare birds. In its elasticity and inflammable nature it has
+much resemblance to Indian rubber; and, if any means could be adopted to
+harden it, there is little doubt but it might be substituted for that
+article.
+
+Holly deserves to be much more extensively cultivated than it is. Some
+years ago a person who purchased a holly wood in Yorkshire, sold the
+bird-lime prepared from the bark to a Dutch merchant, for nearly the whole
+sum of his original purchase.
+
+Among the ancient Romans it was customary to send branches of holly, to
+their friends, with new years' gifts, as emblematical of good wishes. We
+decorate our houses and churches with it at Christmas, to give, as it has
+been observed, an air of spring in the depth of winter.
+
+
+
+
+----
+
+CLASS V.--PENTANDRIA.
+
+----
+
+
+MONOGYNIA.
+
+
+ 57. _ALKANET is a dyeing drug, the bark of a root which produces a rough
+ plant_ (Anchusa tinctoria), _with downy and spear-shaped leaves, and
+ clusters of small purple or reddish flowers, the stamens of which are
+ shorter than the corolla._
+
+Though this plant is sometimes cultivated in England, by far the greater
+portion of the alkanet which we use is imported either from the Levant, or
+from the neighbourhood of Montpelier in France.
+
+Alkanet imparts a fine deep red colour to all unctuous substances, and to
+spirits of wine; but it tinges water with a dull, brownish hue. Its chief
+use is for the colouring of oils, plasters, lip-salve, and other similar
+articles. It is likewise employed in compositions for rubbing, and giving
+colour to mahogany furniture. Wax tinged with alkanet, and applied to the
+surface of warm marble, stains it flesh colour, and sinks deep into the
+stone.
+
+ 58. _The COWSLIP is a plant_ (Primula veris) _which grows in most
+ meadows and pastures, and is too well known to require any description._
+
+The _flowers_ of the cowslip, when picked and dried, are sometimes used as
+a balsamic tea. When boiled, with a certain proportion of water and sugar,
+and afterwards properly fermented, they may be made into a peculiarly
+pleasant wine.
+
+The _roots_ have a fine odour; and, when immersed in ale or beer, are said
+to add considerably to the strength of the liquor. The _leaves_ are
+sometimes eaten as a pot-herb, and in salads; and both the leaves and
+flowers are an excellent food for silk-worms.
+
+ 59. _BUCK-BEAN, or BOG-BEAN_ (Menyanthes trifoliata), _is a common plant
+ in shallow ponds; and is distinguishable by its leaves growing in threes,
+ and its pink and white flowers being shaggy on their inner surface._
+
+There is no British plant the flowers of which are more beautiful than
+those of buck-bean; and nothing but the difficulty of propagating it in dry
+ground could prevent its having a place in every garden. The _leaves_ are
+intensely bitter, and are occasionally used in the Highlands of Scotland as
+a tea, to strengthen the stomach. The inhabitants of some parts of Sweden
+employ them in place of hops, to impart a bitter taste to ale; two ounces
+of them being considered equal in strength to a pound of hops. By some
+persons the leaves of buck-bean are smoked instead of tobacco; and
+different preparations of this plant have been found efficacious as a
+remedy against agues, and in scorbutic and scrofulous diseases,
+rheumatisms, and dropsy. There is an opinion that sheep, when compelled to
+eat of buck-bean, are cured of the rot. In Lapland it is said that the
+pounded roots, though very unpalatable, are sometimes converted into bread.
+
+ 60. _SCAMMONY is a concrete or dried juice obtained from the roots of a
+ climbing plant of the convolvulus tribe_ (Convolvulus scammonia, Fig. 7,)
+ _which is cultivated in Asiatic Turkey, Syria, and Persia._
+
+ _This plant is known by having arrow-shaped leaves, notched in a
+ particular manner at the base, and each flower-stalk bearing two or three
+ large and somewhat purplish white flowers._
+
+The roots of the scammony plant are thick, black on the surface, white
+within, and full of an acrid milky juice, which, in a concrete state, is
+frequently used in medicine. To obtain it, the earth, at a certain season
+of the year, is removed from the upper part of the roots whilst they are
+growing, and the tops are cut obliquely. The juice flows from the wound
+into a small vessel sunk into the earth, at the lower end of the gash, to
+receive it. But, as each root furnishes only a very small quantity, the
+produce of several roots is usually mixed together for the greater
+convenience of being exposed to the sun and dried. Still, however, the
+quantity, thus obtained, is sometimes insufficient to supply the demand. In
+this case an addition is made to it by the pressure of juice from the
+leaves and stalks.
+
+The best scammony is imported from Aleppo, in light, spongy, friable
+pieces, of shining blackish grey colour, which have a faint, unpleasant
+smell, and a bitterish, pungent taste. It is sometimes adulterated with
+flour, and sometimes even with sand or earth.
+
+In its medical effects, scammony, when administered alone, is an
+efficacious, though violent purgative. But if triturated or ground down
+with sugar, almonds, or gum-arabic, its operation becomes sufficiently mild
+and safe.
+
+ 61. _JALAP is a dark-coloured root, which is usually imported, in
+ transverse slices, from South America._
+
+ _The plant that produces it_ (Convolvulus jalapa, Fig. 8) _belongs to the
+ convolvulus tribe, and has generally somewhat heart-shaped leaves, and
+ flowers that are reddish on the outside, and dark purple or yellowish
+ within._
+
+The name of jalap is derived from Xalapa, a town in South America, situated
+betwixt Vera Cruz and Mexico, where the plant, of which it is the root, was
+originally discovered, and whence it has been imported, in great
+quantities, into Europe. The jalap plant is now cultivated in the botanical
+garden at Charlestown, and in several other parts of America. When recent,
+the root is large, whitish, and full of juice; but, when dried, the best
+pieces are compact, hard, weighty, and of dark colour, with black circular
+marks. Both in smell and taste it is very nauseous. It is frequently mixed
+with slices of bryony root; but these are easily distinguished by their
+paler colour and porous texture.
+
+The only mode in which this root is of use is as a medicine; and it is
+administered in substance, in a tincture, and an extract. It has been
+advantageously employed in several disorders; but, as it is very powerful
+in its effects, great caution is necessary in the use of it, particularly
+with children.
+
+ 62. _PERUVIAN BARK is the produce of a tree which grows in South America,
+ and chiefly in Peru, whence its name has been derived._
+
+ _This tree_ (Cinchona officinalis), _in size and general appearance,
+ somewhat resembles our cherry-tree. Its leaves are in pairs, oval,
+ pointed, nerved, and smooth on the upper side; and the flowers hang in
+ loose clusters, are fringed at the edges, and red in the inside_ (Fig.
+ 10.)
+
+Formerly this valuable medicine had the name of _Jesuit's bark_, from its
+having been first introduced into Europe by some persons of the religious
+order called Jesuits, that were settled in South America. They had been
+instructed in the use of it by the inhabitants of Peru, to whom it had long
+been known; and it continued, for many years, to be a lucrative article of
+commerce to them. For its officinal name of cinchona it was indebted to the
+lady of a Spanish Viceroy, the Countess del Cinchon, who, about 170 years
+ago, derived great benefit from taking it.
+
+The tree from which it is obtained grows spontaneously, and in great
+abundance, in several of the mountainous forests of Quito and Peru. The
+proper time for cutting it is from September to November, the only season
+during which there is any considerable intermission from rain. The Indians,
+as soon as they have discovered a spot where the trees are in sufficient
+number, build a few huts for themselves, and one large hut for containing
+the bark, to preserve it from wet. They then go forth, each furnished with
+a large knife, and a bag which will hold about fifty pounds' weight of
+bark. Each tree occupies two men. They first cut or slice down the bark as
+far from the ground as they can reach. They then tie to the tree several
+sticks a little distance apart, and each about half a yard in length, to
+serve as a ladder by which they can ascend to the upper part, always
+slicing off the bark as far as they can reach, before they fix a new step.
+In this manner one of the two mounts to the top, whilst the man below
+collects what his companion cuts. To relieve each other, they ascend the
+different trees by turns; and they are generally able to fill their bags
+once in the course of the day. When they return to their huts, they spread
+out the bark to dry, and they are very careful to preserve it from wet,
+which would greatly injure it.
+
+There are three sorts of bark in use: the _pale_, the _red_, and the
+_yellow_. Of these the two last have recently been discovered. The red is
+now very scarce, and is seldom brought into Europe. The pale bark is
+imported, from the Spanish Main, in large bundles, closely packed in goat
+or other skins. The yellow is in much larger pieces, and flatter and
+thicker than those of the pale bark.
+
+We are informed, by some writers, that the Peruvians first learned the use
+of this bark from observing certain animals, affected with intermittent
+fevers, instinctively led to it. Others say that one of the inhabitants of
+Peru, having an ague, was cured by drinking the water of a pool into which
+some trees of this kind had accidentally fallen. On its first introduction
+into Europe, its use was opposed by many eminent physicians; and, for a
+long time afterwards, it was believed to be a very dangerous remedy. Its
+character, however, in process of time, became perfectly established, and
+it is now considered one of the most valuable medicines we possess.
+
+Peruvian bark is used as a remedy in intermittent fevers or agues; and, by
+some persons, is prescribed in other kinds of fevers, in confluent
+small-pox, in gangrenous sore throat, and indeed in every species of
+gangrene. It is given in powder, as an extract, a spirituous tincture, and
+a decoction; but the most efficacious form is that of powder. In taste it
+is bitter and astringent, leaving an impression upon the palate which
+continues for some time afterwards; but its smell is rather agreeable than
+otherwise.
+
+ 63. _COFFEE is the seed of an evergreen shrub which is cultivated in hot
+ climates, and is chiefly imported from Arabia and the East and West
+ Indies._
+
+ _This shrub_ (Coffea Arabica, Fig. 9) _is from fifteen to twenty feet in
+ height. The leaves are four or five inches long, and two inches broad,
+ smooth, green, and glossy on the upper surface; and the flowers, which
+ grow in bunches at the base of the leaves, are white and sweet-scented.
+ The berries or fruit are of a somewhat oval shape, about the size of a
+ cherry, and of dark red colour, when ripe. Each of these contains two
+ cells, and each cell has a single seed, which is the coffee as we see it
+ before it undergoes the process of roasting._
+
+Coffee is an article of only late introduction. To the Greeks and Romans it
+was wholly unknown. Its use appears to have originated in Ethiopia; and, in
+1554, it is stated to have been first introduced into Constantinople,
+whence it was gradually adopted in the western parts of Europe. In 1652 Mr.
+Daniel Edwards, a Turkey merchant, brought with him to England a Greek
+servant, whose name was Pasqua, and who understood the methods of roasting
+coffee, and making it into a beverage. This man was the first who publicly
+sold coffee in this country; and he kept a house for that purpose in George
+Yard, Lombard Street. At Paris, coffee was nearly unknown until the arrival
+of the Turkish ambassador, Solomon Aga, in 1669; about three years after
+which the first coffee-house is said to have been established in that city.
+The coffee shrub was originally planted in Jamaica in 1732.
+
+Great attention is paid to the culture of coffee in Arabia. The trees are
+raised from seed sown in nurseries, and afterwards planted out, in moist
+and shady situations, on sloping grounds, or at the foot of mountains. Care
+is taken to conduct little rills of water to the roots of the trees, which
+at certain seasons require to be constantly surrounded with moisture. As
+soon as the fruit is nearly ripe, the water is turned off, lest the fruit
+should be rendered too succulent. In places much exposed to the south, the
+trees are planted in rows, and are shaded from the otherwise too intense
+heat of the sun, by a branching kind of poplar tree. When the fruit has
+attained its maturity, cloths are placed under the trees, and, upon these,
+the labourers shake it down. They afterwards spread the berries on mats,
+and expose them to the sun to dry. The husk is then broken off by large and
+heavy rollers of wood or iron. When the coffee has been thus cleared of its
+husk, it is again dried in the sun, and lastly winnowed with a large fan,
+for the purpose of clearing it from the pieces of husks with which it is
+intermingled. A pound of coffee is generally more than the produce of one
+tree; but a tree in great vigour will produce three or four pounds.
+
+The best coffee is imported from Mocha, a town on the eastern bank of the
+Red Sea. This, which in Europe is called _Mocha_ and _Turkey coffee_, bears
+a higher price than any which our colonists are able to raise; owing, as it
+is supposed, to the difference of climate and soil in which it is grown. It
+is packed in large bales, each containing a number of smaller bales; and,
+when good, it appears fresh, and of a greenish olive colour. The coffee
+next in esteem to this is grown in Java and the East Indies, and that of
+lowest price in the West Indies. When stowed in ships with rum, pepper, or
+other articles, it is said that coffee contracts a rank and unpleasant
+flavour, and this has been assigned as a reason of the inferiority of such
+as is imported from our own plantations.
+
+The quantity of coffee annually supplied by Arabia is supposed to be
+upwards of fourteen millions of pounds. Before the commencement of the
+French Revolution the island of St. Domingo alone exported more than
+seventy millions of pounds per annum.
+
+Almost all the Mahometans drink coffee at least twice a day, very hot, and
+without sugar. The excellence of coffee depends, in a great measure, on the
+skill and attention that are exercised in the roasting of it. If it be too
+little roasted, it is devoid of flavour; and if too much, it becomes acrid,
+and has a disagreeable burnt taste. In England the operation of roasting is
+usually performed in a cylindrical tin box, perforated with numerous holes,
+and fixed upon a spit which runs lengthwise through the centre, and is
+turned by a jack.
+
+In a medical view, coffee is said to be of use in assisting digestion,
+promoting the natural secretions, and preventing or removing a disposition
+to drowsiness. It has been found highly beneficial in relieving some cases
+of severe head-ach.
+
+The outer pulpy part of the berry, and the inner membrane, which
+immediately invests the seeds, are used by the Arabians, and of these the
+former is much esteemed, and constitutes what is called _coffee à la
+sultane_.
+
+ 64. _STRAMONIUM, or THORN-APPLE_ (Datura stramonium), _is an annual
+ plant, with thick round stalks, somewhat triangular leaves, jagged or
+ toothed at the edges, large white and funnel-shaped flowers, and seed
+ vessels large and beset with spines._
+
+Although originally a native of America, stramonium is now a frequent weed
+on dunghills, and in cultivated ground of our own country; and, when once
+introduced into a garden, it is difficult to be eradicated. Its smell is
+exceedingly unpleasant, and its qualities are so pernicious, when taken
+internally, as to occasion giddiness, torpor, and sometimes even death. The
+seeds are particularly injurious. Notwithstanding this, the inspissated or
+dried juice of the leaves has been considered a valuable remedy in
+epileptic and other convulsive disorders. An ointment prepared from them
+affords relief in external inflammations; and smoking the dried leaves has
+lately been recommended in asthmatic complaints.
+
+The soporiferous and intoxicating qualities of stramonium are well known in
+eastern countries, and have often occasioned the plant to be employed for
+very improper uses.
+
+ 65. _TOBACCO, in the state that we see it, is a narcotic drug formed from
+ the dried leaves of an annual plant_ (Nicotiana tabacum, Fig. 11) _that
+ is principally cultivated in North America,_
+
+ _The stalk of the tobacco plant is erect, strong, round, and hardy. The
+ leaves are large, oblong, pointed, clammy, and of pale green colour. The
+ flowers, which terminate the stem and branches in loose clusters, are of
+ reddish colour, and funnel shaped, with a long hairy tube; and the seed
+ vessel is oval, and divided into two cells, that contain many rounded
+ seeds._
+
+The cultivation of tobacco is carried on to great extent in several parts
+of North America. The seed, mixed with ashes on account of its smallness,
+is sown a little before the beginning of the rainy season; and, in order
+the better to cover it, the beds are raked over or trampled upon. In about
+a fortnight the young plants begin to appear, and, as soon as they have
+four leaves, they are drawn up and transplanted in lines, and about three
+feet asunder, into the tobacco field. Here they are kept clear of weeds;
+and, as soon as they have eight or nine leaves each, the tops are nipped
+off to make the leaves grow thicker and longer. When the plants are full
+grown, and the leaves are become somewhat brittle, they are cut with a
+knife close to the ground. They are suffered to lie upon the ground for a
+little while, after which they are carried to the drying shed, where they
+are hung by pairs upon lines or ropes. When perfectly dry, the leaves are
+stripped from the stalks, and made into small bundles tied round with
+another leaf. These bundles are laid in heaps, and covered with blankets
+for about seven days to heat; after which they are closely stowed in casks
+for exportation.
+
+The name of tobacco was given to this article from its having been
+originally brought into Europe from Tobago, or Tabago, an island in the Bay
+of Panama, near the coast of America.
+
+To the American Indians the use of tobacco has been known for many
+centuries; and the practice of _smoking_ it is common to almost all the
+tribes. Tobacco forms a part of every entertainment; and, in the intervals
+of hunting, sleeping, and eating, it occupies no small portion of their
+time. In many of their religious ceremonies tobacco is used; and instances
+have occurred in which they have taken it in such quantity that death has
+ensued.
+
+The custom of smoking is understood to have been first introduced into
+England, by Sir Walter Raleigh, during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and a
+ludicrous story has often been told respecting it: that Sir Walter having
+directed a servant to bring him a jug of water, the man, at his return into
+the room, found him smoking, and, alarmed at seeing his master apparently
+on fire, threw the whole contents of the jug into his face to quench it.
+
+So extensive has this nauseous practice now become, especially in Holland
+and Germany, that it constitutes a daily luxury with nearly all the
+peasantry of those countries, as well as with the more indolent and wealthy
+classes of the inhabitants. To many constitutions it is very injurious.
+When first begun, it occasions vomiting, intoxication, and other unpleasant
+effects. These however, by repetition, are discontinued, though its
+stupifying qualities are never entirely overcome.
+
+Another form under which tobacco is used, is that of _snuff_. The basis of
+snuff is tobacco powdered; but many other matters are added, to give it a
+peculiar smell, or to impart pungency to it. When first applied to the
+nose, snuff excites sneezing, but, by repetition, this entirely ceases. The
+practice of taking snuff has, in some instances, been found injurious to
+the smell and the voice; it has been attended with loss of memory, and by
+symptoms of a weakened or debilitated state of the nervous system.
+
+But there is no mode of using tobacco so disgusting, to persons
+unaccustomed to it, as chewing. By the labouring classes, and particularly
+by mariners, this practice is chiefly followed, from a notion, though
+apparently a very erroneous one, that it will prevent the return of hunger,
+and, in some degree, supply a lack of food.
+
+Though all these are disgusting as practices, there is no doubt, but,
+medicinally, they may be attended with good effects. By smoking and
+chewing, tooth-ach has often been relieved; and some persons consider the
+former a means of guarding against contagion. The occasional and moderate
+use of snuff has, in several cases, been found beneficial, particularly in
+head-achs, and in diseases of the eyes and ears. Infusions of tobacco are
+sometimes administered in medicine, but this drug is principally given in
+the form of a vinous or watery infusion. Tobacco is a powerful medicine,
+and requires to be used with great caution. The smoke of this herb, when
+blown against noxious insects, destroys them, and is the means which
+gardeners adopt for ridding hot-houses and green-houses of such as infest
+their plants.
+
+The tobacco plant is sufficiently hardy to sustain the rigour of an
+European climate, and is cultivated in several parts of Spain and Portugal.
+As however, on importation, it pays a heavy tax to government, the culture
+of it in this country is restricted, by the legislature, to half a rod of
+ground in _physic gardens_; and if this be exceeded the cultivator is
+liable to a penalty of ten pounds for every rod.
+
+The different kinds of tobacco and snuff are attributable rather to the
+difference of climate and soil in which the plants have been grown, and to
+the different modes of management and manufacture, than to any essential
+distinction in the plants from which they are manufactured.
+
+ 66. _DEADLY NIGHTSHADE_ (Atropa belladonna) _is an extremely poisonous
+ plant, which grows in hedges and waste grounds, in several parts of
+ England, and has somewhat oval leaves of dull green colour, purple
+ bell-shaped flowers, and shining black berries, each about the size of a
+ small cherry._
+
+There is no British plant so injurious in its effects on the human frame as
+this; and the alluring appearance and sweetish taste of the _berries_ have,
+in many instances, particularly with children, been succeeded by the most
+fatal consequences. It is true that some persons have been known to eat
+three or four of them without injury; but in others a single berry, and
+even the half of one, has occasioned death. The _leaves_ are more powerful
+than the berries. The usual symptoms of this poison are a deep and deadly
+stupor, giddiness, delirium, great thirst, retching, and convulsions. A
+draught of vinegar, and keeping the patient constantly in motion, are said
+to be the best means of cure.
+
+Some writers have supposed it was the deadly nightshade which produced
+those strange and dreadful effects that are described by Plutarch to have
+been experienced by the Roman soldiers, under the command of Antony, during
+their retreat from the Parthians:--"Their distress for provisions was so
+great that they were compelled to eat of plants unknown to them. Among
+others, they found an herb of which many ate; these, shortly afterwards,
+lost their memory and their senses, and wholly employed themselves in
+turning over all the stones they could find; then, being seized with
+vomiting, they fell down dead."
+
+The _leaves_ of the deadly nightshade have sometimes been used externally,
+and with good effect, in cases of cancer; and in ulcers and tumours of
+different kinds. They are likewise given, internally, in infusion; but the
+sufferings of the patient, however small the dose may be, are so dreadful
+that few practitioners like to resort to them.
+
+ 67. _POTATOE_ (Solanum tuberosum) _is a well known edible root, which was
+ originally imported into this country from America._
+
+No root with which we are acquainted is so valuable to mankind in temperate
+climates, as the potatoe. In some countries, particularly in Ireland, it
+forms a most important article of food to the lower classes of inhabitants.
+By the English peasantry the potatoe is by no means esteemed as it
+deserves. In addition to its value for culinary uses, it might, in a very
+essential degree, be made to serve as a substitute for bread. If duly
+prepared, and mixed with a nearly equal portion of wheat flour, it may even
+be made into loaves. A kind of cheese may be made, by reducing potatoes to
+the consistence of paste, adding an equal quantity of the curd from which
+cheese is made, with a little salt and some other ingredients, mixing the
+whole together, and forming them in moulds. The Germans prepare a favourite
+dish by slicing boiled potatoes and pouring over them the same kind of
+sauce which is used for salads, and mixing anchovies with them.
+
+These roots afford an excellent food for horses and cattle; and it is said
+that bullocks will fatten on them more speedily than on cabbages or
+turnips. Potatoes are likewise serviceable for the fattening of hogs; but,
+for a little while before these are killed, it is requisite to use barley
+meal in addition, as otherwise the fat of the bacon is liable to boil away
+in the cooking. In the use of potatoes as food, it is requisite to prepare
+them in some manner by heat, as otherwise they are both unpalatable and
+poisonous.
+
+A kind of brandy was formerly distilled from potatoes; but this has been
+forbidden by the legislature. Starch may be made from potatoes, by the
+simple process of scraping them in water, and well washing the pulp: the
+starch settles to the bottom of the vessel, in a heavy and closely
+connected sediment. This starch is of use for the same purposes as starch
+prepared from wheat: it is also valuable as a size; which, unlike the size
+produced from animal substances, does not easily putrefy, and has no
+disagreeable smell. Bakers in Germany, by the addition of calcined oyster
+shells and burnt hartshorn, convert the pulp of potatoes into yeast. The
+_stalks_ or haulm of potatoes are capable of being made into paper. They
+are also of considerable utility as manure. The _apples_, or seed-vessels,
+may be usefully employed as a pickle: and, if properly prepared, they are
+said to be even more palatable than cucumbers.
+
+There are numerous varieties of the potatoe. Of these the most remarkable
+are the different kinds of _kidney potatoes_, the _Aylesbury white_, and
+_Altringham early white_, which are chiefly grown for the table; the _ox
+noble_, _Irish purple_, and _red potatoes_, which are adapted for fodder.
+
+This valuable root was originally imported from America, about the
+beginning of the seventeenth century. The inhabitants of Ireland assert
+that it was first introduced into that country, by the accidental wreck,
+upon their coast, of a vessel which was laden with potatoes and freighted
+for England.
+
+The usual mode of planting potatoes is by cutting the roots into pieces,
+reserving one eye or bud to each division, and setting these in the earth.
+They will succeed in any tolerable soil; but they flourish most luxuriantly
+in light sandy loams. The proper time for digging them up is during dry
+weather in autumn, when the leaves and stems begin to decay. When
+cultivated on a small scale, they are usually dug with a three pronged
+fork; but when raised in fields, where this process would be too tedious,
+they are turned up by a plough.
+
+ 68. _CAPSICUMS are South American and Indian plants easily known by their
+ hollow pods, of shining red or yellow colour, which contain many small,
+ flat, and kidney-shaped seeds._
+
+ _The principal species are, Heart or Bell pepper_ (_Capsicum grossum_),
+ _Guinea pepper_ (_Capsicum annuum_, Fig. 12), _and Bird pepper_
+ (_Capsicum baccatum_).
+
+All the species of capsicum possess the same general qualities. In hot
+climates, but particularly in the East and West Indies, and some parts of
+Spanish America, the fruit of these plants is much used for culinary
+purposes. It is eaten in large quantities, both with animal and vegetable
+food; and is mixed, in greater or less proportion, with almost all kinds of
+sauces.
+
+_Cayenne pepper_ is made from the fruit of different species of capsicum.
+This fruit, when ripe, is gathered, dried in the sun, and then pounded; and
+the powder is mixed with a certain portion of salt, and kept, for use, in
+closely stopped bottles. Of late years Cayenne pepper has been introduced
+into most of the countries of Europe; and it is now very generally used as
+a poignant ingredient in soups and highly seasoned dishes. Its taste is
+extremely acrid, and it leaves a durable sensation of heat on the palate,
+which is best removed by butter or oil. When taken in small quantity,
+cayenne pepper is a grateful stimulant; and, in medicine it is used, both
+externally and internally, to promote the action of the bodily organs when
+languid or torpid; and it is said to be found efficacious in many gouty and
+paralytic cases.
+
+ 69. _The GUINEA PEPPER, or ANNUAL CAPSICUM_ (Fig. 12), _is a slender
+ herbaceous plant, with smooth leaves, white flowers, single flower
+ stalks, and smooth, shining fruit of oblong shape, and usually of red and
+ yellow colour._
+
+This plant is a native both of the East and West Indies, and is considered
+the most hardy of the whole tribe of capsicum. In many parts of the South
+of Europe, its _fruit_ is eaten green by the peasants at their breakfasts,
+and is preferred by them to onions or garlic. The fruit of all the species
+may be rendered useful in domestic economy, either as a pickle, or as
+cayenne pepper. For the latter, it may be dried before a fire, and ground
+to powder in a common pepper-mill.
+
+ 70. _The BUCK-THORN_ (Rhamnus catharticus) _is a spinous shrub, which
+ grows in thickets and hedges, and has clusters of small green flowers,
+ globular black berries, and somewhat oval leaves, serrated at the edge._
+
+About the month of September the berries of the buck-thorn begin to ripen;
+and, if these are bruised when perfectly ripe, they yield a green tint.
+They are made into the _sap-green_ which is used by painters in
+water-colours, by evaporating their juice to the consistence of a gum. From
+the juice of the unripe berries, mixed with alum, a yellow dye is obtained,
+which is employed by dyers, and also for staining maps or paper. If the
+fruit be gathered late in the autumn the juice is purple. The _syrup_ of
+buck-thorn berries is sometimes used in dropsies and other complaints,
+though there are objections to it from its occasioning sickness and
+griping. The berries have a faint disagreeable smell, and a nauseous bitter
+taste. It is not unusual to mix with, or substitute for them, the fruit of
+the berry-bearing alder, and of the dog-berry tree. The fraud is, however,
+easily detected on examination; for the buck-thorn berries have each four
+seeds, which the others have not.
+
+The _inner bark_ of the buck-thorn is said to yield a medicine preferable
+to that afforded by the berries, but it is an extremely powerful one.
+
+ 71. _NUX VOMICA, or VOMIC NUT, is a round, flat seed, about an inch in
+ diameter, of greyish brown colour, and horny consistence, the produce of
+ a tree_ (Strychnos nux vomica) _which grows in the East Indies._
+
+ _The tree is of large size, and has somewhat oval leaves, in pairs, each
+ marked with three or five strong ribs. The young branches have swelled
+ joints. The flowers are in a kind of umbels at the extremity of the
+ branches._
+
+The _fruit_ which produces the vomic nut is a species of berry, about the
+size of a small apple, and covered with a hard substance somewhat
+resembling that of the pomegranate (154), and of beautiful orange colour
+when ripe. This fruit is filled with a pulp which contains the seeds.
+
+There is so great a consumption of nux vomica, that the quantity vended at
+the East India Company's sales, in 1808, was about five tons' weight, and
+its price about nineteen shillings per hundred weight, exclusive of the
+duty. It is imagined that public brewers sometimes use this drug in the
+adulteration of ale and porter, for the purpose of rendering it more
+intoxicating than it otherwise would be.
+
+It is employed for the destruction of vermin; and is said to be quickly
+fatal to dogs, foxes, wolves, and most other quadrupeds. When pounded and
+mixed with oatmeal, it is used for the killing of rats. Yet deleterious as
+this drug is, it has lately been employed on the Continent, as a medicine
+of great efficacy, in spasmodic affections of the bowels, and some other
+complaints; but its administration ought only to be attempted by medical
+men.
+
+An extract of nux vomica has lately been imported from India; but it is not
+generally known for what purpose.
+
+ 72. _The TEAK-TREE_ (Tectonia grandis) _is a valuable species of timber,
+ which grows in the forests of the East Indies._
+
+ _This tree attains the height of fifty feet and upwards. Its leaves are
+ somewhat oval, slightly scalloped, rough on the upper side, and clad with
+ a white down beneath; and its flowers are in bunches, small, white, and
+ fragrant._
+
+For the building of ships, teak-wood is esteemed superior to every kind of
+timber except oak. It is said to be almost incorruptible in water; and its
+bitterness preserves it from the attack of worms. For all the purposes of
+carpentry, teak is the most useful timber that is produced in Asia. It is
+easily wrought, and is peculiarly strong and durable. That which grows on
+the coast of Malabar is considered the best; but the greatest quantity is
+obtained from Pegu. The former is nearly all hill timber, whereas the
+latter is the produce of a low and flat country. In India much of the
+furniture is made of teak wood.
+
+The attention of government has of late been called to the cultivation of
+this timber; and great encouragement is now given to an extensive
+propagation of it. In the present scarcity of oak timber in England, the
+increase of teak in the East is become an object of importance to the
+prosperity of our navy. Its culture has also been recommended in our West
+Indian islands, the climate and soil of which are considered nearly similar
+to those of its native country.
+
+ 73. _MANGOS, as they are imported into this country, are the unripe fruit
+ of an East Indian tree_ (Mangifera Indica) _pickled in vinegar._
+
+ _The mango tree grows to a great size, and has spear-shaped leaves, each
+ eight or nine inches long, and two inches wide. The flowers spring, in a
+ loose kind of bunch, from the extremity of the stems._
+
+The _fruit_ of this tree, when ripe, is as large as a goose's egg, and is
+much esteemed in India, on account of its invigorating odour; which, it is
+imagined, will restore health to persons in a declining state. Beneath its
+rough shell there is a kernel, similar to that of the almond, which may be
+eaten either fresh or preserved. From the expressed juice of this fruit the
+Indians prepare a kind of wine. When intended for pickling, the fruit is
+gathered in an unripe state. An imitation of mangos is made in our own
+country with a particular sort of melon. A small square piece is cut from
+the side of the melon, through which the seeds are taken out. It is then
+filled with mustard seeds and shred garlic, and afterwards pickled with
+vinegar and spices. Large cucumbers are sometimes prepared as mangos.
+
+ 74. _RED CURRANTS are the fruit of a well known shrub_ (Ribes rubum),
+ _which is cultivated, in gardens; and which also grows wild in woods or
+ thickets of some of the northern parts of England. Its bunches are smooth
+ and pendant; and its flowers are flattish._
+
+The utility of this fruit in domestic economy has long been established.
+Its _juice_, if boiled with an equal weight of loaf sugar, forms an
+agreeable substance, called _currant jelly_, which is much employed in
+sauces and for other culinary purposes; and also in the cure of sore
+throats and colds. The French frequently mix currant jelly with sugar and
+water, as a beverage; and, by many persons, this mixture is preferred to
+orgeat or lemonade. The juice of currants is a valuable remedy in
+obstructions of the bowels; and, in febrile complaints, it is useful on
+account of its readily quenching thirst, and for its cooling effect on the
+stomach. This juice, fermented with a proper quantity of sugar, becomes a
+palatable wine, which is much improved by keeping; and which, with care,
+may be kept for twenty years and upwards. Modes of making this, as well as
+other British wines, are to be found in all the domestic receipt books.
+
+The _inner bark_, boiled with water, is a popular remedy in jaundice; and,
+by some medical men, it has been administered in dropsical complaints.
+
+_White_ and _flesh-coloured currants_ have, in every respect, the same
+qualities as the red species.
+
+ 75. _BLACK CURRANTS are the fruit of a garden shrub_ (Ribes nigrum)
+ _which is distinguished by having its bunches hairy and its flowers
+ oblong._
+
+The berries of the black currant shrub are larger than those of the red;
+and, in some parts of Siberia, are said to attain the size of a hazel nut.
+They are occasionally made into wine, jelly, and rob or syrup. The two
+latter are frequently employed in the cure of sore throats; and, from the
+great use of black currants in quinsies, they have sometimes been
+denominated _squinancy_ or _quincy berries_.
+
+The leaves are fragrant, and have been recommended for their medicinal
+virtues. An infusion of them, in the manner of tea, is very grateful, and,
+by many persons, is preferred to tea. The tender leaves tinge common
+spirits so as to resemble brandy; and an infusion of the young _roots_ is
+useful in fevers of the eruptive kind.
+
+Black currant trees grow wild in wet hedges, and near the banks of rivers,
+in several parts of Norfolk. The _dried currants_ of the shops do not
+belong to this family, but are a small kind of grape (79).
+
+ 76. _GOOSEBERRIES are the fruit of a prickly shrub_ (Ribes grossularia)
+ _which grows wild in Cheshire, Lancashire, and several parts of
+ Yorkshire._
+
+Few of the garden fruits are more esteemed for the table than gooseberries.
+For culinary purposes, gooseberries are generally employed before they are
+ripe; but this is founded on erroneous notions of their chemical
+properties, since, either for sauces or wine, though they are more cool and
+refreshing, they do not possess the delicate flavour and rich saccharine
+qualities which are inherent in the ripe fruit. Wine made of gooseberries
+has great resemblance to Champaigne. In the making of wine, after the juice
+has been expressed, it is customary to throw away the _skins_ of the fruit.
+These, however, may with advantage be employed in distillation, as they
+afford an agreeable spirit somewhat resembling brandy. When kept a few
+months, this spirit is said to be little inferior, either in strength or
+flavour, to the best Cogniac brandy. Vinegar may be made from gooseberries.
+Some of the kinds are bottled while green, and kept for winter use; and
+others are, for the same purpose, preserved with sugar.
+
+Gooseberries vary much in colour, size, and quality. Some are smooth, and
+others hairy. Some are red, others green, and others yellow or amber
+coloured. Wild gooseberries are greatly inferior, in size, to those which
+are cultivated in gardens.
+
+ 77. _IPECACUANHA_ (Viola ipecacuanha) _is a medicinal root, small,
+ wrinkled, bent, and contorted into a great variety of shapes; which is
+ imported from the West Indies and South America, and is given as an
+ emetic._
+
+There are three kinds of ipecacuanha: ash-coloured or grey, brown, and
+white. Of these, the ash-coloured is usually preferred for medicinal use,
+from its being more efficacious than the white, and less violent than the
+brown. Ipecacuanha was first brought into Europe towards the middle of the
+seventeenth century; but it was not admitted into general use until about
+the year 1686, when it was introduced into practice under the patronage of
+Louis the Fourteenth of France. Its taste is bitterish and somewhat acrid;
+and it seems to cover the tongue with a kind of mucilage. It is one of the
+mildest and safest emetics with which we are acquainted; and is
+administered in powder, as a wine, and as a tincture. It has this peculiar
+advantage, that, if it do not operate as an emetic, it passes off without
+injury by the skin or bowels. In very small doses it is efficacious in
+obstinate coughs, and in several other complaints. The roots of a kind of
+dogsbane (_Apocynum_) are not unfrequently substituted for those of
+ipecacuanha; but, in some instances, this substitution has been attended
+with fatal consequences.
+
+ 78. _VINES are a very important tribe of shrubs, to the fruit of which we
+ are indebted for all our foreign wines, for raisins of every description,
+ and for the dried currants of the shops._
+
+ _Several species of vine are cultivated; but by far the most important of
+ the whole is the common vine_ (Vitis vinifera _of Linnæus_).
+
+The earliest introduction of the vine into the western parts of Europe is
+stated to have been about the year 280, under the sanction of Probus, the
+Roman Emperor, who, throughout his whole dominions, was a zealous
+encourager of agricultural pursuits. There can be no doubt that vines were
+anciently propagated in our own island for the purpose of wine, and that
+there were vineyards of considerable extent in Gloucestershire, Hampshire,
+and some other counties; but, as vines are principally found to flourish in
+inland countries, lying betwixt the thirtieth and fifty-first degrees of
+latitude, it is evident that there can be no part of Great Britain
+sufficiently adapted to their successful cultivation.
+
+Any person who has seen a hop garden, may easily form an idea of the
+appearance of a _vineyard_. Vines are usually propagated by slips,
+cuttings, or offsets from the roots. These, when they have obtained a
+sufficiency of roots, are transplanted from the nursery-ground into the
+vineyard, the soil of which ought to be light and rich. They are placed, in
+this ground, in rows, and at regular intervals, leaving space sufficient
+for the vine-dressers and the reapers to pass betwixt them; and as soon as
+the rooted plants are three years old, they begin to bear fruit. The season
+for pruning and dressing them is the early part of the year, before the sap
+begins to rise; and about the time when the flowers appear, the plants are
+fastened to poles, for the purposes of supporting them, of preventing them
+from growing entangled with each other, admitting a free circulation of air
+amongst them, and affording greater convenience for gathering the fruit.
+
+The vintage, which is a season of mirth and delight to the whole country,
+commences in the early part of autumn. The villagers assemble in the
+respective vineyards under the direction of overseers. The reaping of the
+grapes is, in general, performed in three distinct gatherings. The first of
+these comprehends all the finest and ripest bunches, carefully clearing
+away from them every grape that appears green or decayed: the second is
+confined to the large and thick clusters which are not so ripe as the
+others; and those which are nearly green, withered, or decayed, are
+gathered last.
+
+To obtain the juice from the grapes, they are subjected to the operation of
+large presses of somewhat similar construction to the cyder presses of our
+own country (the separate gatherings being still kept apart), and the juice
+is received into vessels fixed for that purpose. Afterwards it undergoes
+the necessary fermentation to convert it into wine. By the ancients the
+juice was obtained by treading the grapes. This practice is alluded to in
+various parts of Scripture, but perhaps in none are the characteristics of
+the ancient vintage expressed more strongly than in the predictions of
+Isaiah concerning Moab: "And gladness is taken away, and joy out of the
+plentiful field; and in the vineyards there shall be no singing, neither
+shall there be any shouting: the treaders shall tread out no wine in their
+presses; I have made their vintage-shouting to cease." The treading of
+grapes is still practised in several parts of the world. The ancients
+frequently kept their wine in skins, or leathern bags, well secured at the
+seams; hence the passage in the gospels; "neither do men put new wine into
+old bottles; else the bottles break, and the wine runneth out, and the
+bottles perish: but they put new wine into new bottles, and both are
+preserved."
+
+The kinds of wine are extremely various. The difference which exists
+betwixt them is not, however, so much owing to a distinction in the species
+of grapes, as in the quality of the fruit, produced by the varieties of
+soil, cultivation, and climate to which they are subject. This difference
+likewise depends, in some instances, on the peculiar mode of fermentation,
+and the state of the grapes from which the wine is produced.
+
+(_a_) PORTUGUESE WINES.--Of all the kinds of wine that are consumed in
+England, none are so much in request as _red port_. This has its name from
+the city of Oporto, in the neighbourhood of which the vines that produce it
+are chiefly cultivated. A great proportion, however, of the port that is
+consumed in England, is said to be mixed with a Spanish red wine of
+inferior quality, or to be otherwise adulterated. Red port is brought over
+in casks called pipes, which measure 138 gallons each, and ought to fill
+fifty-two dozen bottles of legal measure.
+
+The difference in colour betwixt red wines and white does not so much
+depend upon the quality of the grape, as upon the mode in which the wines
+are prepared. The juice of red grapes, if carefully pressed, and fermented
+separately from the skins, forms a white wine. If the skins be pressed so
+as to discharge the colouring matter they contain, or, if they be allowed
+to remain in the juice during the fermentation, the wine assumes a red
+tinge.
+
+_White port_, and _Lisbon_, are two kinds of white wine which we receive
+from Portugal. Of these, the former was much in demand some years ago, but
+it is now seldom called for; the latter is still in use.
+
+(_b_) FRENCH WINES.--Many excellent wines are produced in France. That
+usually considered the best is _Burgundy_, a red wine of very delicate
+flavour, which has its name from the province where it is made. The wines
+of the neighbourhood of Orleans, however, after having been matured by age,
+are much like Burgundy. _Claret_ is the only French red wine for which
+there is any great demand in England. It is thin and highly flavoured, and
+is chiefly supplied from the neighbourhood of Bourdeaux. Some of the red
+wines of Champaigne are highly prized for their excellence and delicacy,
+though they, occasionally, have a pungent and sourish taste. _Hermitage_ is
+produced from vineyards, at a place so called, near the village of Thein,
+on the eastern bank of the Rhone; and _Côte Rotie_ from vineyards on the
+opposite side of the river.
+
+No French white wine has so much celebrity as _Champaigne_. This is of two
+kinds; one of which, called still or quiet Champaigne, has gone through the
+whole process of fermentation; the other, which has the name of sparkling
+Champaigne, has been bottled before the fermentation was complete: this,
+consequently, proceeds slowly in the bottle, and causes the wine, on the
+drawing of the cork, to sparkle in the glass. _Vin de Grave_ is produced in
+the vicinity of Bourdeaux, and the lower parts of Gascoigne: _Pontac_ is
+made in Guienne; and _Frontignac_ and _Muscadel_ are white wines, the
+delicious productions of Languedoc.
+
+(_c_) SPANISH WINES.--The country about Xeres, in Andalusia, is celebrated
+for a grape which produces an excellent wine called _Sherry_. There are
+several French and English houses at Xeres and Seville which trade, to
+great extent, in this wine. It is very strong, and full-bodied, owing, in a
+great degree, to the quantity of brandy with which it is mixed. In the
+province of Valencia, some of the proprietors have wines of different
+kinds, sixty, eighty, and even a hundred years old, the prices of which
+differ according to their age. _Rota_, in Seville, produces a rich and
+sweet white wine; and the country around _Malaga_, near Gibraltar, is
+celebrated for white wine which is known by that name; and so assiduously
+is the cultivation of the vine there pursued, that the export of the
+produce of the vineyards yields to the inhabitants an annual revenue of
+more than 200,000_l._ sterling per annum. We import from Spain a harsh and
+inferior kind of _red wine_, which, duty free, sells for only 10_l._ or
+15_l._ per pipe of 126 gallons; but the territory of Alicant produces a
+very rich and excellent kind of red wine. The sweet red wine which we call
+_Tent_ is a Spanish production; chiefly imported from Cadiz, and in
+hogsheads of about sixty gallons each. It is made from the juice of a
+particular kind of grapes, which are not used for this purpose until some
+time after they have been perfectly ripe.
+
+(_d_) ITALIAN WINES.--Notwithstanding the ancient celebrity of many of the
+wines of Italy, by far the greater part of what are now manufactured in
+that country are thin and bad. Certain vineyards on mount Vesuvius,
+however, still have great celebrity for a luscious red wine called
+_Lachryma Christi_.
+
+(_e_) GERMAN WINES.--Germany produces many excellent wines, of which Tokay,
+Hock, Rhenish, and Moselle, are the most celebrated. _Tokay_ has its name
+from a town in Hungary, near which it is chiefly made. The quantity of this
+wine is so small that, even on the spot where it is manufactured, it is
+sold at a very high price. It is made by mixing with the common grapes a
+portion of luscious, half-dried, and shrivelled grapes; the latter being
+absolutely necessary to constitute the peculiar quality of the wine. The
+two kinds of grapes are pressed separately, and the juice is afterwards
+mixed, fermented, and strained through a cloth or sieve into the barrels in
+which it is to continue. The best Tokay does not long remain in the place
+where it is made, a great portion of it being sent into the cellars of the
+nobility in other parts of Hungary. Tokay is certainly a fine wine, but is
+no way adequate to the price for which it is sold. Several years ago it
+could not be purchased, even in Hungary, for much less than half a guinea
+of English money per bottle; and yet there are few Englishmen, who, except
+on account of its scarceness, would prefer it to good Claret or Burgundy.
+Of all the German wines, that which is in greatest demand in England is
+_Hock_. This has its name from the town of Hochstadt in Suabia, celebrated
+for a great battle which was fought in its neighbourhood by the French and
+the allies in 1704. _Rhenish_ and _Moselle_ are produced chiefly on the
+banks of the rivers Rhine and Moselle, and have a cool, sharp taste, and
+considerable strength. Anterior to the late wars in Germany, there were
+wines in the cellars of many of the noble and wealthy inhabitants of that
+country which were more than a hundred years old, and of such body as to be
+uninjured even by so great an age.
+
+(_f_) MADEIRA and TENERIFFE WINES.--To the Madeira and Canary islands we
+are indebted for some excellent white wines. Of these _Madeira wine_ is
+considered by far the most valuable, particularly after it has been ripened
+by conveyance into a hot climate. The number of pipes of Madeira annually
+made is about 30,000. The grapes, when gathered, are put into wooden
+vessels, and the juice is extracted by persons treading upon them.
+
+The Canary Islands gave name to a rich white wine, which was formerly in
+great esteem under the name of _Canary sack_, and is now usually called
+_Malmsey Madeira_. The genuine _Malmsey_ wine, which is of sweet and
+luscious flavour, and rich golden yellow colour, is the produce of
+Malvesia, one of the Greek islands, and thence had originally its name, the
+French merchants denominating it _Vin de Malvesia_: but so little is now
+made that few persons can possess it. _Teneriffe wine_, when two or three
+years old, has much the flavour of Madeira, but, after this age, it becomes
+so sweet and mellow, as somewhat to resemble Malaga.
+
+(_g_) CAPE WINES.--There are produced, at the Cape of Good Hope, two kinds
+of peculiarly rich, sweet, and delicate wine, called _red_ and _white
+Constantia_. The farm from which they have their name is situated about
+eight miles from Cape Town. The grapes of this farm, owing, as it is
+supposed, to some peculiarity in the soil, are superior to any other in the
+whole country. The vintage commences about March or April; and great care
+is taken in the manufacture of the wine, no fruit being used but such as is
+fully ripe and in the highest perfection. The annual produce is considered
+to be about sixty pipes of the red, and 100 pipes of the white wine.
+Constantia is in perfection when about two years old; but, when kept six or
+seven years, it sparkles in the glass somewhat like wine which has not
+undergone a perfect fermentation. What is denominated _Cape Madeira_ is a
+light kind of white wine, the produce of the Cape of Good Hope.
+Considerable quantities of this wine are now consumed in England, in
+consequence of the lowness of its price. This is owing to its paying to
+government only one-third part of the duty which is imposed on most other
+wines.
+
+The juice of unripe grapes has a harsh, sour, and rough taste. This, under
+the name of _verjuice_, was formerly much esteemed for culinary and other
+purposes. The young twigs of the vine, when dried, cut into small pieces,
+and moistened with water, afford a wholesome food for cattle and horses.
+The _leaves_ and _tendrils_ have an astringent taste, which it is probable
+they would impart to British made wines, and thus render them somewhat
+similar to foreign wines. The _wood_ of the vine, reduced to charcoal, is
+used by painters for drawing outlines; and, from the seeds or _stones_, a
+kind of oil is sometimes made, which can scarcely be distinguished from
+olive oil. These stones, when purified, moderately roasted, and ground to a
+coarse powder, form a tolerable substitute for chocolate.
+
+_Brandy_ is a spirituous liquor, produced by the distillation of wine; and
+prepared in most of the wine countries of Europe. The principal
+manufactories of this spirit are in France, particularly in Languedoc, and
+Anjou, whence comes the well-known _Cognac brandy_. The distilleries of
+brandy in Catalonia, in Spain, are so extensive as to yield more than
+35,000 pipes per annum. When brandy first issues from the still, it is
+colourless as water; and the colour, which is given to it by the merchants,
+is produced partly by the oaken casks in which it is kept, but chiefly by
+the addition of red saunders wood, burnt sugar, and other colouring
+matters. These, however, do not in the least affect the quality of the
+spirit.
+
+In addition to the preceding uses of the vine, we have to add those of its
+fruit in a recent state, called _grapes_, as a delicious addition to our
+desserts; and of this fruit, in a dried state, under the appellation of
+raisins and currants.
+
+_Raisins_ are grapes which have been suffered to remain on the trees until
+they are perfectly ripe, and have been dried. They are occasionally dried
+in ovens. Sometimes the clusters, being tied several together, are dipped
+in a ley of the ashes of rosemary and vine branches, with a certain portion
+of slaked lime, and are then dried by exposure to the sun. The best fruit
+of this description are the _sun_, and _jar raisins_; both of which are
+dried in the sun, without any preparation. These are imported from the
+southern countries of Europe; and also from the Asiatic provinces of
+Turkey. They are principally used for desserts, whilst _Malaga raisins_,
+and some other kinds, are employed for culinary purposes and the making of
+wine.
+
+ 79. _The CURRANTS of commerce are a small kind of raisins, or dried
+ grapes, which are produced in the Grecian Archipelago, and particularly
+ in the islands of Zante and Cephalonia._
+
+The chief plantation of these grapes was anciently in the isthmus of
+Corinth, whence they obtained the name of _Corinths_, since corrupted to
+currants, Few, however, are now produced there, the vineyards having been
+neglected in consequence of the jealousy of the Turks not allowing large
+vessels to enter the gulf for their exportation. These grapes have no
+stones, are usually either of a red or black colour, and when recently
+gathered, are an extremely delicious fruit.
+
+The harvest commences in the month of August, and as soon as the grapes are
+plucked from the trees, they are spread to dry, upon a floor prepared for
+the purpose by stamping the earth quite hard. This floor is formed with a
+gentle rising in the middle, that the rain, in case any should fall, may
+run off, and not injure the fruit. When sufficiently dry, the currants are
+cleaned, and laid up in magazines, being poured into them through a hole,
+and stowed so closely that it is necessary to dig them out with an iron
+instrument. They are packed for exportation in large casks, and by persons
+who have their feet greased in order to tread them close.
+
+The principal consumption of currants is in England; but the inhabitants of
+the islands whence they are brought know little of the use we make of them.
+They imagine that we employ them only in the dyeing of cloth, and are
+entirely ignorant of our luxury of Christmas pies, and plum puddings. A
+small but inferior kind of currants are grown in some parts of Spain.
+
+
+DIGYNIA.
+
+
+ 80. _BEET_ (Beta vulgaris) _is a well known fleshy or succulent root,
+ which is cultivated in our kitchen gardens, and grows wild in several
+ countries of the south of Europe._
+
+ _There are two principal varieties of beet, one of which is of deep red
+ or purple colour, and the other is white, crossed with bands of red._
+
+Red beet is principally used at table boiled and cut in slices: it is,
+however, sometimes pickled, and sometimes stewed with onions; but, if eaten
+in great quantity, it is said to be injurious to the stomach. The roots may
+be taken out of the ground for use about the end of August, but they do not
+attain their full size and perfection till the month of October. When good
+they are large, and of deep red colour; and, when boiled, they are tender,
+sweet, and palatable.
+
+It has lately been ascertained that beet roots may be substituted for malt,
+if deprived of the greater part of their juice by pressure, then dried, and
+treated in the same manner as the grain intended for brewing. The beer,
+made from beet, has been found perfectly wholesome and palatable, and
+little inferior to that prepared from malt.
+
+From _white beet_ the French, during the late war, endeavoured to prepare
+sugar; that article, as a British colonial produce, having been prohibited
+in France. For this purpose, the roots were boiled as soon as possible
+after they were taken from the earth. When cold, they were sliced, and
+afterwards the juice was pressed out, and evaporated to the consistence of
+syrup. The sugar was obtained, from this syrup, by crystallization. From
+110 pounds' weight of the roots, 41½ pounds of juice were obtained, which,
+on further evaporation, yielded somewhat more than 4¼ pounds of brown
+sugar; and these, by a subsequent operation, produced four pounds of well
+grained white powder sugar. The residuum, together with the syrup or
+molasses which remained, produced after distillation, 3½ quarts of
+rectified spirit, somewhat similar to rum.
+
+ 81. _MANGEL WURZEL or ROOT OF SCARCITY, is a plant of the beet tribe_ (_a
+ variety of_ Beta cicla) _with large and red veined leaves; those arising
+ from the root being on footstalks, and those of the stem being without
+ stalks, and the flowers growing in threes._
+
+The farmers, in some parts of Germany, cultivate this plant as food for
+cattle, and they are said to prefer it, for that use, to potatoes, turnips,
+carrots, and indeed to most other vegetables. It was introduced to the
+public notice in England, by the late Dr. Lettsom; and it has been strongly
+recommended, not only for the feeding of cattle, but also for the use of
+man. Both the _leaves_ and _root_ grow to very large size; and the former,
+which may be eaten as spinach, continue in season long after that plant is
+withered. The root is insipid and unpalatable; but the stalks, and the
+stronger middle part of the leaves, may be stewed, or eaten plain-boiled,
+as asparagus.
+
+ 82. _BARILLA is the Spanish name of a plant_ (Salsola soda) _from the
+ ashes of which is produced the salt called_ kali _or_ soda.
+
+ _Soda is also procured from the ashes of_ PRICKLY SALTWORT (Salsola
+ kali), SHRUBBY SALTWORT (Salsola fructicosa), _and numerous plants of
+ other tribes._
+
+On the shores of the Mediterranean, where the preparation of soda is
+pursued to considerable extent, the seeds of the plants from which it is
+obtained are regularly sown in places near the sea. When at a sufficient
+state of maturity, the plants are pulled up by the roots, dried, and
+afterwards tied in bundles to be burnt. In some places, this is done in
+ovens constructed for the purpose; and in others, in trenches dug near the
+sea. The ashes, whilst they are hot, are continually stirred with long
+poles, and the saline matter they contain forms, when cold, a solid mass,
+almost as hard as stone. This mass is afterwards broken into pieces of
+convenient size for exportation. The best sort of Spanish soda is in
+dark-coloured masses of bluish tinge, very heavy, sonorous, dry to the
+touch, and it externally abounds in small cavities. Its taste is sharp,
+corrosive, and strongly saline.
+
+Soda is chiefly employed in glass and soap manufactories. See the uses of
+minerals, Vol. i. No. 200.
+
+ 83. _ELMS are forest-trees well known in almost every part of England.
+ There are several species, of which, however, only three, the_ COMMON ELM
+ (Ulmus campestris, Fig. 61,) WYCH HAZEL, _or_ BROAD-LEAVED ELM (Ulmus
+ montana, Fig. 62,) _and_ DUTCH ELM (Ulmus suberosa), _grow in this
+ country without cultivation_. _They are easily distinguishable from most
+ other forest-trees, by their leaves being rough, and doubly serrated at
+ the edge._
+
+ _Of these trees the flowers of the first are four-cleft, and have each
+ four stamens, and the fruit is oblong: those of the second are five or
+ six cleft, and have each five or six stamens, the fruit is roundish, and
+ the leaves are broad; those of the third are four-cleft, and have four
+ stamens, and the bark of the branches has a corky appearance._
+
+The Dutch elm is grown in most parts of England. The common elm, though
+plentiful in Worcestershire, Middlesex, and some other southern counties,
+is said to be rare further north than Grantham or Stamford. The wych hazel
+is common in woods and hedges throughout the whole of South Britain.
+
+The use of the elm as _timber_ is chiefly confined to rough and inferior
+work. Implements of husbandry are almost wholly made of it; and it is
+employed for waggons, carts, mill-wheels, water-pipes, low-priced chairs,
+blocks for hat-makers, and various other purposes; and among the lower and
+middling classes, almost exclusively, for coffins. The preference which it
+has obtained for the latter purpose, is supposed to have originated in its
+peculiar durability in moist situations.
+
+Some of the northern writers state that, from the _inner bark_ of the elm,
+if stripped off in the spring, and boiled in water, a very palatable kind
+of beer may be brewed; and that this bark, dried and ground to powder, has,
+in times of scarcity, been mixed with meal to make bread. It is
+occasionally administered as a decoction for obstinate cutaneous
+complaints; and it has been proposed for use in rheumatism, dropsy, and
+other diseases. The young _leaves_ may be used for the feeding of
+silk-worms.
+
+Few trees are better adapted than the elm for planting in hedge rows, along
+the sides of roads, and along shady walks; but in the latter case the
+numerous suckers which grow up from its roots give much trouble to keep the
+ground clear.
+
+ 84. _GENTIAN is a bitter drug, the dried root of a plant_ (Gentiana
+ lutea) _which grows wild amongst the Alps, and in other mountainous parts
+ of the Continent._
+
+ _The flower-stem of the gentian is two or three feet high, strong,
+ smooth, and erect. The leaves which grow upon its lower part are
+ spear-shaped and ribbed, and those on the upper part are concave, smooth,
+ and egg-shaped. The flowers, which are large and yellow, grow round the
+ upper part of the stem on strong footstalks, and are divided at the edge
+ into five or more segments. The calyx is a kind of sheath._
+
+Gentian is one of the principal bitters that are now used in medicine; and
+is of considerable service in fevers, and in such complaints as arise from
+weakness of the stomach. It is externally of a brown colour, and internally
+yellowish or bright red. Its taste is at first sweetish, but immediately
+afterwards bitter and pungent. As a simple bitter, it is rendered more
+grateful to the stomach by the addition of some warm aromatic; and, for
+this purpose, orange-peel is commonly employed. An extract of gentian root,
+boiled with water till it has nearly the consistence of honey, is kept in
+the shops.
+
+ 85. _GARDEN CARROT_ (Daucus carota) _is a plant too well known to need
+ any description._
+
+In few vegetable productions are the effects of cultivation more
+conspicuous than in the carrot. The wild plants, which are common in most
+parts of England, have a root so small and woody, that no one could suppose
+they had any alliance whatever to the large and succulent root of the
+garden carrot.
+
+The various uses of the carrot in cookery are well known. But, although it
+contains much nutriment, this root is difficult of digestion; particularly
+if eaten raw, or imperfectly boiled. Carrots are an excellent fodder for
+cattle and horses, either alone or mixed with hay; and, if given to cows,
+in winter or the early part of spring, they are said to cause a great
+increase of milk. If carrots be boiled with their wash, hogs will thrive
+well upon them. In some parts of England this vegetable has been cultivated
+as a winter food for deer; and the leaves have sometimes been made into
+hay. Carrots contain a large proportion of saccharine matter, and various
+but unsuccessful experiments have been made to extract sugar from them.
+They have, however, been more advantageously employed in distillation. Ten
+pounds' weight of carrots will yield about half a pint of very strong,
+ardent spirit: and the carrots (twenty tons in weight) produced by an acre
+of ground, have been known to produce 240 gallons of spirit. A syrup made
+of these roots, and clarified with the white of eggs, has been found useful
+for many purposes. An infusion of the _seeds_ and the expressed juice of
+the roots, are said to afford relief in fits of the gravel. A marmalade of
+carrots has been used with success in sea-scurvy, and a poultice prepared
+from them is sometimes employed in cancerous ulcers. Crickets are so fond
+of these roots that they may easily be destroyed by making a paste of
+flour, powdered arsenic, and scraped carrots, and placing this near their
+habitations.
+
+ 86. _ROCK SAMPHIRE_ (Crithmum maritimum) _is an umbelliferous plant, with
+ fleshy, spear-shaped leaflets, and small but regular-shaped white
+ flowers._
+
+The cliffs of Dover have long been celebrated for the production of this
+vegetable, which has received an additional interest from the notice that
+Shakspeare has taken of the gathering of it:
+
+ "Half-way down
+ Hangs one that gathers samphire; dreadful trade!"
+
+It is also found on cliffs of other parts of the south of England, as well
+as in Italy, France, and Spain; and generally in inaccessible situations.
+
+In some parts of England the _leaves_ of samphire pickled in vinegar are in
+use for the table: they are also used in salads, and for other culinary
+purposes. But their place is frequently supplied by a much more common
+plant, which grows in salt marshes, and has the name of _marsh samphire_
+(_Salicornia_). This, however, is a very inferior substitute, and entirely
+destitute of the fine aromatic flavour of the former species.
+
+ 87. _ASAFOETIDA is a resinous gum, procured from the root of a large
+ umbelliferous plant_ (Ferula asafoetida) _which grows in the mountains of
+ some parts of Persia._
+
+ _The leaves of this plant are nearly two feet long, doubly winged, and
+ have the leaflets alternate. The flowers are small, and the seeds oval,
+ flat, and each marked with three longitudinal lines._
+
+No one who has ever smelt the peculiarly powerful, and garlic-like odour of
+asafoetida, can well forget it. If exposed to the air, but particularly
+when heated, it will pervade every apartment of a house. Notwithstanding
+this, it constitutes a favourite seasoning, for food, with the inhabitants
+of many of the eastern countries of the world. The Banian Indians, who
+never eat animal food, use it in almost all their dishes; and, before their
+meals, they even rub their mouths with it, to stimulate their appetite. It
+is sometimes used by our own cooks, but in very small quantity, in place of
+garlic. In many parts of Arabia and Persia, asafoetida is much esteemed as
+a remedy for internal diseases, and even as an external application to
+wounds; and, with us, it is considered a powerful medicine in several
+disorders. It has been applied with success, in the cure of hooping-cough
+and worms; and in flatulent colics, it has, in many cases, afforded great
+relief. It is imported in masses of various sizes and form, and of yellow,
+brown, or bluish colour, sometimes interspersed with roundish white pieces.
+
+The plant from the root of which asafoetida is produced grows in the
+mountains which surround the small town of Disgnun, in Persia; and, at the
+season when it is collected, the whole place smells of it. The upper part
+of the roots, which are sometimes as thick as a man's leg, rises somewhat
+above the surface of the ground. The harvest commences when the leaves
+begin to decay; and the whole gathering is performed by the inhabitants of
+the place, in four different journeys to the mountains. The demand for the
+article in foreign countries being first ascertained to be sufficient for
+the trouble of collecting, the persons employed proceed to the mountains in
+companies of four or five each. The juice is obtained by cutting the roots
+across, at the same time sheltering them by the leaves (which have been
+previously twisted off) from the intense heat of the sun. Each party takes
+into its care about 2000 plants. After the first incision has been made,
+the roots are suffered to remain untouched for about a month, when they are
+again visited, and the gum which has exuded is taken off. This operation is
+repeated three times, a few days betwixt each; after which the plants are
+exhausted and left to die. At the respective gatherings each party
+generally brings away about fifty pounds' weight of asafoetida. It is
+stated that a single ship is exclusively devoted to transporting the bulk
+of this commodity to the ports in the Persian Gulf; and that, when smaller
+parcels are carried, it is usual to tie them to the top of the mast.
+
+In the year 1784, the asafoetida plant was introduced into the Botanic
+garden at Edinburgh, from seeds which had been sent by Dr. Guthrie of
+Petersburgh to Dr. Hope.
+
+The _ferula tribe_ consists of nine or ten known species of plants, and it
+is supposed that asafoetida is yielded by several of them.
+
+
+
+In some parts of the Levant the sailors are said to use the _stalks_ of a
+species of ferula to transport fire from one island to another. This custom
+is of great antiquity, and explains a passage of Hesiod, who, speaking of
+the fire stolen from heaven by Prometheus, says that he carried it in a
+ferula. The foundation of this fable is undoubtedly owing to what Diodorus
+Siculus informs us of Prometheus, that he was the inventor of the steel
+with which fire is struck from flint; and in all probability that prince
+made use of the pith of the ferula instead of tinder, to convey it from one
+place to another.
+
+ 88. _CORIANDER is a small globular seed, produced by an annual
+ umbelliferous plant_ (Coriandrum sativum), _with leaves in slender
+ segments, and small whitish flowers, that grows wild in Suffolk and
+ Essex, and is cultivated in several parts of England._
+
+In several farms in Essex and Kent the cultivation of coriander is pursued
+to considerable extent. This is done solely for the seed, which is used by
+distillers, druggists, and confectioners. In some parts of the North of
+Europe it is ground and mixed with dough, to give an aromatic flavour to
+bread.
+
+Coriander is usually grown with teasel (53) and caraway (91); but, as
+neither of the latter come to perfection until the second year after they
+have been sown, the coriander is harvested without interfering with the
+other crops. In this labour, which usually commences about the beginning of
+July, women and children are principally employed: and, to prevent the
+seeds of the largest and best plants from being shed and lost, each stem is
+cut separately. The stems are then carried into some convenient part of the
+field, and threshed all together upon a sail cloth.
+
+So luxuriantly, and, at the same time, so abundantly does this plant grow
+in a wild state, in some of the southern parts of Europe, as almost to
+choke the growth of wheat and other grain. Every part of it, except the
+seed, has a fetid and disagreeable smell. The seeds, when taken in large
+quantities, have been considered injurious; but Dr. Withering states, that
+he has known six drams of them taken without any remarkable effect.
+
+ 89. _PARSNIP is the root of an umbelliferous plant_ (Pastinaca sativa),
+ _with winged and serrated leaves, and small yellow flowers, which is
+ cultivated in kitchen gardens, and which also grows wild on the borders
+ of ploughed fields in several parts of England._
+
+The wild and cultivated parsnips differ much from each other, but
+particularly in the roots of the latter being large and succulent, and
+those of the former being slender and woody.
+
+Parsnips are propagated by seed sown in February or March, and the roots
+are in perfection about October. These, besides their use as a vegetable
+for the table, are of great value for the feeding of cattle, horses, sheep,
+and hogs. Land in Guernsey, which lets for 7_l._ an acre, is sown with
+parsnips to feed cattle; and the milk of the cows so fed is not only richer
+than it would otherwise be, but yields butter of fine saffron colour and
+excellent taste.
+
+If parsnips be washed clean, and sliced among bran, horses will eat them.
+They will fatten sheep and oxen in a short time; and for the feeding of
+hogs they are at least equal if not superior to carrots. As food for
+mankind they are considered extremely nutritive; and may, with great
+advantage, be kept on board ships that are destined for long voyages. It
+is, however, said that they should not be dug up for use in the spring,
+because, at that season, the nutritive juices rising upward to produce the
+seed, they are then unwholesome.
+
+Parsnips abound in saccharine juice; and various experiments have, in vain,
+been made with a view to extract sugar from them. In several parts of
+Ireland they are used instead of malt in brewing; and, when properly
+fermented, they afford an agreeable beverage. The _seeds_ are considered by
+some practitioners as an efficacious remedy in intermittent fevers.
+
+ 90. _FENNEL_ (Anethum foeniculum) _is a well known plant, which is
+ cultivated in gardens, and grows wild in several parts of England._
+
+The _leaves_ of fennel, both boiled and raw, are used in sauce for several
+kinds of fish. The tender buds are eaten in salads; and, in Italy, the
+_stalks_ are sometimes blanched as winter salad. A distilled water,
+prepared from the seeds, is occasionally administered as a medicine; and
+there was formerly a notion that the _roots_ were peculiarly valuable, as a
+remedy in several diseases, but they are now almost wholly disregarded.
+
+ 91. _CARAWAY is a small well known seed, produced by an umbelliferous
+ plant_ (Carum carui), _with smooth and double winged leaves, narrow
+ leaflets, and small white, or pale flesh-coloured flowers, of which the
+ petals are bent inward, so as to become heart-shaped._
+
+The _seeds_ of caraway have a pleasant spicy smell, and a warm aromatic
+taste. They are much used by pastry-cooks and confectioners in cakes, and
+for other purposes. Incrusted with sugar, they are called caraway comfits.
+They are also distilled with spirituous liquors, to improve their flavour;
+and are recommended as a medicine in several disorders. An essential _oil_
+and a _spirit_ are also prepared from them. In the spring of the year the
+_leaves_ are sometimes used in soups, or boiled with pot-herbs. The _roots_
+may be converted into an agreeable pickle; and, if simply boiled, they are
+said by Parkinson to be better than parsnips.
+
+This plant grows wild in several parts of England, but particularly in
+meadows and pastures near Bury St. Edmunds, in Suffolk. It is much
+cultivated in Essex and Kent, sometimes alone, and sometimes mixed with
+teasel (53) and coriander (88). The season for cutting it is about the
+beginning of July; and it is threshed in the field on a cloth, in the same
+manner as rape-seed (187).
+
+ 92. _ANISE-SEEDS are the production of an umbelliferous annual plant_
+ (Pimpinella anisum), _which grows wild in Egypt, Syria, and other Eastern
+ countries. They are roundish and striated, flatted on one side, and
+ pointed at one end; and of pale colour, inclining to green._
+
+Attempts were made more than two hundred years ago to cultivate anise in
+this country, but the summers of our climate are seldom warm enough to
+bring the plant to perfection. It has consequently been found necessary to
+import the seed from Malta and Spain, where it is cultivated to
+considerable extent.
+
+Anise-seeds have an aromatic smell, and a pleasant warm taste, accompanied
+with some degree of sweetness. They have long been employed in medicine,
+and have been considered useful in diseases of the lungs and complaints of
+the stomach. They give out all their virtue to rectified spirit; and a
+spirituous water prepared from a mixture of equal parts of anise-seed and
+angelica, is kept in the shops as a cordial.
+
+ 93. _PARSLEY_ (Apium petroselinum) _is an annual umbelliferous plant too
+ common to need any description._
+
+The uses of parsley, in our kitchens, both for sauce and garnish, are
+numerous and well known. It is, however, poisonous to several kinds of
+birds; and, although so commonly used at table, facts have been adduced
+from which it would appear that, with some persons, it occasions epilepsy,
+or at least aggravates the fits in those who are subject to that disease.
+Inflammation in the eyes has also been attributed to the use of it. Parsley
+is eaten with great avidity by sheep, and has been recommended for use in
+several diseases of those animals, as well as in some diseases of horses.
+Both the _roots_ and _seed_ are employed in medicine. The former have a
+sweetish taste, accompanied with a slight warmth, and a flavour somewhat
+resembling that of the carrot: the latter are warm and aromatic.
+
+Parsley is a native of Sardinia, and propagated by seed, which is usually
+sown about the month of March.
+
+ 94. _CELERY_ (Apium graveolens) _is a well known plant belonging to the
+ same tribe as parsley._
+
+In a wild state celery is found in ditches and marshes of several parts of
+England, and is a small, acrid, and noxious plant, called _smallage_: but,
+when cultivated, it entirely loses these properties.
+
+It is grown in trenches, and is earthed up for the purpose of blanching or
+whitening the lower parts. The seeds are sown in spring, and the plants may
+be taken out for use towards the end of the autumn. Celery is eaten raw in
+salads, boiled in soup, or stewed. The seeds are used, particularly at sea,
+for the flavouring of soup, to which they give the same taste as the plant
+itself.
+
+ 95. _COPAL is a somewhat resinous substance, obtained from a tree_ (Rhus
+ copallinum) _the produce of America, which has winged and very entire
+ leaves, the foot-stalks membranaceous and jointed._
+
+We annually import considerable quantities of copal from the Spanish
+colonies in America, in irregular masses, some of which are transparent, of
+yellowish or brown colour, and others are whitish and semi-transparent.
+When copal is dissolved in any volatile liquid, and thinly spread upon
+wood, metal, or any other firm substance, so that the liquid may evaporate,
+the copal remains perfectly transparent; and forms one of the most
+beautiful and perfect varnishes that can be imagined. The varnish thus
+formed has the name of _copal varnish_, and is said to have been first
+discovered in France. One mode of preparing it is by melting the copal with
+an equal quantity of linseed oil (97); another, by mixture with oil of
+turpentine; and a third, by mixture with alcohol or spirit of wine. The
+particular processes are described in the fourth volume of Dr. Thomson's
+System of Chemistry, fifth edition; but they are too long and intricate for
+insertion here.
+
+Copal is the varnish which is chiefly used in the japanning of snuff-boxes,
+tea-boards, and other similar articles.
+
+
+TRIGYNIA.
+
+
+ 96. _The COMMON ELDER_ (Sambucus nigra) _is a wild English shrub,
+ distinguishable by its winged leaves, with serrated and somewhat oval
+ leaflets, its clusters of small white flowers divided into five principal
+ branches, and the small black or purple berries by which these are
+ succeeded._
+
+The uses of the elder are more numerous than those of most other shrubs.
+There is scarcely any part of this shrub which has not been advantageously
+employed in some way or other. The _wood_ is yellow, and, in old trees,
+becomes so hard that it will take a polish almost as bright as that of box
+(232); and, indeed, it is often used as a substitute for box-wood. Its
+toughness also is such that it is made into skewers for butchers, tops for
+fishing rods, and needles for the weaving of nets. It is likewise employed
+by turners.
+
+Sir J. E. Smith has remarked that this tree is, as it were, a whole
+magazine of physic to rustic practitioners, and that it is not quite
+neglected even by professional men. Ointments have been made of the green
+_inner bark_, and of the _leaves_. The dried _flowers_, infused in water,
+are used in fomentations, or as tea: and, mixed with butter-milk, they are
+sometimes employed as a wash for the face; and the clusters of flowers,
+before they open, may be made into a delicious pickle, to eat with boiled
+mutton. The _berries_ are boiled into a rob, which is useful in sore
+throats, colds, and hoarsenesses. In addition to their medicinal services,
+the leaves are sometimes thrown into the subterraneous paths of moles,
+under an impression that their smell will drive away those noxious animals.
+If turnips, cabbages, fruit trees, or corn, all of which are subject to
+blight from various kinds of insects, be strongly whipped with the green
+leaves and branches of elder, insects will not attack them; and an infusion
+of the leaves is sometimes sprinkled by gardeners over the buds of such
+flowers as they wish to preserve from the devastation of caterpillars.
+Elder flowers have an agreeable flavour, which they impart, in
+distillation, to water: they are likewise used to give a flavour to
+vinegar. The berries are poisonous to poultry, but their juice, properly
+fermented, makes a pleasant and wholesome wine; and, in Germany, a very
+pure and strong spirit is distilled from them. The juice of elder berries
+is sometimes employed to give a red colour to raisin or other sweet wine.
+The _young shoots_ of this shrub are filled with an exceedingly light
+_pith_, which is cut into balls for electrical experiments; and is also
+made into toys for the amusement of children.
+
+The elder will grow and thrive in almost any soil and situation; but, as
+every part of this shrub has an unpleasant narcotic smell, people ought to
+be cautious not to sleep under its shade, as, in such case, it might prove
+of serious injury to them.
+
+
+TETRAGYNIA.
+
+
+ 97. _FLAX is the produce of an annual plant_ (Linum usitatissimum, Fig.
+ 37), _with spear-shaped leaves, and blue flowers, which is cultivated in
+ several parts of Great Britain, and grows wild in corn-fields and sandy
+ pastures of some of the southern counties._
+
+ _The stems of these plants rise to the height of about two feet. The seed
+ vessels and leaves of the calyx are sharp pointed, and the flowers have
+ each five scolloped petals._
+
+It is supposed that we were originally indebted for this plant to those
+parts of Egypt which are annually inundated by the Nile; but the time of
+its introduction into this country is unknown. Its utility is incalculable.
+To it we are indebted for the linen we wear, for our sheets, table-cloths,
+and numerous other indispensable articles of clothing and domestic economy;
+and although cotton might, in some degree, supply its place, those persons
+who have been accustomed to the comforts of linen would be little desirous
+of the exchange.
+
+The cultivation of flax is pursued to considerable extent in some parts of
+the British dominions. The seed imported from Riga and Holland is
+generally, though perhaps erroneously, esteemed the best. It is sown in
+March or April; and the plants, when nearly ripe, are pulled up by the
+roots. These, if flax and not seed be the object of the crop, are either
+placed in small parcels upon the surface of the land, for exposure to the
+sun, to dry; or they are immediately conveyed to the place where they are
+to undergo the process called watering. For this purpose they are loosely
+tied in small bundles, placed in pools or ponds of soft and stagnant water,
+and allowed to continue there several days. By the fermentation which takes
+place, the bark or flaxy substance becomes separated. They are then taken
+out, and thinly spread upon the grass, in regular rows. Here they are
+occasionally turned until they have become so brittle, that, on being
+rubbed between the hands, the flax easily and freely separates from the
+stalks. They are taken up, and bound in sheaves, to be either sent to a
+mill, or to be broken and scuttled, as it is called, by a machine contrived
+for that purpose.
+
+The flax, by the above process, having been separated from the stalks, it
+subsequently undergoes various dressings, according to the purposes for
+which it is to be used.
+
+When the plants have been grown for _seed_, they are pulled as before, and
+then laid together by handfuls upon the ground, with the seed ends towards
+the south, that they may be the better exposed to the sun. The next
+operation is to force off the seed vessels. For this purpose a large cloth
+is usually spread on some adjacent and convenient spot of ground, and an
+instrument, called a ripple, is placed in the middle of it. This is a sort
+of comb, consisting of six, eight, or ten, long, triangular, upright teeth.
+The seed ends of the flax are pulled repeatedly through the teeth of the
+comb, by which the parts containing the seed are removed from the stalks.
+After this the pods and seeds, which have the name of _line-seeds_, are
+spread upon a cloth in the sun to dry, and subsequently are threshed,
+sifted, winnowed, and cleansed. The best seed is generally preserved for
+sowing, and the second sort yields considerable profit in the oil which is
+obtained from it by pressure. This, which is called _linseed oil_, is
+equally useful in the arts and in medicine. It is occasionally employed for
+making the soap called green soap. If heat be applied during the pressure
+of the seeds, the oil attains a yellowish colour and a peculiar smell, and,
+in this state, it is used by painters and varnishers. An infusion of the
+seed, in the manner of tea, is recommended in coughs; and from the seed is
+also made an useful kind of poultice for external inflammations.
+
+After the oil has been expressed, the remaining farinaceous part of the
+seeds is squeezed together into large masses, called _oil-cake_ which is
+given as food to oxen.
+
+It must be remarked that the water in which flax has been macerated becomes
+thereby poisonous to cattle; and, on this account, the practice of steeping
+it in any running stream or common pond was prohibited by an act of
+Parliament, passed in the reign of Henry the Eighth.
+
+
+
+
+----
+
+CLASS VI.--HEXANDRIA.
+
+----
+
+
+MONOGYNIA.
+
+
+ 98. _The PINE_ (Bromelia ananas) _is a rich and highly fragrant fruit, of
+ large size, and yellow colour, with protuberances on its surface; and
+ crowned by a tuft of strong and pointed leaves, edged with sharp spines._
+
+This, the best and finest flavoured of all known fruits, was originally
+imported into England from South America, about the year 1690. In that
+country and the West Indies it has long been cultivated in the open ground;
+and, from free access to a congenial atmosphere, it attains there a much
+finer flavour than is possible in a forced state, in the hot-houses of
+Great Britain.
+
+Pines are planted in earth; and the pots which contain them are immersed in
+beds of bark, after it has been used by the tanners. About the month of
+April the young fruit begins to advance, but the usual season for ripening
+does not commence till July, and the fruit is in greatest perfection from
+the middle of August to the end of September. The ripening of pines is
+discoverable by the fragrant odour which they emit, and by their
+protuberances yielding to pressure with the hand; and their flavour
+speedily dissipates if left uncut longer than three or four days after they
+are fully ripe. When brought to table, their leafy crowns should be
+reserved for planting. These, if placed in pots, and plunged in the
+bark-bed, or in a hot-bed, and covered, for some time, with glass, will in
+two years bear fruit.
+
+There are several varieties of pine, of which the following are among the
+principal.
+
+(_a_) _White Pine._--This has a whitish and fibrous flesh, and the rind as
+yellow as that of an orange. Its smell is highly fragrant, and it excels
+most other kinds in size and beauty, although its flavour is inferior to
+that of many. Its juice edges the teeth, and sometimes makes the lips
+smart.
+
+(_b_) _The yellow pine_ edges the teeth less; but both this and the
+preceding variety are exceeded by
+
+(_c_) _The sugar-loaf pine_; which is distinguished by the purple stripes
+on the outside of the leaves, and by its straw-coloured fruit.
+
+(_d_) _The Montserrat pine_ is now rare in Europe, though in America it is
+esteemed in preference to most others. It is principally known by the
+protuberances of the fruit being longer and flatter than those of the
+common sort.
+
+In the West Indies an excellent liquid sweetmeat or confection is made from
+pines. This fruit also is sometimes preserved whole, and, when taken out of
+the syrup, is iced over with sugar. Sweetmeats of this kind were formerly
+sent into Europe, in great quantity, from the Antilles. Wine made from
+pines is almost equal to Malmsey: at the end of about three weeks it
+becomes somewhat acid, but it recovers by longer keeping. Pines, in the
+West Indies, are frequently put into rum to communicate to that liquor
+their peculiar aromatic flavour.
+
+ 99. _GARLIC_ (Allium sativum) _is a plant with bulbous root, of irregular
+ form, composed of many smaller bulbs, called cloves, which are all
+ included within a white skin._
+
+ _The stem leaves are flat and narrow; the upper part of the stem bears
+ small bulbs, and the stamens are three pointed._
+
+In warm climates, where _garlic_ is produced having considerably less
+acrimony than in this country, it is much used, both as a seasoning and as
+food. The lower classes of French, Spaniards, and Portuguese, consume great
+quantities of it. The Jews also eat of it to excess. With us it is in
+considerable estimation for culinary and other domestic purposes. It has an
+acrid taste, and an highly offensive smell; and it differs from the onion
+only by being more powerful in its effects. When bruised and applied to the
+skin, it causes inflammation, and raises blisters.
+
+The medical properties of garlic are various. In dropsical complaints,
+asthmas, and agues, it is said to have been successfully used. Some
+instances have occurred, in deafness, of the beneficial effects of wrapping
+a clove of garlic in muslin and putting it into the ear. As a medicine
+internally taken, garlic is administered as a bolus, or made into pills.
+Its smell is considered an infallible remedy against vapours, and to be
+useful in nearly all the nervous disorders to which females are subject. An
+oil is sometimes prepared from garlic, which is so heavy as to sink in
+water. But the virtues of this pungent vegetable are more perfectly and
+more readily extracted by spirit of wine than in any other way. A syrup is
+also made from it.
+
+The juice of garlic is said to be the best and strongest cement that can be
+adopted for broken glass and china, leaving little or no mark, if used with
+care. Snails, worms, and the grubs, or larvæ of insects, as well as moles,
+and other vermin, may all be driven away by placing preparations of garlic
+in or near their haunts.
+
+This plant grows wild in the island of Sicily.
+
+ 100. _LEEKS_ (Allium porrum) _belong to the onion or garlic tribe, and
+ are known by their leaves growing out on each side, somewhat in the shape
+ of a fan._
+
+In some countries leeks are much esteemed for culinary uses, in soups,
+broth, and for boiling as greens with meat.
+
+They are considered the badge of the Welsh nation, and representations of
+them are frequently worn by persons of that country on the day of their
+patron saint, St. David. The origin of this custom was an occurrence,
+during the Welsh wars, in which a party of Welshmen, wanting a mark of
+distinction, and shortly afterwards passing through a field or garden of
+leeks, seized and stuck the plants in their caps, and under this signal
+were victorious.
+
+Leeks are natives of Switzerland.
+
+ 101. _SHALOT_ (Allium ascalonicum) _is a kind of garlic, the bulbs or
+ roots of which are oblong, irregular, and seldom of large size._
+
+ _The stem is naked and round; the leaves are somewhat awl-shaped; the
+ head of flowers is globular; and the stamens are three-pointed._
+
+The uses of shalot, or echalotte, as it is denominated by the French, are
+almost wholly confined to cookery. It has a strong, but rather pleasant
+smell, on which account it is generally preferred to onions. It is employed
+for the seasoning of soups, gravy, hashes, pickles, and for numerous other
+purposes.
+
+This plant grows wild in several parts of the Continent.
+
+ 102. _The CANADIAN or TREE ONION_ (Allium Canadense) _is remarkable for
+ producing a bulb or onion at the top of the stalk._
+
+ _The stem is naked and round; and the leaves are flat and narrow._
+
+These onions are well deserving of attention both as objects of curiosity,
+from producing their bulb at the upper extremity of the stalk, and also for
+their use. When pickled, they are generally thought superior in flavour to
+the common onion.
+
+They were originally imported from Canada; are perennial, and are
+propagated by planting the bulbs in the spring or autumn. Either the bulbs
+of the root or those on the stalk will grow.
+
+ 103. _CHIVES_ (Allium schoenoprasum) _are the smallest of the garlic
+ tribe, seldom rising more than a few inches above the ground, and the
+ bulbs not being larger than peas._
+
+ _The stem is naked, as long as the leaves; and the leaves are round and
+ somewhat awl-shaped._
+
+Chives are natives of Italy, Switzerland, and several other parts of
+Europe; and are so hardy, and at the same time so useful, that they merit a
+place in every garden: yet, in the northern counties of England and in
+Scotland, they are very rarely to be seen. The leaves, which are small and
+are the principal parts that are used, appear early in the spring. They are
+employed in salads, and for numerous culinary purposes; and often at a
+season when other plants of the same tribe cannot be procured.
+
+ 104. _The COMMON ONION_ (Allium cepa) _is known by its round and hollow
+ leaves, and its swelling pipy stalk, which is considerably thicker in the
+ middle than either at the top or bottom._
+
+The name of onion is derived from the Latin word _unio_, which, properly,
+signifies a bulb that does not throw out offsets. Onions are propagated by
+seed which are sown in spring; and the bulbs or roots arrive at perfection
+in the autumn. The whole plant, when young, is eaten as salad. Onions
+generally cease to grow towards the middle of August, the stalks and leaves
+at that time shrinking and turning brown. Shortly after this they must be
+drawn out of the earth; the tops and blades must be cut off; and the roots
+dried, either in a warm place, or by exposure to the sun.
+
+_Spanish onions_ are of large size, and flattened shape; and _Portugal
+onions_ are large, handsome bulbs, of roundish form.
+
+By the common people onions are frequently eaten raw with their food. This
+has particularly been the case, and from time immemorial, with the
+inhabitants of Egypt. By stimulating the stomach, they are supposed to
+favour digestion. Some persons have imagined that they possess a large
+portion of alimentary matter; but others say that they afford little or no
+nourishment, and that, when eaten freely, they produce flatulencies,
+occasion thirst, head-achs, and turbulent dreams. Onions have so much
+acrimony as generally to affect the breath for many hours: but when boiled
+or roasted, this is, in a great measure, dissipated, and they then exhibit
+some sweetness, with a considerable portion of mucilaginous matter. Onions
+are of great use in several culinary preparations, but particularly in soup
+and pickles. They are employed in medicine chiefly as poultices for
+swellings; and have been recommended by some persons, to be rubbed on bald
+parts of the head, to promote the growth of the hair.
+
+ 105. _ASPARAGUS_ (Asparagus officinalis), _is a well known plant, the
+ young shoots of which are a favourite culinary vegetable_.
+
+Few circumstances in the phenomena of vegetation are more remarkable than
+the gradual enlargement of size, and improvement of quality, which have
+taken place in the cultivation of asparagus. It grows wild on the pebbly
+beach near Weymouth, and in the island of Anglesea: but its stem, in these
+situations, is not usually thicker than a goose's quill, and its whole
+height does not exceed a few inches; whereas in gardens its stem is
+sometimes near three quarters of an inch thick, and its height, when at
+maturity, is four or five feet.
+
+Asparagus is one of the greatest delicacies which our kitchen gardens
+afford, and it is particularly estimable from the early season at which it
+is produced. Even in the open ground, it is in perfection for the table
+about the end of April; and when forced, by being planted in hot-beds under
+glass, it may be cut much earlier. Asparagus continues in season till about
+the end of June.
+
+It is usually raised from seed, in beds formed for the purpose: and the
+plants should remain three years in the ground before they are cut: after
+which, for several years, they will continue to afford a regular annual
+supply. During the winter, they are secured from the effects of frost by
+the beds being covered some inches thick with straw or litter.
+
+In the cutting of asparagus, the knife is passed three or four inches
+beneath the ground. The plants are cut by sloping the blade upward; and the
+white part that we see, is that which had not previously been exposed to
+the air. The smallest plants are suffered to grow for the purpose of
+producing berries to re-stock the beds, and keep them continually in a
+state of supply.
+
+ 106. _ALOES are an extensive tribe of plants, some of which are not more
+ than a few inches, whilst others are thirty feet and upwards, in height.
+ All the leaves are fleshy, thick, and more or less spinous at the edges
+ or extremity._
+
+ _These plants, which are chiefly inhabitants of hot climates, have
+ flowers of a single petal, the mouth expanded, the base nectariferous,
+ and the filaments of the stamens inserted into the receptacle._
+
+Some of the larger kinds of aloes are of great importance to the
+inhabitants of countries in which they grow. Beset as the _leaves_ are with
+strong spines, they form an impenetrable fence. The negroes of the western
+coast of Africa make ropes and weave nets of the fibrous part of these
+leaves. The Hottentots hollow out the _stems_ of one of the kinds into
+quivers for their arrows. In Jamaica, there is a species of aloe which
+supplies the inhabitants with bow-strings, fishing lines, and materials
+from which they are able to weave stockings and hammocks. An aloe which
+grows in the kingdom of Mexico is applied by the inhabitants to almost
+every purpose of life. It serves as hedges for enclosures: its trunk
+supplies the place of timber for the roofs of houses, and its leaves the
+place of tiles. From this plant the Mexicans make thread, needles, and
+various articles of clothing and cordage: whilst from its juices they
+manufacture wine, sugar, and vinegar. Some parts of it they eat, and others
+they apply in medicine.
+
+The _juice_ of aloes was formerly used in Eastern countries in embalming,
+to preserve dead bodies from putrefaction; and, as the resinous part of
+this juice is not soluble in water, it is sometimes adopted in hot climates
+as a preservative to ships' bottoms against the attack of marine worms. One
+ounce of it mixed with turpentine, tallow, and white lead, is considered to
+be sufficient for covering about two superficial feet of plank; and about
+twelve pounds are sufficient for a vessel of fifty tons' burthen. In proof
+of the efficacy of this method, two planks of equal thickness, and cut from
+the same tree, were placed under water, one of them in its natural state,
+and the other smeared with the composition above described. They were
+suffered to continue in the water eight months, and when, at the end of
+that time, they were taken out, the former was perforated in every part,
+and in a state of absolute decay; whilst the latter was as perfect as at
+first. In the East Indies, the juice of these plants is used as a varnish,
+to preserve wood from the attacks of destructive insects: and skins, and
+even living animals, are sometimes smeared with it for the same purpose.
+
+There is a tract of mountains, about fifty miles north of the Cape of Good
+Hope, which is wholly covered with aloes. Among the Mahometans, and
+particularly in Egypt, the aloe is a kind of symbolic plant: it is
+dedicated to the offices of religion; and pilgrims, on their return from
+Mecca, suspend it over their doors, as a declaration that they have
+performed that holy journey.
+
+ 107. _SOCOTRINE ALOES are the dried juice of a large species of aloe_
+ (Aloe perfoliata, Fig. 38) _which grows in great abundance in the island
+ of Socotra, near the mouth of the Red Sea._
+
+ _The leaves are sword-shaped, fleshy, smooth, full of juice, of
+ bluish-green colour; and beset at the edges with strong spines. The
+ flower-stems rise to the height of three or four feet, are smooth, erect,
+ and have at the top a spike of flowers of purple or reddish colour, the
+ stamens of which have oblong orange-coloured anthers._
+
+The true Socotrine aloes are imported into this country wrapped in skins;
+and when pure have a bright surface, and are in some degree pellucid. In
+the lump they have a yellowish red colour, with a purplish cast; and, when
+reduced to powder, are of a golden yellow. Their taste is bitter and
+disagreeable, but somewhat aromatic; and their smell is not unpleasant.
+
+_Barbadoes aloes_, _common aloes_, or _hepatic aloes_, are the dried juice
+of a variety of the Socotrine aloes, which is cultivated in Barbadoes and
+Jamaica. Of this we import three kinds: one in gourd shells; an inferior
+kind, in pots; and another, still worse, in casks.
+
+In the cultivation of aloes it is requisite that the plants should grow for
+two or three years before the juice is procured from them. The operation of
+collecting the juice is performed in different ways. Dr. Browne tells us
+that labourers go into the field with knives and tubs; and that cutting off
+the largest and most succulent leaves close to the stalk, they immediately
+put them into the tubs in an upright position, that the liquor may drain
+from the wounds. When this is nearly all discharged, they take the leaves
+out singly, and clear them of any juice that may adhere to them; and the
+liquor is then put into shallow flat-bottomed vessels, and dried gradually
+in the sun, until it acquires a proper thickness to be poured out or ladled
+into the gourd shells which are to contain it. What is thus obtained is
+called _Socotrine aloes_, and is the clearest and most valuable of any. An
+additional quantity of juice is obtained by pressing the leaves.
+
+In some places the plants are pulled up by the roots, and, after having
+been carefully cleansed from earth or other impurities, they are sliced and
+cut in pieces, into small hand-baskets or nets. In these the pieces are
+boiled, for a little while, in water, by which the juice is extracted; and
+successive basketfuls are boiled in the same liquor, until it becomes thick
+and of dark colour. The fluid part is subsequently evaporated, and what
+remains is put into gourd shells for sale.
+
+Other methods of inspissating or drying the juice are to pour it into
+bladders left open at the top, and suspended in the sun; or to place it in
+broad shallow trays of wood, pewter or tin, exposed to the sun every dry
+day, until the fluid parts are exhaled, and a perfect resin is formed,
+which is then packed up for sale.
+
+There is a kind called _Caballine_ or _horse aloes_, which has a rank and
+unpleasant smell, but in taste is not much more disagreeable than either of
+the others. In its properties it agrees nearly with hepatic aloes, but it
+is chiefly employed by farriers in horse medicines.
+
+The medical properties of aloes have long been known and established: and
+their extensive application in medicine is, perhaps, the best proof that
+can be adduced of their utility. In the arts aloes are, in several
+respects, useful. But, particularly, the leaves of the Socotrine aloes
+afford a beautiful violet colour which does not require the aid of any
+mordant to fix it; the same also is capable of being formed into a fine
+transparent colour for painting in miniature.
+
+ 108. _The GREAT, or AMERICAN ALOE_ (Agave Americana), _is a large plant,
+ the leaves of which are thick, fleshy, and spinous at the edge, and the
+ stem branched and of great height._
+
+ _The flowers of this plant are distinguished by having the tube of the
+ corolla narrowed in the middle, the stamens longer than the corolla, and
+ the style longer than the stamens._
+
+This magnificent native of North America is by no means an uncommon plant
+in our gardens, but, with us, it is seldom seen in flower. There is indeed
+a notion, but it is an erroneous one, that the American aloe does not bloom
+until it is a hundred years old. The fact is, that the flowering depends
+almost wholly on its growth. In hot countries it will flower in a few
+years; but in colder climates, the growth being slower, it is necessarily
+longer in arriving at maturity. The stem which bears the blossoms rises
+from the centre of the leaves, and, when the plant is in a vigorous state,
+it frequently exceeds the height of twenty feet. An American aloe in the
+garden of the king of Prussia was forty feet high. Branches issue from
+every side, and in such manner as to form a kind of pyramid, composed of
+greenish yellow flowers, which stand erect, and are seen in thick clusters
+at every joint. When in full flower, the appearance of this aloe is
+extremely splendid; and if the season be favourable, and the plant be
+sheltered from the cold in autumn, a succession of blossoms will sometimes
+be produced for near three months.
+
+In the warmer parts of Europe, American aloes are cultivated as objects of
+considerable utility. They are frequently grown in rows, as fences, for
+enclosures, particularly in Spain, Portugal, and Italy. In Algarvia the
+leaves are employed for scouring pewter and other kitchen utensils, and
+floors; and, cut into slices, are used for the feeding of cattle.
+
+By a certain preparation, the juice of the leaves is made into cakes, which
+are employed for washing, and which will lather with salt water as well as
+with fresh. The fibres of the leaves, when properly prepared, may be
+separated into threads that are useful in various ways. This separation is
+sometimes effected by bruising and steeping them in water, and afterwards
+beating them. The process, in some parts of Portugal, is, after plucking
+the largest and best leaves, to place them on a square board, which a
+person presses obliquely between his breast and the ground, and then
+scrapes with a square iron bar held in both hands. By this operation all
+the juices are pressed out, and only the fibres and some of the membranous
+parts of the leaves remain, which are then easily detached. The fibres are
+employed for all the purposes to which thread can be applied, but they are
+neither strong nor durable; and if exposed to moisture, they soon decay.
+
+ 109. _The FAN PALM is a very remarkable tree_ (Corypha umbraculifera)
+ _that grows in the East Indies, but particularly in Malabar, and the
+ island of Ceylon; its leaves, eight or ten in number, rise out of the
+ summit of the trunk, are winged and somewhat fan-shaped, and have their
+ segments connected by a thread or fibre._
+
+The stem of the fan palm is straight, cylindrical, smooth, and as tall as a
+ship's mast. Its _leaves_ are upwards of six yards in length, and four
+yards wide; and form altogether a head of twelve or thirteen yards in
+diameter. These leaves, which, when dry, fold up somewhat like a fan, are
+used for the covering of huts and cottages; and not unfrequently by
+soldiers, instead of canvas, for the construction of tents. One of them is
+sufficiently large to shelter twenty persons from the rays of the sun. They
+are also a kind of natural paper on which the inhabitants write, by means
+of a sharp-pointed iron instrument, which leaves indelible marks upon them.
+Many of the books which are shown in Europe for those of Egyptian papyrus
+(26) are said to be formed of parts of these leaves.--The _pith_ of the
+trunk, beaten into a kind of paste and mixed with water, is formed into
+cakes, and constitutes a species of bread, very serviceable to the
+inhabitants in times of scarcity. The _juice_ of some parts of the tree is
+used as an emetic.
+
+The fan palms are said not to bear fruit until they are near forty years
+old; but after this period, when in perfection, they produce annually more
+than twenty thousand _berries_ each. These are each about 1½ inch diameter,
+of globular shape, smooth, green, and fleshy; but are not known to be of
+any use.
+
+ 110. _The ROTANG or DRAGON'S BLOOD TREE, is a species of cane_ (Calamus
+ rotang) _which grows to the length of more than a hundred feet, is about
+ as thick as a man's arm, and is closely beset with erect prickles._
+
+ _This cane has at the top a tuft of leaves which are several feet in
+ length, and alternately winged, and of which the leaflets are
+ sword-shaped, and armed with sharp spines._
+
+In consequence of its great length and slender form, the rotang tree (which
+is usually found in woods near rivers, and in morassy places) does not grow
+entirely upright; but, after having attained the height of five or six
+yards, it depends, for support, upon other trees, which it sometimes
+overruns, in nearly an horizontal direction to the extent of sixty or
+eighty feet. The flowers are produced in upright spikes that separate into
+long spreading branches, and are succeeded by a red and somewhat egg-shaped
+fruit, which to the taste is pleasantly acid.
+
+The drug called _Dragon's Blood_[4] is obtained from this fruit, in Japan,
+and several other countries of the East. The Japanese expose the fruit of
+the Rotang tree to the steam of boiling water, by which the external shell
+is softened, and a resinous fluid is forced out, that is afterwards
+enclosed in leaves and suspended in the air to dry. In Sumatra the external
+surface of the fruit is observed to be covered with the resin: this is
+rubbed off, melted in the sun, and formed into grains or globules, which
+are folded in leaves, and are considered the purest kind of dragon's blood.
+In some countries the fruit is boiled in water, and the resin, which floats
+upon the surface, is skimmed off and subsequently purified, and formed into
+the requisite shape for sale. An inferior kind of dragon's blood is made up
+into large masses, which contain the membranous parts of the fruit and
+other impurities. When this substance is tolerably pure, it breaks smooth,
+and appears internally of a dark red colour; melts readily, and easily
+catches fire. Its principal use is in medicine.
+
+The _stem_ of the rotang furnishes the inhabitants of the countries where
+it grows with shafts for pikes or spears; and the inner part of the young
+shoots is boiled or roasted for food.
+
+ 111. _The COMMON WALKING CANES_ (Calamus scipionum) _have a smooth and
+ glossy stem, usually marked with dark spots: and the knots or joints are
+ sometimes three or four feet asunder._
+
+These canes grow, very abundantly, in Sumatra and other Eastern islands, as
+well as on the continent of India, whence they appear to have been
+originally exported to Europe by the Dutch. There is a considerable trade
+in them to China. The long spaces between the knots, their shining surface,
+and lightness, have rendered them preferable to most other articles for
+walking canes.
+
+ 112. _The RATTAN or TRUE CANE_ (Calamus verus), _is remarkable for
+ growing to the great length of a hundred feet, and upwards, and, at the
+ same time, not being thicker than a man's finger._
+
+A trade in rattans to considerable extent is carried on from several of the
+islands of the east to China, which is the principal market for them. These
+canes are extremely tough and flexible, of yellowish brown colour, and,
+when cut into thongs, are sometimes used to make cables and other ropes.
+Our cane-bottomed chairs are made of split rattans, the outer or smooth
+surface of which is always kept uppermost. For this work the canes are
+chosen by their great length, pale yellow colour, and bright gloss. They
+are purchased in bundles, each of which contains a hundred canes, neatly
+tied in the middle, and the ends bent together. When perfectly dry, they
+are so hard as to yield sparks of fire when struck against each other. The
+word rattan, in the Malay language, signifies a staff or walking stick.
+
+ 113. _The BAMBOO CANE_ (Bambusa arundinacea) _has a hollow, round,
+ straight, and shining stem; and sometimes grows to the length of forty
+ feet and upwards: it has knots at the distance of ten or twelve inches
+ from each other, with thick, rough, and hairy sheaths, alternate
+ branches, and small, entire, and spear-shaped leaves._
+
+There is scarcely any plant so common in hot climates as this, and few are
+more extensively useful. It occurs within the tropical regions both of the
+eastern and western hemispheres, throughout the East Indies and the greater
+part of China, in the West Indies, and America. In England, it can only be
+cultivated in a hot-house; and its growth is so rapid, even there, that a
+strong shoot has been known to spring from the ground and attain the height
+of twenty feet in six weeks.
+
+The inhabitants of many parts of India build their houses almost wholly of
+bamboo; and make nearly every description of furniture with it, in a very
+ingenious manner. They likewise form with it several kinds of utensils, for
+their kitchens and tables; and, from two pieces of bamboo rubbed hard
+together, they produce fire. The masts of boats, boxes, baskets, and
+innumerable other articles, are made of bamboo. After having been bruised,
+steeped in water, and formed into a pulp, the _sheaths_ and _leaves_ may be
+manufactured into paper. The stems are frequently bored, and used as pipes
+for conveying water; and the strongest stems serve to make the poles with
+which the slaves or servants carry those kind of litters so common in the
+East, called palanquins. The stems of the bamboo serve also as the usual
+fence for gardens and other enclosures: and the leaves are generally put
+round the tea which is sent in chests from China to Europe. The Chinese
+make, of the external _bark_ of the bamboo, a kind of cordage, which has
+the advantage of united lightness and durability. For this purpose the bark
+is cleft in strips several feet in length; and these are twisted together
+according to the thickness that is required. For the tow lines of their
+vessels, eight or nine bands or strips are sufficient; but, for cables, a
+much greater number is requisite. Some of the Malays preserve the small and
+_tender shoots_ of bamboo in vinegar and pepper to be eaten with their
+food. Many of the walking canes which we see in Europe are formed of the
+young shoots of this plant.
+
+The Chinese make a kind of frame-work of bamboo, by which they are enabled
+to float in water; and the Chinese merchants, when going on a voyage,
+always provide themselves with this simple apparatus to save their lives in
+case of shipwreck. It is formed by placing four bamboos horizontally across
+each other, so as to leave, in the middle, a square place for the body;
+and, when used, this frame is slipped over the head, and secured by being
+tied to the waist.
+
+ 114. _The COMMON RUSH_ (Juncus effusus) _is known by its green, smooth,
+ stiff, upright, leafless and pointed stem; having a loose bunch of small
+ flowers at the side, and the seed-vessels blunt at the extremity._
+
+Although the rush is generally considered by farmers a noxious weed in wet
+meadows and pastures, it is applicable to a variety of useful purposes; but
+particularly for making the wicks of rushlights. For this purpose it is
+usually cut a little after Midsummer; and is immediately afterwards thrown
+into water, and kept there, that it may not become dry, and that it may be
+the more easily peeled.
+
+At first a person would find it no easy matter to divest a rush of its
+rind, so as to leave on each side, from top to bottom, one regular, narrow,
+and even rib, that may support the pith. But this, by practice, soon
+becomes familiar even to children.
+
+When rushes are thus far prepared, they are spread on the grass to be
+bleached; and, afterwards, they are dried in the sun for use.
+
+If only one rib of peel be left, instead of two, rushes will supply the
+place of cotton wicks for candles. In some parts of Hampshire the labouring
+people form wicks of this description; they dip them into scalding fat or
+grease, and use them in place of candles.
+
+Rushes are sometimes manufactured into a slight kind of baskets. In the
+vicinity of Farnham, in Surrey, they are cut about Midsummer, and dried in
+the same manner as hay. After this they are formed into a kind of rick, and
+sheltered till the succeeding spring. They are then usefully employed, for
+bands or ties, in fastening hop-binds to the poles. In a fresh state they
+are sometimes made into brooms or besoms for blacksmiths, and other
+artisans working in metals.
+
+ 115. _BARBERRIES are a beautiful red and oblong-shaped fruit, produced,
+ in small bunches, by a shrub_ (Berberris vulgaris) _which grows wild in
+ many parts of England. This shrub has somewhat oval, serrated, and
+ pointed leaves; thorns growing three together upon the branches; and
+ pendent clusters of yellow flowers._
+
+So great is the acidity of this beautiful _fruit_ that even birds refuse to
+eat it. In this respect it nearly approaches the tamarind. When boiled with
+sugar, however, it makes an agreeable preserve, rob, or jelly, according to
+the different modes of preparing it. Barberries are also used as a dry
+sweetmeat, and in sugarplums or comfits; are pickled with vinegar, and are
+used for the garnishing of dishes. They are likewise well calculated to
+allay heat and thirst in persons afflicted with fevers. The _bark_ of this
+barberry shrub is said to have been administered with effect in cases of
+jaundice, and in some other complaints; and the inner bark, with the
+assistance of alum, dyes linen a fine yellow colour. The _roots_, but
+particularly their bark, are employed, in Poland, in the dyeing of leather.
+
+A very singular circumstance has been stated respecting the barberry shrub;
+that corn, sown near it, proves abortive, the ears being in general
+destitute of grain; and that this influence is sometimes extended to a
+distance of three or four hundred yards across a field. A similar opinion,
+on this subject, prevails in France, as well as in England, but there is
+reason to suppose it is without foundation.
+
+
+DIGYNIA.
+
+
+ 116. _RICE_ (Oryza sativa, Fig. 39) _is a well-known kind of grain, which
+ is much cultivated in the East Indies, America, and some parts of Spain;
+ and which, previously to its being sold for use, is freed from a brownish
+ husk that covers it._
+
+ _The rice plant has an erect, simple, round, and jointed stem. Its leaves
+ are narrow and pointed; and its flowers appear in a kind of bunch, at the
+ extremity, somewhat resembling, but more compact than, an ear of oats._
+
+We are, at present, chiefly supplied with rice from America; and it is said
+that the Americans were indebted for this grain to a small bag of it which
+was formerly given as a present from a Mr. Dubois, treasurer of the East
+India Company, to a Carolina merchant.
+
+A wet and morassy soil, appears in general necessary to the cultivation of
+rice. The parts of the farms or plantations in which it is grown are
+usually so situated as to admit of being flooded; and, in many places,
+reservoirs of water are formed for this purpose. These reservoirs have
+sluices, by which the rice fields may be inundated at pleasure. In reaping
+the crop, the labourers generally work knee deep in water and mud. As the
+rice is cut, the sheaves are put on drays, and carried out to be spread on
+dry ground. The rice thus produced has the name of _marsh rice_, and is
+that which is chiefly imported into Europe.
+
+In some of the mountainous parts of the East Indies rice is cultivated on
+the sides of hills, where it can only be watered by rain. It is sown,
+however, at the beginning of the rainy, and reaped in the beginning of the
+dry season; so that, in fact, it has nearly all the advantages of being
+watered, which the marsh rice possesses. The general appellation of rice,
+in the East Indies, is _paddy_; but the kind just mentioned is denominated
+_paddy gunung_, or _mountain rice_, and is little known in Europe, though
+of late years it has been cultivated with success in Tuscany. Its grains
+are whiter, finer, and more palatable than those of the marsh rice.
+
+After the harvesting of rice, the next process is to free the grains from
+the husk in which they are enveloped. There are several ways of doing this.
+In some places they are pounded in large mortars, and afterwards winnowed.
+In others large cylindrical pestles are lifted by a wheel worked by oxen;
+and between these one person sits and pushes forward the rice to be beaten,
+whilst another carries it off to be winnowed, and supplies fresh parcels.
+The inhabitants of several parts of the East throw it into hot water, by
+which the grains are slightly swelled, and thus burst through the husk. In
+the island of Ceylon, and in some parts of America, a hollow place, about a
+foot in depth, and nine or ten yards in diameter, is dug in the ground.
+This is filled with corn, which is trodden by oxen driven round it until
+the grain is cleared. The Sacred and other writings inform us that this was
+the mode which the ancients adopted with other species of grain.
+
+In Spain, when the rice is ripe, it is gathered into sheaves, and put into
+a mill, where the lower grinding stone is covered with cork; and, by this
+means, the grain is separated from the husk, without being bruised.
+
+Rice is said to have been lately cultivated, with success, in some parts of
+Scotland; and it is not improbable, that, by degrees, this species of grain
+may be naturalized to our climate.
+
+No kind of grain is so generally adopted for food in hot climates as this.
+The inhabitants of many parts of the East subsist almost wholly upon it;
+and large quantities are annually imported into Europe, where it is highly
+esteemed for puddings and numerous culinary preparations. It is considered
+very nutritive, but it should not be eaten in too large quantities by
+languid or debilitated persons. In a scarcity of other grain, rice may be
+used with considerable advantage as an ingredient in bread. Indeed, on
+account of its excellence and its cheapness, it claims attention as a
+general article of sustenance for the poorer classes of society; as it is
+well known that a quarter of a pound of rice, slowly boiled, will yield
+more than a pound of solid and nutritive food. For the fattening of
+poultry, boiled rice has been adopted with success, and it would be more
+generally adopted than it is, were it not for an unfounded and very
+extraordinary notion that it tends to make them blind.
+
+The inhabitants of the East obtain from rice a vinous liquor, which is more
+intoxicating than the strongest wine; and an ardent spirit, called
+_arrack_, is also partly made from it. The latter is chiefly manufactured
+at Batavia, and at Goa on the coast of Malabar; and is said to be distilled
+from a mixture of the wort or infusion of rice, and of toddy, or the juice
+of the cocoa-nut tree (233), to which other ingredients, and particularly
+spices, are added.
+
+There is only one species of rice; but the varieties of it, according to
+the soil, climate, and culture, are very numerous.
+
+
+
+
+----
+
+CLASS VII.--HEPTANDRIA.
+
+----
+
+
+MONOGYNIA.
+
+
+ 117. _The HORSE-CHESNUT_ (Æsculus hippocastanum, Fig. 66) _is a very
+ common tree in parks and pleasure grounds, bearing leaves each composed
+ of seven large lobes; and having large and elegant clusters of
+ light-coloured flowers._
+
+ _Each flower consists of five petals of white colour, irregularly spotted
+ with red and yellow; and roundish, but undulated or waved at the edges.
+ The fruit, which is of bitter and unpleasant taste, is enclosed in a
+ roundish capsule or seed vessel, beset with spines, and divided into
+ three cells._
+
+There is no tree of British growth more admired, or more deserving of
+admiration on account of its brilliant appearance at a very early season of
+the year than the chesnut. Its beautiful flowers, in upright conical
+spikes, terminate the branches on all sides, in such manner that sometimes
+almost the whole tree appears as if it were covered by them.
+
+The _fruit_ of the horse-chesnut has been found of considerable use in the
+fattening of cattle, the tallow of which it is said to render peculiarly
+firm. For this purpose, however, as well as for the feeding of sheep, it
+has been considered advantageous to macerate the nuts in lime water, or in
+caustic alkali, to deprive them of their bitterness; and, afterwards, to
+wash them in water, and boil them into a paste. Goats and deer are partial
+to these nuts; but they are said to be unwholesome for swine. In Turkey
+they are ground and mixed with provender for horses; and, if they could be
+wholly divested of their bitterness and acrimony, it is supposed they might
+be converted into bread. A patent was granted, in the year 1796, to Lord W.
+Murray for his discovery of a method of extracting starch from
+horse-chesnuts; and a paste or size has been made from them, which is
+preferred by book-binders, shoe-makers, and paper-hangers, to that made
+from wheaten flower. They contain a soapy quality, and are used, in some
+parts of France and Switzerland, for cleaning woollens, and for the washing
+and bleaching of linen; and, if ground and made into cakes or balls, it is
+supposed they might answer the purpose of soap, both in washing and
+fulling. If a small portion of horse-chesnut, in a state of powder, be
+snuffed up the nostrils, it excites sneezing; and even an infusion or
+decoction of it has been said to produce a similar effect. These have
+consequently been administered in some complaints of the head and eyes, and
+have been productive of considerable benefit. The prickly _husks_ may be
+advantageously employed in the tanning of leather.
+
+The _wood_ of the horse-chesnut tree is white, soft, and of little value.
+It however serves occasionally for water-pipes, for mill-timber, and
+turners' ware. And if it be dipped into scalding oil, and well pitched, it
+becomes extremely durable. In some parts of the Continent the _bark_ of
+this tree is used in the cure of intermittent and other fevers; and some
+writers have been of opinion that it might, with advantage, be substituted
+in several complaints for Peruvian bark.
+
+This tree was first brought into Europe, from the northern parts of Asia,
+about the year 1550; and its growth is so rapid, that trees, raised from
+nuts, have, in twelve or fourteen years, attained nearly their full
+dimensions. It is further remarkable, in the growth of the horse-chesnut
+tree, that the whole of the spring shoots are said to be completed in
+little more than three weeks from the first opening of the buds.
+
+
+
+
+----
+
+CLASS VIII.--OCTANDRIA.
+
+----
+
+
+MONOGYNIA.
+
+
+ 118. _BALSAM, or BALM OF GILEAD, is the dried juice of a low tree or
+ shrub_ (Amyris gileadensis), _which grows in several parts of Abyssinia
+ and Syria._
+
+ _This tree has spreading crooked branches, small bright green leaves,
+ growing in threes, and small white flowers on separate footstalks. The
+ petals are four in number, and the fruit is a small egg-shaped berry,
+ containing a smooth nut._
+
+By the inhabitants of Syria and Egypt, this balsam, as it appears from the
+authority of the Scriptures, was in great esteem in the highest periods of
+antiquity. We are informed by Josephus, the Jewish historian, that the
+balsam of Gilead was one of the trees which was given by the Queen of Saba
+to King Solomon. Those Ishmaelitish merchants, who were the purchasers of
+Joseph, are said to have been travelling from Gilead, on the eastern side
+of Canaan, to Egypt, having their camels laden with "spicery, balm, and
+myrrh." It was then, and it still is, considered one of the most valuable
+medicines that the inhabitants of those countries possessed. The virtues,
+however, which have been ascribed to it, exceed all rational bounds of
+credibility.
+
+The mode in which it is obtained is described by Mr. Bruce. He says that
+the bark of the trees is cut, for this purpose, with an axe, at a time when
+the juices are in their strongest circulation. These, as they ooze through
+the wound, are received into small earthen bottles; and every day's produce
+is gathered, and poured into a larger bottle, which is closely corked. When
+the juice first issues from the wound, it is of light yellow colour, and
+somewhat turbid appearance; but, as it settles, it becomes clear, has the
+colour of honey, and appears more fixed and heavy than at first. Its smell,
+when fresh, is exquisitely fragrant, and strongly pungent, not much unlike
+that of volatile salts; but, if the bottle be left uncorked, it soon loses
+this quality. Its taste is bitter, acrid, aromatic, and astringent.
+
+The quantity of balsam yielded by one tree never exceeds sixty drops in a
+day. Hence its scarcity is such that the genuine balsam is seldom exported
+as an article of commerce. Even at Constantinople, the centre of trade of
+those countries, it cannot, without great difficulty, be procured. In
+Turkey it is in high esteem as a medicine, an odoriferous unguent, and a
+cosmetic. But its stimulating properties upon the skin are such that the
+face of a person unaccustomed to use it becomes red and swollen, and
+continues so for some days afterward. The Turks also take it in small
+quantities, in water, to fortify the stomach, and excite the animal
+faculties.
+
+ 119. _ROSE-WOOD_ (Amyris balsamifera) _is an odoriferous tree, with
+ smooth oval leaves, which grows in the Island of Jamaica._
+
+The _wood_ of this tree is much used by cabinet-makers in this country for
+the covering or veneering of tables and other furniture. Its grain is of
+dark colour, and very beautiful. This tree yields an odoriferous _balsam_,
+which is much esteemed, both as an external application for the cure of
+wounds, and an internal medicine in various diseases.
+
+ 120. _The COMMON MAPLE_ (Acer campestre) _is a low kind of tree, common
+ in woods and hedges, which has its leaves in lobes, blunt, and notched,
+ and green flowers in upright clusters._
+
+By the Romans, the maple _wood_, when knotty and veined, was often highly
+prized for furniture. The poet Virgil speaks of Evander sitting on a maple
+throne. The knots of this wood were considered to resemble the figure of
+birds, beasts, and other animals: and when boards, large enough for tables,
+were found of this curious part of it, the extravagance of purchasers is
+said to have been incredible. Indeed its value, in that madly luxurious
+age, is stated to have been such, that, when, at any time, the Romans
+reproached their wives for their extravagance in pearls, jewels, or other
+rich trifles, the latter were accustomed to retort, and turn the _tables_
+upon their husbands. Hence our expression of "turning the tables" upon any
+person is said to have been derived.
+
+With us the maple tree is used by turners, particularly for making cups,
+which may be rendered so thin as to be almost transparent. This wood, where
+it is devoid of knots, is remarkably white, and is sometimes used for
+domestic furniture. On account of its lightness it is frequently employed
+for musical instruments, and particularly for those of the violin kind.
+
+ 121. _SUGAR MAPLE_ (Acer saccharinum) _is a North-American tree, which
+ grows to the height of fifty or sixty feet, and has somewhat hand-shaped
+ leaves, in five divisions, notched at the edges, and downy underneath._
+
+This large and beautiful tree is much cultivated in America on account
+chiefly of the _juice_ which it yields, and which is made into sugar. The
+process of obtaining the juice is, in the spring of the year, to bore holes
+about two inches deep into the tree, and to put into each of these holes a
+projecting spout, by which it may be conveyed into troughs placed to
+receive it. Each tree will afford from twenty to thirty gallons of juice,
+from which may be obtained five or six pounds of sugar. The juice is clear,
+of pleasant flavour; and, in its simple state, is sometimes drunk as a
+remedy against the scurvy. The sugar, which is obtained from it by
+evaporation, is clean to the eye, and very sweet, but it has a peculiar,
+though not unpleasant taste. It may be clarified and refined in the same
+manner as the common sugars. The juice of the maple furnishes also a
+pleasant wine, and a very excellent vinegar.
+
+The _wood_ of this tree is valuable as timber, and is also well adapted for
+turnery and cabinet ware, more particularly as it is said not to be liable
+to suffer by the depredations of insects.
+
+Possessing these properties, and being sufficiently hardy to sustain the
+rigours even of a cold climate, its culture, in our own country, would be
+attended with great advantage, and cannot be too strongly recommended.
+
+ 122. _The SYCAMORE_ (Acer pseudoplatanus, Fig. 70) _is a handsome tree of
+ British growth, which has leaves in five lobes unequally serrated; and
+ green flowers in pendant clusters._
+
+It is peculiarly deserving of remark concerning this tree, that it grows
+better near the sea than in any other situation, and that plantations of
+sycamores may be so made as even to defend the herbage of the adjacent
+country from the spray, and consequently from the injurious effects of the
+sea. Its growth is quick, yet it will increase in size until it is two
+hundred years old. The soil in which it best flourishes is a loose black
+earth. The only inconveniences attending it in plantations is the early
+shedding of its leaves.
+
+In the spring of the year the inhabitants of some parts of Scotland bore
+holes through the bark of the sycamore, at the distance of about twelve
+inches from the root, and suffer the _juice_ to drain into vessels, to the
+amount of eight or nine quarts a day from each tree. This liquor they
+convert into a kind of wine; and, if the watery part were evaporated, a
+useful sugar might be obtained from it.
+
+The _wood_ of the sycamore is soft and white, and was formerly much in
+request by turners, for making trenchers, dishes, bowls, and other
+articles; but, since the general introduction of earthen-ware for all these
+purposes, its value has greatly decreased.
+
+ 123. _CRANBERRIES are a small red fruit with purple dots, produced by a
+ slender wiry plant_ (Vaccinium oxycoccos), _which grows in the peaty bogs
+ of several parts of the north of England, and also in Norfolk,
+ Lincolnshire, and Cambridgeshire._
+
+ _The leaves are small, somewhat oval, and rolled back at the edges, and
+ the stem is thread-shaped and trailing. The blossoms are small, but
+ beautiful, each consisting of four distinct petals rolled back to the
+ base, and of deep flesh colour._
+
+The collecting of cranberries is a tiresome and disagreeable employment, as
+each berry, which seldom exceeds the size of a pea, grows on a separate
+stalk, and the morasses in which they grow are frequently very deep.
+Cranberries are much used in the northern counties, and great quantities of
+them are bottled and sent to London. So considerable a traffic in this
+fruit is carried on, that, at Longtown in Cumberland, the amount of a
+market day's sale, during the season for gathering it, is stated by Dr.
+Withering to be from 20_l._ to 30_l._ Cranberries begin to ripen about the
+month of August, and continue in perfection for some weeks.
+
+They are much used in confectionary, but particularly in tarts; their rich
+flavour being very generally esteemed. The usual mode of preserving them is
+in dry bottles, corked so closely as to exclude all access of the external
+air: some persons, however, fill up the bottles with spring water. Others
+prepare this fruit with sugar. From the juice of cranberries, mixed with a
+certain portion of sugar, and properly fermented, a grateful and wholesome
+wine may be made. The inhabitants of Sweden use this fruit only for the
+cleaning of silver plate.
+
+A considerable quantity of cranberries is annually imported, into this
+country, from North America and Russia. These are larger than our own, of a
+different species, and by no means of so pleasant flavour.
+
+124. There are three other species of fruit belonging to the cranberry
+tribe, which grow wild in this country, on heaths or in woods. These are
+BILBERRIES, or BLEA-BERRIES (_Vaccinium myrtillus_), which are occasionally
+eaten in milk, and in tarts, and which afford a violet-coloured dye: GREAT
+BILBERRIES (_V. uliginosum_), which, in France, are sometimes employed to
+tinge white wines red: and RED WHORTLE-BERRIES (_V. vitis idæa_), which,
+though not of very grateful flavour, are occasionally used in tarts, rob,
+and jelly.
+
+ 125. _The COMMON HEATH, or LING_ (Erica vulgaris), _is a well-known
+ plant, with numerous small rose-coloured flowers, which grows wild on
+ heaths and mountainous wastes, in nearly every part of England._
+
+The principal use to which the heath is applied is for making brooms or
+besoms. It is likewise bound into fagots, and employed as fuel,
+particularly for ovens; and is, not unfrequently, employed in the filling
+up of drains, and the morassy parts of roads, previously to their being
+covered with earth, stones, and other durable materials. In the Highlands
+of Scotland, the poorer inhabitants make walls, for their cottages, with
+alternate layers of heath and a kind of mortar made of black earth and
+straw: they likewise thatch their cabins with it, and make their beds of
+it. The inhabitants of Islay, one of the western islands of Scotland, are
+said to brew a wholesome kind of beer from one part of malt, and two parts
+of the young tops of heath. The _stalks_ and _tops_ may be rendered of
+considerable service in the tanning of leather; and in dyeing woollen cloth
+an orange colour. Bees are partial to the _flowers_; but the honey which
+they form, after having fed upon these flowers, acquires a reddish tint.
+The _leaves_ and _seeds_ of heath afford a grateful food to grouse, and
+other animals.
+
+
+TRIGYNIA.
+
+
+ 126. _BUCKWHEAT, or BRANK, is a black and triangular grain, produced by a
+ plant of the persicaria tribe_ (Polygonum fagopyrum), _with somewhat
+ arrow-shaped leaves, and purplish white flowers._
+
+Although buckwheat may now be considered as in some degree naturalized in
+this country, and as growing wild near our fields and dunghills, it was
+originally introduced from the northern parts of Asia, and was first
+cultivated here about the year 1600. The flowers appear about July, and the
+seeds ripen in October; and so tender are the plants, that a single night's
+sharp frost will destroy a whole crop.
+
+As a grain, buckwheat has been principally cultivated for oxen, swine, and
+poultry; and although some farmers state that a single bushel of it is
+equal in quality to two bushels of oats, others assert that it is a very
+unprofitable food. Mixed with bran, chaff, or grains, it is sometimes given
+to horses. The flower of buckwheat is occasionally used for bread, but more
+frequently for the thin cakes called crumpets. In Germany it serves as an
+ingredient in pottage, puddings, and other food. Beer may be brewed from
+it; and, by distillation, it yields an excellent spirit.
+
+The best mode of harvesting this grain is said to be by pulling it out of
+the ground like flax, stripping off the seeds by the hand, and collecting
+these into aprons, or cloths tied round the waist.
+
+Buckwheat is much cultivated in the domains of noblemen and gentlemen
+possessed of landed property, as a food for pheasants. With some farmers it
+is the practice to sow buckwheat for the purpose only of ploughing it into
+the ground, as a manure for the land. Whilst green, it serves as food for
+sheep and oxen; and, mixed with other provender, it may also be given, with
+advantage to horses. The _blossoms_ may be used for dyeing a brown colour.
+
+The principal advantage of buckwheat is, that it is capable of being
+cultivated upon land which will produce scarcely any thing else, and that
+its culture, comparatively with that of other grain, is attended with
+little expense.
+
+
+
+
+----
+
+CLASS IX.--ENNEANDRIA.
+
+----
+
+
+MONOGYNIA.
+
+
+ 127. _CINNAMON is the under bark of the branches of a tree of the bay
+ tribe_ (Laurus cinnamomum, Fig. 40,) _which is chiefly found in the
+ island of Ceylon, but which also grows in Malabar and other parts of the
+ East Indies._
+
+ _This tree attains the height of twenty or thirty feet. Its leaves are
+ oval, each from four to six inches long, and marked with three principal
+ nerves. The flowers stand on slender footstalks, and are of pale yellow
+ colour; and the fruit is somewhat shaped like an acorn._
+
+There are two principal seasons of the year in which the Ceylonese enter
+their woods for the purpose of barking the cinnamon trees. The first of
+these commences in April, and the last in November: but the former is that
+in which the great crop is obtained. In this operation the branches of
+three years' growth are cut down, and the outside pellicle of the bark is
+scraped away. The twigs are then ripped up lengthways with a knife, and the
+bark is gradually loosened till it can be entirely taken off. It is then
+cut into slices, which, on being exposed to the sun, curl up in drying. The
+smaller pieces or quills, as they are called, are inserted into the larger
+ones, and the whole are afterwards tied into bundles.
+
+Cinnamon is examined and arranged, according to its quality, by persons
+who, for this purpose, are obliged to taste and chew it. This is a very
+troublesome and disagreeable work; and few persons are able to continue it
+more than two or three days successively, as the cinnamon deprives the
+tongue and lips of all the mucus with which they are covered. After this
+examination, the bundles are made up to the length of about four feet, and
+weight of eighty-eight pounds each.
+
+From the roots of the trees numerous offsets shoot up. These, when they
+have attained the height of about ten feet, are cut down and barked, being
+then about the thickness of a common walking-stick. The cinnamon which they
+yield is much finer than any other.
+
+A French ship, bound in 1782, from the island of Bourbon, to Cape François
+in St. Domingo, and having on board various oriental productions, the
+cinnamon tree among the rest, was taken by the late Admiral Rodney, who
+presented the trees to the assembly of Jamaica; and, from this parent
+stock, different parts of that island were afterwards supplied. In Ceylon
+the cinnamon trees are said to be so common as to be used for fuel and
+other domestic purposes.
+
+The smell of cinnamon, particularly of the thinnest pieces, is delightfully
+fragrant; and its taste is pungent and aromatic, with considerable
+sweetness and astringency. If infused in boiling water in a covered vessel,
+it gives out much of its grateful flavour, and forms an agreeable liquid.
+An oil is extracted from cinnamon, which is heavier than water. This is
+prepared in Ceylon, and almost wholly from the small and broken pieces. It
+is, however, obtained in such small quantity that the oil of cassia (128)
+is generally substituted for it. Indeed the cassia bark is often
+substituted for cinnamon, to which it has considerable resemblance,
+although, in its qualities, it is much weaker, and although it is
+immediately distinguishable by its slimy taste.
+
+The virtues of cinnamon are not confined to the bark. The _leaves_, the
+_fruit_, and the _root_ all yield oil of considerable value. That from the
+fruit is highly fragrant, of thick consistence, and, in Ceylon, was
+formerly made into candles for the exclusive use of the king.
+
+ 128. _WILD CINNAMON, or CASSIA, is the bark of a tree of the bay tribe_
+ (Laurus cassia), _which grows in the East Indies and China, and is
+ distinguished by having spear-shaped leaves, each with three nerves._
+
+This _bark_ was well known to the ancients, and highly esteemed by them:
+but, since the use of cinnamon has been generally adopted, the cassia bark
+has fallen into disrepute on account of its inferiority. It is thicker and
+more coarse than cinnamon, of weaker quality, and abounds more with a
+viscid mucilaginous matter. For many purposes, however, cassia, as being
+much less expensive, is substituted for cinnamon, but more particularly for
+the preparation of what is called oil of cinnamon: and nearly the whole of
+what is at present sold under the name either of simple or spirituous
+cinnamon water is prepared from cassia.
+
+The _buds_, as well as the _bark_, of this tree are used in culinary
+preparations, and for several other purposes. They are chiefly imported
+from China.
+
+ 129. _CAMPHOR is a white resinous production of peculiar and powerful
+ smell, which is extracted from two or three kinds of trees of the bay
+ tribe that grow in the islands of the East Indies, and in China._
+
+ _Of these the principal is_ Laurus camphora (Fig. 41). _It is of
+ considerable height, much branched, and has spear-shaped leaves, with
+ nerves, of pale yellowish green colour on the upper side, and bluish
+ green beneath. The flowers are small and white, and stand on stalks which
+ issue from the junction of the leaves and branches._
+
+Camphor is found in every part of the trees; in the interstices of the
+perpendicular fibres, and in veins of the wood; in the crevices and knots,
+in the pith, and in the roots. The modes by which it is extracted differ in
+different countries. In Borneo and Sumatra, the largest pieces are picked
+out with sharp instruments; and the smaller ones are procured by rasps, to
+which, along with bits of wood and other impurities, they adhere. The
+Chinese cut off the branches, chop them very small, and place them in
+spring water for some days. They then put them into a kettle, and boil them
+for a certain time, during which they keep constantly stirring them with a
+stick. As soon as the camphor, in a white and frosted appearance, is
+observed to adhere to the stick, the whole is strained. The liquor is
+subsequently poured into a basin, and, after some hours, the camphor
+coagulates into a solid mass.
+
+In Japan it is usual to obtain camphor by cutting the roots and extremities
+of the branches into chips, and exposing them to the steam of water in
+close vessels. In other countries the roots, wood, and leaves, are all
+boiled in large iron pots, having a kind of tubular apparatus, which is
+stuffed with straw, and leads to certain large vessels called receivers. In
+this operation most of the camphor becomes condensed in a solid form
+amongst the straw; and the remainder passes with the water into the
+receiver.
+
+In a crude state camphor is formed into irregular lumps of yellowish grey
+colour, somewhat resembling nitre, or saltpetre. It is imported into Europe
+in canisters; and the refining of it was long kept a secret by the
+Venetians. The Dutch have since performed this work; and large quantities
+of camphor are now also refined by some of the English chemists. The best
+camphor is imported from Sumatra.
+
+The principal use of this drug is in medicine; and it was formerly in high
+repute. Dr. Cullen says that it has been employed with advantage in fevers
+of almost all kinds: but, since the free use of opium has been introduced,
+camphor has been little employed in this country, though its utility has
+been fully established by some of the most eminent practitioners of the
+Continent. It has often been found to relieve tooth-ache and rheumatism.
+Several preparations of camphor, in combination with other substances, are
+used in medicine, of which, perhaps, the most common is that with spirit of
+wine. To insects the effluvium of camphor is so disagreeable that they
+quickly avoid it. Hence it is customary to place pieces of it in
+collections of natural history, to prevent their destruction by these
+voracious little creatures.
+
+For carpenters' work the _wood_ of the camphor tree is much in request. It
+is light and durable; and, in consequence of long retaining its aromatic
+smell, is not liable to be injured by insects.
+
+Plants of the camphor and cinnamon trees were captured, from the French, in
+1782, by Admiral Rodney, and afterwards conveyed to Jamaica, and propagated
+there.
+
+Several shrubs and plants of our own country contain camphor in
+considerable quantity. The principal of these are _rosemary_, _sage_,
+_lavender_, and _marjoram_.
+
+ 130. _The COMMON SWEET BAY_ (Laurus nobilis) _is an evergreen shrub,
+ which grows in Italy and other southern parts of Europe, and is
+ principally celebrated as that which was anciently used to form the crown
+ of victory among poets._
+
+ _Its leaves are of shining green colour, somewhat spear-shaped, and often
+ waved towards the edge. The flowers appear in April and May, in clusters
+ of three or four together on short footstalks. The corolla is in four
+ segments of yellowish white colour, and is succeeded by an oval berry
+ covered with a dark green rind._
+
+This handsome shrub is common in our gardens and shrubberies. Its _leaves_
+afford, by distillation, an useful oil, which is occasionally employed in
+medicine. They are also employed, in cookery, to flavour custards,
+puddings, stews, and pickles; and Dr. Woodville assures us that they may
+thus be used not only with safety, but even with advantage, as assisting
+digestion.
+
+The _berries_ or fruit of the bay tree, which have an aromatic smell, and a
+warm, bitterish, and pungent taste, were much used by the ancient Romans
+for culinary purposes. We import them chiefly from the coasts of the
+Mediterranean. From the berries, in a recent state, the people of Spain and
+Italy obtain, by pressure, a green aromatic oil, which is employed in
+medicine, externally, as a stimulant in nervous, paralytic, and other
+disorders.
+
+ 131. _The ALLIGATOR PEAR is a pear-shaped fruit, produced by a species of
+ bay tree_ (Laurus persea), _that is much cultivated in the West Indies._
+
+ _This tree, which is an evergreen, has a straight stem, and grows to a
+ considerable height. Its leaves are somewhat oval, leathery, transversely
+ veined, and of beautiful green colour; and the flowers grow in bunches._
+
+To the inhabitants of the West Indian islands, particularly the negroes,
+this _fruit_, which ripens in the months of August and September, is an
+agreeable, and, in some respects, an important article of diet. When ripe
+the pulp is of yellow colour, of consistence somewhat harder than that of
+butter, and, in taste, not much unlike marrow. The negroes frequently make
+their meals of these pears, a little salt, and plantains; and they are
+occasionally served up at the tables of the white people as fruit.
+
+Their exterior surface is covered with a green skin; and in the centre
+there is a large round seed or _stone_, extremely hard and woody, with an
+uneven surface. This stone is used for the marking of linen. The cloth is
+held or tied over the stone; and the letters are pricked by a needle,
+through the cloth, into the outer covering of the stone. By this means it
+is stained of an indelible reddish brown colour, in the direction along
+which the needle has passed. The _leaves_ are used by the negroes
+medicinally.
+
+ 132. _SASSAFRAS is the wood of a North American tree of the bay tribe_
+ (Lauras sassafras), _and is imported into Europe in long straight pieces,
+ which are of light and porous texture, and covered with a rough fungous
+ bark._
+
+ _This tree is sometimes twenty or thirty feet high. The branches are
+ crooked, and the leaves various, both in form and size, some of them
+ being oval and entire, and others having two or three lobes. They are
+ pale green, and downy beneath. The flowers, which are of a dingy yellow
+ colour, appear in pendant spikes._
+
+This _wood_ has a fragrant smell, and an aromatic and somewhat acrid,
+though sweetish taste, that are also observable in the _bark_, the smaller
+_twigs_, and the _roots_, all of which are imported into this country as
+well as the wood. Infusions and decoctions of sassafras are frequently
+taken as a medicine for improving the tone of the stomach and bowels, in
+persons whose humours are in a vitiated state. Soon after its introduction
+into Europe, in the year 1560, this medicine was in such high repute as to
+be sold, on the Continent, at the rate of fifty livres per pound; and its
+virtues were extolled in numerous publications that were written on the
+subject. It is, however, now considered of little importance; and sassafras
+is seldom employed but in conjunction with other medicines, which, in their
+nature, are more powerful. Infusions of sassafras are sold in the streets
+of London, under the name of _saloop_.
+
+We are informed that, in many parts of America, where the sassafras trees
+not only grow in great numbers in the woods, but are planted along the
+fences of enclosures, it is not unusual to make bed-posts of the wood, for
+the purpose of expelling bugs. Its powerful scent drives away these
+disagreeable insects; and some persons put chips of sassafras into their
+wardrobes and chests, to prevent the attack of moths. This wood serves for
+the posts of enclosures, to which, by its lasting nature in the ground, it
+is peculiarly adapted.
+
+The _bark_ of the sassafras tree is used by the American women for dyeing
+worsted, which it does of a permanent and beautiful orange colour.
+
+ 133. _The CASHEW NUT is a small kidney-formed nut, which grows at the
+ extremity of a somewhat pear-shaped Indian fruit._
+
+ _The tree which produces it_ (Anacardium occidentale, Fig. 42) _somewhat
+ resembles a walnut tree in shape, as well as in the smell of its leaves,
+ which are leathery, somewhat oval and shining. The flowers are red, and
+ sweet-scented._
+
+The size of this _fruit_ is nearly that of a large pear, and the colour of
+its pulp is sometimes yellow and sometimes red. The singularity of its
+form, with a nut or stone at the extremity, instead of the centre,
+generally excites the surprise of persons when they first see it. In a ripe
+state the fruit is sometimes roasted, cut in slices, and used as an
+agreeable acid in punch. Its juice, when fermented, is made into wine; and,
+on distillation, yields a spirit which some persons prefer even to rum.
+
+The _nuts_ are each enclosed in two shells, connected together by a
+cellular substance, which contains a thick, inflammable, and very caustic
+oil. The kernels of these nuts have a peculiarly sweet and pleasant
+flavour, and are eaten either raw or roasted, and sometimes even pickled.
+It is said that the negroes of Brazil, who eat of these nuts as part of
+their sustenance, find them peculiarly wholesome, and that they are
+relieved, by the use of them, from various disorders of the stomach. They
+are also used in medicine, as almonds; and, when ground with the chocolate
+nut, they greatly improve its flavour. Cashew nuts may be kept, without any
+great alteration of their quality, for many years. If the shells be broken,
+and the nuts be laid for a little while on the fire, they open of
+themselves; and the kernels being taken out, the thin brown skin which
+covers them must be removed previously to their being eaten. It is
+necessary to be cautious, respecting the oil, that it do not come in
+contact with the mouth or lips; as, in such case, it would inflame and
+excoriate them.
+
+The _oil_ of the cashew nut is sometimes applied, by the inhabitants of the
+West Indies (though much caution is requisite in the use of it) as a means
+of corroding cancerous ulcers, corns, and ring-worms; and some of the West
+Indian ladies, when they imagine themselves too much tanned by the
+scorching rays of the sun, cut off the outer shell of the nut, and rub the
+oil upon their faces as a cosmetic. The immediate consequences of this
+extraordinary operation are swelling and blackness of the parts; and, in
+five or six days, the whole skin peels off, leaving the face so sore and
+tender, that it is impossible for the person using it to appear abroad in
+less than a fortnight; by which time the new skin is sufficiently hardened,
+and is as fair as that of a newly-born infant. There are, however, few
+British females who would consent to be thus flayed alive for the sake of
+rendering themselves fair. This oil tinges linen a permanent rusty iron
+colour.
+
+From the Cashew nut tree a milky _juice_ is obtained, by tapping or
+incision, which stains, of a deep black colour, whatever it touches. The
+fine black varnish so much used in China and Japan is the resinous juice of
+a tree called _fsi-chu_, which is conjectured to be the cashew nut tree.
+
+
+TRIGYNIA.
+
+
+ 134. _The TRUE or OFFICINAL RHUBARB_ (Rheum palmatum) _is a medicinal
+ root which grows wild in various parts of Asia._
+
+ _The leaves which issue from this root are large, and deeply cut into
+ lobes; and the whole plant has a general resemblance to what in our
+ country are called docks. The stem is erect and six or seven feet high.
+ The leaves stand on footstalks, that are somewhat grooved above, and
+ rounded at the edge. Those which proceed from the stalk supply at the
+ joints a kind of membraneous sheaths. The flowers terminate the branches
+ in clusters._
+
+The importance and the properties of this _root_ in medicine are
+universally known. Rhubarb is usually imported from Turkey, but it is
+occasionally also brought from Russia, China, and the East Indies. Dr.
+Woodville states that the _Turkey rhubarb_ is brought over in oblong
+pieces, flattish on one side, and rounded on the other; and that it is
+compact, hard, heavy, and internally of a dull colour, variegated with
+yellow and white. The _Chinese rhubarb_ is in roundish pieces, each with a
+large hole through the centre. It is softer than the former, and exhibits,
+when broken, many streaks of bright red colour.
+
+In some of the mountains of Tartary, rhubarb plants are found in great
+abundance. The roots, when first dug out of the ground, are thick, fleshy,
+externally of yellowish brown colour, and internally of bright yellow
+streaked with red veins. When they have attained sufficient size, they are
+dug up and cleansed; and the small fibres and the rind being cut off, they
+are divided into pieces of proper size. Each piece is then perforated in
+the middle, and they are strung on cords in such manner as not to touch
+each other, and are suspended to dry, either upon adjacent trees, or in the
+tents.
+
+The sum expended for the importation of this drug is said to exceed
+200,000_l._ per annum, a great proportion of which, it is presumed, might
+be saved to the country by cultivation of the plants in Great Britain. This
+was first attempted, about sixty years ago, by Dr. Hope, in the botanic
+garden at Edinburgh, and with such success as to prove that the climate
+even of Scotland would be no obstacle to its increase. In 1791, Sir William
+Fordyce received from the Society for Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures,
+and Commerce, a gold medal, for having raised more than 300 plants of the
+true rhubarb from seed. And, in 1783, Mr. Davis, of Minehead, in
+Somersetshire, brought to perfection as many plants as yielded three
+hundred pounds' weight of dried rhubarb. Since this period, rhubarb has
+been grown, in different parts of England, to great extent; and has so far
+flourished, that some of the roots have weighed seventy pounds and upwards.
+The principal difficulty has attended the curing of it; but this, after
+numerous experiments, has at length been performed in such manner, that the
+English drug has been found equal, or nearly equal, to that which is
+imported from Turkey and China.
+
+The _bark_ of rhubarb has been used for tinctures, and found, in every
+respect, as efficacious as the best part of the roots: and the _seeds_
+possess nearly the same qualities. The _leaves_ impart an agreeable
+acidity, somewhat similar to that of sorrel; and a marmalade, which may,
+with advantage, be adopted for children, is made from the fresh _stalks_,
+by stripping off the bark, and boiling the pulp with an equal quantity of
+sugar.
+
+ 135. _The COMMON RHUBARB_ (Rheum rhaponticum), _is a plant which is
+ cultivated in kitchen gardens, and has large, blunt and smooth leaves,
+ and the leaf-stalks furrowed on the upper side, and rounded at the edge._
+
+This species of rhubarb grows wild on the mountains of Rhodope, in Thrace,
+whence it was first propagated in other parts of Europe, about the year
+1630. It is chiefly in request for the _footstalks of the leaves_, which
+are used, (in the early part of the year, when there is little fruit) for
+pies and tarts. The _root_ has some of the qualities of the true rhubarb,
+and has occasionally been imposed upon purchasers for that drug.
+
+
+
+
+----
+
+CLASS X.--DECANDRIA.
+
+----
+
+
+MONOGYNIA.
+
+
+ 136. _SENNA is a drug, the dried leaves of an annual plant_ (Cassia
+ senna) _which grows in various parts of Africa and Asia._
+
+ _The stems of this plant are woody, and not unlike those of a shrub. The
+ leaves are winged, and the leaflets oval, smooth, and pointed. The
+ flowers, which grow in lengthened clusters, and are of pale yellow
+ colour, are succeeded by oblong, compressed, and kidney-shaped pods._
+
+The cultivation of senna is carried on to considerable extent in Ethiopia,
+Arabia, Persia, and Upper Egypt, from several of which countries it has,
+from time immemorial, been brought by the caravans to Alexandria, as the
+most convenient port whence it could be shipped or sold into Europe. From
+this circumstance, it is sometimes denominated _Alexandrian senna_. The
+process of stripping and drying the leaves is perfectly simple. When dried,
+they are of a yellowish green colour, have a faint, though not unpleasant
+smell, and a somewhat acrid, bitterish, and nauseous taste.
+
+These leaves have long been in use in Eastern countries as a medicine; and
+their repute, though not so great as in the East, is very considerable in
+Europe. They are administered in various ways; and the _pods_ have the same
+effect as the leaves.
+
+A kind of senna has of late been cultivated, with success, in Italy and
+some of the southern parts of France.
+
+ 137. _The OFFICINAL CASSIA is a somewhat cylindrical pod, about an inch
+ in diameter, and a foot or more in length, the fruit of a tree_ (Cassia
+ fistula) _which is cultivated in Egypt, the East and West Indies, and
+ South America._
+
+ _This tree is forty or fifty feet high, and much branched. Its leaves are
+ winged, with five pair of leaflets, somewhat oval, pointed, smooth, and
+ of pale green colour. The flowers are large, yellow, and grow in oblong
+ clusters. The pods are divided, by transverse partitions, into numerous
+ cells, each containing one seed._
+
+These pods are in request on account of the black, sweetish, but somewhat
+acid _pulp_, which is contained in their cells, and which is used, in many
+cases, as a mild opening medicine. It is customary in Egypt to pluck the
+pods before they are quite ripe, and to place them in a house, from which
+the external air is, as much as possible, excluded. They are then laid in
+beds about six inches deep, having palm leaves interposed betwixt them. On
+the two following days the whole are sprinkled with water; and, in the
+course of about six weeks, they are in a fit state to be packed for sale.
+
+The East Indian and West Indian cassia somewhat differ, both in appearance
+and qualities. Of the former the pods are smoother, smaller, and have a
+thinner rind; and the pulp is of a deeper shining black colour, sweeter,
+and more agreeable to the taste. In choosing cassia, those pods should be
+selected which are the heaviest, and in which the seeds do not rattle on
+being shaken.
+
+ 138. _LIGNUM VITÆ and GUIACUM are the wood and resin of a large West
+ Indian tree_ (Guiacum officinale, Fig. 77) _which has winged leaves in
+ two sets upon one footstalk, and regular flowers of five petals._
+
+ _The usual height of this tree is between thirty and forty feet. The
+ leaves consist of two, three, and sometimes four pairs of leaflets, which
+ are somewhat oval, and of shining dark green colour. The flowers spring,
+ in clusters, from the division of the smaller branches; the petals are of
+ a rich blue colour, and the stamens are crowned with yellowish anthers._
+
+The _wood_, resin, bark, and even the flowers of this tree, are all of use
+either in the mechanical arts or in medicine. The former, which is yellow
+towards the outside, of deep blackish brown colour in the centre, and so
+compact and heavy as to sink, when immersed in water, is chiefly employed
+in the West Indies for the wheels and cogs of sugar mills. It is also
+formed into mortars, bowls, and domestic utensils of various kinds, for
+which, on account of its hardness, and not being liable to warp, it is
+peculiarly valuable. Lignum vitae is chiefly imported into this country
+from Jamaica, in logs or pieces of four or five hundred pounds' weight
+each, and is in great request for school-boys' rulers, and numerous
+articles of turnery ware. A decoction of the wood, when rasped, is
+occasionally administered as a medicine in rheumatic and gouty affections.
+
+The _resin_ of this tree is sometimes obtained by wounding the bark in
+different parts. It exudes through the wounds; and, when sufficiently
+hardened by exposure to the sun, is taken off, and packed in small kegs for
+exportation. Sometimes it is obtained by sawing the wood into billets, each
+about three feet in length, which are then bored with an augur
+longitudinally, and laid upon a fire, in such position that the melted
+resin, which flows through the hole as the wood burns, may be received into
+a vessel placed for the purpose of containing it. This resin, which is
+frequently called _gum guiacum_, is of a greenish colour, but has sometimes
+a reddish hue. Its taste is pungent and acrid. From the bark of the tree
+there is frequently a spontaneous exudation: this has the name of _native
+gum_, and is imported in small, irregular, bright pieces, which are much
+more pure than the gum obtained in any other way. Guiacum is used as a
+strengthening medicine, and a warm aromatic; it is employed as a remedy
+against rheumatic and other pains, and as an ingredient in many officinal
+preparations. On its first introduction, which was soon after the discovery
+of America, it was in such repute as to have been sold for seven crowns a
+pound.
+
+In the West Indies, the _bark_, _flowers_, and _fruit_, are each employed
+in medicine; and of these the former is frequently used instead of soap for
+washing, in which process it gives a good lather.
+
+ 139. _BALSAM OF TOLU is a reddish yellow, thick, and pellucid substance,
+ of fragrant odour, which is obtained from a tree_ (Toluifera balsamum)
+ _which grows in South America._
+
+ _This tree is of considerable height; and has somewhat oval leaves, each
+ on a short foot-stalk. The flowers are numerous, and in lateral branches;
+ and the fruit is a round berry._
+
+The name of this balsam has been obtained from its being chiefly procured
+from the province of Tolu, on the north coast of South America, near the
+isthmus of Panama. Incisions are made in the bark of the trees, at a
+particular season of the year, and a resinous fluid of yellowish white
+colour oozes out. This is collected in small gourd shells. At first it is
+about the consistence of treacle, but it thickens by being kept; and by age
+it becomes hard and brittle. Its smell is peculiarly grateful, somewhat
+resembling that of lemons; and its taste is warm and sweetish. On being
+chewed, it adheres to the teeth.
+
+This balsam is used in medicine both in the form of a tincture, and a
+syrup; and, in its medicinal virtues, it agrees with most other balsams.
+The syrup of Tolu is used in several medicines; and is also made into
+lozenges, which may be procured of almost any chemist, and which are
+considered serviceable in appeasing the irritation occasioned by severe
+coughing.
+
+ 140. _BENZOIN or GUM BENJAMIN, is a concrete or solid and fragrant
+ balsamic substance, the produce of a tree_ (Styrax benzoe) _which grows
+ chiefly in the island of Sumatra._
+
+ _This tree has oblong leaves which taper to a pointy and are smooth on
+ the upper surface, and downy beneath. The flowers are in loose bunches;
+ they usually hang all on the same side; and are generally closed, which
+ gives them the appearance of buds._
+
+In some of the northern parts of Sumatra, particularly near the sea coast,
+there are several extensive plantations of Benzoin trees. The seeds or nuts
+are sown in the rice fields, and they afterwards require no other attention
+than that the surrounding shrubs should be cleared away from about the
+young plants.
+
+When the trees have attained the age of six or seven years, incisions are
+made into the bark; and from these the balsam exudes, in the form of a
+thick, whitish, resinous juice. By exposure to the air, this juice soon
+hardens; it is then pared from the bark with a knife or chisel. For the
+first three years the trees yield the purest resins: this is of a white
+colour inclining to yellow, is soft and fragrant. Afterwards, for the next
+seven or eight years, an inferior sort is yielded; this is of reddish
+yellow colour, degenerating to brown. At length the trees, unable to bear a
+repetition of the process, are cut down, and split into pieces. From these
+is procured by scraping, a still worse sort of benzoin, which is
+dark-coloured, hard, and mixed, more or less, with parings of the wood and
+other impurities.
+
+The inferior sorts of benzoin are exported to Arabia, Persia, and some
+parts of India, where they are burned, to perfume, with their smoke, the
+temples and the houses of the inhabitants; to expel troublesome insects,
+and obviate the pernicious effects of unwholesome air or noxious
+exhalations.
+
+Benzoin is brought for sale to the mercantile parts of Sumatra, in large
+cakes, covered with mats. In order to pack it in chests, it is necessary to
+break these cakes, and to expose it to the heat of the sun. The greater
+part of the benzoin which is brought to England is re-exported to countries
+where the Roman Catholic and Mahometan religions prevail; to be there
+burned as incense in the churches and temples. The annual exportation of
+benzoin from London to Mogadore only has been estimated at 30,000 pounds'
+weight per annum.
+
+That which is consumed in England is chiefly employed in medicine, in
+perfumes, and as cosmetics. It constitutes the basis of what are called
+_Turlington's_ or _Friar's balsam_, and _Jesuit's drops_; the salutary
+effects of which, particularly in healing recent wounds, is well known.
+This balsam is composed of benzoin, balsam of Tolu (139), Socotrine aloes
+(107), and rectified spirit of wine. Benzoin is also used in the
+preparation of what is called _ladies' court plaster_; but in this it is
+supposed to be unnecessary if not prejudicial; not only as it renders the
+plaster more difficult to be moistened, previously to its application, but
+as the irritating quality of the benzoin may in some instances dispose a
+fresh wound to fester. The mode of making court plaster is very simple.
+Five ounces of isinglass are dissolved in a pint of water. A quantity of
+thin black sarsnet being then stretched on a frame, a warm solution of the
+isinglass is applied with a brush equally over the surface; and, when dry,
+this is repeated a second or third time. It is finally brushed over with a
+weak solution of benzoin in spirits of wine, which communicates to it a
+pleasant aromatic smell.
+
+If powdered benzoin be put into an earthen vessel over a slow fire, and the
+fumes of it be made to sublime into a paper cone fixed to the top of the
+pot, the substance thus formed is the _flowers of benzoin_ of the shops, or
+_Benzoic acid_, as it is termed, by chemists.
+
+ 141. _STORAX is a fragrant, concrete, or solid balsam, that is obtained
+ from a tree_ (Styrax officinalis) _which grows in the Levant, and in some
+ parts of Italy._
+
+ _This tree grows to the height of twenty feet and upwards: it is much
+ branched, and has broad, alternate, oval leaves, somewhat pointed, smooth
+ above, and downy beneath. The flowers are large, white, in clusters on
+ short footstalks, and terminate the branches._
+
+The best storax is obtained from Asiatic Turkey, in small transparent
+masses, of pale red or yellowish colour, and generally abounding in whitish
+tears, resembling those of benzoin. The drug, however, which is commonly
+sold in the shops as storax, consists of large, light pieces, very impure,
+from the saw-dust with which it is mixed.
+
+The mode of obtaining this balsam is similar to that employed for benzoin
+(140): incisions are made in the trees, and, on its oozing from the wound,
+it is scraped off, and collected together to be packed for sale. It was
+formerly customary to enclose it in reeds.
+
+Storax is one of the most fragrant of the balsams, and is much used in some
+countries in perfumes, and for fumigation. It is also compounded in various
+ways with other substances, for medicinal use.
+
+ 142. _LOG-WOOD is a dark red wood, chiefly used in dyeing; and imported
+ from Honduras, and some of the islands of the West Indies._
+
+ _The log-wood tree_ (Hæmatoxylon campechianum, Fig. 43) _is from sixteen
+ to twenty-four feet high, and, both in the trunk and branches, is
+ extremely crooked. The branches are spinous, and the leaves winged, with,
+ in general, four or five pair of leaflets, which are somewhat
+ heart-shaped. The flowers are if a reddish yellow colour, small, and
+ numerous._
+
+The district of Honduras in North America has long been celebrated for the
+production of log-wood, which grows wild chiefly in forests where the soil
+is moist, or near the banks of rivers and lakes. The cutting of it occupies
+a great number of hands, and is an unpleasant and very unhealthy pursuit.
+
+In the year 1715 some seeds of the log-wood tree were introduced into the
+island of Jamaica; and this wood is now chiefly employed in that island as
+a fence against cattle. As an article of commercial export, it does not
+appear to answer so fully as could have been wished; yet, in morassy parts
+of the island, it grows in considerable luxuriance.
+
+Few kinds of wood are of more solid texture than this. Hence arises its
+weight, which is so great that it will sink in water. Its predominant
+colour is red, tinged with orange and black; and its hardness such that it
+is capable of being polished, and is scarcely susceptible of decay. For
+exportation to Europe, it is cut into billets or logs, each about three
+feet in length.
+
+The chief use of log-wood in this country is for dyeing green, purple,
+blue, and black colours, according to the different ingredients with which
+it is employed. It gives a purplish tinge to watery and spirituous
+infusions; but all the colours which can be prepared from it are fugitive,
+and cannot, by any art, be rendered so durable as those prepared from other
+materials.
+
+Independently of its use as a dyeing drug, log-wood possesses considerable
+utility as an astringent medicine, chiefly under the form of a decoction,
+or of an extract boiled down to a proper consistence.
+
+The price of logwood at Honduras is so low as not usually to exceed 12_l._
+or 14_l._ Jamaica currency per ton.
+
+ 143. _MAHOGANY is the wood of a well-known tree_ (Swietenia mahagoni,
+ Fig. 44) _of large dimensions, with winged leaves, and small white
+ flowers, which grows in Jamaica and Honduras._
+
+ _The branches of this tree are numerous and spreading. Its leaves are
+ alternate and winged, with four or five pair of leaflets, which are
+ somewhat spear-shaped. The flowers are numerous, small, white, and in
+ spikes or clusters, which arise at the junction of the leaves with the
+ branches._
+
+The cutting of mahogany constitutes a principal occupation of the British
+settlers in the vicinity of Honduras. The gangs of negroes employed in this
+work consist of from ten to fifty each, one of whom is styled the
+"huntsman." He is generally selected from the most intelligent of his
+companions, and his chief employment is to search for these trees in the
+woods, the principal of which lie adjacent to the river Balize. About the
+beginning of August, the huntsman is despatched into the woods, and he cuts
+his way through the thickest parts, to the highest spots he can find. Here
+he climbs the loftiest tree, and thence attentively surveys the surrounding
+forest. At this season the leaves of the mahogany trees are of a yellow
+reddish hue, and an eye accustomed to them can discover, at a great
+distance, the places where they are most abundant. He now descends, and to
+such places directs his steps; and, having well marked the way, returns to
+his companions, to point out the places to them.
+
+Here they assemble, and erect, against each tree to be felled, a stage so
+high as to allow of the tree being cut down at the height of about twelve
+feet from the ground. The last day of felling the trees is appropriated to
+festivity; and these people have then a short interval of leisure for
+comforts in which they seldom can indulge at any other time.
+
+After the branches are lopped, and the useless parts of the wood are cut
+off, the operation commences of conveying the trees, by cattle and trucks,
+to the water's side, a task of infinite and laborious difficulty. A
+sufficient number of pieces to form a raft being here collected, they are
+shoved from the bank into the water, and suffered to float singly upon the
+current to large cables which are placed across the river at some distance
+below. As numerous gangs of mahogany cutters are usually employed near the
+banks of the same river, their trees also float to the same spot. Here
+therefore the whole are collected, amounting sometimes to more than a
+thousand immense logs; and, each party claiming his own, the trees are
+formed into separate rafts for their final destinations.
+
+In some instances the profit of cutting mahogany at this settlement has
+been very great. A single tree has occasionally been known to contain
+12,000 superficial feet, and to have produced upwards of 1000_l._ sterling.
+
+The body of the tree is of course the most valuable; but, for ornamental
+purposes, the limbs or large branches, are generally preferred, their grain
+being much closer, and their veins being more rich and variegated than
+those of the other parts.
+
+The Honduras mahogany is considered inferior to that produced in Jamaica.
+In this island mahogany was formerly much more abundant, and consequently
+much less expensive than it is now, because the low lands have gradually
+been thinned of such trees as could readily be carried to market, or
+conveyed on board vessels for exportation.
+
+The date of the introduction of mahogany wood into England is 1724. Since
+this period it has been in very general request for making the more
+valuable kinds of household furniture. It admits of a high polish, and is
+excellently adapted for tables, chairs, desks, and other similar articles.
+In Jamaica, mahogany is employed as a strong and durable timber for beams,
+joists, planks, boards, &c. Many attempts have been made to stain other
+kinds of wood so as to resemble it, but none of these have been attended
+with success.
+
+It has been lately discovered that the _bark_ of the mahogany tree may be
+advantageously employed in medicine, as a substitute for Peruvian bark
+(62).
+
+ 144. _QUASSIA is a drug, the root of a tree_ (Quassia amara, Fig. 78)
+ _which grows in the West Indies and South America, but particularly in
+ the colony of Surinam._
+
+ _The leaves of the quassia tree are winged, with two pair of oval and
+ somewhat pointed leaflets, and an odd one at the end: these are smooth,
+ deep green above and pale below; and the common footstalk is edged on
+ each side with a leafy membrane. The flowers are bright red, and
+ terminate the branches in long clusters._
+
+This drug was first brought into use in Surinam, by a negro whose name was
+Quassia, and who employed it with great success in the cure of intermittent
+and other malignant fevers, which prevail in that flat and marshy country.
+The offer of a valuable consideration induced him to reveal the secret to
+Daniel Rolander, a Swede, who carried specimens of the wood, together with
+a branch of the tree, the flower, and fruit, to Stockholm, in 1756.
+
+Since this period the drug has been generally employed in Europe; and its
+efficacy in the removal of many diseases has been perfectly ascertained.
+Dr. Cullen, however, observes, that though it is an excellent bitter, and
+that it will do all that any pure or simple bitter can do, yet his
+experience of it had not led him to think it would do more. Quassia is said
+to possess antiseptic properties, and consequently to have considerable
+influence in retarding a tendency to putrefaction. It is also sometimes
+used instead of hops in the brewing of malt liquor.
+
+The _root_, _wood_, and _bark_ of the quassia tree are all occasionally
+employed in medicine, and the bark is said to be more intensely bitter than
+either of the other two.
+
+
+
+
+----
+
+CLASS XI.--DODECANDRIA.
+
+----
+
+
+MONOGYNIA.
+
+
+ 145. _GAMBOGE is a yellow resinous gum obtained from a tree_ (Garcinia
+ cambogia) _which grows in several parts of Camboga or Camboya in the
+ empire of Tunkin._
+
+ _The leaves of this tree are oval, but acute. The flowers have each five
+ petals, and fifteen stamens: they are solitary, terminate the branches,
+ and have scarcely any stalks. The fruit is a berry about the size of an
+ orange._
+
+The name of this gum has been derived from that of the country whence it is
+brought. The mode of obtaining it is by puncturing or cutting the branches
+of the trees. It issues from the wounds in a fluid state, but soon becomes
+hardened by the heat of the sun. After this it is formed into large cakes
+or rolls, in which state we receive it.
+
+Gamboge is chiefly used as a pigment. When good, it is of a fine orange
+colour; and on being softened with water, is bright yellow, requiring no
+preparation previously to being used. It is also given as a medicine; but
+its operations being very violent, it should be administered with great
+caution.
+
+The dried fruit of the gamboge tree is not unfrequently sent to our
+colonies in the East Indies, where it is used in sauces, and with several
+kinds of food.
+
+ 146. _WELD_ (Reseda luteola) _is a plant of the mignionette tribe, used
+ in dyeing: it grows wild, in barren and uncultivated places, particularly
+ on coal-pit banks, in several parts of England._
+
+ _The leaves are spear-shaped, and entire, with a tooth-like process on
+ each side of the base. The flowers are yellow, and in long spikes; and
+ the calyx is divided into four segments._
+
+In some parts of England, particularly in the clothing counties, weld is
+cultivated to great extent; and it flourishes in sandy soils that could be
+turned to little advantage in any other way. When the plants are ripe, they
+are pulled up by the roots, dried, and tied into bundles for use.
+
+The tinging quality of weld resides both in the stems and roots. This
+imparts to wool, cotton, mohair, and silk, a very bright and beautiful
+yellow colour; and blue cloths, dipped in a decoction of it, become green.
+The yellow colour of the paint called _Dutch pink_ is obtained from this
+plant.
+
+
+
+
+----
+
+CLASS XII.--ICOSANDRIA.
+
+----
+
+
+MONOGYNIA.
+
+
+ 147. _The GUAVA, or BAY PLUM, is a West Indian fruit, of which there are
+ two kinds, one white and round, and the other red and pear-shaped. The
+ former is produced by a tree_ (Psidium pomiferum) _which has
+ sharp-pointed and highly ribbed leaves, and flowers three on each stalk;
+ and the latter by a tree_ (Psidium pyriferum) _with oval leaves and
+ single-stalked flowers._
+
+Equally delicious and wholesome, these _fruits_ are in the highest
+estimation in the countries where they are produced. The rind or skin is
+lined with an apple-like substance, which is used for tarts and other sweet
+preparations. It is also stewed and eaten with milk; and, in this form, is
+generally thought better than any other stewed fruit; from the same part a
+marmalade is made. This rind encloses an agreeable pulp, mixed with
+innumerable small seeds. The whole fruit is eaten raw, or prepared as a
+sweetmeat in various ways; the most common form in which we see it is that
+of a jelly.
+
+The _wood_ is used for fuel, and also makes excellent charcoal.
+
+ 148. _The COMMON MYRTLE_ (Myrtus communis) _is a well-known ornamental
+ evergreen shrub, which is cultivated chiefly in greenhouses in this
+ country, but grows wild in the countries of the South of Europe._
+
+Although this shrub is cultivated with us chiefly for ornament, it is of
+considerable utility to the inhabitants of the South of Europe. Its _young
+shoots_ are used for tanning leather; and both its _leaves_ and _berries_
+are employed in medicine. From the former a distilled water is obtained,
+which is sometimes used in gargles. The berries are likewise distilled; and
+an oil prepared from them has considerable repute as a means of thickening
+the hair.
+
+ 149. _ALL-SPICE, or PIMENTO, is the dried berry of a West Indian species
+ of myrtle_ (Myrtus pimenta, Fig. 45.)
+
+ _This tree grows to the height of twenty feet and upwards, and has
+ somewhat oval leaves about four inches long, of deep shining green
+ colour, and numerous bunches of white flowers, each with four small
+ petals._
+
+In the whole vegetable creation there is scarcely any tree more beautiful
+or more fragrant than a young pimento about the month of July. Branched on
+all sides, richly clad with deep green leaves, which are relieved by an
+exuberance of white and strongly aromatic flowers, it attracts the notice
+of all who approach it.
+
+Pimento trees grow spontaneously, and in great abundance, in many parts of
+Jamaica; but they cannot be propagated without great difficulty. The usual
+method of making a new pimento walk, or plantation, is to appropriate for
+this purpose a piece of woody ground in the neighbourhood of an already
+existing walk, or in a part of the country where the scattered trees are
+found in a native state. The other trees are cut down; and, in a year or
+two, young pimento plants are found to spring up in all parts, supposed to
+have been produced from berries scattered there by birds, which eagerly
+devour them.
+
+About the month of September, and not long after the blossoms have fallen,
+the berries are in a fit state to be gathered. At this time, though not
+quite ripe, they are full grown, and about the size of pepper-corns.
+
+They are gathered by the hand; and one labourer on a tree will strip them
+off so quickly as to employ three below in picking them up; and an
+industrious picker will fill a bag of seventy pounds' weight in a day. The
+berries are then spread on a terrace, in the sun, for about seven days, to
+be dried; but this is an operation which requires great care, from the
+necessity of keeping them perfectly free from moisture. By the drying they
+lose their green colour, and become reddish brown; and the process is known
+to be completed by their colour, and by the rattling of the seeds within
+the berries. They are then packed into bags or hogsheads for the market.
+When the berries are quite ripe, they are of a dark purple colour, and
+filled with a sweet pulp.
+
+Pimento is thought to resemble in flavour a mixture of cinnamon, nutmegs,
+and cloves, whence it has obtained the name of "all-spice." It is much
+employed in cookery; and is chiefly used in whole grains. It is also
+employed in medicine, as an agreeable aromatic; and forms the basis of a
+distilled water, a spirit, and an essential oil. The _leaves_ of the
+pimento trees yield in distillation an odoriferous oil, which is not
+unfrequently used in medicinal preparations, instead of oil of cloves.
+
+ 150. _The PEACH is a large, downy, and well-known garden fruit_
+ (Amygdalus Persica), _which is supposed to have been originally
+ introduced into Europe from Persia, and was first brought into England
+ about the year 1562._
+
+This rich and delicious fruit is highly and deservedly esteemed at table,
+as an article in our desserts; and, when ripe and fresh, is grateful and
+wholesome, seldom disagreeing with the stomach, unless this organ be not in
+an healthy state, or the fruit be eaten to excess. When preserved in wine,
+brandy, or sugar, it loses its good properties. The _kernels_ yield a
+salubrious bitter. The _flowers_, which are very beautiful, and appear
+early in the spring, emit an agreeable odour, have a bitterish taste, and
+are used for medical purposes. The _leaves_ are occasionally employed in
+cookery, but they ought not to be used without great caution, on account of
+their injurious properties.
+
+There are many varieties of the peach, some of which are much more esteemed
+than others. The mode in which the trees are usually propagated is by a
+process termed budding, or grafting upon the stock of some other tree (see
+p. 147); and, by this process, those of any favourite kind may be exactly
+obtained.
+
+151. The NECTARINE is a smooth-skinned variety of the peach, but of richer
+and more delicious flavour. The culture and management of the two kinds are
+exactly the same; and in all the circumstances of their growth, wood,
+leaves, and flowers, they precisely resemble each other.
+
+ 152. _The COMMON or SWEET ALMOND is a soft and pleasant-flavoured kernel,
+ contained in a nut which is of flattish shape, and has a tender shell
+ with numerous small holes on the outside._
+
+ _The almond tree_ (Amygdalus communis, Fig. 46) _is usually twelve or
+ fourteen feet high. Its beautiful pink flowers of five petals grow in
+ pairs, and appear early in the spring. The leaves are somewhat oval,
+ pointed, and delicately serrated at the edges._
+
+Our shrubberies contain no tree the flowers of which are more beautiful
+than those of the almond; and these flowers appear in March and April, a
+season when few other parts of the vegetable creation have recovered from
+their wintry state. Though known to the ancients from the most remote
+periods of antiquity, the almond tree has only been cultivated in England
+since the year 1562, and this almost wholly on account of the elegant
+appearance of its flowers; as the climate of Great Britain is not
+sufficiently warm for the fruit to be perfected with us.
+
+The almonds that are consumed in this country are imported, sometimes in
+the shell, but much more commonly without, from France, Spain, Italy, and
+the Levant; and they are packed in casks, boxes, and bales. The province of
+Valencia had formerly great celebrity for its almonds; but the cultivation
+of the trees in that part of Spain has for several years been much
+neglected.
+
+The chief uses of sweet almonds are in confectionary and cooking. They are
+also eaten with raisins in desserts after dinner; but they should be well
+chewed, as every piece that is swallowed entire is indigestible. By
+pressure, they yield a considerable proportion, sometimes nearly half their
+weight, of _oil_. Indeed this is so plentiful that it may even be squeezed
+out of the kernel with the fingers. Some preparations of almonds are used
+in medicine, particularly that called _milk of almonds_, which is formed of
+pounded almonds, loaf-sugar, and water, well mixed together. In some parts
+of the East Indies, it is said that almonds supply the place of small
+money.
+
+ 153. _BITTER ALMONDS are in no respect different from sweet almonds,
+ either as to the appearance of the kernels themselves, or the trees which
+ produce them, except somewhat in the size of the flowers and fruit._
+
+Like sweet almonds, they yield a large portion of _oil_. This has no
+bitterness; but the substance which remains after the pressure is intensely
+bitter. If these almonds be eaten freely, they occasion sickness and
+vomiting; and, to many quadrupeds and birds, they are a fatal poison. There
+was formerly a notion, but it is an erroneous one, that the eating of them
+would prevent the intoxicating effects of wine. They are frequently used,
+instead of apricot kernels, in ratafia, and sometimes are employed in
+making a counterfeit cherry-brandy. The oil and emulsions of bitter almonds
+are used in medicine: and a powder and paste, for washing the hands is made
+both from them and from sweet almonds. By confectioners they are much in
+request for flavouring biscuits and other articles.
+
+ 154. _The POMEGRANATE is an apple-shaped fruit with thick rind, and
+ crowned with the leaves or teeth of the calyx. It is the produce of an
+ evergreen shrub_ (Punica granatum, Fig. 47) _which grows wild in the
+ southern parts of Europe._
+
+ _This shrub is usually from fifteen to twenty feet high. The branches are
+ armed with spines; and the leaves are oblong, pointed, and dark green.
+ The flowers, which are of a rich scarlet colour, have five rounded
+ petals._
+
+By the Greeks and Romans almost every part of the pomegranate tree (the
+root, leaves, flowers, and fruit) was considered to possess medical
+properties of a very remarkable and even marvellous description; and the
+country then chiefly celebrated for the production of it was that adjacent
+to the city of Carthage. The pomegranate is now, however, in little esteem,
+except on account of its fruit; the pulp or juice of which is pleasant to
+the palate, and, in common with other summer fruits, allays heat and
+mitigates thirst, but has a slightly astringent flavour. This pulp is red,
+is contained in transparent membranes, and included in nine distinct cells.
+The tough _rind_ of the fruit, which is of a bitter and astringent nature,
+was employed by the ancients in the dressing of leather; and it is still
+used in some parts of Germany, together with the _bark_ of the tree, in the
+preparation and dyeing of red leather in imitation of what is called
+Morocco leather.
+
+Pomegranates were first cultivated in England about the year 1596; but the
+fruit grown in this country seldom attains a delicacy of flavour equal to
+that which is imported from Spain, Italy, and other warm climates.
+
+ 155. _The CHERRY is a fruit of the prune or plum tribe, the original
+ stock of which is the wild cherry_ (Prunus cerasus) _of our woods._
+
+The gradual effects of cultivation, as they regard the cherry, have been
+the production of several kinds, which, both in size and flavour,
+infinitely exceed the fruit of the parent stock, or wild cherry of the
+woods. The kinds that are best known are the _May Duke, Early Kentish
+Cherry, White Heart, and Black Heart Cherries_. The trees are propagated by
+grafting (see p. 147) them usually upon the stocks of wild black and red
+cherry trees, which are reared for that purpose.
+
+This agreeable _fruit_ is eaten either fresh or dried. It is sometimes
+preserved with sugar as a sweetmeat; is made into jam; used in preparations
+of the liqueur called cherry-brandy: and made into wine. From wild black
+cherries the Swiss distil an ardent spirit, by the sale of which to the
+French and Germans they derive considerable profit.
+
+The _wood_ of the cherry-tree, which is hard and tough, is much used,
+particularly by turners and cabinet-makers on the Continent, for the
+manufacture of chairs and other furniture. The _gum_ that exudes from the
+bark is, in many respects, equal to gum arabic (273); and is considered
+very nutritive. Hasselquist informs us that, during a siege, more than 100
+men were kept alive for nearly two months, without any other sustenance
+than a little of this gum, which they occasionally took into their mouths
+and suffered gradually to dissolve.
+
+ 156. _The APRICOT_ (Prunus Armeniaca) _is a fruit of the plum tribe,
+ which grows wild in several parts of Armenia and was first introduced
+ into this country about the middle of the sixteenth century._
+
+Some persons are inclined to consider the apricot as the most delicate of
+all our hardy fruits. For pastry certainly none is more excellent. It is
+used for tarts, both green and when ripe; it is also preserved with sugar
+in both these states, and is sometimes dried as a sweetmeat. Care, however,
+should be taken to gather it before it becomes soft and mealy. The
+_kernels_ of apricots have a pleasantly bitter flavour, and answer much
+better for several purposes in confectionary than bitter almonds, which are
+usually applied. They likewise contain a sweet oil, which, like that of
+almonds, was formerly used in emulsions.
+
+The _gum_ that issues from the apricot tree is nearly similar to that of
+the cherry (152). The _wood_ is coarse-grained and soft, and consequently
+is seldom used in carpentry.
+
+Apricot trees are chiefly grown against walls, and are propagated by
+grafting upon plum-tree stocks.
+
+ 157. _The COMMON or DOMESTIC PLUM, in all its varieties, has been derived
+ from a wild species of plum-tree_ (Prunus domestica), _which grows in
+ hedge-rows and thickets in several parts of England; and is distinguished
+ by its branches being without thorns, and its fruit-stalks being single._
+
+Were it not a well-established fact, few persons would suppose that the
+_magnum bonum_, or _egg plum_, the _green gage_, and several others, which
+are now common in our gardens, are indebted, for their parent stock, to the
+wild plum above-mentioned. These are all used at table; and, when
+sufficiently ripe, and eaten in moderate quantity, are pleasant and
+wholesome fruits, but, in an immature state, they are very unwholesome.
+
+_Prunes_ and _French plums_ are the dried fruit of different kinds of
+plum-trees. They are usually packed in boxes, and are imported from the
+Continent, but particularly from the neighbourhood of
+Marseilles.--Brignolles, a town of Provence, about thirty miles from
+Marseilles, is one of the most famous places in France for dried prunes.
+_Prunes_ or _St. Catherine's plums_, constitute a lucrative branch of
+traffic, which is almost exclusively carried on in Tours and Chatelherault.
+Prunes are sometimes employed in medicine, but French plums are chiefly
+used at table.
+
+The _wood_ of the plum-tree is of little value; but the _bark_ is in
+occasional request as affording a yellow dye.
+
+ 158. _The BULLACE PLUM is a small violet-coloured fruit of globular
+ shape, produced by a shrub_ (Prunus insititia) _which grows wild in our
+ hedges, and is known by its branches being thorny, and its fruit-stalks
+ in pairs._
+
+The plum has a rough, but not unpleasantly acid taste, especially after it
+has been mellowed by the frost. A conserve, called _bullace cheese_, is
+sometimes prepared by mixture of the pulp of the bullace with about thrice
+its weight of sugar. In several parts of Germany this fruit is preserved in
+vinegar and spice; and is occasionally used, in the manner of cherries, for
+the flavouring of brandy. An infusion of the _flowers_, sweetened with
+sugar, is sometimes used medicinally for children. The _wood_ is pleasingly
+veined, and is much valued by turners.
+
+ 159. _The SLOE is a small, round, and nearly black kind of plum_ (Prunus
+ spinosa), _of extremely austere taste, which is common in thickets and
+ hedges throughout nearly every part of England._
+
+ _The shrub that produces it has thorny branches, and the fruit-stalks are
+ single._
+
+The harshness and austerity of the sloe are proverbial. Its _juice_, if
+mixed with British made wines, communicates to them a red colour, and an
+astringent flavour, somewhat resembling that of port wine; a fact too well
+known to some of the dealers in that favourite liquor. The juice of unripe
+sloes, dried over a gentle fire, so nearly resembles the Egyptian acacia
+(273), that it has in many instances been substituted for that substance;
+it is, however, harder, heavier, of darker colour, and somewhat sharper
+taste than the genuine kind. A conserve of this fruit, made with three
+times its weight of double-refined sugar, has been used with success as a
+gargle for sore throats.
+
+An infusion of the _flowers_ in water, or the flowers boiled in milk, are
+sometimes employed medicinally; and the _bark_, reduced to powder, has been
+efficaciously administered in agues. If boiled in ley, the bark yields a
+red dye. The young and tender _leaves_ of the sloe afford a substitute for
+tea, but some persons consider them unwholesome. The juice of the fruit,
+mixed with green vitriol, becomes an indelible black fluid, either for
+dyeing linen, or as writing-ink. The _wood_, being extremely tough, is
+converted into walking-sticks, and made into the teeth of rakes; it is also
+sometimes used by turners. Dr. Withering has remarked, that, from certain
+effects which he observed to follow the prick of the _thorns_ of the sloe,
+he was inclined to consider they had some poisonous quality, especially in
+autumn.
+
+
+PENTAGYNIA.
+
+
+ 160. _The MEDLAR_ (Mespilus germanica) _is usually considered a native
+ English fruit, having been remarked, more than a century ago, to grow
+ wild in hedges about Minshull in Cheshire. It is distinguished by being
+ depressed and concave at the top, the leaves of the calyx continuing upon
+ it; and by its containing several hard, compressed, and angular nuts._
+
+It is the property of the medlar, which is cultivated in most large
+gardens, to be hard, and remarkably austere and disagreeable to the taste,
+until it has, in part, undergone the putrefactive fermentation, when it
+becomes a soft, mellow, and, to many palates, a pleasant fruit. Medlars are
+usually gathered from the trees about the end of October, or beginning of
+November. To facilitate their becoming fit for the table, they may be
+placed in moist bran; but such as require to be kept for subsequent use
+should be deposited on dry straw. In a fortnight or three weeks those in
+the bran will be eatable, and the others will more gradually ripen. After
+they are perfectly ripe, they, however, soon become mouldy and decay.
+
+The _wood_ of the medlar-tree somewhat resembles that of the pear-tree, but
+is of no great value.
+
+ 161. _The COMMON PEAR is a well-known garden fruit, derived from an
+ English stock, the wild pear-tree_ (Pyrus communis), _which grows in
+ hedges and thickets in Somersetshire and Sussex._
+
+It would be an endless task to describe the different known varieties of
+the cultivated pear. Some of these are very large, and others extremely
+small; some have a rich and luscious flavour, and others, as the iron pear,
+are so hard and disagreeable to the taste, as to be absolutely unfit to
+eat. Pears are chiefly used in desserts; and one or two of the kinds are
+stewed with sugar, baked, or preserved in syrup.
+
+The fermented _juice_ of pears is called _perry_, and is prepared nearly in
+the same manner as that of apples (162) is for cider. The greatest
+quantities of perry are made in Worcestershire and Herefordshire. The
+_Squash_, the _Oldfield_, and the _Barland perry_ are esteemed the best.
+Many of the dealers in Champaigne wine are said to use perry in the
+adulteration of it; and, indeed, really good perry is little inferior,
+either in flavour or quality, to Champaigne.
+
+Of the _wood_ of the pear-tree, which is light, smooth, compact, and of
+yellowish colour, carpenters' and joiners' tools are usually made, as well
+as the common kinds of flat rulers, and measuring scales. It is also used
+for picture frames that are to be stained black. The _leaves_ impart a
+yellow dye, and are sometimes employed to communicate a green colour to
+blue cloth.
+
+ 162. _The APPLE, in all its numerous varieties, has been derived from
+ the_ Crab-tree (Pyrus malus), _which grows wild in almost every thicket,
+ and in hedges of all parts of the kingdom._
+
+The uses of apples are very extensive, and even the _crab-tree_ is not
+without its use. The _fruit_ is indeed small, and bad to the taste; but its
+fermented juice, which is called _verjuice_, is sometimes employed in
+cookery, occasionally in medicine, and frequently by wax-chandlers, for the
+purifying of wax. Dr. Withering conceives that, with a proper addition of
+sugar, a grateful liquor might be made from the juice of crabs, little
+inferior to hock. Hogs and deer are particularly partial to this fruit. The
+_wood_ is tolerably hard, and, when made into the cogs of wheels, acquires
+a polish, and is very durable.
+
+Apple-trees are all produced in an artificial manner, by a process termed
+_grafting_. This is performed by inserting young shoots of such trees as
+bear valuable fruit, on stocks that have been raised from the seeds of
+crabs. Thus the shoot of an apple-tree, inserted into a crab stock,
+occasions the crab-tree, from that time, to produce apples of nearly the
+same kind and quality with those of the tree from which the shoot was
+taken. Other stocks might be used, but those of the crab are considered the
+best. The same process is adopted in the propagation of nearly every kind
+of fruit-tree; since, by experience, it has been ascertained that such as
+are produced from seed all partake of the nature of wild fruits, and have
+little resemblance to the fruit from which they spring.
+
+There are several kinds of apples, and the varieties are every day
+increasing, through the attention that is paid, by different individuals,
+to the culture of this valuable fruit. Those best known as eating apples
+are the American apple called _Newtown pippin_, the _non-pareil_, _golden
+pippin_, _ribstone pippin_, _golden rennet_, and _lemon pippin_; for the
+kitchen, the _codlin_ and _russet_; and for cider, the _golden pippin_,
+_coccagee_, and _red streak_. Of these the non-pareil and golden pippin,
+from some unaccountable causes, are beginning to fail; the trees of late
+production not affording fruit of excellence equal to what has formerly
+been produced in this country.
+
+It would be impossible in this place to enumerate all the uses of apples.
+They are employed in culinary preparations of several kinds, particularly
+in puddings and pies: they are a constant article in desserts; and are
+dried, baked, and made into jelly and marmalade. But by far the most
+important application of them is for the making of _cider_. The mode in
+which this is done in Herefordshire is very simple. After the apples have
+been gathered, they are sorted according to their different degrees of
+ripeness, and laid together, for a little while, to heat, by which those
+which are not perfectly ripe are greatly improved in flavour. The fruit is
+then ground in a mill, till even the kernels and rind are well bruised. It
+is allowed to stand, for a day or two, exposed in a large open vessel;
+after which it is pressed between several hair cloths. The liquor that
+issues from it is received into a vat, to be fermented; it is subsequently
+removed into casks till it becomes fine; it is then racked off into other
+vessels, leaving the lees behind. As soon as the fermentation has ceased,
+the casks are filled up with other cider, and the bung-holes are closed.
+
+Cider is a more acid liquor than perry, and, generally speaking, is a
+wholesome and pleasant drink during the heats of summer; but the harsher
+kinds, or those which are prepared in leaden vessels, if freely drunk, are
+the cause of colics and other painful complaints. By distillation from
+cider an ardent spirit may be obtained. This has an unpleasant flavour, of
+which, however, it may be deprived by a certain process with charcoal. By
+boiling the fresh juice of apples, and afterwards fermenting it, a _wine_
+may be made, which, when three or four years old, is said to acquire both
+the colour and flavour of Rhenish wine.
+
+ 163. _The QUINCE is a somewhat pear-shaped fruit, which is supposed to
+ have been originally imported into this country from the island of
+ Crete._
+
+ _The quince-tree_ (Pyrus cydonia), _is low and bushy. Its leaves are
+ oval, entire, and whitish beneath. The flowers are large, of pale red or
+ white colour, and do not grow in bunches, but each on a separate stalk._
+
+Though quinces have an austere taste, and are not eatable when raw, they
+lose a considerable portion of their harshness if prepared in any manner by
+heat; and, when mixed with other fruit in cookery, they communicate a very
+pleasant flavour. Hence it is that they are often mixed with apples in
+pies. Quinces are also boiled and eaten with sugar; made into marmalade,
+and preserved in syrup either whole or in halves. The _juice_ of quinces,
+boiled with sugar, was formerly used as a medicine, but of late years it
+has been nearly discontinued. A proportion of one quart of the juice, mixed
+with a pound of sugar, and fermented, yields a delicious wine. On the
+Continent, a celebrated liqueur is prepared from this juice, in combination
+with sugar and brandy. A mucilage of the _seeds_ is kept by apothecaries,
+and used in medicine, as more pleasant, but it is not so efficacious, as
+that of the simple gums.
+
+Quince-trees grow wild on the banks of the Danube, but, with much less
+luxuriance than in a state of cultivation.
+
+
+POLYGYNIA.
+
+
+ 164. _The HUNDRED LEAVED, or COMMON GARDEN ROSE_ (Rosa centifolia), _is a
+ shrub too well known to need any description._
+
+This, the queen of flowers, is one of the most elegant and fragrant of the
+vegetable productions. Its _petals_ yield, on distillation, a small portion
+of aromatic _oil_, together with a _water_ which possesses both the odour
+and taste of the flowers. This oil congeals in the common temperature of
+our atmosphere, and in that state is of white colour; but, when liquefied
+by heat, it appears yellow. So small, however, is the quantity that can be
+obtained, that an hundred pounds' weight of the flowers will scarcely yield
+half an ounce of oil. It is in much request as a perfume, under the name of
+_ottar_ or _essence of roses_; and, though chiefly manufactured in the East
+Indies, is seldom imported from thence for sale, but considerable
+quantities of it are brought from Turkey, at the price of from three to
+four pounds per ounce, exclusive of the duty. That from the East Indies,
+when genuine, has been sold at a much more exorbitant rate than this; but
+it is not unfrequently adulterated with oil of sandal-wood (55). The fraud,
+however, is easily detected by those who are accustomed to the smell of the
+latter, and also by the fluidity of the compound. The true ottar of roses
+is undoubtedly the most elegant perfume that is known.
+
+From the petals of this rose are also prepared a _conserve_ and _syrup_,
+which are used in medicine. The simple distilled _rose-water_ has little to
+recommend it beyond its fragrance: it is occasionally used to impart an
+agreeable flavour to culinary preparations, and also to some kinds of
+cordials. It should be remarked that, although, from their fragrance, roses
+are much used for nosegays, their odour has sometimes produced very
+alarming symptoms in persons sitting or sleeping with such nosegays in
+confined apartments.
+
+ 165. _The WILD BRIER, or HEP-ROSE_ (Rosa canina), _is a common wild
+ flower in hedges, and is distinguished by having a somewhat egg-shaped
+ fruit, smooth flower-stalks, the prickles of the stem hooked, and the
+ leaves oval, pointed, smooth, and shining._
+
+We possess no wild shrub more ornamental to the country, in its flowers,
+its foliage, or its fruit, than this; and its sweet and delicate scent,
+though less powerful, is perhaps as grateful as that of any rose that is
+known. The _flowers_, when distilled, afford a pleasant perfumed water. The
+_fruit_, or heps, contain an acid yet sweetish pulp, with a rough prickly
+matter enclosing the seeds. Of the pulp, when carefully separated from this
+substance, and mixed with sugar, is prepared the _conserve of heps_ of the
+shops, which, though of little medicinal virtue itself, is used to give
+form to more active medicines. In the north of Europe, the fruit of the
+rose, with the addition of sugar, is sometimes employed in the preparation
+of domestic wines; and the pulp, in a dried state, affords a grateful
+ingredient in sauces: but it is supposed that a still greater advantage
+might be derived from the fruit by distillation. The _leaves_ of this, and
+indeed of every kind of rose, have been recommended as a substitute for
+tea. On the Continent they are employed in currying the finer kinds of
+leather.
+
+On the branches of this tree a singular moss-like and prickly excrescence
+is frequently found. This, which is caused by an insect (_Cynips rosæ_),
+and forms the habitation of its offspring, was formerly in great medicinal
+repute; but it is now seldom used.
+
+ 166. _The RED OFFICINAL ROSE_ (Rosa gallica) _differs from the
+ hundred-leaved rose in having the leaf-stalks more rough and prickly. The
+ petals are of deep crimson colour, large, spreading, and not numerous._
+
+In the period of its flowering, this rose, which is a native of the south
+of Europe, succeeds the common garden rose. It is used in several medicinal
+preparations. Of its _petals_, in conjunction with sugar, a conserve is
+made, an infusion, and a syrup; and the dried _buds_, with water and honey,
+are made into what is called _honey of roses_.
+
+ 167. _The RASPBERRY_ (Rubus idæus) _is a well-known garden fruit, which
+ grows wild in woods and thickets of several parts of England._
+
+To most persons the flavour of the raspberry is peculiarly grateful; and
+its perfume very delightful. Raspberries are much used in cookery and
+confectionary, as well as to eat in desserts. With sugar they are made into
+jam and jelly, and also into cakes. The juice, mixed with a certain portion
+of sugar and of brandy, constitutes the liqueur called _raspberry-brandy_.
+This juice is much in request for ice-creams, and is sometimes manufactured
+into wine. A grateful syrup is obtained from raspberries, which is
+occasionally used in medicine. The _leaves_ are said to be a grateful food
+to kids.
+
+White raspberries are sweeter than the red ones.
+
+168. Our wild hedge fruit, called BLACKBERRIES (_Rubus fruticosus_), belong
+to the same tribe as the raspberry. These are much eaten by children, and
+sometimes, when taken in too great quantities, produce very violent
+effects, and have caused fever, delirium, and other unpleasant symptoms. In
+Provence blackberries are employed for the colouring of wine. A syrup and
+jelly, and sometimes also wine, are prepared from them. The _twigs_ are
+sometimes used in dyeing a black colour. Silkworms are occasionally fed
+upon the _leaves_ of the blackberry.
+
+ 169. _The STRAWBERRY_ (Fragaria vesca) _is a British wood fruit which has
+ been long cultivated in gardens._
+
+By cultivation the strawberry has been greatly increased in size, but its
+flavour continues much the same as that of the wild fruit. The varieties of
+the strawberry are very numerous.
+
+None of our fruits are more wholesome than these, and, even when eaten in
+large quantities, they seldom disagree with the stomach. They abound in
+juice, have a grateful, cooling, somewhat acid taste, and a peculiarly
+fragrant smell; and are either eaten alone, or with sugar, milk, or wine. A
+palatable jam, wine, and vinegar, are prepared from strawberries. This
+fruit is sometimes preserved whole in syrup, and sometimes in wine.
+
+
+
+
+----
+
+CLASS XIII.--POLYANDRIA.
+
+----
+
+
+MONOGYNIA.
+
+
+ 170. _CAPERS are the unopened flower-buds of a low shrub_ (Capparis
+ spinosa, Fig. 48), _which grows from the crevices of rocks and walls, and
+ among rubbish, in the southern parts of France, in Italy, and the
+ Levant._
+
+ _The stems of the caper bush are trailing, and two or three feet in
+ length. The leaves are alternate, of somewhat oval shape, veined, and of
+ bright green colour: and the flowers are large and beautiful, with four
+ petals, and white with a tinge of red._
+
+In the south of France, the caper bush is as common as the bramble is with
+us. It grows wild upon the walls of Rome, Sienna, and Florence; and when
+trained against a wall, it flourishes even in the neighbourhood of Paris:
+notwithstanding which it is almost unknown in English gardens, where it
+cannot be made to flower without the aid of artificial heat. This shrub is
+cultivated on a large scale, between Marseilles and Toulon, and in many
+parts of Italy.
+
+In the early part of the summer it begins to flower, and the flowers
+continue successively to appear till the commencement of winter. The buds
+are picked, every morning, before the petals are expanded: and, as they are
+gathered, they are put into vinegar and salt. When a sufficient quantity is
+collected, they are distributed, according to their size, into different
+vessels, again put into vinegar, and then packed up for sale and
+exportation. This pickle is much used in sauce for boiled mutton. To
+persons unaccustomed to it, the taste of capers is unpleasant; but, after a
+little while, the palate becomes reconciled to it.
+
+The bark of the _root_ cut into slices, and dried in small rolls or quills
+like cinnamon, is sometimes used in medicine in cases of obstruction of the
+liver.
+
+The flower-buds of the marsh marygold (_Caltha palustris_), and of
+nasturtiums, are frequently pickled and eaten as a substitute for capers.
+
+ 171. _The WHITE POPPY_ (Papaver somniferum) _is a naturalized English
+ plant, with smooth calyx and seed-vessels, and with leaves embracing the
+ stem, which grows wild in neglected gardens, and some corn-fields, and to
+ which we are indebted for two important medicines_, opium _and_ laudanum.
+
+Although the white poppy has long been naturalized in this country, it is
+supposed that we were originally indebted for it to some of the northern
+parts of Asia. Throughout nearly the whole of that quarter of the world it
+is cultivated with great attention, on account of the _opium_ which is
+obtained from it. Opium is the dried juice of the seed-vessels, and is thus
+procured:--After the petals have fallen off, and the seed-vessels are about
+half grown, the latter are wounded on one side, with an instrument having
+four or five teeth, the gashes being made about an inch in length. A
+glutinous, milky fluid exudes from the wounds: this is carefully scraped
+off, on the ensuing day, by a person who, in similar manner, wounds the
+opposite side of the head; the juice issuing from which is afterwards
+similarly collected. The whole is then put into earthen vessels, where it
+is worked by the hand, in the open sunshine, until it attains sufficient
+consistence to be formed into balls, cakes, or loaves; after which it is
+covered over with poppy or tobacco leaves, and further dried, till it is in
+a proper state for exportation.
+
+_Opium_ is of reddish brown colour, inclining to black; and has a strong
+and very peculiar smell. It is adulterated in various ways; by an extract
+of the plant, obtained by boiling; by a powder of the dried leaves and
+stalks, mixed with some kind of gum; by rice flour, and by other substances
+not quite so agreeable as these.
+
+The cultivation of opium is so extensively pursued in the East Indies that
+nearly 600,000 pounds' weight of it are annually exported from the Ganges.
+But there is no necessity for us to import, at a great expense from abroad,
+that which might be advantageously prepared in our own country. It is true
+that the seed-vessels of the white poppy do not attain so large size in
+this as in warmer climates; but the opium procured from it is of
+sufficiently excellent quality. From the seed-vessels of a single plant
+more than forty grains of this drug have been obtained; and, under very
+disadvantageous circumstances of weather, upwards of twenty-one pounds'
+weight have been procured from plants grown upon five acres of land. It has
+been calculated that, in favourable seasons, the produce of a single acre
+ought to be near fifty pounds. It is recommended that the seed be sown in
+autumn rather than in spring. When the seed-vessels have attained a
+sufficient state of maturity, they may be wounded, and the opium may be
+collected by children from eight to twelve years of age. The only proper
+time for collecting it is in the morning, and seven children and two men
+have been able to collect 1½ pound in one morning, betwixt five and nine
+o'clock. The best mode of reducing the opium to a proper consistence
+appears to be to spread it thinly in shallow dishes, and expose it, under
+glasses, to the rays of the sun.
+
+We possess few medicines so valuable as this. It is used as a powerful
+antidote, but chiefly as a remedy for procuring sleep and mitigating pain,
+which it does in a very remarkable manner. In the latter respects, however,
+it is too often abused; and, if taken in large doses, it proves a deadly
+poison. But so much are the effects of opium diminished by the habit of
+taking it, that, although four grains have, in some instances, proved fatal
+to grown persons, fifty times that quantity have been taken daily by
+others. The bad effects of too great a dose are best counteracted by making
+the patient drink freely of acids and coffee, and not permitting him to
+yield to the desire of sleeping, with which he is oppressed. The habitual
+use of opium, which is much indulged in by the Asiatics, is attended with
+the same bad effects as the habit of drinking ardent spirits: it brings on
+tremors, palsy, stupidity, and general emaciation; and, when once acquired,
+it can scarcely ever be relinquished.
+
+Possessing the above properties, it is remarkable that opium, combined in a
+certain proportion with vegetable acids, instead of inducing, will prevent
+sleep. In consequence of which it has often, though injuriously, been used
+by persons who are obliged to devote their nights to sedentary or active
+pursuits. It is likewise deserving of remark, that the _seeds_ of the poppy
+have none of the narcotic qualities of the opium. They are mild, sweet, and
+nutritive; and yield, by pressure, an oil little inferior to that of
+almonds. So numerous are these seeds that more than 30,000 have been
+counted from a single seed-vessel.
+
+_Laudanum_ is a liquid preparation from opium and spirit of wine; and is
+used for most of the same purposes to which opium is applied. Its effects,
+as a poison, may be counteracted in the same manner as those of opium.
+
+ 172. _ARNATTO, or ANNOTTA, is a red dyeing drug, generally imported in
+ lumps wrapped up in leaves, and produced from the pulp of the
+ seed-vessels of a shrub_ (Bixa orellana) _which grows spontaneously in
+ the East and West Indies._
+
+ _This shrub is usually seven or eight feet high, and has heart-shaped and
+ pointed leaves. The flowers, which have each ten large peach-coloured
+ petals, appear in loose clusters at the ends of the branches, and produce
+ oblong and somewhat hairy pods._
+
+The seed-vessels of the arnatto shrub are, in appearance, somewhat like
+those of the chesnut (235). They each contain from thirty to forty seeds,
+enveloped in a kind of pulp (of red colour and unpleasant smell), which is
+not much unlike the paint called red lead, when mixed with oil. In the West
+Indies the method of extracting the pulp, and preparing it for sale, is to
+boil it, and the seeds which are mixed with it, in clear water, until the
+latter are perfectly extricated. They are then taken out, and the pulp is
+allowed to subside to the bottom of the water; this is drawn off, and the
+sediment is distributed into shallow vessels, and gradually dried in the
+shade until it is sufficiently hard to be worked into lumps or masses for
+sale.
+
+Arnatto, though made in the West Indies, is an object of no great
+commercial importance; the demand for it not being sufficient to give much
+encouragement to its culture. It is now chiefly prepared by the Spaniards
+in South America, and for the purpose principally of mixing with chocolate,
+to which, in their opinion, it gives a pleasing colour and great medicinal
+virtue, as well as an improved flavour. The chief consumption of arnatto in
+England depends upon painters and dyers; and it is supposed that _Scott's
+nankeen dye_ is nothing but arnatto dissolved in alkaline ley. This drug is
+sometimes used by the Dutch farmers to give a rich colour to butter; and
+the double Gloucester and several other kinds of cheese are coloured with
+it. Poor people occasionally use it instead of saffron.
+
+In countries where the arnatto shrubs are found, the _roots_ are employed
+by the inhabitants in broth; and they answer all the purposes of the pulp,
+though in an inferior degree. The _bark_ is occasionally manufactured into
+ropes; and pieces of the _wood_ are used by the Indians to procure fire by
+friction.
+
+ 173. _The LIME or LINDEN-TREE is a British forest tree_ (Tilia europæa),
+ _distinguished by its heart-shaped and serrated leaves of bright green
+ colour, and by its berries or seed-vessels, having each four cells and
+ one bud._
+
+ _The blossoms are whitish, in small clusters, and have a yellowish green
+ floral leaf nearly as long as the fruit-stalk, and attached to it for
+ about half its length._
+
+No one can have passed a grove of lime-trees, in the month of July, without
+having been charmed with the perfume which, at this season, is emitted by
+the _flowers_. They are a great resort of bees, and supply those insects
+with materials for their best honey. Whether fresh or dried, they easily
+ferment, and a fine flavoured spirit may be distilled from them. The _wood_
+is close-grained, though soft, light, and smooth. It is much used by
+carvers and turners; and is in great request for the boards of
+leather-cutters. When properly burnt it makes an excellent charcoal for
+gunpowder, and for painters.
+
+If the _bark_ be softened in water, the fibrous inner part may be
+separated: of this the Russians manufacture fishing-nets, mats, shoes, and
+rustic garments; and ropes and other cordage, made from it, are stated to
+be so remarkably strong and elastic, that, in this respect, they are
+superior to iron chains. In some countries the _leaves_ are dried as a
+winter food for sheep and goats; and, from these and the bark, a smooth but
+coarse brown paper may be manufactured. An inferior kind of sugar may be
+made from the _sap_; and the _seeds_, by pressure, yield a sweet and
+pleasant oil.
+
+The lime is an eligible tree to form shady walks and clipped hedges: but
+its leaves fall very early in the autumn. In rich soils it attains a
+prodigious size; and instances have been mentioned of these trees having
+existed during more than six centuries.
+
+ 174. _TEA, both black and green, consists of the dried leaves of an
+ evergreen shrub_ (Thea bohea _and_ Thea viridis, _of Linneus_, Fig. 49),
+ _with indented and somewhat spear-shaped leaves and white flowers with
+ six petals or more, which is much cultivated in China._
+
+ _The tea shrub attains the height of five or six feet, and is much
+ branched. The leaves, when full grown, are about 1½ inch long, narrow,
+ tapering, and of dark glossy green colour, and firm texture. The flowers
+ are not much unlike those of the white wild rose, but smaller; and they
+ are succeeded by a fruit about the size of a sloe, which contains two or
+ three seeds._
+
+The tea-tree flourishes, with great luxuriance, in valleys, on the sloping
+sides of mountains, and on the banks of rivers, in a southern exposure,
+betwixt the thirtieth and forty-fifth degrees of north latitude. It is
+chiefly cultivated near Pekin, and around Canton, but it attains the
+greatest perfection in the mild and temperate climate of Nankin.
+
+The collecting of the leaves is conducted with great care: they are picked
+singly, and, for the most part, at three different times of the year; about
+the end of February, the beginning of April, and the end of May. The drying
+and preparation of them, for use, are processes too long to admit of minute
+detail respecting them in this place. It may, however, be observed, that
+for these purposes buildings are erected, which contain from five to ten,
+and some of them even twenty, small furnaces, each having, at the top, a
+large iron pan. There is also a long table covered with mats, on which the
+leaves are laid, and rolled by persons who sit round it. The iron pan being
+heated by a fire in the furnace beneath, a few pounds of the leaves are put
+upon it, and frequently turned and shifted. They are then thrown upon the
+mats to be rolled betwixt the palms of the hands: after which they are
+cooled as speedily as possible. That the moisture of the leaves may be
+completely dissipated, and their twisted form be better preserved, the
+above process is repeated several times with the same leaves, but with less
+heat than at first. The tea, thus manufactured, is afterwards sorted,
+according to its kind or goodness. Some of the young and tender leaves are
+never rolled, but are merely immersed in hot water, and dried.
+
+How long the use of tea has been known to the Chinese we are entirely
+ignorant; but we are informed that an infusion of the dried leaves of the
+tea shrub is now their common drink. They pour boiling water over them, and
+leave them to infuse, as we do in Europe; but they drink the tea thus made
+without either milk or sugar. The inhabitants of Japan reduce the leaves to
+a fine powder, which they dilute with water, until it acquires nearly the
+consistence of soup. The tea equipage is placed before the company,
+together with a box in which the powdered tea is contained: the cups are
+filled with warm water, and then as much of the powder is thrown into each
+cup as the point of a knife can contain, and it is stirred about until the
+liquor begins to foam, in which state it is presented to the company.
+
+It was formerly imagined that black and green tea were the production of
+different species of shrubs; but the Chinese all assert, that both are
+produced from the same species, and that the sole difference which exists
+betwixt them arises from the seasons when the leaves are gathered, and the
+modes of curing them. The teas principally consumed in Europe are four
+kinds of black, and three of green.
+
+
+_Black Teas._
+
+(_a_) _Bohea_, or _Voo-yee_, so called from the country in which it is
+produced, is sometimes collected at four gatherings. As the leaves are
+picked, they are put into flat baskets, which are placed on shelves or
+planks, in the air or sun, from morning till night; after which they are
+thrown, by small quantities at a time, into a flat cast-iron pan, which is
+made very hot. They are twice stirred quick with the hand: then taken out,
+again put into the baskets, and rubbed between men's hands to roll them.
+After this they undergo another roasting in larger quantities, over a
+slower fire: and are then sometimes put into baskets over a charcoal fire.
+When the tea is, at last, sufficiently dried, it is spread on a table; and
+the leaves that are too large, and those that are unrolled, yellow, broken,
+or otherwise defective, are picked out, and the remainder is laid aside to
+be packed.
+
+The best bohea tea is a small blackish leaf, is dusty, smells somewhat like
+burnt hay, and has a rough and somewhat harsh taste. The average annual
+importation of bohea into this country, in the ten years from 1791 to 1800,
+was 3,310,135 pounds.
+
+(_b_) _Congo_, or _Cong-foo_, derived from a word which implies much care
+or trouble, is a superior kind of bohea, less dusty, and with larger
+leaves. These are gathered with peculiar care, and there is some little
+difference in the preparation of congo and bohea. The leaves of the latter,
+of souchong, hyson, and the fine single teas, are said to be beaten, with
+flat sticks or bamboos, after they have been withered by exposure to the
+sun or air, and have acquired toughness enough to keep them from breaking.
+
+Of congo the annual average quantity imported in the above years amounted
+to 9,564,202 pounds.
+
+(_c_) _Souchong_, from a Chinese word which signifies small good thing, is
+made from the leaves of trees three years old; and, where the soil is good,
+even of the leaves of older trees. Of true souchong very little is
+produced; what is sold to Europeans for this is only the finest kind of
+congo, and the congo usually purchased by them is but the best sort of
+bohea. Such is the delicacy of this tea that, upon a hill planted with
+tea-trees, there may only be a single tree, the leaves of which are good
+enough to be called souchong, and even of these, only the best and youngest
+are taken. The others make congos of different kinds, and bohea.
+
+(_d_) _Pekoe_ is distinguished by having the small white flowers of the
+tree intermixed with it. This, which is chiefly consumed in Sweden and
+Denmark, is usually made from the tenderest leaves of trees three years
+old, gathered just after they have been in bloom, when the small leaves
+that grow between the first two that have appeared, and which altogether
+make a sprig, are white, and resemble young hair or down.
+
+
+_Green Teas._
+
+It has been asserted that green teas are indebted for their qualities and
+colour to a process of drying them upon plates of copper. This is certainly
+incorrect. The leaves for green tea are gathered, and immediately roasted,
+or _tached_, as it is called, upon cast-iron plates, and then are very much
+rubbed betwixt men's hands, to roll them. They are afterwards spread out
+and separated, as the leaves in rolling are apt to adhere to each other:
+and are again placed over the fire, and made very dry. After this they are
+picked, cleansed from dust, several times tached or roasted, and finally
+put hot into the chests in which they are to be packed.
+
+The principal kinds of green tea are singlo, hyson, and gunpowder.
+
+(_a_) _Singlo_, or _Song-lo_, is so named from the place where it is
+chiefly cultivated. Of this tea there are three or more sorts; but the
+leaves of the best are large, fine, flat, and clean. It is gathered at two
+seasons, the first in April, and the second in June. As we see it, the leaf
+is flattish, and yields, on infusion, a pale amber-coloured liquor.
+
+(_b_) _Hyson_, or _Hee-chun_, has its name from that of an Indian merchant
+who first sold this tea to the Europeans. There are two gatherings of
+hyson. It should have a fine blooming appearance, be of a full-sized grain,
+very dry, and so crisp that, with slight pressure, it will crumble to dust.
+When infused in water the leaf should appear open, clear, and smooth, and
+should tinge the water a light green colour; the infusion ought to have an
+aromatic smell, and a strong pungent taste.
+
+(_c_) _Gunpowder_ tea is a superior kind of hyson, gathered and dried with
+peculiar care. This tea should be chosen in round grains, somewhat
+resembling small shot, with a beautiful bloom upon it which will not bear
+the breath: it should have a greenish hue, and a fragrant pungent taste.
+Gunpowder tea is sometimes adulterated; an inferior kind being dyed and
+glazed in such manner as to resemble it; but, on infusion, this is found in
+every respect very inferior.
+
+Tea, both black and green, is sometimes imported in balls from the weight
+of two ounces to the size of peas.
+
+
+
+The dried leaves of the tea plant are a commodity which, a century and a
+half ago, were scarcely known as an article of trade. The earliest
+importation of tea into Europe is said to have been by a Dutch merchant in
+1610; but the time of its first introduction into England has not been
+correctly ascertained. So scarce an article was it, for many years after
+the above period, that, in 1666, twenty-two pounds and three quarters of
+tea, estimated at fifty shillings a pound, were presented, as a valuable
+gift, to King Charles the Second. The first importation of tea by the East
+India Company was in 1669, and this consisted only of two canisters,
+weighing 143lb. 8oz. So rapidly, however, has the consumption of this
+article since increased, that, notwithstanding the immense distance from
+which it is brought, it now amounts to more than twenty millions of pounds'
+weight per annum. Such is, at present, the extent of the tea trade, that it
+affords constant employment for at least 50,000 tons of shipping, and 6,000
+seamen; and its importance to us is the greater since it has been the means
+of opening, in China, a market for the sale of woollen goods, one of the
+most essential articles of our manufacture, to the amount of more than one
+million of pounds sterling per annum.
+
+If good tea be taken in moderate quantity it is considered by medical men
+to be beneficial, by exhilarating the spirits and invigorating the system;
+but, when taken too copiously, it is apt to occasion weakness, tremor, and
+other bad symptoms.
+
+The tea plant may be propagated in the temperate climates of Europe, as
+well as in the Indies; under the shelter of a south wall it will even
+flourish in our own gardens. It is, however, somewhat remarkable that the
+fresh leaves, if used for tea, produce giddiness and stupefaction; but
+these noxious properties are capable of being dissipated by the process of
+roasting.
+
+In some of the southern parts of England there are smugglers who have
+reduced to a regular process the management of the leaves of the ash, the
+sloe, and some other trees, for the adulteration of tea. The article thus
+prepared has the name of _smouch_, and is sometimes mixed in the proportion
+of about one-third, with the ordinary teas. The preparation of it, however,
+if discovered, is subject to very heavy penalties.
+
+ 175. _CLOVES are the unexpanded flower-buds of an East Indian tree_
+ (Caryophyllus aromaticus, Fig. 50), _somewhat resembling the laurel in
+ its height, and in the shape of its leaves._
+
+ _The leaves are in pairs, oblong, large, spear-shaped, and of bright
+ green colour. The flowers grow in clusters, which terminate the branches,
+ and have the calyx divided into four small and pointed segments. The
+ petals are small, rounded, and of bluish colour; and the seed is an oval
+ berry._
+
+In the Molucca islands, where the preparation of different spices was
+formerly carried on by the Dutch colonists to great extent, the culture of
+the clove-tree was a very important pursuit. It has even been asserted
+that, in order to secure a lucrative branch of commerce in this article to
+themselves, they destroyed all the trees growing in other islands, and
+confined the propagation of them to that of Ternate only. But it appears
+that, in 1770 and 1772, both clove and nutmeg trees were transplanted from
+the Moluccas into the islands of France and Bourbon; and, subsequently,
+into some of the colonies of South America, where they have since been
+cultivated with great success.
+
+At a certain season of the year the clove-tree produces a vast profusion of
+flowers. When these have attained the length of about half an inch, the
+four points of the calyx being prominent, and having in the middle of them
+the leaves of the petals folded over each other, and forming a small head
+about the size of a pea, they are in a fit state to be gathered. This
+operation is performed betwixt the months of October and February, partly
+by the hand, partly by hooks, and partly by beating the trees with bamboos.
+The cloves are either received on cloths spread beneath the trees, or are
+suffered to fall on the ground, the herbage having previously been cut and
+swept for that purpose. They are subsequently dried by exposure for a while
+to the smoke of wood fires, and afterwards to the rays of the sun. When
+first gathered they are of reddish colour, but, by drying, they assume a
+deep brown cast.
+
+This spice yields a very fragrant odour, and a bitterish, pungent, and warm
+taste. It is sometimes employed as a hot and stimulating medicine, but is
+more frequently used in culinary preparations. When fresh gathered, cloves
+will yield on pressure a fragrant, thick, and reddish oil; and, by
+distillation, a limpid essential oil. The latter is imported into Europe,
+but is frequently adulterated, and sometimes even to the amount of nearly
+half its weight. Oil of cloves is used by many persons, though very
+improperly, for curing the tooth-ache, since, from its pungent quality, it
+is apt to corrode the gums, and injure the adjacent teeth. When the tooth
+is carious, and will admit of it, a bruised clove is much to be preferred.
+
+ 176. _LADANUM, or LABDANUM, is a resinous drug which exudes, and is
+ collected, from the leaves and branches of a beautiful species of cistus_
+ (Cistus Creticus), _which grows in Syria and the Grecian islands._
+
+ _The height of this shrub seldom exceeds three or four feet. Its leaves,
+ which stand in pairs on short foot-stalks, are oblong, wrinkled, rough,
+ and clammy. The flowers appear in June and July, and consist of five
+ large rounded petals of light purplish colour, each marked with a dark
+ spot at the base._
+
+The ancient mode of collecting ladanum, if the accounts which have been
+stated respecting it may be credited, was not a little curious. Goats,
+which delight in grazing upon the leaves and young branches of the shrubs
+that produce it, were turned loose into the plantation, and the resin that
+adhered to the long hair of their beards and thighs was afterwards detached
+by combing them.
+
+The present method is different, and is a laborious and troublesome
+employment. Tournefort informs us that he saw seven or eight country
+fellows, in their shirts and drawers, and in the hottest part of the day,
+drawing over the shrubs a kind of whip, or rake, with numerous long straps
+or thongs of leather. From these they collected the resin, by scraping it
+off with a kind of knife; after which it was made into cakes of different
+sizes for sale. As loose sand generally adheres, in considerable quantity,
+to the viscous leaves of the shrub, it is not unusual for dealers in this
+drug to adulterate it with sand.
+
+We import ladanum principally from the Levant and the Persian Gulf; and it
+comes to us in cakes or masses of different size, dark colour, and about
+the consistence of soft plaster; and also in rolls, lighter-coloured and
+much harder, which are twisted up so as somewhat to resemble the rolls of
+wax tapers.
+
+The smell of ladanum is strong, but not disagreeable; and its taste is
+warm, aromatic, and somewhat unpleasant. This drug was formerly much used
+as an internal medicine; but it is now employed only externally, as an
+ingredient in plasters.
+
+ 177. _The TULIP-TREE_ (Liriodendron tulipifera) _is an American
+ production which yields a very beautiful and valuable kind of wood._
+
+ _It sometimes grows to the height of sixty or seventy feet; and has lobed
+ leaves, and tulip-shaped flowers._
+
+While young, the _wood_ of the tulip-tree is white; but at an advanced age,
+it assumes a fine yellow colour, or a streaked appearance of different
+shades of red. This wood is equally useful in ornamental furniture, and as
+a timber for building. It is occasionally employed in the construction of
+light vessels; and the trunks of tulip-trees are frequently hollowed by the
+Indians into canoes. When they have been grown in a favourable soil and
+climate, one of them is sufficiently large to be made into a canoe capable
+of containing several people.
+
+On account of its quick growth and easy culture, this noble tree well
+deserves the attention of planters in our own country.
+
+
+
+
+----
+
+CLASS XIV.--DIDYNAMIA.
+
+----
+
+
+GYMNOSPERMIA.
+
+
+ 178. _LAVENDER is a well-known perennial garden plant_ (Lavandula spica)
+ _which grows wild in the south of Europe, and the flowers of which yield
+ a grateful perfume._
+
+Such is the fragrance of this delightful flower, and so easy is its
+culture, that we can now scarcely enter a garden in which it is not found.
+It will grow in almost any soil, but it flourishes most luxuriantly in
+clayey ground; and in situations whence, without inconvenience, it can be
+conveyed to the metropolis, it is a very valuable crop.
+
+When cultivated to any extent, lavender should be planted in rows two or
+three feet apart, and the sets should be about two feet from each other. It
+is usually propagated from slips. During dry weather, in the month of July,
+the flowers should be gathered, by cutting off the heads close to the stem;
+after which they must be tied in bundles to be distilled.
+
+When distilled with water, the _flowers_ of lavender, if in a mature state,
+yield an essential _oil_; generally in the proportion of about one ounce of
+oil to sixty ounces of flowers. This oil is of a bright yellow colour, and
+possesses the perfect fragrance of the lavender. But, if distilled with
+rectified spirit, the virtues are more completely extracted. From the
+leaves a very small proportion of oil can be obtained.
+
+The preparations of this plant that are used in medicine are, the essential
+oil, a simple _spirit_, and a compound tincture. Lavender, however, is much
+more frequently and more extensively employed as a perfume than
+medicinally. The flowers are deposited in chests and wardrobes among linen,
+not only on account of their fragrant smell, but also from an opinion that
+their odour will prevent the depredations of moths and other insects. The
+perfume called _lavender water_ may be prepared by mixing three drachms of
+oil of lavender, and one drachm of essence of ambergris, with one pint of
+spirit of wine.
+
+Lavender is supposed to have been first cultivated in England about the
+year 1558.
+
+ 179. _COMMON or SPEAR-MINT_ (Mentha viridis), _one of our most frequent
+ garden herbs, is a native British plant, and grows wild in watery places,
+ and near the banks of rivers, in several parts of England._
+
+The ancients ascribed many virtues to different kinds of mint, but it is
+not now possible to ascertain correctly the respective species, though
+there can be little doubt that spear-mint was one of the most important of
+them. Its flavour is to many persons peculiarly agreeable, and, on this
+account, it is employed for several culinary purposes, both in a green and
+dried state.
+
+The _leaves_ are used in spring salads, are boiled with peas, and put into
+soup. In conjunction with vinegar and sugar they form a sauce for lamb; and
+prepared with sugar, they are made into a grateful conserve. Spear-mint is
+occasionally used in medicine, and the officinal preparations of it are the
+conserve, an essential oil, a simple distilled water, a spirit, and a
+tincture, or extract. In drying, the leaves lose about three-fourths of
+their weight, but without suffering much either in taste or smell.
+
+ 180. _PEPPER MINT_ (Mentha piperita) _is a British plant, which grows in
+ watery places, and is cultivated chiefly on account of an oil and
+ distilled water which are prepared from it._
+
+This is the strongest and most aromatic of all the mints; and, on this
+account, is more used in medicine than any other species. When distilled
+with water it yields a considerable quantity of essential oil, of pale
+greenish yellow colour. The well-known liquor called _pepper mint water_,
+prepared from this plant, is an excellent stomachic: but is too often used
+in cases of impaired appetite, and for the relief of various imaginary
+complaints.
+
+
+ANGIOSPERMIA.
+
+
+ 181. _The FOX-GLOVE_ (Digitalis purpurea) _is a stately British plant,
+ with long, erect spikes of large, purple, and somewhat bell-shaped
+ flowers, marked internally with dark spots in whitish rings, and
+ containing four stamens, with large yellow anthers._
+
+ _The calyx, or flower-cup, has five pointed divisions. The extremity of
+ the blossom is divided into five segments; and the seed-vessel is
+ egg-shaped, and contains many seeds. The leaves are large, wrinkled, and
+ somewhat downy beneath._
+
+The gravelly or sandy hedge-banks or hills of all the midland counties of
+England are adorned, in the later months of summer, with this, one of the
+most beautiful, most dangerous, and yet, if properly applied, one of the
+most useful of all our wild plants. For its medicinal virtues it has long
+been esteemed. The Italians have an adage which implies that "the fox-glove
+heals all sores:" hence it is said, that they apply the bruised leaves, and
+the juice of the leaves, in the healing of different kinds of wounds, and
+particularly for the removal of scrophulous swellings.
+
+The _juice_ of this plant has a bitter and nauseous taste; and, when taken
+internally, acts violently on the stomach and bowels, and brings on stupor
+and drowsiness; notwithstanding which, in careful hands, it may be rendered
+a valuable medicine in dropsy, consumption, and epilepsy. It is given in
+powder, tincture, and infusion of the dried leaves; and such is its
+strength, that Dr. Woodville states, the dose of the dried leaves, in
+powder, should not exceed from one to three grains per day.
+
+ 182. _The CALABASH-TREE_ (Crescentia cujeta) _is a production of the West
+ Indies and America, about the height and dimensions if an apple-tree,
+ with crooked horizontal branches, wedge-shaped leaves, pale white flowers
+ on the trunk and branches, and a roundish fruit, from two inches to a
+ foot in diameter._
+
+The uses to which the _fruit_ of the calabash tree is applied are very
+numerous. Being covered with a greenish yellow skin, which encloses a thin,
+hard, and almost woody shell, it is employed for various kinds of domestic
+vessels, such as water cans, goblets, and cups of almost every shape and
+description. So hard and close-grained is the calabash, that, when it
+contains any kind of fluid, it may even be put on the fire without injury.
+When intended for ornamental purposes, the vessels that are made of the
+shell of this fruit are sometimes highly polished, and have figures
+engraven upon them, which are variously tinged with indigo and other
+colours. The Indians make musical instruments with the calabash.
+
+The calabash contains a pale, yellow, juicy _pulp_, of unpleasant taste,
+which is esteemed a valuable remedy in several disorders, both external and
+internal.
+
+
+
+
+----
+
+CLASS XV.--TETRADYNAMIA.
+
+----
+
+
+SILICULOSA.
+
+
+ 183. _SEA KALE_ (Crambe maritima) _is a well-known plant in our
+ kitchen-gardens, the early shoots of which are blanched, and eaten in the
+ same manner as asparagus._
+
+This plant grows wild on sandy sea-coasts in various parts of England; and
+has been transplanted thence into the gardens. The mode of management is,
+in the autumn, to place large inverted garden-pots over the plants, and to
+cover the whole bed and the pots with dung and litter. The heat of the
+fermenting dung causes the plants to shoot early in the spring; and the
+pots protect them and keep them clear of the litter. By this means also, as
+they have no access to the light, they become blanched, tender, and of
+extremely sweet and delicate flavour.
+
+Sea kale is ready for use some time before asparagus appears; and, for the
+table, it is preferred by most persons to that favourite vegetable. If the
+leaves of sea kale be eaten when full grown, they are said to occasion
+giddiness; but horses, cows, swine, and other animals, feed upon them
+without injury.
+
+ 184. _WOAD is a dyeing drug, produced by a British plant_ (Isatis
+ tinctoria), _with arrow-shaped leaves on the stem, yellow cruciform
+ flowers, and oblong seed-vessels, each containing one seed._
+
+This plant is believed to have been the same that was adopted by the
+ancient Britons for staining, or painting their bodies a blue colour, to
+render them, in appearance, at least, more terrible to their enemies. It
+grows wild on the borders of corn-fields, in some parts of Cambridgeshire,
+Somersetshire, and Durham: and is cultivated in several of the clothing
+districts of England.
+
+As soon as the plants are in a sufficient state of maturity, they are
+gathered. The leaves are picked off, and submitted to the action of mills,
+somewhat similar to the mills that are used for the grinding of oak-bark.
+In these they are reduced to a pulp. The woad is then laid in small heaps,
+which are closely and smoothly pressed down. After continuing about a
+fortnight in this state, the heaps are broken up, and their substance is
+formed into balls, which are exposed to the sun to be dried. When the balls
+are perfectly dry, they are ready for use; and are employed, not only in
+dyeing blue, but also as the basis of several other colours.
+
+ 185. _HORSE-RADISH_ (Cochlearia armoracia) _is a well-known
+ kitchen-garden plant, which grows wild by the sides of ditches and the
+ banks of rivers, in several parts of the north of England._
+
+The _root_ of horse-radish is much used for culinary purposes. It is
+remarkable for great pungency both of smell and taste. When scraped, it is
+mixed with pickles to heighten their flavour, and is eaten with roast beef,
+fish, and several other kinds of food. Whenever more of the roots are dug
+out of the earth at once than are immediately wanted, they may be preserved
+for some time, in a juicy state, by putting them into dry sand.
+
+Horse-radish is also in considerable repute as a medicine, and is a
+powerful stimulant, whether externally or internally applied.
+Notwithstanding this, we are informed by Dr. Withering, that an infusion of
+horseradish in cold milk is one of the best and safest cosmetics that are
+known.
+
+
+SILIQUOSA.
+
+
+ 186. _COMMON MUSTARD is made from the powdered seeds of a plant_ (Sinapis
+ nigra), _which grows wild in corn-fields and by road sides, in most parts
+ of England, and is known by its yellow cruciform flowers, with expanding
+ calyx, and its pods being smooth, square, and close to the stem._
+
+In light and otherwise barren lands mustard is cultivated to great
+advantage. That which is produced in the county of Durham has much
+celebrity; though the powdered seeds of charlock have, in many instances,
+been substituted, and sold in place of it. Mustard is in daily use at our
+tables, and the _seeds_, whole or bruised, are employed in pickles, and for
+numerous other culinary purposes. These seeds yield, on pressure, a
+considerable quantity of oil, which is soft and insipid to the taste, and
+partakes but little of the acrimony of the plant.
+
+Different preparations of mustard are sometimes used in medicine. The
+seeds, taken internally, are serviceable in asthma, rheumatism, and palsy.
+Cataplasms of mustard are employed, on account of its stimulating
+properties, on benumbed or paralytic limbs. An infusion of the powdered
+seeds, taken in considerable quantity, operates as an emetic, and, in
+smaller quantity, is an useful aperient and diuretic.
+
+ 187. _RAPE and COLE SEED_ (Brassica napus) _are different varieties of a
+ plant with yellow cruciform flowers and, spindle-shaped root, which grows
+ wild upon ditch banks, and amongst corn._
+
+ _This plant is distinguished from others of the same tribe by its roots
+ being a regular continuation of the stem._
+
+In several parts of England rape and cole seed are sown intermixed, the
+plants being distinguishable in their growth by the cole exceeding the rape
+in height, being more soft and tender, and less branched and bushy. When
+sown separately the cole is usually, though not always, consumed as food
+for sheep and cattle; and the rape is allowed to stand for seed. For the
+cultivation of rape the soil ought to be rich and deep.
+
+The harvest commences about the month of August; and as the seed, when in a
+state of maturity, is easily shed, it is customary, in some places, to
+thresh the plants on a large cloth in the field. Rape-cloths are sometimes
+so large as to measure twenty yards square, and to weigh more than half a
+ton. The threshing is almost always considered a sort of festival, at which
+a great portion of the neighbours attend, in order to expedite the work;
+and they are repaid by the good cheer of their brother farmer. In other
+places the rape is carried on a cloth, in a low kind of waggon, to be
+threshed out of the field.
+
+_Oil_ is obtained from rape-seed by pressure. This is used, in large
+quantities, by clothiers and others. It is also used in medicine; and for
+making the soap called green soap. It is likewise useful for various
+purposes in domestic life, and particularly for burning in lamps; but it is
+apt to become rancid, though there are means of purifying it. After the oil
+has been extracted, the refuse is called _oil-cake_, and is employed for
+the fattening of oxen; and, in Norfolk, is sometimes broken to pieces, and
+strewed upon the land as manure. The _roots_ of rape plants may be eaten
+like turnips, but they have a stronger taste. The _stalks_, or haulm, if
+strong, may be advantageously employed in the formation of the enclosing
+fences of farm-yards. They are, however, generally burnt; and in some parts
+of the country, the ashes, which are equal in quality to the best
+pot-ashes, are collected together and sold.
+
+ 188. _The TURNIP_ (Brassica rapa) _is a well-known edible root, which is
+ cultivated to great extent in almost every part of England._
+
+To the farmer turnips are, in various particulars, a most valuable crop.
+They afford a profitable intervening crop with corn. Both the _tops_ and
+_roots_ are eaten by sheep. Horses and cattle may be advantageously fed
+upon the roots during winter; but the milk of cows receives an unpleasant
+flavour from them. This flavour is also communicated to the butter; but it
+may be taken off by dissolving a little nitre in spring water, and putting
+a small tea-cupful of it into about eight gallons of milk, when warm from
+the cow. Turnips also serve as food for mankind, either boiled or roasted.
+In the years 1629, 1636, and 1693, during the pressure of a severe famine,
+bread is stated to have been made of turnips in several parts of England,
+particularly in the county of Essex. The process was to put the turnips
+into a kettle over a slow fire, till they became soft; they were then taken
+out, squeezed as dry as possible, mixed with an equal quantity of flour,
+and, after having been kneaded with yeast, salt, and a little warm water,
+were made into loaves and baked. In bread thus made the peculiar taste of
+the turnip is said to be scarcely perceptible.
+
+These roots have been much recommended as sea store, from the possibility,
+with care, of preserving them for a great length of time uninjured, and
+from their furnishing an agreeable and wholesome food for sailors, on long
+voyages. The young and tender _tops_ of turnips, when boiled, afford an
+agreeable substitute for greens.
+
+For the cultivation of turnips a light soil, particularly such as consists
+of a mixture of sand and loam, is found preferable to rich and heavy land.
+Turnips are raised from seed, which it has long been the established custom
+to sow in the month of June. As soon as the young plants have attained a
+tolerable size, they are hoed, for the purpose of thinning them. In their
+growth they suffer much by the attacks of slugs, caterpillars, and insects
+of different kinds, particularly of a small, dark beetle with two
+longitudinal yellowish stripes (_Chrysomela nemorum_), which is called by
+farmers the _turnip-fly_. For the destruction of this insect many plans
+have, at different times, been devised.
+
+Turnips are either eaten on the land by cattle, or are drawn out and
+stacked, or preserved under ground for winter use; and, in this state, they
+may be kept sound till April.
+
+There are several kinds of turnips; but of these the _common white_, or
+_Norfolk turnips_, and the _Ruta-baga_, or _Swedish turnips_, are the
+principal. The latter, which indeed constitute a distinct species, are
+generally of a yellowish colour, and are so hardy as to suffer no injury
+even from the most intense cold; but their substance is so compact as
+sometimes to break the teeth of sheep which feed upon them.
+
+ 189. _The COMMON CABBAGE_ (Brassica oleracea) _is a well-known plant, the
+ original stock of which grows on cliffs by the seaside, in Kent,
+ Cornwall, Yorkshire, and Wales._
+
+ _This wild plant is likewise the original of the various kinds of_
+ colewort, borecole, cauliflower, _and_ brocoli.
+
+The effects of cultivation on the cabbage are very remarkable. In the wild
+plants the leaves are extended: but in the common garden cabbage they are
+set so close together as to lie upon each other, almost like the scales of
+a bulb, and, increasing in compactness as they increase in size: those in
+the interior being excluded from the effects of the light, do not assume a
+green, but are of yellow colour.
+
+Other plants of this species form their stalks into a head, as the
+_cauliflower_ and _brocoli_; and others grow, in a natural way, without
+forming either their leaves or stalks into heads, as the _coleworts_, or
+_Dorsetshire kale_, the _borcoles_, _turnip-rooted cabbage_, and others.
+
+In some parts of England, cabbages of different kinds are much cultivated
+as food for cattle, and they succeed well in rich and finely prepared land.
+The seed is sown in February or March. In April or May the young plants are
+taken out, and set in rows, at a little distance from each other; and, in
+the ensuing autumn and winter, the cabbages afford a valuable stock of
+food.
+
+All the kinds of cabbage are useful for domestic purposes; and some of them
+afford a peculiarly sweet and delicate food. An agreeable pickle is made of
+them, and the Germans, and people of other northern countries of the
+Continent, prepare from them a favourite food called _sour-crout_. These
+plants were known to, and much used by, the ancient Greeks and Romans.
+
+Cabbages are biennial plants, or are sown one year, produce seed in the
+ensuing year, and then die.
+
+
+
+
+----
+
+CLASS XVI.--MONADELPHIA.
+
+----
+
+
+TRIANDRIA.
+
+
+ 190. _TAMARINDS are the pulp and needs produced by the pods of a large
+ tree with winged leaves_ (Tamarindus Indica, Fig. 51), _which grows in
+ the East and West Indies, America, and several parts of Asia._
+
+ _This tree is from thirty to forty feet in height; and its leaves consist
+ usually of fourteen pairs of leaflets. The flowers are formed in
+ clusters, from the sides of the branches, and have each three yellowish
+ petals, beautifully marked with red veins._
+
+ _The fruit of the tamarind-tree is a roundish but somewhat compressed
+ pod, four or five inches in length, the external part of which is very
+ brittle. Each pod contains three or four hard seeds, enveloped in tough
+ skins, surrounded by a dark-coloured, acid pulp, and connected together
+ by numerous tough and woody fibres._
+
+Previously to the exportation of tamarinds, the pulp, with the seeds and
+fibres, are freed from their shell: and those which we receive from the
+West Indies are usually preserved in syrup. In Jamaica the fruit is
+gathered about the month of July. When fully ripe, and after the pods are
+cleared away, the remainder is placed in layers, in small casks: and
+boiling syrup, just before it begins to granulate, is poured upon them
+until the casks are filled, after which the heads are put in and fastened
+up for exportation.
+
+The East Indian tamarinds are generally packed without any admixture. They
+are more esteemed than the others; and, when in the pods, are easily
+distinguished from them by their being longer, and containing six or seven
+seeds; the pulp also is drier and of darker colour.
+
+It is said that we are indebted to the Arabians for a knowledge of the use
+of tamarinds. In hot climates they are a most refreshing and delicious
+fruit; and, dissolved in water, are much used as a cooling and agreeable
+beverage, particularly by persons suffering under fever. They also give
+great relief in sore throats, and other complaints.
+
+
+POLYANDRIA.
+
+
+ 191. _The SOUR-GOURD, BOABAB, or AFRICAN CALABASH-TREE_ (Adansonia
+ digitata) _is probably the largest of all vegetable productions. The
+ trunk, although not usually more than twelve or fifteen feet high, is
+ frequently from sixty to eighty feet in girth. The lowest branches extend
+ almost horizontally; and, as they are sometimes near sixty feet in
+ length, they bend, by their own weight, to the ground; and thus the whole
+ tree forms an hemispherical mass of verdure, which measures from 120 to
+ 130 feet in diameter._
+
+ _The fruit is oblong, about ten inches in length, pointed at both ends,
+ and covered with a greenish down, under which there is a blackish and
+ woody rind. Its interior consists of a whitish, spongy, and juicy
+ substance, with several brown seeds._
+
+ _This tree is a native of Senegal and other parts of Africa._
+
+The virtues and uses of the sour-gourd tree and its fruit are numerous and
+of great importance to the inhabitants of the countries in which it is
+found. The _bark_ and _leaves_ are dried, powdered, and preserved in bags,
+to be employed as a seasoning for food. Two or three pinches of this powder
+are put, by the negroes, into their messes, under an impression that it
+promotes perspiration and moderates the heat of the blood.
+
+The pulp of the _fruit_ has an agreeably acid flavour. This is not only
+eaten when fresh, but is dried and powdered for medicinal uses; a kind of
+soap is also prepared from it.
+
+In Senegal, when the trees are decayed, the _trunks_ are hollowed, by the
+negroes, into burying-places for their poets, musicians, and buffoons.
+These persons are much esteemed whilst they live, although they are
+supposed to derive their superior talents from sorcery or an alliance with
+demons. When dead, however, their bodies are regarded with horror, and are
+not allowed the usual burial, under a notion that the earth would, in such
+case, refuse to produce its accustomed fruits. The bodies inclosed in these
+trees are said to become perfectly dry without decaying, and thus to form a
+kind of mummies, without the process of embalming.
+
+ 192. _COTTON is a soft vegetable down, which is contained in the seed
+ vessels, and envelopes the seeds of the cotton-plant_ (Gosypium
+ herbaceum, Fig. 52), _which is cultivated in the East and West Indies,
+ and numerous other countries of hot climates._.
+
+ _This, though an annual plant, grows to a considerable heights It has
+ leaves of bright green colour, marked with brownish veins, and each
+ divided into five lobes. The flowers have only one petal, in five
+ segments, with a short tube, and are of pale yellow colour, with five red
+ spots at the bottom._
+
+The cotton pods are of somewhat triangular shape, and have each three
+cells. These, when ripe, burst, and disclose their snow-white or yellowish
+contents, in the midst of which are contained small black seeds, in shape
+somewhat resembling those of grapes.
+
+We are informed, by Mr. Edwards, that the plants are raised from seed, the
+land requiring no other preparation for them than to be cleared of its
+native incumbrances. The seeds are usually sown in rows six or eight feet
+asunder, and the holes in which they are put are about four feet apart. At
+the end of five months the plants begin to flower, and in two months more
+the pods are formed. After the cotton is gathered, it is freed from the
+seeds to which it is attached, by a very simple machine, consisting of two
+small rollers that are close and parallel to each other, and move in
+opposite directions. The cotton is next hand-picked, to free it from
+decayed leaves, broken seeds, and other impurities; after which it is
+packed, for sale, in bags of about two hundred pounds each.
+
+Though the cotton plant flourishes best in tropical climates, it is capable
+of cultivation in such as are not so hot; and it is now an object of
+attention in several of the southern parts of Europe.
+
+We receive great quantities of cotton from America, and the East and West
+Indies. The whole quantity imported into this country, in the year 1802,
+exceeded 60,000,000 pounds' weight; whilst the average annual importation,
+anterior to 1780, did not amount to one tenth part of this; so rapid has
+been the increase and prosperity of our cotton manufactories. Calicoes and
+muslins of all kinds are made of cotton; fustians, corderoys, and
+innumerable other articles. Nankeens, which are manufactured in India, are
+made of a kind of cotton which is naturally of a reddish buff colour.
+
+After the cotton is imported into England, the first process which it goes
+through is that of _carding_. Some years ago, this was performed by the
+hand, upon the knee, with a single pair of cards; but it is now performed
+with cylindrical cards, worked by machinery. The next and most important
+improvements in the manufacture of cotton, were made at Cromford, in the
+county of Derby, by the late Sir Richard Arkwright; who, in 1768, first
+introduced the method of _spinning_ cotton by machinery. By this
+contrivance cotton was _carded_, _roved_, and _spun_, with the utmost
+expedition, correctness, and equality. Other machines have, at different
+subsequent periods, been invented by various mechanics and manufacturers,
+particularly that called a _jenny_, by which one person is able to spin a
+hundred hanks of cotton yarn a-day, containing, in the whole, near a
+million of yards. The concluding operation is that of weaving, which is
+performed with a machine called a loom, in the same manner as flax (97) and
+hemp (259).
+
+Cotton is capable of being manufactured into paper, which is little
+inferior to that made from linen rags.
+
+
+
+
+----
+
+CLASS XVII.--DIADELPHIA.
+
+----
+
+
+DECANDRIA.
+
+
+ 193. _The COMMON BROOM_ (Spartium scoparium) _is a shrub common on sandy
+ pastures and heaths in nearly all the southern parts of England; and is
+ distinguished by having large, yellow, butterfly-shaped flowers, leaves
+ in threes, and single, and the branches angular._
+
+Few of our wild plants are applicable to more numerous purposes of domestic
+utility than this. Its _twigs_ are tied in bundles, and formed into brooms.
+Some persons roast the _seeds_, and make them into a kind of coffee. The
+fibrous and elastic parts of the _bark_, after having been separated by
+soaking in water, may be manufactured into cordage, matting, and even into
+a coarse kind of cloth. The twigs and young branches have been successfully
+employed as a substitute for oak bark, in the tanning of leather. They may
+also be rendered serviceable as thatch for houses, and corn ricks; and some
+persons mix them with hops in brewing; but it is doubtful whether, in this
+respect, they are wholesome. The _flower buds_, when pickled, have
+occasionally been used as a substitute for capers.
+
+The _wood_, where the dimensions are sufficient for the purpose, is
+employed by cabinet-makers for veneering; and it is stated by Dr. Mead,
+that a decoction of the green tops, in conjunction with mustard, has been
+found efficacious in the cure of dropsy.
+
+ 194. _SPANISH BROOM, or SPART_ (Spartium junceum), _is a well-known
+ ornamental flowering shrub in our gardens, which has opposite, round
+ branches, that flower at the top, and spear-shaped leaves._
+
+In the province of Valencia, and other parts of Spain, great attention is
+paid to this manufacture of various articles from the _twigs_ and _bark_ of
+this shrub. They are plaited into mats, carpets, coverings for plants,
+baskets, ropes, and even shoes. A great portion of these twigs was formerly
+exported to different French ports in the Mediterranean, particularly to
+Marseilles; but, in 1783, on account of the employment of which it deprived
+the Spanish people in working them, their exportation was prohibited by the
+government.
+
+ 195. _FURZE, GORZE, or WHIN_ (Ulex Europæus), _is a well-known thorny
+ shrub, which is common on heaths and waste ground in almost every part of
+ England._
+
+The chief use to which furze is applied, is for the heating of ovens; and,
+in this respect, it is valuable, from its burning rapidly, and emitting a
+great degree of heat. Its _ashes_ are used for a ley, which is of
+considerable service in the washing of linen.
+
+In some parts of the country, furze is sown on banks, round fields, for the
+purpose of a fence; and it will flourish even close to the sea side, where
+the spray of the sea destroys almost every other shrub. But it will not
+bear severe cold, and it is often destroyed by intense frost. Furze does
+not often occur in the northern parts of our island.
+
+Horses, sheep, and cattle may be fed on this shrub; and, in several places,
+the seeds of it are sown, either by themselves, or with barley, oats, or
+buck-wheat (126). The plants are mown a year afterwards. They will grow for
+several years, and produce from ten to fifteen tons per acre of food, which
+is equal, in quality and excellence, to the same quantity of hay. They are
+bruised before they are eaten, either in a machine, or by heavy mallets on
+blocks of wood. This operation is requisite, in order to break the
+prickles, and prevent these from being injurious to the mouths of the
+animals that eat them.
+
+ 196. _COWHAGE, or COW-ITCH, is a sharp and barbed kind of down or hair,
+ which thickly clothes the pods of a bean-like climbing plant_ (Dolichos
+ pruriens, Fig. 53), _that grows in the West Indies, and other countries
+ of warm climates._
+
+ _This is an herbaceous plant, which entwines round the adjacent trees or
+ shrubs, and often rises to a considerable height. The leaves grow in
+ threes upon long foot-stalks; and the flowers are large, butter-fly
+ shaped, of purplish colour, and form long and pendant spikes, which have
+ a very beautiful appearance._
+
+It is the property of cowhage, when rubbed upon the skin, immediately to
+penetrate it, and to cause an intolerable itching. Hence it is sometimes
+wantonly employed for mischievous purposes; and hence also it is found very
+troublesome to cattle and domestic animals, in places where the plants
+grow. Notwithstanding this, it may be swallowed in safety, and, if taken
+into the stomach and intestines, is said to be an useful remedy for the
+destruction of worms. As a medicine, it is mixed with syrup or treacle into
+the form of an electuary.
+
+ 197. _SOY is a dark-coloured sauce, which is prepared from the seeds of a
+ Chinese plant_ (Dolichos soja), _that has an erect and hairy stem, erect
+ branches of flowers, and pendulous bristly pods, each containing about
+ two seeds._
+
+There is a joke amongst seamen, that soy is made from beetles or
+cockroaches. This probably originates in the seeds of the plant from which
+the sauce is manufactured having some fancied resemblance, in shape and
+colour, to a beetle. These _seeds_ are used in China and Japan as food.
+They are made into a kind of jelly or curd, which is esteemed very
+nutritious, and which is rendered palatable by seasoning of different
+kinds.
+
+The liquid which we know by the name of _soy_ is thus prepared:--After the
+seeds have been boiled until they become soft, they are mixed with an equal
+weight of wheat or barley meal, coarsely ground. This mixture is fermented;
+and a certain proportion of salt and water being added, the whole is
+allowed to stand for two or three months, care being taken to stir it every
+day; and, by the end of that time, it is ready for use.
+
+Soy is chiefly prepared in China and Japan; but that imported from Japan is
+considered preferable to any other. The quantity annually vended at the
+East India Company's sales is from eight hundred to two thousand gallons,
+at an average price of sixteen or eighteen shillings per gallon.
+
+ 198. _BEANS_ (Vicia faba) _are well-known seeds, originally introduced
+ from Persia, of which there are several kinds or varieties; some of these
+ are cultivated in fields, and others in gardens._
+
+_Field_, or _horse-beans_, as they are frequently called, are small and
+somewhat round. The cultivation of them is pursued to a considerable
+extent. They are esteemed, in many respects, an advantageous crop to the
+farmer, and will thrive on any land where the soil is sufficiently stiff.
+They are usually sown in the month of February; sometimes in the autumn;
+but, in case of severe frost, all the plants that are not well and deeply
+covered with snow will perish. There is also much uncertainty in the crop,
+owing to the state of the weather in the spring and summer; and
+particularly to the ravages of small black insects, myriads of which are
+frequently seen to crowd the tender tops of the plants.
+
+The bean-harvest is seldom completed till nearly the end of September,
+owing to the bulk and succulence of the plants; and the produce is from two
+and a half to five quarters per acre.
+
+There are several varieties of field-beans; but the fine and very small
+ones usually bear the highest price. Bean flour is not only thought more
+nutritive, but is found to be more abundant than that of oats. Beans are
+chiefly applied to the feeding of horses, hogs, and other domestic animals;
+and it is supposed that meal-men often grind them amongst wheat, the flour
+of which is to be made into bread. By some persons they are roasted, and
+adopted as a substitute for coffee. With the Roman ladies bean-flour was in
+much repute as a cosmetic.
+
+_Garden-beans_ are almost wholly confined to culinary uses. What are called
+_French-beans_, and _Kidney-beans_, belong to a different tribe from the
+present.
+
+Bean _stalks_, if subjected to a certain process, are capable of being
+converted into paper.
+
+ 199. _VETCHES are a small species of beans_ (Vicia sativa) _which grow
+ wild in dry meadows, pastures, and cornfields, and are also cultivated in
+ most parts of England._
+
+ _The pods are generally in pairs; and the leaves winged, having each
+ about six pairs of leaflets, with a branched tendril at the extremity. At
+ the bases of each of the leaves there is a small stipule, marked with a
+ dark spot._
+
+The principal use of vetches is as provender for horses and cattle. They
+are grown so early as to allow of being fed off, or cut for this purpose,
+in sufficient time for turnips to be sown the same year. When the land is
+to be prepared for a wheat crop it is sometimes customary to plough in the
+vetches as manure. The _seeds_ afford a grateful food for pigeons.
+
+ 200. _PEAS_ (Pisum sativum) _are a kind of seeds too well known to need
+ any description._
+
+There are several kinds of peas, some of which are cultivated in gardens,
+and others in fields. The former are principally used for culinary
+purposes. In the early part of the year, gardeners in the neighbourhood of
+London raise them on hot-beds. The kind they select for this purpose are
+the dwarf peas. These are sown about the middle of October in warm borders;
+and afterwards, towards the end of January, they are removed into the
+hot-beds. The inducement, of course, is the enormous prices that are paid
+for the earliest peas brought into the market. The podding or picking of
+green peas for the London market is also a valuable branch of the business
+of some farms within a few miles of the metropolis. Many attempts have been
+made to preserve green peas for use in winter; one of these is by bottling
+them, and another by drying them in an oven, and afterwards keeping them in
+paper bags; but none of the modes have been attended with complete success.
+
+Field peas are sown about March or April, and succeed best in light, rich
+soils. They are generally considered an uncertain crop; but this is owing,
+in a great degree, to want of due attention to their culture.
+
+In common with most other seeds of this class, peas yield a nutritive food
+to persons of strong stomachs. When boiled in a fresh or green state, they
+are both wholesome and agreeable; and, when ripe and ground into meal, they
+are peculiarly serviceable for the fattening of swine. The flour of peas is
+not unfrequently mixed by bakers amongst that of wheat for bread; but bread
+made of this flour alone is heavy and unwholesome. Three parts of rye-flour
+and one of ground peas are said to yield a palatable and nourishing bread.
+Peas that are freed from their husks, and split in mills constructed for
+the purpose, are used for soup. The haulm or _straw_ of field peas, if
+saved in favourable seasons, affords not only an excellent fodder for
+working horses, but is also an useful food for horses, cattle, and sheep.
+
+It has been presumed that the _everlasting pea_, which is commonly grown as
+an ornamental flower in our gardens, would be an advantageous green food
+for horses and cattle.
+
+ 201. _LIQUORICE is the root of a perennial plant_ (Glycyrrhiza glabra),
+ _with winged leaves, and purplish butterfly-shaped flowers, which grows
+ wild in the south of Europe, and is cultivated near Pontefract in
+ Yorkshire, Worksop in Nottinghamshire, and Godalming in Surrey, and by
+ many gardeners in the vicinity of London._
+
+ _The stalks of the liquorice-plant are usually four or five feet high.
+ The leaves are winged, and the leaflets egg-shaped, with an odd one at
+ the extremity. The flowers grow in long spikes from the junction of the
+ leaves and branches. The roots are long, round, tough, of brown colour
+ externally, and yellow within._
+
+The principal use of liquorice is in medicine. It contains much saccharine
+matter, joined with some portion of mucilage; and is one of the few sweet
+substances which tend to allay thirst. Liquorice is an excellent medicine
+in coughs and hoarsenesses. When boiled in a little water, it gives out
+nearly all its sweetness; and this, when the moisture is evaporated,
+produces, by different processes, what are called _Spanish liquorice_,
+_liquorice cakes_, _liquorice lozenges_, and _Pontefract cakes_. The former
+of these is used to great extent in the brewing of porter. It is said that
+more than two hundred tons' weight of it are annually manufactured in
+Spain, a considerable portion of which is sold to the London brewers for
+this purpose. Liquorice powder, which is used in medicine, is often
+adulterated with flour, and probably also with less wholesome articles. The
+root itself may be employed as stopples for beer or wine bottles.
+
+The soil in which liquorice is cultivated should be deep, light, and sandy;
+and the roots, which strike deeply into the ground, should be planted in
+rows, at the distance of a foot and half or two feet from each other. Three
+years elapse, after the roots are planted, before the liquorice is in
+perfection.
+
+ 202. _SAINT-FOIN_ (Hedysarum onobrychis) _is a British perennial plant
+ with winged leaves, somewhat pyramidal bunches of butterfly-shaped
+ flowers, marked with red, white, and purple; and oblong, hairy pods, each
+ containing a single seed._
+
+This plant is cultivated in several of the farming districts of England, as
+food for horses and cattle; and it succeeds best on dry and chalky lands,
+in high and exposed situations. The seed should be sown in February or
+March, and, during the first year, the plants should remain untouched. In
+the ensuing summer a crop of hay may be obtained from them; and after this
+the saint-foin may regularly be mown twice every year, for ten or fifteen
+years. When intended for hay, saint-foin should not be cut before it is in
+full bloom, about the beginning of July, as otherwise the quality of the
+hay would be much injured. Some farmers assert that saint-foin, when cows
+are fed with it, both increases the quantity and improves the quality of
+their milk; but, in the opinion of others, the quality is rather injured
+than improved by it. No pasture is considered more excellent for sheep than
+this. Saint-foin is also sometimes sown with clover, and sometimes with
+barley.
+
+ 203. _COMMON RED or BROAD CLOVER_ (Trifolium pratense) _is a well-known
+ field plant, much cultivated in this country._
+
+Clover is chiefly grown in firm and good soils, either as green food for
+horses and cattle, or to be cut for hay. On grass farms it is sometimes
+sown in conjunction with spring corn, and sometimes with ray-grass (51);
+and its utility in the fattening of cattle is well known. This species of
+clover grows wild, in meadows and pastures of most parts of Europe; and, in
+some countries, during a scarcity of provisions, the flowers have been made
+into a kind of bread. In Sweden the heads are used as a green dye.
+
+ 204. _LUCERN_ (Medicago sativa) _is a perennial plant with small purple
+ butterfly-shaped flowers, twisted pods, the stem erect and smooth, and
+ the leaves in threes._
+
+Although a wild plant in nearly every country of the temperate parts of
+Europe, this useful vegetable has only of late years been introduced into
+cultivation. It flourishes most luxuriantly in deep, rich, and friable
+loams, and cannot be too strongly recommended as food for cattle. The value
+of lucern may be considerably increased by sowing it with oats; and, though
+an expensive crop, it yields great profit.
+
+ 205. _INDIGO is a blue dye prepared from a plant_ (Indigofera tinctoria)
+ _with a shrubby stem, oblong, smooth, and winged leaves, bunches of
+ flowers shorter than the leaves, and cylindrical pods slightly curved,
+ which grows in America and the West Indies._
+
+The culture of indigo is an object of considerable importance in the West
+Indian islands, and in some parts of America. The grounds appropriated to
+it are sown about the middle of March, in rows fifteen inches asunder. The
+plants come into flower about three months afterwards, and are in a state
+to be cut about the month of August. They are cut with a kind of reaping
+hook, a few inches above the root. The plants are then laid in strata, in a
+vat or cistern constructed of strong mason-work, and so much water is
+poured in as will cover them. In this state they are left to ferment, and
+the fluid or pulp, which is first green, afterwards becomes of deep blue
+colour. It is now drawn off into another vat, where it is strongly and
+incessantly beaten and agitated, until the colouring matter is united into
+a body. The water is then let off by cocks in the sides of the vat; and the
+indigo, after undergoing some further preparations, is cast, in boxes or
+moulds, into small pieces, each about an inch square, and packed up for
+sale. The vapour which issues from the fermented liquor is extremely
+injurious to the negroes who attend the process; and as peculiar attention
+is requisite both to this and the granulating of the pulp, many
+indigo-planters have failed in the manufacture of this article.
+
+Indigo is employed by dyers, calico-printers, and paper-stainers, to an
+extent so great that nearly 500,000 pounds' weight of it are annually
+imported into this kingdom. The _stone-blue_ used by laundresses, and the
+colours called _Saxon-blue_, and _green_, are made from indigo. Painters
+use it as a water-colour. This article is frequently adulterated with
+earth, ashes, and pounded slate. The genuine drug ought to be of rich, dark
+blue colour, approaching to black; and, when broken, should display the
+lustre of copper. It ought not to sink in water, nor to leave any sediment
+when dissolved.
+
+
+
+
+----
+
+CLASS XVIII.--POLYADELPHIA.
+
+----
+
+
+DECANDRIA.
+
+
+ 206. _CHOCOLATE is a kind of cake or hard paste, sometimes made of
+ different ingredients, but the basis of which is the pulp of the cacao or
+ chocolate nut, a produce of the West Indies and America._
+
+ _The chocolate tree_ (Theobroma cacao, Fig. 54,) _both in size and shape,
+ somewhat resembles a young cherry tree, but it separates near the ground
+ into four or five stems. The leaves are each about four inches in length,
+ smooth but not glossy, and of dull green colour. The flowers are
+ saffron-coloured, and very beautiful._
+
+The _fruit_ of the chocolate-tree somewhat resembles a cucumber in shape,
+but is furrowed deeper on the sides. Its colour, while growing, is green;
+but, as it ripens, this changes to a fine bluish red, almost purple, with
+pink veins; or, in some of the varieties, to a delicate yellow or lemon
+colour. Each of the pods contains from twenty to thirty nuts or kernels,
+which in shape are not much unlike almonds. These are arranged in rows,
+surrounded by a sweet pulpy substance, and are called _cacao_ or
+_chocolate-nuts_.
+
+Plantations of chocolate trees are numerous on the banks of the river
+Magdelana, in South America, and in the Caraccas; but, at present, there
+are very few in our own colonies. They are usually formed in morassy
+situations; and are sheltered from the intense heat of the sun by larger
+trees which are planted among them. There are two principal crops of
+chocolate-nuts in the year; the first in June, and the second in December.
+As soon as the fruit is ripe, it is gathered, and cut into slices; and the
+nuts, which at this time are in a pulpy state, are taken out with the hand;
+for the thinness of their husk precludes the possibility of using a
+machine. They are then laid in skins, or on leaves, to be dried in the sun.
+They have now a sweetish acid taste, and may be eaten like any other fruit.
+When perfectly dry they are put into bags, each containing about a hundred
+weight; and, thus packed, are exported to foreign countries.
+
+Previously to the preparation of these nuts into the substance which we
+call chocolate, they are gently roasted, or parched over the fire, in an
+iron vessel, after which process their thin external covering is easily
+separated. The kernel is then pounded in a mortar, and subsequently ground
+on a smooth warm stone. Sometimes a little arnatto (173) is added; and,
+with the aid of water, the whole is formed into a paste. This, whilst hot,
+is put into tin moulds, where in a short time it congeals; and in this
+state it is the chocolate of the shops. In South America and Spain other
+modes are adopted; the chocolate is mixed with sugar, long pepper (21),
+vanilla, cinnamon, cloves, almonds, and other ingredients, according to the
+taste of the respective inhabitants. Mr. Edwards was of opinion, that the
+cakes of chocolate used in England were made of about one half genuine
+chocolate, and the remainder of flour, or Castile soap.
+
+Chocolate was first introduced into Europe by the Spaniards, and that from
+the Caraccas is considered the best. It should be used whilst new, as
+neither the seeds nor the cakes will keep well more than two years. The
+chocolate used in this country must be manufactured in England, for, by an
+Act of the legislature, the importation of chocolate paste is prohibited,
+under heavy penalties. The mode in which this substance is immediately
+prepared for use is well known.
+
+By the natives of South America chocolate _nuts_ are used for food, and
+also as a circulating medium instead of coin: about 1200 of them being
+considered equal in value to a dollar.
+
+A white oily matter, about the consistence of suet, is obtained by bruising
+these nuts, and boiling the pulp. The oil is by this means liquefied, and
+rises to the surface, where it is left to cool and congeal, that it may the
+more easily be separated. This, which is called _butter of cacao_, is
+without smell, and, when fresh, has a very mild taste. Its principal use is
+as an ingredient in pomatums. From the nuts, when slightly roasted, an oil
+is sometimes obtained by pressure, which is occasionally used in medicine.
+
+
+ICOSANDRIA.
+
+
+ 207. _The CITRON, LIME, and LEMON, are different varieties of the fruit
+ of a small evergreen shrub, the original or parent stock of which_
+ (Citrus medica) _was imported from Asia into the southern parts of
+ Europe._
+
+ _The_ citron _is oblong, with a very thick rind; the_ lemon _is oblong
+ with a small lump or protuberance at the end; and the_ lime _has no
+ protuberance, has a very thin rind, and is about the size of a small egg.
+ These are the principal marks of discrimination betwixt these fruits, but
+ they are not quite constant._
+
+ _The lemon shrub_ (_Fig. 56_) _has large and slightly indented shining
+ leaves, of somewhat oval shape, but pointed; and on the footstalks of the
+ leaves there is no remarkable appendage. The flowers are large and white,
+ but purplish on the outside of the petals._
+
+It is generally supposed that the _citron-tree_ was first introduced from
+Assyria and Media into Greece, and thence into the Southern parts of
+Europe, where it is now cultivated to considerable extent. It is also grown
+in the islands of the West Indies. The fruit, partaking of the same quality
+as the lemon, with the exception of being somewhat less acid, is seldom
+eaten raw; but, preserved in sugar as a sweetmeat, it is much used by
+confectioners and others. The principal consumption of citron is on the
+Continent, where it is also occasionally employed in medicine.
+
+The _lemon-tree_ is a native of Upper Asia, whence, like the citron, it was
+brought into Greece, and afterwards transplanted into Italy. The _juice_,
+which is one of the sharpest and most agreeable of all acids, is used in
+cookery, confectionary, medicine, and in various other ways. By
+calico-printers it is very extensively employed, as a discharger of colour,
+to produce, with more clearness and effect, the white figured parts of
+coloured patterns that are dyed with colours formed from iron. Its juice is
+procured by simply squeezing the fruit, and straining it through linen or
+any loose filter; and in Sicily, and other parts of the Mediterranean, it
+forms an important article of commerce. Being one of the most valuable
+remedies for the scurvy, with which we are acquainted, it generally
+constitutes part of the sea store of ships that are destined for long
+voyages.
+
+Several modes have been recommended for preserving lemon juice. One of
+these is to put it into bottles, with a small quantity of oil, which,
+floating on the surface, prevents the immediate contact of the air, and
+retards the decomposition of the acid; though, in this case, the original
+fresh taste soon gives place to one which is less grateful. In the East
+Indies lemon juice is sometimes evaporated, by a gentle heat, to the
+consistence of a thick extract. Sometimes it is crystallized into a white
+and acid salt; but what is sold in the shops, under the name of _essential
+salt of lemons_, for taking out ink-stains and iron-mould spots from linen,
+is only a preparation from the juice of sorrel.
+
+The external part of the _rind_ has a grateful aromatic and bitter taste,
+which renders it useful in cookery. When dried it is considered a good
+stomachic, promotes the appetite, and is otherwise serviceable as a
+medicine. It is often candied and made into a sweetmeat, under the name of
+_lemon chips_. When distilled it yields a light and almost colourless oil,
+which, in smell, is nearly as agreeable as the fresh peel, and is
+frequently employed as a perfume.
+
+Lemons are sometimes preserved in syrup. Small ones with thick rinds are
+converted into a grateful pickle; and a marmalade and syrup are also made
+of them. For the purpose of keeping the fruit, it is recommended that a
+fine packthread about a quarter of a yard long, should be run through the
+protuberance at the end of the lemons: the ends of the string are to be
+tied together, and suspended on a hook in an airy situation, and in such
+manner that each lemon may hang perfectly free and detached.
+
+The cultivation of the _lime_ is much attended to in several parts of North
+America and the West Indies. Its juice affords a more grateful acid than
+that of the lemon, which is there in little repute, and is, comparatively,
+but seldom seen. A plate of limes is said to be a constant dish at
+entertainments in the West Indies; and the juice is used for all the same
+purposes as that of lemons is with us.
+
+ 208. _ORANGE_ (Citrus aurantium, Fig. 55). _The difference betwixt orange
+ and lemon-trees is immediately known by the former having a kind of
+ winged appendage on the leafstalks, of which the latter are destitute._
+
+We are informed that the first orange-tree introduced into Europe was sent
+as a present, from some part of Asia, to the Conde Mellor, prime minister
+of the King of Portugal. It was the only one of a great number which were
+contained in the same chest that survived; and it became the parent stock
+of multitudes of subsequent trees.
+
+The delightful perfume of an orange grove is such as to scent the air for
+miles, and the _flowers_ appear in succession during the whole summer; and
+flowers and ripe fruit are found on the same tree. Orange flowers are
+valued as a perfume, and yield their flavour to rectified spirits; and, in
+distillation, both to spirits and water. In Portugal and Italy a fragrant
+red-coloured oil is obtained from them, which, by some persons, is
+considered of more delicate and agreeable perfume than even ottar of roses.
+
+The _juice_ of the orange, when ripe and of good kind, is extremely sweet,
+grateful, and wholesome. In fevers, and other complaints, it is of
+considerable use for allaying heat and quenching thirst; and, in scurvy, it
+has been found a very valuable remedy. The _rind_, which yields a grateful
+aromatic bitter, is sometimes used in medicine, and, in particular, has
+obtained notice for the cure of intermittent fevers or agues. It is
+frequently preserved in syrup, and also in sugar, under the name of
+preserved _orange-peel_, and _orange-chips_; and is much esteemed in
+desserts.
+
+In cookery and by confectioners, oranges are used in numerous ways; for
+marmalade, in biscuits, cheesecakes, jelly, puddings, and tarts; and an
+agreeable wine is prepared from oranges, with water, sugar, and some other
+ingredients.
+
+_Seville_, or _bitter oranges_ are a large, dark-coloured, and
+rough-skinned variety of the common species. These are much used in
+medicine and cookery.
+
+_Bergamot_ is a well-known perfume, obtained from the rind of a variety of
+orange much cultivated near the town of Bergamo in Italy, whence it has
+obtained its name. The rind is cut into small pieces, and the oil is
+pressed out into glass vessels. Sometimes a fragrant water is distilled
+from the peel.
+
+ 209. _The SHADDOCK_ (Citrus decumana) _is a yellowish green fruit, of the
+ orange kind, as large as the head of a child, with twelve or more cells,
+ and contains a red or whitish pulp. It is very common in many parts both
+ of the East and West Indies._
+
+In hot climates the shaddock is much esteemed on account of its agreeable
+flavour, which is a pleasant mixture of sweet and acid. It is safely eaten,
+even in considerable quantities, and is esteemed very salubrious. The rind
+is thick, and has a disagreeable bitterish taste. This fruit is indebted,
+for its name, to a Captain Shaddock, who is said to have first brought it
+from China, or, as some say, from Guinea, and transplanted it into one of
+the West Indian islands.
+
+ 210. _CAJEPUT is a greenish coloured oil produced from the fruit of a
+ tree_ (Melaleuca leucodendron) _which grows in the East Indies._
+
+ _This tree has a long flexible trunk; with linear spear-shaped, alternate
+ leaves, which are smooth, ash-coloured, and each with five nerves. The
+ flowers are white, and in long, terminal spikes._
+
+The _leaves_ of the cajeput tree have an aromatic odour, somewhat
+resembling that of cardamom seed (15); and they yield, by distillation, an
+essential oil, which manifests this aromatic principle still more strongly.
+
+Among the Malays cajeput oil is a medicine in great repute; but its uses
+are so little known in this country that it is rarely kept even in the
+shops of the metropolis. In acute rheumatism and gout, however, it has been
+known to afford immediate relief by being rubbed on the part affected; but
+it ought not to be applied without great care, as it is very powerful in
+its effects. Cajeput oil is one of the most valuable remedies which have
+hitherto been discovered for the toothache. From whatever cause this
+affection of the face may proceed, whether from a carious or hollow tooth,
+rheumatic acrimony, or cold, this oil has generally been found efficacious
+in removing it. It is best applied by being dropped on lint, and placed in
+the cavity of the tooth, or round the gum. Hence it deserves a place in the
+medicine chest of every private family.
+
+If taken internally, in a dose of five or six drops, it heats and
+stimulates the whole system; and it is said to have had a beneficial effect
+in dropsies and intermittent fevers. In India it is used, both internally
+and externally, in palsies, deafness, gout, rheumatism, and several other
+complaints.
+
+Its odour is remarkably destructive to insects. A few drops of it, in a
+cabinet or drawer in which animal or vegetable specimens of natural history
+are kept, in a dried state, have, on this account, been found useful.
+
+Cajeput oil is chiefly prepared in the island of Bouro, one of the
+Moluccas; and it is imported into Europe from the East Indies. But, from
+its high price, it is so frequently adulterated, that it is seldom to be
+had genuine in Europe.
+
+
+
+
+----
+
+CLASS XIX.--SYNGENESIA.
+
+----
+
+
+ÆQUALIS.
+
+
+ 211. _The ARTICHOKE_ (Cynara scolymus) _is a well-known plant which is
+ grown chiefly for culinary purposes, and was originally imported into
+ this country from the south of Europe._
+
+This plant was cultivated with us as early as the year 1580. The parts that
+are eaten are the receptacle of the flower, which is called the _bottom_,
+and a fleshy substance on each of the scales of the calyx. The _choke_
+consists of the unopened florets, and the bristles that separate them from
+each other: these stand upon the receptacle, and must be cleared away
+before the bottom can be eaten. Its name has doubtless been obtained from a
+notion that any one unlucky enough to get it into his throat must certainly
+be choked.
+
+With us artichokes are generally plain boiled, and eaten with melted butter
+and pepper; and they are considered both wholesome and nutritious. The
+bottoms are sometimes stewed, boiled in milk, or added to ragouts, French
+pies, and other highly-seasoned dishes. For winter use they may be slowly
+dried in an oven, and kept in paper bags in a dry place. On the Continent
+artichokes are frequently eaten raw, with salt and pepper.
+
+By the country people of France the _flowers_ of the artichoke are
+sometimes used to coagulate milk, for the purpose of making cheese. The
+_leaves_ and _stalks_ contain a bitter juice, which, mixed with an equal
+portion of white wine, has been successfully employed in the cure of
+dropsy, when other remedies have failed. The juice, prepared with bismuth,
+imparts a permanent golden yellow colour to wool.
+
+ 212. _The CARDOON_ (Cynara cardunculus) _is a species of artichoke which
+ grows wild in the south of France, and has smaller flowers than the
+ common artichoke, and the scales of the calyx terminated by long, sharp
+ spines._
+
+ _The stems rise to the height of four or five feet, and are upright,
+ thick, and cottony. The leaves are large and winged, and the flowers of
+ blue colour._
+
+The parts of the cardoon that are eaten are not those belonging immediately
+to the flower, as of the artichoke, but the roots, stalks, and middle ribs
+of the leaves; and chiefly the latter, which are thick and crisp. But, as
+all these are naturally very bitter, the plants, previously to being used,
+are blanched, by being tied up like lettuces, about the month of September,
+and having earth thrown upon their lower parts, to the depth of eighteen
+inches or two feet.
+
+Cardoons come into season for the table about the end of November; and are
+either eaten alone, or as a sauce to animal food, particularly to roasted
+meat; or are introduced as a dish in the second course. They are, however,
+not so much used in England as on the Continent; and this in consequence
+chiefly of the trouble attending their cultivation, and their preparation
+for the table, so as to render them palatable.
+
+ 213. _LETTUCE_ (Lactuca sativa) _is an esculent vegetable, that is
+ cultivated in nearly every kitchen garden in the kingdom._
+
+The different kinds or varieties of lettuce are extremely numerous: but
+those best known are the _cos lettuce_, and _cabbage lettuce_, the former
+having upright leaves, and the latter having its leaves folded over each
+other like those of a cabbage. Their culture is very simple. The seeds are
+sown at various seasons of the year, that the plants may be ready, in
+succession, for the table. After a while, they are planted out from the
+seed-bed into another part of the garden, at a certain distance from each
+other, to allow of room for their expansion and growth. When the cos
+lettuces have attained a sufficient size, their leaves are tied together
+with strings of matting, to blanch them for use. From seeds that are sown
+towards the end of summer, lettuces may, with care, be obtained in
+perfection during the ensuing winter and spring.
+
+Lettuces have an odour somewhat resembling that of opium; and they also
+possess somewhat similar narcotic properties, which reside in the milky
+juice. The properties of this vegetable as a salad, if eaten without oil,
+are considered to be emollient, cooling, and wholesome.
+
+ 214. _ENDIVE_ (Cichorium endivia) _is a common vegetable in kitchen
+ gardens, having curled or crisped leaves._
+
+We are supposed to have been originally indebted to the East Indies for
+this useful winter salad. It is chiefly cultivated in the south of England;
+being sown generally about June or July, and afterwards planted out, like
+lettuce.
+
+The chief excellence of endive consists in the whiteness of its inner
+leaves. It is, therefore, adviseable, either to cover the plants with
+flower-pots, or, when full grown, to tie them loosely together, for two or
+three weeks. By so doing, they will become perfectly blanched; and, in
+winter, they may be preserved, either by covering them with straw and mats,
+or by putting them in sand in a dry cellar.
+
+The French consume a great quantity of endive at their tables. They either
+eat it raw in salads, boiled in ragouts, fried with roast meat, or as a
+pickle. It is a wholesome vegetable which seldom disagrees with the
+stomach.
+
+
+SUPERFLUA.
+
+
+ 215. _CAMOMILE_ (Anthemis nobilis) _is a well-known plant, the dried
+ daisy-like flowers of which are frequently used in medicine._
+
+The principal use to which camomile _flowers_ are applied is to excite
+vomiting, and promote the operation of emetics. They have likewise
+occasionally been substituted for Peruvian bark, in the case of
+intermittent fevers or agues, particularly on the Continent, but not with
+much success; and are used as a valuable stomachic. Both the _leaves_ and
+flowers are employed in fomentations and poultices. They each, but
+particularly the flowers, have a powerful, though not an unpleasant smell,
+and a bitter taste.
+
+They are administered in substance, as a powder or electuary, in infusion
+as tea, in decoction or extract, or in the form of an essential oil
+obtained by distillation.
+
+So fragrant is the camomile plant, that the places where it grows wild, on
+open gravelly commons, may easily be discovered by the somewhat
+strawberry-like perfume which is emitted by treading on them. This quality
+alone has sometimes induced the cultivation of camomile for a green walk in
+gardens.
+
+ 216. _TARRAGON_ (Artemisia dracunculus) _is a hardy plant of the wormwood
+ tribe, which grows wild in India and the southern parts of Europe, and is
+ cultivated with us in gardens for culinary uses._
+
+ _It has a somewhat shrubby stem; smooth, spear-shaped, leaves tapering at
+ each end; and flowers roundish, erect, and on footstalks._
+
+This is a hot and bitter vegetable, which is sometimes eaten with lettuces,
+or other salad herbs: and sometimes used as an ingredient in soup. Its
+_seeds_ are pungent; and may be advantageously substituted for the more
+costly spices obtained from the Indies. The Indians frequently eat the
+_leaves_ of the tarragon plant with bread.
+
+The sauce called _tarragon vinegar_ is made by infusing for fourteen days,
+one pound of the leaves of tarragon, gathered a short time before the
+flowers appear, in one gallon of the best vinegar: straining this through a
+flannel bag, and fining it by means of a little isinglass.
+
+A distilled water is sometimes prepared from the leaves of tarragon.
+
+
+FRUSTRANEA.
+
+
+ 217. _The JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE is a somewhat potatoe-shaped root, produced
+ by a species of sunflower_ (Helianthus tuberosus) _which grows wild in
+ several parts of South America._
+
+ _This plant bears single stalks, which are frequently eight or nine feet
+ high, and yellow flowers, much smaller than those of the common
+ sunflower._
+
+So extremely productive are these valuable roots, that betwixt seventy and
+eighty tons' weight of them are said to have been obtained, in one season,
+from a single acre of ground. They succeed in almost any soil; and, when
+once planted, will continue to flourish in the same place, without
+requiring either much manure, or much attention to the culture. The season
+in which they are dug up for use is from about the middle of September till
+November; when they are in greatest perfection. After that they may be
+preserved in sand, or under cover, for the winter.
+
+The roots are generally eaten plain boiled; but they are sometimes served
+to table with white fricassee-sauce, and in other ways. Their flavour is so
+nearly like that of the common artichoke, that it is difficult to
+distinguish them from each other. We are informed that Jerusalem artichokes
+are a valuable food for hogs and store pigs; and that if washed, cut, and
+ground in a mill, similar to an apple-mill, they may also be given to
+horses.
+
+ 218. _The COMMON or ANNUAL SUNFLOWER_ (Helianthus annuus) _is a Peruvian
+ plant, with large yellow flowers, that is well known in our gardens._
+
+The uses to which this plant may be applied are such as to render it well
+deserving of attention in rural economy. Its _stalks_ contain a white,
+shining, fibrous substance, which might be advantageously employed in the
+manufacture of paper; and the woody part of them makes excellent fuel. Its
+ripe _seeds_, when subjected to pressure, yield a great proportion of sweet
+and palatable oil. These seeds may also be used for the feeding of poultry.
+The _receptacles of the flowers_, it is said, may be boiled and eaten like
+artichokes.
+
+
+
+
+----
+
+CLASS XX.--GYNANDRIA.
+
+----
+
+
+DIANDRIA.
+
+
+ 219. _SALEP is the powder of the dried roots of several well-known
+ field-plants of the orchis tribe_ (Orchis morio, O. mascula, &c.)
+
+As an article of diet, salep is supposed to contain the largest portion of
+nutriment, in an equal compass, of any known vegetable production: even
+arrow root (17) is, in this respect, inferior to it. The orchises from
+which it is manufactured flourish in great abundance in meadows and
+pastures of several parts of England, flowering about the months of May and
+June. As soon as the flower-stalks begin to decay, the roots should be dug
+up, and the newly-formed bulbs, which have then attained their perfect
+state, should be separated. When several roots are collected, they should
+be washed in water, and have their external skin removed by a small brush,
+or by dipping them in hot water, and rubbing them with a coarse linen
+cloth. The next process is to place them on a tin plate, and put them into
+an oven for about ten minutes, by which time they will have lost the milky
+whiteness which they before possessed, and will have acquired a
+transparency like horn. They are then to be spread in a room, where, in a
+few days, they will become dry and hard.
+
+Although salep might be procured in great abundance in our own country, we
+import nearly the whole of what we use from the Levant, and generally in
+oval pieces of yellowish white colour, somewhat clear and pellucid, and of
+almost horny substance. When these, or the powder prepared from them, are
+put into boiling water, they dissolve into a thick mucilage.
+
+With the Turks, salep has great celebrity, on account of the restorative
+qualities which it is supposed to possess. It is much recommended as
+nutritive food for persons recovering from illness; and, in particular, as
+a part of the stores of every ship about to sail into distant climates. It
+not only possesses the property of yielding an invaluable nutriment, and,
+in a great measure, of concealing the saline taste of sea-water, but is
+likewise of essential service against the sea-scurvy. When it is stated
+that one ounce of this powder and an ounce of portable soup, dissolved in
+two quarts of boiling water, will form a jelly capable of affording
+sustenance to one man for a day, the utility of salep will be further seen
+as a means of preventing famine at sea for an infinitely longer time than
+any other food of equal bulk.
+
+
+
+
+----
+
+CLASS XXI.--MONOECIA.
+
+----
+
+
+MONANDRIA.
+
+
+ 220. _The BREAD FRUIT is a large globular berry of pale green colour,
+ about the size of a child's head, marked on the surface with irregular
+ six-sided depressions, and containing a white and somewhat fibrous pulp,
+ which, when ripe, becomes juicy and yellow._
+
+ _The tree that produces it_ (Artocarpus incisa, Fig. 57) _grows wild in
+ Otaheite and other islands of the South Seas, is about forty feet high,
+ has large and spreading branches, and large bright green leaves, each
+ deeply divided into seven or nine spear-shaped lobes._
+
+We are informed, in Captain Cook's first voyage round the world, that the
+edible part of this fruit lies between the skin and the core; and that it
+is white as snow, and somewhat of the consistence of new bread. It is
+generally used immediately when gathered; if it be kept more than
+twenty-four hours it becomes hard and chokey. The inhabitants of the South
+Sea Islands prepare it as food, by dividing the fruit into three or four
+parts, and roasting it in hot embers. Its taste is insipid, with a slight
+tartness, and somewhat resembles that of the crumb of wheaten bread mixed
+with Jerusalem artichoke (217). Of this fruit the Otaheitans make various
+messes, by putting to it either water or the milk of the cocoa-nut (233),
+then beating it to a paste with a stone pestle, and afterwards mixing it
+with ripe plantains (270), bananas (271), or a sour paste, made from the
+bread fruit itself, called _mahié_.
+
+It continues in season eight months of the year; and so great is its
+utility in the island of Otaheite, that (observes Captain Cook), if, in
+those parts where it is not spontaneously produced, a man plant but ten
+trees in his whole life-time, he will as completely fulfil his duty to his
+own and to future generations, as the natives of our less temperate climate
+can do by ploughing in the winter's cold, and reaping in the summer's heat,
+as often as these seasons return; even if, after he has procured bread for
+his present household, he should convert the surplus into money, and lay it
+up for his children.
+
+Not only does this tree supply food, but clothing, and numerous other
+conveniences of life. The _inner bark_, which is white, and composed of a
+net-like series of fibres, is formed into a kind of cloth. The wood is
+soft, smooth, and of yellowish colour; and is used for the building of
+boats and houses. In whatever part the tree is wounded, a glutinous milky
+_juice_ issues, which, when boiled with cocoa-nut oil (233), is employed
+for making bird-lime, and as a cement for filling up cracks in such vessels
+as are intended for holding water. Some parts of the _flowers_ serve as
+tinder in the lighting of fire; and the leaves are used for wrapping up
+food, and for other purposes.
+
+As the climate of the South Sea Islands is considered not much to differ
+from that of the West Indies, it was (about thirty years ago) thought
+desirable that some of the trees should be transferred, in a growing state,
+to our islands there. Consequently, his Majesty's ship the Bounty, in 1787,
+sailed for this purpose to the South Seas, under the command of Lieutenant,
+afterwards Admiral Bligh. But a fatal mutiny of the ship's crew prevented
+the accomplishment of this benevolent design. The commander of the vessel,
+however, returned in safety to his country; and a second expedition under
+the same person, and for the same purpose, was fitted out in the year 1791.
+Captain Bligh arrived in safety at Otaheite, and, after an absence from
+England of about eighteen months, landed in Jamaica with 352 bread
+fruit-trees, in a living state, having left many others at different places
+in his passage thither. From Jamaica these trees were transferred to other
+islands; but the negroes, having a general and long established
+predilection for the plantain (270), the bread fruit is not much relished
+by them. Where, however, it has not been generally introduced as an article
+of food, it is used as a delicacy; and whether employed as bread, or in the
+form of pudding, it is considered highly palatable by the European
+inhabitants.
+
+ 221. _The JACK FRUIT is a species of bread fruit that is grown in Malabar
+ and other parts of the East Indies._
+
+ _The tree which produces this fruit_ (Artocarpus integrifolia) _differs
+ from the common bread fruit-tree, in having the leaves entire, each about
+ a span in length, oblong, blunt, serrated at the edges, bright green, and
+ very smooth on the upper surface, paler beneath, and clad with stiff
+ hairs._
+
+Few of the fruits even of eastern climates are so large as this. Its weight
+is sometimes upwards of thirty pounds; and it generally contains betwixt
+two and three hundred nuts or seeds. These are each about three times as
+large as an almond, of somewhat oval shape, blunt at one end, sharp at the
+other, and a little flatted on the sides. Some varieties of the fruit,
+however, contain no nuts.
+
+The season in which the jack fruit is in perfection is about the month of
+December. Though esteemed by many persons, it is so difficult of digestion,
+that great caution is requisite in eating it. The unripe fruit is sometimes
+pickled; it is sometimes cut into slices, and boiled as a vegetable for the
+table; and sometimes fried in palm-oil. The _nuts_ are eaten roasted, and
+the _wood_ serves for building materials.
+
+
+TRIANDRIA.
+
+
+ 222. _MAIZE, or INDIAN CORN_ (Zea mays, Fig. 58), _is a species of grain
+ much cultivated in America and other climates: the grains are of yellow
+ colour, somewhat shaped like flattened peas, and grow closely set round
+ the upper part of high perpendicular stalks._
+
+To the inhabitants of many countries of warm climates the cultivation of
+maize is a very important pursuit. These plants are propagated by sowing
+the seed in rows, in March, April, or May: they generally produce two crops
+in the year, and yield, according to the soil, from fifteen to forty
+bushels per acre. As soon as they are ripe, the ears are gathered. They are
+shortly afterwards threshed, and the grain, when separated, is spread out
+to dry in the sun; for, if it were heaped together in this state, it would
+ferment, and sprout or grow.
+
+The American Indians parch this kind of corn over a fire, in such manner as
+not to burn it. Afterwards they pound it, sift the meal and preserve it for
+their chief food. They make it into puddings and cakes, or bread, the
+quality of which is extremely nutritive. Maize is useful for poultry and
+cattle of every kind; and, if converted into malt, a wholesome beverage may
+be brewed from it. Of the leafy _husk_ which surrounds the ear of the maize
+a beautiful kind of writing paper is manufactured at a paper-mill near
+Rimini in Italy; and a greyish paper may be manufactured from the whole
+plant. The _stalks_ are said to afford an excellent winter food for cattle.
+When the _young ears_ are beginning to form, they have a sweet and
+agreeable taste. If, in this state, the leaves be stripped off, and the
+ears be subjected to pressure, a pleasant and palatable milky juice may be
+obtained from them.
+
+It is supposed that maize might, with advantage, be cultivated in England.
+
+ 223. _The COMMON CUCUMBER_ (Cucumis sativus, Fig. 59.) _is an oblong,
+ rough, and cooling fruit, which is cultivated in our kitchen gardens, and
+ is supposed to have been originally imported into this country from some
+ part of the Levant._
+
+Cucumbers are always eaten before they are ripe, and usually with vinegar,
+oil, pepper, and salt. They are sometimes stewed; and when young (under the
+name of _gerkins_), are pickled with vinegar and spices, or preserved in
+syrup as a sweetmeat.
+
+As the cucumber plants are too tender to sustain the coldness of our
+climate exposed to the open air, it is necessary to sow the seed in
+hot-beds, or under hand-glasses; though, in the beginning of summer, the
+glasses may, without danger, be removed. The fruit is much improved by
+putting a piece of slate or a tile under each, instead of allowing it to
+lie upon the naked ground.
+
+ 224. _The COMMON MELON, or MUSK MELON, is a species of cucumber, produced
+ by a creeping herbaceous plant_ (Cucumis melo), _which has leaves with
+ rounded angles, and grows wild in Tartary._
+
+In hot climates this fruit attains great perfection and a peculiarly fine
+flavour; and even in England, where it is cultivated in hot-beds, and
+sheltered by glass frames, it is one of the coolest and most delicious
+summer fruits that we possess. Its size and form vary beyond description.
+Sometimes it is smooth, and only three or four inches in length: sometimes
+its whole surface is rugged, or netted, and is many pounds in weight.
+Melons are, in colour, grey, yellowish, or green, externally; whilst their
+flesh is white, yellow, reddish, or green.
+
+They are usually eaten with sugar; sometimes with pepper or ginger, and
+salt; and sometimes alone. In France, they are often eaten as a sauce to
+boiled beef. The smaller kinds are pickled; and one particular sort of
+melons are filled with mustard seeds and shred garlic, and pickled under
+the name of _mangos_ (73).
+
+The propagation of melons is by seed, sown in February or March; and the
+cultivation is somewhat similar to that of the cucumber, but is attended
+with considerably more trouble and expense.
+
+ 225. _The PUMPKIN, or POMPION, is a species of gourd which grows to an
+ enormous size, contains several cells, and numerous seeds with tumid
+ margins, and is produced by a creeping plant, with lobed leaves_
+ (Cucurbita pepo).
+
+ _The shape of the pumpkin is generally globular, or flatted at top and
+ bottom, and ribbed. The rind is glossy, and of yellow or green colour.
+ The flesh is firm, but melting, and the whole weight is sometimes more
+ than thirty pounds._
+
+The Germans cultivate this plant in extensive fields, for various
+economical purposes, but particularly for the feeding of swine, and other
+animals. They cut it into pieces, and throw it into fish-ponds, as food for
+carp. Little trouble is required in its culture; and it will flourish on
+any tolerable soil, in a warm and sheltered situation. The pulp is served
+at table in various forms, but particularly in pies, and as an ingredient
+in puddings and pancakes. The Americans frequently gather pumpkins when
+half grown, and eat them boiled as a sauce to meat. If the _seeds_ be
+subjected to pressure, they will yield a proportion of oil so great as
+nearly to amount to their own weight; and, when ground with water, they
+afford a cooling and nutritious kind of milk.
+
+ 226. _The BOTTLE GOURD is an American fruit with woody rind, and of very
+ various shape, belonging to the same tribe as the pumpkin, and produced
+ by a creeping plant_ (Cucurbita lagenaria) _with somewhat angular and
+ downy leaves, each having two glands at the base underneath._
+
+This fruit is at first green, but when ripe, it assumes a dull yellow
+colour; and the flesh is spongy and very white. Its size and shape are so
+varied, that it would be impossible to describe them; sometimes it has a
+long slender part next the stalk, like the neck of a bottle; sometimes it
+is swollen, and sometimes of great length, and of form so curved as to be
+shaped almost like a bugle horn, or the musical instrument called a
+serpent.
+
+So hard and strong is the _rind_ of the bottle-gourd, that this, when freed
+from the pulp, is frequently converted by the Americans, as well as the
+inhabitants of the West Indies, into drinking cups, flagons, bottles, and
+other domestic utensils; but, on being first used, it communicates a
+disagreeable taste to the juices contained in it. The _pulp_, boiled with
+vinegar, is sometimes eaten.
+
+ 227. _The WATER MELON_ (Cucurbita citrullus) _is a roundish or oblong
+ species of gourd, with thin smooth rind, marked with star-like spots, the
+ leaves deeply divided into lobes, and the flowers somewhat resembling
+ those of the cucumber._
+
+Persons who have visited hot climates know well how to appreciate the
+grateful coolness and delicious flavour of the water melon, the flesh of
+which is so succulent that it melts in the mouth; and the central pulp of
+which is fluid, like that of the cocoa-nut, and may be sucked, or poured
+out through a hole in the rind, and thus made to afford a most refreshing
+beverage.
+
+To the inhabitants of Egypt, China, the East Indies, and other countries,
+where they are cultivated to a great extent, water melons are extremely
+valuable, both as food and physic. They are allowed to be eaten in fevers,
+and other inflammatory complaints. Their flesh or pulp is, in general, of
+reddish colour; one kind, however, called by the French _pastèque_, has a
+whitish green pulp. The latter are frequently pickled in vinegar, like
+gerkins; and are eaten in fricassees, or baked in sweet wine.
+
+Both these varieties may be grown in our gardens, under hot-bed frames, in
+the same manner as cucumbers.
+
+
+TETRANDRIA.
+
+
+ 228. _The BIRCH_ (Betula alba) _is a forest-tree, easily known by the
+ smooth appearance and silvery colour of its bark, by its leaves being
+ somewhat triangular, but acute, their smallness in comparison with those
+ of other timber trees, and by the small branches being slender and
+ flexible._
+
+Although the birch is by no means considered a valuable timber tree, yet
+its _wood_ is used for numerous purposes. Being of white colour, and firm
+and tough in texture, it is variously employed by hoop-benders and
+wheel-wrights. Turners use it for trenchers, bowls, ladles, and other
+wooden ware. Ox yokes, small screws, women's shoe-heels, pattens, and, in
+France, wooden shoes are made of it. The North American Indians use the
+wood of the birch-tree for canoes, boxes, buckets, baskets, kettles, and
+dishes, curiously joining it together with threads made of roots of the
+cedar-tree. Birch-trees are not unfrequently planted with hazels, for the
+purpose of the wood being converted into charcoal for forges. This charcoal
+is much esteemed; and the soot which is formed on burning the wood
+constitutes a good black substance for printers' ink.
+
+Nearly all the other parts of the birch-tree are applicable to useful
+purposes. The inhabitants of Sweden employ the _bark_ in the tanning of
+leather; and, after burning it to a certain degree, they also use it as a
+cement for broken china and earthen ware. The navigators of the river Volga
+construct of it portable boats, cradles, &c. It is serviceable in dyeing a
+yellow colour. In Norway it is dried, ground, mixed with meal, and boiled
+with other food for swine. Houses or huts, in many parts of the north of
+Europe, are covered with the outward and thicker part of the bark, instead
+of slates, or tiles. It is spun into a coarse kind of rope, woven into
+shoes and hats; and, in Kamschatka, even made into drinking cups. The
+Laplanders fasten together large pieces of it as outer garments to keep off
+the rain. Abounding with much resinous matter, slices of the bark are
+sometimes twisted together to make torches. During a scarcity of corn the
+bark of the birch-tree has, in several instances, been ground with bread
+corn, and successfully used as food by mankind.
+
+In most parts of England the _twigs_ of this tree are made into besoms.
+They are also made into the tops of fishing rods; and, when smeared with
+bird-lime (56), are used by bird-catchers. The Norwegians frequently employ
+them as fodder for their horses. The _leaves_ afford a yellow dye.
+
+A wholesome wine is made from the _sap_ or juice of the birch-tree. The
+juice is obtained by boring holes in the trunks of the trees, about the
+beginning of March, before the leaves appear. Into each of these holes a
+piece of elder stick, hollowed through the middle, by clearing out the
+pith, is placed. This conducts the juice, as it flows from the wound, into
+a vessel put to receive it. If a tree be large, it may be tapped in four or
+five places at once; and, from several trees, many gallons of juice may be
+obtained in a day. The juice thus procured is to be boiled with sugar, in
+the proportion of four pounds to a gallon, and treated in the same manner
+as other made wines. A good spirit might no doubt be obtained from the
+juice of the birch-tree by distillation.
+
+ 229. _The ALDER, or OWLER_ (Betula alnus, Fig. 63), _is a tree which
+ grows in wet situations, and is distinguished by its flower-stalks being
+ branched, and its leaves being roundish, waved, serrated, and downy at
+ the branching of the veins beneath._
+
+There are few means of better employing swampy and morassy grounds than by
+planting them with alders; for although the growth of these trees is not
+rapid, the uses to which they are applicable are such as amply to repay the
+loss of time requisite before they come to perfection.
+
+The _wood_ of the alder, which is in great demand for machinery, is
+frequently wrought into cogs for mill-wheels, and is peculiarly adapted for
+all kinds of work which are to be constantly kept in water. It is
+consequently used for pumps, sluices, pipes, drains, and conduits of
+different description, and for the foundation of buildings situated in
+swamps. The water pipes which are laid under the streets of many of our
+large towns are made of alder; and, for its utility in the formation of
+sluices, it is much cultivated in Holland. It is commonly used for bobbins;
+and women's shoe-heels, ploughmen's clogs, and numerous articles of turnery
+ware, are formed of it. This wood serves also for many domestic and rural
+uses, for spinning-wheels, troughs, the handles of tools, ladders,
+cart-wheels; and, as coppice wood, it is planted to be cut down every ninth
+or tenth year, for poles. The roots and knots furnish a beautifully veined
+wood, nearly of the colour of mahogany; and well adapted for cabinet work
+and furniture.
+
+The _bark_ may be advantageously used in the operations of tanning and
+leather-dressing; and by fishermen, for staining their nets. This, and the
+young twigs, are sometimes employed in dyeing, and yield different shades
+of yellow and red. The Laplanders chew the bark of the alder, and dye their
+leather garments red with the saliva thus produced. With the addition of
+copperas, it yields a black dye, which the dyers of cotton use to
+considerable extent; and, for this purpose, it is purchaseable in some
+countries, at the rate of seven pence or eight pence per stone.
+
+In the highlands of Scotland, we are informed that _young branches_ of the
+alder, cut down in the summer, spread over the fields, and left during the
+winter to decay, are found to answer the purpose of manure. The fresh
+gathered _leaves_, being covered with a glutinous moisture, are said to be
+sometimes strewed upon floors to destroy fleas, which become entangled in
+it, as birds are with bird-lime. But these agile and troublesome insects
+must be numerous indeed to render the setting of traps for them of any
+avail towards their destruction.
+
+ 230. _The COMMON NETTLE. There are two kinds of nettle common in England,
+ one of which_ (Urtica dioica) _has heart-shaped leaves, and the other_
+ (Urtica urens) _has oval leaves._
+
+Although generally considered a noxious weed, the nettle is a plant of
+extensive utility. By the country people the young and tender _leaves_ and
+_tops_ are boiled for food, and are eaten as a substitute for greens and
+other pot-herbs. Asses eagerly devour the leaves of nettles; and if these
+be boiled, and mixed with other food for poultry, they are said to promote
+their laying of eggs. A kind of rennet is made in the Highlands of
+Scotland, by adding a quart of salt to three pints of a liquor produced by
+the boiling of nettles. A tablespoonful of this is said to be sufficient to
+coagulate a bowl of milk. From the fibrous _stalks_ of the nettle, dressed
+in the manner of flax or hemp, cloth and paper may be made. The manufacture
+of these has been pursued with success in some parts of the Continent; and
+in our own country a coarse kind of canvass has been produced from them.
+The _roots_, when boiled, communicate a yellow colour to woollen cloth,
+linen, and cotton.
+
+It must be remarked that the _stings_ of nettles, when examined by a
+microscope, are shown to be extremely curious objects. They consist of a
+slender, tapering, sharp, and hollow substance, with a minute hole at the
+point, and a bag at the base. When the sting is pressed, it perforates the
+skin, and the same pressure forces up from the bag, into the wound, a
+corrosive liquor, which forms there a blister, and excites a burning and
+painful inflammation. If the nettle be suddenly and strongly grasped, the
+stings are bent or broken, and, in this case, occasion no pain.
+
+In consequence of their stinging quality, nettles have been employed, with
+advantage, in restoring sensation to paralytic limbs, by whipping them with
+these plants. They were formerly much used as a styptic; and are said to
+have been found useful in jaundice, scurvy, gout, and other complaints; but
+most of the accounts that have been given of their great medicinal virtues
+have now little credit. The _flowers_ and _seeds_ are said to have been
+tried in Italy, and found an efficacious substitute for Peruvian bark (62)
+in agues and other complaints. A leaf of the nettle put upon the tongue,
+and then pressed against the roof of the mouth, is stated to be a remedy
+for bleeding at the nose.
+
+ 231. _The MULBERRY-TREE_ (Morus nigra, Fig. 72) _is a native of Italy,
+ and is known by its heart-shaped and rough leaves, and its large juicy
+ berries, each consisting of several smaller ones._
+
+The flowers of the mulberry appear in June, and the _fruit_ becomes ripe in
+September, the berries continuing to ripen in succession for about two
+months. These, if eaten before they are ripe, are astringent; but, when
+ripe, are pleasantly acid, though of very peculiar flavour. An agreeable
+syrup, made from the _juice_ of the ripe fruit, is kept in apothecaries'
+shops for medicinal uses. The juice itself is employed to impart a dark
+tinge to liquors and confections; and, when properly fermented, it becomes
+a pleasant wine. In cider counties it is not unusual to mix mulberries with
+the apples destined for cider, by which is made a delicious beverage called
+_mulberry cider_. Mulberries stain the fingers, as well as linen, cotton,
+or woollen, of a red colour, which is difficult to be extracted; but which
+may be removed by verjuice, or the acid of lemons.
+
+In Italy, and other countries where silkworms are bred, the _leaves_ of the
+mulberry-tree, but particularly those of the WHITE MULBERRY, which is
+distinguished by its having obliquely heart-shaped and smooth leaves, are
+requisite for the feeding of these insects; and they are very extensively
+cultivated for this purpose. The _wood_ is hard and of yellow colour; and
+is applied to numerous uses in carving and turnery. The _bark_ is so
+fibrous that it may be manufactured into cordage, ropes, and coarse paper;
+and that of the root has an acrid and bitter taste, is powerful in its
+effects, and has been successfully used as a remedy against worms,
+particularly the tape-worm. Mulberry-trees flourish best in a light and
+rich soil, and in open situations.
+
+ 232. _The BOX-TREE_ (Buxus sempervirens) _is a shrubby evergreen tree,
+ twelve or fifteen feet high, which has small, oval, and opposite leaves,
+ and grows wild in several parts of Britain._
+
+It has been remarked that this tree was formerly so common in some parts of
+England, as to have given name to several places, particularly to Box-hill
+in Surrey, and Boxley in Kent; and, in 1815, there were cut down at
+Box-hill as many of these trees as were sold for upwards of 10,000_l._, a
+circumstance perhaps unparalleled in their history. The box-tree was much
+admired by the ancient Romans, and also by our own ancestors, on account of
+its being easily clipped into the form of animals, and other fantastic
+shapes. In the South of Europe it is cultivated in gardens, and kept in
+flower-pots, with as much attention as we bestow upon myrtles.
+
+The _wood_ is of yellowish colour, close-grained, very hard and heavy, and
+admits of a beautiful polish. On these accounts it is much used by turners,
+by engravers on wood, carvers, and mathematical instrument makers. Flutes
+and other wind instruments are formed of it; and furniture made of box-wood
+would be valuable were it not too heavy, as it would not only be very
+beautiful, but its bitter quality would secure it from the attacks of
+insects. In France it is much in demand for combs, knife-handles, and
+button-moulds; and it has been stated that the quantity of box-wood
+annually sent from Spain to Paris is alone estimated at the value of more
+than 10,000 livres.
+
+An oil distilled from the shavings of box-wood has been found to relieve
+the tooth-ache, and to be useful in other complaints; and the powdered
+_leaves_ destroy worms.
+
+
+HEXANDRIA.
+
+
+ 233. _The COCOA-NUT is a woody fruit, produced in nearly all the
+ countries of hot climates; of oval shape, from three or four, to six or
+ eight inches in length, covered with a fibrous husk, and lined internally
+ with a white, firm, and fleshy kernel._
+
+ _The tree_ (Cocos nucifera) _which produces the cocoa-nut is a kind of
+ palm, from forty to sixty feet high. It has, on its summit only, a kind
+ of leaves, which appear almost like immense feathers, each fourteen or
+ fifteen feet long, three feet broad, and winged. Of these the upper ones
+ are erect, the middle ones horizontal, and the lower ones drooping. The
+ trunk is straight, naked, and marked with the scars of the fallen leaves.
+ The nuts hang down from the summit of the tree, in clusters of a dozen or
+ more together._
+
+The external rind of the cocoa-nut has a smooth surface, and is of somewhat
+triangular shape. This encloses an extremely fibrous substance of
+considerable thickness, which immediately surrounds the nut. The latter has
+a thick and hard shell, with three holes at the base, each closed by a
+black membrane. The kernel lines the shell; and is sometimes nearly an inch
+in thickness, and encloses a considerable quantity of watery liquid, of
+whitish colour, which has the name of _milk_.
+
+Food, clothing, and the means of shelter and protection, are all afforded
+by the cocoa-nut-tree. The kernels of the _nuts_, which somewhat resemble
+the filbert in taste, but are of much firmer consistence, are used as food
+in various modes of dressing, and sometimes are cut into pieces and dried.
+When pressed in a mill, they yield an oil, which, in some countries, is the
+only oil used at table; and which, when fresh, is equal in quality to that
+of almonds. It, however, soon becomes rancid, and, in this state, is
+principally used by painters. The Indians prepare an oil from cocoa-nuts,
+by steeping the kernels in water till they putrefy, and then boiling the
+pulp. In this operation the oil rises to the surface, and is skimmed off.
+This oil is used for anointing the hair, in cookery, for burning in lamps,
+and for various other purposes. The _milk_, or fluid, contained in the
+nuts, is an exceedingly cool and agreeable beverage, which, when good,
+somewhat resembles the kernel in flavour.
+
+Cocoa-nut-trees flourish best in a sandy soil, and first produce fruit when
+six or seven years old; after which each tree yields from fifty to a
+hundred nuts annually.
+
+The fibrous coats or _husks_ which envelope the cocoa-nuts, after they have
+been soaked for some time in water, become soft. They are then beaten, to
+free them from the other substances with which they are intermixed, and
+which fall away like saw-dust, the stringy part only being left. This is
+spun into long yarns, woven into sail-cloth, and twisted into ropes and
+cables, even for large vessels. The cordage thus manufactured is valuable
+in several respects, but particularly for the advantages that are derived
+from its floating in water. The woody _shells_ of the nut are so hard as to
+be capable of receiving a high polish; and they are formed into drinking
+cups, and other domestic utensils, which are sometimes expensively mounted
+in silver.
+
+On the summit of the cocoa-nut-tree the tender _leaves_, at their first
+springing up, are folded over each other, so as somewhat to resemble a
+cabbage. These are occasionally eaten in place of culinary greens, and are
+a very delicious food; but, as they can only be obtained by the destruction
+of the tree that produces them, and which dies in consequence of their
+being removed, they are considered too expensive a treat for frequent use.
+The larger leaves are employed for the thatching of buildings, and are
+wrought into baskets, brooms, mats, sacks, hammocks, and many other useful
+articles.
+
+The _trunks_ are made into boats, and sometimes constitute timber for the
+construction of houses; and, when their central pith is cleared away, they
+form excellent gutters for the conveyance of water. If, whilst growing, the
+body of the tree be bored, a white and sweetish liquor exudes from the
+wound, which has the name of _toddy_. This is collected in vessels of
+earthen-ware, and is a favourite beverage in many countries where the trees
+grow. When fresh it is very sweet; in a few hours it becomes somewhat acid,
+and, in this state, is peculiarly agreeable; but in the space of
+twenty-four hours it is complete vinegar. By distillation this liquor
+yields an ardent spirit, which is sometimes called _rack_, or _arrack_; and
+is more esteemed than that obtained by distillation from rice or sugar, and
+merely fermented and flavoured with the cocoa-nut juice. If boiled with
+quick-lime, it thickens into a syrup, which is used by confectioners in the
+East Indies, though it is much inferior to syrup produced from the
+sugarcane.
+
+
+POLYANDRIA.
+
+
+ 234. _The COMMON ARUM, CUCKOO PINT, or LORDS AND LADIES_ (Arum
+ maculatum), _is a well-known plant, which grows in shady hedge bottoms;
+ and has, about the month of May, a club-shaped spike, frequently of
+ purple colour at the top, issuing from a green sheath with which it is
+ enveloped._
+
+The acridity of every part of this common plant, whilst in a recent state,
+is such that, if tasted, there is left upon the tongue an intolerably
+disagreeable burning and pricking sensation, which continues for a long
+time afterwards; and which no one, who has once tasted it, will be inclined
+to experience a second time. If bruised and applied to the skin, a blister
+will shortly afterwards be raised.
+
+It was from this property that the _roots_, which are whitish, and each
+about the size of a nutmeg, were formerly used internally in medicine, as a
+powerful stimulant, and externally for blisters. In some parts of France
+they are employed in bleaching, from an opinion that, by their corrosive
+quality, they render the linen white. Their acrimony is wholly dissipated
+by drying; and, in a dried state, they afford an almost tasteless
+farinaceous powder, which may even be made into bread. The powdered roots
+of the common arum are converted, by the French, into an harmless cosmetic,
+which is sold at a high price under the name of _Cyprus powder_.
+
+In consequence of a premium which was offered by the Society for
+Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, for discovering a method
+of preparing starch from materials not used as food for man, an experiment
+was made, by Mrs. Jane Gibbs, of Portland, in Dorsetshire, upon the roots
+of the common arum. A peck of the roots was found to produce about four
+pounds' weight of starch; and she prepared, in the whole, about two hundred
+weight. The process was to clean the roots, and pound them in a mortar with
+water: the pulp thus formed was strained, and after being allowed to
+settle, the water was poured off, and the starch remained at the bottom.
+
+Whilst speaking of the arum, it may be stated that the flowers of some of
+the foreign species (_Arum crinitum_ and _A. dracunculus_) have so strong a
+smell, like carrion, that even flesh-flies are attracted to deposit their
+eggs in them: and that the structure of the flowers is such that, when the
+insects attempt to retreat, they are prevented by the reversed hairs which
+are there found, and are destroyed. Some of the species are considered
+wholesome food; one (_Arum esculentum_) is much cultivated for this purpose
+in the West Indies and South America. The leaves of this plant, when
+boiled, are much esteemed as potherbs, and the roots are eaten either baked
+or boiled.
+
+ 235. _The SWEET CHESNUT_ (Fagus castanea, Fig. 65) _is a stately tree,
+ which grows wild in some of the southern and western parts of England,
+ and is distinguished by having spear-shaped and pointed leaves, with
+ tapering serratures at the edge._
+
+ _The flowers appear in long hanging spikes or clusters, about the month
+ of May; and the fruit, which is ripe in September, is enveloped in a husk
+ defended by a great number of complicated prickles._
+
+Notwithstanding the known durability of the oak, there does not appear any
+well-authenticated instance of the age of an oak being equal to that of the
+celebrated chesnut-tree, at Tortworth, in Gloucestershire, which was known
+as a boundary mark in the reign of King John. This tree is supposed to have
+then been more than 500 years old, making its age at this time to exceed
+1100 years. The diameter of its trunk is fifteen feet, and it still
+continues to bear fruit.
+
+Few of our forest trees are more beautiful than the chesnut. It is true
+that the generality of painters prefer the oak for its picturesque form;
+but in the landscapes of Salvator Rosa, and other celebrated masters,
+chesnut-trees are very conspicuous.
+
+The _timber_ of this tree was formerly much in use. The beams and rafters
+of many of our most ancient churches are formed of it; and its appearance
+so nearly resembles that of the oak, that it requires the eye of a good
+judge to distinguish them from each other. For the heads and staves of
+casks, the wood of the chesnut is considered peculiarly excellent; and
+pipes, made of it for the conveyance of water under ground, are said to be
+more durable than those either of elm or oak. For furniture it may be
+stained so as somewhat to resemble mahogany. Hop-poles, and poles for
+espaliers and dead fences, made of young chesnut-trees, are preferred to
+most others.
+
+Much of the _fruit_ of the chesnut is consumed as food by the poorer
+classes of people on the Continent, but particularly by those of Spain and
+Italy; and, when dried and powdered, it is no mean substitute for flour, in
+bread and puddings. Chesnuts are imported into this country in considerable
+quantities, both from France and Spain, and are roasted and eaten in
+desserts: those which are grown here being much smaller than what we
+receive from abroad. On the Continent they are sometimes used for making
+starch, and in the bleaching of linen.
+
+ 236. _The BEECH_ (Fagus sylvatica, Fig. 64) _is a forest tree known by
+ its waved and somewhat oval leaves, and its triangular fruit, consisting
+ of three cells, and enclosed, by pairs, in a husk which is covered with
+ simple prickles._
+
+There are beech woods in many parts of England, but the trees flourish best
+in rich, calcareous soils. These woods, it has been observed, are
+peculiarly dry and pleasant to walk in; and, under their shade, afford to
+the botanist many interesting plants, such as the bird's nest
+(_monotropa_), winter green (_pyrola_), and some rare _orchideæ_.
+Beech-trees bear lopping well, and may be trained so as to form lofty
+hedges, which are the more valuable for shelter, as the leaves, though
+faded, remain through the winter, and the twisted branches may be formed
+into a very strong fence.
+
+The _wood_ is hard and brittle, and, if exposed to the air, is liable soon
+to decay. It is, however, peculiarly useful to cabinet-makers and turners.
+Carpenters' planes, tool-handles, and mallets, are made of it. When split
+into thin layers, it is used to make scabbards for swords. Chairs,
+bedsteads, and other furniture, are occasionally formed of beech.
+
+The fruit of this tree, which has the name of _beech-mast_, and is ripe in
+September, is palatable to the taste; but, if eaten in great quantity, it
+occasions giddiness and head-aches. When, however, it is dried and
+powdered, it may be made into a wholesome bread. The inhabitants of Scio,
+one of the Ionian Islands, were once enabled to endure a memorable siege by
+the beech-mast which their island supplied. This fruit has, occasionally,
+been roasted and used as a substitute for coffee. When subjected to
+pressure, it yields a sweet and palatable _oil_, which, if properly made,
+is equal, in quality, to the best olive-oil, and has the advantage of
+continuing longer than that without becoming rancid. Beech-oil is
+manufactured in several parts of France; and is used by the lower classes
+of Silesia instead of butter. The cakes which remain after the oil is
+extracted are a wholesome food, and may also be advantageously employed for
+the fattening of swine, poultry, and oxen.
+
+In some countries the _leaves_ of the beech-tree are collected in the
+autumn, before they have been injured, by the frosts, and are used instead
+of feathers for beds; and mattresses formed of them are said to be
+preferable to those either of straw or chaff.
+
+ 237. _The OAK_ (Quercus robur, Fig. 68) _is a well-known timber tree, of
+ native growth in this country, as well as other countries in northern
+ temperate climates._
+
+It is to this valuable tree that our navy is indebted for its existence;
+and without it this invincible barrier of the country could not be
+supported. _Oak timber_ being hard, tough, tolerably flexible, and not very
+liable to splinter, is, in Europe, preferred to every other kind for the
+construction of ships of war. It is also well adapted to every purpose of
+rural and domestic economy, particularly for staves, laths, and the spokes
+of wheels. Until the introduction of mahogany, it was very generally used
+for furniture; and, in large mansions, it was customary even to line the
+walls of rooms with _wainscot_, or panelling of oak.
+
+This tree is remarkable for the slowness of its growth, for its great
+longevity, and the dimensions to which it attains. It has, however, been
+remarked that the trunk of the oak seldom increases to a greater
+proportionate diameter than about fourteen inches in eighty years. As to
+its dimensions, it is stated that an oak belonging to Lord Powis, and
+growing, in 1764, in Bromfield Wood, near Ludlow, measured sixty-eight feet
+in girth and twenty-three feet in height, and contained in the whole 1455
+feet of timber.
+
+Before oak timber is in a state to be used it is requisite that the trees
+should be barked, and suffered to stand uncut for three or four years, that
+they may become perfectly dry. The _bark_ thus obtained is extensively used
+in the tanning of leather; and afterwards it serves as fuel, and for making
+hot-beds for the growth of pines, and some other plants. The astringent
+properties of oak-bark render it of use for medical purposes. The
+_saw-dust_ of this tree, and even the _leaves_, though much inferior to the
+bark, have been found useful in tanning. The former of these is the
+principal vegetable production of this country, which is used in the dyeing
+of fustian.
+
+On the leaves and buds of the oak certain excrescences are formed, in
+consequence of the puncture of insects, as the lodgment for their eggs and
+a habitation for their future young. These are termed _galls_, and if, when
+arrived at a certain state, they are infused in a weak solution of vitriol,
+they impart to it a purple or violet tinge; and, after the whole colouring
+matter is extracted, this becomes perfectly black. Considerable quantities
+of galls are used in dyeing, and for other purposes.
+
+_Acorns_, or the seeds of the oak, possess an astringent quality, and have
+a bitter taste, both of which may be extracted by steeping them, for some
+time, in cold water, or by boiling them. After this simple process, they
+are not an unpalatable fruit. With the ancient Britons they were an article
+in great request, and even constituted an important part of their food; and
+there can be little doubt that, carefully prepared, dried, and reduced to
+powder, they might, in times of scarcity, be adopted as a substitute for
+bread-corn. By pressure an oil is obtained from them which may be used for
+lamps; and a kind of coffee is prepared from them in some parts of the
+Continent.
+
+The branches of the oak, as well as those of several other kinds of trees,
+are burned for the formation of _charcoal_; and it is a remarkable
+circumstance that the properties of charcoal, from whatever wood it may be
+made, are nearly the same. One of the most remarkable of these is, that it
+is not liable to decay by age. Hence it was customary, with the ancients,
+to char or burn the outside of stakes, or other wood, which were to be
+driven into the ground, or placed in water. Charcoal may be preserved
+without injury for an almost indefinite length of time; and, in the ancient
+tombs of the inhabitants of northern nations, entire pieces of charcoal are
+at this day frequently discovered.
+
+Besides the great use of charcoal in the composition of gunpowder, and to
+artists and manufacturers of different kinds, it has lately been employed,
+with considerable success, in correcting the rancid and disagreeable smell
+of train oil, so as to render it fit to be burned in chamber lamps; and
+several manufactories of this oil have been established in the
+neighbourhood of London. Newly-made charcoal, if rolled up in clothes which
+have contracted a disagreeable odour, will effectually destroy it; and if
+boiled with meat beginning to putrefy will take away the taint.
+
+This substance is used by artists in the polishing of brass and
+copper-plates, for the drawing of outlines, and numerous other purposes.
+When purified, it forms perhaps the best tooth-powder that is known. The
+mode of purifying it is to reduce it to powder, wash it repeatedly with
+water, and then dry it by means of a strong heat in close vessels. This
+heat expels the foreign contents with which it is impregnated; but however
+intense, if the vessels are closed, it in no respects alters the quality of
+the charcoal. The vapour of burning charcoal is extremely pernicious; and
+persons exposed to it in confined rooms are liable to be suffocated in a
+very short time. The best remedy is immediately to take them into the
+strongest draught of cold air that can be obtained, to loosen all their
+garments, and apply volatile spirits to their nostrils.
+
+ 238. _CORK is the external bark of a species of oak_ (Quercus suber)
+ _which grows in Spain, Portugal, and other southern parts of Europe, and
+ is distinguished by the fungous texture of its bark; and by its leaves
+ being evergreen, oblong, somewhat oval, downy underneath, and waved._
+
+The principal supply of the cork that is consumed in Europe, is obtained
+from Catalonia in Spain; and the culture and the preparation of it yield to
+the inhabitants of that province near 250,000_l._ per annum.
+
+In the collecting of cork, it is customary to slit it with a knife, at
+certain distances, in a perpendicular direction from the top of the trees
+to the bottom; and to make two incisions across, one near the top and the
+other near the bottom of the trunk. For the purpose of stripping off the
+bark, a curved knife with a handle at each end is used. Sometimes it is
+stripped in pieces the whole length, and sometimes in shorter pieces, cross
+cuts being made at certain intervals. In some instances the perpendicular
+and transverse incisions are made, and the cork is left upon the trees
+until, by the growth of the new bark beneath, it becomes sufficiently loose
+to be removed by the hand.
+
+After the pieces are detached they are soaked in water; and, when nearly
+dry, are placed over a fire of coals, which blackens their external
+surface. By the latter operation they are rendered smooth, and all the
+smaller blemishes are thereby concealed: the larger holes and cracks are
+filled up by the artful introduction of soot and dirt. The pieces are next
+loaded with weights to make them even; and lastly they are dried, stacked,
+or packed in bales for exportation.
+
+Many of the uses of cork were well known to the ancients. Its elasticity
+renders it peculiarly serviceable for the stopping of vessels of different
+kinds; and thus preventing either the liquids therein contained from
+running out, or the external air from passing in. The use of cork for
+stopping glass bottles is generally considered to have been introduced
+about the fifteenth century. The practice of employing this substance for
+jackets to assist in swimming is very ancient; and it has lately been
+applied in various ways towards the preservation of life, when endangered
+by shipwreck. The floats of nets used for fishing are frequently made of
+cork: pieces fastened together make buoys, which, by floating on the
+surface of the water, afford direction for vessels in harbours, rivers, and
+other places. In some parts of Spain it is customary to line the walls of
+houses with cork, which not only renders them warm, but prevents the
+admission of moisture. The ancient Egyptians sometimes made coffins of it.
+On account of its lightness, cork is used for false legs; and, from its
+being impervious by water, it is sometimes placed betwixt the soles of
+shoes to keep out moisture. When burned, it constitutes that light black
+substance known by the name of _Spanish black_.
+
+In the cutting of corks for use, the only tool employed is a broad, thin,
+and sharp knife; and, as the cork tends very much to blunt this, it is
+sharpened upon a board by one whet, or stroke on each side, after every
+cut; and, now and then, upon a common whet-stone. The corks for bottles are
+cut in the length way of the bark, and consequently the pores lie across.
+Bungs, and corks of large size, are cut in a contrary direction: the pores
+in these are therefore downward, a circumstance which renders them much
+more defective in stopping out the air than the others. The parings of cork
+are sold to the makers of Spanish black.
+
+ 239. _The WALNUT is a well-known shell fruit, produced by a tree_
+ (Juglans regia, Fig. 69), _which grows wild in the northern parts of
+ China and Persia, and has winged leaves; the leaflets, about nine in
+ number, large, oblong, smooth, thick; and the end one with a stalk._
+
+Although greatly admired, both for the beauty of its foliage, and for the
+excellence of its fruit, the cultivation of the walnut-tree in England is
+by no means attended to so much as it was formerly, when its _wood_ was
+considered the most ornamental timber produced in our island. It is
+pleasingly veined, and admits of a fine polish, but its colour is much less
+rich than that of mahogany; and consequently, except for the making of
+gunstocks, it has, of late, been wholly superseded by that more favourite
+wood. On the Continent, however, the walnut-tree is still in request for
+furniture of various kinds.
+
+The _fruit_ of the walnut-tree is covered externally with a thick and
+smooth green husk, the juice of which stains the fingers black. In an
+unripe state, before the shells are formed, the whole fruit may be made
+into a pickle, and also into ketchup. In medicine the unripe fruit is
+considered of use for the destruction of worms, and is usually administered
+in the form of an extract.
+
+Walnuts become ripe about the beginning of October; and, as they grow in
+clusters, generally at the ends of the branches, it is customary to beat
+them down with long poles. The kernel, which is covered with a tough,
+yellow, and bitter skin, is more esteemed than that either of the hazel-nut
+or filbert. It yields, on pressure, a sweet kind of oil, which, in
+quantity, amounts to about half the weight of the kernel.
+
+There are several varieties of walnut, which are well known to the
+cultivators of that tree.
+
+ 240. _The HICKORY-NUT_ (Juglans alba) _is a North American species of
+ walnut, the shell of which is very hard, does not split asunder like that
+ of the walnut, and is of smoother and lighter colour than that_.
+
+Its kernel is sweet and well tasted, and affords a considerable portion of
+oil.
+
+ 241. _The HAZEL-NUT and FILBERT are well-known fruits, the former of a
+ shrub_ (Corylus avellana, Fig. 67) _which grows in hedges and thickets;
+ and the latter of a somewhat similar shrub, which is cultivated in
+ orchards and kitchen gardens._
+
+Each of these kinds of _nuts_ is much esteemed, but particularly the
+latter; the flavour of its kernels being very delicious. They are, however,
+difficult of digestion, and, when eaten in considerable quantity, sometimes
+produce very unpleasant effects. The oil which is obtained from hazel-nuts
+by pressure is little inferior in flavour to that of almonds, and, under
+the name of _nut-oil_, is often used by painters. Chemists employ it as the
+basis of fragrant oils artificially prepared, because it easily combines
+with and retains odours. This oil is found serviceable in obstinate coughs.
+
+If nuts be put into earthen pots and well closed, and afterwards buried
+eighteen inches or two feet deep in the earth, they may be kept sound
+through the winter.
+
+In many parts of the country _hazels_ are planted in coppices and
+hedge-rows for several useful purposes; but particularly to be cut down,
+periodically, for charcoal, for poles, fishing-rods, &c. Being extremely
+tough and flexible, the branches of the hazel are used for making hurdles,
+crates, withs or bands, and springles to fasten down thatch. They are
+formed into spars, handles for implements of husbandry; and, when split,
+are bent into hoops for casks. Charcoal made from hazel is much in request
+for forges; and, when prepared in a particular manner, is used by painters
+and engravers to draw their outlines.
+
+In countries where yeast is scarce, it is not unusual to twist loosely
+together the slender branches of this shrub, and to steep them in ale-yeast
+during its fermentation. They are then hung up to dry; and, at the next
+brewing, are put into the wort instead of yeast. The _roots_ are used by
+cabinet makers for veneering: and, in Italy, the _chips_ of hazel are
+sometimes put into turbid wine for the purpose of fining it.
+
+ 242. _The HORNBEAM_ (Carpinus betulus, Fig. 73) _is a forest tree which
+ grows to the height of sixty or seventy feet, yet seldom exceeds fifteen
+ or eighteen inches in diameter, has smooth white bark, marked with grey
+ spots, and leaves about three inches long and two broad, oval, pointed,
+ and serrated._
+
+As a timber-tree the hornbeam is more esteemed on the Continent than in
+this country. It grows readily in stiff soils, particularly on the sides of
+hills; and is easily transplanted. The _wood_, which is white, hard, and
+tough, is used by turners; and is wrought into cogs for mill-wheels,
+screw-presses, the heads of beetles, handles of working tools, and other
+instruments and machinery in which great strength is required. As fuel it
+is preferred, on account of its readier inflammability, to most other kinds
+of wood. The _inner bark_ is used, in some countries, for dyeing yellow.
+
+From the foliage of the hornbeam being luxuriant, and admitting of being
+clipped, without injury, into any of those forms which the old French
+garden style required, this tree was formerly much more planted in England
+than it is at present. It preserves a great portion of its withered leaves
+through the winter; and, if properly planted as a hedge, it forms an
+excellent fence. The German husbandman, when he erects a fence of hornbeam,
+throws up a parapet of earth, with a ditch on each side, and plants his
+sets (which he raises from layers) in such a manner that every two plants
+may be brought to intersect each other, in the form of a St. Andrew's
+cross. In that part where the plants cross, he scrapes off the bark, and
+bends them closely together with straw. In consequence of this operation
+the two plants consolidate into a sort of indissoluble knot, and push, from
+the place of junction, horizontal slanting shoots, which form a living
+palisado or _chevaux de frise_; so that such a protection may be called a
+rural fortification. These hedges, being annually and carefully pruned,
+will, in a few years, become impenetrable in every part. It is not uncommon
+in Germany, to see the high roads thus guarded for many miles together; and
+great advantage might be derived from adopting the same plan in many parts
+of our own kingdom.
+
+ 243. _The PLANE-TREE_ (Platanus orientalis, Fig. 71) _is distinguished by
+ having broad leaves, each with about five principal divisions, and these
+ subdivided into smaller ones._
+
+By the ancient Greeks and Romans the plane-tree was highly valued, on
+account of its grateful shade; and the latter were much delighted by
+training it in such manner as to admit of their sitting beneath its
+branches. Wherever they built their magnificent colleges for the exercise
+of youth, in the gymnastic arts, as riding, wrestling, running, leaping,
+throwing the discus, &c. and where also the gravest philosophers met to
+converse together and improve their studies, they planted avenues and walks
+of plane trees for refreshment and shade.
+
+Though now frequently planted in parks and pleasure grounds, the sycamore
+(122) is, in many instances, preferred to it. The plane, though a native of
+Asia and the southern parts of Europe, is very hardy, grows rapidly, and
+will flourish in any common soil, and in any aspect.
+
+Its _wood_, at a certain age, becomes much veined; and, consequently, is
+valuable for many kinds of domestic furniture, but particularly for tables.
+
+ 244. _The CABBAGE-TREE_ (Areca oleracea) _is an American species of palm,
+ which grows to the height of a hundred feet and upwards, and is destitute
+ of leaves until within a few feet of the summit. The leaves, sometimes
+ near twenty feet long, are winged, and the leaflets are entire._
+
+Such is the general elegance of this tree that it is frequently denominated
+the queen of woods. Its _fruit_, which grows in bunches from the top, is an
+oblong and obtuse kind of berry, of bluish purple colour, and about the
+size of an olive. The sheaths of the flowers, and the floral leaves, when
+first developed, are folded round each other, enclosed in a thin, green,
+and spongy bark, eight or nine inches in circumference, and constitute the
+part which is denominated the _cabbage_. This is white, and, when boiled,
+is esteemed a great luxury. It is also eaten raw as a salad, and fried with
+butter; and its taste is said to resemble that of an artichoke. This part
+is likewise frequently made into a pickle with vinegar and spices.
+
+We are informed that the cabbage-tree was first introduced into Jamaica by
+Admiral Knowles, when governor of that island; and that it has since been
+cultivated there with great attention. But it is chiefly planted for its
+beauty, being considered too valuable to be often cut down for the small
+portion of food which it thus affords, however delicious that may be.
+
+In the _leaves_ of this tree there is a thread-like substance, which is
+sometimes spun, like hemp, and made into different kinds of cordage. The
+sockets or grooves formed by the broad part of the footstalks of the leaves
+are used by the negroes as cradles for their children; and on the inner
+sides of the very young footstalks there are tender pellicles, which, when
+dried, may be converted into paper. The _trunks_, when cleared of the pith,
+serve as water pipes and gutters. Of the _pith_ a kind of sago is made; and
+in this pith, after the trees are felled, there is bred a large species of
+caterpillar which the inhabitants of some of the West Indian islands eat as
+a great delicacy.
+
+ 245. _The CATECHU, ARECA, or BETEL-NUT-TREE_ (Areca catechu), _is a
+ species of palm which grows in the East Indies._
+
+ _It is generally from thirty to forty feet high, and its trunk is six or
+ eight inches in diameter. The leaves, which grow on the summit, are
+ winged, having the leaflets folded back; and the fruit is a pulpy berry
+ with thin skin, containing a nut about an inch in length, and of a
+ rounded conical form._
+
+The _kernel_ of the areca-nut, which is covered by a thin, smooth, and
+yellowish shell, is somewhat like a nutmeg, but contains, in the centre, a
+white, soft, greyish, and almost liquid substance, which becomes hard as
+the nut ripens. This fruit is in general use by the Indians, who cut it
+into slices, mix it with other substances, wrap it in the leaves of betel
+(22), and chew it much in the same manner as the common people of our
+country chew tobacco. The consumption of these nuts in India is almost
+beyond calculation. They are an article of considerable trade, from port to
+port; and also from India to China, but they are seldom brought into
+England, though they might be of use in some of our manufactures.
+
+The drug called _catechu_, and formerly _terra japonica_, was supposed to
+be an extract prepared from the above nuts; but it is now ascertained to be
+made from the wood of a species of mimosa.
+
+
+MONADELPHIA.
+
+
+ 246. _The SCOTS FIR_ (Pinus sylvestris), _which has its name from growing
+ wild in different parts of Scotland, is known from other trees of the
+ same tribe by having its slender and somewhat needle-shaped leaves in
+ pairs; its cones or seed-vessels somewhat egg-shaped, mostly in pairs, as
+ long as the leaves, and the scales blunt._
+
+This useful tree flourishes with greatest luxuriance on the north and
+north-east sides of hills, in a poor and sandy soil, especially where this
+is mixed with loam. If planted among rocks, or in bogs, it seldom attains a
+large size; in black soil it becomes diseased; and in chalky land it
+frequently pines away and dies.
+
+Its _timber_, under the name of _deal_, is employed as the wood-work of
+houses; for rafters, flooring, doors, the frames of windows, tables, boxes,
+and other purposes, infinitely too various to be enumerated. Frigates, and
+other ships of large size, have sometimes been constructed of deal but
+these are by no means so durable as vessels that are built of oak. Much of
+the deal which we use is imported from Norway, and other northern parts of
+Europe. That from Christiana, which is called _yellow deal_, or _red deal_,
+is frequently brought over in planks, but more commonly in boards, each
+about ten inches and half in width. The wood of such trees as are raised in
+England is equal to the foreign wood in weight and durability, but its
+grain is generally coarser.
+
+The _outer bark_ of the fir-tree may be used in the tanning of leather; and
+it is said that, in the northern parts of Europe, the soft, white, and
+fibrous _inner bark_ is, in times of scarcity, made into a kind of bread.
+For this purpose it is dried over a fire, reduced to powder, kneaded with
+water, and a small portion of corn-flour, into cakes, and baked in an oven.
+Children in Norway are very fond of the fresh bark, in the spring of the
+year, either shaved off with a knife, or grated with a rasp.
+
+_Common Turpentine_ is the resinous juice chiefly of the Scots fir,
+obtained by boring holes into the trunks of the trees, early in spring, and
+placing vessels beneath for its reception. It is of brown colour; and has a
+strong odour, and disagreeable taste. In the distillation of turpentine an
+essential oil is produced, called _oil of turpentine_, which is extremely
+pungent. When the distillation is continued to dryness, the substance which
+remains is known by the name of _common resin_ or _rosin_; but, if water be
+mixed with it, while yet fluid, and incorporated by violent agitation, a
+substance is formed called _yellow resin_.
+
+Common turpentine is mostly employed as an ingredient in the plasters used
+by farriers. The oil is occasionally used in medicine; and, lately, it has
+been considered efficacious in cases of worms. It is much employed by
+painters for rendering their colours more fluid; as well as in the
+composition of different kinds of varnish used in floor-cloth, umbrella,
+and other manufactures. The noxious spirit called gin was formerly
+flavoured with juniper berries; but as these are now too expensive, oil of
+turpentine, the taste of which in a slight degree resembles that of
+juniper, is applied to the same purpose; and considerable quantities of
+turpentine are thus consumed. The common resin is used in plasters, for
+which its great adhesiveness renders it peculiarly applicable. It is also
+of considerable importance in the arts; and musicians rub the bows and
+strings of violins with it, to take off the greasy particles which are
+there collected, as well as to counteract the effects of moisture. Yellow
+resin is used in plasters, and for other purposes in medicine.
+
+_Tar_ is obtained from the roots and refuse parts of the fir-tree, by
+cutting them into billets, piling these, in a proper manner, in pits or
+ovens formed for the purpose, covering them partly over, and setting them
+on fire. During the burning, a black and thick matter, which is the tar,
+falls to the bottom, and is conducted thence into vessels which are placed
+to receive it, and from which it is afterwards poured into barrels for
+sale.
+
+Tar is an article of great utility in manufactures, and for various
+economical purposes. It is much employed for smearing the rigging, and
+other external parts of ships, to prevent their receiving injury from
+moisture. It has been used in medicine both internally and externally; and
+particularly _tar-water_, or water impregnated with tar, was, some years
+ago, a popular remedy in various disorders, but its virtues have been too
+much extolled. Although considerable quantities of tar are prepared in this
+country, these are insufficient to supply the demand; consequently we,
+every year, import great quantities of it from Russia, Sweden, America, and
+other countries.
+
+_Pitch_ is usually made by melting together coarse hard resin and an equal
+quantity of tar; or, as some writers state, by boiling tar with a certain
+portion of water, until it becomes so thick that, on cooling, it forms a
+hard black mass.
+
+By the ancients pitch was much employed for giving flavour and fragrance to
+their wines. With us it is of extensive use to mechanics, and in numerous
+manufactures; but the principal demand for it is in ship-building, to
+secure the joints and crevices of the planks and timbers, and for other
+purposes. When mixed with a certain quantity of oil and suet, it is made
+into _shoe-makers' wax_; and, in conjunction with whale fat, forms
+_carriage-grease_, or the substance with which the wheels of carriages are
+smeared. The best pitch is imported from Sweden and Norway: and, is of a
+glossy black colour, perfectly dry, and very brittle.
+
+_Lamp-black_ is a soot formed by burning the dregs and coarser parts of tar
+in furnaces constructed for that purpose. The smoke is conveyed through
+tubes into boxes, each covered with linen, in the form of a cone. Upon this
+linen the soot is deposited: and it is, from time to time, beaten off into
+the boxes, and afterwards packed in barrels for sale. This substance is
+employed in printing and dyeing; and has its name from the practice that
+was formerly adopted of making it by means of lamps.
+
+ 247. _The WEYMOUTH PINE is chiefly distinguished by its leaves growing in
+ fives, and its cones being smooth, cylindrical, and longer than the
+ leaves._
+
+This species of fir-tree grows wild in North America, and succeeds well in
+strong land in England. Its _timber_ is white, of more open grain than
+Scots fir, and not so heavy as that. In America it is principally used for
+the masts of ships, for which, by its toughness, it is peculiarly
+calculated.
+
+ 248. _The SPRUCE FIR_ (Pinus abies), _a native of Norway, and other
+ Northern parts of Europe, is known by its short, and four-sided leaves
+ growing singly, and surrounding the branches; its cones being
+ cylindrical, the scales somewhat square, flattened, and notched at the
+ top_
+
+The _wood_ of the spruce fir is what the English carpenters usually
+denominate _white deal_. It is considered next in value to that obtained
+from the Scots fir; and is remarkable for having few knots. On account of
+its lightness it is peculiarly adapted for packing-cases and musical
+instruments.
+
+From incisions made into the trunk of the spruce fir-tree, a fine and clear
+_turpentine_ oozes, which, after being boiled in water, and strained
+through a linen cloth, acquires a somewhat solid consistence, and reddish
+brown colour; and is called _Burgundy pitch_. This is employed as an
+ingredient in several kinds of ointments and plasters: and is principally
+manufactured in Saxony.
+
+The article called _essence of spruce_, which is used in making spruce
+beer, is prepared from the branches of this tree, and from those of a
+species nearly allied to it which grows in America.
+
+ 249. _The LARCH_ (Pinus laryx), _a native of the Alps, and the mountains
+ of Germany, is a species of fir, which has its leaves in tufts, and its
+ cones oblong, and of somewhat oval shape, the margins of the scales bent
+ back, and jagged._
+
+The cultivation of larch-trees has of late been much recommended for
+adoption in this country, on account of the value of their _timber_, which
+for strength and durability, is equal to most kinds of deal. It is well
+calculated for masts, and the framework of vessels, being capable of
+sustaining much greater pressure even than oak. For wood-work constantly
+immersed in water, it is peculiarly calculated, as, in such situations, it
+is asserted to become almost as hard as stone. In Petersburg larch timber
+is applied to no other use than that of ship-building. Line-of-battle ships
+are constructed of it in Archangel, and these generally last about fifteen
+years; though, in milder climates, it is imagined that they would last much
+longer.
+
+For gates, pales, and similar work, exposed to the vicissitudes of weather,
+they are admirably serviceable; and for flooring and other internal
+purposes are at least equally durable. Buildings constructed of larch
+timber are said to have continued sound for 200 years; and, in some of the
+old palaces in Venice, there are beams of larch yet existing that are as
+sound as when they were first placed. But the very combustible nature of
+this wood renders it objectionable for such uses. No wood with which we are
+acquainted affords more durable staves for casks than larch; and, in the
+opinion of many persons, it is further valuable by improving the flavour of
+the wine contained in them. The wood is of delicate colour, not unlike the
+cedar used for black-lead pencils, but is knotty almost throughout.
+
+From the _inner bark_ of the larch the Russians manufacture a soft and fine
+kind of white gloves. The trunk, if tapped betwixt the months of March and
+September, yields an extremely pure turpentine, which has the name of
+_Venice turpentine_; and is of considerable use in medicine. It is usually
+thinner than any other kind of turpentine, and of clear, whitish, or
+yellowish colour. The drug of this name, which is generally met with in the
+shops, is now imported from New England, but was formerly brought from
+Venice. A brown gummy substance, known in Russia by the name of _Orenburgh
+gum_, is obtained by a curious process from the sap of the tree. On the
+large branches of the larch are produced small, sweetish grains, somewhat
+resembling sugar; which are frequently substituted for the drug called
+manna (275).
+
+The cultivation of the larch was first introduced into Britain towards the
+conclusion of the seventeenth century. The trees will grow in almost any
+soil; and the proper season for felling them is the month of July. They,
+however, seldom attain any large size in this country; and they are said to
+decay and become covered with moss, when about forty years old.
+
+ 250. _The CYPRESS-TREE_ (Cupressus sempervirens) _is a dark-coloured
+ evergreen, a native of the Levant, the leaves of which are extremely
+ small, and entirely cover all the slender branches, lying close upon them
+ so as to give them a somewhat quadrangular shape._
+
+ _In some of the trees the branches diminish gradually in length from the
+ bottom to the top, in such manner as to form a nearly pyramidal shape._
+
+In many of the old gardens in this country cypress-trees are still to be
+found, but their generally sombre and gloomy appearance has caused them, of
+late years, to be much neglected. They are, however, very valuable on
+account of their _wood_, which is hard, compact, and durable, of pale or
+reddish colour, with deep veins, and pleasant smell. We are informed by
+Pliny that the doors of the famous temple of Diana, at Ephesus, were of
+cypress wood, and that, although they were 400 years old at the time when
+he wrote, they appeared to be nearly as fresh as new. Indeed this wood was
+so much esteemed by the ancients, that the image of Jupiter in the capitol
+was made of it. The gates of St. Peter's church at Rome are stated to have
+been of cypress, and to have lasted more than 1000 years, from the time of
+the Emperor Constantine until that of Pope Eugenius the Fourth, when gates
+of brass were erected in their stead. As this wood, in addition to its
+other qualities, takes a fine polish, and is not liable to suffer from the
+attacks of insects, it was formerly much esteemed for cabinet furniture. By
+the Greeks, in the time of Thucydides, it was used for the coffins of
+eminent warriors; and many of the chests which enclose Egyptian mummies are
+made of it. The latter afford very decisive proof of its almost
+incorruptible nature.
+
+The name of this tree is derived from the island of Cyprus, in the
+Mediterranean, where it still grows in great luxuriance. Its gloomy hue
+caused it to be consecrated by the ancients to Pluto, and to be used at the
+funerals of people of eminence. Pliny states that, in his time, it was
+customary to place branches of the cypress-tree before the houses in which
+persons lay dead.
+
+ 251. _The CASSAVA, or CASSADA_ (Jatropha manihot) _is a South American
+ shrub, about three feet in height, with broad, shining, and somewhat
+ hand-shaped leaves, and beautiful white and rose-coloured flowers._
+
+It is a very remarkable circumstance, that the _roots_ of the cassava, if
+eaten raw, are a fatal poison both to man and beast, and that, when
+prepared by heat, they yield a safe and valuable food; on which, indeed,
+many both of the Indian and European inhabitants of South America almost
+wholly subsist. The roots are the only edible parts of the plant. These,
+which are white, soft, and farinaceous, from one to two feet in length, and
+five or six inches in circumference, are dug out of the earth, at a certain
+season of the year, washed, stripped of their rind, and ground to a pulp.
+The juice, or poisonous part, is pressed out, and carefully thrown away; as
+cattle, and other animals, which have accidentally drunk of it, have almost
+instantly died. The flour that remains, after pressure, is formed into thin
+round cakes and baked. To an European, accustomed to other bread, these,
+though sweetish, and not unpalatable, have an insipid taste. If placed in
+close vessels, and preserved from the attacks of insects, cassava bread may
+be kept for several months without injury.
+
+With the natives of South America, it is not unusual to throw a great
+number of cakes of cassava together to heat, after which they soak them in
+water, which causes a rapid fermentation to take place; and from the liquor
+thus obtained, they make a very sharp and disagreeable, but intoxicating
+beverage, which will not keep longer than twenty-four hours without
+spoiling.
+
+From the pure flour of cassava is formed the substance called _tapioca_,
+which is frequently imported into this country, and is used for jelly,
+puddings, and other culinary purposes. It is prepared from the fibrous part
+of the roots by taking a small quantity of the pulp, after the juice is
+extracted, and working it in the hand till a thick white cream appears on
+the surface. This, being separated, and washed in water, gradually subsides
+to the bottom. After the water is poured off, the remaining moisture is
+dissipated by a slow fire, the substance being constantly stirred, until at
+length it is formed into grains about the size of sago (266). These become
+hard by keeping, and are the purest and most wholesome part of the cassava.
+
+The roots of another species of this shrub, called _sweet cassava_, are
+usually eaten with butter, and merely after being roasted in hot ashes.
+They have much the flavour of chesnuts, and are an agreeable and nutritive
+food.
+
+ 252. _The TALLOW TREE_ (Croton sebiferum) _is a native of China, and in
+ habit somewhat resembles a cherry-tree, but has shining egg-shaped, and
+ pointed leaves, that form tufts at the extremity of the branches._
+
+The _fruit_ of this tree, from which the Chinese obtain a kind of tallow
+for the manufacture of candles, is enclosed in a husk, not much unlike that
+of the chesnut, and consists of three round white kernels. All the
+preparation that is requisite is to melt these kernels, adding a little
+oil, to render them softer and more pliant than they would otherwise be.
+The candles made from this substance are very white, but are sometimes
+coloured by adding a little vermilion. They are more firm than those of
+tallow, but not equal in quality to candles either of wax or spermaceti.
+The wicks that are used are not, like ours, made of cotton, but consist of
+little rods of light, dry wood, with the pith of a rush entwined round
+them.
+
+ 253. _INDIAN RUBBER, or CAOUTCHOUC, is the dried juice of a large and
+ much branched tree_ (Siphonia elastica, Fig. 60), _which grows in Guiana,
+ and other parts of South America._
+
+ _This tree has somewhat oval leaves, entire, veined, and smooth, arranged
+ in threes, and on long foot-stalks._
+
+ _The flowers are small, in bunches, near the ends of the branches, and
+ the fruit is triangular._
+
+It was not until about the year 1736, that this very extraordinary natural
+production was made known in Europe. It is obtained by making incisions
+through the bark of the tree, chiefly in wet weather. From the wounds thus
+formed the juice flows abundantly. It is of milky-white colour, and is
+conducted by a tube or leaf, supported by clay, into a vessel placed to
+receive it. Some writers assert that, on mere exposure to the air, it
+gradually hardens; and others that, for this purpose, it goes through a
+certain process, which the Indians keep a profound secret. It is usually
+brought to Europe in the shape of pear-shaped bottles, which are formed by
+spreading the juice over a mould of clay. These are exposed to a dense
+smoke, or to a fire, till they become so dry as not to stick to the
+fingers; and then, by certain instruments of iron or wood, they are
+ornamented on the outside with various figures. This done, the clay in the
+inside is moistened with water and picked out.
+
+Indian rubber is remarkable for the flexibility and elasticity which it
+acquires on attaining a solid state; and also for the numerous useful
+purposes to which it is capable of being applied. By the Indians it is
+sometimes formed into boots, which are impenetrable by water, and which,
+when smoked, have the appearance of leather. Bottles are made of it, to
+whose necks are fastened hollow reeds, through which the liquor contained
+in them can be squirted at pleasure. One of these, filled with water, is
+always presented to each of the guests at their entertainments. Flambeaux
+are likewise formed of this substance, which give a very brilliant light;
+and it is said that a torch of Indian rubber, an inch and a half in
+diameter, and two feet long, will burn twelve hours. The inhabitants of
+Quito prepare a species of oil-cloth with the hardened juice of this tree.
+
+The principal uses to which Indian rubber is applied by us are, for the
+effacing of black-lead marks; for flexible syringes, tubes, and other
+instruments used by surgeons and chemists; and for the formation, by means
+of turpentine or linseed oil, of a varnish for air-balloons.
+
+Various experiments have been made to dissolve this substance, so that it
+may assume its naturally elastic state, under any figure that may be
+required. This has been effected by means of ether, but the process is too
+expensive for common use. A simple method of forming tubes of it is to
+split a piece of cane and to put between the pieces a slip of whalebone. If
+the Indian rubber be cut into slips, and twisted closely round the cane,
+and the heat of boiling water be applied, the whole will become united into
+one piece or tube, from which the whalebone first, and afterwards the cane,
+may easily be separated.
+
+It has been proved that cloth of all kinds may be made impenetrable by
+water, if impregnated with the fresh juice of the Indian rubber tree; and
+that boots, gloves, and other articles, made of cloth thus prepared, may be
+joined without sewing, and only by moistening the edges with the juice.
+These are not only more durable, but retain their shape better than such as
+are made of the juice without any connecting substance.
+
+
+
+It has lately been ascertained that, in Prince of Wales's Island, and also
+in Sumatra, there are trees of a class and order totally different from
+that above described, which yield a juice similar to this, and applicable
+to all the same purposes.
+
+ 254. _The CASTOR-OIL PLANT_ (Ricinus palma christi) _is a native both of
+ the East and West Indies, and has a stem from five to fifteen or sixteen
+ feet in height, and large bluish-green leaves, divided into seven lobes,
+ serrated and pointed, the footstalks long, and inserted into the disk._
+
+ _The flowers are produced in a terminating spike, and the seed-vessels
+ are covered with spines, and contain each three flattish oblong seeds._
+
+It is to the seeds of this plant that we are indebted for the drug called
+_castor-oil_. This is sometimes obtained by pressing the seeds, in the same
+way as is practised with respect to oil of almonds (152). But the mode
+chiefly adopted in the West Indies, whence we principally import it, is
+first to strip the seeds of their husks or pods, and then to bruise them in
+a mortar; afterwards they are tied in linen bags, and boiled in water until
+the oil which they contain rises to the surface; this is carefully skimmed
+off, strained to free it from any accidental impurities, and bottled for
+use. The oil which is obtained by boiling is considered more mild than that
+obtained by pressure, but it sooner becomes rancid. The mildest and finest
+of the Jamaica castor-oil is limpid, nearly colourless, and has scarcely
+more taste or smell than good olive-oil.
+
+The uses of castor-oil in medicine are well known.
+
+The plant is sufficiently hardy to grow and ripen its seeds in the open
+ground of gardens, in the south of England.
+
+
+
+
+----
+
+CLASS XXII.--DIOECIA.
+
+----
+
+
+DIANDRIA.
+
+
+255. _WILLOW, OSIER, or WITHY._--Of this very extensive tribe nearly fifty
+distinct species have been discovered in our own island. The slender
+branches of many of these are applied to useful purposes, but particularly
+for making baskets, bird-cages, and what is called wicker-work; springles
+for fastening down thatch, wheels or traps for catching lobsters and eels;
+hoops and crates. The _wood_ is useful for the handles of hatchets, prongs,
+spades, and other rural implements; and also furnishes shoemakers with
+cutting and whetting boards, on which they cut leather and sharpen the
+edges of their knives.
+
+As willows generally flourish in wet situations, some of the species are
+planted with a view to prevent the banks of rivers and brooks from being
+washed away by floods.
+
+The _bark_ of some kinds of willow has been applied, with effect, as a
+substitute for Peruvian bark, in the cure of intermittent fevers. It has
+also been esteemed useful in the tanning of leather; and, in combination
+with alder, for striking a deep black colour, in the dyeing of linen.
+
+The bark of other species may be manufactured into paper. In the year 1788,
+Mr. Greaves of Milbank, near Warrington, Lancashire, made fifteen reams of
+coarse paper from the bark of withen twigs, intermixed with a few nettles.
+The latter, however, he afterwards discovered, would better have been left
+out, as there was in them a woody substance, which does not well
+incorporate with other vegetables. The paper he made was considerably
+cheaper than paper of equal size and thickness made from ropes; and it was
+found that pasteboard, for book covers, made of withen bark, would be much
+cheaper than similar pasteboard manufactured from ropes. The process by
+which this paper and pasteboard were manufactured was as follows; the bark
+was stripped from the twigs in September, the time at which they are
+usually cut for making white baskets; it was then hackled, like flax or
+hemp, and dried in the sun, which gave it somewhat the appearance of brown
+hemp: but this having been attended with considerable trouble, other parts
+of the bark were dried with the leaves, as they were stripped off from the
+twigs, and were then submitted to the operation of the paper-mill.
+
+The flowering branches of one species, the _common sallow_ (_Salix
+cineria_), are called palms, and are gathered by children, in many parts of
+England, on Palm Sunday.
+
+
+TRIANDRIA.
+
+
+ 256. _NUTMEGS are the kernels of a fruit produced in several islands of
+ the East Indies._
+
+ _They are each surrounded by the spice called_ mace, _and, externally, by
+ a husk about half an inch in thickness, which has somewhat the appearance
+ of a small peach_ (Fig. 80).
+
+ _The nutmeg-tree_ (Myristica aromatica) _is not unlike our cherry-tree,
+ both in growth and size. Its leaves are nearly oval, but pointed, waved,
+ obliquely nerved, of bright green colour above, and whitish beneath. The
+ flowers are small, and hang upon slender stalks._
+
+When this fruit is nearly ripe the husk opens at the end, and exposes a
+net-work of scarlet mace. Underneath the mace is a black shell, about as
+thick as that of a filbert, and very hard; and in this is contained the
+nutmeg.
+
+The gathering of _nutmegs_ is performed by persons who ascend the trees for
+that purpose, and pull the branches to them with long hooks. The husks are
+stripped off in the woods, and the remaining part of the fruit, with its
+surrounding mace, is taken home. After the mace has been carefully stripped
+off, with a small knife, the nuts, which are still covered with their woody
+shell, are dried, first in the sun, and then upon a frame of split bamboos
+placed over a slow fire, until, when shaken, the kernels are heard to
+rattle within the shells. These now easily fly to pieces when beaten with
+small sticks; and the nutmegs, being taken out, are soaked in sea-water and
+lime, and are then thrown in great numbers together to heat, by which their
+vegetating principle is destroyed. The nutmegs are finally sorted into
+parcels, according to their quality, and packed in bags for sale and
+exportation.
+
+The nutmegs vended at the East India Company's sales in 1804, amounted in
+weight to 117,936 pounds, and produced 54,733_l._ exclusive of the duties.
+This kind of spice has long been employed both for culinary and medicinal
+purposes. Distilled with water, nutmegs afford a large portion of essential
+oil, which resembles, in flavour, the spice itself. When heated and pressed
+they yield a considerable quantity of limpid yellow oil. In the shops a
+thick and fragrant kind is sold, which, though called _oil of mace_, is, in
+reality, expressed from the nutmeg. The best oil of this description is
+imported from the East Indies, in stone jars. _Oil of nutmegs_ is chiefly
+made from the imperfect fruit, and such as would be unfit for the European
+market.
+
+_Mace_, or the covering of the nutmeg, that lies betwixt the outer coat and
+the shell, is an unctuous membrane, first of a light red, and afterwards,
+when dried, and as we see it, of yellowish colour. After it is taken from
+the shell it is exposed to the sun, then moistened with sea-water, and
+finally so far dried as to allow of its being packed in bales for
+exportation. In these it is pressed closely down, by which its fragrance
+and peculiar qualities are preserved. Mace is liable to seizure if imported
+in packages of less than 300 pounds' weight. We usually see it in flakes
+each about an inch in length, and presenting a great variety of
+ramifications. This spice has a very fragrant and agreeable odour, and, to
+most persons, a pleasant, though somewhat acrid, taste. It possesses nearly
+all the virtues of the nutmeg, but with less astringency; and, like that,
+is employed in numerous ways, both in culinary preparations and medicine.
+
+In the island of Banda it is sometimes customary to boil the _entire fruit_
+of the nutmeg-tree, and afterwards to preserve it in syrup, and also to
+pickle it in spiced vinegar, in nearly the same manner as we pickle
+walnuts. In several parts of the East the inhabitants preserve the _outer
+husk_ of the nutmeg as a sweetmeat, or eat it stewed with other food.
+
+ 257. _The DATE is a fruit shaped somewhat like a large acorn, and covered
+ externally with a yellowish membrane or skin, which contains a fine,
+ soft, and sweetish pulp, and, in the centre, an oblong, hard stone._
+
+ _The trees_ (Phoenix dactylifera) _which produce this fruit, grow chiefly
+ on the shores of the Mediterranean, are forty feet and upwards in height,
+ have an upright stem, marked through their whole length with
+ protuberances, and terminated at the summit with a cluster of winged
+ leaves or branches, each eight or nine feet in length._
+
+The cultivation of the date is attentively pursued on the African coast of
+the Mediterranean; in several parts of Persia, Arabia, and even in Spain.
+The latter country, however, is not sufficiently warm to ripen the fruit in
+perfection, without the constant labour of the cultivator. He is obliged to
+ascend the trees, from time to time, to examine the flowers and turn them
+towards the sun. This is chiefly done in the spring of the year; and,
+during the month of August, another and much more dangerous operation is
+requisite, namely, to tie all the branches into one bundle, and cover them
+over with broom. To make this bundle, the person employed is obliged to
+leap, as it were, over the flexible branches, for the purpose of
+surrounding and uniting them with a cord. This operation over, he places a
+ladder at the bottom of the tree, on which he stands to make a second band;
+he then places his ladder on this second band, ascends and ties the top
+with a third cord. His bundle being formed, he throws down his instruments,
+replaces his ladder by a gradation contrary to the former, and descends,
+from band to band, to the stem of the tree, down which he slides to the
+bottom.
+
+Among the Africans and Egyptians the date constitutes a principal article
+of food, and, as such, it is considered both wholesome and nutritive. Its
+name is a word, formed of _dacte_ or _dactylus_, implying a finger, from an
+imaginary resemblance which this fruit has to the end of the finger.
+Although dates, in general, are of yellowish colour, some are black, some
+white, and others brown: some also are sweet, and others bitter. The best
+are called _royal dates_, and are imported into this country from Tunis.
+
+Each tree produces ten or twelve bunches of fruit, which, when gathered,
+are hung up in a dry place, until so much of their moisture is evaporated
+as to allow of their being packed in boxes for exportation.
+
+Nearly all the parts of the date-tree are useful. The _wood_, though of
+spongy texture, is employed for the beams and rafters of houses, and for
+implements of husbandry, which are said to be very durable. The _pith_ of
+the young trees is eaten, as well as the young and tender _leaves_. From
+the old leaves and their stalks the women and children of Valencia make
+mats, baskets, and other utensils; and from other filamentous parts, ropes
+and different kinds of cordage are manufactured. A considerable traffic is
+carried on in these leaves, which, under the name of _palms_, are sent to
+Italy, to be used in the grand religious ceremonies of Palm Sunday. In
+Persia an ardent spirit is distilled from the fruit; and, in many places,
+the _stones_ are ground to make oil, and the paste that is left is given as
+food to cattle and sheep.
+
+
+PENTANDRIA.
+
+
+ 258. _MASTIC is a resinous substance, obtained from a low tree or shrub_
+ (Pistacia lentiscus) _which grows in the Levant._
+
+ _It has alternate winged leaves, consisting of several pairs of
+ spear-shaped leaflets, and spikes of very small flowers, which issue from
+ the junction of the leaves with the branches._
+
+The mode in which this resin is obtained is by making incisions across the
+tree in different parts. From these the juice exudes in drops, that are
+suffered to run upon the ground, and there to remain until they are
+sufficiently hard to be collected for use. The season for this process
+commences in the dry weather at the beginning of August, and lasts until
+the end of September. The best mastic is that imported from the island of
+Scio. We receive it in semi-transparent grains of yellowish colour. These
+emit an agreeable smell when heated; and, when chewed, they first crumble,
+and afterwards stick together, and become soft and white like wax.
+
+With the Turkish women it is customary to chew this resin for the purpose
+of rendering their breath agreeable, and under a notion also that it tends
+to make their teeth white, and to strengthen the gums. They also mix it in
+fragrant waters, and burn it with other odoriferous substances, by way of
+perfume. It was formerly much used in medicine, as a remedy against pain in
+the teeth and gums; and, dissolved in spirit of wine, as a relief in
+obstinate and long continued coughs: but it is now almost wholly disused
+for these purposes; and is chiefly employed in the composition of varnish,
+and by dentists, for filling up the cavities of decayed teeth.
+
+The _wood_ of the mastic-tree is imported in thick knotty pieces, covered
+externally with an ash-coloured bark. This wood is accounted a mild,
+balsamic astringent; and a preparation of it, under the name of _aurum
+potabile_, is strongly recommended, by some of the German writers, in
+coughs, nausea, and weakness of the stomach.
+
+ 259. _HEMP is the fibrous part of the stalks of a plant_ (Cannabis
+ sativa, Fig. 82) _which grows wild in the East Indies, and is much
+ cultivated in different parts of Europe._
+
+ _It has the lower leaves in slender finger-like divisions; the male
+ flowers in small loose spikes, at the end of the stem and branches; and
+ the female flowers single, at the junction of the leaves and stem._
+
+The principal country for hemp, as an article of commerce, is Russia, few
+other countries of Europe growing a quantity sufficient for their own
+consumption. It is cultivated in some parts of Britain, but particularly in
+the counties of Suffolk and Norfolk. The soil best adapted to it is a moist
+but loose sandy loam, or the black mould of low lands near water. The seed
+is sown in April or May; and the plants, which attain the height of five or
+six feet, are in a state to be pulled up in three or four months; the male
+plant, or _fimble hemp_, as it is called, being ready some time before the
+female plants, which have the name of _karle_ or _seed-hemp_.
+
+As soon as the hemp is pulled, it is tied in bundles and set up to dry;
+and, at the end of about ten days, the bundles are loosened at the top, and
+the heads are held upon a hurdle by one person, whilst another, with a
+small threshing-flail, beats out the seed.
+
+In the preparation of hemp for the manufacturer two modes are pursued. One
+of these is to spread it out on stubble or pasture ground, that the fibrous
+parts may be rendered separable by the gradual operation of the weather;
+the other is to immerse the bundles, for some days, in stagnant water. The
+next process consists in separating the bark, or hemp, from the stalks:
+this is effected either by pulling out the stalk with the hand, or by
+machinery similar to that adopted in the preparation of flax (97). After
+some other operations the hemp is beaten in mills, and then combed or
+dressed by drawing it through instruments called _hackles_, which are
+somewhat similar to the combs of wool-manufacturers.
+
+Thus prepared, the hemp is spun into thread, which is made into twine,
+ropes, and cordage of every description; and woven into canvas, and strong
+cloth of various kinds. Indeed so great is the importance of this
+production, particularly for the cordage, cables, and the rigging of ships,
+that, to encourage its growth, an act of parliament was passed in 1783,
+directing a bounty of three pence per stone to be paid on all hemp raised
+in Great Britain; and imposing heavy duties on hemp imported from foreign
+countries.
+
+From _hemp-seed_ a valuable kind of _oil_ is procured, by pressure, which
+is peculiarly adapted for burning, as it is perfectly limpid and without
+smell: it is also used for making the soap called green soap. The seeds
+themselves are sometimes employed in the feeding of poultry, from a notion
+that they cause the hens to lay a greater number of eggs than they
+otherwise would do. They are also given as food to singing birds; but, if
+in great quantity, they are supposed to injure the plumage. The _stalks_,
+after the hemp is taken from them, afford an excellent fuel. The water in
+which hemp has been soaked is in a high degree poisonous.
+
+ 260. _HOPS are the dried flower-buds of a climbing British plant_
+ (Humulus lupulus, Fig. 81), _with a rough and angular stem, and leaves
+ generally in three or five lobes or divisions, and serrated._
+
+Although hops grow wild, in great abundance, on hedges in several parts of
+the south of England, there is reason to suppose that their use was first
+made known from the Continent in the reign of Henry the Eighth.
+
+A hop plantation requires the growth of some years before it is in
+perfection. The plants begin to push up their young stems about the month
+of April. When these are three or four inches above the ground, poles about
+twenty feet high are driven in to support them during their growth. The
+season for picking hops usually commences about the middle of September.
+This work is performed by men, women, and children. Proper baskets, bins,
+or cribs being in readiness, the plants are cut off close to the ground,
+and the poles are drawn up. These are placed upon the bins, with the plants
+upon them, and three or more persons on each side, pick off the hops. After
+this they are dried in a kiln, and, when dry, are carried into, and kept,
+for five or six days, in an apartment called the stowage-room, until they
+are in a state to be put into bags. This is done through a round hole, or
+trap, cut in the floor of the stowage-room, exactly equal in dimensions to
+the mouth of the bag, and immediately under which this mouth is fastened.
+In each of the lower corners of the bag a small handful of hops is tied;
+and a person, called the packer, places himself in it, and, by a heavy
+leaden weight, which he constantly moves round in the places where he is
+not treading, presses and forces the hops down, in a very close manner,
+into the bag, as fast as they are thrown to him by another labourer. The
+work thus proceeds till the bag is quite full, when each of the upper
+corners has a few hops tied in it, in the same manner as those at the
+bottom. These serve as handles for moving the bags. The bag is then taken
+away, and its mouth is properly sewed up and secured.
+
+The hops of finest colour and best sample are put into bags of finer
+manufacture than the others, under the denomination of _pockets_; and the
+inferior sorts are packed in canvas of coarser kind, called _bags_.
+
+When the hop-picking is completed, the poles are cleared from the binds or
+plants which adhered to them, and are stacked or piled together. The
+_binds_, when perfectly dried, are either stacked or placed in sheds, to be
+used as fuel in ovens, or otherwise. Sometimes they are burnt upon the
+land, for the ashes to serve as manure, trodden in the farm-yard, or
+allowed to be taken away by the labourers for their own use.
+
+As the hop-plants are liable to be injured in various ways during their
+growth, they are considered a very precarious crop. They suffer from the
+attacks of insects, from honey-dew, from blight, from hot sunny weather
+after rain, and by winds and storms.
+
+The principal _use of hops_, in brewing, is for the preservation of malt
+liquor, and to communicate to it an agreeably aromatic bitter flavour. The
+best hops are used for ale and the finer kinds of malt liquor, and inferior
+kinds are used for porter. The odour of hops hung over a bed, or a pillow
+stuffed with hops, has been said to promote sleep, after the application of
+opium has failed. The _young shoots_ and tops are often gathered from the
+hedges, by poor people, and boiled and eaten in the manner of asparagus. Of
+the woody part of the _hop-binds_, after having been steeped in water, and
+worked into a pulp, a coarse kind of paper may be made.
+
+
+HEXANDRIA.
+
+
+ 261. _YAMS are an American and West Indian root of very irregular shape,
+ which possess properties somewhat similar to those of the potatoe, but
+ they are less mealy, and, in a raw state, are very viscous._
+
+ _The plants_ (Dioscorea bulbifera) _which produce these roots have
+ heart-shaped leaves, and a stem that creeps along the ground like ivy._
+
+In some of the rich lands of South America, yams are said to grow to the
+weight of fifty or sixty pounds each; and are so productive that an acre of
+ground planted with them has been known to produce roots to the weight of
+from 20,000 to 30,000 pounds. Yams are propagated by setting the eyes, in
+the same manner as we plant potatoes; and, in six or eight months, they
+arrive at maturity.
+
+When they are dug out of the ground, they are, for a little while, exposed
+to the sun to dry; and if, after this, they be packed in casks full of dry
+sand, they may be preserved, without injury, for many months. They are
+consequently often used as sea-store for vessels about to sail on long
+voyages, and are frequently brought into England. Several attempts have
+been made to cultivate yams in this island; and these have been attended
+with a certain degree of success in the counties of Mid-Lothian, Perth, and
+Stirling in Scotland, where they are used for the feeding of cattle. There
+are two kinds, one red, and the other white. The former of these contain a
+more nutritive food than the latter, though their flavour is much less
+excellent.
+
+With the negroes, in the West Indian islands, the yam is a very important
+article of food. When roasted, it is so wholesome and nutritive that it is
+preferred by them even to bread. Like potatoes, yams may be converted into
+bread, by mixture with a portion of wheat or barley flour. They are
+sometimes made into soup, puddings, and other useful dishes.
+
+
+OCTANDRIA.
+
+
+262. _The ABELE, or GREAT WHITE POPLAR-TREE_ (Populus alba, Fig. 74), _is a
+British tree which grows in hedges and woods, near brooks, and is known by
+its leaves being nearly triangular, irregularly jagged at the edges, and
+cottony underneath._
+
+The quickness of growth of this tree is so great that it will sometimes
+make shoots from eighteen to twenty feet in length in one year; and the
+trees attain their full growth in the course of twenty years. The _wood_ is
+white and soft, but tough and of close grain, and not subject to warp or
+shrink. Hence it has been found useful for the flooring of rooms, and for
+making laths and packing boxes. For turnery ware it is preferred to most
+other kinds of wood, on account of its peculiar whiteness, and the ease
+with which it is worked in the lathe. "Of this wood," says Evelyn, "people
+also made shields of defence, in sword and buckler days."
+
+The _bark_ of the abele-tree is said to be serviceable as a remedy in
+intermittent fevers; and Dioscorides informs us that if it be chopped small
+and sowed in rills, well and richly manured, it will yield a plentiful crop
+of mushrooms.
+
+ 263. _The ASPEN, or TREMBLING POPLAR_ (Populus tremula), _is a tree which
+ grows in moist woods; has nearly circular leaves, toothed and angular at
+ the edges, smooth on both sides, and attached to footstalks so long and
+ slender as to be shaken by the slightest wind._
+
+There is scarcely any situation in which the aspen will not flourish, but
+it succeeds best where the soil is moist and gravelly. Its _wood_ is light,
+porous, soft, and of white colour; and, though inferior in excellence to
+that of the white poplar, is applicable to many useful purposes,
+particularly for field-gates, the frames of pack-saddles, for milk-pails,
+clogs, and the wood-work of patterns. It is improper for bedsteads, as it
+is liable to be infested by bugs. In some countries the _bark_ of the young
+trees is made into torches.
+
+ 264. _The BLACK POPLAR_ (Populus nigra, Fig. 75) _is a native tree of
+ this country, known by its somewhat trowel-shaped leaves, which taper to
+ a point, and are serrated, and smooth on both sides._
+
+This tree grows rapidly, and attains a considerable size. Its _wood_ is
+soft and light, and in some respects useful to engravers; and is
+occasionally sawed into boards, though these are not in general much
+esteemed. The _bark_ is so thick and light that it is not unfrequently used
+by fishermen as buoys or floats to support their nets. The inhabitants of
+Kamtschatka dry and pulverise the _inner rind_ of the black poplar-tree,
+and use it as an ingredient in bread. The _buds_, when they first appear,
+are covered with and contain a viscous and fragrant juice, which may be
+advantageously used in plasters.
+
+ 265. _The LOMBARDY or ITALIAN POPLAR_ (Populus dilatata) _grows wild in
+ Lombardy and the northern parts of Italy, and is distinguished by its
+ somewhat trowel-shaped and serrated leaves, being smooth on both sides,
+ and wider than they are long._
+
+From its slender and perpendicular growth the Lombardy poplar is found
+useful for hop-poles, and may be formed into masts for small vessels. The
+wood, which is soft and free from knots, is employed by joiners,
+carpenters, and cartwrights. It is recommended as peculiarly valuable for
+the floors of granaries, some persons believing it so obnoxious to insects
+that weevils will not continue in such granaries. It may be wrought into
+very flexible shafts for carriages, or felloes for wheels; and, not being
+liable to split, is peculiarly adapted for packing cases.
+
+The growth of this tree is so rapid, and the space of ground which it
+occupies is so small, that it is in almost universal request as an
+ornamental tree, in places that are not sufficiently spacious to admit of
+trees of more spreading form.
+
+
+POLYANDRIA.
+
+
+ 266. _SAGO is a granulated preparation from the pith of a species of
+ palm-tree_ (Cycas circinalis) _which grows in India and Africa._
+
+ _This tree attains the height of thirty or forty feet; has a straight and
+ somewhat slender stem, and winged leaves at the summit, each seven or
+ eight feet long, with the leaflets long and narrow._
+
+The preparation of sago, under different forms, constitutes a principal
+source of employment to the inhabitants of many parts of the coast of
+Malabar, as well as those of several of the islands of the East Indies.
+
+The trunk of the sago-tree contains a farinaceous pith, to obtain which it
+is sawn into pieces. After the pith is taken out, it is beaten in mortars,
+and, water being poured upon the mass, this is allowed to stand for some
+hours to settle; after which it is strained through a coarse cloth, and,
+the finest particles running through with the water, the grosser ones are
+left behind and thrown away, or washed over a hair sieve through which only
+the edible parts can pass. These are allowed to subside. The water is then
+poured off, and the flour, being properly dried, is made into cakes and
+baked for use, or is granulated in a manner somewhat similar to that
+adopted in the preparation of tapioca (251). It is in the latter state that
+sago is imported into Europe, where it is much used as a nourishing and
+agreeable diet for sick persons, in puddings and other culinary
+preparations.
+
+ 267. _The COMMON JUNIPER_ (Juniperus communis) _is an evergreen shrub,
+ with slender and pointed leaves, that grows on heaths in several parts of
+ the south of England._
+
+ _The leaves grow in threes; each is tipped with a spine, and is longer
+ than the ripe fruit, which is a blackish purple berry._
+
+Juniper _berries_ are at first green; and they continue upon the trees two
+years before they become ripe and assume their purple colour. When ripe
+they have a sweetish aromatic taste. The Swedes prepare, from these
+berries, a beverage which they consider useful as a medicine; and in some
+parts of the Continent juniper berries are roasted, ground, and adopted as
+a substitute for coffee. In Sweden they are eaten at breakfast, in the form
+of a conserve; and, in Germany, they are frequently used as a culinary
+spice, and especially for imparting their peculiar flavour to sour crout.
+Spirits impregnated with an essential oil distilled from them have the name
+of juniper water or _gin_. But it is a common practice to adopt spirit of
+turpentine (246) instead of this. Juniper-berries are imported into this
+country from Holland and Italy. Their smell is strong, but not
+disagreeable; and their flavour is warm, pungent, and sweetish, leaving a
+bitter taste in the mouth. The essential oil of these berries, if mixed
+with nut-oil (241), makes an excellent varnish for pictures, woodwork, and
+iron.
+
+The _wood_ of the juniper-tree is of reddish colour, very hard, and so
+durable that it will last more than a hundred years without decay. It is
+employed in veneering, for making cabinets, and for ornamental furniture.
+Charcoal formed from it affords a heat so lasting, that live embers are
+said to have been found in the ashes of juniper-trees after they have been
+covered up for more than twelve months. Such is the fibrous nature of the
+_bark_ that it may be manufactured into ropes and other cordage.
+
+From the crevices of the bark, or through perforations made in it by
+insects, a resinous gum exudes, which has the name of _gum sandarach_.
+This, which is of pale yellowish colour, very brittle, and inflammable,
+possesses a pungent aromatic taste, and emits a fragrant odour when burnt.
+It is imported from the Continent, in small pieces or tears, about the size
+of peas. When powdered and passed through a fine sieve, this is the
+substance called _pounce_, which is used for rubbing upon writing paper, in
+places where it has been scratched. Considerable quantities of this gum are
+consumed in the preparation of varnish, and particularly of one kind, used
+by cabinet-makers and painters, called _vernis_.
+
+ 268. _The RED or COMMON CEDAR is a species of juniper_ (Juniperus
+ virginiana) _which grows in North America and the West Indies._
+
+ _It is distinguished by its leaves growing in threes, and being fixed by
+ their base, the younger ones lying upon each other, and the older ones
+ spreading._
+
+The _wood_ of this tree is in much request for the outsides of black lead
+pencils. It is soft and incapable of high polish, but, on account of its
+powerful fragrance, and consequently resisting the attacks of insects, it
+not unfrequently used for the bottoms of drawers, and the inside of
+cabinets. Some years ago it was in much request for wainscotting and
+cabinet work; but, since the introduction of mahogany, it has been in great
+measure neglected for these purposes.
+
+ 269. _The YEW is a well-known evergreen tree_ (Taxus baccata), _which has
+ dark, narrow, pointed, and prickly leaves, and red berries, in the hollow
+ part of the extremity of which a green seed appears._
+
+The cultivation of the yew was formerly very extensive throughout nearly
+the whole of the British dominions, since of the _wood_ of this tree, which
+is peculiarly hard, smooth, and tough, our ancestors manufactured their
+bows. Hence, as well as on account of its gloomy and funereal aspect, it
+was usually planted in churchyards. But, when the introduction of fire-arms
+began to supersede the use of the bow, the yew was no longer cultivated
+than as an ornamental tree in parks and pleasure grounds.
+
+In the formal style of gardening which was anciently prevalent, few trees
+were more the subject of admiration than this, from its bearing to be
+clipped, without injury, into almost any form. Yews were cut into the shape
+of men, quadrupeds, birds, ships, and other vegetable monsters, but such
+absurd fancies have of late years almost wholly disappeared. These trees
+are at present advantageously planted in hedges, as a fence for orchards
+and shrubberies, which nothing can injure.
+
+The _wood_ of the yew-tree is hard, beautifully veined, and susceptible of
+high polish. Hence it is valuable as a wood for veneering, and is much used
+for card boxes, small cabinets, and other articles. It is frequently used
+by turners and cabinet-makers; and might perhaps be advantageously
+substituted for box (232) by engravers and other artists in that wood. From
+its hardness and durability, it may be made into cogs for mill-wheels, into
+axle-trees, and flood-gates for fish-ponds, which are scarcely susceptible
+of decay. The _berries_ are sweet and clammy, and are often eaten by
+children without inconvenience; though when eaten to excess, and
+particularly if the stones be swallowed, they are injurious. An ardent
+spirit might no doubt be obtained from them by distillation. The _leaves_
+of the yew-tree are extremely poisonous both to the human species and to
+cattle.
+
+
+
+
+----
+
+CLASS XXIII.--POLYGAMIA.
+
+----
+
+
+MONOECIA.
+
+
+ 270. _The PLANTAIN-TREE_ (Musa paradisiaca), _which is much cultivated in
+ the West Indies and South America, has a soft stem, fifteen or twenty
+ feel high, with several leaves on the summit; and bears a fruit of pale
+ yellow colour, somewhat shaped like a cucumber, about a foot in length,
+ and two inches thick._
+
+ _The leaves are frequently eight feet long, and more than two feet broad,
+ and are so thin and tender that they are often torn by the wind. The
+ fruit is produced in bunches so large as each to weigh forty pounds and
+ upwards._
+
+To the negroes of the West Indian islands the plantain is an invaluable
+fruit, and, like bread to the Europeans, is with them denominated the staff
+of life. In Jamaica alone many thousand acres are planted with these trees.
+This fruit is usually gathered before it is ripe, and, after the skin has
+been peeled off, is roasted for a little while in a clear fire; it is then
+scraped and eaten as bread, for which it is an excellent substitute.
+Plantains are sometimes boiled, and eaten with salt meat; they are also cut
+into slices and fried, pounded, and made into puddings, and used in various
+other ways. Horses, cattle, swine, and other domestic animals, are fattened
+with them. When ripe they may be eaten raw, and, in this state, they have
+somewhat the taste of a ripe pear.
+
+The _leaves_ of the plantain-tree, being soft and smooth, are sometimes
+employed as dressings after blisters; and, when green, are used as food for
+hogs.
+
+The vegetation of this tree is so rapid that if a line or thread be drawn
+across, and on a level with the top of one of the leaves, when it begins to
+expand, it will be seen, in the course of an hour, to have grown nearly an
+inch.
+
+ 271. _The BANANA is a valuable plant_ (Musa sapientum) _which grows in
+ the West Indies and other tropical countries, and has leaves about six
+ feet in length, and a foot broad in the middle; and fruit four or five
+ inches long, and about the shape of a cucumber._
+
+When ripe, the banana is an agreeable _fruit_, with a soft and luscious
+pulp; and is frequently introduced in desserts in the West Indies. The
+Spaniards have a superstitious dislike to cut this fruit across; they
+always slice it from end to end, because, in the former case, the section
+presents an imaginary resemblance to the instruments of our Saviour's
+crucifixion. The banana is sometimes fried in slices as fritters. If the
+pulp of this fruit be squeezed through a fine sieve, it may be formed into
+small loaves, which, after having been properly dried, may be kept for a
+great length of time.
+
+ 272. _MILLET is a small yellowish seed of a grassy plant_ (Holcus
+ sorghum), _with large and compact stalks which rise to the height of
+ seven or eight feet, and is much cultivated in several parts of India and
+ Africa._
+
+In some countries millet _seed_ is ground into flour and converted into
+bread; but this is brown and heavy. It is, however, useful in other
+respects as food, and is an excellent seed for the fattening of poultry. A
+good vinegar has been made from it, by fermentation; and, on distillation,
+it yields a strong spirit. Millet seed is imported into this country from
+the East Indies, for the purpose chiefly of puddings; and, by many persons,
+it is preferred to rice. The _stalks_ of the millet plant, if subjected to
+the same process that is adopted with the sugar-cane, yield a sweet juice,
+from which an excellent kind of sugar may be made.
+
+ 273. _GUM ARABIC is a well-known drug, obtained from a tree_ (Mimosa
+ nilotica) _which grows in Egypt._
+
+ _This tree has leaves doubly winged, with spines at the base, and small
+ flowers, of globular shape, growing four or five together on slender
+ footstalks._
+
+The principal supply of gum arabic in this country is obtained from
+Barbary, Turkey, and the Persian Gulf. The average quantity imported from
+the Persian Gulf, betwixt 1804 and 1808, was about 7500 hundred weight per
+annum, and the price for which it was vended at the East India Company's
+sales was about 3_l._ per hundred weight. It used formerly to be packed in
+skins, but it is now brought in large casks. The trees which yield it grow
+abundantly in numerous parts of Africa and Asia, but the gum does not
+freely exude from them except in tropical regions. It issues from clefts in
+the bark, in the same manner as the gum of the cherry and plum trees of our
+orchards and gardens: and, by exposure to the air, it soon becomes hard and
+solid. We are informed that, in some parts of Egypt, the inhabitants
+procure this gum, by boiling pieces of the roots of the trees, and
+afterwards separating it from the water. We receive gum arabic in small
+irregular masses, or rough pieces, of pale yellowish colour, and roundish
+shape.
+
+It is, however, to be remarked, that, by far the greatest part of the gum
+which is sold in the shops under this name is not such, but is the
+production of another species of tree (_Mimosa Senegal_), and is properly
+called _gum Senegal_, The latter is imported from Senegal, Guinea, and
+other parts of Africa. It is generally seen in large rough pieces, of
+roundish figure, and brownish hue, more or less pure; possesses similar
+properties to the other, and is much cheaper.
+
+On account of their mucilaginous qualities, these two kinds of gum, under
+the name of gum arabic, were formerly used for several purposes in
+medicine; and, in coughs and hoarsenesses, were considered of great
+service. They are now principally in request by the manufacturers of
+water-colours; by dyers, and artificers of different kinds. In Africa the
+latter constitutes a principal ingredient in the food of the inhabitants.
+They sometimes dissolve it in milk: and this solution of it is esteemed a
+favourite repast by some of the tribes.
+
+The dried _juice_ of the _unripe fruit_ of Egyptian mimosa is called
+_acacia_, and is to this day much used in medicine by the Egyptians. It is
+sometimes imported into this country in roundish masses, wrapped in thin
+bladders; and is externally of deep brown colour, and of a yellowish or
+reddish brown within.
+
+ 274. _MYRRH is a gummy, resinous substance, obtained from a tree which
+ grows in Abyssinia, Arabia, and other countries of the East, but
+ respecting which we are hitherto possessed of no certain account. Mr.
+ Bruce, however, imagined it to be a species of mimosa._
+
+This drug is generally imported in a kind of grains, of irregular form; of
+brownish or reddish yellow colour, and somewhat transparent. Its smell is
+aromatic; and its taste is pungent and bitter. In its medicinal effects,
+myrrh, when taken into the stomach, is supposed to warm and strengthen it,
+and also to strengthen the other viscera. It is believed to resist
+putrefaction in all parts of the body; and, hence, has been recommended as
+a medicine in malignant, putrid, and pestilential fevers; and in small-pox.
+
+At the East India Company's sales this drug is sold at the rate of about
+twenty pounds per hundred weight. It is, however, liable to great abuses.
+The larger masses, in particular, are frequently an artificial composition,
+skilfully incrusted with a coat of myrrh.
+
+
+DIOECIA.
+
+
+ 275. _MANNA is a concrete or dried juice, procured from several species
+ of ash-tree, but particularly from the_ FLOWERING ASH (Fraxinus ornus,
+ Fig. 76), _which is much cultivated in Calabria and Sicily._
+
+ _This tree somewhat resembles the common ash. It has winged leaves, with
+ an odd one at the end, the leaflets oblong, pointed, serrated, and
+ veined, standing on footstalks, and of bright green colour. The flowers
+ are whitish, and appear in close bunches, about the month of May or
+ June._
+
+The trees that are cultivated for the production of manna are chiefly
+planted on the eastern sides of hills. This substance exudes spontaneously
+from them; but as the supply thus obtained would be insufficient for the
+demand, incisions are made in the bark to obtain it more copiously. These
+incisions are formed, in the summer time, lengthwise in the tree, and each
+about a span long. They are begun at the lower part of the trunk, and
+repeated upward, at a little distance from each other, as high as the
+branches. One side of the tree is first cut; the other side being reserved
+until the ensuing year, when it undergoes a similar treatment. From the
+wounds thus made a thick whitish juice immediately begins to flow, which
+gradually hardens on the bark, and in the course of a few days acquires a
+sufficient consistence to be taken off. It is collected in baskets, and
+afterwards packed in chests or boxes. Sometimes the manna flows in such
+abundance that it runs upon the ground, and thus becomes mixed with various
+impurities, unless it be prevented, as is sometimes the case, by placing
+for its reception large leaves, stones, chips of wood, or straw. The
+collecting of manna generally terminates about the end of September.
+
+This substance is known by druggists under different names, according to
+its purity, rather than from any essential difference in the article
+itself. The best Calabrian manna is imported in oblong, light, and crumbly
+flakes or pieces of whitish or pale yellow colour, and somewhat transparent
+appearance. The inferior sorts are moist, unctuous, and of darker colour.
+
+Manna is a mild and agreeable laxative medicine, particularly with the
+addition of a little cinnamon water, or other warm aromatic: and it is
+useful in asthmatic complaints, as well as in inflammatory affections of
+the breast. It is sometimes counterfeited by a composition of sugar and
+honey, mixed with a small portion of scammony.
+
+The miraculous substance mentioned in the Old Testament by the name of
+manna, cannot, of course, be considered to have any alliance whatever with
+the manna thus produced. This remark would not have been made, did not
+young persons sometimes inconsiderately confound the two substances.
+
+ 276. _The ASH-TREE_ (Fraxinus excelsior, Fig. 79) _is a well-known
+ British tree, with winged leaves; the leaflets in four or five pairs,
+ with an odd one, serrated, and without footstalks; and the flowers
+ without petals._
+
+Of late years this valuable tree has been much planted in several parts of
+England. It is of hardy nature, and thrives even in barren soils. If
+planted in moist situations, the roots, spreading wide in every direction
+near the surface, have a tendency to render the ground dry and firm. The
+_timber_, which has the rare advantage of being nearly as good when young
+as when old, is white, and so hard and tough as generally to be esteemed
+next in value to oak. It is much used by coach-makers, wheel-wrights, and
+cart-wrights; and is made into ploughs, axle-trees, felloes of wheels,
+harrows, ladders, and other implements of husbandry. It is likewise used by
+ship-builders for various purposes, and by coopers for the hoops of tubs
+and barrels. Where, by frequent cutting, the wood has become knotty,
+irregular, and veined, it is in much request for cabinet-work by mechanics
+on the Continent. The best season for felling ash-trees is from November to
+February. As fuel, this tree burns better whilst wet and green than other
+wood.
+
+We are informed that, in the northern parts of Lancashire, when grass is
+scarce, the small farmers frequently cut off the tops of ash-trees to feed
+their cows with the _leaves_ and tender branches; but these are said to
+spoil the taste of the milk. Mr. Pennant states that, in the reign of Queen
+Elizabeth, the inhabitants of Colton and Hawkshead-Fells remonstrated
+against the number of forges then lately erected in that part of the
+country, because they consumed the loppings of the trees, which formed the
+sole winter food for their cattle. The leaves of ash-trees were formerly
+much used in the adulteration of tea, under the name of _smouch_; but this
+practice has of late been prohibited by act of parliament.
+
+The _bark_ of the ash-tree is employed in the tanning of calf-skins, and
+sometimes in dyeing black and other colours. The _inner bark_ has been
+proposed as a substitute for Peruvian bark, in the cure of intermittent
+fevers.
+
+ 277. _EBONY is the wood of a species of palm-tree_ (Diospiros ebenum),
+ _which grows in the island of Ceylon, and has smooth, leathery, oblong,
+ and pointed leaves, and rough-haired buds._
+
+The black and valuable substance known to us by the name of ebony, is the
+centre part only of the trees. The outside wood is white and soft, and
+either decays soon, or is destroyed by insects, which leave the black part
+untouched. Ebony is imported into this country from the East Indies. It is
+exceedingly hard and heavy, admits of being highly polished, and is
+principally used by cabinet-makers and inlayers for the veneering of
+cabinets and other ornamental work. The wood of the pear-tree, stained
+black, is frequently substituted for ebony.
+
+The ripe _fruit_ of the ebony tree is eaten by the natives of Ceylon; but
+it is astringent, and not very palatable.
+
+Linnæus was of opinion that ebony was the wood of a shrub (_ebenus
+cretica_) which grows in the island of Crete, and has silky leaves and
+rose-coloured flowers.
+
+ 278. _The PAWPAW is a fruit about the size of a small melon, but of very
+ various shape, the production of a species of palm-tree_ (carica papaya),
+ _which grows in tropical climates, both of the eastern and western parts
+ of the world._
+
+ _The tree is twenty feet and upwards in height; naked almost to the
+ summit; and marked, through its whole length, with the scars of fallen
+ leaves. Its leaves are on foot-stalks two feet in length, and deeply
+ divided into seven, nine, or eleven large lobes. The flowers are
+ axillary, white, and sweet scented._
+
+In shape the _fruit_ of the pawpaw-tree is sometimes angular, and flattened
+at both ends; sometimes oval or round; and sometimes pyramidal. When ripe
+it is of yellow colour; and contains a yellow succulent pulp, of sweetish
+taste, and aromatic smell, with many black or brown and furrowed seeds.
+This fruit is seldom eaten raw, but when boiled it is esteemed a wholesome
+sauce for fresh meat. The inhabitants of the countries where it is found
+sometimes preserve it in sugar, with oranges, and small citrons. Thus
+prepared, it may be kept a long time; and, in this state, it is not
+unfrequently brought into Europe. When about half grown, the pawpaw is
+sometimes pickled in vinegar with spices.
+
+The fruit of the trifid-fruited custard apple (_annona triloba_) is called
+pawpaw in some parts of America.
+
+The _bark_ of the pawpaw-tree is manufactured by the Indians into cordage.
+The _leaves_ are used in place of soap; and water-pipes are sometimes made
+of the _stem_ of the tree.
+
+
+TRIOECIA.
+
+
+ 279. _The FIG is the pulpy fruit of a shrub, or low tree_ (Ficus carica,
+ Fig. 83), _which is a native of the South of Europe, and some parts of
+ Asia._
+
+ _Fig-trees are branched from the bottom, and the leaves are large,
+ smooth, and irregularly divided into from three to five deep and rounded
+ lobes. The fruit grows on short and thick stalks, of purplish colour, and
+ contains a soft, sweet, and fragrant pulp, intermixed with numerous small
+ seeds._
+
+It appears from history, both sacred and profane, that the fig-tree was an
+object of attention in the earliest times. This fruit was one of the most
+common and favourite aliments of the ancient Greeks, and constituted a very
+valuable food with the peasants of some parts of Italy. Fig-trees are now
+much cultivated in Turkey, Italy, and the Levant, as well as in Spain and
+some of the southern parts of France. All the islands of the Archipelago
+yield figs in abundance, but these are in general of very inferior quality.
+
+The trees are propagated either by suckers, by layers, or by cuttings; and
+the process of increasing and ripening the fruit is an art which requires
+much attention. This, as it is practised in the Levant, is called
+_caprification_, and is performed by wounding the buds of the figs, with a
+straw or feather dipped in sweet oil at a certain period of their growth.
+
+Figs are dried either by a furnace or in the sun, after having been dipped
+in a scalding ley made of the ashes of the fig-tree. In this state they are
+used both in medicine, and as food; and are considered more wholesome and
+more easy of digestion than when fresh. They form a considerable branch of
+commerce, and are exported, in boxes of different size and shape, to nearly
+all the northern parts of Europe. When we receive them, their surface is
+usually covered with a saccharine matter which has exuded from the fruit. A
+small and cheap kind of fig is imported in small frails or baskets from
+Faro.
+
+There are numerous varieties of the fig, but the common purple kind is the
+hardiest of the whole. This is frequently cultivated in our gardens; and,
+if screened from the north-east winds, it ripens, even: with us, in
+tolerable perfection.
+
+The wood of the fig-tree is of spongy texture, and, when charged with oil
+and emery, is much used on the Continent by locksmiths, gun-smiths, and
+other artificers in iron and steel, to polish their work. It is almost
+indestructible, and on this account was formerly employed in eastern
+countries as coffins for embalmed bodies.
+
+
+
+
+----
+
+CLASS XXIV.--CRYPTOGAMIA.
+
+----
+
+
+ 280. _FERN, or BRAKE_ (Pteris aquilina), _is a well-known cryptogamous
+ plant, which grows wild on heaths, in woods, and in barren places._
+
+Though this plant is an extremely troublesome weed to the farmer, from the
+roots penetrating deep into the ground, it is applied to various uses in
+rural oeconomy. When cut and properly dried, it serves as litter for horses
+and cattle; and it supplies the place of thatch for covering the roofs of
+cottages and stacks. Where coal is scarce, it is used for the heating of
+ovens and burning of lime-stone.
+
+The _ashes_ of fern, from their yielding a tolerably pure alkali, are
+frequently used by manufacturers of glass, particularly in France. And, in
+some parts of our own country, the poor people mix these ashes with water,
+and form them into round masses which they call _fern balls_. These are
+afterwards heated in a fire, and then, with water, are made into a ley for
+the scouring of linen. They thus furnish a cheap substitute for soap.
+
+Swine are fond of the roots of fern, and will feed freely upon them. We are
+even informed that, with the inhabitants of Palma, one of the Canary
+islands, they are sometimes made to supply the place of bread.
+
+It is deserving of remark that, when the root of the fern is cut obliquely
+across, it presents a kind of figure of the Imperial or Russian eagle; from
+which circumstance Linnæus was induced to name it _Pteris aquilina_, or
+"Eagle brake."
+
+ 281. _The_ LICHENS _constitute a very numerous family of plants, which
+ grow on the bark of trees, on rocks, stones, and other substances; and
+ have an indistinct fructification, in scattered wart-like tubercles, or
+ excrescences, and smooth saucers or shields, in which the seeds are
+ imbedded._
+
+ _Some of them have a powdery appearance, and others are crustaceous,
+ leaf-like, shrub-like, herbaceous, or gelatinous._
+
+ 282. _The CALCAREOUS LICHEN_ (Lichen calcareus) _consists of a white
+ crust with black tubercles._
+
+This plant, which is found on lime-stone rocks in Wales, and the north of
+England, is used in dyeing woollen and other cloths a scarlet colour.
+
+ 283. _CRAB'S-EYE LICHEN_ (Lichen parellus) _is a crustaceous, whitish,
+ and granulated vegetable substance, with cups of the same colour, which
+ have a thick and blunt border._
+
+From this lichen, which is found on rocks and stones in mountainous
+countries, and sometimes on stones near the sea-shore, is prepared the
+bluish pigment called _litmus_. It is chiefly collected from rocks in the
+north of England, packed in casks, and sent to London for sale.
+
+ 284. _TARTAREOUS LICHEN_ (Lichen tartareus) _is a whitish, crustaceous,
+ vegetable production, with yellow cups or shields, which have a whitish
+ border._
+
+The inhabitants of the Highlands of Scotland gather this species of lichen
+from the rocks, and, after cleaning, and some further preparation, which is
+kept a secret by the manufacturers, they form it into cakes. These, when
+dried, are pulverized, and sold to dyers by the name of _cudbear_, which is
+a corruption of Cuthbert, the name of its inventor. In conjunction with
+alum, the powder of the tartareous lichen is used in dyeing scarlet, and
+also for striking a purple dye; but the colour produced by it is not very
+permanent.
+
+ 285. _ARCHELL, or PURPLE ROCK LICHEN_ (Lichen omphalodes), _is a
+ vegetable production, of somewhat crustaceous consistence, and leaf-like
+ form; the segments with many lobes, and of dark purplish brown colour,
+ with dull purple saucers._
+
+This kind of lichen grows upon rocks on the high stony moors of several
+parts of England, Wales, and Scotland. When properly prepared, it imparts
+to woollen cloth a reddish brown colour, or a dull but durable crimson. If
+wool that has been dyed with it be dipped into a blue vat, it will acquire
+a beautiful purple tinge. It is sometimes used as a styptic; and was
+formerly applied as a remedy in inflammatory fevers and other complaints;
+but, in the latter respect, it is now entirely neglected.
+
+ 286. _ORCHALL, or DYER'S LICHEN_ (Lichen rocella), _is a somewhat
+ crustaceous and shrub-like vegetable production, of nearly cylindrical
+ form, solid, without leaves, but little branched, and with blackish brown
+ alternate tubercles._
+
+In the Canary and Cape de Verd Islands, as well as in the Grecian
+Archipelago, orchall is found in great abundance. It likewise grows in
+Guernsey and in some parts of England, and is employed by dyers chiefly for
+giving a bloom to other colours. This is effected by passing the dyed cloth
+or silk through hot water slightly impregnated with it; but the bloom thus
+communicated soon decays after it has been exposed to the air. When
+prepared in a peculiar manner, orchall yields a rich purple tincture,
+fugitive indeed, but very beautiful. Mixed with a solution of tin it is
+said to dye a permanent scarlet. Orchall is the substance generally adopted
+for colouring the spirits of thermometers. And it is a remarkable
+circumstance that, as exposure to the air destroys its colour upon cloth,
+so the exclusion of the air produces, in a few years, a like effect upon
+the fluid in those tubes; but on breaking the tubes the colour is restored.
+
+ 287. _ICELAND LICHEN_ (Lichen islandicus) _is a leafy, membranous,
+ vegetable production, of brownish green colour, jagged at the edges, and
+ fringed, having large and purplish brown saucers or shields._
+
+The name of this lichen is derived from that of the island in which it
+chiefly grows. It is, however, also found in the Highlands of Scotland, and
+in some of the northern parts both of England and Wales.
+
+It abounds with nutritious mucilage; and, after having been steeped in
+water to extract its bitter and laxative qualities, it is sometimes used as
+medicine in coughs and consumptions. One ounce of Iceland lichen, boiled in
+a pint of water, yields about seven ounces of mucilage. The inhabitants of
+Iceland prepare from it a kind of gruel, which they mix with milk. They
+also boil it in several waters, and then dry and make it into bread. In
+Germany a durable brown dye is made by means of it; and, under another mode
+of preparation, it imparts an excellent black tinge to white woollen yarn.
+
+ 288. _BLADDER FUCUS_ (Fucus vesiculosus) _is a species of sea-weed, of
+ flat shape, with a middle rib, the edges entire, forked, and sometimes
+ tumid at the ends, and furnished with several air bladders imbedded in
+ the substance of the plant._
+
+By far the most important application of this, one of the commonest of all
+our marine plants, is for the making of _kelp_, which, in Scotland, affords
+employment to many industrious families. So lucrative and so highly
+esteemed is the bladder fucus, and some other plants nearly allied to it,
+that the natives of several parts of the Western Islands have rolled large
+masses of stone into the sea, with a view to promote and extend their
+growth.
+
+For the preparation of kelp these plants are dried, by exposure for some
+time to the sun and air. They are then burnt by degrees in a kelp furnace,
+which is generally a round hole dug in the earth. When the furnace is
+nearly filled with the remains of the burnt sea-weeds, the whole is briskly
+agitated with a rake or hook, till it is compacted, or becomes of a shining
+glutinous consistence, in appearance not unlike melted iron. It is then
+allowed to cool, and is afterwards placed in storehouses for exportation.
+In this state it is an impure kind of carbonat of soda. In the Orkney
+Islands every consideration is sacrificed to the making of kelp, nearly
+3,000 tons of which are annually sent to market and sold at Leith,
+Newcastle, and other places, at the rate of from seven to ten pounds per
+ton of twenty-one hundred weight.
+
+The inhabitants of Gothland boil this plant with coarse meal, as food for
+swine; and the poorer classes of Scania thatch their cottages with it, and
+also employ it as fuel. In the Hebrides it is customary to dry cheese,
+without using any salt, by covering it with the ashes of the bladder fucus,
+which abound in saline particles. This and other sea-weeds serve as a
+winter food for cattle, which regularly frequent the shores for them at the
+ebb of the tide: they are also used as manure for land.
+
+A soapy liquor which is found in the bladders of this plant is sometimes
+externally applied as a medicine for dispersing scrofulous and scorbutic
+swellings, by simply bruising them in the hand and rubbing them on the
+parts affected. When this plant is calcined or burnt in the open air, a
+black and saline powder is produced, which, under the name of _vegetable
+æthiops_, has been recommended as a dentrifice, and for other uses.
+
+ 289. _EATABLE WINGED FUCUS, or BLADDERLOCKS_ (Fucus esculentus), _is a
+ simple, undivided, and sword-shaped sea-weed, which is olive-coloured,
+ and sometime several yards in length_. _Its stem is four-cornered, runs
+ through the whole length of the leaf, and is winged at the base._
+
+This plant, which is very common on some of the shores of Scotland, and
+also on those of Cornwall, and several parts of North Wales, is a grateful
+food to cattle; and its stalk, when boiled, constitutes a very favourite
+dish in Scotland. The proper season for gathering it is the month of
+September, when it is in higher perfection than at any other time of the
+year.
+
+ 290. _SWEET FUCUS_ (Fucus saccharinus) _is a simple, undivided, and
+ sword-shaped sea-weed, without any rib, of leathery consistence, and
+ tawny green colour; and frequently five or six feet in length_. _Its
+ stalk is round and hard._
+
+This plant abounds on all our sea-shores: and, if slightly washed from the
+sea-water, and dried in the air, it becomes covered with a sweet powdery
+efflorescence. It is edible either in a raw state, or boiled as a pot-herb.
+Sometimes it is hung up to serve the purpose of an hygrometer, which it
+does in some degree by becoming flaccid during a moist state of the
+atmosphere, and hard in dry weather.
+
+ 291. _DULSE, or RED PALMATE FUCUS_ (Fucus palmatus), _is a flat,
+ membranous, and hand-shaped, sea-weed, of brownish crimson colour, smooth
+ on both sides, and without any mid-rib._
+
+In the markets of Edinburgh, and other parts of Scotland, this plant, which
+is common on most of the British shores, is exposed for sale as an article
+of food. After having been washed in fresh water, it is eaten raw, by
+itself, in salad, or by poor people with other provisions. Sometimes it is
+boiled and used as a pot-herb. If gradually dried, it gives out a whitish
+powdery substance, which covers the whole plant, and has a sweet and
+agreeable taste, somewhat resembling that of violets. In this state it is
+frequently packed in casks for exportation. Some persons chew it as
+tobacco. In Scotland it is occasionally used as a medicine, and it is
+supposed to sweeten the breath and destroy worms.
+
+ 292. _GREEN or EDIBLE LAVER_ (Ulva lactuca) _is a thin, membranous,
+ pellucid, and green vegetable substance, which is found on rocks, stones,
+ and shells, in the sea and salt-water ditches in nearly all parts of
+ Great Britain._
+
+Of late years this plant, stewed with lemon juice, has been introduced to
+the tables of the luxurious, as a sauce to be eaten with roast meat. Though
+in a recent state it has a salt and bitterish flavour, and even when thus
+prepared is not always relished at first, yet by habit most persons become
+partial to it. The laver which is consumed in London is chiefly prepared in
+the west of England, and packed in pots in a state ready for the table.
+Some persons use laver medicinally, and it is esteemed wholesome for
+scrofulous habits; but it can scarcely be taken in sufficient quantity to
+do much good, without having too strong an effect on the bowels.
+
+ 293. _The MORELL_ (Phallus esculentus, Fig. 84) _is a kind of fungus with
+ a naked and wrinkled stem, and an egg-shaped head, full of cells on its
+ external surface._
+
+As an ingredient for thickening and heightening the flavour of sauces and
+soups, morells, which are chiefly found in woods and hedges in a loamy
+soil, are in great esteem. For this purpose, after they are gathered, they
+are strung upon pack-thread to be dried; and, when dry, they may be kept
+without injury for many months.
+
+In Germany, the persons employed in gathering morells found that they
+always grew most abundantly in woods that had been burnt: and, with a view
+of promoting their increase, they were accustomed to set fire to the woods,
+until this practice was prohibited by the Government. Useful and palatable
+as these plants are, it has been ascertained that, if gathered after having
+been exposed for some days to wet weather, they are extremely pernicious.
+
+ 294. _The TRUFFLE_ (Tuber cibarium) _is a globular, solid, and warty
+ fungus, without root, which grows at the depth of four or five inches
+ beneath the surface of the earth, and is from the size of a pea to that
+ of a potatoe._
+
+This, one of the best of the edible funguses, is chiefly found in hilly
+woods and pastures, which have a sandy or clayey bottom; and occurs on the
+downs of Wiltshire, Hampshire, and Kent. Truffles are generally discovered
+by means of dogs, which are taught to hunt for them by scent; and wherever
+they smell one of them, they bark, and scratch it up. In Italy they are
+hunted, in somewhat similar manner, by pigs.
+
+Truffles are either served at table roasted in a fresh state like potatoes,
+or they are cut into slices and dried, as an ingredient for sauces and
+soups. Those that are most delicious are internally of white colour, and
+have somewhat the odour of garlic.
+
+In England truffles seldom exceed the weight of four or five ounces; whilst
+on the Continent they are known to weigh as much as fifteen or sixteen
+ounces each.
+
+ 295. _The PUFF-BALL_ (Lycoperdon bovista) _is a round kind of fungus,
+ which is filled with a soft whitish flesh when young, and a fine brown
+ powder when ripe._
+
+The _powder_ of the puff-ball is sometimes used as a styptic, to prevent
+the bleeding of recent wounds. This powder is extremely subtile, and is
+very injurious to the eyes. Instances have occurred of persons who, having
+had it blown into their face, have thereby been deprived of their sight for
+a considerable time; and have also been affected with violent pain and
+inflammation.
+
+There is a curious experiment of taking a shilling from the bottom of a
+vessel of water, without wetting the hand. This is said to be effected by
+strewing a small quantity of the dust of the puff-ball on the surface; it
+so strongly repels the fluid as to form a covering for the fingers, and
+defend them from the contact of the water.
+
+The fumes of the puff-ball, when burnt, have a powerfully narcotic quality;
+and, on this account, they are sometimes used to take the combs from hives
+without destroying the bees.
+
+ 296. _The COMMON MUSHROOM_ (Agaricus campestris) _is a fungus consisting
+ of a white cylindrical stalk and a convex cover of white or brownish
+ colour, which has beneath an irregular arrangement of gills, pinky when
+ young, but afterwards of dark liver colour._
+
+ _When it first appears above ground the mushroom is smooth and nearly
+ globular, and in this state it is called a_ button.
+
+In England mushrooms are in great demand for the table. They are found wild
+in parks, and other pastures where the turf has not been ploughed for many
+years; and the best time for gathering them is in the months of August and
+September.
+
+They are eaten fresh, either stewed or broiled; and are preserved for use
+either by drying, by being pickled, or in powder. They are also employed in
+making the well-known sauce called mushroom ketchup. As an article of food,
+however, mushrooms are by no means wholesome, being so tough, and having so
+great a resemblance to soft leather, as to be almost indigestible. This is
+particularly the case when they are of large size.
+
+Mushrooms may be raised artificially on beds constructed for the purpose,
+even in cellars; for if they have only warmth and moisture, the plants will
+vegetate without light; but the most proper situations for them are under
+sheds in the open air. The plants thus grown, however, have more toughness
+than such as grow wild in the fields; and, in other respects, are much
+inferior to them.
+
+297. There is a kind of mushroom (_Agaricus georgii_) which is yellowish,
+with yellowish white gills, and when full grown is sometimes so large as to
+measure eighteen inches across. This is occasionally eaten, but, in many
+instances, the use of it has been attended with injurious consequences.
+
+298. In Covent Garden market a tall and spongy kind of mushroom (_Agaricus
+procerus_), with white gills, and a large horizontal ring round the stem,
+is frequently exposed for sale about the month of September.
+
+299. On hedge-banks, in pastures, and in what are called fairy-rings, there
+is a species of mushroom (_Agaricus orcades_), with brownish or watery
+white gills, two or four in a set, a pale brown, convex, and irregular
+cover, and a whitish stem. These are considered by many persons to be the
+_champignons_ of the French cooks. They have a much higher flavour than the
+common mushroom: but from their leathery nature are indigestible, except in
+the form of powder, with sauces, or in ketchup, in all of which they are
+very admirable.
+
+With respect to the plants of the mushroom tribe, it ought to be observed
+that, though several of them are edible, many are extremely poisonous.
+Instances of the fatal effects arising from an indiscriminate adoption of
+them are innumerable. Great caution, therefore, is requisite that such only
+shall be used as are ascertained to be wholesome, particularly as, in many
+instances, the poisonous species can scarcely be distinguished by the eye
+from such as are innoxious. In cases of injury arising from poisonous
+funguses, the best remedy that can be administered is an emetic.
+
+ 300. _SPUNK, or TOUCHWOOD_ (Boletus igniarius), _is a fungus somewhat
+ shaped like a horse's hoof, with pores on the under side, and the upper
+ part very hard and smooth, but marked with circular bands or ridges of
+ different colours._
+
+ _It grows horizontally on the trunks and large branches of several kinds
+ of trees, when old and decayed._
+
+In Germany, and in some parts of England, this fungus is used as tinder,
+for which, on account of its readily catching fire, it is well adapted. It
+is prepared by being boiled in a strong ley, dried, and again boiled in a
+solution of salt-petre. In Franconia pieces of the inner substance of the
+spunk are beaten so as to resemble leather, and are sewed together for
+making garments. The inhabitants of Lapland frequently burn it about their
+cottages, to keep off a species of gad-fly which is peculiarly injurious to
+the young rein-deer.
+
+This fungus is often employed as a styptic for the stopping of blood. When
+intended for this use, the exterior hard substance is pared off, and the
+coat underneath is separated from the porous part, and well beaten with a
+hammer, until it becomes pliable. Thus prepared it is kept dry, in slices
+of convenient size, for use; and, although it is not so much esteemed in
+this country as it was some years ago, many of the continental surgeons
+have a very high opinion of its efficacy.
+
+INDEX
+
+TO THE
+
+SECOND VOLUME.
+
+----
+
+ Abele. See Poplar, great white.
+ Acacia, 262
+ Acorns, uses of, 223
+ Alder, wood, bark, branches, and leaves, uses of, 211
+ Alkanet, description, properties, and uses of, 42
+ Alligator pear, description and uses of, 120
+ All-spice. See Pimento.
+ Almond, common or sweet, description of, 140
+ ----, whence obtained, how imported, and uses of, 140
+ ----, oil and milk of, how prepared, 141
+ ----, bitter, description and uses of, 141
+ Aloe, American, description, culture, and uses of, 96, 97
+ Aloes, description of several kinds, 93, 94
+ ----, leaves, stems, and juice, uses of, 93, 94
+ ----, Socotrine, description, culture, preparation, and uses of, 94
+ ----, Barbadoes, common, or hepatic, 95
+ ----, Caballine, or horse, 96
+ Anise-seeds, description and uses of, 81
+ Apple, fruit and wood, uses of, 147, 148
+ Apricot, fruit, kernels, gum, and wood, uses of, 143
+ Archell, description and use of, 270
+ Areca, description and uses of, 231, 232
+ Arnatto, or annotta, description of, how prepared, and uses of, 157
+ Arrack, from what prepared, 106, 218
+ Arrow-root, what it is, how prepared, and uses of, 9, 10
+ ----, how adulterated, 10
+ Artichoke, flowers, leaves, and stalks, uses of, 197
+ ----, Jerusalem, description, culture, and uses of, 201
+ Arum, common, description and uses of, 218, 219
+ Asafoetida, description and uses of, 77
+ ----, how obtained and exported, 77, 78
+ Ash-tree, wood, leaves, and bark, uses of, 264
+ Asparagus, description, cultivation, and uses of, 92, 93
+ Aspen. See Poplar, trembling.
+
+ B.
+ Balsam, Friar's, or Turlington's, from what made, 130
+ Bamboo canes, description and uses of, 100, 101
+ Banana, description and uses of, 269
+ Barberry, fruit, bark, and roots, uses of, 100
+ Barilla, description of, and how prepared for use, 73
+ Barley, cultivation and uses of, 27
+ ----, pearl, how made, and uses of, 28
+ ----, sugar, how made, 22
+ Bay, common sweet, description and uses of, 119, 120
+ Bay plum. See Guava.
+ Beans, culture and uses of, 184
+ Beech-tree, wood, fruit, and leaves, uses of, 220
+ Beet, description and uses of, 71, 72
+ Benjamin, gum. See Benzoin.
+ Bent-grass, 32
+ Benzoin, description of, how prepared, and uses of, 129, 131
+ Bergamot, how prepared, 195
+ Betel, what it is, and use of, 15
+ Betel-nut. See Areca.
+ Bilberries, uses of, 113
+ Birch-tree, wood, bark, twigs, leaves, and sap, uses of, 210
+ Bird-lime, how made, uses and properties of, 41
+ Blackberries, uses of, 152
+ Bleaberries. See Bilberries.
+ Blend-corn, 28
+ Boabab. See Sour gourd.
+ Bore cole, 176
+ Bottle gourd, description and uses of, 209
+ Box-tree, value and uses of, 215
+ Brake, description and uses of, 268
+ Bran, uses of, 26
+ Brandy, whence obtained, and how made, 69
+ ----, distilled from potatoes and carrots, 55, 75
+ Brank. See Buck wheat.
+ Bread, prepared from turnips, arum roots, acorns, cassava, and sago, 175,
+ 219, 224, 239, 256
+ Bread-fruit, description and uses of, 203, 204
+ ----, tree, bark, juice, and flowers, uses of, 204, 205
+ Brocoli, 176
+ Broom, common, twigs, seeds, bark, &c., uses of, 181
+ ----, Spanish, description and uses of, 181
+ Buck-bean, or bog-bean, description and uses of, 43
+ Buck-thorn, syrup, and bark, uses of, 56
+ Buck-wheat, description, cultivation, and uses of, 114
+ Bullace plums, description and uses of, 144
+ ---- cheese, from what prepared, 144
+ Bull-rush, uses of, 31
+ Burgundy wine, 64
+ Burgundy pitch, of what made, and uses of, 236
+
+ C.
+ Cabbage, common, culture and uses of, 176
+ ---- tree, description and uses of, 230
+ Cacao. See Chocolate.
+ ----, butter of, 192
+ Cajeput oil, what it is, and uses of, 195, 196
+ Calabash tree, description and uses of, 170
+ ----, African. See Sour gourd.
+ Calyx, or flower-cup, 1
+ Camomile, description and uses of, 199, 200
+ Camphor, description, how obtained, and uses of, 117-119
+ Canary wine, 68
+ ---- grass, 33
+ Canes, walking, description of, and whence obtained, 100
+ ----, rattan, description and uses, 100
+ ----, bamboo, description and uses, 100-102
+ Caoutchouc. See Indian rubber.
+ Cape madeira wine, 68
+ Capers, description of, how prepared, and uses of, 153
+ ----, substitutes for, 154, 181
+ Capsicum, different kinds and uses of, 56
+ Carraway, how cultivated, and uses of, 81
+ Cardamoms, description, culture, and uses of, 8, 9
+ Cardoon, description and uses of, 198
+ Carriage grease, of what made, 235
+ Carrot, cultivation and uses of, 74, 75
+ Cashew-nut-tree and fruit, description and uses of, 121-123
+ Cassava, or cassada, description and uses of, 238
+ Cassia, and cassia buds, description and uses of, 117
+ ----, officinal, description and uses of, 126, 127
+ Castor-oil, how prepared, and uses of, 242
+ Catechu. See Areca.
+ Cauliflower, 176
+ Cayenne pepper, how made, and uses of, 56, 57
+ Cedar, red or common, description and uses of, 257
+ Celery, uses of, 82
+ Champaigne wine, 66
+ Champignons, description and use of, 277
+ Charcoal, durability and uses of, 224
+ ----, vapour of, in what respect pernicious, 225
+ Cherry-tree, fruit, wood, and gum, uses of, 142
+ ---- brandy, how made, 142
+ Chesnut, horse, fruit, husks, wood, and bark, uses of, 106
+ ----, sweet, wood and fruit, properties and uses of, 220
+ China, broken, how to cement, 89
+ Chives, description and uses of, 91
+ Chocolate, description, cultivation, preparation, and use of, 190, 191
+ Cider, and cider wine, how made, 148
+ Cinnamon, description, preparation, and uses of, 115, 117
+ ----, oil of, 116
+ ----, wild. See Cassia.
+ Citron, description and uses of, 192
+ Claret, 66
+ Clover, cultivation and use of, 187
+ Cloves, description, culture, preparation, and uses of, 164
+ ----, oil of, 165
+ Cocoa-nut-tree and fruit, kernels, milk, husks, shells, &c, uses of, 216
+ Coffee-tree, description of, and how cultivated, 47
+ ----, history of the use of, 48, 49
+ ----, Mocha, West India, and Java, 49
+ ----, how roasted, and use of, 49
+ ----, substitutes for, 181, 184
+ Cole-seed. See Rape-seed.
+ Colewort, 176
+ Constantia wine, 68
+ Copal, description, preparation, and use of, 83
+ ----, varnish, how made, 83
+ Coriander, cultivation and uses of, 79
+ Corinths. See Currants.
+ Cork, how collected and prepared for use, and uses of, 225
+ Cork cutting, how performed, 226
+ Corolla or blossom, 2
+ Côte rotie wine, 66
+ Cotton, description, culture, and preparation of, 179
+ ----, uses of, and trade in, 180
+ Court plaster, how made, 130
+ Cowage, or cow-itch, description and uses of, 182, 183
+ Cowslip, use of, flowers, roots, and leaves, 43
+ Crab-tree fruit, uses of, 147
+ Cracow groats, 26
+ Cranberries, description and uses of, 112
+ Cuckoo fruit. See Arum.
+ Cucumber, common, culture and uses of, 207
+ Currants, dried, what they are, and whence obtained, 70
+ ----, how cultivated and prepared for use, 71
+ ----, red, juice, and inner bark, uses of, 60, 61
+ Currants, black, leaves and berries, uses of, 61
+ Curry powder, of what made, 9
+ Cypress powder, of what made, 219
+ Cypress-tree, description and uses of, 237
+
+ D.
+ Date-tree, description, cultivation, and management of, 246, 247
+ ----, fruit, wood, pith, and leaves, uses of, 247, 248
+ Deals, yellow and red, 233
+ Dragon's-blood-tree, description and uses of, 98, 99
+ Dulse, description, preparation, and use of, 273
+ Dutch pink, from what prepared, 136
+
+ E.
+ Ebony, description and uses of, 265
+ Eschalote. See Shallot.
+ Elder, common, wood, bark, leaves, flowers, berries, &c. uses of, 83
+ Elm-trees, timber, bark, and leaves, uses of, 73
+ Endive, culture and uses of, 199
+
+ F.
+ Fan-palm, description and uses of, 98
+ Fennel leaves, stalks, seeds, and roots, uses of, 80
+ Fern, description and uses of, 268
+ Ferula, stalks of, how anciently used, 78
+ Fig-trees and figs, description, cultivation, and uses of, 267
+ Filbert, 228
+ Fir, Scots, description of, timber and bark, uses of, 232, 233
+ ----, turpentine, resin, tar and pitch, how obtained from, 232, 233
+ ----, spruce, description and uses of, 235
+ Flax, description of, cultivation, preparation, and uses of, 85
+ ----, Oil made from the seeds of, 86
+ Flummery, what it is, and how made, 23
+ Fox-glove, description and uses of, 169
+ Frontignac wine, 66
+ Fructification of vegetables, 1
+ Fucus, bladder, description and use of, 271
+ ----, eatable, winged, 272
+ ----, sweet, and red palmate, 273
+ Furze, uses of, 182
+
+ G.
+ Galls, use of, 223
+ Gamboge, description of, how obtained, and uses of, 135
+ Garlic, description and uses of, 89
+ Gentian, description and uses of, 74, 75
+ Gerkins, 207
+ Gilead, balm or balsam of, how obtained, and uses of, 108
+ Gin, with what flavoured, 257
+ Ginger, description, cultivation, preparation, and uses of, 7
+ Glass, broken, how to cement, 89
+ Gooseberries, uses of, 61
+ Gorze, uses of, 182
+ Grafting of fruit-trees, how performed, and use of, 147
+ Grapes, uses of, 69, 70
+ Grass, sweet-scented vernal, uses of, 30
+ ----, cotton, meadow, fox-tail, and Timothy or meadow cat's tail, 31
+ ----, Fiorin or Orcheston long, 32
+ ----, meadow soft, or Yorkshire white canary, purple melic, and reed
+ meadow, 33
+ ----, smooth-stalked meadow, and annual meadow, 34
+ ----, crested dog's tail, sheep's fescue, hard fescue, and flote fescue,
+ 35
+ ----, rye or ray, 37
+ ----, couch or squitch, 38
+ Grits or groats, what they are, 23
+ Guava, description and uses of, 137
+ Guiacum, gum, how obtained, and uses of, 127
+ Gum arabic, how and whence obtained, and uses of, 261
+ ----, Senegal, 262
+ ----, Sandarach, 257
+
+ H.
+ Hazel nut tree and fruit, uses of, 228
+ Heath, common, stalks, tops, flowers, leaves, and seeds, uses of, 113
+ Hemp, description of, how cultivated and prepared for use, 249
+ ----, fimble, karle, or seed, 249
+ ----, seed and stalks, uses of, 249
+ Heps, conserve of, 151
+ Hermitage wine, 66
+ Hickory nut, 227
+ Hock wine, 68
+ Holly-tree, wood, leaves, berries, and bark, uses of, 14
+ Hops, description and mode of culture of, 250, 251
+ ----, how picked, dried, and prepared for use, and uses of, 251
+ ----, substitutes for, in brewing, 43, 135
+ Hornbeam, description and uses of, 229
+ Horse-radish, description and uses of, 172
+
+ I. J.
+ Iceland lichen, description, preparation, and use of, 271
+ Indian corn. See Maize.
+ Indian rubber-tree, description of, 240
+ ----, how obtained and prepared for use, and uses of, 241
+ Indigo, description, cultivation, preparation, and uses of, 188, 189
+ Ipecacuanha, description, history, and use of, 62, 63
+ Iris, common, description and uses of, 18
+ Jack-fruit, description and uses of, 205, 206
+ Jalap, description of, whence obtained, and uses of, 43
+ Jasmine, oil of, how prepared, 12
+ Jesuit's bark. See Peruvian bark.
+ Jesuit's drops, from what made, 130
+ Juniper, berries, wood, bark, and gum, uses of, 256
+
+ K.
+ Kale, Dorsetshire, 176
+ ----, Sea, description, cultivation, and uses of, 171
+ Kelp, preparation, value, and uses of, 271
+
+ L.
+ Lachryma Christi wine, 67
+ Ladanum, or Labdanum, how collected, and uses of, 166
+ Lamp black, how made, and uses of, 235
+ Larch, wood, bark, and sap, uses of, 236
+ Laudanum, how prepared, and uses of, 156
+ Lavender, description and culture of, 167
+ ----, flowers, oil, and spirit of, 168
+ ----, water, how prepared, 168
+ Laver, green or edible, description, preparation, and use of, 274
+ Leeks, description and uses of, 89
+ Lemon, description and uses of, 192
+ ----, essential salt of, from what prepared, 193
+ Lettuce, culture and uses of, 198
+ Lichen, calcareous, description and uses of, 269
+ ----, crab's eye, and tartareous, 269
+ ----, purple rock, and dyer's, 270
+ ----, Iceland, 271
+ Lignum vitæ, wood, resin, bark, and flowers, use& of, 127
+ Lime, a species of lemon, description and uses of, 194
+ Lime, or Linden-tree, flowers, wood, juice, leaves, and seed, uses of,
+ 158
+ Line-seeds, what they are, and uses of, 86
+ Linseed oil, how prepared, and use of, 86
+ Ling. See Heath.
+ Liquorice, description, cultivation, and uses of, 186, 187
+ ----, Spanish, how made, and uses of, 187
+ Lisbon wine, 65
+ Logwood, description of, how obtained, and uses of, 131, 132
+ Lords and Ladies. See Arum.
+ Lucern, description, cultivation, and uses of, 188
+
+ M.
+ Macaroni, of what made, and uses of, 26
+ Mace, what it is, how prepared for use, and uses of, 246
+ Madder, description, preparation, property, and uses of, 39
+ Madeira wine, 68
+ Mahogany, description of, and how obtained, 132
+ ----, Honduras and Jamaica, 133
+ ----, when first introduced, and uses of, 134
+ Maize, description and culture of, 206
+ ----, seed, husks, stalks, &c. uses of, 206, 207
+ Malaga wine, 66
+ Malmsey Madeira, 66
+ Malt, how made, and used, 27
+ Mangel wurzel, description and uses of, 72
+ Mangoes, description and use of, 59
+ ----, imitations of, 59, 207
+ Manna, description of, how obtained, and uses of, 263
+ ----, seeds, what they are, and uses of, 36
+ Maple, common, description and uses of, 110
+ ----, sugar, description of, 110
+ ---- ----, juice and wood, uses of, 111
+ Maslin, what it is, 28
+ Mastic, description of, mode of obtaining, and uses of, 248
+ ----, wood and varnish, 249
+ Matweed, sea, uses of, 37
+ Medlar, description and uses of, 146
+ Melon, common or musk, description, culture, and uses of, 207
+ ----, water, description and uses of, 209
+ Millet, description and use of, 260
+ Mint, common or spear, description and uses of, 168
+ ----, pepper, description and uses of, 169
+ Molasses, how made, 21
+ Morell, description and use of, 274
+ Moselle wine, 67
+ Mulberry-tree, fruit, juice, leaves, and bark, uses of, 214
+ ----, cider, how made, 214
+ ----, white, 215
+ Muscadel wine, 66
+ Mushroom, common, description of, how grown, and use of, 276
+ ----, description and uses of various kinds, 276, 277
+ Mustard, description and uses of, and how adulterated, 172
+ Myrrh, what it is, whence obtained, and uses of, 262
+ Myrtle common, description and use of, 137
+
+ N.
+ Nankeen dye (Scot's), of what made, 157
+ Nectarine, 140
+ Nettle, common, leaves, tops, stalks, roots, flowers, and seed, uses of,
+ 213, 214
+ Nettle stings, description of, 214
+ Nightshade, deadly, description, injurious effects, and uses of, 53, 54
+ Nutmeg tree, description of, 244
+ Nutmegs, how gathered and prepared for use, and uses of, 245
+ Nut-oil, from what prepared, 228
+ Nux vomica, description and uses of, 58
+
+ O.
+ Oak tree, wood, bark, saw-dust, and acorns, uses of, 222-225
+ Oatmeal, uses of, 24
+ Oats, mode of cultivation and uses of, 24
+ Oil-cake, of what made, and uses of, 87, 174
+ Olive tree, description and uses of, 11, 12
+ ---- oil, how prepared and uses of, 11
+ Olives, how prepared for use, and uses of, 11
+ Onion, Canadian or tree, description and uses of, 90
+ ----, common, description and uses of, 91
+ ----, Portugal and Spanish, 91
+ Opium, how obtained, properties and uses of, 154, 155
+ ----, how cultivated in England, 155
+ ----, how adulterated, 154
+ Orange, flowers, juice and peel, uses of, 194, 195
+ ----, Seville or bitter, 195
+ Orchall, description, preparation, and use of, 270
+ Orders of plants, 4
+ Orenberg gum, of what made, 237
+ Orris root, description and uses of, 17
+ Osier, wood and bark, uses of, 243
+ Ottar of roses, from what made and how adulterated, 150
+ Owler. See Alder.
+
+ P.
+ Paddy. See Rice.
+ Paper made from vegetable productions of different kinds, 18, 28, 101,
+ 185, 215, 243
+ Papyrus, description, preparation, and uses of, 18, 19
+ Parsley, leaves, roots, and seed, uses of, 82
+ Parsnips, how cultivated, and uses of, 79
+ Pawpaw, description and uses of, fruit, bark, leaves, and stem, 266
+ Peach, fruit, kernels, flowers, and leaves, uses of, 139
+ Pear, fruit, wood, and leaves, uses of, 146
+ Pearl barley, how made, and uses of, 28
+ Peas, cultivation and uses of, 185, 186
+ ----, everlasting, use of, 186
+ Pepper, black, how cultivated and prepared for use, 13
+ ----, white, what it is, and how prepared, 13
+ ----, uses of, and how adulterated, 14
+ ----, long, description and uses of, 14, 15
+ ----, Guinea, description and uses of, 57
+ Perry, of what made, 147
+ Peruvian bark, whence obtained, how prepared for, use, and uses of, 45
+ Petals, 2
+ Pimento, description and cultivation of, 138, 139
+ ----, how collected and prepared for use, and uses of, 138
+ Pine, Weymouth, description and uses of, 235
+ Pines, fruit, description, history, cultivation, and uses of, 87
+ Pistil, 2
+ Pitch, how prepared, and uses of, 234, 235
+ Plane tree, description and uses of, 230
+ Plantain tree, description and uses of, 259
+ Plum, common, description and uses of, 143
+ ----, French, 44
+ ----, bullace, fruit, flowers, and wood, uses of, 144
+ Pomegranate, description and uses of, 141, 142
+ Pontac wine, 66
+ Pontefract cakes, how made, and uses of, 187
+ Poplar, great white, description and uses of, 253, 254
+ ----, trembling, 254
+ ----, black, 254
+ ----, Lombardy or Italian, 255
+ Poppy, white, description, cultivation, and uses of, 154, 155
+ Port-wine, 65
+ Potatoe, roots, stalks, and apples, uses of, 54-56
+ Pounce, from what prepared, 257
+ Prunes, 144
+ Puff-ball, description and use of, 275
+ Pumpkin or pompion, description and uses of, 208
+
+ Q.
+ Quassia, description, history, and uses of, 134, 135
+ Quince, description and uses of, 149, 150
+ Quincy berries. See Currants, black.
+
+ R.
+ Rack or arrack, from what prepared, 218
+ Raisins, how prepared, and uses of, 70
+ Rape, culture and uses of, 70
+ Raspberry, uses of, 152
+ ----, brandy, how made, 152
+ Rattan, description and uses of, 100
+ Receptacle, 3
+ Reed, common, uses of, 36
+ Resin, common and yellow, how prepared, and uses of, 233
+ Rhenish wine, 67
+ Rhubarb, officinal or Turkey, how obtained, and uses of, 123
+ ----, how cultivated in England, 124
+ Rhubarb, common, description and uses of, 125
+ Rice, description, culture, and preparation of, 104-106
+ ----, uses of, 105
+ Rush, common, description, preparation, and uses of, 102
+ Root of Scarcity. See Mangel Wurzel.
+ Rose, common garden, uses of, 150
+ ----, hep or wild briar, flowers, fruit, and leaves, 151
+ ----, red officinal, uses of, 152
+ Roses, ottar or oil of, how made, 150
+ ----, conserve and syrup of, 150
+ ----, honey of, 152
+ Rose wood, description and uses of, 110
+ Rosin. See Resin.
+ Rotang. See Dragon's Blood-tree.
+ Rota wine, 66
+ Rum, how prepared, 23
+ Rye, uses of, 28
+
+ S.
+ Saffron, description, culture, preparation, and uses of, 16, 17
+ Sago, description, preparation, and uses of, 255
+ Saint-foin, description, cultivation, and uses of, 187
+ Salad oil. See Olive oil.
+ Salep, what it is, how prepared, and uses of, 202
+ Sallow, common, 244
+ Saloop, what it is, 121
+ Samphire, rock, how obtained and uses of, 76
+ ----, marsh, 76
+ Sandal wood, description and use of, 40
+ Sap-green, of what made, 57
+ Sassafras, description and uses of, 121
+ Saunders, yellow, description and use of, 40
+ Saxon, blue and green, what made from, 189
+ Scammony, what, how obtained, and uses of, 44
+ Sea Kale, description, mode of culture, and uses of, 171
+ Seed vessel, 2
+ Semolina, of what made, and use of, 26
+ Senna, description and uses of, 125
+ Shaddock, description and uses of, 195
+ Shalot, description and uses of, 90
+ Sherry wine, 66
+ Shoe-maker's wax, of what made, 235
+ Sloe, fruit, flowers, bark, leaves, and wood, uses of, 145
+ Smouch, what it is, 164
+ Snuff, how made, 52
+ Soda. See Barilla.
+ Sour-crout, of what made, 176
+ Sour-gourd, description and uses of, 178
+ Sowins, 24
+ Soy, description, preparation, and use of, 133
+ Spanish black, of what made, 226
+ Spart. See Broom.
+ Spruce, essence of, from what prepared, and uses of, 236
+ Spunk or Touchwood, description and use of, 277
+ Squinancy berries. See Currants, black.
+ Stamens, 2
+ Starch, prepared from different vegetable productions, 25, 55, 107, 219,
+ 221
+ Stone blue, what made from, 189
+ Storax, description, mode of obtaining, and use of, 131
+ Stramonium, description, properties, and uses of, 50
+ Strawberries, uses of, 153
+ Sugar, how manufactured, 19, 20
+ ----, muscovado or raw, and clayed, 21
+ ----, how refined, 21
+ ----, loaf or lump, 22
+ ----, candy, how made, 22
+ ----, uses of, 22
+ ----, cane, description and cultivation of, 19
+ ----, mode of obtaining sugar from, 20
+ Sunflowers, description and uses of, 201
+ Sycamore tree, description and uses of, 111, 112
+
+ T.
+ Tallow tree, description and uses of, 240
+ Tamarinds, description, preparation, and use of, 177
+ Tapioca, description, preparation, and use of, 239
+ Tar, how prepared, and uses of, 234
+ ----, water, 234
+ Tarragon, description and use of, 200
+ ----, vinegar, how prepared, 200
+ Tea, tree, description and culture of, 159, 160
+ ----, how collected, dried, and packed, 159
+ ----, how used by the Chinese and Japanese, 160
+ ----, difference between black and green, 160
+ ----, green, how prepared, 162
+ ----, bohea, why so called, and how prepared, 160
+ ----, congo, souchong, and Pekoe, 161, 162
+ ----, Singlo, hyson, and gunpowder, 162, 163
+ ----, history of the use of in Europe, 163
+ ----, trade and uses of, 163
+ ----, how adulterated, 164
+ Teak tree, description and uses of, 59
+ Teasel, description and uses of, 38
+ Teneriffe wine, 68
+ Tent wine, 67
+ Tobacco, description, culture, preparation, and uses of, 50
+ Toddy, from what prepared, 218
+ Tokay wine, how made, 67
+ Tolu, balsam, how obtained, and uses of, 128
+ Touchwood, description and use of, 277
+ Treacle, how made, 21
+ Truffles, description of, how procured, and use of, 275
+ Tulip tree, description and uses of, 167
+ Turmeric, description and use of, 9
+ Turnips, cultivation and uses of, 174, 175
+ Turpentine, common, how obtained, and uses of, 233
+ ----, oil of, 233
+ ----, Venice, of what prepared, and use of, 237
+
+ V.
+ Varnish, black, of China, what, 123
+ ----, copal, how prepared and use of, 83
+ Vegetables, 1
+ Verjuice, from what prepared, and uses, 69, 147
+ Vermicelli, how made, and use of, 27
+ Vermix, 256
+ Vetches, description, culture, and uses of, 185
+ Vin de Grave, 66
+ Vine, twigs, leaves, tendrils, and wood, uses of, 69
+ Vines and vineyards, account of, 63, 64
+ Vomic nut. See Nux vomica.
+
+ W.
+ Walnut-tree, wood and fruit, uses of, 227
+ Water-flag, yellow, description and uses of, 18
+ Weld, description and uses of, 136
+ Wheat, cultivation and uses of, 24
+ ----, starch and sugar prepared from, 25
+ ----, bran and straw, uses of, 26
+ ----, macaroni and semolina prepared from, 26
+ Willow. See Osier.
+ Wine, how made, 64
+ ----, Portuguese, 65
+ ----, French and Spanish, 65
+ ----, Italian and German, 67
+ ----, Madeira and Teneriffe, 68
+ ----, Cape, 69
+ Withy. See Osier.
+ Woad, description, culture, preparation, and use of, 171
+ Wortleberries, use of, 113
+
+ Y.
+ Yams, description and uses of, 252
+ ----, cultivated in Scotland, 253
+ Yeast, how to preserve for use, 228
+ Yew tree, description, uses, and poisonous qualities of, 257
+
+
+END OF VOL. II.
+
+
+
+
+ C. Baldwin, Printer,
+ New Bridge-street, London.
+
+
+Notes
+
+[1] _Ammomum cardamomum_, Linn.--_Eletteria cardamomum_, Maton in Linn.
+ Tran. x. p. 254.
+
+[2] The grasses are so numerous, and the describing of them in such manner
+ as to be understood by an inexperienced person would be attended with
+ so much difficulty, that it has been considered more advantageous to
+ the reader, to admit, in this place, only some of the most important
+ kinds; and merely to speak of their uses, referring to the figures for
+ their further illustration.
+
+[3] This grass has only two stamens, and consequently belongs to the class
+ Diandria, but it is placed here for the sake of general uniformity.
+
+[4] Several other trees besides this produce the red kind of resin called
+ Dragon's Blood.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Useful Knowledge: Vol. II. Vegetables, by
+William Bingley
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 57954 ***
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