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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 57562 ***
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+_ADVERTISEMENTS._
+
+
+            Mander Brothers,
+
+             Wolverhampton,
+
+                 ARE
+
+               EXPERTS
+
+                 IN
+
+             DIPPING AND
+
+           SPRAYING PAINTS.
+
+
+
+
+  _Industrial
+  Paints and
+  Varnishes_
+
+  BRUSHING
+
+  DIPPING
+
+  SPRAYING
+
+  FLOWING
+
+  TUMBLING
+
+  DRYING
+
+  We specialise in all Paints, Enamels,
+  Japans, Lacquers, Varnishes and
+  other materials for the protection
+  and decoration of Industrial Products
+  of all kinds.
+
+  Our clients comprise of the principal
+  Manufacturers in all Trades,
+  and the service we are rendering to
+  them is ready, willing and capable
+  of caring for your requirements.
+
+  Experimental and Research Laboratories
+  are maintained to assist the
+  solution of any problem, whilst
+  there is a wealth of practical
+  experience to draw upon when
+  you consult
+
+  PINCHIN, JOHNSON & Co., Ltd.
+
+  _Paint, Varnish, Color & Enamel Manufacturers_
+
+  Minerva House, Bevis Marks, London, E.C.
+
+
+  _TELEGRAMS
+  PINCHIN, ALD, LONDON._"
+
+  _TELEPHONE
+  AVENUE 910_ (_3 lines_)
+
+  ESTABLISHED 1834
+
+
+
+
+PAINTING BY IMMERSION AND BY COMPRESSED AIR.
+
+[Illustration: AUTOMATIC FINISHING OF PIANOS.
+
+LOWERING THE LOADED CARRIER INTO THE VARNISH TANK.]
+
+_Frontispiece._
+
+
+
+
+                  Painting by Immersion
+                  and by Compressed Air.
+
+
+                 _A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK_
+
+                              BY
+
+              ARTHUR SEYMOUR JENNINGS, F.I.B.D.,
+
+  Editor of "The Decorator" and the "The Decorator Series of Practical
+   Handbooks," Author of "Commercial Paints and Painting," "Paint and
+    Colour Mixing," "The Painters' Pocket Book," "House Painting and
+     Decorating," etc., etc. Member of the Paint and Varnish Society,
+      The International Society for Testing Materials, etc. Examiner in
+       Painters' and Decorators' Work to the City and Guilds of
+                       London Institute.
+
+                 _With 150 Illustrations._
+
+
+                          London:
+
+            OFFICES OF "THE MANAGING ENGINEER,"
+                 93 & 94, CHANCERY LANE, W.C.
+
+                    E. & F. N. SPON, LTD.,
+                 57, HAYMARKET, LONDON, S.W.
+
+                          New York:
+
+                     SPON & CHAMBERLAIN.
+                  123, LIBERTY STREET
+                            1915
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+In many industries the application of paint for preservative or
+ornamental purposes is imperative and the item of expenditure is an
+important one.
+
+There is abundant evidence to prove that the application of paint,
+either by means of dipping, spraying or other mechanical means, effects
+an enormous saving of time over the old method of using brushes, while
+the coats of paint are more durable and thorough.
+
+This saving of time not only lowers the cost of production to a very
+considerable extent, but it permits of a large increase in the output.
+
+The process of "flowing-on" enamels and varnishes described in the
+following pages effects an even greater saving of time in those cases
+where it is applicable. The extent of this saving can be judged by
+the fact that a complete coat of enamel can be given to the body of
+a four-seated touring car in the almost incredibly short time of two
+minutes!
+
+These processes are used to a very large extent in many industries,
+particularly those connected with metal work and engineering. In the
+United States of America and in many parts of the Continent they have
+reached a high degree of perfection. In Great Britain the adoption of
+the methods is rapidly increasing.
+
+It is hoped that this book will be found of service to manufacturers
+who desire to ascertain whether the processes can be economically
+employed in their particular industry or to those who contemplate
+putting in a plant for the purpose.
+
+It should also be helpful to those who have not been very successful
+with a trial plant or who desire to bring an existing plant fully
+up-to-date in its equipment. And it should be said at once that the few
+cases of failure which have come to the notice of the author have been
+found on investigation to be due either to the use of paint unsuitable
+for the purpose or the adoption of a plant which is unfitted for the
+object aimed at. Three examples may be given. In one small castings
+were dipped in black paint, but it was found that "tears," or runs of
+paint which did not dry properly, often occurred. Here, clearly, the
+paint was at fault. It was too thick for the purpose and did not dry
+hard quickly enough. The remedy was obvious.
+
+In another case iron casements were dipped horizontally in a shallow
+paint tank and the time involved in lowering them to obtain a complete
+immersion was considerable. In this case the shape and size of the tank
+were not suitable. It should have been deep and narrow, so that the
+casements could be dipped vertically. The idea that the paint would
+"settle out" if a deep tank were used was shown to be erroneous.
+
+In a third case spraying had been tried for coating metal casements,
+when it was found that the saving effected in time was more than
+counter-balanced by the waste of paint. Of course, spraying was not
+suitable for a job of this kind, the surface to be covered being so
+very narrow. Such work is done most successfully by dipping.
+
+The degree of perfection to which the process of dipping has been
+carried in America is indicated by the fact that it is largely employed
+for piano cases and many other articles requiring a perfect varnish
+finish. This process is fully described in these pages and has been
+successfully carried on for some years. This fact demonstrates very
+clearly the possibilities of painting and varnishing by immersion.
+
+All the principal appliances used for spraying paint, lacquer, enamel,
+varnish and similar liquids have been described at length, but no
+attempt has been made to prove that any one appliance is superior
+to another. The details of each apparatus are given, and for the
+convenience of the reader, the manufacturer's name and address. It is
+suggested that those who contemplate the adoption of paint dipping, or
+spraying, should get into touch with all these firms, and carefully
+investigate their respective merits before coming to a decision.
+
+The services of an expert will usually be found desirable, for,
+although in engineering works much of the necessary apparatus and
+accessories may be made on the premises, the exact details, such as the
+kind of paint and the exact design suitable for the particular purpose,
+are largely matters to be decided upon in the light of experience.
+
+                                   ARTHUR S. JENNINGS.
+
+                365, Birkbeck Bank Chambers,
+                    High Holborn, W.C.
+
+            August, 1915.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+    CHAPTER I.                                                   PAGE
+
+    INTRODUCTION.
+
+    Increase in the Use of Painting by Dipping and Spraying--The
+    Remarkable Saving of Time Effected--The Durability Equal
+    to Brush Painting--Scope of the Subject--Whitewashing
+    Machines--Cost of Spraying Plant--Dipping Plant may be
+    very Simple--List of the Principal Products to which Paint
+    Spraying is Applied                                              1
+
+
+    CHAPTER II.
+
+    PAINTING BY IMMERSION.
+
+    An old Idea largely Developed in Recent Years--Simple Forms of
+    Paint Dipping--Painting Varnish Cans--Larger Plants--The
+    Tank--The Agitators--McLennan Patent--Paint Proof
+    Gear Box--Three Tank Plant for Different Colours--The
+    Rails and Hanging Apparatus--Hanging Articles after they
+    are Painted--Hoists--Simple Crabs and Lifting Gear--Pneumatic
+    Hoist--Electrical Hoist--Trolley Hoist--The
+    Number of Coats of Paint--Advantages of the Dipping
+    Process--Protecting Parts not to be Painted--Preparing
+    Woodwork before Painting--Filler for Iron--Stopping Holes in
+    Woodwork--Rubbing Down                                           7
+
+
+    CHAPTER III.
+
+    REQUIREMENTS OF DIFFERENT TRADES.
+
+    Bedsteads--Collapsible Gates--Dipping Sewing Machine Parts--Iron
+    Rods--Iron Window Frames or Casements--Metal
+    Furniture--Motor Parts (Metal)--Automatic Finishing of
+    Pianos--The Standard Hydraulic Immersion System--Wheels--Some
+    Typical Plants--Carriage Department, Woolwich
+    Arsenal--James Gibbons--Harrison, McGregor & Co.--Phillips
+    & Son--The Ford Motor Company--Marshall, Sons &
+    Co., Ltd.--Hayward Bros. & Eckstein, Ltd.--The Crittall
+    Manufacturing Co.--Excluding Dust--Heating and Ventilation
+    of Drying Room--A Model Drying Room                              33
+
+
+    CHAPTER IV.
+
+    PAINT FOR DIPPING.
+
+    The Requirements of a Good Dipping Paint--Specific Gravity of
+    Pigments--White Dipping Paint--Gloss Paint--W. G. Scott
+    on Dipping Paints--Proportion of Paste and Thinners--Asbestine
+    --China Clay--Whiting--Zinc Oxide--Inert
+    Materials--Primers for Metal--Primers for Hard and Soft
+    Woods--Second Coat Dipping Paints--White Paste Primer--White
+    Dip for Metals--White Dip for Hard Wood--White
+    Dip for Soft Wood--White Spirit--Quantity of Paint
+    Required for Dipping and Spraying--Spreading Capacity
+    of Paints                                                        70
+
+
+    CHAPTER V.
+
+    PAINTING BY COMPRESSED AIR.
+
+    The Evolution of the Apparatus Employed--Early Attempts--The
+    Concentric Form of Spray--Its Advantages--The Flow of
+    Paint--Practice Necessary--Cost of Plant--Pressure and
+    Volume of Air Required                                           78
+
+
+    CHAPTER VI.
+
+    TYPES OF SPRAYING APPARATUS.
+
+    The Aerograph--Electric Motor Outfit--Painting a Gasometer--Small
+    Aerograph--The Aeron--Uniformity of Coats--Cup
+    Aeron--Air Transformer--The Airostyle--Construction--"Ultra"
+    type--Pistol "M"--The Eureka Spraying Machine--The
+    Crane Eureka--The Crane "Record"--The "Invincible"--Type
+    "E"--Artists' Type--The Midland
+    Sprayer--The "Paasche" Sprayer--Larger Size--Oil and
+    Water Separator--Automatic Electric Controller                   81
+
+
+    CHAPTER VII.
+
+    SUPPLY OF COMPRESSED AIR--PAINT SUPPLY--EXHAUST.
+
+    Type of Compressor--Air Main--Air Valves--Purifying Air--Small
+    Compressors--Water Cooling--Air Pump and Tank
+    Combined--General Arrangement of Accessories--The Supply
+    of Paint--The Exhaust Installation--Central Draught Fan--Location
+    of Work Cabinets--The Fumexer Spraying Cabinet--Accessories
+    --Turn-tables, Auto--Electric Air Heater                         113
+
+
+    CHAPTER VIII.
+
+    STENCILS AND MASKS--THE REQUIREMENTS OF DIFFERENT
+    TRADES IN SPRAYING.
+
+    Protecting parts not to be Sprayed--Masks for Gas Meters--The
+    Hart Patent Mask--Making Stencils--Stencil Paper--Four-ounce
+    Stencil Metal--Zinc Stencils--Requirements of Special
+    Trades--Piece Work--Bookbinding--Carriages--Cycle Parts--Electrical
+    Work--Fancy Baskets--Gas Meters--Gas Stoves
+    and Ranges--Picture Frames, Picture Mouldings, etc.--Celluloid
+    Varnish--Spraying Ships' Hulls--Slate Enamelling--Spraying
+    Colour Specimens--Tramcars                                       141
+
+
+    CHAPTER IX.
+
+    SOME TYPICAL PLANTS.
+
+    Plant for Twelve Operators--The Birmingham Small Arms Co.--Airostyle
+    Plant for Sixteen Operators--The Davis Gas Stove
+    Co., Ltd.--Fletcher, Russell & Co., Ltd.--Special Machines
+    --Gittings, Hills and Boothby, Ltd.--The Kingsbury Manufacturing
+    Co., Ltd.--J. Lucas, Ltd.--The Gas Light and Coke
+    Co., Ltd.--The Gas Meter Co., Ltd                                158
+
+
+    CHAPTER X.
+
+    PAINTS, LACQUERS, VARNISHES, ETC., USED IN SPRAYING.
+
+    Temperature of Spraying Room--Fine Paint must be used--Firms
+    who Specialize on Dipping and Spraying Paints, etc.--Stoving
+    Enamels--Enamels--Hints on Stoving or Baking--Black
+    Japan Finishes--Steel Furniture Enamels--Imitation Wood
+    Effects--White Work--Bedsteads, etc.--Transparent Colour
+    Varnishes--Safe Baking Heats of Pigment Colours--Dipping
+    and Spraying Compared                                            177
+
+
+    CHAPTER XI.
+
+    SPRAYING VERSUS BRUSHING.
+
+    Comparison with Brush Painting--Bronzing with Celluloid
+    Medium--Objections Sometimes Urged Against Spraying---Mottled
+    Appearance of Paint and how Avoided--Spraying
+    Fillers and Primers--Spraying and Dipping Compared--The
+    Great Saving Effected                                            193
+
+
+    CHAPTER XII.
+
+    THE ARTISTIC APPLICATION OF PAINT SPRAYING.
+
+    Artistic Work--Lining on Motors and Carriages--Relief Work
+    --Scumbling and Colour Glazing--Glazing--Designs for Lamp
+    Shades--Reds--Blues--Yellows--Greens--Browns--Greys--Scumbling
+    and Graining--Brush Graining--Marble Grounds--Graining
+    Grounds                                                          201
+
+
+    CHAPTER XIII.
+
+    THE "FLOWING-ON" SYSTEM.
+
+    The Latest Method of Finishing Automobiles--Remarkable Speed
+    of the Method--The Apparatus--Trough Tank used in the
+    Process--The Kind of Paint or Japan Used--The Floco Process
+    --Painting Motor Bodies--Description of Modern Enamelling
+    Ovens for Motor Bodies--Notes on the Construction of Stoves--The
+    Perkins' Stove--Typical Goodyear Stove--Dipping
+    Trough                                                           216
+
+
+    CHAPTER XIV.
+
+    LIME AND WHITEWASH SPRAYERS.
+
+    Periodical Whitewashing in Workshops Compulsory--The Wells
+    Sprayer--Limewhiting by Machine with 8-foot Bamboo Pole--The
+    Brown Sprayer--The Merryweather Sprayer--The
+    Tumbling Barrel Process                                          243
+
+
+    CHAPTER XV.
+
+    A PORTABLE PAINT SPRAYER FOR RAILWAY AND OTHER WORK.
+
+    The Pennsylvania Railroad System--fainting Freight Cars--Description
+    of Apparatus--Plan and Elevation--Detail
+    Drawings                                                         250
+
+
+    CHAPTER XVI.
+
+    METAL SPRAYING.
+
+    Description of the Process--The Immense Field for it--The
+    Metal Spraying "Pistol"--Detail Drawings of Pistol--Sectional
+    Drawing--Diagrammatic Representation of Melting
+    and Spraying Jets in Action--Spraying Alloys--Cost of the
+    Process                                                          255
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+  FRONTISPIECE Automatic Finishing of Pianos
+
+  Fig. 1.  Section through Paint Tank                                8
+
+  " 2.  Stirrers and Blinds for Paint Dipping Tank                  10
+
+  " 3.  Longitudinal Vertical Section                               10
+
+  " 4.  Tank for Painting Steel Sheets                              12
+
+  " 5.  Paint-Proof Bearings and Gear Box                           13
+
+  " 6.  Shafting and Driving Gear Designed for Implements           14
+
+  " 7.  Triple-tank plant                                           15
+
+  " 8.  Joist and Wheels supporting Hanger                          16
+
+  " 9.  Hook for Hanging                                            17
+
+  " 10 to 14. Hoists and Crabs                                      18
+
+  " 15.  Typical Hoist for Painting by Immersion                    19
+
+  " 16.  Morris Standard Electric Trolley Hoist                     23
+
+  " 17.  Electric Hoist Suitable for Heavy Goods                    27
+
+  " 18.  Sprayed Show Card                                          30
+
+  " 19.  Dipping and Stoving Bedsteads                              31
+
+  " 20.  Immersing Mangle Frames                                    35
+
+  " 21.  Iron Hanger                                                38
+
+  " 22.  Carrier filled with Six Complete Pianos                    39
+
+  " 23.  Introductory Carrier for Piano Frame                       43
+
+  " 24.  Lowering Piano Cases into the Varnish Tank                 47
+
+  " 25.  Piano Cases nearly Immersed                                49
+
+  " 26.  Piano Cases wholly Immersed                                51
+
+  " 27.  Piano Cases about to be Dipped                             53
+
+  " 28.  Coach Body ready to be Dipped                              55
+
+  " 29.  Paint Dipping Room at Woolwich                             55
+
+  " 30.  Store Room, Woolwich                                       61
+
+  " 31.  Dipping Casements at the Crittall Manufacturing Co.        61
+
+  " 32.  Hook for Suspending Boxes                                  64
+
+  " 33.  Dipping Casements at Braintree                             65
+
+  " 34.  Design for Show Card done by Spraying                      69
+
+  " 35.  The Aerograph Spraying Instrument                          81
+
+  " 36.  Another form of Aerograph                                  82
+
+  " 37.  Aerograph Electric Motor Outfit                            83
+
+  " 38.  Painting a Gasometer                                       83
+
+  " 39.  Aerograph for Delicate Work                                85
+
+  " 40.  The Aeron Sprayer                                          89
+
+  " 41.   "    "   (angle barrel)                                   89
+
+  " 42.   "    "   with agitator                                    89
+
+  " 43.   "    "   with double nozzle head                          89
+
+  " 44.  The G Aeron Sprayer, with double nozzle head               89
+
+  " 45.  The G Aeron Sprayer, with attachments                      91
+
+  " 46.  The G Aeron Sprayer, with parts disassembled               91
+
+  " 47.  The G Aeron Sprayer                                        91
+
+  " 48.  The M Aeron Sprayer                                        95
+
+  " 49.  The M Aeron Sprayer, with Types L & M                      95
+
+  " 50.  Block and Tackle                                           95
+
+  " 51.  Standard Tackle                                            95
+
+  " 52.  Air Transformer Set                                        95
+
+  " 53.  Air Transformer                                            95
+
+  " 54.  Section showing Construction of Airostyle                  98
+
+  " 55.  Airostyle Type "Record" with union for continuous supply   99
+
+  " 56.  Airostyle Type "Ultra"                                    101
+
+  " 57.      "     Pistol "M"                                      102
+
+  " 58.  The Crane "Eureka"                                        103
+
+  " 59.   "    "   "Record"                                        104
+
+  " 60.  The "Invincible" Sprayer                                  105
+
+  " 61.   "       "       with adjustable cup                      105
+
+  " 65.  The Midland Sprayer                                       108
+
+  " 66.  The "Paasche" Sprayer                                     109
+
+  " 67.  Larger "Paasche" Sprayer                                  110
+
+  " 68.  General form of "Paasche" Sprayer                         111
+
+  " 69.  "Paasche" Oil and Water Separator                         111
+
+  " 70.  "Paasche" Automatic Electric Controller                   111
+
+  " 71.  Airostyle Air Compressor                                  115
+
+  " 72.  DeVilbiss Air Compressors                                 115
+
+  " 73.      "      "      "                                       115
+
+  " 74.      "      "      "                                       115
+
+  " 75.  Aerograph Air Pumps and Tank Combined                     118
+
+  " 76.  Aerograph Type of Air Pumps for Larger Installations      119
+
+  " 77.  Airostyle Plant General Arrangement                       121
+
+  " 78.  "Paasche" Motor Dryer Fan                                 124
+
+  " 79.  Airostyle Central Draught Steel Plate Fan                 125
+
+  " 80.  DeVilbiss Auto Cool Electric Exhaust Fan closed and
+         opened for cleaning                                       125
+
+  " 81.  Sketch of Spraying Cabinets                               127
+
+  " 82.  Aerograph Spraying Cabinets                               128
+
+  " 83.  "DeVilbiss Fumexer" or Spraying Cabinet                   131
+
+  " 84.       "        "           "        "                      131
+
+  " 85.       "        "           "        "                      131
+
+  " 86.       "        "           "        "                      131
+
+  " 87.  Aerograph Turntable                                       134
+
+  " 88.  Two forms of Fumexer                                      135
+
+  " 89.  The Fumexer in use                                        135
+
+  " 90.  A Paasche Turntable                                       135
+
+  " 91.  Auto Electric Air Heater                                  139
+
+  " 92.  Masks for Gas Meter                                       142
+
+  " 93.  The Hart Patent Mask                                      143
+
+  " 94.  Bin for Spraying Light Articles                           148
+
+  " 95.  Aerostyle Plant for sixteen operators                     155
+
+  " 96.  Airostyle Plant showing Ventilator                        155
+
+  " 97.  Side Elevation of Plant for 12 operators                  158
+
+  " 98.  End Elevation of Plant for 12 operators                   159
+
+  " 99.  Plan of Figs. 84 and 85                                   160
+
+  " 100.  Airostyle Plant installed for The Davis Gas Stove Co.,
+          Ltd.                                                     161
+
+  " 101.  Compressor, etc., for Airostyle Plant                    165
+
+  " 102.  Airostyle Plant installed for Gas Fire and Radiator
+          Work                                                     165
+
+  " 103.  View from one end of Messrs. Lucas, Ltd., Airostyle
+          Plants                                                   169
+
+  " 104 & 105.  Airostyle Plant at Messrs J. Lucas, Ltd.           173
+
+  " 106.            "       "   View of Racks and  Fan             175
+
+  " 107.            "       "   Two Bays of one Unit               181
+
+  " 108.  Airostyle Plant installed for The Gas Light and Coke
+          Co., Ltd.                                                181
+
+  " 109.  Airostyle Plant installed for The Gas Light and Coke
+          Co., Ltd.                                                185
+
+  " 110.  Operator at Work                                         193
+
+  " 111.  Airostyle Plant showing Ventilator                       199
+
+  " 112.  Elevation of Spraying Plant                              199
+
+  " 113.  Elevation of Spraying Plant                              200
+
+  " 114.  Plans of Figs. 112 and 113                               200
+
+  " 115.  Designs for Lamp Shades                                  203
+
+  " 116.  Show Card done by Spraying                               209
+
+  " 117.  Another Example                                          209
+
+  " 118.  Shaded Effects                                           213
+
+  " 119.  Fruit Dish decorated by Spraying                         217
+
+  " 120.  Table Cover                                              219
+
+  " 121.  Trough Tank                                              222
+
+  " 122.  Floco System of Painting Motor Bodies                    224
+
+  " 123 & 124.  Show Card done by Spraying                   225 & 229
+
+  " 125.  Design for Show Card                                     233
+
+  " 126.  The Perkins' Stove                                       236
+
+  " 127.  Typical Goodyear Stove                                   237
+
+  " 128.  Dipping Trough                                           238
+
+  " 129.  Show or Menu Card                                        239
+
+  " 130.  Example of Metal Decoration                              241
+
+  " 131 & 132.  Whitewash Sprayer                                  244
+
+  " 133 & 134.  Limewashing with Bamboo Pole                       245
+
+  " 135.  The Brown Extension Sprayer                              246
+
+  " 136.  The Merryweather Limewhite Sprayer                       247
+
+  " 137.  A Tumbling Barrel                                        248
+
+  " 138.  Another Form                                             248
+
+  " 139.  Paint Sprayer for Freight Cars                           252
+
+  " 140.  Elevation of above                                       253
+
+  " 141.  Details of above                                         254
+
+  " 142.  The Metal Spraying "Pistol"                              256
+
+  " 143.  The Metal Sprayer                                        257
+
+  " 144.  Sectional Drawing of Metal Sprayer                       258
+
+  " 145.  Diagrammatric Representation of Melting  and
+          Spraying Jets in Action                                  259
+
+  " 146.  Sprayed Decorative Work                                  261
+
+  " 147.  Shaded Work by the Aerograph                             263
+
+  " 148.  Show Card, Sprayed                                       265
+
+  " 149.  Sprayed Frieze                                           267
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+Until recent years, it appears to have been generally supposed that
+paint used for either the protection or ornamentation of various
+surfaces must necessarily be applied by means of painters' brushes
+made of hog's bristles. But it has been clearly demonstrated during
+the past few years that the application of the paint may be made by
+means of either total immersion of the article to be painted in a tank
+or by spraying the paint on to the surface with the aid of compressed
+air. The rapid increase in the use of both processes is principally
+due to the immense saving of time which is effected, and this may be
+approximately estimated at from five to nine-tenths. In other words,
+one man can do the work of from five to ten men, or even more. To put
+it another way, if a piece of work costs 20s. for labour in painting
+by the old process, it may be safely assumed that it can be done by
+dipping or spraying at a cost of from two to four shillings.
+
+The question will at once suggest itself: "Is paint applied by dipping
+and spraying as durable as that applied by the brush?" As the paint
+in the greater part of work of this character is used solely for
+protective purposes, the question is clearly one of considerable
+importance. The answer to the question is that when properly prepared
+paint is used, both methods give an equal, or even better result from
+the point of view of durability than that which would be obtained if
+a painter's brush was employed, while, in the case of painting by
+immersion or by spraying, the paint finds its way into places which a
+brush could not reach, such as open joints of a waggon, the intricate
+parts of certain agricultural machinery, the inside of small metal
+boxes, etc.
+
+Both methods are successfully employed in practically every branch
+of the engineering, metal and many other trades. Heavy steel sheets
+may be dipped provided that adequate plant is employed for lowering
+and raising them into the tank, or they may be sprayed without much
+difficulty. Children's toys (to take the other extreme), costing
+less than a penny each, may also be economically painted by dipping.
+Speaking generally, anything large or small which can be handled or
+moved by lifting machinery or on a turn table, can be painted by either
+one process or the other. For example, a hundred or so of very small
+iron castings, or wrought iron ware, may be placed in a wire basket and
+dipped together in a few seconds, or the body of a motor car, or parts
+of a bicycle, can be painted by spraying in a fraction of the time it
+would take to do the work by means of brushes.
+
+Thus far the processes are not much used in house painting, excepting
+for the first or priming coat, before the work is fixed in position,
+but certain types of the simpler form of spraying machines are employed
+with great advantage in applying lime white or whitewash to rough
+walls of factories, etc. In this case, a far better job is produced
+in one-tenth of the time. The whitewash, when sprayed on, enters and
+covers the open joints and inequalities of surface in a complete
+manner, which would be impossible were a brush used.
+
+On the next page is a list of some of the principal purposes for which
+these methods are at present used, and these are being constantly added
+to. It is not too much to say that in any industry in which paints
+are used, one or other of the methods, or both in conjunction, may be
+employed with very great advantage in a saving of time.
+
+An erroneous idea prevails in some quarters that to install a paint
+dipping or a paint spraying plant will involve a considerable
+expenditure. As a matter of fact, if the work is of a simple character,
+and the articles to be dealt with small, an expenditure of something
+like £25 will be sufficient for the purpose. For example, a small tank,
+with a draining board attached, would cost less than the sum mentioned,
+even when the overhanging plant was included. As such work is usually
+done in engineering shops, the lifting apparatus and the rails, can
+easily be made on the premises. In some cases the lifting plant even
+might be dispensed with, and the articles, such as paint cans, could be
+dipped by hand. A spraying plant need not be expensive, and £25 to £40
+will cover the expense of spraying apparatus, compressor for air spray,
+exhaust and everything else. This, however, refers to a small plant.
+More extensive installations would, of course, cost very much more,
+but whatever they may cost, it may be accepted as a fact that, within
+reasonable limits, the outlay will be fully returned in two or three
+years' working at most.
+
+In the following pages an attempt has been made to cover the whole
+subject of painting by mechanical means. Many plants are described and
+illustrated, and some lengthy explanation is given of the requirements
+of different trades or goods. In many cases these have really nothing
+to do with the painting proper, but success depends upon the system
+adopted for handling and conveying.
+
+Take, for example, celluloid buttons, which are usually sprayed. They
+are placed in wire trays made specially for the purpose, the bottom
+side uppermost. These are first sprayed all over with a spirit paint,
+and when sufficiently dry to handle, say, in a quarter of an hour, they
+are all turned over and the top sides are sprayed. The wire trays and a
+handy cabinet to contain them are the important details in this case.
+
+    LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL PRODUCTS TO WHICH PAINT
+    SPRAYING AND PAINT DIPPING ARE APPLIED.
+
+    Acetylene Machines.
+    Adding Machines.
+    Addressing Machines.
+    Advertising Novelties.
+    Advertising Signs.
+    Aeroplane Work.
+    "Agate" Hollow Ware.
+    Agricultural Implements.
+    Air Compressors.
+    Aluminium Goods.
+    Antiques, Bric-a-brac.
+    Architectural Brass Works.
+    Architectural Iron Works.
+    Art Glasses and Mirrors.
+    Artificial Flowers.
+    Artificial Jewellery.
+    Artificial Marble.
+    Artificial Limbs.
+    Artistic Statuaries.
+    Automatic Vending Machines.
+    Automobile Lamps.
+    Automobile Licences and Number Plates.
+    Automobile Parts.
+    Automobile Parts and Motor Bodies.
+    Automobile Supplies
+    Automobile Tyres.
+    Automobile Tops and Canopies.
+    Axes.
+
+    Baby Carriages.
+    Badges.
+    Banners and Flags.
+    Bar Fixtures.
+    Barber Equipment.
+    Barrels.
+    Barrows.
+    Basket and Rattan Ware.
+    Bath Room Sundries.
+    Baths.
+    Bed Springs.
+    Bedsteads (Iron).
+    Bedsteads (Sheet Metal).
+    Beer Pumps.
+    Bells.
+    Bicycles.
+    Billiard Tables.
+    Bird Cages.
+    Blocks and Falls.
+    Blowers.
+    Boats.
+    Bobbins and Spools.
+    Boiler Work.
+    Book Cases.
+    Boxes, Cigar.
+    Bowling Alleys.
+    Boxes, Mail.
+    Brass Bedsteads.
+    Brass Goods.
+    Broom Heads and Handles.
+    Brushes.
+    Buckles and Snaps.
+    Builders' Hardware.
+    Burial Caskets.
+    Buttons (metal).
+
+    Cabinet Hardware.
+    Cabinets.
+    Cameras.
+    Candies and Confectionery.
+    Canners, Vegetables and Fruit.
+    Canoes.
+    Cans.
+    Cars.
+    Carpets.
+    Carpet Sweepers.
+    Carriages.
+    Carriage Hardware.
+    Casements (metal).
+    Cartridges.
+    Cash Registers.
+    Cash Carriers.
+    Celluloid Sheets.
+    Chairs (metal).
+    Children's Carriages.
+    China and Crockery.
+    Church and Lodge Goods.
+    Church and School Furniture.
+    Churns.
+    Clocks.
+    Colour Specimens.
+    Constructional Ironwork.
+    Corset Steels.
+    Coffins and Caskets.
+    Couches.
+    Cream Separators.
+    Curtain Poles.
+    Cutlery.
+    Cycles.
+    Cycle parts.
+
+    Desks (metal).
+    Display Fixtures.
+    Dolls.
+    Doors.
+    Drills.
+    Dynamos.
+
+    Edge Tools.
+    Electric Fixtures.
+    Electrical Apparatus.
+    Electrical Supplies.
+    Electro Platers.
+    Enamelled Metal Goods.
+    Enamelled Ware.
+    Engines.
+    Etching (metal).
+
+    Factory Fittings.
+    Fancy Baskets.
+    Fans.
+    Fenders.
+    Filing Cabinets.
+    Firearms.
+    Fire Extinguishers.
+    Fishing Rods.
+    Fixtures, Display.
+    Foundries.
+    Fountains, Soda.
+    Furniture (metal).
+
+    Garden Implements.
+    Gas Apparatus.
+    Gas Cookers.
+    Gas Engines.
+    Gas Fires.
+    Gas Fixtures.
+    Gas Meters.
+    Gas and Gasolene Stoves
+    Golf Clubs.
+    Grates and Mantels.
+    Gramophones.
+    Grille Work.
+
+    Hats, Straw.
+    Hair Pins.
+    Hames.
+    Handles.
+    Harness Trim.
+    Harrows.
+    Hardware.
+    Hollow Ware.
+    Hooks and Eyes.
+    Horns.
+
+    Incandescent Lamps.
+
+    Japanned Goods.
+    Jewellery.
+
+    Kegs and Pails.
+    Kitchen Cabinets.
+    Kitchen Utensils.
+    Knitting Machines.
+
+    Lacing Studs.
+    Lamps and Lanterns.
+    Lasts.
+    Lawn Mowers.
+    Lead Pencils.
+    Leather Work.
+    Letter Files.
+    Locks.
+    Lockers (metal).
+    Looms.
+    Locomotives.
+
+    Machinery.
+    Malleable Castings.
+    Mathematical Instruments.
+    Meat Safes.
+    Metal Spinners.
+    Model Makers.
+    Motors.
+    Motor Cycles.
+    Musical Instruments.
+
+    Novelties.
+
+    Office Furniture.
+    Optical Instruments.
+    Ornamental Ironwork.
+
+    Pattern Makers.
+    Pen Holders.
+    Phonographs.
+    Physical Supplies.
+    Piano Plates.
+    Pianos and Organs.
+    Picture Frames.
+    Pins.
+    Plated Ware.
+    Ploughs.
+    Plumbers' Supplies.
+    Porcelain Goods.
+    Projectiles.
+    Pulleys (metal).
+    Pumps.
+
+    Radiators (auto).
+    Railway Carriages.
+    Rakes.
+    Refrigerators.
+    Regalia.
+    Rubber Goods.
+    Rules and Levels.
+
+    Saddlery Hardware.
+    Safes.
+    Safe Deposit Vaults.
+    Sashes (metal).
+    Scales.
+    Screens (metal).
+    Sewing Machines.
+    Shoe Buttons.
+    Show Cases.
+    Side Cars.
+    Signs, Enamelled.
+    Silverware.
+    Sleds and Sleighs.
+    Soda Fountains.
+    Sporting Goods.
+    Steel Stampings.
+    Stoves (gas).
+    Slate, Enamelled.
+    Statuary.
+    Steam Gauges.
+    Steel Castings.
+    Street Railway Companies.
+    Surgical Supplies.
+    Switchboards.
+
+    Tables.
+    Tanks.
+    Telephones.
+    Telephone Supplies.
+    Textile Machinery.
+    Tinwares.
+    Thermometers.
+    Tools.
+    Toys.
+    Trunk Hardware.
+    Typewriters.
+
+    Vacuum Cleaners.
+    Vending Machines.
+    Veneers.
+    Ventilators.
+
+    Wagons.
+    Wall Papers.
+    Washing Machines.
+    Watering Cans.
+    Weighing Machines.
+    Wheels.
+    Willow Ware.
+    Wire Cloth.
+    Wire Mattresses.
+    Wire Work.
+    Wringers.
+
+In addition to the above, paint is applied by spraying for many
+artistic purposes, such as for show cards, photographic work,
+lithography, church decoration, etc. These are referred to in another
+chapter.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+PAINTING BY IMMERSION.
+
+
+The process of painting various articles by dipping them bodily into
+specially prepared paint contained in a tank or other receptacle is a
+very old idea. It has, however, developed considerably in late years,
+and is now largely employed in many industries, particularly in the
+finishing of agricultural implements of various kinds, iron work and
+a hundred and one other articles. It is sometimes used in conjunction
+with paint spraying; that is to say, the first coat or coats may be put
+on by immersing the article to be painted in the paint, or varnish, and
+the final coat of enamel or varnish may be put on by means of a spray.
+In some cases, the final coat is applied by means of brushes in the
+ordinary manner.
+
+Perhaps the simplest form of paint dipping is that applied to various
+articles, such as bolts, rings and small parts, which are placed in a
+wire basket and plunged into the paint. The basket is then hung up for
+a quarter of an hour or so to drain, and afterwards in another place,
+until such time as the paint becomes hard.
+
+Another familiar example of painting by dipping is that of ordinary
+tapered cans, such as those which are used to contain varnish, etc.
+In this case, a piece of wood is introduced into the neck, the can is
+immersed in the paint up to almost the top of the neck, and is then
+placed upside down to drain and to dry. A paint which dries with a
+gloss is usually employed for this purpose, and it may be remarked that
+a good deal of this work is now done by spraying; in fact, a great deal
+of difference of opinion exists as to the respective merits of the two
+processes for this particular purpose.
+
+[Illustration: Fig 1.--CROSS SECTION THROUGH PAINT TANK.]
+
+Going a step farther, we come to the consideration of articles such
+as iron sashes and casements, parts of staircases, etc., which may be
+dipped into a tank containing, say, five to ten gallons or so. Such
+tanks are usually made to slant at the bottom in order to facilitate
+cleaning when necessary. Adjacent to them is provided a platform,
+usually lined with sheet iron upon which the paint can drip after the
+articles are removed from the tank, and a system of overhead rails for
+moving the articles from one part of the works to another. No agitating
+apparatus for the paint is required, but after the tank has been used
+for some time, say, for example, at the week-end, it is necessary to
+stir it up by means of a pole before the work commences. As a matter of
+fact, the articles being plunged in the tank, and their withdrawal, in
+itself stirs the paint sufficiently for the purpose.
+
+In dealing with the larger-sized articles which are to be painted,
+such as reaping machines, the construction of the tank which may hold
+several tons of paint is naturally of a more elaborate character. Such
+a plant will consist, first, of the tank itself; next, the system of
+overhead railing; third, the apparatus upon which the articles to be
+painted are hung; and fourth, the hoists for lowering and raising such
+articles into and from the tank. It will be convenient to consider
+these parts which go to form a complete installation under their
+several heads, taking a more elaborate plant by way of example, it
+being understood that the plant may be simpler in form when the size of
+the articles to be painted is small, or under other circumstances, such
+as will be presently suggested.
+
+
+THE TANK.
+
+[Illustration: STIRRERS AND BLINDS FOR PAINT DIPPING TANK. Fig
+2.--PLAN. Fig. 3.--LONGITUDINAL VERTICAL SECTION.]
+
+There are two forms of special tanks in general use, one having at the
+bottom paddles for agitating purposes, and the other worms provided
+with the same object. Fig. 1. shows a cross section of a tank made on
+the McLennan patented system. In this two series of paddles revolving
+in opposite directions are provided, and above them is an appliance
+which may be likened to a horizontal venetian blind, consisting of iron
+laths, which are nearly horizontal when closed, forming a platform
+upon which the paint can settle, and vertical when open. This blind
+is left open when the tank is in use, and is closed when it is at
+rest. The illustration gives the dimensions of the parts, although
+these, of course, will be varied according to circumstances. Above the
+blind is sometimes a grating, which, together with the blind, form a
+protection to the agitating gear from articles dropped into the tank by
+mistake, the two together preventing the heavy, pigment in the paint
+from clogging the paddles when the agitating gear has been stopped
+for some time. Figs. 2 and 3 show respectively longitudinal plan and
+section, from which the construction will be clear.
+
+Messrs. Wilkinson, Heywood & Clark, Ltd., of Poplar, who own the
+McLennan patents, in a little book, entitled "Painting by Immersion,"
+state that there were certain disadvantages in the design of this
+tank, inasmuch as should it become necessary to remove or repair the
+paddles, it would be necessary to empty the tank and bodily remove the
+parts. They have, therefore, a new design, which is shown in Fig. 4,
+in which this remedy is overcome. The agitating gear, in this case,
+is on a sub-frame, separate and independent from the tank itself. The
+drive is in the tank, and is taken by means of a claw clutch through
+a right angled bevel to the agitating shaft. This design has proved
+very satisfactory for small tanks. For very large tanks a gear is
+recommended in which the agitating gear is enlarged and the shafting
+is supported or stiffened to prevent whipping. This entails a design
+of some special bearing, which should be paint proof and oil proof,
+for the reason that the bearing is immersed in the paint itself. In
+Fig. 5 is shown drawings of this bearing, on which the firm named hold
+patents. The perfected plants now consist of a tank with an independent
+and removable chassis frame, on which are mounted the Venetian blind
+arrangements, already mentioned, together with the agitating gear,
+which consists of either one, two, or more parallel shafts, mounted on
+parallel gear, as shown in Fig. 6.
+
+These shafts are held on the sub-frame with the patent bearings already
+referred to, and the drive is transmitted through the bevel gear
+encased in a special gear box, which is equally oil and paint proof
+and self-lubricating. It will readily be seen that with this plant it
+is an easy matter to withdraw the driving gear and lift the sub-frame
+bodily out, without in any way disturbing the paint in the tank. The
+tank, therefore, can be buried nearly flush in the ground, embedded in
+concrete, and need never be disturbed. In case of emergency, and when
+painting is continuous throughout the year, it is recommended that the
+consumer should keep a complete spare chassis for use when occasion
+requires.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4.--DESIGN FOR TANK FOR PAINTING STEEL SHEETS.]
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5.--DETAILS OF PAINT-PROOF BEARINGS AND GEAR BOX.]
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.--DETAILS OF SUB-FRAME, SHAFTING AND DRIVING GEAR
+FOR TANK DESIGNED FOR IMPLEMENT MANUFACTURERS.]
+
+Whatever the construction of the tank itself may be, and whether or not
+it is provided with agitating apparatus, it is generally found most
+convenient to build it with the top nearly level with the floor. It is
+advisable to provide iron doors or covers to close the tank in when
+out of use so as to prevent excessive evaporation and also for use
+in case of fire. These doors or covers should therefore be actuated
+by levers or other suitable appliance which may be put in motion at
+a point some distance from the tank itself, for while the paint is
+not very liable to catch light, an accident may cause it to do so,
+particularly when electricity is used in the works, and the closing of
+properly constructed doors will quickly subdue fire as far as the tank
+itself is concerned by shutting off access of the air. The usual plan
+followed is to provide wide strips of thick felt attached to the doors
+in proper position so that when the doors are closed the contact will
+be thorough and the tank itself be practically sealed.
+
+When agitators form part of the apparatus it is not necessary to buy
+the paint ready mixed for use, as it may be introduced into the tank
+in thin paste form; the necessary thinners such as white spirit can be
+added and the agitating apparatus slowly revolving will quickly mix the
+parts together and render the paint suitable for use.
+
+It will be understood that the form of tank above described may be very
+considerably modified according to circumstances. In very simple paint
+dipping, such as is required for small articles, casements, etc., the
+agitating apparatus may be wholly dispensed with, while in other cases,
+the shutter-like arrangement above mentioned may be omitted and the
+agitator may consist of a worm with a screen above to protect the parts
+from pieces which may accidentally fall in.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.--GENERAL LAY-OUT OF A THREE-TANK PLANT DESIGNED
+FOR THE USE OF AN AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENT MAKER, USING THREE COLOURS IN
+THIS INSTANCE, RED, GREEN AND BLUE.]
+
+
+THE RAILS AND HANGING APPARATUS.
+
+[Illustration: CROSS SECTION. SIDE ELEVATION. Fig. 8.--JOIST AND WHEELS
+SUPPORTING HANGER.]
+
+These two details may be conveniently considered together, and it
+should be stated at once here again a great deal of difference of
+opinion exists as to what system is the best. It should, however, be
+clearly understood that upon the system of railing a great deal of
+the success depends. The object, of course, to be attained is that of
+handling a large number of parts with as little labour as possible.
+With this object, a complete system of overhead rails, commencing
+with the finishing shops, leading to the paint tank, and thence to
+storage or delivery departments, should be carefully thought out,
+always remembering that the growth of a business may necessitate the
+erection of additional buildings from time to time and provision made
+accordingly. One of the simplest and best forms of rails is an H
+section joist with two wheels on either side as shown in Fig. 8. In
+other cases an =L= rolled joist is used, the railing part being on the
+vertical flange while the horizontal flange is connected with rods
+fixed to the upper part of the building. One method which is used quite
+successfully is to employ hooks as shown in Fig. 9. These run over
+rails which are lubricated with vaseline, and in this case the rails
+are usually slightly inclined. In very large works, however, where
+a considerable length of rail is employed this inclination might be
+inconvenient, as the rails would go too near the ground. In all cases
+horizontal rails are found in practice to be the most convenient, but
+an installation requires careful consideration from all points of view
+and no general rules can be laid down.
+
+
+HANGING AFTER DIPPING OR SPRAYING.
+
+A practical point of more importance than might be supposed, at first
+sight, is to avoid hanging articles very close together after they have
+been painted or enamelled, either by dipping or spraying. The reason is
+that if they are hung quite close together the turpentine or volatile
+thinner used in the paint may affect part of the adjacent surface, and
+cause a diminished gloss.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9.--HOOK FOR HANGING.]
+
+This point was brought to light in the case of one manufacturer who was
+painting varnish cans by dipping. They were hung up to dry quite close
+together--in fact, almost touching. When dry, it was noticed that,
+instead of being nice and glossy all over, one side was somewhat dull.
+The explanation appeared to be that the turpentine fumes affected the
+paint in drying, and this was proved to be true, as when the cans were
+placed farther apart the trouble ceased.
+
+
+HOISTS.
+
+The hoists used will depend upon the size and weight of the objects
+that are to be dipped. In some cases they may be dispensed with
+altogether and the dipping can be done by hand.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15.--A TYPICAL HOIST FOR USE IN PAINTING BY
+IMMERSION.]
+
+In cases where the space is confined, it is sometimes desirable to use
+hoists in the form of wall crabs, and a few of these made by the London
+Hoist Machinery Co., Ltd., 103, Worship Street, E.C., are illustrated
+in Figs. 10 to 14. The hoist shown in Fig. 10 will lift 10 cwt. with
+slow speed on the left-hand side, and 3 cwt. on the right-hand side
+with a quick speed of 13 feet per minute. This form can be made
+lower by brake if desired. The little crab shown in Fig. 11 deals with
+weights of 1 cwt. at a speed of 60 feet per minute, while that shown in
+Fig. 12 is also a quick gear, lifting 3 cwt. at 13 feet per minute. The
+other illustrations are self-explanatory.
+
+Fig. 15 shows a typical hoist which may be regarded as an ideal
+installation for the work, and the idea can be adapted to either
+large or small works as required. The installation consists of an
+overhead track with a movable portion over the dipping tank. The goods
+to be dipped are hung on the trolleys and run one by one on to the
+movable portion of the track over the tank. There is a stop on this
+portion to prevent the trolley running right over the tank, and the
+movable portion with the article to be dipped is lowered into the
+tank, and afterwards raised by means of a hoist. The hoist in this
+case was driven by pneumatic power. It could, however, in very small
+installations be a hand hoist worked by the rotary movement of a
+handle, or in other large installations a quick moving electric hoist.
+
+After the article is dipped and the movable portion raised by the hoist
+to its correct position in the track of the runway, the trolley is run
+off the movable portion on to the track beyond the tank, and left there
+to dry.
+
+These overhead runways can be made to suit loads from 2½ cwts. up
+to 10 tons, so that the system covers all classes of work, since it is
+seldom that it would be necessary to dip articles weighing more than 10
+tons.
+
+Fig. 16 shows a Morris standard electric trolley hoist suitable for
+lifting up to, say, 5 or 6 tons. Both of the foregoing hoists are made
+by Messrs. Herbert Morris, Ltd., of Loughborough, to whom the author is
+indebted for these illustrations.
+
+In Fig. 17 is shown another type of trolley hoist suitable for lifting
+heavy weights.
+
+
+THE NUMBER OF COATS OF PAINT TO BE GIVEN.
+
+An important consideration both in paint immersion and paint spraying
+is the number of coats of paint which should be given in order to
+produce the required appearance and ensure durability. This must
+necessarily depend upon the use to which the article to be painted
+is to be put, and it will also depend upon the appearance. In paint
+spraying it is clear that any thickness of paint required could be
+obtained by continuing the operation of spraying, but it has been found
+in practice that it is not desirable to continue the application of
+the paint beyond the point when every part of the surface is completely
+covered. It is a well-known fact that three thin coats of paint applied
+separately will prove more durable than two thick coats, even if the
+quantity of paint used in the two cases is identical. The same is true
+to a great extent when the paint is sprayed on. When it is applied by
+dipping another important element enters into consideration, and that
+is, thin coats are a practical necessity, because if an attempt was
+made to make the coat thick it would inevitably result in unsightly
+runs, fat edges, etc., which would wholly spoil the work. Where the
+object is only that of a temporary protection, as in the case of iron
+castings, a single coat will usually suffice, because the castings when
+fixed in position will be painted with the building in the ordinary way.
+
+Sometimes a priming or first coat of paint is given by dipping, and the
+following coats are applied by brushes or by spraying. There appears
+to be some idea that when paint is applied by brushes it is forced
+into the pores of the wood and therefore holds better; as a matter of
+fact, in a well-designed paint the thinners will penetrate the wood
+and no particular force is necessary; but if it should be, it will be
+certainly supplied by the spraying process.
+
+
+ADVANTAGES OF THE DIPPING PROCESS.
+
+The advantages of applying paint, japan, enamel, or varnish by the
+process of immersion are obvious. The saving of time is the chief
+advantage, and this will be in most cases very considerable. For
+instance, a complete wagon can be painted by dipping in a very few
+minutes, while large and intricate agricultural machines may be painted
+in the same way in a fifth part of the time it would take to spray
+them, and probably a twentieth part of the time it would take to do the
+work by hand.
+
+There is another advantage which should be mentioned when paint dipping
+is compared with spraying. In the latter, an outfit consisting of
+sprayer, air compressor, exhaust, cabinet, etc., are all necessary. In
+dipping, however, the apparatus may in many cases be of the simplest
+character. For example, in painting bedsteads all that is necessary is
+a narrow but deep tank containing the paint, into which the bedstead
+may be plunged by hand and then hung up to drip over a metal-lined
+floor.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16.--A MORRIS STANDARD ELECTRIC TROLLEY HOIST.]
+
+In Birmingham, hundreds of iron bedsteads are dipped in this way every
+day. The head or foot of the bedstead is taken in the two hands of the
+operator, dipped into a tank of black japan, and immediately hung up
+on a travelling chair, which slowly carries it across the room to the
+oven, the superfluous paint dripping off during the process.
+
+In another chapter will be found the advantages which the process of
+spraying has over dipping. A decision as to which is the best system
+to adopt for any particular purpose can only be determined after due
+consideration has been given to all the circumstances bearing upon the
+work to be done.
+
+It may be pointed out in this connection that the process of painting
+called "flowing on," which is fully described on another page, is in
+effect only a modification of dipping. As a motor body, for instance,
+cannot be plunged into a paint tank because the inside is not to be
+painted, the paint is literally poured over the surface, and the effect
+is exactly the same.
+
+
+PROTECTING PARTS NOT TO BE PAINTED.
+
+It frequently happens in paint dipping that certain parts of a machine
+or other article that is desired to be coated with paint is to be left
+unpainted, and the problem is how to effect this most economically. The
+method usually employed is to cover the parts, such as name plates,
+bright portions of a machine, etc. with vaseline. When the article is
+dipped the paint covers this as well as the other parts, and after the
+paint is dry the vaseline and the paint on it can be easily wiped off
+and the surface beneath it will be found to be quite clean.
+
+
+PREPARING WOODWORK BEFORE PAINTING.
+
+Previous to the priming coat of paint being applied to any article made
+of pine or other wood containing knots it is necessary to protect such
+knots by applying one or two coats of a liquid known in the trade as
+"knotting." If this were not done the rosin which exudes more or less
+from the knots would penetrate the paint, discolour it and give a very
+unsightly appearance.
+
+The best knotting consists of shellac dissolved in alcohol, usually in
+the form of methylated spirits; in other words, it is shellac spirit
+varnish. Many inferior grades, however, are sold in which the shellac
+is adulterated with rosin or other substances, while the alcohol is
+sometimes replaced wholly or in part with naphtha. These inferior
+qualities of knotting should never be used, as they are very likely
+indeed to cause trouble and spoil the whole job.
+
+Although the parts of machines such as agricultural implements are
+usually made of selected and well-seasoned timber, it sometimes happens
+that portions of the work are found to be more or less sappy. This
+should also be coated with knotting, as otherwise they will absorb the
+paint to too great an extent and the priming coat will not be uniform.
+
+In passing, it may be observed that a coat of shellac varnish--a term,
+as already explained, which is synonymous with knotting--is very useful
+as an undercoat whenever there is an excess of rosin as in pitch pine.
+It is also used to stop suction on plaster ornaments which are finished
+in imitation bronze, and which may successfully be used over tar or tar
+spots which it is desired to paint.
+
+It is very important that knotting be applied in quite thin coats, and
+it is for this reason that usually two coats are given. If it is too
+thick it fails to dry properly. Thick knotting may be used if it be
+well brushed out, but this is almost impossible in applying it to the
+knots of ordinary woodwork which are merely "dabbed" with the end of
+the brush; moreover, such work is usually done by piece work, hence two
+coats are much safer to use.
+
+
+FILLER FOR IRON.
+
+It is sometimes necessary before dipping or spraying cast iron work to
+fill up sand flaws and inequalities. This may be effectually done by
+using a filler prepared as follows: Mix together equal parts of genuine
+red lead and gilders' whiting and add two parts of boiled linseed oil
+and one part of goldsize. It will be found most effective to mix the
+two liquids last mentioned before adding them to the dry lead and
+whiting. Thoroughly mix all together, or, preferably, grind through a
+mill until the putty-like consistency is obtained. This stopping will
+dry very hard. It is important to remember that this filler must be
+mixed in small quantities as required as it rapidly becomes hard, so
+that if a considerable quantity were made at one time any unused would
+become spoiled.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17.--ELECTRIC HOIST SUITABLE FOR HEAVY GOODS.]
+
+Another recipe of an entirely different character for a cement or
+putty for the same purpose is made by mixing one parts of flowers of
+sulphur, two parts of sal-ammoniac and 80 parts of iron filings and
+making them into a paste with water. By increasing the proportion of
+sal-ammoniac the setting is also increased.
+
+
+STOPPING HOLES IN WOODWORK.
+
+However carefully a piece of woodwork may be prepared, there are
+usually more or less depressions or holes such as those which occur
+over countersunk nails, and in other places which require to be filled
+up. The usual stopping for this purpose employed by house painters is
+a mixture of equal parts of dry whiting and dry white lead, made in
+the form of putty, with raw linseed oil to which, say, 10 per cent. of
+boiled oil has been added. A cheaper and quite as effective a stopping,
+however, can be made by using a material known as "Alabastine," which
+possesses the advantage of being easily cut down. This material may be
+also used when mixed to a thinner consistency for priming, but it is
+not suitable for being applied by dipping, although it may be sprayed.
+The very best stopping is one such as is used by carriage painters,
+and is strongly recommended for high-class work. It is supplied both
+in powder and paste form by all first-class varnish manufacturers,
+and although the cost is a little higher than that of stopping putty
+made of whiting and linseed oil, as described, it is well worth the
+difference.
+
+An excellent filling composition for coach and motor body builders,
+railway and tramway carriage manufacturers, etc., is that made by the
+well-known varnish house of Messrs. Wm. Harland & Son, Merton, S.W.
+
+It is especially suitable, obtaining a perfectly level and unyielding
+groundwork where a fine finish is to be given, either in paint, varnish
+or enamel. It is made in two colours, grey for dark work and cream for
+light colours or white, and costs sixpence a pound, or less when bought
+in quantities.
+
+It effects a great saving of time and labour, being already finely
+ground into a stiff paste, which only needs the addition of specially
+prepared thinners to bring it to a proper consistency for use with the
+brush.
+
+It is most successful and expeditious as well as the most economical
+process for giving a smooth surface to rough castings--a condition
+which is, of course, indispensable when these have to be painted and
+varnished.
+
+For ordinary surfaces of woodwork of a slightly rough or uneven
+character, two or three coats of the filling composition will suffice
+to produce, when carefully rubbed down, a perfectly smooth surface of
+a hard metallic nature, combined with great tenacity and durability.
+
+"Philorite" is another speciality which may be mentioned in this
+connection. It is manufactured by Messrs. Wilkinson, Heywood and Clark,
+Ltd., and is a filler made in white and seven colours. This is a great
+advantage when the finish is to be coloured, as it may save a coat of
+paint. It can be rubbed smooth without difficulty, and will serve as a
+perfect ground for enamels and japans, as well as for paint. For use it
+is thinned out with American turpentine to the required consistency,
+say, that of a ready mixed paint. It is brushed on with a stiff bristle
+brush, and two coats may be safely applied on one day. The last coat
+can be rubbed down smooth with pumice and water or sandpaper. It may
+also be used as a knifing paste for defective surfaces.
+
+
+RUBBING DOWN.
+
+In many cases the coats of paint, japan or enamel have to be rubbed
+down between coats in order to produce a perfectly level surface.
+This is usually done by means of finely powdered pumice stone and
+water, and it is important to remember that the operation must be done
+with care so that the rubbing is quite uniform. If a slight gloss is
+given to the paint the portions which are rubbed down can readily be
+discerned, as they will have a gloss, and in this way uniformity can
+be ensured. It is of the utmost importance that all of the powder be
+washed away before the next coat is applied; if any is left it will
+mar the job. It may be noted that the work of rubbing down may be done
+more expeditiously by means of the finest grade of steel wool. On the
+Continent this is now used exclusively, and it is rapidly gaining
+favour in Great Britain.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18.--SPRAYED SHOW CARD.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19.--DIPPING AND STOVING BEDSTEADS.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+REQUIREMENTS OF DIFFERENT TRADES.
+
+
+The following are a few of the special requirements of different
+trades as to paint dipping. The details might be lengthened almost
+indefinitely.
+
+
+BEDSTEADS.
+
+The methods adopted for the class of work will, of course, depend upon
+the quality of the finish required. Cheap bedsteads may be done by
+dipping in one coat of black japan and stoving at 350° F. In better
+class work several coats may be applied either by dipping or spraying,
+and each may be rubbed down after stoving. If a good enamel is used
+this is unnecessary.
+
+When the work is white several coats--say, at least three--are
+necessary, for white japans cannot be made which will cover
+sufficiently in one coat. White lead should not be used in this class
+of work for the reason that a good deal of handling of parts is
+necessary, while the rubbing down is sometimes done with glass paper
+and cause dust, both of which may give rise to lead poisoning. All of
+the best white japans or enamels are made on a base of zinc oxide or
+lithopone (zinc sulphide), or a mixture of them.
+
+
+COLLAPSIBLE GATES.
+
+This work is usually done by dipping in paint which dries "flat,"
+i.e., without gloss. The colour is, as a rule, black. In fitting and
+adjusting the work in order that the parts will collapse readily it
+is necessary to apply a lubricating oil where the rods meet. This
+lubricating oil is difficult to remove after the adjustment has been
+completed, and therefore the last coat of paint is usually put on by
+hand. It is suggested, however, that raw linseed oil might be used
+instead of lubricating oil, and that this could be wiped off as soon
+as possible after the adjustment. In such a case the paint could be
+applied by dipping, as if even a little of the raw linseed oil were
+not removed it would not interfere with the drying of the paint to any
+material extent.
+
+
+DIPPING SEWING MACHINE PARTS.
+
+The process employed by a very large firm of American manufacturers is
+as follows:--
+
+When the castings come from the machine shop they are boiled for 20
+minutes in ammonia water to kill the grease (1 of strong ammonia to 20
+of water), and are then rinsed in hot water. Any holes or inequalities
+in the castings are then stopped with a filler made from dry white
+lead, mixed into a stiff paste with some varnish, brown japan dryers
+and dry lampblack made quite stiff. When the stopping is hard the
+castings are dipped into a black metallic coating thinned with 62%
+benzine to a specific gravity 850. They are then dipped with two coats
+of finishing japan (sp. gr. 830) flatted with powdered pumice after
+each coat and leathered off. The parts which are not plated or flatted
+are given 5 hours stoving at 325° F., and are then rubbed with pumice
+and carpet pad until flat. Cut out gold transfers are then fixed with
+transfer varnish and the work is stoved at 185° F. The parts are then
+sponged and dusted, and are given a good coat of polishing varnish (sp.
+gr. 950) Finally the work is rubbed down fine with glass paper and
+pumice powder and then polished with machine oil and rottenstone powder
+for the iron, or rottenstone and benzine for the tables. The latter, as
+well as the covers for these, are not usually dipped but brush finished.
+
+
+IRON RODS.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20.--IMMERSING MANGLE FRAMES.]
+
+In most cases, iron and steel rods are best painted by immersion, as
+the small surface presented would cause too much waste if spraying
+were attempted. As in most cases of dipping, success depends largely
+upon the means adopted for handling and dipping a number of rods at
+one time. Frequently, stoving is required to harden the japan, because
+a rod is often subjected to considerable wear. Perhaps the best plan
+to adopt, where the number of rods to be treated warrants the outlay,
+is to provide mechanism by which the rods are dipped and are at
+once automatically carried into a stove, and by means of slowly
+travelling chains, carried out at the other end.
+
+An excellent contrivance for the purpose is in use at the Ford Motor
+Works, at Manchester. This consists of a vertical oven, heated by gas,
+and having slowly-moving endless chains running from bottom to top and
+down again to a point where the rods are discharged on to inclined
+runners. These rods are passed through a bath of japan, are then taken
+up by the chain, and, during their progress, are baked. A gear is
+provided by which the time between the entry of a rod to its discharge
+may be varied from twenty to ninety minutes, or any period between,
+according to the purpose for which the rod is to be used and the degree
+of hardness of the japan required.
+
+
+IRON WINDOW FRAMES OR CASEMENTS.
+
+A long narrow tank, say, from 1 foot 6 inches to 2 feet wide and 15
+feet long, is suitable for this class of work, which is usually done in
+one coat only, and this is quite sufficient to protect the iron until
+the casement is fixed in position, when it will, of course, receive
+additional coats by means of a brush in the ordinary way.
+
+It is important that the iron be dipped just as soon as it leaves the
+finishing shop, and it is necessary that the surface be thoroughly
+cleaned before the paint is applied, and particularly after all scale
+is removed. Sometimes the application of the sand blast is necessary
+for this work, but, as a rule, a vigorous application of suitable wire
+brushes will suffice.
+
+Another very important provision is a system of overhanging rails on
+which the sashes or other articles can be run direct from the finishing
+shop to the paint tank, and thence to any part of the building, from
+which they may be taken as required for shipment.
+
+The paint used for casements is usually grey, being as a rule made of
+zinc oxide and lampblack. These pigments, when mixed with a suitable
+vehicle, are very durable, while, the colour being neutral, it is
+suitable as an undercoat for green, as well as nearly any other colour
+which it may be desired to use as a finish. The weight of the paint
+should be 13 lbs. to the gallon, and it should dry with a semi-gloss.
+The elevating apparatus need only be of a simple character, and several
+casements can be suspended and dipped at one time. For this purpose
+a "hanger" is used, having perforations through which one end of the
+hooks pass. One form is shown in Fig. 21. By the side of the tank
+should be a large metal lined floor, say, 20 feet by 15 feet, or even
+larger, inclined toward the tank. The frames having been plunged into
+the paint, are at once withdrawn and hung in rows to dry over this
+floor. The superfluous paint drips on to it and runs back through a
+screen or sieve into the tank. The latter should be provided with a
+cover, to be closed in when the work is not being proceeded with.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21.--IRON HANGER FOR SUSPENDING SEVERAL ARTICLES TO
+BE DIPPED TOGETHER.]
+
+In this class of work it is unnecessary to employ a stirring apparatus
+provided that the paint is of the right consistency, and an occasional
+stirring up with a pole after the work has been suspended, say, for
+example, from Saturday to Monday, will usually be all that is required.
+As a matter of fact, the lowering and raising of the casements into the
+paint effectually stirs it up.
+
+
+METAL FURNITURE.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22.--THE AUTOMATIC FINISHING OF PIANOS. CARRIER
+FILLED WITH SIX COMPLETE PIANOS.]
+
+Under this head it is intended to include such articles as deed boxes,
+lockers, files and other metal goods which are required to be painted
+both inside and out. An enamel stoving or baking paint is usually
+employed for the purpose, while the tank must be of sufficient size to
+accommodate the various articles that are to go into it. Taking a deed
+box by way of example, a large iron hook, such as is shown in Fig. 32
+is placed inside the box so that it is suspended at an angle; the box
+or boxes are then lowered into the tank and immediately withdrawn after
+all the superfluous paint runs away, care being taken that the box
+hangs at a proper angle to permit of this being done. Great care must
+be taken in this room to exclude all dust, which would considerably
+mar the work. For this purpose wire netting of the finest mesh should
+be placed over the windows so as to screen off any dust which might
+otherwise enter. A system of overhead rails are made, consisting
+of an L-iron on the top side of which run two rollers to which are
+attached hanging gears, and is sufficient for the purpose. At
+least ten minutes should be allowed for these articles to drip over
+the inclined floor adjacent to the tank, and for safety's sake it is
+as well to employ a workman with a brush in his hand to go over each
+piece and remove any tears or runs which may possibly occur. Metal
+work of the description named is then placed in a stove and baked for
+three hours at a temperature of 400° F. The paint is frequently green,
+which is found to be a good serviceable colour and which is attractive
+in appearance. After the baking the paint is quite hard, and will
+withstand more or less rough usage. If any ornamental work is required,
+this is done afterwards, as explained under the head of "Stencilling."
+The paint employed weighs 13 lbs. to the gallon, and a fine mesh
+paint strainer must be provided, through which the superfluous paint
+passes as it drips from the articles on their way to the tank. In
+this case, as in others, no special stirring apparatus is required,
+as the comparatively heavy vehicle and the relatively light specific
+gravity of the pigment employed gives little or no opportunity for any
+"settling out."
+
+
+MOTOR PARTS (METAL).
+
+The various parts which go to make up a complete motor car are
+differently treated according to their shape and size. In most cases,
+stoving is resorted to, because the enamel or japan is thereby
+much increased in durability by the hardening which takes place in
+consequence of the high temperature.
+
+The steel rims of wheels are dipped by hand into a black japan made
+especially for the purpose. They are hung on hooks and allowed to drain
+for some minutes, and are then transferred to the stove, where they
+are subjected to a heat of 320° F. Such parts as ribs, front and rear
+wings, running boards, shields, etc., are dealt with in the same way.
+
+Previous to dipping, these parts undergo the process known as
+"pickling," by which scale, grease, etc., is removed so that a
+perfectly clean surface is presented to receive the japan.
+
+Troughs to catch the drips must be provided, and it is essential that
+these be kept quite clean, so that the superfluous japan may run
+through gauze and be pumped back again into the tank to be used again.
+
+
+AUTOMATIC FINISHING OF PIANOS.
+
+
+THE STANDARD HYDRAULIC IMMERSION SYSTEM.
+
+Any doubt as to the perfection of finish which may be produced by a
+carefully thought out system of immersion or dipping must be removed by
+the fact that such a system has been in successful use for some years
+for the finish of pianos. It need hardly be pointed out that such a
+finish must necessarily be so well done as to approach perfection.
+
+One firm has made a special study of this subject, viz., the Standard
+Varnish Co., of London and New York, and their efforts have been most
+successful.
+
+By this method an absolutely even distribution of varnish is always
+secured; no part of the piano case is neglected and an enormous
+reduction in the cost of varnishing is effected. The factory output can
+be readily increased as desired, as the varnish working force of the
+factory can do as much or as little work as trade conditions may demand.
+
+The mechanical details have been so perfected that every kind of
+instrument can be handled satisfactorily.
+
+The excellence of the finishing done in accordance with this system
+is attributable to a large extent to its mechanical construction.
+The apparatus used in connection with the Standard method of piano
+finishing consists, in the first place, of a steel tank for the varnish
+with an adjustable cover which can be locked when the apparatus is
+not in operation, a hydraulic lift for raising the work slowly out
+of the varnish, a small horse-power pump which is operated either by
+steam pressure or compressed air, and in extreme emergencies where the
+pressure is not adequate for heavy work, a small motor for operating
+the pump.
+
+There is also installed an apparatus similar to the automatic sprinkler
+system. A fusible link or another mechanical device makes it possible
+to draw off the varnish into a tank outside the main buildings at will,
+and for protection in case a fire should take place in any other part
+of the building.
+
+The principal investment for the piano manufacturer is the carriers or
+racks for holding the separate pieces. The cases are held firmly in the
+carriers by means of springs which are adjusted for the introductory
+carrier, or secured by screws in the permanent carrier which is
+designed for keeping the cases in the carrier until they are ready for
+rubbing. This latter method saves the labour of handling.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23.--AUTOMATIC FINISHING OF PIANOS. INTRODUCTORY
+CARRIER READY FOR PARTS TO BE VARNISHED.]
+
+Carriers filled with work to be varnished are raised from the floor,
+swung directly over the tank, and lowered into the varnish by means of
+an hydraulic lift. The speed with which the work is raised from the
+varnish is controlled by a lever conveniently located for the operator.
+
+Once the speed has been determined and the lever set the apparatus
+requires merely the supervision of an operator, who may devote
+considerable time to helping his assistants reload another carrier
+while the one in the tank is emerging. Generally only a limited number
+of carriers are required.
+
+When the work is to be removed between coats a large percentage can be
+handled without tack in a short time after it is taken from the varnish.
+
+In the introductory carrier, parts like piano tops, which are finished
+on all sides, require a little additional care because of the
+difficulty of handling. This contingency is provided for by the use of
+special head pieces.
+
+In emergencies, for rushing out an extra quantity of work, carriers
+holding falls, frames and small parts may be immersed in one-half the
+interval usually required.
+
+For example, these carriers can be withdrawn in from fifteen to twenty
+minutes, whereas for carriers including sides from twenty-five to
+thirty minutes are required. The carriers are equipped with head pieces
+adjustable to meet all peculiar local factory requirements. In fact,
+these carriers can be constructed by the manufacturer to meet all his
+demands.
+
+The number of carriers necessary depends entirely upon the volume of
+work to be handled. But it is desirable, when possible, to have a
+sufficient number of carriers to hold all the work until the varnish is
+sufficiently dry for rubbing. In this way a tremendous amount of labour
+and time is saved.
+
+Permanent carriers, in which the work has been secured by ordinary
+screws, have been constructed by some manufacturers at an unusually low
+cost by their own machinists in their own factories.
+
+The work in the carriers can be easily dusted by means of air-bellows
+or a compressed air-blower. Work finished in this manner is so clean
+that the usual sanding is not necessary and a considerable amount of
+labour thereby saved.
+
+That the Standard hydraulic immersion system of automatic finishing
+of pianos has distinct advantages over the ordinary hand process is
+obvious even to the casual observer. Among the numerous advantages
+which have been effected the following seem to be worthy of special
+consideration:
+
+ It constitutes practically the factory's entire varnishing force.
+
+ Its use insures an even coat, free from imperfections.
+
+ Coating both sides of the work preserves the cases considerably from
+ shrinking and warping. A great deal of labour is saved by varnishing
+ both sides at once.
+
+ It requires very little more varnish than the old, slow, hand method
+ as there is no waste from brushes and pots and absolutely no dripping
+ outside the tank.
+
+The elasticity of the Standard system of piano varnishing eliminates
+the necessity of additions and reductions to the working force.
+
+The cleanness and evenness of the finish virtually makes every coat a
+flowing coat. The amount of time and effort saved in the rubbing and
+polishing is tremendous, and the finish obtained is much finer, due to
+the absence of uneven coating and the blemishes of pinholing and dust.
+
+Carriers containing six complete pianos each, at an average interval of
+one half-hour, will enable the factory to turn out 108 pianos with one
+coating during a nine-hour working day.
+
+Carriers containing eight complete pianos would handle 144 pianos a
+day. A lift sufficiently strong to accomplish any demand placed upon
+it can be installed to immerse as many carriers at once as will be
+necessary.
+
+A smaller carrier containing four pianos can be installed for the
+manufacturer with a small output of pianos, which by the very nature of
+its construction is handled more readily than the larger carrier.
+
+In coating both sides of the work a decided protection against
+shrinking and warping has been provided. In fact many manufacturers
+are taking this precaution by brushing both sides of the work. By the
+Standard method the work is automatically coated on both sides at the
+same time.
+
+Very little more varnish (not more than 5%) is required by the Standard
+system than by the hand method. The inventors' own experiments, as
+well as the daily use of the system by manufacturers, shows that more
+varnish is wasted about the varnishing room than is required by the
+immersion system to coat the unfinished side of the work. With this
+method, all of the small amount of varnish that drips off falls back
+into the tank.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24.--LOWERING PIANO CASES INTO THE VARNISH TANK.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25.--PIANO CASES NEARLY IMMERSED.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26.--PIANO CASES WHOLLY IMMERSED.]
+
+One of the most difficult tasks of the finishing room foreman is to
+be certain that the proper reduction is made for the first and other
+undercoats. This is entirely eliminated with the use of the Standard
+system of piano finishing. This process alone makes it possible to
+apply a minimum quantity of varnish sufficient to withstand the strain
+of rubbing and polishing. This lessens the possibility of shrinking and
+cracking which excessive varnish coats applied by brush involves. The
+slower the speed of the lift, the less varnish is applied to the work,
+consequently there is a gradual regulation of the amount of varnish for
+the separate coats.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27.--PIANO CASES ABOUT TO BE DIPPED.]
+
+The foregoing description, together with the accompanying
+illustrations, will enable the reader to understand the general method
+adopted. It should be added that it is applicable to many other
+articles besides piano cases.
+
+The system described was invented and is controlled by the Standard
+Varnish Company of London and New York.
+
+
+WHEELS.
+
+An extremely ingenious but effective machine for coating hickory wheels
+with paint or japan is in use at the works of the Ford Motor Company,
+Trafford Park, Manchester. It consists of a stationary cylindrical
+vessel of exactly the right size to receive a wheel, which, being
+placed in position, is at once lowered into a tank containing the
+japan. Here it is made to revolve very rapidly, by which means the
+japan is thoroughly distributed over every part. Hickory, being a hard
+and comparatively non-absorbent wood, the japan might give too thick
+a coating if dipped and left to dry in the ordinary way. To prevent
+this, the wheel, while still revolving very rapidly, is mechanically
+lifted out of the japan, and is held just above it, where it continues
+to spin. This has the effect of throwing off the superfluous japan by
+centrifugal force. The cylindrical sides of the apparatus catch the
+japan, and it runs down into the tank below. The wheels are then taken
+out by a man, who wears gloves, are stacked on edge in rows to dry,
+and, after an hour or so, they receive a second coat. After twenty-four
+hours, or less, they are ready for use.
+
+The advantage of rapidly revolving the wheels is that anything in the
+nature of a drip is entirely eliminated. This machine can deal with 300
+wheels an hour, so rapid is the process. At the present time the Ford
+Works are using 2,000 wheels a week.
+
+
+SOME TYPICAL PLANTS.
+
+In gathering information of up-to-date character to include in this
+book the author has visited various parts of the country, and through
+the courtesy of the firms mentioned below has examined the plants used
+successfully for the treatment of many different goods. The following
+is a brief description of some of the plants inspected, although it by
+no means exhausts the list:--
+
+
+CARRIAGE DEPARTMENT, WOOLWICH ARSENAL.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28.--DIPPING A COACH BODY AT WOOLWICH ARSENAL.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 29.--GENERAL VIEW OF PAINT DIPPING ROOM AT WOOLWICH
+ARSENAL.]
+
+The plant for painting wagons, etc., has been in use for about 12 years
+and has been eminently successful, it being found by experience that
+a paint applied by dipping proves equally durable to that formerly
+applied by means of brushes. Indeed, the durability is increased for
+the reason, which has been pointed out elsewhere, that the paint finds
+it way into open joints and crevices which could not be reached by
+a brush. In some cases a wagon is dipped bodily, while in others it is
+dismantled and the different parts are dipped separately; again, the
+smaller portions are placed in an open wire basket which is plunged
+into the paint. The building in which this painting is done is of
+considerable extent and a large paint tank is located at each end. A
+wagon on being completed, or in the case of an old wagon, after having
+been prepared, is brought to the first tank and is raised from the
+ground and lowered into the paint, where it remains for about half a
+minute. It is then immediately raised, allowed to drain over a tank for
+a few minutes, and then over an inclined floor for a further period.
+At the end of about half an hour a workman inspects the wagon or
+other article and removes any tears or runs which may have occurred.
+The paint being specially prepared this is not usually an arduous
+undertaking.
+
+The illustrations show very clearly a coach body in process of dipping.
+Overhead rails run throughout the length of the building and upon these
+are suspended the painted wagons, which are gradually moved along
+with a very little exertion, such rails being slightly inclined to
+facilitate this. By the time the series of wagons reach the further end
+of the building they are ready to receive a second coat of paint, by
+being dipped in the second tank. This being done they are then moved
+back, being at once suspended on the rails until quite dry, when they
+are hoisted to the upper part of the building, where they are left
+suspended until they are required for use. The paint is, of course,
+a special one which is supplied in paste form having the necessary
+binding ingredients. The colour used is khaki, which is very durable,
+being composed of earth colours. The thinning is done on the premises
+and white spirit is employed for the purpose, not turpentine, which
+would be far too expensive. Formerly benzine was employed, but this
+necessitated the use of a fan to take away the fumes which came from
+the spirit. Such a fan is not now found to be necessary.
+
+The tanks are fitted with iron covers bearing upon thick felt and are
+operated by means of levers placed at a distance, so that should a fire
+occur they can be closed at a moment's notice. The hoist is worked
+from the ground by electricity. Formerly the operator of the hoist was
+located in a cab near the roof, but it was felt that this would be a
+dangerous position in case of fire, and he now, as stated, does the
+work from the ground. The work done at Woolwich gives an excellent
+example of the actual saving which may be effected by using the paint
+dipping process. Before the painting plant was put in no fewer than 200
+painters were constantly employed; now about 40 are fully able to turn
+out the same or even a larger number of wagons in a given time.
+
+
+JAMES GIBBONS.
+
+Most of the metal sheets as well as finished metal work of various
+kinds made at these extensive works at Wolverhampton are finished by
+dipping into special enamels or japans made by Messrs. Mander Bros. The
+dipping is done by hand and the pieces are placed at the side of the
+tank to drain. In some cases it is found necessary to go over the work
+slightly with a brush to remove tears, but such work takes only a few
+minutes and is used mostly as a precautionary measure.
+
+One coat is usually found sufficient, and at the proper time the iron
+sheet or metal article is stoved at 250° F. to 300° F. for two hours.
+Many other articles are also dipped successfully.
+
+
+HARRISON, MCGREGOR & CO.
+
+In the extensive factories of this firm at Leigh, Lancashire, dipping
+by immersion has been successfully carried on for some years past.
+Various agricultural implements are dipped bodily in a tank of paint
+which is fitted with a worm agitator, and is of simple construction.
+The iron parts are dipped separately, being supported on suitable
+hangers, while the very small parts are placed in wire baskets for
+immersion.
+
+
+PHILLIPS AND SON.
+
+The paint dipping plant at these works, which are situated at
+Sherbourne Street, Birmingham, has been in successful operation for
+some years past and is applied principally to bedsteads.
+
+The tank holding black japan measures about 5 feet by 18 inches and is
+some 9 feet deep. The bedstead head and foot are separately dipped by
+hand into the tank which contains black japan, and are immediately hung
+on a hook attached to a slowly travelling chain. This chain runs around
+a rectangular space, and beneath is a metal lined dripping floor. The
+stove is located diagonally from the tank, so that by the time the
+bedstead parts reach it the dripping has ceased and they are ready to
+be baked. The stoving is done at 320° F., and is continued all night.
+One coat is found to be ample.
+
+A very ingenious arrangement is in use for the application of coloured
+enamels. Three shallow tanks are mounted on rollers running in angle
+irons one above the other in such a manner that any one tank may be
+pulled out when required for use free from the others.
+
+As a rule three coats are given for white work and two for green, blue
+and most other colours. No white lead is used, but only non-poisonous
+colours. The stoving is done mostly overnight at a temperature of 250°
+F. A little rubbing down between coats is done with very fine glass or
+emery paper. The japans are made by Messrs. Thornley & Knight.
+
+In these works safes are painted, but the work is all done by hand.
+
+
+THE FORD MOTOR COMPANY.
+
+The extensive works of this company, at Trafford Park, Manchester,
+contain as complete a plant for painting, japanning, enamelling and
+varnishing, as it has been the pleasure of the author to inspect.
+
+With characteristic thoroughness every detail which will ensure a
+first class finish with a minimum of time and labour has been thought
+out and applied. The result is that not only is every part dealt with
+most expeditiously but one coat of paint is applied to the whole outer
+surface of a motor body in the almost incredibly short time of two
+minutes. Further details will be found in this book under the heads of
+"Flowing-on," "Motor Parts," and "Iron Rods."
+
+
+MARSHALL, SONS & CO., LTD.
+
+This well-known firm of agricultural implement manufacturers have a
+large dipping plant at their Gainsborough works, which they employ
+for painting various agricultural machines made principally of red
+wood. Some idea of the extent to which this process is applied may be
+obtained when it is said that on an average nearly 5,000 pieces pass
+through the dipping plant every month. The process is particularly
+well adapted for threshing machines and for appliances of the kind
+which consist of thousands of holes bored in the wood. If the painting
+were done by hand it would take many hours to paint such a machine,
+while by dipping it is done even more effectually in a few minutes.
+The priming coat only is dipped after knots, etc., have been treated
+with shellac. The tank measures 21ft. long by 7ft. deep and 2ft. 3in.
+in width. An agitating apparatus is used and the lifting is done by
+pneumatic appliances.
+
+
+HAYWARD BROTHERS AND ECKSTEIN, LIMITED.
+
+The paint dipping plant in use at the works of this firm, at Union
+Street, Borough, S.E., is of a comparatively simple type, and consists
+of a shallow tank in which various cast iron and steel goods are dipped
+in horizontal position. As a rule, one coat of paint is given, but in
+certain cases two are required. The bottom of the tank is slanted,
+and the contents are stirred up from time to time, but no agitating
+apparatus is used. The principal goods painted by dipping are the
+frames of Hayward's lights, which are of cast iron and are dipped on
+one side only, the other side, after the glass is fitted, being done
+by hand. Metal casements are also dipped in considerable numbers, as
+well as treads and rises of circular staircases, straight staircases,
+balconies, etc. These, being made of ornamental open ironwork, contain
+a large number of small shaped holes, and the dipping process is found
+to be by far the most effective.
+
+Another speciality of this firm are Hayward's patent steel collapsible
+gates. The first coat of paint is applied by dipping; this paint, being
+black, dries flat, i.e., without gloss.
+
+
+THE CRITTALL MANUFACTURING CO., LTD.
+
+These works are at Braintree, Essex, where a large amount of structural
+steelwork is produced, the chief manufactures being metal windows
+of all kinds, from the well-known steel casement and sash to metal
+windows for use in industrial dwellings and specially designed windows
+for various climates, steel fireproof doors, skylights, steel office
+and works partitions, shop fronts; frictionless ball race runners for
+sliding doors, etc.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 30.--WAGON STORE ROOM, WOOLWICH ARSENAL.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31.--DIPPING CASEMENTS AT THE CRITTALL
+MANUFACTURING CO.'S FACTORY, BRAINTREE.]
+
+Perhaps the most noticeable feature of these works as far as our
+subject is concerned, is the very complete system of overhead rails,
+by means of which the various metal goods produced in the different
+finishing shops are conveyed to one or other of the paint tanks and
+then, having been left to dry, are taken to store rooms ready for
+instant shipment. These rails facilitate handling of the various
+goods, and reduce the actual expenditure under this particular item to
+a minimum. The rails are L-shaped, the hanger used for each article
+or series of articles being of a simple character, consisting of two
+wheels bearing on the top of the upright flange, while rods secured by
+bolts pass through the horizontal flange and hold it in position.
+
+We will first describe the tank used for dipping metal windows. This is
+15ft. long by 12ft. deep and only 1ft. 6in. wide. Attached to the tank
+is a large dripping floor measuring some 15ft. by 21ft. covered with
+sheet iron and inclined toward the tank, so that the paint which drips
+on to it finds its way back into the tank through a grating provided
+for the purpose to take off any dried particles. The paint used in
+this work is made by Messrs. Docker Brothers, and weighs 13 lbs. to
+the gallon; one coat is found sufficient for the purpose. The sashes
+or casements being brought in from the finishing room on the overhead
+rail, they are lowered into the tank by means of a special lowering
+apparatus designed on the premises. Some idea of this may be had from
+Fig. 31. In order to keep the load steady during the time it is being
+dipped, a slight depression or dip in the rail is made immediately over
+the tank. The sashes are only left in the paint for a few seconds, and
+are then raised, allowed to drip over the tank for perhaps a minute
+or two, and then allowed to drip over the adjacent floor for perhaps
+a quarter of an hour or less. They are then taken farther along and
+the paint dries in about three hours. Sometimes two, four, six, or
+even eight casements may be dipped at the same time. Attached to the
+elevating and lowering apparatus are hooks which pass through one
+corner of the casements. This causes the parts to hang at an angle
+which facilitates running off of the paint.
+
+We come now to the department in which the baking or stoving enamel is
+used as applied to metal furniture in general, as mentioned. In this
+case the articles are dipped in a manner very similar to that already
+described, excepting that a large hook, similar in shape to that shown
+in Fig. 32, is used to support the article to be dipped; the wide
+opening goes inside the box or file and holds it at an angle so that
+when it is lowered into the paint all parts are covered inside and
+out. A few minutes are allowed for dripping, and after two or three
+hours the articles are ready to be stoved. In this case, Messrs. Docker
+Brothers' standard colour, a very pleasing dark green, is used. The
+stoving takes three hours at a temperature of 240° F., or higher in
+some cases. The tank mentioned is, of course, considerably wider than
+that used for casements. The dripping floor is in this case inclined
+toward the centre, which in turn is inclined toward the grating just
+outside the tank itself. If necessary, special thinners are added
+to bring up the gloss, but, as a rule, this is unnecessary. It is
+desirable after the article is dipped to go over it once with a small
+brush to remove any drips or runs which may possibly appear.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 32.--HOOK USED FOR SUSPENDING METAL BOXES WHILE
+DIPPING.]
+
+Another very important point to be attended to is to exclude all dust,
+and for this purpose the Crittall Manufacturing Co. have erected in
+this department screens of wire of the finest mesh over windows, so
+that no air can pass into the room without the dust being screened off.
+
+
+EXCLUDING DUST.
+
+A matter of very great importance, yet one which is frequently
+overlooked in painting iron and other goods which are to have a glossy
+finish, either air dried or stoved, is to exclude dust from the
+apartment in which the work is done. In many engineering shops the
+nature of the business gives rise to a considerable amount of dust,
+and if this is allowed to enter the paint shop it will be fatal to the
+appearance of the painted work, as many specks will inevitably settle
+on the work and mar its appearance.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 33--DIPPING CASEMENTS AT BRAINTREE. NOTE THE NARROW
+TANK USED FOR THIS CLASS OF WORK.]
+
+A paint shop is best provided with a concrete floor, and this should be
+frequently cleaned. The workmen should wear clean overalls, frequently
+renewed, and even so small a matter as keeping the hair, beard, etc.,
+clean and free from dandruff should be attended to. The doors are
+best if double, and thick felt may be used with advantage in the joints
+so as to practically seal the opening when the doors are closed. Air
+which is admitted, either through ventilators or windows, should be
+strained before entering the building, and for this purpose silk gauze
+of the finest mesh is usually employed. In some cases, cotton wool in
+addition is placed in such a position that the air must pass through
+it before entering the room. If these precautions are taken it will be
+found that the quality of the work is greatly enhanced.
+
+It may be observed in this connection that it is important also to
+provide means of adequate ventilation of the apartment. Moisture
+charged air has a bad effect upon paint work. Extreme heat is
+unnecessary, but it is very important that the temperature be
+maintained at a uniform rate, say 60° F. If the room in which the
+painting is done is very hot, the paint will be affected and be likely
+to become too thin for its purpose; while, on the other hand, if the
+room or articles to be painted are very cold, the paint or enamel will
+have a tendency to congeal. Both of these defects can be remedied, as
+already stated, by a good system of ventilation and maintaining the
+heat, night and day, at a uniform temperature.
+
+
+A MODEL DRYING ROOM.
+
+The immense importance of providing a uniform temperature and ensuring
+an adequate system of ventilation in the room in which goods are placed
+for air drying can hardly be exaggerated. Unless such a system is in
+use the actual drying may be greatly retarded and the work stand a
+chance of being spoiled.
+
+In connection with some of the plant inspected by the author it must
+be admitted that the provision made in this respect falls far short of
+what is needed. In one case the work of rubbing down was proceeding in
+the same shop, although in a different part, in which various goods
+which had been dipped were hanging up to dry. It need hardly be said
+that under such conditions it was impossible to keep the work free from
+specks.
+
+In other cases the drying rooms were inadequate because of the
+inefficiency of doors and windows. These, it may be remarked, should
+always be double so as to maintain the heat uniformly.
+
+Every varnish user knows that a draught of cold air which is allowed
+to reach a coat of varnish while drying is fatal alike to its
+appearance and durability. The result is almost certain to be a case
+of "blooming," which to the uninitiated may be described as a film not
+unlike the bloom of a freshly coloured plum which comes on the surface
+of varnish exposed under such conditions. Those unacquainted with
+varnish vagaries are apt to regard this trouble as being the result
+of inferior materials used in its manufacture. As a matter of fact it
+indicates nothing of the kind because, speaking generally, the higher
+grades of varnishes are the most susceptible.
+
+Without doubt the best and by far the most economical plan to adopt
+is to have a drying room specially built for the purpose of receiving
+the articles to be dried. If constructed on scientific principles this
+will not only give a uniform temperature entirely free from draughts
+and dust but will considerably expedite the work, thereby allowing of
+a quicker delivery of goods and effecting a great saving of valuable
+floor space.
+
+The author inspected such a drying room at the works of Messrs.
+Pinchin, Johnson, and Co., Ltd., at Silvertown, and a description of
+it will doubtless prove of interest. It is built of 5-ply wood and is
+about 16 feet square, sufficiently large to hold two full-sized motor
+bodies or several dozen perambulators, hand wagons, etc. The actual
+size may, of course, be varied according to the size of and number of
+articles to be dried. Air is admitted through two ducts situated close
+to the floor through fine wire gauze, which is provided with a lifting
+cover by which the amount of air admitted may be regulated.
+
+Immediately over the two air ducts mentioned is a coil of steam
+pipes which heats the air to, say, 110° F. This, of course, causes
+it to rise toward the ceiling, but the angle between the ceiling and
+wall is rounded off by a cove, so that the current of heated air is
+directed along the ceiling toward the centre of the room where there
+is another cove and beneath it a coil of cold air pipes which lowers
+the temperature somewhat. Thus is created a constant motion of the air
+which may be regarded as the essence of the system.
+
+But there is another very important provision in the shape of an
+automatic control. This cuts off the steam when any desired heat is
+attained so that when the drying room is filled up at night before the
+works close it can safely be left until the morning when the drop in
+temperature will not be more than 2 degrees. The steam may be admitted
+at, say, 10 lbs. pressure, but as soon as the room is heated from 2 to
+2½ lbs. will be found to be sufficient. The actual time for heating
+the room to 120° F. is from 15 to 20 minutes.
+
+The speed with which work is turned out by this well-considered adjunct
+may be gauged from the fact that a panel may receive one coat of enamel
+and two coats of flatting varnish in one day, or four coats of japan in
+the same period.
+
+In addition to the advantages mentioned is the most important one
+that the drying room renders the manufacturer who is fortunate enough
+to possess one quite independent of the weather. In the words of the
+inventors and patentees, "one enabled by its use to create one's own
+climate."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34.--DESIGN FOR SHOW CARD DONE BY SPRAYING.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+PAINTS FOR DIPPING.
+
+
+It need hardly be said that the paint employed for this purpose must be
+of a special character. There are several firms of manufacturers who
+make a speciality of this class of paints and supply them either ready
+for use or in paste form, requiring only the addition of white spirit
+or other suitable thinner to bring them to the right consistency. The
+following may be considered as the necessary qualities of a paint
+suitable for this purpose:--
+
+1. It must dry hard in not less than six hours.
+
+2. The pigment must be of such a specific gravity that when mixed with
+a suitable vehicle or thinner to form a paint the pigment will not
+quickly deposit at the bottom of the tank or settle out.
+
+3. The consistency of the paint must be so arranged that only a minimum
+quantity will run off, while it must not be so thick as to give rise to
+tears or runs.
+
+White lead which has a specific gravity of about 6.750 is for the
+reason mentioned usually considered too heavy, and in the case of a
+white or grey paint, zinc oxide which has a specific gravity of 5.470
+is used in preference. The following colours may also be successfully
+employed, because of their low specific gravity, viz., Oxford ochre (s.
+g. 2.822), Venetian red (s. g. 3.560), Indian red (4.732), golden ochre
+(3.107), Italian raw sienna (3.081), burnt sienna (3.477), Turkey umber
+(3.496), Prussian blue (1.956), bone black (2.319).
+
+It will be observed that the earth colours, such as ochre, sienna,
+umber, etc., are all light pigments, and as they are also recognised
+as being the most durable, they are eminently well suited for use in
+many positions, although the colour is not always very agreeable.
+Precipitated barytes (s. g. 4.144) can be used up to, say, a proportion
+of 10 per cent.--not more; red lead (s. g. 8.681) cannot be used for
+this purpose, as it is far too heavy, and the same applies to English
+vermilion (s. g. 7.726). If, however, a bright colour is required, it
+may be obtained by dipping in Venetian red or Indian red and giving a
+second coat of crimson lake (s. g. 1.898), but a coat of varnish should
+be sprayed upon this for protective purposes.
+
+In considering this subject, it is well to remember that much will
+depend upon the thickness of the vehicle used, as, clearly, a fairly
+heavy pigment will settle out in a thin vehicle much quicker than it
+would in a comparatively thick one. The successful paint, therefore, is
+one in which both considerations are taken into account.
+
+Very rarely indeed does it pay manufacturers to attempt to grind or
+prepare paints themselves, and much greater satisfaction will be
+obtained by getting supplies from a reputable firm who have made a
+special study of the subject.
+
+Sometimes a white paint is required for dipping, and in that case
+30 lbs. of sublimed white lead, 10 lbs. of zinc oxide and 6 lbs. of
+gilders' whiting, with 4 lbs. of asbestine pulp, mixed with 9 lbs. of
+raw linseed oil, will be found to give good results.
+
+A paint which dries with a gloss is often desired for the finish of
+many articles, and can be readily obtained by first priming, then
+giving a finishing coat of paint on it which has been mixed with
+sufficient varnish to produce the desired gloss. In some cases three
+coats may be given, namely, the first or priming coat, the second,
+which should be flat, or semi-flat, and the third a coat of varnish
+paint, which will dry with a gloss. It should be pointed out, however,
+that the finish obtained by these means is not a little inferior to
+that which may be produced by using over the priming one or more coats
+of flat paint of the desired colour and finishing with a coat of
+suitable varnish, which may be applied either by dipping or spraying,
+according to circumstances. A point here worthy of mention is one which
+every house painter is or should be well acquainted with, and that is
+that the coats of paint that are superimposed should be alternatively
+flat, _i.e._, without gloss, and glossy, in order that each may adhere
+closely to the other. If the article to be painted is wood or any other
+material which is of an absorbent character, a comparatively large
+amount of turpentine and oil must be mixed with it in order to allow
+for suction. This will dry with a semi-flat finish, and a glossy coat
+or one having more oil in its composition, may be applied over it. If
+a further coat is required it should be flat or nearly so, and in that
+case a finishing coat of varnish will probably be required. The paints
+for these purposes may be purchased ready made or ready for thinning
+down, from firms who have made a special study of the requirements.
+
+The question sometimes arises as to whether paint dipping or spraying
+can be used advantageously when in the finish two or more colours are
+to be used. As a rule the difficulties can be overcome by dipping first
+or even the second coat, spraying on the third or finishing coat, using
+specially prepared masks or shields over those parts which are not to
+be painted with the particular colour in use.
+
+The following useful information is taken from "White Paints and
+Painting Materials," by W. G. Scott, who was for sixteen years
+connected as paint expert with the Milwaukee Harvester Company and the
+J. I. Case Threshing Machinery Co. Mr. Scott therefore speaks from a
+wide experience. He says:--
+
+A certain amount of oil must be present in dipping paints to act as
+a binder, and it is advisable to add a small quantity of varnish to
+hold the paint together. The desired features in a good dipping paint
+are: freedom of flow and proper drip; sufficient binder to prevent
+chalkiness and produce a firm coat; covering capacity and an even
+distribution of the paint.
+
+Non-absorbent surfaces like metal and hard wood require less oil than
+the absorbent soft woods.
+
+In the former case there is little or no penetration of the liquid
+portion of the paint, but with pine, bass wood, white wood, poplar,
+etc., nearly all of the liquid is absorbed or taken up by the
+wood, consequently with benzine only as a thinner there will not
+be sufficient binder present to hold the pigment when the thinner
+evaporates.
+
+Whereas 5 lbs. of paste pigment or colour ground in oil and thinned
+with a gallon of benzine would produce a suitable primer on iron or
+other non-absorbent material, it would not answer for soft wood.
+
+Dipping paints, as a rule, contain from 4 to 10 lbs. of paste per
+gallon of thinner, the primer containing less paste than the second
+coat paints.
+
+The composition of the paste colour has much to do with the dipping
+paint; for instance, 5 lbs. of paste white lead to the gallon of
+thinner will cover and work better than a mixture consisting of half
+white lead and the other half made up of transparent pigments like
+china clay, barytes, etc., nevertheless a small amount of inert
+material is generally understood to be an improvement in the way of
+durability.
+
+Asbestine, whiting, silica and china clay are the inert materials most
+often used in paste goods for dipping purposes.
+
+Asbestine probably helps to hold the pigments in suspension better
+than any of the others and answers nicely for dipping paints, but, as
+previously mentioned, does not allow the paint to level out when used
+with a brush.
+
+China clay, on account of its low specific gravity, is much favoured as
+a suspension agent, but materially lessens the opacity of the paint.
+
+A small amount of whiting is a good addition to a dipping paint, as
+it carries down much of the dirt and heavy particles usually produced
+during the process of dipping. Silica gives the paint "tooth," and by
+some authorities is considered an actual necessity in primers which are
+intended to be sand-papered.
+
+White lead and zinc oxide are the two ideal white pigments considered
+from a dipping standpoint, and it will be found that the majority of
+dipping paste paints on the market contain a notable quantity of zinc
+oxide, either straight or in the form of zinc lead.
+
+Zinc oxide is generally the predominating pigment in the white and
+tinted paste paints, and is usually associated with white lead (basic
+carbonate), zinc lead, and sublimed white lead, mixed with more or less
+inert material according to the ideas of the manufacturer or in order
+to cheapen the product.
+
+The admixture of inert material with the coloured pigments requires
+some knowledge of the composition of the coloured pigment; for
+instance, lampblack might be safely mixed with asbestine, whiting,
+silica, barytes, etc., without detriment, but yellow ochre containing,
+naturally, considerable clay and silica would hardly permit of any
+great addition of china clay or silica.
+
+The strong iron oxides, chrome greens and similar tinting colours will
+stand a large quantity of inert material when the paint is to be used
+as a body colour, but for varnish colours it is customary to use the
+chemically pure colours and less paste per gallon of thinner.
+
+Paste paint for varnish colours is frequently ground in oil, in japan,
+or in a mixture of the two, but far better results are obtained by
+grinding the dry pigment in varnish thinned to a grinding consistency
+with a little turpentine. A varnish with a viscosity of 20 (water = 1)
+which gives a stiff mix with, say, 5 lbs. of pigment will, when thinned
+to a viscosity of that of raw oil, _i.e._, a viscosity of 4, take about
+20 lbs. of pigment.
+
+No set rule can be given for the kind and amount of thinners to
+be used in dipping paints for various purposes, but the following
+proportions[1] will furnish a key to the general mixtures used:--
+
+[Footnote 1: The figures given relate to an American gallon, which
+contains 231 cubic inches, while an English imperial gallon contains
+277¼ cubic inches. For practical purposes the latter may be
+considered one-fifth greater than the former.]
+
+PRIMERS FOR METAL.
+
+4 to 5 lbs. of paste thinned with 7/8 to 31/32 gallon of benzine or
+turpentine and 1/8 to 1/32 gallon of mixing varnish.
+
+PRIMERS FOR HARD WOOD.
+
+4 to 5 lbs. of paste thinned with 15/16 gallon benzine or turpentine,
+3/64 gallon raw oil, 1/64 gallon mixing varnish.
+
+PRIMERS FOR SOFT WOOD.
+
+4 to 7 lbs. paste thinned with ½ to ¾ gallon benzine or turpentine,
+15/32 to 15/64 gallon raw oil, 1/32 to 1/64 gallon varnish.
+
+In some cases, with very soft, porous woods, it may be necessary to add
+more raw oil and some japan or liquid drier, but too much drier must
+not be added, as it will shorten the "flow."
+
+SECOND COAT DIPPING PAINTS.
+
+5 to 10 lbs. of paste thinned entirely with benzine or turpentine, or
+with 7/8 gallon of solvent and variable proportions of oil and varnish
+according to the surface desired.
+
+Varnish is advocated in all of these mixtures, as it helps to hold the
+solids and liquids together and prevent separation; it also induces
+toughness.
+
+It is essential that a varnish be used which will mix perfectly with
+oil and benzine at a temperature of 60° F.
+
+Varnish colours are best thinned with turpentine, but owing to the high
+price of turpentine the large factories insist on using benzine or some
+of the turpentine substitutes now on the market.
+
+The fact that some of the turpentine substitutes work better and give a
+better "flow" with the paint and varnish, is due to the fact that most
+of them contain a heavy distillate of petroleum similar to kerosene.
+
+Kerosene oil has the double property of thinning and imparting "flow"
+to either paint or varnish, but retards the drying, hence too much must
+not be used.
+
+Damar varnish, which will not stand thinning with benzine without
+separation of the gum or becoming cloudy, will permit of dilution with
+kerosene to quite an extent.
+
+So far as durability is concerned, kerosene imparts more durability and
+is more waterproof than any of the other thinners. Combined with rosin
+and manganese oxide, it may be made to dry like raw linseed oil, but,
+of course, does not possess the same properties.
+
+In dipping paints, as in all other kinds of paints, good judgment must
+be used in the mixing, and it is absolutely essential that paints for
+soft wood, or other absorbent material, contain enough oil, or binder,
+to hold the pigment.
+
+  WHITE PASTE PRIMER. EXTRA FINE.
+
+  300 lbs. white lead (carbonate).
+  150  "   zinc oxide.
+   50  "   floated silica.
+           Grind in
+   10 gal. raw linseed oil.
+                 Product = 575 lbs.
+
+This paste is thinned with turpentine or benzine for dipping purposes
+in the following manner:--
+
+  WHITE DIP FOR METAL.
+
+  100 lbs. of white paste.
+   14 gal. turpentine or benzine.
+    ½  "   pale mixing varnish.
+    ¼  "   white liquid drier.
+
+  WHITE DIP FOR HARD WOOD.
+
+  100 lbs. white paste.
+   13 gal. turpentine or benzine.
+    2  "   raw linseed oil.
+    ¼  "   pale mixing varnish.
+    ½  "   white liquid drier.
+
+  WHITE DIP FOR SOFT WOOD.
+
+  100 lbs. white paste.
+   12 gal. turpentine or benzine.
+    6  "   raw linseed oil.
+    ¾  "   white liquid drier.
+
+The pale mixing varnish and the white liquid drier must not liver with
+lead or zinc, otherwise, the paint in the tank will thicken continually.
+
+The above formula produces one of the best paints known, and it is
+certainly not a cheap paint.
+
+
+WHITE SPIRIT.
+
+As already mentioned, many firms who use the paint dipping process
+buy their paint in paste form with the requisite amount of driers
+added, and thin it themselves with white spirit, which is a petroleum
+product specially prepared for the purpose. Turpentine is, of course,
+too expensive, and the spirit costs, under normal conditions, little
+more than one-third of the price, although exact figures cannot be
+given owing to the fluctuation in the price of these materials. Some
+manufacturers use a white spirit, to which has been added from 25 to 30
+per cent. of genuine American turpentine. This, of course, renders the
+mixture somewhat expensive, and possesses no advantage excepting that
+it gives the characteristic smell of turpentine; but this, it appears,
+is not important in a factory, and the pure white spirit is quite
+suitable in itself.
+
+According to Mr. S. Roy Illingworth, A.R.C.Sc., A.I.C., B.Sc., Lond.,
+expert to the Gas Lighting and Improvement Co., Ltd., turpentine
+substitutes were first placed on the market about 30 years ago, and
+consisted at that time of a mixture of turpentine and kerosene oil.
+Investigations led to the production of white spirit, drying as quickly
+as turpentine, or even quicker if desired. Several grades of this
+material are made, varying in flash-point from 80° up to 150°. The
+flash-point of genuine turpentine, it may be mentioned in passing, is
+90° to 91°, and the 90° flash-point spirit is the one usually employed
+for painting purposes, although the 80° flash-point would answer
+equally well for dipping. The best grade is practically free from smell
+and is suitable for admixture in all paints, excepting those having a
+bitumastic or asphaltic base, or paints in which very common driers
+containing cheap rosin are used. A rough-and-ready test as to the
+quality of white spirit is to dip a piece of blotting-paper into it
+and hang it up to dry. In the course of an hour-and-a-half it should
+have wholly disappeared, leaving no smell or stain behind it. If there
+should be a stain the sample should be viewed with suspicion. Another
+test of the same kind is to drop a little spirit on a piece of white
+writing paper and to leave it for three-quarters of an hour, when it
+should have disappeared without leaving a stain. In addition to these
+tests it might be advisable to mix a little spirit with paint and to
+try it experimentally.
+
+In the evaporation of turpentine it is usually admitted that a small
+proportion, say, from ·25 to ·50, is left behind owing to oxidation.
+In the case of best white spirit, however, very little residue will
+be left behind, certainly not sufficient quantity to interfere in any
+way with the drying. The use of the spirit has proved so successful
+that practically nothing else is now employed in paint dipping. It is,
+however, important, of course, that the best quality white spirit be
+used, but as this is so much less in cost than turpentine, there is no
+temptation to use an inferior quality.
+
+
+THE QUANTITY OF PAINT REQUIRED FOR DIPPING AND SPRAYING.
+
+Speaking generally, rather less paint will be required when it is
+applied by dipping, or spraying, than is necessary when it is applied
+with a brush. But there are many exceptions, particularly in spraying,
+where it may be necessary to give a coat considerably thicker than
+usual.
+
+The following table will be found useful as a guide, but it should be
+remembered that the actual space covered will vary considerably with
+different grades of paint, so that the table should only be taken as
+approximately correct. In cases of doubt, careful calculations should
+be made after a given quantity of paint, varnish, or lacquer has been
+applied to a surface of known area. This will serve as a useful guide
+in ordering in the future. It need hardly be said that the quantity of
+paint necessary will vary largely with the surface to which the paint
+is applied. For example, an absorbent surface, such as unprimed wood,
+will require much more paint than metal work, which absorbs little or
+none.
+
+SPREADING CAPACITY OF PAINTS.
+
+                           Per Gallon    Per Gallon
+                            on Wood.      on Metal.
+  Priming Coats            60 to  70      90 to 100
+  Mixed Paint 2nd coat     85 to  90     100 to 120
+  Varnish (on paint)       95 to 110     120 to 130
+  Lacquer (on paint)      100 to 115     130 to 150
+  Enamel (on paint)        75 to  80      85 to  95
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+PAINTING BY COMPRESSED AIR.
+
+
+THE EVOLUTION OF THE APPARATUS EMPLOYED.
+
+By way of introduction to the subject of the application of paints,
+enamels, lacquers, varnishes, stains, etc., by means of compressed air,
+a few notes on the development of the method may be given, if only with
+the object of correcting the impression, which sometimes exists, that
+such apparatus as is now employed is more or less of an experimental
+character.
+
+The early attempts to apply paint, etc., to articles other than by the
+old method of brushing were mainly carried out with a type of machine
+still largely used for whitewashing, and the principle adopted was
+to partly fill a convenient tank with the paint or whitewash and to
+pump a pressure of 35 to 40 lbs. into the tank by means of a suitable
+hand pump. The paint was forced through a flexible tube attached to a
+connection near the bottom of the tank, and at the other end of the
+tube was a simple form of nozzle with a trigger control for the paint.
+
+It may be said at once that this method was doomed to failure owing to
+the underlying principle being at fault. While eminently suitable for
+applying whitewash or distemper, it was hopeless for paint of a more
+viscous character, owing to the fact that the latter was not atomised
+as it issued from the nozzle.
+
+The type of machines referred to, viz., those which are used for
+spraying lime white, distemper, whitewash, etc., are fully described
+and illustrated in another chapter.
+
+After failing to achieve satisfactory results with such simple
+apparatus when applying viscous paints, etc., further experiments
+were carried out with a somewhat different type, commonly known as
+the "kettle" type of sprayer. The principle employed was to employ
+compressed air, supplied, in this case, not from a hand pump but some
+form of power compressor, and at a pressure varying from 20 to 50 lbs.
+per square inch.
+
+The air was delivered through a nozzle controlled by a convenient
+plunger or trigger type of valve, and impinged at an angle across a
+similar nozzle communicating with the paint receptacle of the sprayer.
+The action of the air impinging on or across the paint nozzle created
+a vacuum in the paint tube, and thereby sucked up the paint from the
+receptacle and gave a fan-shaped spray. Up to a point these experiments
+proved satisfactory, but still did not overcome the difficulty of
+successfully dealing with intricate shapes, small articles, and
+particularly in applying heavy paints with fair percentages of varnish
+embodied therein.
+
+
+THE CONCENTRIC FORM OF SPRAY.
+
+Attention was therefore directed to the concentric jet form of sprayer,
+and this is now almost universally employed where painting, enamelling,
+etc., is carried out on a large scale.
+
+The advantages of the latter type are many, and in addition to being
+designed, in most cases, to produce the greatest effect with the least
+possible consumption of air, they are also capable of applying the
+paint in very finely divided particles to the smallest work, such as
+buttons, imitation jewellery, small electrical camera parts, or of
+applying silky coats to such large work as motor bodies, constructional
+iron work, large tinplate work, agricultural machinery, domestic gas
+apparatus, etc. at a speed approximating to four to ten times the speed
+of handwork, and giving a far superior finish, in many cases with less
+coats.
+
+Many people who contemplate the subject of painting with a spray
+think only of a smother of paint being discharged from a nozzle. They
+are not aware that the colour can be better controlled in a suitably
+constructed spray than is possible with a hog's hair brush.
+
+The flow of paint is stopped or started instantly, and the amount
+of paint delivered is at all times under perfect control, so that a
+quantity corresponding to that delivered by a ¼-inch brush or pencil
+can be increased to the quantity distributed by a 4-inch brush in a
+single stroke. In other words, you have a tool which is the equivalent
+of half a dozen brushes ranging from ¼ inch to 4 inch in width.
+
+A little practice is, of course, necessary to master the instrument,
+but nothing like the practice which is required for successful painting
+with hog's hair.
+
+The principal care is to put on the paint until the beads of paint
+coalesce. Too much would make the paint run, too little would not leave
+the surface covered. When properly done the surface is superior to
+other painting, as the hairs of the brush are not dragged through it to
+disturb the evenness of the surface.
+
+The air pressure required for painting varies with the consistency of
+the paint, its viscosity as well as its thickness. Some liquids have
+a quality of stringiness or hanging together which require a higher
+pressure to break up.
+
+Thin lacquers and varnishes may be sprayed with 18 or 20 lbs. to the
+square inch, and from that to about 50 lbs. will cover most classes of
+paint.
+
+The lowest pressure at which a paint breaks up is the best pressure to
+use, as high pressures have a tendency to make more dust and put fine
+particles of paint in the air, where they are not wanted.
+
+The volume of air has also to be considered. This varies with the size
+of the aperture through which it exhausts and to some extent with the
+pressure--for a small nozzle such as is used for lacquers and thin
+liquids, say, one cubic foot of free air per minute, and up to 3 cubic
+feet for oil paints.
+
+When it is stated that a pistol sprayer consumes say two cubic ft. of
+free air per minute, it means when working almost continuously, but as
+the periods of actual work do not represent more than two-thirds of the
+actual number of working hours, there is a margin left. Nevertheless,
+it would be unsafe to state a lower figure, for in some cases where
+convenient feeding of the work to the operator is arranged, the
+consumption of air is continuous.
+
+It should also be remembered that the air is used for other purposes,
+i.e., a small amount is used to provide a pressure feed of colour to
+the instrument in many cases, and where a heater is employed, a small
+amount of air is bypassed through the pistol to keep this warm when
+spraying is momentarily stopped. Although the practice of heating the
+air slightly increases the ultimate efficiency of a given compressor,
+yet it is unwise to count too much upon this fact.
+
+In submitting the following figures as to air consumption, the
+Airostyle pistol has been taken as a type:--
+
+For work with a tip and needle of 1 m/m. dia., 1 cub. ft. per minute;
+1½ m/m. dia., 1¾ cub. ft.; 2 m/m. dia., 2½ cub. ft.; 2½ m/m. dia., 3
+cub. ft.; 2½-3 m/m. dia., 3½-4 cub. ft.; 4½ m/m. dia., 5 cub. ft.
+
+These consumptions naturally vary slightly with the adjustment of the
+nozzle of the pistol, but they are from actual tests and so may be
+taken as authoritative.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+TYPES OF SPRAYING APPARATUS.
+
+
+We now come to a consideration of the different appliances by means
+of which the actual spraying is effected, and in order to avoid any
+suspicion of partiality the review of instruments, etc., in use will be
+dealt with alphabetically.
+
+
+THE AEROGRAPH.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 35--THE AEROGRAPH SPRAYING INSTRUMENT.]
+
+First, therefore, comes the Aerograph Co.'s Spray Painter. This
+instrument is of the concentric jet type, and was one of the first of
+the kind made in Europe. It is capable of excellent work. In Fig. 35
+is shown one form of the handpiece. A flexible tube for compressed
+air connects with the nipple A. The finger lever F controls both the
+air valve and a colour valve in the nozzle N, so that little or much
+colour may be allowed to pass out into the current of escaping air.
+
+The colour may be supplied under pressure, through a flexible tube from
+a large paint pot, and pass through the tube P to the nozzle N, or in
+smaller quantities from a cup C, which is attachable at B, and when so
+attached cuts off the supply through the tube P. This cup is useful
+when small quantities of colour are wanted with frequent changes. A
+ball joint permits work to be done in either an upward or downward
+direction.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36.--FORM OF AEROGRAPH SUITABLE FOR SPRAYING
+VERTICALLY OR AT AN ANGLE.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 37.--THE AEROGRAPH ELECTRIC MOTOR OUTFIT.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38.--PAINTING A GASOMETER.]
+
+In Fig. 36 is illustrated a pistol pattern of the Aerograph, which has
+a large side cup which can be sprayed at any angle, being adjusted to
+facilitate spraying in an upward, downward or horizontal position. Thus
+work can be done by it on table, wall or ceiling. The cup referred to
+contains the paint or other liquid to be sprayed, and a series of cups
+may be provided for a quick change of colour, if desired, as will be
+readily understood.
+
+In cases where electric power is available, the electric motor outfit
+shown in Fig. 37 will be found very serviceable. It may be described
+as a "spray painter" outfit complete, and it includes a 1 h.p. motor
+mounted on a trolley ready for use, which can be employed for many
+different classes of work. In Fig. 38 it is shown being used for
+spraying paint on a gas holder. It would appear that this outfit might
+be employed for ship bottom painting, provided that the necessary
+scaffolding or its equivalent were available.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 39.--SMALL AEROGRAPH FOR DELICATE WORK, LINING,
+LETTERING, ETC.]
+
+Going to the other extreme, a form of Aerograph, suitable for very
+delicate work, is shown in Fig. 39. This may be used for photograph
+retouching, pottery, and small decorative work generally--in fact, it
+is suitable for any work requiring delicacy of work.
+
+In another chapter the subject of artistic work done by means of
+compressed air is considered at some length, and a number of specimens
+of work executed by this process are given.
+
+
+THE AERON.
+
+The system of spraying is manufactured by the De Vilbiss Manufacturing
+Co., Toledo, Ohio, U.S.A., and 71, Newman Street, London, W.
+
+The method consists, briefly, in spraying stain, shellac, varnish, or
+enamel, as the case may be, on the work by the means of compressed air,
+under a pressure varying from 30 to 80 pounds per square inch.
+
+The necessary outfit comprises the Aeron sprayer itself--which is made
+in two styles and several sizes--the air compressor and receiver, an
+air transformer set, for regulating the pressure and purifying the air
+supply, a steel Fumexer, in which the work is done, and an exhaust fan
+to disperse the vapours or fumes resulting from the atomising of the
+finishing material. Besides these necessary appliances, turn-tables are
+used where advisable to facilitate the handling of the work while the
+"aeroning" is being done.
+
+The two styles of Aerons are shown in the illustrations, each connected
+with an air transformer set to which the air supply pipe is attached.
+In one style of Aeron the finishing material is carried in a pint
+or quart capacity cup forming a part of the Aeron itself. The other
+machine takes its supply from a five-gallon container suspended above
+the nozzle. The work is placed in the Fumexer on the turn-table, which
+can be tilted at any convenient angle and revolved by hand, and is
+coated on the top, sides, and front, with the drawers in place. Drawers
+may also be finished inside by this process.
+
+A full coat can be applied to a vertical surface as well as to one in
+a horizontal position. There are two reasons why. It is impossible to
+put on a perfectly uniform coat with a brush, especially on a vertical
+surface, and runs and sags are caused by the heavier portions of the
+coat dropping down over the lighter coated spots. With the Aeron a
+uniform coat of varnish is applied, and it is a fact that as the coat
+is the same over the entire surface it will not run, even if it is
+as heavy as a brush coat, which would show sags. The second reason
+is that an Aeron coat sets somewhat quicker than a brush coat, owing
+to a slight evaporation of the solvent caused by the action of the
+compressed air. Again, since the coat is uniform it sets uniformly. For
+the same reason the final drying is hastened to some degree.
+
+In brushing flat horizontal surfaces where a heavy coat is applied it
+is almost impossible to avoid fatty edges, and in brushing carved or
+ornamental relief work the low spots are sure to collect more varnish
+than the high places. Corners and edges in panel work are also causes
+of difficulty in this respect. In using the Aeron the surface varnished
+is covered uniformly and evenly, whether flat, panelled or carved, with
+one sweep of the machine at an even speed. Consequently, heavy spots,
+runs and fatty edges are entirely avoided.
+
+In applying finishes with the Aeron a slight reduction of the material
+with turpentine or other solvents is logical; with some materials,
+necessary. Reducing is logical on account of the slight evaporation
+of solvent previously mentioned. In other words, in order to have the
+Aeron application of the same consistency after reaching the surface
+as it is when brushed, a reduction of from 5 to 10 per cent. would be
+required. This is not always desirable by any means, especially in the
+case of the heavy gloss coat spoken of. Whenever a free-flowing coach
+varnish is used, reducing is not necessary. Conditions in different
+plants govern this matter to a great extent.
+
+Rubbing varnishes are usually reduced slightly, as a full-bodied, heavy
+coat is not required, also because a rubbing varnish does not flow as
+readily as a coach varnish. On account of this evenness of the coat,
+an Aeron coat of rubbing varnish is somewhat more easily and quickly
+rubbed either by hand or by machine.
+
+Undercoat varnishes are reduced to some extent for Aeron work for
+similar reasons. They are also more easily sanded than when brushed.
+
+Pigments, primers or first coaters are Aeroned to better advantage if
+the pigment content is less than for brushing. It is also sometimes
+desirable and expedient to use a more finely ground pigment.
+
+Flat finishes are applied to great advantage, and, because of greater
+uniformity of surface, more closely resemble a rubbed finish than when
+brushed.
+
+This spray offers perhaps greater advantages in the application of
+shellacs than with other materials. It is a matter of common knowledge
+that shellac is very difficult to brush, while, on the other hand, it
+sprays easily. Instead of cutting the gum 4 or 5 pounds to the gallon
+of alcohol, as for brushing, the material is used in the proportion
+of 2½ to 3 pounds of gum to the gallon. The sprayed coat of shellac
+is perfectly smooth and uniform, and requires practically no sanding
+compared with the work necessary to sand a brushed coat.
+
+The Aeron is simple and easy to operate, and a week's work is
+sufficient to make an efficient and expert operator of the average man.
+
+The work is clean, and, what is more, is healthful and sanitary, as all
+vapours and fumes are removed from the finishing room by the exhaust
+fan used with each outfit.
+
+Cleaning the Aeron is accomplished by spraying a solvent through the
+nozzle instead of the finishing material, and the whole machine may be
+placed in a can of thinner overnight if desired. It is necessary to
+clean the Aeron but once a day if it is used more or less continuously.
+The whole operation of cleaning may be performed in a minute or two.
+
+There is usually some loss in finishing material when the Aeron is
+used, though this is hardly noticeable except on small work, when it
+may amount to 15 or 20 per cent. In many cases there is no waste, in
+others an actual saving--where coats are eliminated by the use of the
+machine. On an average, however, there is some slight loss--largely
+of the solvent used in reducing the material. In any event, however,
+the waste is offset many times by the saving effected in time and
+labour, without taking into consideration the saving in floor space,
+the greater ease in handling the work, the better quality of the work
+done, the advantage to the workmen, and, finally, the general all-round
+convenience of the Aeron system.
+
+
+DESCRIPTION OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+We will now give a description of the illustrations of the different
+parts of the Aeron. Fig. 40 shows the attached cup straight barrel
+Aeron, which can be fitted with either metal or glass cups. Metal cup
+is the standard equipment.
+
+Attached cup Aerons can be furnished with four sizes of nozzles:
+F--.047" dia., E--.070" dia., D--.081" dia., and C--.094" dia. These
+nozzles are selected according to the nature of the work that is to be
+done.
+
+Fig. 41 shows an attached cup angle barrel Aeron, a type of advantage
+in spraying work lying in a horizontal position.
+
+In some classes of work, where the liquid to be sprayed is apt to
+settle, an agitator is required, such as is shown in Fig. 42.
+
+In Fig. 43 is shown an attached cup Aeron with type V double nozzle
+spray head. This type is especially adapted for the finishing of large
+surfaces, such as automobile bodies, case furniture, etc.
+
+The V spray head shown separately in the above illustration is
+interchangeable with the single nozzle spray head, and can be attached
+to any standard Aeron.
+
+Type G Aeron is illustrated in Fig. 44. The nozzle is ·027 inch in
+diameter This Aeron can also be furnished with other sizes of nozzles
+to special order.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 41.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 42.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 43.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 45.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 46.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 47.]
+
+In Fig. 45 are shown various attachments used with this form of
+sprayer. At the top left-hand corner is a cup holder and screws, and on
+the right, metal or glass cups. Beneath are cleaning pail and length of
+pressure tubing with connections.
+
+Fig. 46 shows the construction of the Aeron, the parts being
+disassembled for ease of cleaning.
+
+We now come to the type of Aerons which take their supply of material
+from a five-gallon tank placed above the level of the nozzle, the fluid
+flowing down by gravity. This arrangement offers all the advantages of
+the pressure feed tank type with none of its disadvantages. It is shown
+in Figs. 47 and 48.
+
+The next type is termed the M Aeron with V-A spray head and is
+illustrated in Fig. 47.
+
+There is the same advantage in the use of this Aeron as with the
+former type in that the supply of material is taken from a container
+placed overhead, the fluid flowing down by gravity. The slightest pull
+upon the trigger releases the material instantly--the varying of the
+pressure adjusts the flow automatically. As with the type L there is
+but one adjustment.
+
+This type Aeron is built for large work. It produces a "wide spray,"
+similar to the V spray head, which covers large surfaces with
+remarkable rapidity.
+
+The nozzle can be turned so that a full, fan-like spray is projected
+horizontally, vertically, or in any intermediate position.
+
+A container with agitator and hose for types L and M Aerons is shown in
+Fig. 50.
+
+It is drawn from one sheet of steel and is heavily tinned to prevent
+rust.
+
+The standard and block and tackle (Fig. 49) are furnished for holding
+the container above the level of the Aeron. The block and tackle,
+which is of the safety, self-locking type, is recommended where it is
+possible to obtain a ceiling fastening. The standard (Fig. 51) can be
+used if the block and tackle is impracticable.
+
+The air transformer set (Fig. 52) is for the purpose of regulating
+and purifying the compressed air, and is a necessity with each Aeron
+installed. The air duster (D) is a valuable addition to the equipment
+for removing loose dust or dirt from the work before finishing.
+
+The auto-filter (S) is for removing dust, grit, and oil from the
+compressed air. The auto-regulator and gauge (R) makes possible
+the regulating of the air pressure between 5 and 80 pounds, simply
+by turning a thumb-screw. The auto-condenser (C) is for separating
+moisture from the compressed air.
+
+Full details of the air compressor and other special appliances used in
+connection with the Aeron will be found elsewhere.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 48.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 49.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 50.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 51.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 52.]
+
+
+THE AIROSTYLE.
+
+Next comes the Airostyle and Lithos, Ltd., with their "Airostyle" type
+Record, also a concentric jet-type, an illustration of which is given
+in Fig. 55 and a section of which we give also in Fig. 54. This type
+is largely used for small, medium or large work, and is considered to
+be extremely sensitive and very fast in operation. It has a gunmetal
+casting for the main body, and all wearing parts are of steel, tempered
+or case hardened.
+
+It is supplied either with or without pressure fed accessories,
+although the makers are strong advocates of pressure feeds for most
+work, and with which they have met considerable success.
+
+In addition to the Record Pistol this firm makes other types, and
+in order must be mentioned the type "Ultra" for use where frequent
+changes of colour may be necessary, and where no continuous colour feed
+is required. This type is specially adapted for stencilling in oil
+colours, and is illustrated in Fig. 56.
+
+Another type about to be introduced is shown in Fig. 53, for small and
+medium work, simplicity of construction and ease of adjustment being
+specially claimed for this type. This type is called the Airostyle
+Pistol "M."
+
+Yet other type of Airostyle may be mentioned for smaller work, namely,
+the "Stencil and Universal Lustre and Photo," which is illustrated in
+Fig. 53.
+
+These types are mainly employed for decorative work, and give a very
+wide selection, but save that they are employed in process work and for
+textile goods, they do not enter into the scope of this book.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 53.--AIROSTYLE TYPE PHOTO.]
+
+As the pistol type is used for all general painting and japanning, the
+adjustment of this may be advantageously explained in greater detail,
+and referring to Fig. 54 the instructions are as follows:--
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 54.--SECTION SHOWING CONSTRUCTION OF THE AIROSTYLE.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 55.--AIROSTYLE TYPE "RECORD" WITH UNION FOR
+CONTINUOUS SUPPLY. A.--SMALL PRESSURE BOWL. B.--SMALL SIMPLE BOWL.]
+
+If a wide spray is required the nozzle 8 is unscrewed to a small
+extent and then locked by means of a small ring 8a, but if a narrow
+spray is wished for, the nozzle 8 is screwed on farther and locked in
+position. On all-round work one position serves, that is, a position
+in which the recessed point of the nozzle coincides with the end of
+the tip 9, which just allows the needle 5 to project through it. If it
+should happen that a leakage of colour occurs through 9 when spraying
+is suspended, this may be obviated by giving an increased tension
+to spring 15 which may be obtained by screwing in the spring box 16
+slightly. It may happen that some foreign matter becomes lodged in
+9, in which case the pistol from the colour tube must be first
+disconnected, the nose 4 removed and the parts brushed or swilled
+with turps or spirit. This having been effected, the nose 4 will be
+replaced, care being taken that the washer 3 beds down on its seating
+in the body of the pistol.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 56.--AIROSTYLE TYPE "ULTRA."]
+
+It is well to provide for any possible contingencies which may arise,
+and it may, therefore, be remarked that if any leakage of air occurs
+through the air valve 19, it will probably be caused by some grit to be
+found on the face of air valve washer 20, and to remove this the handle
+can be taken off by unscrewing the milled nut 25 and the valve body
+23 in order to get to the air valve. The replacement of the parts is
+simple.
+
+The adjustment of the pistol for working is made as follows:--First
+release the screw 14 on cross head 13, and while the instrument is
+connected up with the air supply, slightly withdraw the trigger 12,
+allowing a small amount of air to pass through the nozzle. While
+maintaining the trigger in this position, move the cross head along the
+needle until it just bears against the cam 10, and in this position
+clamp the same by screwing home the clamping screw 14.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 57.--THE AIROSTYLE PISTOL "M."]
+
+Another important point is to see that the lubrication of the
+compressor is carefully watched; the sight feed lubricator on top holds
+sufficient lubricant for 10 working days and is capable of adjustment
+by means of a needle valve. It can, therefore, be easily set. The main
+bearings are ring oiling and only need occasional attention. The fan
+bearings are ball bearings and only need attention once in six months.
+
+
+THE EUREKA SPRAYING MACHINE.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 58.--THE CRANE "EUREKA."]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 59.--THE CRANE "RECORD."]
+
+An inspection of Figs. 58 and 59 will show that this machine is of
+entirely different construction to those already described. The
+advantages claimed are the simplicity in construction, the absence of
+complicated parts which might get out of order, and the fact that the
+machines cannot clog in use. The operation is as follows: The feed
+pipe from air tank should be connected up with a high-pressure hose
+to the sprayer and a fluid nozzle is then adjusted so that the tip of
+the nozzle is in alignment with the centre of the air nozzle. This
+adjustment varies according to the thickness of material. When using
+thin liquids the fluid nozzle should be slightly below the centre of
+the air nozzle. When ready for spraying the valve is pressed, and
+this releases the air, which blows through the air nozzle, across
+the top of fluid nozzle and draws up the material from the inside,
+spraying the fluid on to the work. The shape of the spray is that of
+a fan. The air pressure required varies from 20 to 50 lbs. according
+to the viscosity of the material being dealt with. As a rule the best
+results are obtained when the machine is held from 4 to 6 in. away
+from the work. The Fredk. Crane Chemical Co., Armoury Close, Bordesley
+Green, Birmingham, are the agents for these machines, and it is also
+manufactured in the United States. The remarks given under the head of
+"Exhaust," "Air Compressor," etc., will apply to this machine also.
+It may be observed that the cup holding the metal can be very quickly
+changed, so that a variety of colours may be sprayed one after the
+other with very little trouble. The price of the machine (which may be
+provided with an agitator if required) is low.
+
+
+"THE INVINCIBLE."
+
+These sprayers are designed on an excellent "universal movement"
+principle and are particularly well constructed throughout. They
+further claim distinction on the score that every section is an
+independent unit of standardized pattern, and as spare parts are always
+available, replacements and renewals can be made instantly with the
+minimum of trouble and cost.
+
+They are made in several types to suit varying classes of work,
+ranging from the fine lining and shading of small objects required
+by artists, etc., to commercial painting on the scale practised by
+motor car manufacturers and other large users; and important points in
+their favour are the special facilities provided for quick cleaning
+after use, their completely enclosed mechanism, which prevents the
+penetration of any dirt, colour or liquid to working parts, and the
+adjustment of the needle so that no pressure or damage can occur at any
+time to the colour tip, even if trigger is allowed to snap forward.
+
+Automatic control is also provided for work requiring a given volume
+of colour, it being only necessary to turn a regulator to ensure a
+constant flow of any desired density.
+
+The "Invincible" Pistol Sprayer type "E" is illustrated in section
+(Fig. 60). The body is gun metal with working parts of finest steel,
+highly polished where necessary to ensure smooth working and minimum of
+wear. The instruments have a handsomely nickelled finish.
+
+WORKING.--When connector (4) is attached to colour cup or extension
+cock for paint pot and connector (18) affixed to air-line, the air
+brush is ready to commence work.
+
+DUSTING.--No separate or special dusting attachment is necessary with
+the "Invincible" apparatus, as a slight pull on trigger (20) carries
+back steel sleeve (7), depressing steel ball (15) and bringing the air
+valve (19) into "open" position. This allows a stream of air to pass
+forward through air channel (21) to nozzle (1) and the projection of
+this upon surface to be treated removes all dust.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 60.--INVINCIBLE SPRAYER TYPE "E" IN SECTION.]
+
+SPRAYING.--A continuation of the trigger pull carries back the spring
+buffer (8) and opens the control barrel (11) of the needle valve (3)
+allowing colour to flow through colour tip (2), at the end of which
+it meets the vacuum created by the air stream, and is then (atomized)
+broken up into thousands of minute particles which coalesce upon
+meeting their object, and form a perfectly level, smooth and even
+surface.
+
+CONTROL.--The trigger control is very sensitive, giving a spraying
+range from a fine line to the fullest flush of the instrument's
+capacity. For automatic control it is only necessary to adjust
+regulator (No. 14).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 61.]
+
+CLEANING.--By unscrewing union nut (5) the complete fore-part may be
+removed for cleaning without interfering with any other part of the
+mechanism, therefore the operation of cleaning is always quick and
+thorough, even when sticky, heavy liquids have been used.
+
+The movement for the above sprayer applies to all "Invincible"
+sprayers. Type "A" for artists, miniature tinting, black and white
+process work, etc. Type "B" for Christmas and show card work, etc. Type
+"C" for ceramic work, posters and so on.
+
+A cheaper series is also made which, whilst lacking some of the
+refinements of the standard models, are reliable, and soundly made
+instruments.
+
+The patentees and manufacturers of "Invincible" Air Brushes are the Air
+Brush Manufacturing Co., Ltd., Pneumatic Works, 13, Arlington Street,
+Rosebery Avenue, London, E.C., who also provide all accessories for
+complete spraying installation, such as air-compressors, air-receivers,
+air valves, reducing valves, condensers and clarifiers, pressure
+paint pots and paint pot stands, exhaust benches, fans, turn-tables,
+automatic cut-outs, motors, etc., of which complete details will be
+sent upon request.
+
+
+THE MIDLAND SPRAYER.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 65.--THE MIDLAND SPRAYER.]
+
+From what has already been said, it will be obvious that the most
+important part of a spraying plant is the correct construction of the
+actual sprayer or spraying pistol. The Midland Fan Co., Ltd., of 46,
+Aston Road, Birmingham, have placed on the market a sprayer which
+is shown in Fig. 65, and this, we learn, has given a great deal of
+satisfaction. Its principal claim to superiority is the simplicity of
+construction, for one reason because the sprayer may be used by those
+who have but little knowledge of mechanics. The construction permits of
+easy cleaning, which is of vital importance, and for this purpose the
+needle can be removed by a turn of the fingers and replaced with equal
+ease. The illustration shows the larger pistol, and it may be mentioned
+that smaller sizes are made for finer work.
+
+
+THE PAASCHE AIR BRUSH.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 66.--THE "PAASCHE" SPRAYER.]
+
+This spraying machine is manufactured by the Paasche Air Brush Co.,
+9, South Clinton Street, Chicago, in various sizes, for spraying by
+compression air liquids of all kinds. The above illustration shows what
+is known as the "Three in One" quick action model "S" brush, and is
+recommended for use with heavy material. Instead of the paint pot being
+at the top an underslung jar with aluminium cover as shown on the lower
+part of Fig. 67 may be used. This figure shows the same air brush or
+sprayer with one gallon container; in either case the spraying of the
+colour or material is quickly done. The flow of the liquid is entirely
+independent of the air circulation. An agitator is provided to keep
+the material well stirred, and should be used with all liquids which
+have a tendency to settle, such as bronzes, enamels, paints, etc. The
+coupling or taper stem of the flexible metal tube or bottles are easily
+detachable, and one material after the other can be used without
+stopping. If the underslung jar or the gravity pot be used no agitator
+is necessary.
+
+This instrument is made in much larger sizes. The general form of
+apparatus is shown in Fig. 68, the special finishing hood with exhaust
+fan being in this case employed, while a paint container is suspended
+on an adjustable stand. In this case a chair is shown being painted.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 67.--LARGER SIZE "PAASCHE."]
+
+A somewhat novel apparatus for separating oil and water is that shown
+in Fig. 69. This is constructed to obviate the trouble which is
+sometimes caused by the oil and water in the air main mixing. It is
+connected at the end of the air main as close to the air regulator
+or air outlet to the brush as convenient. Oil gets into the air main
+through the piston of the compressor, and will in time saturate the
+walls of the air pipes. The condensation of water which is due to
+changes of temperature makes the iron pipes sweat, and a considerable
+amount of water is accumulated in this manner. The simple appliance
+shown in the illustration will remove this.
+
+Fig. 70 shows the Paasche Automatic electric controller which is used
+for automatic starting and stopping motor driven compressor outfits
+where from 1/8th to 1 horse-power motors are used.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 68.--GENERAL FORM OF "PAASCHE" SPRAYER.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 69.--"PAASCHE" OIL AND WATER SEPARATOR.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 70.--"PAASCHE" AUTOMATIC ELECTRIC CONTROLLER.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+SUPPLY OF COMPRESSED AIR--PAINT SUPPLY--EXHAUST.
+
+
+The forms of spraying apparatus having been selected, consideration
+must next be given to the following details, viz.:--(1) The supply and
+degree of pressure of the compressed air. (2) The form and location of
+the paint supply. (3) The arrangement of an exhaust installation to
+carry away the fumes and waste paint. These will be dealt with in their
+order.
+
+It is clear that attention has to be paid to a convenient arrangement
+of reducing valves controlling the pressure of air to the sprayer, and
+also providing, what is in many cases indispensable, a pressure feed of
+colour to the sprayer, either from a large pot mounted over the hood,
+or a special type of bowl screwed on to the sprayer.
+
+Some makers still advocate a simple type with small bowl screwed on to
+the sprayer, and no means of controlling the pressure save by adjusting
+the safety valve on the main tank, thus necessitating that each
+operator shall work at the same pressure, arguing that reducing valves,
+pressure feeds, etc., etc., are unnecessary refinements, but it may be
+safely claimed that such opinions are made without due consideration of
+the advantages of the more complete system, and that the consensus of
+opinion is in favour of such refinements, giving, as they undoubtedly
+do, a further increase in speed, and, in many cases, making practicable
+what would otherwise be impossible, as well as ensuring that whatever
+work is to be done, the most suitable pressure is instantly available.
+
+In the equipment of an efficient compressed air plant for painting,
+the type of compressor employed, and the arrangement of the air main,
+should first be decided upon.
+
+The compressors must be designed to give an absolutely pure supply of
+air free from oil or grit, and the air-main must be so arranged as
+to avoid any trouble due to condensation. This is overcome, first,
+by using, at least for high-class work, a horizontal air compressor,
+water cooled, with a sensitive sight-feed needle valve lubricator to
+the cylinder, capable of delicate adjustment, so as to avoid excess
+of lubrication. Needless to say, the machining of the cylinder,
+piston, etc., of the compressor must be of the highest class to ensure
+satisfactory running under such conditions. Then a suitable air filter
+must be fitted to the intake of the compressor. This filter should be
+of large diameter, and have a gauze screen and wad of cotton wool.
+
+The air valves should be so arranged that they may be removed without
+breaking the water joint, and be so arranged that they may be taken out
+and replaced in a few seconds.
+
+The main tank must be provided with safety valve drain cock and
+pressure gauge, and the air main, of not less than ¾ in. diameter
+barrel, preferably steam barrel, must be arranged to travel in a
+downward direction from the main tank towards an end station tank,
+which is a duplicate in miniature of the main tank or receiver. All
+branches must be taken upwards off the main. Such an arrangement, if
+care is taken that the end station tank has its relief valve set to
+blow off before the main tank safety valve acts, ensures that all
+moisture is collected in the end station tank.
+
+The Airostyle and Lithos, Ltd., claim to be the originators of such a
+system, and it is here explained in print for the first time.
+
+All experiments with a view to scrubbing or purifying the compressed
+air of moisture, oils, etc., on the air main side of the main tank,
+other than the above simple expedient, have proved more or less
+failures, either from want of appreciation of the increased capillary
+attraction set up in the tanks and air main, or from the difficulty
+of satisfactorily and frequently cleaning out such scrubber as may be
+inserted, and the incidental difficulty created in the prevention of
+dust being carried out of the scrubber throughout the system.
+
+It need hardly be said that ample air must be provided in order
+to have sufficient pressure always available for the full number
+of operators employed, and this point is one which cannot be too
+strongly emphasized, for in too many cases firms have installed small
+compressors and have been misled as to their maximum capacity, mainly
+through over anxiety on the part of the salesman to secure his order
+for apparatus, he apparently having been afraid to ask a high figure
+for a really efficient compressor.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 71.--AIROSTYLE AIR COMPRESSOR. [CAPACITY 40 CUBIC
+FEET PER MINUTE.]]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 72.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 73.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 74.--DEVILBISS AIR COMPRESSOR.]
+
+Another point of importance is that unloading devices, cutting in and
+out automatically should be avoided at all cost where compressed air is
+to be used for painting. The reasons are that it is much better to use
+the surplus air for the purpose of getting rid of the condensation in
+the way already indicated, and that in addition most unloading devices
+are in the nature of compromises, and while saving only a small amount
+of power materially increase the wear and tear by throwing the load
+in the reverse direction on the gudgeon pin, large and small end of
+connecting rod and main bearings, and by causing a hammering action to
+be set up.
+
+This applies in particular to air compressors with automatic valves
+where the device works by means of a valve closing the air intake
+entirely, and so setting up a vacuum in the cylinder.
+
+A much better plan is to arrange the compressor to run at a speed
+sufficient to give a slight reserve of air above what is needed and to
+have it running constantly during the whole working period.
+
+This may seem at first sight an arbitrary attitude to take up, but it
+is the result of considerable experience, and need not be considered as
+extravagant when it is borne in mind that air compressors of more than
+40 to 50 cubic feet per minute capacity are seldom employed for such
+work, and so the maximum power absorbed is light.
+
+The compressor illustrated in Fig. 71 is designed and made by the
+Airostyle and Lithos, Ltd., and has a number of well thought out
+refinements, both as to accessibility and form of valve bodies and
+valves, and also with regard to the filtration of the air and the
+lubrication of the cylinder. Ring oiler bearings are employed for the
+crankshaft, and the compressor throughout is as carefully built as a
+gas engine. The makers claim that an absolutely pure supply of air is
+delivered by this compressor at all speeds up to 350 r.p.m.
+
+Water cooling is employed and very ample cooling surface is provided,
+not only for the cylinder but also the cylinder cover is cooled, and
+has the valves located in pockets in same.
+
+An air compressor is shown in Fig. 72, and another one, which is water
+cooled, in Fig. 73. These are made by the DeVilbiss Co.
+
+In Fig. 74 are illustrated various forms of air compressors; a pressure
+gauge, safety valve and drain cock are furnished with each receiver.
+These tanks have welded seams and are tested to 200 lbs. pressure.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 75.--AEROGRAPH AIR PUMP AND TANK COMBINED.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 76.--THE AEROGRAPH TYPE OF AIR PUMP FOR LARGER
+INSTALLATIONS.]
+
+One of the Aerograph types of power pump and tank is shown below. It
+is strongly built, easy working, and is fitted with metal extending
+rings and metal valves, which will supply enough air for three spraying
+painters. In the illustration is shown the pump fitted with an
+automatic regulator, but this may be dispensed with if desired. The
+regulator, therefore, will be found of great value, not only in saving
+power, but also in the wear and tear of the pump. The tank is fitted
+with an air gauge and a speed valve, and the dimensions of the air
+receiver are 18 inches diameter by 30 inches high, and the pump has a
+bore of 3 in. while the stroke is 7 in. The power required is 1 h.p.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 77.--THE AIROSTYLE PLANT--GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF
+ACCESSORIES.]
+
+
+THE SUPPLY OF PAINT.
+
+For lacquering or coating small articles a spray may be used which is
+constructed with a cup to contain the paint, but for any heavy painting
+where large surfaces are to be covered quickly a cup on the handpiece
+is not of much utility, and it is necessary to provide a means to keep
+the supply of paint to the handpiece continuous. This is done in two
+ways: By an overhead paint pot, allowing gravity to carry the paint to
+the handpiece, or by an enclosed paint pot with a regulating valve and
+pressure applied to the surface of the paint by compressed air. In some
+situations all that is required is an overhead paint pot, the weight
+of the liquid feeding it to the handpiece. An enclosed paint pot has
+the very great advantage that (with a proper valve) the feed of the
+paint can be regulated to a nice degree. The paint pot shown in Fig.
+77 has a damped cover which is capable of being quickly removed, and a
+low-pressure feed to the paint is obtained from a reducing valve. This
+can be set so that the paint can be forced to the handpiece to secure a
+uniform flow whether the paint be thick or thin.
+
+
+THE EXHAUST INSTALLATION.
+
+We next reach the question of arranging a satisfactory form of exhaust
+installation, which has been found to be absolutely essential in order
+to insure the health of the operator.
+
+This exhaust question obviously opened up special problems in the
+direction of convenient forms of hoods or work benches, so arranged as
+to carry away the fumes created by the paint distributor without unduly
+inconveniencing the operator by reason of the draught set up.
+
+By some firms use is made of the exhaust to collect the residue or
+surplus paint drawn off by employing a ventilator, which sets up a
+medium pressure, and interposing between the outlets of the hood and
+the air shaft some form of perforated screen or screens which are
+readily removable, or in some cases revolvable and self-cleaning.
+
+Where slow drying japans are employed, such saving is of considerable
+advantage, although it must not thereby be assumed that an extravagant
+wastage of paint occurs, for it must be borne in mind that with a
+spraying plant there is no loss through evaporation from open pots and
+gradual drying up of the paint on the sides of the pots, or absorption
+of same in the brushes employed. Actually, therefore, although it
+would appear that considerable wastage occurs, yet in practice it is
+found to be economical, and even where intricate forms, such as cycle
+frames, wheels, carriers, etc., or bedstead work are to be dealt with
+no undue loss is experienced, and such small loss as may be noted is
+compensated for ten times over in the saving of time effected.
+
+When selecting a ventilator for the plant, the fact must not be
+overlooked that the fine particles of paint, etc., drawn off by
+the ventilator gradually coat the blades of the fan, sufficiently
+to materially increase the friction, and to absolutely prevent the
+exhausting of the air should multiple bladed fans be adopted.
+
+Experience has shown, therefore, that for such work as compressed air
+painting multiple bladed fans are to be avoided, even though these are
+scientifically designed and admirable for many classes of exhaust work.
+
+Not more than 8 to 10 blades should be employed, and there must be
+no belt-drive taken through the air shaft, this being a source of
+continual annoyance in addition to creating a loss of efficiency.
+
+Where simple impellor fans are used, long spindles should be employed
+permitting an outside drive, but a better type of fan is the central
+draught type, preferably ball bearing, as these run for years with
+no attention save occasionally filling up with grease and periodical
+cleaning.
+
+It may be argued that many of the foregoing remarks are not properly
+within the scope of this book, yet on further consideration it must be
+conceded that they all have a bearing upon the ultimate efficiency of
+the installation, and are the outcome of years of experience.
+
+When arranging a compressed air painting plant considerable thought
+must be given to the most convenient position, and where stoves for
+artificially drying on the paint, japan, etc., are employed, care must
+be taken that a sufficient number of these stoves are provided to give
+the plant full scope, for a very material saving per annum is effected,
+additional to that accruing through the labour-saving effect of the
+apparatus, by the fact that the stoves are filled more quickly.
+
+Where bulky work is to be handled, the plant must be so arranged as to
+give ample room for getting the work to and from the hoods.
+
+The volume of exhaust air will depend on the character of the paint
+and the size of the cabinet. For large articles a large cabinet is
+required, and a proportionately larger fan will be needed. From 500 to
+1,000 cubic feet of air per minute should be supplied for each worker.
+A hurricane of air is not required; all that is needed is to keep the
+air moving away from the worker, and the ordinary type of wall fan may
+be sufficient for a simple installation, but cannot be used for large
+plants.
+
+
+AIROSTYLE CENTRAL DRAUGHT STEEL PLATE FAN.
+
+This fan is designed and made by the Airostyle and Lithos, Ltd., and
+is invariably specified in all their medium and large installations
+for compressed air painting. It is very carefully designed and built
+specially for the work, and is fitted with ball-bearings.
+
+As will be seen from the illustration, Fig. 79, it is worth serious
+attention on the part of intending users.
+
+It is made in many sizes, from 2,000 to 23,000 cubic feet capacity,
+and is very largely used, not only for Airostyle plants, but also for
+general ventilation work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 78.--THE PAASCHE MOTOR DRIVEN FAN.]
+
+In the above figure is shown a motor-driven propeller fan manufactured
+by the Paasche Air Brush Co. It is made in various sizes, varying in
+air delivery from 1,200 to 10,000 cubic feet per minute.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 79.--THE AIROSTYLE CENTRE DRAUGHT STEEL PLATE FAN.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 80.--THE DEVILBISS AUTO COOL ELECTRIC EXHAUST FAN,
+CLOSED, AND OPEN FOR CLEANING.]
+
+
+LOCATION OF THE WORK CABINETS.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 81.--SKETCH OF SPRAYING CABINETS, SHOWING SIDE
+LIGHTING.]
+
+As to the position of the spraying benches, it is a little curious
+to note that in not a few cases these cabinets are placed facing the
+window, the idea being to obtain as much light as possible for the
+process. A moment's consideration, however, will show that this is not
+the correct position, because the workman faces the light, which is
+thrown on the back of the article he is spraying, in exactly the wrong
+position for his purpose. The cabinets should be lighted from the back
+of the workman and be, as far as possible, directed from the roof or
+the top of the room, so that it comes directly on the article to be
+sprayed. Clearly it is necessary to provide as good a light as possible
+in order that no part of the work shall be missed.
+
+Artificial light will, as a rule, be provided for working on dark days
+and after the sun sets, and here again the same provision must be made.
+Plenty of light arranged in such a manner that it is directed on the
+front of the object to be painted is essential in every case.
+
+After due provision has been made for a suitable exhaust, which
+question should be left in the hands of the specialist in compressed
+air painting if satisfaction is to be guaranteed, other questions need
+attention, such as provision of means for handling the work, special
+turn-tables, which should be ball-bearing, if possible, to ensure
+light running and enable even heavy articles to be turned about when
+spraying, and when examining the work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 82.--"AEROGRAPH" SPRAYING CABINETS.]
+
+
+THE FUMEXER.
+
+In connection with the Aeron, the makers supply a special form of
+cabinet or booth, made of steel, which is called by them the "Fumexer,"
+and is illustrated in Figs 83 to 89.
+
+These are made in various sizes, from 3 feet to 16 feet wide, and
+4 feet to 18 feet deep. They are each fitted with turn-table and
+specially constructed fans for drawing out the air, and with it the
+superfluous paint, enamel, etc.
+
+Fig. 84 shows a side view of an 8-ft. Fumexer indicating the style of
+construction and funnel-shaped back clear to the floor.
+
+The steel Fumexer with the Autocool electric exhaust fan installed
+is claimed to insure a maximum exhaust efficiency, and to completely
+remove all fumes arising from the work in the finishing room--at a
+minimum of power consumption.
+
+The Fumexer is a fire-proof steel booth specially designed and built
+for the height of service. It is constructed of heavy sheet steel on an
+angle iron frame, with wire glass windows in sides and top. Provision
+is made for electric lights--reflector and sockets being built in.
+
+The back of the Fumexer is funnel-shaped clear to the floor, which
+arrangement, together with the large fan opening, gives maximum
+exhausting results, especially on large work. The short exhaust pipe
+running from the back opening is easy to clean and permits of the
+placing of the Fumexer near outside wall.
+
+To take care of all classes and styles of work, the Fumexer is
+regularly made in a variety of sizes as above mentioned with the proper
+number of fans installed. Other sizes to meet any special requirements
+are made to order.
+
+A turn-table, which is adjustable, tilting and revolving--either
+floor or suspended type--is supplied with the Fumexer. This device
+facilitates the handling of a large percentage of work. The floor type
+turn-table is not fastened to the floor nor Fumexer and can be removed
+when not required.
+
+The Autocool electric exhaust fan installed in all Fumexers is an
+exclusive Aeron system product, and is particularly adapted to the work
+required of it.
+
+In Fig. 85 is illustrated the side and front views of a 4-foot single
+exhaust fan installation Fumexer with suspended type turn-table.
+
+The fan motor, completely enclosed and protected from fumes, is
+automatically cooled by a stream of pure air which is continuously
+drawn through the motor. This means a fan of increased efficiency.
+The motor is only one-twelfth H.P. and will do the required work at
+one-tenth or less the power consumption of other styles of exhausting
+methods.
+
+Autocool fans are made in one size only, the number of fan units being
+increased for Fumexers above five feet in width. In this way the right
+number can easily be adapted to any kind of work. The makers claim
+that by this arrangement a better distribution of exhaust is obtained,
+and the vapour is moved quickly at low pressure through the large fan
+openings--this accounting for the small amount of power used.
+
+The next illustration shows the Autocool electric exhaust fan both
+closed for use and with motor and blades swung inward for cleaning.
+
+In Fig. 86 is shown a special Fumexer with three exhaust fan
+installation and automobile body.
+
+This equipment, together with type D Aeron with V spray head or type
+M Aeron with V-A spray head and the air transformer set, is used for
+priming and surfacing automobile bodies.
+
+Two very interesting illustrations are Fig. 88, the one on the left
+being a Fumexer with automatic elevating and revolving turn-table,
+while that on the right is a Fumexer with wheel-jack.
+
+The turn-table is revolved by a 1/8 H.P. electric motor, furnished
+in either direct or alternating current. The speed of rotation is
+adjustable through a wide range by means of a friction wheel and disc.
+The table is started and stopped by either hand lever or foot pedal
+entirely independent of motor.
+
+A ten-inch elevation of the table is accomplished by compressed air
+acting on a piston which supports the revolving parts. A hand lever
+controls this feature, and the speed of elevation and lowering is
+adjustable for different classes of work.
+
+This turn-table is especially designed for handling box-like work,
+finished inside and outside in the same or different materials. The
+elevation feature makes possible the painting of an article one colour
+inside and another outside in one operation without interference. It is
+also well adapted for use on other classes of small work.
+
+The Fumexer in operation is shown in Fig. 89.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 83.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 84.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 85.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 86.]
+
+THE DEVILBISS "FUMEXER" OR SPRAYING CABINET.
+
+
+ACCESSORIES.
+
+It is difficult to classify accessories as readily as the sprayers
+themselves; we must content ourselves with a description of some of
+these as supplied by the firms mentioned in the previous chapter.
+
+One of the most complete plant supplied is that installed by the
+Airostyle & Lithos, Ltd.
+
+They have, in addition to the sprayers, a system of carrying a
+specially designed colour pot on a bracket over the hood clearly seen
+in Fig. 77. Such a colour pot has a clamped cover, making an airtight
+joint, and so arranged as to be readily taken off for cleaning or
+re-charging, and with a spun copper container, offering no obstruction
+to the flow of the paint and reducing loss to a minimum. Connections
+are provided on the top for the pressure feed, for filling up by means
+of a funnel, and for permitting the use of the compressed air as a
+means of driving out the paint from the flexible tube before leaving
+the instrument after work is finished each night.
+
+Another accessory is a smaller pressure bowl made to screw directly
+on the pistol sprayer and designed to make possible the use of many
+coloured enamels, while still retaining the advantage of the pressure
+feed. Pressure is conveyed into the bowl through a flexible tube from a
+special type of reducing valve, shown in Fig. 77.
+
+This illustration shows the connections as universally employed on
+Airostyle plants.
+
+The reducing valves are so designed as to give in case of the top valve
+a pressure up to 15 lbs. for the pressure feed, and in the lower one
+any pressure instantly from atmospheric pressure up to the maximum.
+
+It is the practice to take the air pressure from the air main through
+the reducing valve into the low pressure tank, as shown, as this
+further ensures that absolutely pure air shall be delivered to the
+sprayer and a steady supply of air at any pressure is always available.
+
+The low pressure tank is, as shown, a very simple type, albeit soundly
+made, and a drain tap is provided at the base of same.
+
+Last, but not least, comes the type of flexible tubing employed,
+and this is the outcome of much experimenting, in that the same is
+unaffected by the action of turpentine, white spirit, or even naphtha.
+
+Before leaving this question the reader is referred to the numerous
+illustrations (see pages 155 to 185), as these give a far better idea
+of the completeness of the Airostyle plants than is possible in this
+chapter.
+
+
+TURN-TABLES.
+
+To facilitate handling of goods to be sprayed, a turn-table is usually
+found of considerable service. These turn-tables vary according to the
+class of work that is being dealt with. In Fig. 87 is shown one made by
+the Aerograph Co., Ltd., which is 20 inches in diameter by 12 inches
+high. It is made entirely of cast iron, excepting the cone seated
+bearing, which is of hardened steel, which rotates freely and is nicely
+finished. The weight is 98 lbs. Sometimes turn-tables are provided with
+projecting points to prevent the article being sprayed from moving,
+while in other cases the top of the table is provided with ridges for
+the same purpose.
+
+In all small turn-tables a conical bearing of hardened steel, properly
+lubricated, is sufficient for the purpose, but in the larger work it
+is desirable to employ ball-bearings. Whichever method is used, it is
+essential that the table turns very freely so that it can be moved
+almost with a touch.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 87.--AEROGRAPH TURN-TABLE.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 88.--TWO FORMS OF FUMEXER]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 89.--THE FUMEXER IN USE.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 90.--A PAASCHE TURN-TABLE.]
+
+Fig. 90 shows the Paasche turn-table, which can be raised or lowered
+into suitable positions as well as tilted at any angle. It revolves
+freely with a gentle touch. Larger sizes are supplied. The necessity of
+providing for carrying off the fumes which arise in paint spraying has
+already been dealt with.
+
+
+THE AUTO-ELECTRIC AIR HEATER.
+
+This invention is the property of the DeVilbiss Manufacturing Company,
+and is intended to overcome the tendency of the air to cool as it
+leaves the nozzle in spraying, while it tends to keep it heated till
+it reaches the work. It also raises the temperature of the varnish or
+enamel, producing a smooth, even finish.
+
+In addition to heating the air, the auto-heater warms the nozzle,
+thereby raising the temperature of the varnish. Because of the heated
+air and warmed material there is a complete elimination of the pitted,
+pebbled or mottled effect so noticeable when "short oil," quick setting
+or heavy bodied varnishes or enamels are sprayed on flat surfaces.
+The auto-heater enables Aeron users to improve the quality of many
+classes of work--in many instances it opens up an entirely new field of
+usefulness. The auto-heater and the air transformer set together insure
+clean, dry and warm air at the proper pressure, which is an important
+factor in the production of the best Aeron results.
+
+The auto-heater applies the heat at the last possible point before the
+air enters the Aeron; as a consequence there is absolutely no loss or
+waste of heat, as would be the case if the air were heated at some
+other point and then passed through the hose to the machine. It is very
+easy to understand that if air heated before entering the hose retained
+sufficient heat to be of service when reaching the nozzle, it would be
+so hot that it would destroy the hose. In the only practical way, the
+auto-heater maintains the heat in the air at the proper degree till the
+spray reaches the work.
+
+The auto-heater is light, yet rugged in construction. It has no
+exposed contacts. The conductor wires run through the air hose. It
+can be attached to any style of Aeron without difficulty. There is
+an automatic cut-off furnished with every auto-heater. Placing the
+Aeron in the cup holder, or hanging it on the hook, automatically
+cuts off the current--picking up the Aeron automatically turns on the
+current. This automatic control effects a great saving in current.
+As a protection against overheating the auto-heater is equipped with
+a fusible safety disc, which melts, allowing the air to escape, if
+current is left turned on by accident when the Aeron is not in use.
+This safety device operates within four minutes. Several extra discs
+are furnished with every outfit. The auto-heater can be connected to
+any electric light socket, and consumes only 250 watts current when in
+operation.
+
+The construction of the auto-heater will be understood on reference to
+Fig. 91.
+
+Another interesting heater is supplied by the Airostyle & Lithos, Ltd.,
+a number of which are in use in this country Its general form can be
+seen on reference to Fig. 102, page. 165, which shows a gas-heated
+type. The same heater is also supplied either electrically or steam
+heated.
+
+In all types it has the same general features, namely, a water-jacketed
+colour pot, a special coil for heating the air supply, which is
+afterwards passed through the water jacket for the dual purpose
+of raising the temperature of the jacket and damping down the air
+temperature at the same time. To a convenient standpipe the hot air is
+carried and distributed to the pistol, and also to a special jacket
+round the colour tube.
+
+The Airostyle pistol is provided with an adjustment which admits of the
+hot air by-passing the whole time so, maintaining the pistol at the
+same temperature as the colour pot and ensuring a steady flow of the
+japan.
+
+The heaters are mounted on a stand at the side of the hood and are
+complete with pressure gauges, regulating valves, special burner for
+gas, or an electrically heated pot giving three heats, or for steam
+giving a wide range of temperatures controlled by the steam pressure
+through a reducing valve. It must be explained that the same result is
+obtained no matter which form of heater is employed, and that in no
+case can the japan be burnt. The heaters are used for thick black tar
+varnish, or cycle japans, also for certain gum or glue mixtures and
+special varnishes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 91.--THE AUTO ELECTRIC AIR HEATER.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+STENCILS AND MASKS--THE REQUIREMENTS OF DIFFERENT TRADES IN SPRAYING.
+
+
+Just as in applying paint by immersion some parts which are not
+required to be painted can be protected, as already explained, so in
+spraying.
+
+Certain parts are to be left unpainted, such as the plated fronts
+and glass lenses of cycle lamps. This is effected by the adoption of
+some system of masking. Such masks are, however, very simple and are
+sprung on with a simple wire spring or clip, and so held in place while
+spraying.
+
+A mask has been designed and patented purposely for use when spraying.
+This is described on page 143. This mask has embodied in it a plunger
+on the end of which is mounted a rubber sucker, and as the plunger is
+controlled by a spring, all that is necessary to do is to depress the
+plunger down on to the lamp, box, or whatever article is to be painted;
+and as the sucker of the plunger comes into contact with the article
+first, it grips the surface and the spring behind the plunger forces
+the mask, which may be any shape, but is preferably of box form, down
+upon the article. This mask is very practical, but its use is limited,
+to some extent, to forms of lamps which do not need any stencil or
+mask. Such a step, needless to say, has only been taken because the
+system of compressed air japanning is the one ideal method--and one has
+only to refer to manufacturers who have used it for confirmation of
+this.
+
+In addition to simple masks, there are many more complicated forms,
+such as those in use in gas meter manufactories, where there are no
+fewer than half a dozen points to be masked, and in hardly any case do
+more than two points remain the same over numbers of meters to be dealt
+with.
+
+However, this has been overcome by arranging the masks on a spring
+foundation, and making them capable of sliding adjustment in two or
+more directions, and the time taken to fix these masks is in no case
+more than 30 seconds. Seeing that the time taken to brush a meter (even
+a small one) is not more than seven minutes and the time taken to spray
+one, with a superior result, is not more than one minute, there is a
+very considerable saving even after allowing time for fixing the mask.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 92.--MASKS FOR GAS METERS.]
+
+Other stencils are employed for lettering on plates, despatch boxes,
+and for ornamental work on cash boxes, etc., and need no further
+description here other than stating that these must be of something
+stronger than tinfoil, and not too strong to prevent them being pressed
+firmly down on to the article to be dealt with.
+
+In other cases, stencils are spun or pressed out to exactly fit the
+article, as in the case of brass lacquered goods, rubber balls,
+enamelled ironware, etc., and in some cases, where a number of
+stencils are employed, for one pattern, these are arranged round a
+common centre, and hinged so that, once the article is in position,
+stencil after stencil may be readily and accurately brought into
+position over the work.
+
+For decorative work, very elaborate stencils are employed, with many
+plates for each design; but such stencils hardly come within the scope
+of the present work, although they are employed for wallpaper work, and
+in the textile industries for high-class effects.
+
+
+THE HART PATENT MASK.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 93--THE HART PATENT MASK.]
+
+A very ingeniously constructed, although simple, mask which is suitable
+for many purposes, but particularly for motor and carriage lamps,
+has been patented by Mr. Walter William Hart, of the firm of Matthew
+J. Hart & Sons, Great Barr Street, Birmingham, and others. By this
+invention means are provided for applying the mask to a plain surface
+so that it may be immovably held without causing injury to the surface.
+The mask, too, has the advantage that it can be placed in position with
+extreme rapidity. By this invention the mask is fastened in position
+by a suction pad, preferably made of indiarubber, which, when pressed
+on to the surface to be covered, adheres thereto by the pressure of
+the atmosphere. In Fig. 93 is shown an inner face view and a sectional
+elevation of the device. The mask (_a_) is adapted to have an axial
+movement in relation to the suction pad (_b_) so that when such pad has
+been fixed in position the mask may be pressed close upon the surface
+it is required to protect. This suction pad (_b_) is of a conical
+formation, and is secured to the end of the plunger (_c_) which passes
+rearwardly through a hole (_d_) in the back of the mask, and through
+a tubular extension (_e_) passing rearwardly from the back of the
+mask. The rear end of the plunger has a hole therein, which hole is
+screw threaded, and to such end a cap (_f_) is secured. A stud (_f_)
+on the interior of the flat end of the cap screwing into the said
+tapped hole, and the cylindrical portion (_f2_) of the cap slidingly
+fitting over the tubular extension (_e_) on the mask. A spiral spring
+(_g_) surrounds the plunger, one end bearing on a shoulder (_h_) at
+the rear of the mask and the other end bearing against the cap (_f_).
+To fasten the mask, the same is placed in position over the part to be
+covered and the cap (_f_) is pressed down, thus pressing the suction
+pad (_b_) upon the surface of the article, to which it adheres. A mask
+constructed according to this invention is capable of a great variety
+of applications, one of which is in connection with lamps. That shown
+in the illustration is intended for this purpose.
+
+It will be clear that the shape, however, can be varied according to
+the article to be painted by spraying; for example, it may be used with
+advantage for decorative purposes.
+
+
+MAKING STENCILS.
+
+When it is decided to spray through stencils, it is usual to employ
+thin copper plates for the purpose, although in wallpaper decoration
+very heavy copper stencils are used, because, these being held
+horizontally, the weight increases the stiffness of them, while it
+prevents them shifting while in use. In ordinary work, however, where
+a stencil must be used vertically, the lighter stencil will be most
+useful. If paper is used, the best material is Japanese vellum, which
+is manufactured from a special fibre and possesses the advantage of
+being easy to cut and makes remarkably durable stencils. It is imported
+from Japan by Jas. Spicer & Sons, Ltd., 15, Upper Thames Street,
+London, E.C. Manilla paper may be had from the same firm, and answers
+also very well. For some styles of work, lead foil gives good results.
+Messrs. Locke, Lancaster, and W. W. and R. Johnstone & Co., Ltd., 94,
+Gracechurch Street, E.C., supply a material which they call "Four-ounce
+stencil metal," which weighs 4 ounces to the square foot, is made in
+sheets 6ft. by 2ft. 6in., and in smaller sizes, and costs 2s. per
+lb. It can be easily cut with a stencil knife, and is most suitable
+for work on horizontal surfaces. Another paper which may be used is
+ordinary Whatman's paper. The usual method of cutting is to use a very
+sharp knife, such as a shoemaker uses, and to cut on a sheet of glass.
+If any variety of paper is employed, it will be necessary to apply two
+coats of shellac varnish, ordinarily called "Patent Knotting." This
+protects the surface of the paper from being worn away by the action of
+the brush. Some stencil cutters prefer boiled oil for the purpose.
+
+Zinc stencils are sometimes employed. These may be made as follows:
+The thinnest sheets of zinc are employed for the purpose, and upon
+this is painted the letters or design to form the stencil. The whole
+of the zinc which is not to be cut out, or rather, by this process,
+eaten out by acid, must be protected by means of a varnish made as
+follows: Take one pint of best asphaltum varnish, two ounces of beeswax
+and half-an-ounce of rosin and four ounces of Venice turpentine. Melt
+the beeswax and rosin in the Venice turpentine, and while warm add the
+asphaltum varnish, mixing thoroughly together. Paint this on the back
+of the zinc plate and on all parts that are to be protected. Form a dam
+or little wall made of 6 parts of beeswax and one part of tallow melted
+together and allow to cool. This is intended to confine the acid to the
+parts required to be eaten out. Nitric acid is used for the purpose
+mixed with three parts of water. This is poured on the space inside
+the dam and allowed to remain on for from 24 to 48 hours, when it will
+be found to have eaten away the zinc on the parts unprotected. Further
+information concerning stencils will be found in the book entitled
+"Stencils and Stencilling," by A. L. Duthie, published by the Trade
+Papers Publishing Co., Ltd., 365, Birkbeck Bank Chambers, High Holborn,
+London, W.C., price 3s. 3d.
+
+
+REQUIREMENTS OF SPECIAL TRADES.
+
+The following hints are given of the requirements of a few special
+trades:--
+
+
+_Piece Work._
+
+In very many cases where articles are painted by means of compressed
+air it will be found quite practicable to have the work done by piece
+work. The exact time taken to spray any particular article can, after
+a very little practice, be determined quite accurately. In fixing the
+price to be paid for the work an allowance must, of course, be made
+for the time taken in bringing the piece to the spraying cabinet and
+placing it ready to be taken away by the boys or labourers. It is in
+this detail that speed may be increased so materially. The actual time
+of spraying to a great extent regulates itself, but if care is not
+taken considerable waste of time will be occasioned in getting articles
+ready and taking them away, and a satisfactory arrangement of piece
+work to both employer and employee will remove this waste of time and
+will prove more beneficial than day work.
+
+
+BOOKBINDING.
+
+The principal use of spraying in this work is to put on the speckled
+edges of books after they are sewed and before binding. This is usually
+done by splashing colour from a stiff-haired brush over a comb, but
+the method is a crude one at best. In using a spray for the purpose
+one of the simpler forms will do all that is required. The pressure
+must be lowered and paint removed some distance from the books until
+the requisite size of the spots or dots of colour is obtained. With a
+little practice this can be regulated to a nicety.
+
+
+CARRIAGES.
+
+The remarks which will be found elsewhere, under the head of
+"Tramcars," apply to some extent to carriages also, and although the
+superfine finish required for a high-class carriage could hardly be
+produced excepting by the old-fashioned means, yet the processes of
+flowing-on and spraying could, without doubt, often be employed for the
+cheap and moderately cheap style of vehicles of various kinds which are
+now produced on so extensive a scale.
+
+
+CYCLE PARTS.
+
+Many parts of cycles are now painted by means of spraying, although
+some firms prefer dipping. Whichever process is used it is necessary,
+as a rule, to give at least two or sometimes three or even more coats,
+and to get a fine finish to rub down between these coats with powdered
+pumice and water, and, for the last coat underneath the finish,
+rottenstone and oil. The parts must always be stoved, as air drying
+enamels are not, as a rule, sufficiently hard to permit of their
+resisting the hard wear to which cycles are subjected. It need hardly
+be said that the method of handling various parts will to a great
+extent determine the economy effected.
+
+The wearing parts of cycles are sometimes finished in the following
+manner, which is the method used by the Birmingham Small Arms Co.
+Although somewhat expensive it is certainly worthy of all praise,
+because it gives so durable a finish. The iron or steel parts are first
+thoroughly washed in American turpentine and are then stoved, the
+result being a perfectly clean surface. A coat of Calcutta linseed oil
+is then given by means of brushes and the parts are then stoved at 250°
+F., after which they receive a coat of what is called "Black Rubber
+Solution," an elastic enamel which dries with a semi-gloss. Then two
+separate coats of khaki colour japan are given and each are stoved at
+280° to 300° F. A little rubbing down between the coats is sometimes
+necessary, and this is done with glass paper. The parts thus finished
+are very suitable for work which is to be subjected to very hard wear.
+At this writing the cycles are all intended for Government, hence the
+care taken in the finish.
+
+
+ELECTRICAL WORK.
+
+Painting by compressed air is done in the case of many parts of
+electrical apparatus, the process being similar to that previously
+described. Thus the metal work of fuse boxes may be finished in this
+way with black japan, and one coat stoved at 250° F. or thereabouts
+will usually be found to suffice.
+
+Among the large number of electric works where the process is employed
+may be mentioned those of W. T. Henley's Telegraph Works, Ltd., at
+Gravesend. The Airostyle is used in this case, and the work is done
+approximately from twice to three times as rapidly as it was formerly
+done with the brush.
+
+
+FANCY BASKETS.
+
+Fancy baskets which are made of cane, willow, special straw and other
+materials can be sprayed with admirable effect in many cases where
+brushing would be impossible. Indeed, the application of a spray in
+this work may be considered to have created almost a new industry in
+a wide range of fancy goods, which may be sprayed with gold paint,
+or a great variety of coloured enamels may also be employed. In this
+case celluloid varnishes are also employed with the addition of coal
+tar dyes for the production of colours such as mauve, blue, moss
+green, rose pink, amber, orange, fire red, navy blue, etc. The work
+of spraying in this case is usually done over a bin such as is shown
+below, a simple wire device being used at the top to support the basket
+while it is being sprayed, although even this is often dispensed with
+as the article may be held by the handle, and being very light this is
+not found to be irksome.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 94.--BIN FOR SPRAYING LIGHT ARTICLES.]
+
+
+GAS METERS.
+
+At the present time less than half a dozen gas meter manufacturers or
+repairers have a paint spraying plant in use, and these are described
+elsewhere. The saving, however, by spraying the paint is in this class
+of work very considerable, amounting to about 1 to 5; that is to say,
+five times as much work can be turned out with a spraying machine as by
+hand. It is generally recognised that the quality of the painting is
+much improved, it being harder and better in appearance and generally
+more satisfactory. Turn-tables of a simple character are employed,
+and 24 hours are allowed for the drying of the work. For protecting
+the indicators, the name of owner or manufacturer and brass plates
+of similar character, various types of shields or masks are employed,
+consisting of a plate of requisite shape soldered on to a piece of
+stiff wire, with turned ends, which embrace the meter and hold it in
+position. There appears to be no reason why the larger size gas meters
+should not be painted by spraying, provided that a suitable plant,
+which would be of a simple character, were provided. There is but
+little doubt that in a little time every manufacturer of gas meters
+will find it necessary to employ a spraying plant.
+
+
+GAS STOVES AND RANGES.
+
+In this class of work spraying is used almost exclusively; as only one
+side of the iron is to be painted the dipping process is obviously
+unsuitable. The work is done at a pressure of about 45 lbs., but
+sometimes a little less is sufficient. The usual exhaust is provided
+and turn-tables are employed having bearing wheels on the outer edge of
+a circular plate. Those used for the larger ranges are usually level
+with the floor. In addition to black, all kinds of colours may be used.
+This work is mostly done piece work. The smaller parts, such as rings,
+cookers, etc., are also sprayed. The stoving is done at 350° F., but
+when two coats are given the first is subjected to 450° F.
+
+The interior of the ovens are coated for a finish of oxide of tin,
+which when stoved at a high temperature assures a great increase of
+"body" or opacity. Sometimes the finish is left solid, but in most
+cases the coat is stippled.
+
+The usual overhead runways consisting of hanger on four wheels on
+V-shaped girder are employed.
+
+
+PICTURE FRAMES, PICTURE MOULDING, ETC.
+
+One of the industries in which paint spraying is strikingly successful
+is that of preparing picture frames with a "gold" finish. If properly
+done the result is even better than if gold leaf is used, as the spray
+covers completely the most elaborate and intricate ornament. Picture
+frames or mouldings of various shapes and sizes are obtained ready for
+receiving the various coats necessary to give a gold finish. Formerly
+the whole of the operations were done by means of brushes, but this
+method has been wholly superseded by spraying, which approximately does
+the work five times as quickly and gives a far better result.
+
+Three separate processes are employed; the first is the application of
+a coat of enamel, the second a coat of bronze or "gold paint," and the
+third the application of a transparent lacquer. The last protects the
+bronze from discoloration, and the manufacturers guarantee that such
+mouldings will last at least 5 years without tarnishing.
+
+The whole of the work is air dried, but to facilitate the operation the
+workroom is kept at a temperature of about 75°F and the drying ovens
+up to, say, 80° or even 85°F. The first coat of enamel is sprayed on,
+and in about two hours is felted down with a pad similar to that used
+by french polishers. This is dipped in a solvent which removes all
+inequalities. The actual spraying is done on a long open trough shaped
+bin some 3 ft. 6 in. from the floor having exhausts at the bottom and
+thin laths placed across it at intervals of about 18 inches. The long
+stretches of moulding are placed on these laths lengthwise, the laths
+holding them in position. The spraying is done directly on them and
+they are turned from side to side, and when the spraying is completed
+each length is lifted bodily by two boys, one at each end, on to racks
+in the drying room which is close by and which has a large number of
+open iron shelves running from end to end. These shelves are quite
+close together, so that a large number of lengths of moulding may be
+dealt with at one time. Heat at about 85°F is admitted at the bottom,
+and the drying apartment is open from end to end in front so that the
+mouldings may be readily introduced. This heat also serves to warm the
+room.
+
+The enamel being dry the length is removed and gone over with a pad
+as described and the gold paint is then sprayed on over the whole
+of the work, giving a beautifully fine and compact gold finish. The
+application of the transparent lacquer completes the operation. The
+materials used in this work are special spirit varnishes made on
+a base of celluloid. The exact composition varies with different
+manufacturers, but the following recipes are based on "The Manufacture
+of Spirit Varnishes," by Livache and McIntosh (Scott, Greenwood and
+Son), and will be useful for reference. The great advantage of using
+celluloid is that a coloured transparent varnish is obtained.
+
+
+RECIPE FOR CELLULOID VARNISH.
+
+    1. Celluloid             1 lb.
+       Amyl Acetate          2 lbs.
+       Acetone               2 lbs.
+       Ether (Syph. Meth.)   2 lbs.
+
+    2. Same as before with the addition of 1/5th part of
+       camphor.
+
+    3. Celluloid             1 lb.
+       Amyl Acetate          5 lbs.
+       Acetone               5 lbs.
+
+Picture frames are also finished in black having a semi-gloss
+finish, which gives an excellent effect and is most durable.
+
+It is very important in this class of work that ample ventilation be
+given to the apartment in which the work is done in such a way as to
+avoid draught. Heated air, of course, takes up moisture much more
+readily than cold air, and unless means are provided for adequate
+ventilation the air will become moisture charged, and the work will
+thereby be adversely affected. This is a point which is frequently
+overlooked.
+
+
+SPRAYING SHIPS' HULLS.
+
+It is the opinion of the author that the painting of ships' hulls may
+be done by means of spraying with a great saving of time. Although
+there are no available statistics, it is probable that many thousands
+of acres of surface on ships' bottoms are re-painted every year. A
+careful enquiry has shown that some experiments have been made in this
+direction, but that they have always been of a somewhat perfunctory
+character. The very large surface gives an opportunity for the use of
+the spray which is almost unequalled in its possibilities. There are,
+however, certain difficulties in connection with this work, which have
+doubtless had much to do with the fact that it has not, thus far, been
+adopted to any considerable extent.
+
+The first of these is that the composition applied is not ordinary
+paint, but one which is mixed with arsenic, mercury and other poisonous
+compounds, which are added in order to destroy animal and vegetable
+life and prevent the adhesion of barnacles and other marine growth. So
+necessary is this that compositions are made suitable for different
+waters through which the vessel must pass, and it is well known that
+those vessels which sail by regular routes need much less frequent
+painting than a tramp steamer which may sail in any direction and
+through any sea. The reason is, that in the first case the composition
+is specially made to withstand the growth of life in well-defined
+waters, while in the case of tramp steamers it must be more or less of
+a general nature.
+
+The point, however, which has now to be dealt with, is that the
+addition of arsenic, etc., added to the paint, causes it sometimes to
+settle out, but it is suggested that this could be easily overcome
+by an agitating apparatus in the paint pot. As explained elsewhere,
+such an apparatus is frequently used in ordinary painting, when the
+composition of the paint demands it.
+
+The second and more serious objection to spraying ships' hulls is that
+the work must be done in the open, and that the wind will carry away
+a portion of the paint and prevent it reaching the surface required.
+It is suggested, however, this might perhaps be overcome by adopting
+a form of enclosed cabinet, which would screen the operator from the
+wind. This could be rendered portable by being mounted on a platform
+with wheels, and a system of elevators, and be adopted with a little
+ingenuity to reach the higher parts of the vessel. In any case, the
+subject is one which is well worth the attention of those interested in
+spraying, owing to the immense field it opens up.
+
+In this connection attention may be directed to the illustrations which
+appear on pages 252 to 254 of the apparatus used for spraying by the
+Pennsylvania Railroad for painting their freight cars. This apparatus
+may be adapted, with suitable modifications, for ship painting also.
+
+
+SLATE ENAMELLING.
+
+The usual procedure followed in connection with enamelling on slate for
+mantel-pieces, stall-board, signs and other work of the kind, is to
+get the slate slabs quite smooth and level by means of a slate planing
+machine. A coat of "black varnish" or enamel is then sprayed on, and
+is stoved at 160° to 170° F. Careful rubbing down with powdered pumice
+and water is next done, when the work receives a second coat of enamel.
+It is again stoved and then rubbed down by hand to a finish with
+rottenstone and oil. Sometimes, the slate receives three coats, the
+finish being left with a high gloss, but more frequently the semi-gloss
+obtained by rubbing with rottenstone is preferred. It is unsafe to
+stove slate at higher than 260° F., as it is likely to break when
+cooling.
+
+Formerly, a great deal of this class of work was done in imitation of
+various marbles, mostly worked on a black ground, but "marbling" is
+now done but rarely. The method is to employ a shallow tank of water
+upon which are placed colours in imitation of the veins of the marble
+to be imitated. This colour is of a special kind, made to float, and is
+manipulated on the surface. The slab of slate, which has received one
+coat, is then dipped gently in the water, when the colour adheres to
+it. A coat of stoving varnish completes the operation.
+
+Many slate enamellers still employ the old method of applying the
+enamel by means of brushes, but it is only a question of time before
+compressed air will be used almost exclusively, for the reason so
+frequently urged in this work, viz., that the spray eliminates brush
+marks and, therefore, greatly reduces the work of rubbing down.
+
+
+SPRAYING COLOUR SPECIMENS.
+
+Specimens of various colours in distemper, oil, varnish and enamel are
+sent out in very large quantities by the various manufacturers of those
+goods, and the preparation of these specimens may be very considerably
+facilitated by using a suitable spraying machine. When distemper is
+used fairly large sheets of paper are usually employed, and these are
+cut up by means of a guillotine machine when dry. Ordinary oil paint
+and varnish paints may in like manner be sprayed, but when an enamel
+finish is desired it is usual to apply the paint on the back of a sheet
+of thin white celluloid, which gives the appearance which would be
+obtained by the application of varnish. In spraying celluloid sheets
+it will be found that after a little practice the paint may be laid
+on much more uniformly than is possible by means of a brush. This can
+easily be demonstrated by holding up the painted sheet to the light,
+when it will be found that the paint applied by a brush shows more
+inequalities or streaks than that when sprayed.
+
+Stencilling may be done very well on either paper or celluloid sheets;
+in the case of these specimens, for example, supposing it was desired
+that each specimen of colour when cut up should bear a number, it
+would not be difficult to cut a stencil in zinc or leadfoil, repeating
+the number as many times as there are specimens to be cut out of each
+sheet. The tinfoil would then be fixed in position and the spraying
+done over it, which would mark each piece with a number. Then the coat
+of colour can be sprayed all over the surface. The plan above would be
+followed in the case of celluloid, but when ordinary paper is used the
+process would, of course, have to be reversed and the number put on
+last.
+
+In some cases where a very great brilliancy of colour is required,
+this is done by the process of glazing, which is described elsewhere
+in this book; for example, a comparatively dull red could be very much
+brightened by spraying a coat of madder or crimson lake. Here, again,
+if celluloid is used the glazing colour will go on first and the ground
+colour afterwards, but in ordinary circumstances the ground work would,
+of course, be first applied.
+
+Probably the most complete plant for preparing colour specimens is
+in use by Mander Brothers, the well-known paint, varnish and colour
+manufacturers, of Wolverhampton. The spraying of colours is mostly done
+on celluloid sheets, and four cabinets of the Airostyle type are in
+more or less constant use. These cabinets have glass sides and top hung
+on hinges so that they may be opened when desired. The pressure of air
+is usually from 30 to 35 lbs., with an additional 5 lbs. on the paint
+pot. One coat is sufficient, because, of course, it can be made as
+thick as may be necessary according to the particular specimens being
+prepared. The saving of time is estimated at, at least, 33 per cent.
+
+In dealing with celluloid sheets it is obviously of importance to adopt
+some safe means of storing them while drying. Formerly Messrs. Mander
+Brothers had a long series of double clips by which the sheets were
+suspended while drying, but this method has been abandoned owing to the
+danger involved of fire. Now suitable tin-lined cabinets are provided
+having from top to bottom a series of cleats which support open wire
+trays. Each sheet of celluloid as it is painted is placed on a wire
+tray which is slipped in the cabinet, where it dries in 12 hours.
+
+
+TRAMCARS.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 95.--GENERAL VIEW OF AIROSTYLE PLANT FOR 16
+OPERATORS ON SMALL WORK.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 96--VIEW OF AIROSTYLE PLANT FOR 16 OPERATORS,
+SHOWING VENTILATOR.]
+
+As far as the author can gather information, the processes described
+in this book are not used in Great Britain to any extent in the finish
+of tramcars, but are gradually making headway in America, particularly
+for the final coats. There appears to be no reason, however, why
+"flowing-on," as described in Chapter XIII., should not be used to a
+much greater extent than is at present the case. The earlier coats,
+being very stiff, might be applied by means of brushes, and these
+coats could be followed by spraying, and finally the finishing coats
+could be flowed on.
+
+Formerly, this work was done almost in the same way as that by which
+the fine finish of a carriage body is produced, viz., the building up
+of a perfectly smooth surface by a large number of coats, rubbing each
+one down carefully and finishing with two or more coats of varnish,
+these being also rubbed down excepting the last.
+
+In modern practice these methods are greatly simplified, and at least
+several coats, which were formerly thought to be necessary, are
+dispensed with. The finish is often obtained by applying a coat of a
+suitable enamel, rubbing this down, and then giving a final finish of a
+good flowing varnish.
+
+It is suggested that spraying, or flowing-on, could be used for some of
+this work with very great advantage in the saving of time.
+
+In dealing with many paints which are to be stoved, a well-thought-out
+system should be in use of conveying the articles from the finishing
+rooms to the painting apparatus and thence to the ovens. If more than
+one coat is given it will be necessary to arrange also for conveyance
+after the parts are baked back to the painting plant for the next coat.
+
+As a rule, a system of overhead runways, such as is described for use
+in paint dipping, will be found the most economical method to adopt.
+
+It will be observed that in the list of trades and articles which
+may be successfully painted by mechanical means, given on pages 3 to
+6, there are many which are omitted from the detailed descriptions.
+The reason for this is that the main principles are in all cases
+practically the same and the details must necessarily vary, not only
+with the goods being dealt with, but according to the extent of the
+operations and the accommodation of the factory available.
+
+Thornley & Knight, Ltd., of Birmingham, specialise in this business,
+and have sold, during the last few years, many thousands of gallons of
+their air-drying coloured japans, for use on car bodies. Many of the
+largest motor car manufacturers have adopted the process.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+SOME TYPICAL PLANTS.
+
+
+An interesting Airostyle plant is shown in Figs. 95, 96 and 101, and is
+arranged for 16 operators to deal mainly with bronze lacquers, hence
+the somewhat simple arrangement with no provision for adjustment of
+pressures at each hood.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 97.--SIDE ELEVATION OF PLANT FOR 12 OPERATORS.]
+
+It will be noted that the ventilator employed is of important size; the
+compressor delivering air to the plant is stationed in the basement.
+
+The views of the plant are excellent, and serve to remove the erroneous
+impression that such a plant cannot be conveniently and economically
+arranged, both as regards floor space occupied and the provision of
+adequate gangways on all sides.
+
+Another interesting Airostyle plant is shown in Figs. 84, 85 and 86,
+and was installed for japanning gas fires, radiators, gas cookers,
+etc. An item worthy of note in this plant is the patented hot air
+apparatus installed for warming the japan and for also heating the
+sprayer and flexible tube conveying the japan to the sprayer; it is
+clearly seen in the centre of the two hoods. The large hood is mainly
+used for radiators, which are wheeled on to the large ball-bearing
+turn-table, shown white for the purpose of a clearer view, but when
+not so used a table is wheeled into position and two operators are
+accommodated for smaller work.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 98.--PART END ELEVATION OF PLANT FOR 12 OPERATORS.]
+
+The power unit, consisting of electric drive and suitable overhead
+countershaft, together with the compressor and ball-bearing fan, is
+shown in Fig. 100, and is directly outside the japanning shop.
+
+This plant was installed for the Davis Gas Stove Company, Luton, and
+has been in operation for several years.
+
+The compressor shown in Fig 98 also delivers air to the gas cooker
+department for two or three operators, and to the porcelain enamelling
+department for six or seven operators, but as the same practice is
+adopted as is shown in the photos here reproduced, no useful purpose
+will be served in describing them in detail.
+
+Undoubtedly one of the most important plants in the country, and one
+producing the highest finish, is installed at Messrs. Joseph Lucas,
+Ltd., Birmingham, and the photographs reproduced here are by their
+kind permission. The author was granted the privilege of inspecting
+the plant fully, and proposes to enlarge upon its arrangement and
+capacities for saving of labour, etc.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 99.--PLAN OF FIGS. 96 AND 97.]
+
+The whole of the work was carried out by Messrs. The Airostyle and
+Lithos, Ltd., and it must be admitted that the plants are so arranged
+as to admit of rapid handling of the work, and the subsequent stoving
+of the articles is just as conveniently provided for.
+
+Two distinct plants are in use at the moment with a separate steel
+plate central draught fan and a water-cooled air compressor (the type
+of fan and air compressor employed is shown elsewhere in the book, see
+Figs. 71 and 79).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 100.--AIROSTYLE PLANT POWER UNIT, COMPRESSOR, MOTOR
+FAN ETC., INSTALLED FOR THE DAVIS GAS STOVE CO., LTD., LUTON.]
+
+On referring to the drawings Figs. 97, 98 and 99, showing respectively
+an elevation, end view and plan of one of the plants, it will be seen
+that the plant is divided up into two bays, each accommodating six
+operators, so that, in all, twenty-four operators are provided for in
+the two plants and were actually seen at work.
+
+It will at once be noticed that ample space between the bays is
+provided, and this is most essential in order to give sufficient room
+for the racks which are wheeled into place behind each operator. These
+racks are readily seen in the photographs, Figs. 103 and 106, and can
+also be distinguished in Fig. 104.
+
+The japanning shop in which the plants are installed is of large
+dimensions, 250 feet long by 48 feet wide, and is extremely light and
+airy, but, owing to the fact that the roof-lights are now painted
+over (by Government regulations), the shop at present appears to
+disadvantage, and the photographs consequently suffer.
+
+The photographs, nevertheless, show very clearly what an immense amount
+of work can be daily handled, but, notwithstanding this, the writer
+was assured that there were still numbers of brush hands in the shop.
+This was primarily due to the fact that full arrangements for spraying
+are not yet completed (12 more operators are being provided for), and,
+secondly, to the fact that certain work needing a large amount of
+masking can be almost as readily brushed, and this class of work finds
+employment for brush hands. Messrs. Lucas, Ltd., admit that there is a
+wastage of japan, but maintain that a heavier and much more even coat
+is applied with a superior finish to brush work, and that there is an
+enormous gain in time of about 4 to 1 over brushing.
+
+They state, also, that an indirect gain is obtained in the economical
+working of the stoves, for these are filled far more quickly, and,
+consequently, the daily output per stove is correspondingly increased.
+
+A striking proof of the saving is their statement that if they had
+not the system of spraying at work, it would have meant 200 hands in
+the japanning department, whereas they now employed only 90, and a
+considerable number of these were engaged upon brush work, so that if
+only the whole of the work could have been handled with the spray, then
+the number of hands necessary would have been even less than 90.
+
+The photographs, Figs. 105 to 107, need no description, and are
+self-explanatory to a large extent.
+
+The type of instrument used, and the accessories, are described in
+detail elsewhere, as they are the standard practice adopted with all
+Airostyle plants.
+
+The writer also had the privilege of inspecting another interesting
+Airostyle plant, installed at Messrs. G. Cabdy and Sons, Birmingham,
+where 7 or 8 operators are employed upon high-class celluloid enamel
+finishes upon buttons, medallions, cameos, electrical fittings,
+and last, but not least, numerous parts for munition work, such as
+cartridge clips for 18 or 24-pounders, etc.
+
+The small articles are laid on a grid measuring about 11 inches by
+9 inches, and while holding the grid the operator sprays over the
+whole of the article on the grid, and in the case of rounded faces of
+buttons, sprays these obliquely from all sides in turn, as well as over
+the tops of the buttons.
+
+It may be mentioned that the greater part of the spraying paints and
+enamels are supplied by Messrs. Thornley & Knight, Ltd., of Birmingham.
+
+
+THE BIRMINGHAM SMALL ARMS CO.
+
+The cycle department of this well-known firm deals with an enormous,
+amount of parts, and a new paint spraying department on an extensive
+scale is in course of construction at Redditch, and the method in use
+at the Birmingham works will be to a great extent followed. In both
+cases the "Midland" sprayer is used under a pressure of from 30 to 50
+lbs.
+
+The method is very thorough, and although comparitively expensive
+is well calculated to produce a finish which is (a) capable of
+withstanding hard wear and possible knocks and (b) absolutely
+rust-proof. The finish is elastic and very durable. It is produced by
+the following method. The steel or iron parts are first thoroughly
+washed in pure American turpentine in order to remove every trace of
+grease and dirt. In passing, it may be said that a suitable white
+spirit would probably answer as well and would effect a considerable
+saving, although it is possible that the pure turpentine leaves a
+certain residue behind it which is of advantage in forming a key to the
+subsequent coats. The parts are then stoved, when a coat of pure Baltic
+linseed oil is applied by means of brushes, and they are again stoved
+at 250° F. Then a coat of black japan, known in the works as "rubber
+solution," is sprayed on, and a third stoving is given in this case at
+280° F. This is followed by two coats of khaki-coloured enamel sprayed
+on, which dries with a semi-gloss finish. The parts are stoved between
+each coat and after the final coat, so that they receive five stovings
+altogether.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 101.--COMPRESSOR, ETC., FOR AIROSTYLE PLANT FOR 16
+OPERATORS.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 102.--AIROSTYLE PLANT INSTALLED FOR GAS FIRE AND
+RADIATOR WORK FOR MESSRS. THE DAVIS GAS STOVE CO., LTD.]
+
+The ovens are of special construction and are described in detail
+elsewhere. The japans employed are supplied by Messrs. Arthur Holden
+and Co., Ltd., of Birmingham.
+
+Samples of the work thus finished were submitted to the author, who
+carefully tested them. He found that the finish was all that could
+be desired. A piece of plate metal, for instance, was bent double
+without the finish being affected, thus showing very clearly the great
+elasticity of the coating--a most important and necessary quality in a
+finish for this class of work.
+
+
+MESSRS. FLETCHER, RUSSELL & CO., LTD.
+
+This well-known firm use spraying at their Warrington Works on an
+extensive scale. All parts of gas cookers, gas stoves, and ranges large
+and small, are sprayed by different sizes of the Airostyle sprayer.
+Stoving takes place in most cases, and the work of spraying effects a
+great saving, one man being able to do the work of at least three under
+the old brush system.
+
+Some very beautiful effects are obtained in stoves intended for use
+in drawing, dining and reception rooms, by spraying various coloured
+semi-transparent lacquers over silver-bright iron or steel. Rich reds,
+browns, greens and blues in various shades are produced, and the bright
+surface beneath the lacquer gives a very pleasing and artistic effect.
+Stoving produces the necessary hardness of the lacquer, which may be
+regarded as being very durable.
+
+
+SPECIAL MACHINES.
+
+The Berkel and Parnall's Slicing Machine Co., Ltd., whose extensive
+works are at 6, Bow Common Lane, London, E., have had a plant for
+paint spraying in use for the last four years, and find it to be quite
+successful and a great saving of time over the old method of applying
+the paint by means of brushes, in addition to a superior finish being
+obtained. The sprayer in this case is the "Invincible," and the paint
+is sprayed on under pressure varying according to the nature of the
+work. The iron parts which go to make up the slicing machine are first
+primed and stoved and any imperfections stopped in the usual manner.
+They are then painted by means of compressed air and again stoved,
+after which they receive a further coat, which is also stoved. Various
+ornamentation in gold is then put on, mostly by the transfer process,
+although certain parts require lining by hand. The final coat of
+varnish is given by means of brushes, it being found that this is
+the most economical way for this particular class of work. In this
+particular it will be observed that the method differs from that used
+in many other works where all the operations are done by spraying,
+including a final coat of varnish. The colour used for the paint is a
+bright red. There are two spraying cabinets with the usual exhaust, and
+turn-tables are employed for turning the parts round to receive the
+coat of paint. It may surprise some readers to learn the very large
+extent to which these slicing machines are used throughout the world
+for various purposes.
+
+
+GITTINGS, HILLS AND BOOTHBY, LIMITED.
+
+The plant for spraying in use in these works is principally intended
+for experimental purposes in connection with the preparation of
+paints, varnishes and lacquers of various descriptions which the firm
+manufacture. An up-to-date type of pistol is used, with a pressure
+not exceeding 30 lbs. to the inch. The work is done in a small closet
+with glass sides open at one side, and a small turn-table is employed
+upon which to place the article that is being sprayed. Some admirable
+results are obtained with the aid of gold lacquers. It is found that
+in certain varnishes the application of heat is an advantage, but as
+a rule the spraying is done cold. Among the articles which have been
+painted are motor cars and various smaller appliances.
+
+
+THE KINGSBURY MANUFACTURING CO., LTD.
+
+A typical plant for finishing picture frames, furniture, fancy
+articles such as wood, cane and other ornamental baskets, is that of
+the Kingsbury Manufacturing Co., Ltd., 1, Markfield Rd., Broad Lane,
+Tottenham, N. This firm are the inventors of what is known as the
+"Inolite" system of gilding, which is described as an ideal process.
+Certainly the work produced is as near perfection as one would desire,
+the gilding being excellent in appearance, while it is guaranteed for
+five years to be free from discoloration or tarnishing. The process
+consists in applying by means of spraying, first, a coat of special
+enamel, which when dry is rubbed down with a solvent applied by a
+pad. Upon this is sprayed a coat of gold paint, and a final coat of
+colourless celluloid varnish is given which protects the gold from
+tarnishing. The process adopted is described in greater detail under
+the head of "Picture Frame Finishing" in this book.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 103.--VIEW FROM ONE END OF MESSRS. LUCAS, LTD.,
+AIROSTYLE PLANTS, SHOWING FAN AND COMPRESSOR DRIVES.]
+
+The coloured celluloid enamels which are applied to fancy baskets,
+etc., have a very attractive metallic appearance, which is far superior
+to the ordinary crude bronzy effect. Another speciality of the firm is
+the finish of frames in special black, which gives a perfectly smooth
+finish which might be called "egg-shell gloss." It is quite artistic in
+appearance, eminently suitable for the particular purpose, and gives a
+durable frame at a comparatively small cost.
+
+The firm estimate the saving of time by using the spraying as compared
+with that of employing a brush is as 5 is to 1. They point out that
+a little extra material is required, but this is not begrudged as it
+possesses advantages in an increased durability of the protective
+coating.
+
+
+THE GAS LIGHT AND COKE CO.
+
+Several of the works of this company, which deal with gas meters,
+are fitted with paint spraying installations. The branch at Laburnum
+Street, Kingsland Road, in charge of Mr. W. F. Fagan, may be taken as
+a type. Two Aerographs and three Airostyles are in use. The old meters
+that come to the works are examined, and if the paint is in fairly good
+condition the surface is rubbed down with pumice stone and water, but
+if it is much decayed the meters are placed in a hot bath containing a
+solution of lime and caustic soda, and allowed to remain in it a short
+time, when the paint becomes so soft as to be easily removable. The
+surface of new tinplate is cleaned down with spirit, when it is quite
+ready to receive the coat of paint. At these works many different makes
+of meters come in to be dealt with, hence various masks are necessary
+to protect those parts which it is not desired to spray. The pressure
+used here is rather more than usual, being 40 lbs. to the sq. inch. The
+time taken to paint a meter is very small, as can be understood when
+it is said that two men working on five-light meters can turn out 30
+an hour. Before the spraying apparatus was put in, about a year ago, a
+man could paint with a brush about three meters in an hour, so that,
+with the present system, there is an immense saving. It is calculated
+that the whole of the original outlay of putting in the plant will be
+returned at the end of about a year.
+
+The masks or shields having been placed in position, a cap is placed
+over each union and the paint is sprayed on. The meters are turned out
+at the rate of 900 to 1,500 a week of 48 hours. The spraying apparatus
+is provided with the usual exhaust consisting of two 9-inch holes
+to each cabinet, with grating over. About 10 per cent, more paint is
+allowed than that used when it is applied by hand, but the greater part
+of this goes on the surface, and the coat of paint as a protector is
+distinctly improved. The exhaust is carried up to the roof, but the
+actual loss of paint is very small.
+
+Fig. 108 shows a general view, and a large central draught steel
+plate fan is employed to exhaust the hoods, and to drive this and the
+compressor a gas engine is employed. The compressor is of the type
+illustrated in Fig. 71, page 115, and can just be discerned behind the
+gas engine.
+
+Fig. 109 shows a gas meter in position, with the necessary masks fixed,
+and Fig. 110 shows the operator about to spray-paint same. This plant
+has been in daily operation for more than two years.
+
+
+THE GAS METER CO., LIMITED.
+
+The installation of a spraying plant at the works of this firm, which
+are at 238, Kingsland Road, have been in operation for rather less than
+a year, but has proved quite satisfactory. Various types of gas meters
+are sprayed with one coat of Torbay paint, which is an iron oxide paint
+of high quality, and the one coat possesses amply sufficient quality
+to give a good covering. Prior to painting the surface of the tinned
+plate which is used for gas meters, it is cleaned down with a piece of
+waste dipped in spirit. Masks are used to fit over name plates, etc.,
+and the spraying is done in the usual cabinet, with an exhaust. A three
+or four-light meter takes about two minutes to do, and the larger
+sizes, of course, longer in proportion. All sizes up to and including
+500-light meters are sprayed, but those larger, up to 1,000 lights,
+are a little too big to handle. The greater part of the meters are
+done in deep red oxide iron colour, but three other colours are used
+in addition, as may be required. The meter to be sprayed is placed on
+a turn-table which bears on a sharp steel point and has on its upper
+portion spikes or ridges, to hold the meter in position. The Aerograph
+spray is employed in this case.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 104.--GENERAL VIEW OF AIROSTYLE PLANTS AT MESSRS.
+LUCAS' LTD.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 105.--J. LUCAS, LTD., AIROSTYLE PLANTS, SHOWING THE
+AMPLE SPACE BETWEEN HOODS.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 106.--J. LUCAS, LTD., AIROSTYLE PLANTS, SHOWING
+THE METHOD OF EMPLOYING RACKS TO GREATER ADVANTAGE, AND ALSO GIVING A
+CLEARER IDEA OF THE LARGE FAN EMPLOYED.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+PAINTS, LACQUERS, VARNISHES, ETC. USED IN SPRAYING.
+
+
+Under the head of "Paints used for Dipping" some information has been
+given in respect to the paints suitable for that purpose. Some, but not
+all, paints are suitable for both dipping and spraying, the exceptions
+being the heavier or more viscous compounds, which are not suitable
+for painting by immersion because they are too thick. Tar, enamel, and
+the heavier varnishes may be given as examples, although they may be
+successfully applied by the spraying process.
+
+Sometimes in dealing with the heavier compounds the application of
+heat is an advantage. This may be applied to either the paint or
+the compressed air or to both in order to increase the fluidity of
+the compound. It is important when heat is thus applied that the
+temperature of the room in which the spraying is done should be
+raised correspondingly, so that the heavier paints, enamel, etc.,
+do not congeal by being directed against a cold surface. Under most
+circumstances it is unnecessary to apply heat, provided that the
+spraying room is kept at a temperature of not less than 60° F. both in
+summer and winter.
+
+As already intimated, the preparation of paints, lacquers and varnishes
+for both dipping and spraying necessitates a close study of the special
+requirements. In the case of paint the particles of pigment must be
+very finely divided as coarse material would tend to choke up the
+spraying apparatus, or if even they did not actually have that result
+they would require a greater pressure of air and thus add to the cost
+of working. Zinc oxide, the various grades of black and most bright
+reds, are examples of finely ground pigments which are well suited for
+spraying.
+
+In buying materials for this purpose it is well to purchase of those
+firms who have made a special study of the subject. The following is a
+list of a few such firms, all well known to the writer, and although it
+by no means exhausts the list yet anyone desiring to buy materials may
+very safely leave themselves in their hands.
+
+Messrs. Docker, Bros., Ltd., Birmingham; Gittings, Hills and Boothby,
+Ltd., Tower Varnish Works, Long Acre, Birmingham; Goodlass, Wall and
+Co., Ltd., Seal Street, Liverpool; A. Holden and Sons, Ltd., Bradford
+Street, Birmingham; Indestructible Paint Co., Ltd., King's House, King
+Street, London, E.C.; Lewis Berger and Sons, Ltd., Homerton, London,
+N.; Llewellyn Rylands, Ltd., Balsall Heath Works, Birmingham; Mander
+Bros., Wolverhampton; Postans and Morley Brothers, Ltd, 19, Lionel
+Street, Birmingham; The Frederick Crane Chemical Co., Birmingham;
+Thornley and Knight, Birmingham; Wilkinson, Heywood and Clark, Ltd.,
+Caledonian Works, Poplar. E.; Pinchin, Johnson and Co., Ltd., Bevis
+Marks, London.
+
+The following are American firms:--
+
+The Moller and Schumann Co., Chicago, Ill.; John Lucas and Co., Inc,
+Gibbsboro', N.J.; The Chicago White Lead and Oil Co., Chicago, Ill.;
+John W. Masury and Son, New York, N.Y.; The Glidden Varnish Company,
+Cleveland, O.; The Sherwin-Williams Co., Cleveland, O.;
+
+
+STOVING ENAMELS.
+
+We now reach these important enamels, and extract the following from
+the foreword of the little book above mentioned. Messrs. Wilkinson,
+Heywood and Clark claim to be the first successful makers of stoving
+blacks, which was in the days before the introduction of bicycles.
+Though originally introduced for cycle work, stoving enamel produces a
+most successful finish for all kinds of materials. In the United States
+of America such enamels are used in great quantities for finishing
+standardised motor bodies. These black enamels have gained a very high
+name for themselves, as properly baked they are extraordinarily hard,
+brilliant and tough, and when applied over such material as tin sheets
+are flexible enough to withstand being bent double without showing
+signs of cracking. An important feature are the coloured enamels made
+by the same firm, which run through a whole series of yellows, reds,
+browns, greens and blues, and are hard, durable and tough, and can be
+stoved without changing colour. We extract the following notes on the
+"Application of Stoving Enamels," and fully endorse the recommendations
+offered:--
+
+1. All work should be perfectly free from dirt, grease or oil, before
+application of enamel.
+
+2. Every trace of moisture should be removed before enamelling. This
+can be effected by stoving the work, previous to enamelling, at a light
+heat. Moisture on work will cause enamel to blister and burn.
+
+3. Always when using brushing or dipping enamels, allow the enamel
+to set slightly (i.e., after the surplus paint has dried off) before
+putting in the baking oven. This will prevent uneven stoving and
+eliminate "fat edges," as far as possible.
+
+4. Oven heat should be increased gradually. Never place enamelled work
+into a hot oven at once, but raise the heat by degrees, until the full
+temperature is obtained.
+
+5. Most of our enamels are sent out slightly thick; should an easier
+working material be desired, in the case of colours or blacks, add
+kerosene gradually until the required consistency is obtained.
+Coloured enamel should always be stirred before use, to prevent the
+pigment settling and the light medium rising. If this is not done, the
+appearance of the work will lack body and appear dull and lifeless.
+This applies especially to dipping enamels. To render white stoving
+enamel thinner, add pure turpentine only, stirring well, until a
+uniform consistency is obtained.
+
+6. It is quite possible to over-bake enamels and spoil the colours,
+and likewise under-baked enamels will not be tough enough to withstand
+hard wear. Particular attention should be paid to the directions on the
+package labels, as the various pigments require different temperatures.
+
+7. Stoving enamels, if left in an opened can, tend to thicken
+considerably. For this reason, keep the can closed when not actually
+using the enamel.
+
+For thinning purposes we recommend kerosene. Sp. gr. 810 at 60° F.
+
+8. Ovens should be properly ventilated to allow the proper oxidation
+necessary in baking.
+
+
+ENAMELS.
+
+It has already been pointed out in these pages that the success of
+painting by dipping, spraying, "flowing on," in fact, all other
+mechanical means, depends upon the exact properties of the materials
+used. The same is true with enamels, which are made from a large
+variety of formulæ so as to dry slowly or quickly in the air, or when
+subjected to heat in a stove. The author feels he cannot do better than
+take as a guide to the properties of enamels in general the extremely
+useful handbook published by Wilkinson, Heywood and Clark, under the
+head of "Enamels for every Purpose." This book gives practically
+all the information concerning enamels likely to be required by the
+average user. The products are divided up under different heads, for
+example, one page is headed "Heat Resisting and Slow Drying Enamels."
+These dry fit to handle in 16 hours, and dry bone hard in 24 hours.
+They are made to withstand heat up to 212° F., and for this reason are
+suitable for enamelling iron baths, radiators, etc., particularly so
+as to effectively resist hot water without softening or peeling. They
+are made in a number of beautiful colours. A somewhat similar series
+of enamels is made which dry quicker, viz., in 8 hours fit to handle
+and quite hard in 12 hours. They are useful for touching up radiators,
+stoves, steam pipes, etc., and are made in white and a dozen or more
+colours. The next series which demands our attention are "Dipping Air
+Drying Enamels." They dry in 8 hours and are quite hard in 12 hours.
+They are claimed to produce a finish equal to that obtained by a quick
+air drying brushing enamel with the labour of brushing eliminated. For
+a finish done by immersing the article to be painted these are capital
+enamels, but they require to be used with a stirrer of some sort in the
+tank.
+
+
+HINTS ON STOVING OR BAKING.
+
+The degree of heat to which an article is subjected after being painted
+or japanned will obviously depend upon the kind of coating used. It
+is safe to assert as a general rule that the heat applied must not be
+higher than the particular paint or enamel is made to withstand, for,
+if this be exceeded, it will inevitably result in a loss of elasticity,
+of the protecting film and, hence, its durability.
+
+The following hints are taken from a very useful little pamphlet
+issued by the Moller & Schumann Co., of Chicago, Ill. The degrees of
+temperature given refer to their products, and would doubtless have to
+be modified in some cases, according to the nature of the paint being
+dealt with. They will, however, form a very useful guide.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 107.--J. LUCAS, LTD., AIROSTYLE PLANTS, SHOWING THE
+TWO BAYS OF ONE COMPLETE UNIT.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 108.--AIROSTYLE PLANT INSTALLED FOR MESSRS. THE GAS
+LIGHT AND COKE CO., LTD. GENERAL VIEW.]
+
+
+BLACK JAPAN FINISHES.
+
+One or more coats rubbing finish japan, reduced as thin as possible and
+still cover well.
+
+Bake each coat at 250° to 350° for 3 to 4 hours. Sandpaper each coat
+lightly.
+
+One or more coats finishing black japan reduced to brushing consistency
+(not too thin).
+
+Bake each coat at 300° to 350° for 3 to 4 hours. Sandpaper each coat
+lightly. Rub the last coat with pumice. Apply transfer and striping to
+last coat of japan.
+
+Bake these at 150° for 1 to 2 hours.
+
+One or more coats finishing copal brushed as it comes from the can.
+This protects the transfer and striping and increases the depth of the
+finish.
+
+Bake each coat at 175° for 2 to 3 hours. Rub each coat and polish the
+last coat.
+
+If finishing copal is omitted, leave the last coat of japan in gloss,
+or rub and polish as preferred.
+
+
+STEEL FURNITURE ENAMELS.
+
+One or more coats of first coat enamel, reduced as thin as possible and
+still cover well. When brushed on, use steel preservative for back and
+underside of metal, one coat only, baked at same time as first coat of
+first coat enamel.
+
+Bake each coat at 250° for 3 hours. Sandpaper each coat lightly. One or
+more coats of finishing enamel.
+
+Bake each coat at 250° for 3 hours. Sandpaper all but the last coat.
+Rub the last coat with pumice.
+
+Enamels when rubbed have a different colour than the surface colour;
+this must be taken into account in finishing.
+
+Transfer and striping, if any, should be put over last coat of
+finishing enamel. Bake at 150° for 1 to 2 hours. One or more coats of
+finishing copal.
+
+Bake each coat at 175° for 2 to 3 hours. Rub each coat, and polish the
+last coat.
+
+If finishing copal is omitted, leave the last coat of enamel in gloss,
+or rub and polish as preferred.
+
+The same enamel will bake to different shades at different heats and
+varied lengths of time, so care must be observed to get uniform results.
+
+
+IMITATION WOOD EFFECTS.
+
+One or more coats of ground colour; back of metal one coat steel
+preservative, both reduced as thin as possible, and still cover well.
+If the steel preservative is used by dipping, only one coat of ground
+colour is generally used.
+
+Bake each coat at 250° for 3 hours. Sandpaper each coat of ground
+colour. One coat of graining colour, reduced with turpentine brushed
+on, and grained by hand, or with tools as in general graining. This may
+be done by machine or as transfer work.
+
+Bake the graining colour at 200° for 2 to 3 hours. Sandpaper lightly.
+
+Put on transfer and striping, if any, over last coat of finishing
+enamel.
+
+Bake at 150° for 1 to 2 hours. One or more coats of finishing copal.
+
+Bake each coat at 175° for 2 to 3 hours. Rub each coat. Rub and polish
+the last coat.
+
+In this work, at least one coat of finishing copal is necessary to
+protect the graining colour.
+
+
+WHITE WORK--BEDSTEADS, ETC.
+
+White work cannot be finished with one coat, because no white pigment
+has sufficient covering power.
+
+Two or more coats of first coat white enamel.
+
+Bake each coat at 120° to 150° for 3 to 4 hours. Sandpaper each coat
+lightly.
+
+Two or more coats of finishing white enamel.
+
+Bake each coat at 120° to 150° for 3 to 4 hours. Sandpaper each coat
+lightly except the last coat.
+
+For gloss finish, leave last coat as it is; for eggshell finish, rub
+the last coat.
+
+Finishing copal is rarely used over whites because of colour.
+
+
+TRANSPARENT COLOUR VARNISHES.
+
+These varnishes are used over smooth, clean, bright metal. As the metal
+shows through the varnish, no primer or filler can be used.
+
+One coat only is applied, usually by brushing or by a coating machine;
+however, it may be dipped or sprayed.
+
+Bake at 225° for 3 hours.
+
+The more these varnishes are reduced, the lighter the colour becomes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 109.--AIROSTYLE PLANT INSTALLED FOR THE GAS LIGHT
+AND COKE CO., LTD., SHOWING HOOD IN GREATER DETAIL AND A METER WITH
+MASKS AFFIXED.]
+
+
+SAFE BAKING HEATS OF PIGMENT COLOURS.
+
+All colours are more or less affected by heat. They lose their
+brilliancy, become very much darker and sometimes turn black when baked
+at too high a heat.
+
+Prolonged heat (not too high) kills the elasticity of the enamel. It
+does not affect the colour.
+
+To assure brilliancy of the colour, the following highest heats can be
+used with safety.
+
+  White         160°         4 hours.
+  Pale Blue     175°         2-3  "
+  Pale Gray      "            "   "
+  Pale Green     "            "   "
+  Pale Yellow    "            "   "
+  Gray          200°-225°    4-3 hours
+  Bright Red     "    "       "   "
+  Green          "    "       "   "
+  Yellow         "    "       "   "
+  Dark Blue      "    "       "   "
+  Olive Green   240°-275°    4-3 hours
+  Maroon         "    "       "   "
+  Brown          "    "       "   "
+  Black - any heat up to 600°
+
+COMMENTS ON THE ABOVE.
+
+A well-known English firm, commenting on the above says:--
+
+"Generally speaking, the information given therein is quite correct,
+though it should be remembered that instruction as to stoving
+temperatures which might be quite correct with one maker's materials,
+might be quite wrong with another's.
+
+"We notice they recommend that all black japan finishes should be
+stoved at from 250 to 350 degrees. This is the general practice in
+England, but it also happens that some firms cannot use these high
+temperatures or some goods will not stand it, and black japans have to
+be supplied which can be stoved at temperatures of about 180 or 200
+degrees Fahr. Such qualities cost rather more to produce.
+
+We also notice it is recommended that finishing varnish should be
+stoved at 175 degrees Fahr. Personally, we cannot make any clear
+finishing varnishes which will stand this temperature without
+discoloration, and even if used over black japan, they would discolour
+the lining or the striping thereon.
+
+"The temperatures recommended for coloured enamels are also higher
+than we find satisfactory, and the statement made that the same enamel
+will bake to different shades at different heats, and that therefore a
+uniform temperature is necessary to obtain uniform results, seems to
+confirm our view. In practice we think that uniform results can only
+be obtained by using a lower temperature. If a workman has to watch
+the thermometer in a stove to make sure that his enamels will always
+discolour to the same degree, you can rely upon it that in practice
+accidents would soon happen."
+
+
+DIPPING AND SPRAYING PAINTS COMPARED.
+
+From the above it can readily be seen that it is necessary to exercise
+considerable care in the selection of paints for both of these
+processes. The following opinions on this important subject are given
+by the firms named.
+
+Messrs. John Lucas and Co., Inc., Gibbsboro', N.J., U.S.A., say:--
+
+"It is our experience that a paint which is suitable for dipping
+purposes can also be manipulated for spraying. A paint to be suitable
+for spraying depends largely on two factors, namely:--Gravity, or
+weight per gallon, and consistency, or fluidity. A paint made from
+pigments which are heavy gravity will not produce good results for
+spraying, just as it will not prove satisfactory for dipping, because
+of the tendency for the pigment to settle out. In the case of spraying
+such paints produce an uneven finish. A paint such as is ordinarily
+used for dipping contains sufficient light gravity pigments to make
+possible reduction with the proper vehicles (depending on the desired
+finish) so that by spraying a satisfactory coating can be produced
+so far as finish is concerned. We are not certain whether a coating
+produced by spraying will wear as long as a coating which is applied
+either by dipping or by brushing."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The Chicago White Lead and Oil Co., Chicago, Ill., say:--"There is no
+very intricate or specific formula for this class of material. The
+following rule we think will prove a safe one to follow:--
+
+"Always select a pigment which will stay in suspension, and also hold
+with it the extenders such as very fine silica. The addition of a very
+fine silica to all dipping or spraying paints will add materially
+to the flowing off and levelling of the finish. The pigments should
+be ground very fine in varnish, the grade of varnish depending upon
+the quality of the material to be produced, and reduced to working
+consistency with varnish and turpentine, or naphtha.
+
+"Linseed oil should be avoided in the preparation of dipping paints,
+as the tendency of linseed oil to wrinkle is very objectionable.
+Chemically pure colours, such as green, yellow, para toners, etc., are
+best adapted as colour bases.
+
+"The above constitute the principles upon which we have produced
+extremely satisfactory paints for the purpose named. These, coupled
+with expert workmen, will produce excellent results. The average
+formula for paints can only be considered as a general guide; the
+successful blending, tinting, etc., must be perfected by careful and
+sometimes extended experiments.
+
+"The difference between a dipping paint and spray paint is in the
+consistency. A spray paint must naturally be made thinner, and
+consequently only the most dense of colours should be used and a
+smaller amount of inert pigment as an extender, or leveller. A few
+experiments with a spraying apparatus (of which some inexpensive hand
+sprayers can be obtained) will quickly guide the paint man as to proper
+consistencies to produce best results."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Messrs. John W. Masury and Son, of New York:--"It is practically
+impossible to give full particulars regarding varnishes and enamels
+for spraying and dipping, for the reason there are so many different
+kinds and they vary so much owing to the different character of work
+that a description of them is out of the question. In a general way
+it may be said that dipping coatings must be quick setting, so as to
+avoid runs and sags; it must flow out to a smooth, even surface. The
+drying quality must depend upon the kind of work being done, character
+of surface, subsequent exposure, and whether the coating is to be baked
+or air dried. Dipping varnish and enamels are made for many classes of
+work, such as all kinds of small iron castings and sheet metal work, as
+well as wood work, vehicle wheels, parts of automobiles, and in some
+cases wagon bodies and automobile bodies, these last only in one or two
+shops. These goods include cheap black baking japans, coloured enamels
+of various kinds and clear varnishes.
+
+"In regard to spraying enamels, the 'spray brush' is gradually coming
+into use. These goods must be made to suit the character of the work;
+the body or viscosity of the material, the pressure used in the spray
+and character of the surface to be coated, must all be taken into
+consideration and properly graduated to insure suitable finish.
+
+"In both dipping and spraying work one, two and three coats are
+frequently used, sometimes the under coats are only dipped or sprayed,
+while the finishing coat is applied with brush.
+
+"The equipment for dipping will vary also with the article to be
+dipped; it includes dipping tanks of suitable size and shape, racks
+for hanging articles dipped, with troughs or trays to collect surplus
+material. In dipping it is necessary to wipe off with brush the surplus
+which gathers on lower edge of the article.
+
+"Equipment for spraying requires besides the spraying machine a
+pressure tank with suitable cocks to regulate pressure, which will vary
+from thirty to fifty pounds, a suitable hood provided with fan to draw
+off any fine spray away from the workman, proper racks for taking care
+of the finished work. Work done with spray does not require any wiping
+up."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 110.--AIROSTYLE PLANT INSTALLED FOR THE GAS LIGHT
+AND COKE CO., LTD. OPERATOR AT WORK ON GAS METERS.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+SPRAYING VERSUS BRUSHING.
+
+
+It will be convenient now to consider the length of time involved in
+spraying, as compared with that involved when painters' brushes are
+used.
+
+In dealing with this question, it should be pointed out that while some
+little gain is apparent in the actual time occupied in handling the
+article, which is mostly done on turn-tables when spraying, yet no note
+is taken here of the difference in handling, but only the time occupied
+in covering the article with paint, japan, etc.
+
+We will take, by way of example, a modern gas fire. Very few of these
+are now brushed. It is the consensus of opinion that a gas fire takes
+10 minutes to brush.
+
+To spray one, with a superior finish, takes 30 to 45 seconds, and even
+where some difficulty is experienced in handling, or where it is the
+practice to have the firebricks in place beforehand, so necessitating
+the use of a mask, in no case is a greater time than 1½ to 2 minutes
+taken. A cycle lamp, small size, takes fully 2 minutes to brush
+properly. To spray the same lamp takes 10 seconds. A gas meter, 5 or 10
+light size, takes 7 minutes to brush. To spray one takes 1½ minutes,
+allowing for the time occupied in fixing and removing the somewhat
+elaborate mask employed for covering the indicator glass, badges,
+name-plate, etc.
+
+A motor headlight takes nearly 20 minutes to brush properly, whereas to
+spray one takes but 1½ minutes at the outside.
+
+To brush a cycle frame takes 10 minutes or so (brushing is still done
+for coloured work).
+
+To spray either in japan or colours takes 1 to 1½ minutes, and when it
+is considered that a heavier coat can be applied than is the case when
+brushing or dipping, it will be admitted that such a result compares
+favourably even with dipping.
+
+A 2-seater motor body takes from 25 to 45 minutes to brush properly.
+
+To spray the same body takes only 6 to 8 minutes, and when it is noted
+that a fraction of the rubbing down is necessary in the case of the
+sprayed result, as against the brushed body, it will be granted that an
+enormous gain is to be effected.
+
+Where two or more colours are employed, it is difficult to make
+comparisons as readily, but, generally speaking, it is the practice to
+employ two instruments per operator where the colours are applied one
+immediately after the other, as is the case with many electrical parts,
+and in this case a gain of 4 or 6 to 1 is shown over brushed work.
+
+In some cases it has been found an advantage to spray one coat and
+to brush the other, especially where some difficulty is experienced
+in masking, and, in such cases, the only way to arrive at the most
+satisfactory method is by actual test.
+
+In other cases, such as bronzing, with a celluloid medium, it is
+absolutely impracticable to apply these bronzes, save with the spray,
+unless the old method of varnishing and afterwards dusting on the
+bronze is adopted; but, of course, against spraying, such an obsolete
+method as the latter has absolutely no chance when speed is considered.
+
+Iron piano frame manufacturers have almost universally adopted the
+system of spraying bronze on the frames. Where the old-fashioned method
+is still in use, it is usually because the quantity of frames to be
+dealt with is hardly large enough to justify the outlay required in the
+purchase of a plant.
+
+Another advantage should be mentioned. The special celluloid japans now
+largely used for application by means of compressed air obviate the
+necessity of a considerable amount of rubbing down and papering, etc.,
+which cannot be dispensed with when the liquid is applied by means of a
+brush.
+
+For the purpose of comparison, it may be said that these japans may
+be sprayed upon such articles as buttons, medallions, electrical and
+bedstead fittings, and also on wood brush-handles and furniture, large
+and small, with a gain of 5 to 1 over brushing.
+
+
+OBJECTIONS SOMETIMES URGED AGAINST SPRAYING.
+
+Having explained the advantages of the spraying system, we may now
+consider the objections which are occasionally raised against it.
+
+One of the arguments most frequently used is that the effect thereby
+obtained must be less durable than is the case of the brushed effect.
+
+Why such a theory should be advanced is a little obscure, for,
+theoretically, it is possible to apply, with a properly fitted plant,
+a far more even coat than is the case when brushing, and seeing that
+such paint is applied with the idea of protecting the article against
+rust, or corrosion, or of improving the appearance, the argument is for
+rather than against spraying.
+
+However, to come to the practical side, the evidence is all in favour
+of spraying, for it has been proved by many exhaustive tests by
+independent persons, that, with the same material treated in the same
+manner, _i.e_., either air dried or stoved after spraying or brushing,
+there is no difference in the durability of the japan or paint, and
+that the sprayed result has this advantage, that some little gain in
+time is effected in the period occupied in drying or stoving of the
+paint.
+
+Another objection is sometimes raised to the application of paint by
+means of the spray to rough and uneven surfaces. The argument here is
+that it is impossible to make the paint adhere to the surface, save
+with a good stiff brush.
+
+Such arguments ignore the pressure at which the paint is applied, which
+is usually between 30 and 45 lbs. per square inch, and are mainly based
+on unfortunate experiences with early types of whitewashing machines,
+which have already been pointed out to be entirely unsuited to painting
+problems.
+
+Again here, it may be positively stated that in no case has it been
+found that a less durable finish is obtained with the spray. As a fact,
+an advantage is to be recorded in that on rough surfaces the gain in
+time is enormous, for such surfaces may be spray-painted as rapidly as
+the smoothest surface obtainable, whereas the labour of brushing such
+rough surfaces is very considerable.
+
+Still another objection which may be mentioned is the slightly mottled
+appearance which the sprayed surface sometimes shows when finished--if
+such can be objected to seriously.
+
+This objection may be met by the statement that such a mottled effect
+is only apparent when the paint has not been specially prepared for
+spraying, and is mainly due to the fact that mediums used dry rather
+too rapidly and do not allow the paint (which is, of course, applied
+in minute spots) to flow out.
+
+The remedy is naturally to re-model the paint should the mottled
+appearance be objected to, but most certainly such an effect, if
+not pronounced, is not any worse than brush marks, which are always
+noticeable unless rubbing down has been done.
+
+In passing, it may be stated that most of the large paint and varnish
+manufacturers have experimental plants for producing spraying
+materials, and they are naturally well able to answer any queries which
+may be likely to arise and which may not be adequately dealt with here.
+
+Many firms who consider the question of adopting a spraying plant seem
+to have the idea that while the principle is admirable for many trades,
+yet it cannot be successfully employed in their particular case, and
+one frequently finds the manufacturer of small goods wondering why his
+neighbour opposite, who makes, we will say, motor bodies, does not
+install a plant, although, of course, in his own case the question is
+impossible. Most probably, at the same time the said neighbour has
+precisely similar thoughts, save that he considers the only proper use
+for a plant is in small work.
+
+Occasionally one hears the opinion advanced that primers or fillers
+cannot be applied with a sprayer, or, if so applied, it is at a risk
+that they will either crack or peel off afterwards.
+
+This objection may just as readily be advanced in the case of brushing.
+If trouble of this kind occurs, it is not due to the method of
+spraying, or brushing, so much as to the way in which the paint has
+been used. This statement sounds paradoxical, yet it will be understood
+by practical men. For instance, it is obvious that motor bodies, par
+exemple, must be dealt with by the expert coach-painter as far as the
+methods, number of coats, etc., to be employed are concerned, even
+though the work may be carried out by unskilled labour, and naturally
+whether brushed or sprayed, motor bodies cannot be well done by novices.
+
+To summarise, it may be confidently stated that whatever difficulties
+there may be in the application of paints, enamels, varnishes,
+lacquers, etc., by means of brushes in the ordinary way, these are
+certainly never accentuated but are in most cases considerably lessened
+by the use of an adequate spraying plant.
+
+
+SPRAYING AND DIPPING COMPARED.
+
+In considering those articles which may be dealt with either by dipping
+or spraying, the manufacturer has first to take into account the number
+of coats necessary.
+
+If, for instance, to produce the correct finish on a cycle frame, when
+dipping, needs three coats, and assuming that the same effect may be
+obtained in two when spraying (and this is frequently the case), then
+spraying must be considered to rank favourably with dipping, and if
+allowance be made for the time taken to drain, and the room occupied
+with an elaborate dipping plant, then again spraying scores, for a
+cycle frame can be sprayed in 1 to 1½ minutes, or, say, 40 to 50 frames
+per hour, which is very little, if any, less than can be comfortably
+dealt with by dipping, and, of course, no time is lost in draining.
+
+If, on the other hand, gas is so cheap as to be of little consequence
+whether two or three stovings are necessary, and if some of the work
+can be done with two coats, then the saving effected when spraying
+would not be sufficient to warrant the outlay necessary for a modern
+compressed air plant, _unless_ a fair proportion of coloured work, not
+easily dipped, was required to be dealt with. In this latter case, a
+spraying plant ought to receive very serious consideration.
+
+To take another case. Some gas fires may be dipped, but, owing to their
+weight and to the fact that they are seldom entirely free from grit or
+dust, they are not a satisfactory type for dipping, and we venture to
+state that all the leading gas engineers have dropped the question of
+dipping such work in favour of spraying, although in some cases, for
+gas cookers, the accessories, such as burners, bars, racks etc., are
+dipped.
+
+Such accessories are as readily sprayed, but as only one coat is
+applied, naturally no saving is shown over dipping.
+
+Other goods sprayed or dipped are steel implements, hoes, spades,
+shovels, axes, picks, etc., and in some cases it is an advantage to
+dip where the same colour, black, red, etc., is needed, say, half-way
+up the spade or hoe, but otherwise spraying should be adopted; and, of
+course, in many cases where two colours are employed it is out of the
+question to dip, the only alternative being to spray or brush--spray
+for preference on account of the enormous saving of time over brushing.
+
+Where very small articles are dealt with in bulk and can be so handled
+that trays may be used, then these are undoubtedly better dipped; but
+if various colours are needed it is better to still use the trays, but
+to spray them, as the speed is approximately the same as when dipping.
+
+A tray full of camera parts is sprayed almost instantaneously and with
+a far better finish than if dipped.
+
+To sum up the various arguments advanced on this subject, we may come
+to the following conclusion.
+
+As already intimated, the saving effected by painting by immersion or
+by spraying as compared with brushing is very large indeed, provided
+that a properly equipped plant is employed, and the paint or enamel is
+exactly fitted for the purpose. The question must often arise as to
+whether dipping or spraying is the best and cheapest to employ. The
+answer is that everything will depend upon the nature of the article
+that is to be painted. Speaking generally, painting by immersion
+possesses many advantages, because the actual work of applying the
+paint is done in a few minutes and every part of the article is covered
+with paint at one time. In reaping machinery, iron treads of staircases
+and many other parts of the kind in which there are a large number of
+small parts or depressions, paint dipping cannot be improved upon; on
+the other hand, spraying possesses distinct advantages in dealing with
+many classes of goods which are of such a shape or character that if
+the paint were applied by dipping some accumulation in parts would
+inevitably occur.
+
+A decision on the subject can only be arrived at after a very careful
+study in comparison of the two methods. It will frequently be found
+that, on the whole, the most economical plan to pursue is to dip the
+first and subsequent coats, excepting the last, and to spray this on,
+particularly when it consists of varnish or a viscous liquid. It is
+in this particular that one can draw a wide distinction between the
+two methods. In dipping, the paint must not be very thick, and, as
+previously stated, in designing a paint for the purpose the greatest
+effort is made to produce one which gives a happy medium between
+excessive thickness and the reverse, too thin a coat. Just as soon as
+the peculiarities of the article to be painted necessitate the use of
+all thick paint or enamel it must be considered that dipping is not
+suitable, but that spraying is. The latter may be employed successfully
+with any liquid up to the thickness of tar.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 111.--AIROSTYLE PLANT SHOWING VENTILATOR AND
+PORTION OF HOODS FOR 4 OR 6 HOODS PROVIDING FOR SUBSEQUENT ENLARGEMENT.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 112.--ELEVATION OF SPRAYING PLANT.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 113.--ELEVATION OF SPRAYING PLANT.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 114.--PLAN OF FIGS. 111 AND 112.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+THE ARTISTIC APPLICATION OF PAINT SPRAYING.
+
+
+Some of the smaller and more delicate types of spraying apparatus are
+largely employed for such purposes as the following:--Black and white
+and water-colour drawing, photograph finishing, preparing pictures
+for process blocks, Christmas cards, window tickets, embossed cards
+and small stencil and shaded work on fabrics, wood, glass, metal,
+leather, etc., lithographic work, picture painting in oils, decoration
+of pottery and stencil and shaded work of all kinds. They are also
+employed for producing very charming effects in wallpaper. The writer
+has seen most creditable examples of work done in this way on menu
+cards, lamp shades, and even stencilled ornaments on men's ties.
+
+A few examples of this class of work are given in the accompanying
+illustrations.
+
+It may be pointed out that when decorative work is required on metal
+work or engineering appliances, it can in most cases be done by
+spraying without much difficulty, aided in some cases by stencils
+specially cut for the purpose. Thus the outline of a trade mark, a
+monogram or a coat-of-arms, or heraldic device can be easily sprayed
+and be then finished by hand.
+
+Again, the lining on a motor or carriage can, if care is taken, be done
+by the same means, although it must be said that the result is never
+quite equal to that produced by the hand of a skillful worker.
+
+In relief work, such as ornamental iron, pressed paper, etc., some
+pretty effects may be produced by spraying a different colour to
+that of the ground in such a manner that only one side of the relief
+receives the second colour. This is effected by directing the spray
+from the side. Most readers will be familiar with these effects
+produced on menu cards, concert programmes, etc. The possibilities in
+connection with relief metal work are many.
+
+Another series of effects in which brilliancy of colouring is required
+may be referred to in passing. Sometimes a bright red or a bright green
+is desired for the finish of a particular piece of work. In such cases
+a use of the process known as "colour glazing" is recommended. For
+example, an agricultural implement or any other article which it is
+desired should have a bright crimson finish can be first painted with
+Venetian or Indian red, by either spraying or dipping, and then have
+a coat of crimson lake, which will give an excellent effect. As the
+crimson lake is somewhat fugitive a protecting coat of varnish will be
+required.
+
+All glazing colours may be applied by dipping, because, being
+semi-transparent, they are all very fine, and the coats may be thin,
+but the varnish should be applied by spraying or by hand. It may of
+course, be of a variety suitable for baking or stoving if required.
+
+This process is an alternative to using coloured enamels, and in some
+cases gives better results. Much depends upon the colour and the
+constituents of the enamels. Many of the lakes are very sensitive to a
+high heat, which changes the colour to a dirty brown. In such cases a
+final coat of stoving varnish, if carefully handled, will be safer than
+some grades of enamel.
+
+
+SCUMBLING AND COLOUR GLAZING.
+
+For convenience of reference we include a short list of glazing colours
+taken from Andrew Miller's "Scumbling and Colour Glazing," published
+by the Trade Papers Publishing Co., Ltd., 365, Birkbeck Bank Chambers,
+London, W.C.
+
+
+GLAZING.
+
+The principal colours used for glazing are cadmium, crimson lake,
+Prussian blue, lemon and orange, chrome, yellow, Brunswick green,
+carmine, madder lake, Chinese blue, cobalt, indigo, gamboge, terra
+verte and emerald green. These colours may be used ground in either
+linseed oil, turpentine or water. Some of them are rather expensive,
+but the coat being very thin a little colour goes a long way.
+
+Following is a list of ground colours with the glazing which may be
+used in conjunction with them. They by no means exhaust the range of
+effects, but are given as suggestions:--
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 115.--DESIGNS FOR LAMP SHADES (OPENED OUT) DONE BY
+SPRAYING.]
+
+
+REDS.
+
+APRICOT.--Ground made up with zinc white, middle chrome, and
+vermilionette, glazed with crimson lake.
+
+BEGONIA.--White zinc, vermilionette and Prussian blue, glazed with
+brown madder lake.
+
+CARNATION.--White zinc and vermilion, glazed with crimson madder lake.
+
+CLARET.--Zinc oxide, Venetian red and vermilion glazed with brown
+madder lake; or zinc oxide and ultramarine blue, glazed with carmine.
+
+CORAL.--White zinc, vermilion and lemon chrome, glazed with crimson
+lake.
+
+FLESH COLOUR.--White zinc, yellow ochre and Venetian red, glazed with
+burnt sienna.
+
+GERANIUM.--Bright Derby red and orange chrome, glazed with crimson lake.
+
+LILAC.--White lead, vermilion and ultramarine blue, glazed with brown
+madder lake.
+
+MAGENTA.--Zinc oxide and ultramarine blue, glazed with crimson lake.
+
+PEACH.--Zinc oxide, vermilion and lemon chrome, glazed with cadmium
+(deep); or white lead and Venetian red glazed with carmine.
+
+PLUM.--Zinc white, Indian red, and ultramarine blue, glazed with
+carmine; or white lead and Indian red, glazed with ultramarine blue.
+
+POMEGRANATE.--Zinc white, Venetian red and lemon chrome, glazed with
+burnt sienna.
+
+RUSSET.--Venetian red, orange chrome, lemon chrome, glazed with emerald
+green (thin).
+
+ROSE.--Zinc oxide and vermilion, glazed with crimson lake; or white
+lead and lemon chrome, glazed with carmine.
+
+TERRA-COTTA.--White zinc and Venetian red, glazed with burnt sienna.
+
+
+BLUES.
+
+AZURE BLUE.--Zinc oxide and ultramarine blue, glazed with cobalt.
+
+BRONZE BLUE.--Zinc white and Prussian blue, glazed with black japan.
+
+CHINA BLUE.--Zinc white, cobalt and raw sienna, glazed with indigo.
+
+GOBELIN BLUE.--White, blue black, Prussian blue, glazed with emerald
+green.
+
+MARINE OR SEA BLUE.--Ultramarine, ivory black, glazed with cobalt; or
+white, raw sienna and cobalt, glazed with indigo.
+
+METALLIC BLUE.--Zinc white and cobalt, glazed with emerald green; or
+zinc oxide, Prussian blue, black, glazed with indigo.
+
+MAUVE.--Zinc oxide and cobalt glazed with carmine; or zinc oxide and
+celestial blue glazed with carmine.
+
+PEACOCK BLUE.--Zinc oxide and ultramarine, glazed with emerald green;
+or zinc oxide and Prussian blue, glazed with cobalt.
+
+TURQUOISE.--Zinc white and cobalt, glazed with emerald green.
+
+WEDGWOOD.--Zinc white, Prussian blue, glazed with terra-verte.
+
+
+YELLOWS.
+
+AMBER.--Zinc white, golden ochre, glazed with cadmium (deep); or white
+lead and lemon chrome, glazed with cadmium.
+
+ANTIQUE BRASS.--Zinc white lead, orange chrome, glazed with Vandyke
+brown or black japan.
+
+BRASS.--Yellow ochre, white lead, orange chrome glazed with Vandyke
+brown.
+
+CANARY.--Zinc white and Naples yellow, glazed with emerald green (thin).
+
+CHAMOIS.--Zinc white and middle chrome, glazed with terra-verte.
+
+CITRON.--Zinc white and middle chrome, glazed with brown madder lake
+(thin); or white lead, Venetian red, lemon chrome, glazed with Prussian
+blue.
+
+DAFFODIL.--Zinc white, lemon chrome, glazed with burnt sienna.
+
+GOLD.--Zinc oxide, golden ochre, vermilionette, glazed with raw sienna.
+
+OLD GOLD.--Middle chrome, vermilion, burnt sienna glazed with cobalt
+(thin); or zinc oxide, Oxford ochre, glazed with burnt sienna.
+
+PRIMROSE.--Zinc oxide, lemon chrome, Naples yellow, glazed with emerald
+green.
+
+TOPAZ.--Zinc oxide, raw sienna, lemon chrome, glazed with cadmium
+(deep).
+
+
+GREENS.
+
+APPLE GREEN.--Zinc oxide, Prussian blue, glazed with cadmium (middle);
+or lemon chrome, zinc oxide, celestial blue, glazed with lemon chrome.
+
+DUCK-EGG GREEN.--Zinc oxide, lemon chrome, glazed with Prussian blue.
+
+EAU-DE-NIL.--Zinc oxide, lemon chrome, Prussian blue, glazed with
+emerald green.
+
+GRASS GREEN.--Zinc oxide, Oxford ochre, glazed with cobalt.
+
+IVY GREEN.--Zinc oxide, lemon chrome, burnt sienna, glazed with
+Prussian blue.
+
+MYRTLE GREEN.--Zinc oxide and ultramarine, glazed with emerald green.
+
+OLIVE.--Zinc oxide, lemon chrome, burnt sienna, glazed with emerald
+green.
+
+
+BROWNS.
+
+CHESTNUT.--Yellow ochre and middle chrome, glazed with burnt sienna; or
+burnt sienna and orange chrome, glazed with Vandyke brown.
+
+CHOCOLATE.--Burnt sienna, vermilion, ultramarine glazed with crimson
+lake; or burnt sienna and Indian red, glazed with Vandyke brown.
+
+CHERRY.--Raw sienna and burnt sienna, glazed with raw umber.
+
+NUT BROWN.--Venetian red, lemon chrome, zinc oxide, glazed with burnt
+sienna.
+
+
+GRAYS.
+
+COOL GRAY.--Zinc oxide and ivory black, glazed with Prussian blue.
+
+DOVE.--White, ivory black, Prussian blue, glazed with terra-verte.
+
+FAWN.--White, raw sienna, glazed with raw umber.
+
+HELIOTROPE.--Zinc oxide, vermilionette, glazed with ultramarine.
+
+LAVENDER.--Zinc oxide, ultramarine and carmine, glazed with cobalt.
+
+MOUSE GRAY.--Zinc oxide, Prussian blue, glazed with burnt umber.
+
+PEARL GRAY.--White, Prussian blue, and vermilion, glazed with terra
+verte; or zinc oxide, vermilion, glazed with emerald green.
+
+SILVER GREY.--Zinc oxide, ivory black, glazed with indigo.
+
+OPAL.--Zinc oxide, celestial blue, glazed with burnt sienna.
+
+WARM GRAY.--Zinc oxide, Venetian red and ivory black, glazed with
+Vandyke brown.
+
+WEDGWOOD GRAY.--Zinc oxide, Prussian blue, glazed with terra verte.
+
+NOTE.--The terms "Zinc white," "White zinc" used above, all mean pure
+zinc oxide.
+
+
+SCUMBLING AND GRAINING.
+
+It is sometimes desired to obtain a different effect from plain paint
+or enamel, and to either imitate graining, such as old oak or to give
+mottled effects. Both processes are produced by scumbling, which means
+that the ground and finishing colours are different in hue or in
+intensity, and that portions of the latter are removed to show part of
+the ground. Thus, in imitating oak, the ground might be painted with a
+mixture of zinc oxide and yellow ochre, and the graining colour be made
+of burnt umber and raw sienna. Both coats could be applied either by
+dipping or spraying, but while the latter is wet, portions should be
+removed by combs and by the thumb held over a piece of rag, both marks
+being intended to represent the grain of the wood. In other cases,
+the colours may be applied as before, and the last coat, while wet,
+be wiped away at the edges, or in the case of relief metal work, at
+the highest parts. Again, some excellent effects are obtained by using
+different colours for the two coats, as suggested, and stippling the
+second, while wet.
+
+Space will not permit of a more lengthy reference to this part of the
+subject, but full information can be obtained from Mr. Miller's book
+already mentioned. Something should be said, however, about
+
+
+BRUSH GRAINING,
+
+because it is so very well suited for work of this character, and by
+its use some very pleasant effects may be produced.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 116.--SHOW CARD DONE BY SPRAYING.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 117.--ANOTHER EXAMPLE.]
+
+In this case, a material such as "Matsine," or "Scumblette" is applied
+by spraying over a different coloured ground, and, while wet, this is
+"flogged," or a dry brush is drawn over the surface, removing hair-like
+parts which expose the ground colour beneath. Thus a very dark green
+or even black may be used over a white or nearly white ground, or a
+very dark red over an orange chrome ground. Various metallic effects
+may also be produced on wood or other materials by using silver,
+aluminium, gold or copper leaf, and partly spraying over it a lacquer
+of suitable colour.
+
+The actual graining can be done in the ordinary way by an expert
+artisan, but as a rule this would be too costly when perhaps thousands
+of iron or other goods are to be turned out in a short time. In such
+a case transfer graining paper is sometimes employed, but this also
+is somewhat costly. Bellamy's graining rollers are found to be very
+economical. This tool consists of a cylinder on the outside of which
+is engraved the grain of various woods, such as oak, mahogany, maple,
+satin wood, birch, walnut and ash. All that is necessary in working
+it, is to pass the roller over the surface immediately after the
+graining colour has been applied, when it will be found to remove some
+of the paint and give the appearance of graining. This appearance is
+considerably enhanced if the parts are softened after the roller is
+used by going over the work with a badger softener.
+
+
+MARBLE GROUNDS.
+
+For the convenience of those who are called upon to imitate marble for
+any class of work, the following information is given as to the colours
+to be employed for the ground colours.
+
+WHITE.--A dead white ground should be used mixed to dry hard and smooth.
+
+SIENNA.--White blended with a mixture of white and raw sienna in
+irregular patches.
+
+PINK MARBLE.--The ground may be the same as that used for sienna, but a
+little Venetian red should be added to give it a pinkish cast.
+
+ALABASTER.--Light cream ground made by adding a little middle chrome
+and vermilion to white.
+
+ROUGE GROTTE.--This is a very beautiful marble which contains a large
+number of different colours. The ground may be either white or Venetian
+red, mixed with a little chrome yellow.
+
+GRANITE.--There are several varieties of granite, the principal being
+termed "grey" and "red" respectively. To mix the former ground, add
+a little black and Prussian blue with just a touch of Indian red to
+white. The grounds for red granites can be produced by mixing Venetian
+red and white.
+
+ROUGE ROYAL.--A mixture of Indian red, Venetian red and vegetable
+black, with a little white, will make the correct colour for the ground
+of this beautiful marble. It is very necessary that the ground be
+quite "solid," and to produce this, two, or even three, coats may be
+necessary.
+
+EGYPTIAN GREEN.--The ground should be a dead black.
+
+VERD ANTIQUE.--The same as above.
+
+DEVONSHIRE MARBLE.--Venetian red and ochre with a little white to
+produce a light terra-cotta ground.
+
+BLACK AND GOLD.--A dead black ground should be used.
+
+DOVE.--In this case a white ground without gloss may be employed, but
+a grey is better, such as that produced by tinting white with Prussian
+blue, a little black and a very little Indian red.
+
+GREY.--The same as "dove."
+
+ST. ANNE'S--A dead black ground should be used.
+
+
+GRAINING GROUNDS.
+
+POLLARD OAK.--The ground colour is prepared with a mixture of Oxford
+ochre, Venetian red and white lead in proportions, to form a rich buff;
+or white lead, chrome yellow and vermilion may be used.
+
+KNOTTED OR ROOT OF OAK.--This ground is exactly the same as the above.
+
+BIRCH.--The ground is prepared with white lead, a little Oxford ochre
+and a little Venetian red, of which latter, however, only sufficient
+must be used to make a very light buff colour.
+
+MAHOGANY.--The ground colour is prepared with the best Venetian
+red, yellow ochre and a little white lead (or orange chrome may be
+substituted for the yellow ochre). If it is desired to increase the
+brilliancy of the colour, substitute vermilion for Indian red. If a
+light ground is required use the same colours as above, adding more
+white. The addition of a little vermilion will increase the richness of
+the colour.
+
+ROSEWOOD.--The ground colour is mixed in the same manner as above
+described for mahogany, but a little burnt Turkey umber and Victoria
+lake is added.
+
+SATINWOOD.--A little Oxford ochre added to white lead gives the proper
+ground for this wood.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 118.--SHOWING THE BEAUTIFUL SHADED EFFECTS WHICH
+MAY BE PRODUCED BY SPRAYING (STRONG).]
+
+WALNUT.--The ground is prepared with white lead, Venetian red and
+Oxford ochre, with a small quantity of burnt Turkey umber, but not so
+much as to destroy the appearance of the other colours and make them
+poor. Neither red nor yellow should be in excess, but all should
+be toned down with the umber. Although this colour may look dull when
+mixed, it is only a relative dullness, and it will shine out brightly
+enough when grained and glazed.
+
+BIRD'S EYE MAPLE.--This ground may be prepared with either white lead
+and a little Oxford ochre, Venetian red or vermilion, but care must be
+taken not to use too much.
+
+SATINWOOD.--The ground should be a yellowish white, obtained by adding
+yellow ochre to white lead.
+
+NOTE.--Those who desire to obtain copies of marbles and woods printed
+in colour, from which to copy, should obtain either or all of the
+following books:--"The Art of Graining and Marbling," by James Petrie.
+Price 25s. The Trade Papers Publishing Co., Ltd., 365, Birkbeck
+Bank Chambers, High Holborn, London, W.C.; "The Art of Graining,"
+by W. Sutherland. Price 25s. A. M. Sutherland, 26, Oxford Road,
+Chorlton-on-Medlock, Manchester; "Graining," by A. R. Van der Burg,
+26s., Crosby Lockwood and Co., Stationers' Hall Court, London, E.C.
+
+In Fig. 119 is given an illustration of a fruit dish, the ornamentation
+of which has been done by spraying. In Fig. 120 is shown a portion of a
+table cover done by the "Airostyle" on a fine art fabric.
+
+There is, of course, no limit to the number of artistic designs which
+may be produced by applying the paint by compressed air; indeed, the
+air brush or spraying machine for this class of work produces results
+which cannot be obtained in any other way. Several of the engravings
+illustrate forms of advertising cards all done by spraying, while
+Fig. 118 illustrates very well indeed the different effects in form
+which may be produced by the spray properly used, such as the raised
+panels, the sphere in the middle and the convex and concave portions
+of cylinder. These examples are reproduced, with full acknowledgments,
+from the "Book of Designs" by Chas. J. Strong, of the Detroit School of
+Lettering, Detroit, Mich., U.S.A. The price of this book is £1 ($5.00),
+and it contains an immense number of useful designs suitable for the
+use of sign painters, show card writers and commercial artists. It may
+be had in London from the office of the "Decorator," 365, Birkbeck Bank
+Chambers, London, W.C.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+THE "FLOWING-ON" SYSTEM.
+
+
+The very latest method of finishing automobiles which have steel bodies
+is that at present in use by the Ford Motor Co., Ltd., at Trafford
+Park, Manchester, and elsewhere. The method is a remarkable one not
+only because of the great saving of time it effects, but by reason
+of the fact that the "life" of the painted or enamelled surface is
+prolonged by the improved method.
+
+Stated briefly, the process consists in coating the body with
+blue-black enamel by means of gravity only; that is to say, the enamel
+is placed in an elevated tank and discharged on to the work through a
+flexible pipe and slotted nozzle opened by a lever which is actuated by
+the thumb of the operator. Thus no spraying is required, while dipping
+is out of the question, as only the outside of the body is required to
+be painted.
+
+Each coat takes two minutes to apply to the whole surface of a
+four-seated Ford motor body! An achievement which justifies our use of
+the word "remarkable."
+
+But it will be convenient to explain how the present method came into
+use. Until a few months ago the several undercoats were sprayed on the
+work in the ordinary manner, but the finishing coat of varnish was
+flowed on by the gravity apparatus now referred to. Then it was thought
+that the undercoats might be applied by the same method, and some
+careful experiments having been made, it was found that by dispensing
+with the spraying and flowing on the coats a much more satisfactory
+result was obtained. As the new method caused more paint to adhere to
+the work than would be put on by the spray under ordinary conditions,
+one coat, it was found, could be dispensed with altogether. There
+was also less rubbing down required because of the very smooth coat
+obtained by flowing on, and, above all, the time of applying the coat
+was reduced to the extraordinarily short time of two minutes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 119.--A CHINA FRUIT DISH DECORATED WITH THE
+AIROSTYLE.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 120.--TABLE COVER DECORATED WITH THE AIROSTYLE.]
+
+The apparatus employed for this work is of the simplest character.
+The car body is placed upon a platform mounted upon wheels. This is
+made of exactly the right size to fit between a V-shaped metal trough
+which surrounds three sides of the body and is intended to receive the
+superfluous paint, a considerable quantity of which drips into it from
+the body as the enamel is applied. This trough, a sketch of which is
+shown in Fig. 121, is slightly inclined so that the paint which drips
+off all runs to one point, where it passes through a gauze covered
+orifice, descends to a small tank beneath, whence it is pumped up to
+the elevated tank above and is then ready to be used again.
+
+This elevated tank is cylindrical and holds, perhaps, 25 or 30 gallons.
+It is stationed overhead some 12 or 15 feet high. From this tank
+descends a flexible metal pipe or hose ending in a slotted nozzle,
+opened by a lever, which is operated by the thumb of the workman and is
+closed by a spring. This completes this simple though very effective
+apparatus.
+
+The body of the car is made of stamped steel which has already received
+a protective coat of paint of a dull red colour, the body being placed
+upon the platform or bogie and being placed in position with the
+V-shaped trough surrounding it on three sides. The first or undercoat
+is given by rapidly passing the slotted end of the lever valve over
+the surface, upon which the paint literally pours out. The top part
+receives attention first and the paint runs down over the surface,
+which it covers completely, excepting perhaps here and there, where the
+discharge of paint is directed, and the whole of the outer surface of
+the car is, as already stated, completely covered in two minutes. This
+coat dries semi-flat.
+
+In order that the discharge pipe may be kept nearly vertical and be
+moved around the car as the different sides are dealt with it is
+provided, at its upper end close to the point where it joins the tank,
+with a brass swivel union and a horizontal arm which swings around. A
+stop-cock is also provided.
+
+The undercoat having been applied the body is allowed to rest for a
+few minutes until the dripping ceases. It is then wheeled on the bogie
+across the room to an oven, in which it remains for one hour at a
+temperature of 160° F. This heat is found to be sufficient to bake the
+paint but is not high enough to injure the woodwork which, of course,
+forms part of the body. At the expiration of the hour a little stopping
+of inequalities of the surface is usually found necessary, but in any
+case the surface is lightly rubbed down with fine glass paper.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 121.--SKETCH OF TROUGH TANK USED IN FLOWING ON
+PAINT.]
+
+The body is now brought underneath a second tank with the V-shaped
+surrounding trough exactly as before described, and here it receives
+another coat of enamel or paint, which in this case has a little more
+body and gloss. After stoving as before and at the same temperature the
+surface is carefully but rapidly rubbed down with powdered pumice stone
+and water applied by means of felt pads.
+
+There are a series of four troughs and tanks in all, corresponding
+in number with the coats to be applied. From the third one the body
+receives a third coat, is then baked or stoved, rubbed down with
+powdered pumice and water, thoroughly cleaned off, and from the fourth
+tank receives the final coat of varnish which completes the operation.
+This coat of varnish is not stoved but is air-dried. The finish is a
+blue-black picked out with very dark blue, and it is free from any
+signs of runs or drips; in fact, no one could tell how the application
+was made. As already remarked, the coats of paint are somewhat fuller
+than would be the case if they were applied by spraying, and the
+durability is thereby increased.
+
+The output from this department is 70 cars a day, a number which would
+be practically impossible if the work were not so splendidly systemised.
+
+It should be observed that the varnish is applied in a separate room
+from that used for the application of colour. This is done in order to
+exclude dust, and also to maintain the temperature at 90° F.
+
+In considering the essential points of this method of finishing motor
+bodies, it is clear that the system might be successfully applied in
+very many other industries to a great variety of goods. The apparatus
+is so simple in character that no engineer would have the least
+difficulty in designing a plant suitable for any particular requirement.
+
+It must be admitted that the crux of the whole situation is the kind
+of paint or enamel used. It must be sufficiently viscid to hold on to
+the surface to which it is applied, sufficiently liquid to run off
+freely without leaving runs, tears or "fat edges." And, above all, it
+must flow out uniformly. All these conditions, however, apply also to
+a dipping plant, and only require careful consideration on the part of
+the paint manufacturer who has made a special study of the subject.
+The varnish applied by this method must also be of a special character
+so that it may flow out nicely without yielding too thick a coat,
+which would be likely to lead to blemishes. Ordinary paint, enamel or
+varnish, then, will not answer for this class of work, but special
+products must be employed, and when these are obtained, the rest is
+comparatively easy.
+
+
+THE FLOCO PROCESS.
+
+This process is in some respects similar to that above mentioned, the
+difference being that it is intended principally for the application of
+varnish by flowing over a painted surface done by spray. The essential
+difference in the apparatus is that the varnish, instead of being
+discharged by gravity, is pumped up from a tank. It is largely used in
+America, and is manufactured by the DeVilbiss Manufacturing Company,
+Toledo, Ohio, U.S.A. It is particularly suitable for automobile bodies
+and large surfaces generally.
+
+The process flows such materials as varnishes, enamels and japans, when
+it is impracticable to spray them. It has superseded the inadequate,
+inefficient flowing systems used in the past, and is also replacing
+brush and dip methods as practised in many instances.
+
+The equipment of the process comprises a 15-gallon tank, drawn from one
+sheet of steel and heavily tinned; 1-6 H.P. motor, housed in, driving a
+rotary pump; regulator; nozzle; electric fittings; flexible fluid hose,
+and galvanized iron drain trough on rack. All parts, excepting nozzle,
+hose and trough, are mounted on a castered truck for moving about. The
+truck is equipped with a rack around which to wind the hose when not in
+use, and a holder for the nozzle.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 122.--THE "FLOCO" SYSTEM OF PAINTING MOTOR BODIES.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 123.--SHOW CARD DONE BY SPRAYING (STRONG).]
+
+The finishing material, such as varnish, to be used is pumped from the
+bottom of the tank by the electric motor-driven pump, in a continuous
+stream, through the flexible hose, to the nozzle. The flow of material
+is adjusted by the regulator, by means of which a varying amount is
+not put into use and returned to the tank. In this way the flow from
+the nozzle is instantly adaptable to any class of work and viscosity of
+fluid without changing the speed of the motor.
+
+When the nozzle is closed the material pumped is all forced back into
+the tank through the overflow. This, serves to agitate the material; in
+fact, is the only agitation necessary with material containing pigment,
+such as colour varnish.
+
+The body to be flowed is--as shown in Fig. 122--placed over the drain
+trough. The operator first applies the material all along the top,
+then flows it copiously over the upper half of the surface. Sufficient
+material is thus, applied to insure a perfect flow to the bottom. The
+job is allowed to drain into the trough which carries the material back
+to the tank--here it is strained and, without the slightest waste, used
+again.
+
+Only enough material is put into the tank to take care of the work at
+hand, or to handle the day's production. The maximum amount of material
+exposed is 15 gallons--the tank's capacity. The nozzle will operate
+satisfactorily on a gallon of material.
+
+The tank, motor, pump and regulator are--as previously stated--mounted
+on a truck fitted with casters, permitting of these parts being moved
+about with the greatest of ease. Another appreciable advantage of this
+style of arrangement is that an extra truck can be kept on hand and put
+into immediate use in case of accident.
+
+The cleaning of the parts is simple. The nozzle of the machine is
+detached and all of the material pumped out of the tank, after which a
+small quantity of naphtha--or some other similar solvent--is put into
+the tank and pumped through the machine.
+
+As the motor is only 1-6 H.P., the consumption of power is low. The
+motor is made for all kinds of current, and can be attached to any
+light socket.
+
+It may be observed that the pressure tank used in this equipment
+permits of the use of heavier or more viscid enamels and paints than
+would be possible where gravity was depended upon. In view, however,
+of the success which has been met with in the case of the Ford Motor
+Company, there appears to be no reason why the Floco process should not
+be used for some of the undercoats, as well as for the finishing.
+
+The following article by M. C. Hillick appeared in "The Painters'
+Magazine," of New York, and will doubtless be read with interest:--
+
+The Willys-Overland automobile factory has recently been installed with
+sixteen large enamelling furnaces or ovens having a volume of 48,000
+cubic feet and a capacity of 140 tons of enamelled product every ten
+hours. These ovens have been electrified and they require approximately
+5,500 horse-power. For some months past the Overland Company has been
+testing one of these electrically-heated ovens, and the results have,
+in every way, measured up to expectations. Formerly the company, in
+common with practically all other companies using enamelling or baking
+ovens, employed gas as the treating medium. The ovens now electrified
+are almost entirely automatic in operation. When the oven is loaded the
+closing of its doors automatically throws a switch which turns on the
+current. A pyrometer which can be adjusted to operate at any desired
+temperature rings a bell when the proper degree of heat is reached,
+thus notifying the attendant, and also automatically turning off the
+current. The electrically heated oven does away with all flue gases
+and with their attendant dirt and spots. It also reduces the required
+volume of ventilation to the minimum, thereby eliminating air currents
+and the dust which, in greater or less degree, usually accompany them.
+The electrification of the ovens does away with explosions, banishes
+danger from fire, and gives an assured "safety first" to the workmen.
+The heat is said to be non-oxidizing and, therefore, cannot scald the
+operator. The working quarters are rendered comfortable and a higher
+grade of work is made possible.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 124.--SHOW CARD DONE BY SPRAYING (STRONG).]
+
+While for the custom shop painter it is a long way to such equipment,
+the fact that these facilities are gradually being acquired leads
+to the assumption that, in the course of a few years at most, some
+portion of the work coming to the shop for painting repairs will be
+handled through the baking oven. In connection with this subject of
+enamelling and oven baking, the various costs of paint and varnish,
+it is to be noted that the excessive temperature employed in baking
+is being criticised as detrimental to the finish. Recent tests are
+said to have been made which show that baking paint and varnish at the
+maximum temperature shortens the life of the finish. Mr. J. W. Lawrie,
+of the Chemical Works of Milwaukee, Wis., has stated that, as a rule,
+the lower the temperature and the longer the time the paint and
+varnish is baked, the finer the appearance, service and durability of
+the finish and the greater its capacity for resisting moisture. The
+finish will have more elasticity and deeper lustre. Mr. Lawrie is of
+the opinion that twelve hours at 180 degrees are better than five hours
+at 280 degrees.
+
+In some motor car shops, within the past two years, by the use of
+baking ovens cars were painted and finished, all coats being baked, and
+made ready for service in three days. However, we are not commending or
+recommending this practice. For the custom shop painter, especially,
+it is entirely unsuited. Nor would we recommend the baking process
+for surfaces other than metal. The same disadvantages marshalled in
+opposition to baking paint and varnish upon wood surfaces fifteen
+years ago, or longer, still remain in evidence. For aluminium, sheet
+steel or other metal panels or metal surfaces in general, the baking
+process offers an opportunity for finishing work under conditions more
+uniform than any which may be expected to prevail outside the oven.
+An other advantage is noted in favour of oven baking. It permits the
+use of more elastic materials without the aid of artificial oxidizing
+agents. As compared to the present air-drying system, the oven baking
+method, operated upon a conservative basis, permits the car to be
+thoroughly painted and finished in six or eight days. The use of more
+elastic materials--paints, colours and varnishes--has been mentioned as
+a part of the oven baking method. Upon steel surfaces this is perhaps
+more necessary than upon aluminium, and possibly iron. Steel has a
+linear expansion double that of wood. As a matter of fact, experts in
+these matters employed by the Pennsylvania Railroad assert that the
+contraction and expansion of steel surfaces is much more pronounced
+than the same action in wood. Materials of greater elasticity as
+compared to those used in natural air-drying practice are urged.
+
+Primers and surfacers, and the general class of foundation coats, will
+require an average of three hours' baking at 200 degrees F. While some
+colours require higher degrees of heat than others, 170 degrees F.
+baked for, say, six hours will dry the average colour, excluding white.
+The latter pigment, baked at a temperature varying from 85 to 110
+degrees F., will dry properly in the course of a few hours, and retain
+its natural purity of colour, whereas at a higher degree of heat the
+white takes on an objectionable yellowish cast. Black, at the opposite
+end of the colour pole, can be safely baked for six hours, at something
+like 200 degrees F. Finishing varnishes, taking them as they run, will
+bake at from 110 to 150 degrees F. for five or six hours. In all baking
+practice the personal equation figures largely. Reason, good judgment,
+the capacity for taking pains--all these are items of importance.
+
+Oven baking methods are being successfully employed in some of the
+large city repainting establishments. A firm near New York, for
+example, using what is known as the radio process, paints and finishes
+a car in three days. The cleaning of the cars is accomplished by the
+use of a steam jet, a treatment which is said to cut away the grease
+like magic. All surface defects following the cleaning of the car are
+touched up and faced over with the necessary filling and surfacing
+materials. Then these patched-up parts are rubbed down with water and
+rubbing brick, and the general surface of the car is lightly rubbed
+with pulverized pumice stone and water. All colour, and varnish
+colour, coats are applied with a paint atomizer. This atomizer is
+a pistol-shaped device operated with a trigger, the material being
+sprayed from the muzzle of the barrel. The varnish colour is baked for
+three hours at a temperature of from 110 to 120 degrees. From 90 to
+100 degrees of humidity are provided for the oven, and by means of an
+exhaust fan a fresh supply of air is furnished every three minutes.
+In the oven where the varnish colour coats are baked a thermostat is
+installed, which regulates the temperature. All the air entering the
+oven is washed and purified by running it through a water tank before
+it enters the oven. This water-washed air is forced into the oven by a
+fan blower, and contact with a radiator superheats it.
+
+In practice, the high humidity here referred to, and the water-washed
+air, are mediums which serve to keep the outer surface of the drying
+coat moist while the inner surface is drying, in this manner furnishing
+in due time a paint film dried uniformly from top to bottom.
+
+The finishing varnish is dried in an oven having a maintained
+temperature of from 90 to 100 degrees, the humidity being regulated
+at from 60 to 70 percent. This humidity is likewise found to assist a
+varnish film to dry uniformly throughout.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 125.--DESIGN FOR SHOW CARD (STRONG).]
+
+The treatment of the car chassis in the establishment here referred to
+is quite similar to that given the body of the car. A steam treated
+potash bath is provided into which fenders and other removed parts
+are immersed, removing all grease and foreign substances, and even the
+paint, from such parts. These parts, after cleaning, are then dropped
+into tanks containing the required paints, varnish colour, etc., after
+which they are taken out and drained and then consigned to an oven
+maintained at a uniform degree of heat.
+
+Other establishments having ovens installed are employing methods
+designed to secure equally quick results without sacrificing any
+measure of durability or appearance.
+
+In the absence of ovens, not a few car and carriage painters are
+practising the so-called hot-air method as far as possible. Successful
+results are reported in many instances, the work being turned out
+quicker, with an increase in lustre advised in some cases. This method
+is very simple and requires no previous experience or special training.
+Anyone capable of providing the necessary degree of heat--85 to 95
+degrees F.--and maintaining it for eight or ten consecutive hours, can
+have the benefit, in full measure, of the hot-air system. Coats of
+paint, colour, varnish colour and varnish dry rapidly in a temperature
+at the above degree, where the ventilation is good and a fair volume of
+pure, fresh air can be constantly brought into the drying room.
+
+
+NOTES ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF STOVES.
+
+The construction of stoves for use in connection with enamelling
+and baking japans generally does not properly form part of this
+treatise, but a few remarks on the subject may be of service. It is
+to be regretted that in only too many cases the stoves employed are
+very inadequate. In some cases they are heated by gas, and the jets
+cause a certain amount of discoloration. This is objectionable even
+when the work is black, but if it is coloured it may lead to serious
+disadvantages. In Fig. 126 is shown a sketch of what is known as the
+"Perkins System of Heating." It is largely adopted in many trades for
+enamelling cycle frames and parts, lamps and motor horns, etc. It is
+this system which is used by Messrs. Lucas, Limited, of Birmingham, a
+description of whose plant is given elsewhere. In the "Perkins" system
+water is heated under pressure, and the comparatively high temperatures
+required for drying and other similar purposes are obtained in a simple
+but efficient manner.
+
+The apparatus consists of circulations of hydraulic tubing, certain
+proportions of which are formed into a coil and placed in a furnace
+situated in any convenient position outside and below the drying
+chamber. The apparatus is hermetically sealed and self-contained,
+the heating water circulating from the furnace through the heating
+pipes or coils and back again to the furnace without any loss through
+evaporation. No pumps or moving parts of any description are required,
+so that unskilled attention only is needed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 126.--THE PERKINS STOVE.]
+
+The illustration shows a simple application of the apparatus, which is
+the type often employed for cycle and motor parts, bedstead frames,
+electric apparatus parts, etc. The arrangement of the pipes, of course,
+depends upon the class of work which has to be dealt with.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 127.--A TYPICAL GOODYEAR STOVE.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 128.--DIPPING TROUGH.]
+
+In Fig. 127 is shown a type of stove manufactured by Goodyear and Sons,
+Churchfield Works, Dudley. The construction is a great improvement
+on the old-fashioned type of enamelling stoves, which through
+faulty design were responsible for great loss through radiation and
+combustion. The work done in such stoves is necessarily inferior. The
+firm named are among those from whom may be purchased up-to-date stoves
+heated by gas (ordinary lighting or producer), steam, superheated
+water, and oil, either single, double, or treble cased suitable for
+purposes which a few years back were hardly dreamt of, and which may be
+said to range from hairpins to bedsteads, and include munitions of war,
+such as stoves for shell drying and varnishing. A very important part
+of the process of stoving is the rack and trolley system of transport
+in and out of the stove, which in effect means that no article is too
+heavy for such process. In the production of stoves for enamelling
+certain firms have made a special study of the requirements, including
+those above mentioned.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 129.--SHOW OR MENU CARD (STRONG).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 130.--EXAMPLE OF METAL DECORATION--LID OF COAL BOX
+DONE WITH AIROSTYLE.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+LIME AND WHITEWASH SPRAYERS.
+
+
+As explained in previous chapters, this type of machine is of an
+entirely different and much simpler construction than those used for
+spraying oil paint, varnish, etc. Yet such apparatus is used to a very
+considerable extent in factories of all kinds as well as for spraying
+insecticides on fruit trees and other purposes of the agriculturist. By
+the Factory and Workshop Act of 1901 it is provided that "all walls and
+ceilings must be limewashed at least every fourteen months, and painted
+and varnished work must be washed with hot water and soap at the same
+periods. Special exceptions to this rule may be made by Special Order."
+Such an order was made in 1911, which was to the effect that "when
+at least two coats of washable water paint or sanitary distemper is
+used instead of limewhite the period for renewing with one coat of
+such paint shall be three years. The paint, however, must be washed at
+least once in every three months. It is provided in this Order that
+"If it appears to an inspector that any part of a factory to which
+the exception applies is not in a cleanly state, he may, by a written
+notice, require the occupier to limewash, wash or paint the same; and
+in the event of the occupier failing to comply with such requisition
+within two months from the date of the notice, the special exception
+shall cease to apply to such part of the factory. In this Order a
+washable water paint means a washable paint which, when finished for
+use contains:--(i) at least half its weight of solid pigment containing
+not less than twenty-five parts by weight of zinc sulphide as zinc
+white (lithopone) in each hundred parts by weight of solid pigment and
+(ii) at least ten parts by weight of oil and varnish to each hundred
+parts by weight of solid pigment."
+
+It should be stated that the type of machine now under consideration
+may be used for the application of such paint or distemper provided
+that it is rendered sufficiently thin by the addition of water. If very
+thick compressed air will be required as in the case of ordinary oil
+paint.
+
+An excellent machine for applying limewash, whitewash or distemper is
+made by Messrs A. C. Wells and Co., Engineers, London and Manchester.
+It is used to a very large extent by engineers and in factories,
+breweries, car sheds, cattle docks, etc. Builders, decorators,
+corporations, etc. also find it of great service for special work.
+The manufacturers state that over 5,000 of these machines have been
+sold, and that they are fast taking the place of the old method of
+limewashing with the brush. The speed with which lime, whiting or cold
+water paint can be applied is from 10 to 20 square yards per minute.
+A very distinct advantage of the machine over brushes is that when an
+irregular surface, such as a brick wall, the joints of which are not by
+any means perfect, is being dealt with, the lime or distemper is forced
+in by the spray into the interstices which could not be reached by
+the brush. These machines consist essentially of a pump with spraying
+nozzle which is made in various forms, the simplest of which is that
+shown in Fig. 131.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 131.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 132.]
+
+This machine is designed to stand rough usage. The pump is simple
+and easily removable for repairs, and the spraying nozzle, which is
+naturally an important feature, can be regulated to any degree of
+fineness. A patent filter is provided which prevents clogging. It will
+be observed by the illustration that wheels are provided which enable
+the machine to be easily removed from one place to another. A 15 ft.
+armoured delivery hose and 5 ft. spraying pole for reaching the upper
+portion of a surface to be sprayed is provided. The capacity is 8
+gallons. The machine shown in Fig. 132 is somewhat smaller and cheaper.
+It contains 6 gallons.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 133.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 134.]
+
+Fig. 133 shows a machine with a double spraying nozzle and valve
+arrangement. This has several advantages over the single pattern; the
+speed is almost double, and one jet can be put out of action if desired
+when working in cramped places. It is a powerful machine with 12 gallon
+tank and strong lever pump. It is supplied with large wheels and is
+easily moved about, and is eminently suitable for anyone having a large
+quantity of work to do quickly.
+
+In dealing with very high buildings either the single or double nozzle
+is attached to a bamboo pole, as shown in Fig. 134.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 135.--THE BROWN SPRAYER WITH EXTENSION ROD.]
+
+In Fig. 135 is shown an excellent machine suitable for spraying
+whitewash, distempers and disinfectants. It is manufactured by the E.
+C. Brown Co., of Rochester, N.Y. The pump is of a simple but effective
+character; the valves are located so that they can be opened instantly
+and are fitted with springs so that the operator can pump while the
+machine is pointed in a downward direction. The strainer has five
+inches of screen surface and the screen can be instantly removed and
+cleaned. The pump barrel projects beyond the hand and serves as an
+extension rod. The nozzle is guaranteed not to clog, and is fitted
+with Messrs. Brown's patented screen arrangement. It throws four
+different kinds of spray, one a solid stream, the second a broad
+carrying spray, the third a long driving spray for ceilings and tops
+of walls, and the fourth a fine spray which may occasionally become of
+service for spraying work near at hand.
+
+There are several other makes of machines suitable for whitewash
+spraying, among them one manufactured by Merryweather and Co.,
+Greenwich Road, S.E., The Bean Spray Pump Co., Los Angeles, California,
+U.S.A., and the Four Oaks Spraying Machine Co., Sutton Coldfield,
+Birmingham. The last named is particularly well adapted for spraying
+insecticides upon fruit and other trees.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 136.--THE MERRYWEATHER LIMEWHITE SPRAYER.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 137.--A TUMBLING BARREL.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 138.--ANOTHER FORM.]
+
+
+THE TUMBLING BARREL PROCESS.
+
+This process of japanning small castings is very successful in those
+cases where the parts are small and intricate in construction, and,
+therefore, cannot either be dipped or sprayed, excepting with some
+difficulty. The great advantage of tumbling is that such work is done
+better and faster than by dipping. A machine, of which two examples
+are shown in Figs. 137 and 138, is used in this process. Inside this
+machine are placed a number of shot or steel balls of different sizes.
+The articles to be treated are then introduced in the japan and the
+machine is started at varying degrees of speed. The shot carries the
+japan over the various parts and into the interstices. As different
+objects and materials require different speeds, some work will be
+started slowly and the speed increased to get the desired finish.
+The objects are then dumped out on to wire screens or baskets, and
+shaken, when the steel balls and shot fall through the mesh, leaving
+the articles that have been japanned behind. The baskets are then hung
+in baking ovens, while the balls are washed in gasoline ready for use.
+The machines mentioned above are manufactured by the Baird Machine Co.,
+Bridgeport, Connecticut, U.S.A. The English agents are R. Cruickshank,
+Ltd., Camden Street, Birmingham.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+A PORTABLE PAINT SPRAYER FOR RAILWAY AND OTHER WORK.
+
+
+Mr. M. E. McDonnell, Engineer of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company,
+Altoona, Pa., U.S.A., very kindly furnishes the author with the
+drawings which will be found on the following pages. He says:--The
+Company does very little painting by dipping. The spray process is,
+however, used very extensively, a large percentage of our freight
+cars having been painted by this method for years. The method is very
+satisfactory and also economical. The saving in the cost of labour in
+the spraying method is approximately 60 per cent. In some cases the
+saving is greater than this. In one of our largest shops the cost of
+application per unit for a given number of square feet is thirty-eight
+and nine-tenth cents with the spray as compared with one dollar with
+brush. It might be said that more paint is applied per coating when the
+brush method is used. A given surface which would require 10 gallons of
+paint for one coat by the brush method would require approximately 7
+gallons by the spray method.
+
+When painting a freight car a more uniform coating is obtained when
+the brush is used, due to the fact that the paint can be brushed out
+behind ladders and other things which would obstruct spraying, while in
+the application of the paint with a sprayer it is necessary to apply
+a thicker coating at certain points in order to reach other points
+which are obstructed, and which must, therefore, be approached from a
+side angle. The spray however, reaches certain crevices which cannot
+be reached with the brush, which is in some cases advantageous with
+the painting of freight equipment cars. Our Company would not consider
+returning to the brush method of painting.
+
+The machines which we use for spraying the paint are made in the
+Company shops.
+
+The following is a description of the apparatus referred to:--
+
+It consists of a stout steel cylindrical receptacle 11½in. internal
+dia. by 24in. in depth, and having a capacity of about 12 gallons. It
+is supported on a special wheelbarrow of wood with trundling wheel of
+cast iron. The bottom of the receptacle is so low down that it rests
+on the ground when in use, by lowering the handles of the barrow. The
+paint is placed in this cylinder and is forced out by air pressure,
+introduced through the lid of the receptacle, at from 80 to 90 lbs.
+pressure per square inch. This air is provided from the shop compressor
+range or by a separate compressor. The paint pipe penetrates the
+cover and is extended nearly to the bottom of the receptacle. The air
+pressure on the surface of the paint forces it through this pipe to the
+atomizer.
+
+A branch from the air supply is also taken to the atomizer and a third
+air branch taken to the bottom of the receptacle and carried through
+a 1in. iron pipe stopped at the end with a screw plug, but perforated
+with a number of 1/8in. holes. This latter is for agitating the paint
+and prevents settlement. The atomizer is shown clearly in the drawing.
+It consists of an air jet impinging on a vena contracta nozzle and
+surrounded by the paint forced through from the receptacle. The air
+blast carries the paint through the orifice immediately opposite to the
+nozzle and there reduces it to a fine spray. A hose is attached to the
+exit of the atomizer and the atomized paint is carried by the blast to
+the spray pipe, which is slightly fan-shaped and flat.
+
+The cover is fastened by four hook-clamps, and is, therefore, readily
+removable. An air pressure gauge reading to 120 lbs. is also provided,
+and the valves are so arranged that the regulation of both the paint
+and the air supply are easily adjustable.
+
+It will be noticed that, in the atomizer, a vena contracta is
+arranged so that it may be adjusted in its position in relation to
+the air orifice. The use of this is to provide for paint of various
+consistencies. Very great care has been taken in designing the details;
+as, for example, the provision of a scraper to clear off accumulations
+from the periphery of the trundling wheel.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 139.--PLAN OF PAINT SPRAYING APPARATUS USED BY THE
+PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD, PRINCIPALLY FOR FREIGHT CARS.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 140.--ELEVATION OF APPARATUS SHOWN IN FIG. 139.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 141.--DETAILS OF APPARATUS SHOWN IN FIGS. 139 AND
+140.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+METAL SPRAYING.
+
+
+Although the spraying of metal does not really come within the scope
+of this book, the process is so closely allied to paint spraying
+that it is considered advisable to devote a chapter to the subject,
+particularly as the perfected process is of very recent date, and bids
+fair to be used successfully in many industries. It should be stated at
+once that a metallic coating may be applied to practically any surface,
+and that almost any metal or alloy may be employed.
+
+Stated briefly, the process consists in melting metal in the form of a
+rod or wire, by means of oxygen and coal gas, or other gas, depending
+upon the metal used. The molten metal is sprayed at a high pressure,
+and a surface may be quickly covered with the metal of any desired
+thickness. A remarkable fact concerning the process is that the metal
+is cooled to an extent that renders it possible to hold the hand in the
+jet so as to receive a coat of metal without inconvenience, and samples
+of wood and fabrics may be coated with metal without injury.
+
+A moment of consideration will render it clear that there is an immense
+field for this process; for example, as aluminium can be sprayed, a
+lining of that metal might be given to brewers' and cooking utensils,
+etc., while tanks, barrels, reservoirs, intended to contain acids and
+oils, can also be treated. In the production of blocks for printing,
+in decorative work and mural decoration, there is an immense field,
+while ships' bottoms, instead of being painted with composition, can
+be copper-plated or sprayed with any other suitable metal, in order
+to prevent incrustation. No doubt some very beautiful effects can be
+produced by means of the process.
+
+It will be convenient now to describe the machine used for the
+application of the metals. It consists of a pistol rather bulkier, but
+not unlike in form, the usual spraying apparatus, see Fig. 142.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 142.--THE METAL SPRAYING MACHINE OR "PISTOL."]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 143.--THE METAL SPRAYER.]
+
+In Fig. 143 is shown very clearly the construction of the sprayer,
+which it will be understood comprises a combined melting and spraying
+jet and a feed mechanism. The metal, in the form of rod or wire, is
+fed to the melting flame. This, as already stated, is formed by coal
+gas burned in the air, or oxygen, water gas, acetylene, hydrogen,
+etc., may be employed instead of the coal gas. The gases are supplied
+at such a pressure as to prevent blowing out and to ensure a highly
+deoxidizing flame. The spraying jet can be of carbon dioxide, nitrogen,
+air, steam, etc., and it must be fed at such a pressure as to produce
+a sufficiently high velocity for successful coating. The usual gauges
+and reducing valves will, of course, be employed. The feeding of
+the wire is accomplished by a small pneumatic motor, driven by the
+spraying medium, either in series or parallel with the main jet.
+The dimensions of the wire nozzle, and feed mechanism vary with the
+different metals. To obtain a good adhesion between the metals being
+sprayed and the surface to which it is to be applied, the latter must
+be thoroughly clean and of an open nature, to give a key for the
+deposit. Sandblasting is sometimes employed to effect this.
+
+Fig. 145 shows an enlargement of the nozzle with the different parts
+marked. The cost of the process is not prohibitive; the cost of the
+metal only on one square foot of a thickness of 0·001 inch is quite
+small with the cheaper metals. The process is put on the market by the
+British Metal Spray Co., Ltd., Queen Anne's Chambers, Tothill Street,
+Westminster, London, S.W.
+
+In a paper read by Mr. R. K. Morcom before the Institute of Metals, the
+following interesting information was given:--
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 144.--SECTIONAL DRAWING OF THE METAL SPRAYING
+MACHINE OR "PISTOL."]
+
+With a given design of jet there is only a certain volume left by the
+air-jet which can be filled with flame, and this flame has a limiting
+temperature which cannot be exceeded. The wire, passing through this
+cone of flame receives heat, partly by radiation, but chiefly by
+conduction, and becomes melted; but there is a definite limit to the
+amount of heat which can be picked up by the wire passing through the
+flame, and a definite limit to the rate at which it can be melted. This
+cannot be increased by forcing more gas into the flame, as the extra
+gas is merely blown away by the air-jet. It is possible to increase the
+rate of melting by shaping the nozzles so as to leave room for a larger
+cone of flame, and experiments are in progress on this point. There
+is, therefore, a most definite economical quantity of gas which should
+be used in the pistol, this quantity being about 1·5 cubic foot of
+hydrogen per minute, and 0·5 cubic foot of oxygen; or about 0·8 cubic
+foot of coal-gas to 0·65 cubic foot of oxygen for the present standard
+designs.
+
+In refractory metals these quantities may be increased slightly, as
+a slightly higher temperature can be obtained if the burning gases
+are under a pressure greater than atmospheric, and this occurs if the
+gas quantities are increased, the inner surface of the air-jet acting
+to some extent as an enclosing wall to the flame. On the other hand,
+for the more easily fusible and oxidizable metals, such as tin, lead,
+and zinc, it is advisable to keep the gas quantities rather below the
+figure given, so as to avoid any possibility of overheating and burning
+any portion of the wire.
+
+The outer jet performs a threefold purpose: it keeps the nozzles and
+wire cool, it cools the object, and it produces the requisite velocity.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 145.--DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF MELTING AND
+SPRAYING JETS IN ACTION.]
+
+The velocity of the air leaving the jet will be independent of the
+volume discharged, and depends only upon the pressure at the jet, so
+long as there is no disturbance due to the entraining of air from
+the surrounding atmosphere. This, of course, will actually occur in
+practice, and the layer of air must have a certain thickness in order
+to prevent its being broken up, and its velocity destroyed by mixing
+with the surrounding atmosphere.
+
+As at present constructed the standard pistol uses about 0·55 to 0·6
+cubic foot per minute for every 1 lb. per square inch air pressure,
+so that with an air supply at 80 lb. per square inch, which is a very
+suitable figure for ordinary spraying, the air consumption will be from
+45 to 50 cubic feet per minute.
+
+The bulk of this will be from 830 to 920 grammes, and the mass of metal
+sprayed by this air will be from about 8 grammes in the case of iron to
+about 200 grammes in the case of lead.
+
+The action of deposition is probably a complex one. The minute
+particles of solid metal are driven with such force against the object
+that, in some cases, they fuse, but owing to their small relative
+size, are promptly chilled by the object to which they adhere. If any
+of the particles are molten or gaseous they will adhere. In addition,
+the suddenly chilled particles are possibly, or even probably, in the
+state of unstable equilibrium found in "Prince Rupert's Drops," and act
+like so many minute bombs, bursting on impact into almost molecular
+dimensions, and penetrating the smallest cracks and fissures of the
+object.
+
+The process requires some care in manipulation, as, by varying the
+conditions, it is possible to spray porous or non-porous coatings,
+and, with some metals, anything from a pure metal to a pure oxide.
+With care, however, non-porous, oxide-free, adherent coatings can be
+produced, of almost any metal on almost any solid.
+
+In addition to metals, it is possible to spray fusible non-metals,
+or, by stranded wires, alloys of metals or mixture of metals with
+non-metals.
+
+The process is so new that its uses are still partly to be developed.
+But it is easy to see that it may have far-reaching value for
+protective coatings against weather or fire, for ornament, for
+electrical resistance and conductors, for the production of special
+alloys, for joint making, and for many other purposes.
+
+Quite in a different category comes that of very fine casting. The
+surface of a pattern, polished or slightly greasy, is most minutely
+copied, and it is possible to produce process blocks very rapidly. It
+may be useful to line moulds before pouring in a metal. The application
+of the process to the production of very fine or coarse metallic
+powders is being investigated.
+
+The bulk of the work has hitherto been carried on in laboratories,
+but the apparatus is gradually becoming used in the more progressive
+factories, where extended facilities, and the knowledge of specialised
+requirements, will ensure a rapid improvement in technique and results.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 146.--AN EXAMPLE OF SPRAYED DECORATIVE WORK.
+(AEROGRAPH.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 147.--SHADED WORK BY THE AEROGRAPH.]
+
+The research on the lower melting point metals has been greater than on
+the others, and undoubtedly the economy with them both can be greatly
+improved. Preheating of gases and air, supplementary flames acting
+in front of the main jet, and electrical methods of heating, are all
+still the subject of experiment.
+
+The following metals are among those which have been successfully
+sprayed by this process:--Aluminium, brass, bronze, copper,
+cupro-nickel, iron, gold, nickel, silver, tin, zinc, lead.
+
+It will be obvious that this method is a most useful one to employ
+when it is desired to prevent iron from rusting on machine parts which
+cannot possibly be treated by chemical or other anti-rust processes,
+and be rendered immune from rusting by treatment where they stand. To
+give some idea of the cost, it may be said that if the thickness of
+0.001 of one inch of zinc is deposited, the cost of metal for coating
+10 square feet would only be a fraction over 4d.; while for lead the
+cost would be about 2d. The amount of gas used is not a large item,
+being at the rate per minute of 0.50 cubic foot of oxygen and 0.55
+cubic foot of coal gas when spraying zinc, and 0.101 cubic foot less
+in each case where lead is being used in the pistol. These figures are
+given on the authority of the "Daily Telegraph."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 148.--SHOW CARD.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 149.--A SPRAYED FRIEZE (AEROGRAPH).]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+                                                                     PAGE
+
+    Accessories                                                   121-133
+
+    Advantages of Dipping                                              22
+
+    Advantages of Dipping Piano Cases                                  46
+
+    Aerograph                                                          81
+
+    Aerograph Air Pump and Tank Combined                              118
+
+    Aerograph Electric Motor Outfit                                    83
+
+    Aerograph Spraying Cabinet                                        127
+
+    Aerograph Turntable                                               134
+
+    Aeron                                                           85-87
+
+    Agitating Apparatus                                              9-15
+
+    Agricultural Implements, Dipping                                   58
+
+    Air Drying Enamels                                                180
+
+    Air-drying coloured Japans                                        157
+
+    Air Heater                                                        137
+
+    Air Pump and Tank Combined                                        118
+
+    Air Pump for Large Installation                                   119
+
+    Air Transformer Set                                                93
+
+    Airostyle                                                          97
+
+    Airostyle Air Compressor                                          115
+
+    Airostyle Central Draught Fan                                     125
+
+    Airostyle Plant                                                   121
+
+    Airostyle Plants for 16 Operators on Small Work                   155
+
+    Airostyle Plant Showing Ventilator                                199
+
+    Alabastine                                                         29
+
+    Apparatus for Dipping Piano Cases                                  42
+
+    Application of Stoving Enamels                                    179
+
+    Artistic Application of Paint Spraying                            201
+
+    Artists' Type of Invincible Sprayer                               107
+
+    Asbestine                                                          73
+
+    Auto Electric Air Heater                                     137, 139
+
+    Auto Filter                                                        93
+
+    Automatic Control of Drying Room                                   68
+
+    Automatic Electric Controller                                     111
+
+    Automatic Finishing of Pianos                                      42
+
+    Automobiles, Latest Method of Finishing                           216
+
+
+    Baird Machine Co.                                                 249
+
+    Baking Enamel                                                      63
+
+    Baking Heats, Safe for Pigment Colours                            187
+
+    Baking or Stoving, Hints on                                       180
+
+    Barytes, Precipitated                                              70
+
+    Baskets, Fancy                                                    147
+
+    Bean Spray Pump Co.                                               247
+
+    Bearings, Paint Proof                                              13
+
+    Bedsteads                                                          33
+
+    Bedsteads, Dipping                                                 58
+
+    Bedsteads, White Work                                             184
+
+    Berkel and Parnall's Slicing Machine Co., Ltd.                    167
+
+    Bin for Spraying Light Articles                                   148
+
+    Birmingham Small Arms Co.                                     147-164
+
+    Black Japan Finishes                                              183
+
+    Blinds for Paint Dipping Tank                                      10
+
+    Block and Tackle                                                   93
+
+    Blooming of Varnish                                                68
+
+    Blues                                                             205
+
+    Bone Black                                                         70
+
+    Bookbinding                                                       146
+
+    Brown, E. C. & Co.                                                246
+
+    Brown Sprayer with Extension Rod, The                             246
+
+    Browns                                                            207
+
+    Bronzing                                                          194
+
+    Brush Graining                                                    208
+
+    Brushing versus Spraying                                          193
+
+    Burnt Sienna                                                       70
+
+
+    Cabinets                                                          127
+
+    Cadby, G. & Sons                                                  164
+
+    Cans, Painting by Dipping                                           7
+
+    Carriage Department, Woolwich Arsenal                              54
+
+    Carriages                                                         146
+
+    Carriers for Dipping Piano Cases                                   42
+
+    Casements                                                       7, 37
+
+    Casements Dipping                                          60, 61, 65
+
+    Casements, Steel                                                   60
+
+    Celluloid Buttons                                                   3
+
+    Celluloid Varnish, Recipe for                                     150
+
+    Central Draught Fan                                               125
+
+    Chicago White Lead and Oil Co.                                    188
+
+    China Clay                                                         73
+
+    China Fruit Dish Decorated with the Airostyle                     217
+
+    Cleaning Metal Parts                                               41
+
+    Coach Body Painting                                                55
+
+    Coal Box, Metal Decoration done by Airostyle                      241
+
+    Coats of Paint, number                                             21
+
+    Collapsible Gates                                                  33
+
+    Colour Glazing                                                    202
+
+    Colour on Bedsteads                                                33
+
+    Colour Specimens, Spraying                                        153
+
+    Colour Varnishes, Transparent                                     184
+
+    Coloured Enamels                                                   59
+
+    Compressed Air, Painting by                                        78
+
+    Compressed Air, Supply of                                         113
+
+    Compressor for Airostyle Plant                                    165
+
+    Concentric Form of Spray                                           79
+
+    Construction of Airostyle                                          98
+
+    Cost of Paint Dipping Plant                                         2
+
+    Cover for Tank                                                     11
+
+    Crabs                                                              18
+
+    Crane Eureka                                                      103
+
+    Crane Record                                                      104
+
+    Crittall Manufacturing Co.                                         60
+
+    Cycle Frames                                                      197
+
+    Cycle Parts                                                       146
+
+
+    Davis Gas Stove Co., Ltd.                                    161, 165
+
+    Decorative Work, an Example of Sprayed                            261
+
+    Deed Boxes                                                         38
+
+    Demar Varnish                                                      75
+
+    Designs for Lamp Shades Done by Spraying                          203
+
+    De Vilbiss Air Compressor                                         115
+
+    De Vilbiss Auto Cool Fan                                          125
+
+    De Vilbiss Fumexer or Spraying Cabinet                            131
+
+    De Vilbiss Manufacturing Co.                                       85
+
+    Diogrammatic Representation of Melting and Spraying
+    Jets in Action                                                    259
+
+    Different Trades in Spraying, Requirements of                 33, 141
+
+    Dipping and Spraying Compared                                     197
+
+    Dipping and Spraying Paints Compared                              188
+
+    Dipping Casements                                              61, 65
+
+    Dipping Paints                                              7, 70, 72
+
+    Dipping Process, Advantages of                                     22
+
+    Dipping, Quantity of Paint Required for                            77
+
+    Dipping Sewing Machine Parts                                       34
+
+    Dipping Tanks                                                      57
+
+    Dipping Troughs                                                   238
+
+    Dripping Platform                                                   9
+
+    Driving Gear for Tank                                              14
+
+    Drying Room, Model                                                 67
+
+    Durability of Dipping Paints                                        1
+
+    Dust, Excluding                                                    64
+
+
+    Electric Controller                                               111
+
+    Electric Hoist for Heavy Goods                                     27
+
+    Electric Motor Outfit                                              83
+
+    Electrical Work                                                   147
+
+    Elevation of Spraying Plant                                       199
+
+    Enamel, Stoving                                                    63
+
+    Enamelling, Slate                                                 152
+
+    Enamels                                                           179
+
+    Enamels, Air Drying                                               180
+
+    Enamels for Steel Furniture                                       183
+
+    Enamels, Heat Resisting and Slow Drying                           180
+
+    Enamels, Stoving                                                  178
+
+    Eureka Spraying Machine                                           103
+
+    Evaporation of Turpentine                                          77
+
+    Evolution of Spraying Apparatus                                    78
+
+    Exhaust                                                           113
+
+    Exhaust Installation                                              122
+
+
+    Fan, Central Draught                                         104, 124
+
+    Fancy Baskets                                                     147
+
+    Files                                                              38
+
+    Filler for Iron                                                    26
+
+    Filler, Harland's                                                  29
+
+    Finishing of Pianos                                            42, 43
+
+    Finishing Room                                                     53
+
+    Flash Point of Turpentine                                          76
+
+    Fletcher, Russell & Co., Ltd.                                     167
+
+    Floco Process                                                     223
+
+    Flowing-on System                                             25, 216
+
+    Ford Motor Co., Ltd.                                      54, 59, 216
+
+    Four Oaks Spraying Machine Co.                                    247
+
+    Freight Car, Painting                                             250
+
+    Frieze, a Sprayed                                                 267
+
+    Furniture, Metal                                                   38
+
+    Fumexer                                                  86, 129, 135
+
+
+    Gas Fires                                                         197
+
+    Gas Meter Co., Ltd.                                               172
+
+    Gas Meters, Masks for                                             142
+
+    Gas Meters, Spraying                                         148, 171
+
+    Gas Light and Coke Co.                             171, 181, 185, 191
+
+    Gas Stoves and Ranges                                             149
+
+    Gasometer, Painting                                                83
+
+    Gates, Collapsible                                                 33
+
+    Gear Box, Paint Proof                                              13
+
+    Gibbons, James                                                     58
+
+    Gittings, Hills and Boothby, Ltd.                                 168
+
+    Glazing Colours                                              202, 205
+
+    Gloss Paint                                                        71
+
+    Goodyear Stove, a Typical                                         237
+
+    Golden Ochre                                                       70
+
+    Graining and Scumbling                                            208
+
+    Graining Grounds                                                  212
+
+    Grays                                                             207
+
+    Greens                                                            207
+
+
+    Hanger, Iron                                                   34, 38
+
+    Hanging Apparatus                                                  16
+
+    Hard Wood, Primers for                                             74
+
+    Hard Wood, White Dip for                                           75
+
+    Harland, Wm. & Sons                                                29
+
+    Harrison, McGregor & Co.                                           58
+
+    Hart Patent Mask                                                  143
+
+    Hayward Bros. & Eckstein, Ltd.                                     60
+
+    Heat of Drying Room                                                69
+
+    Heat Resisting and Slow Drying Enamels                            180
+
+    Heavy Goods, Hoist for                                             27
+
+    Henley's Telegraph Works, Ltd.                                    147
+
+    Hickory Wheels                                                     54
+
+    Hints on Stoving or Baking                                        180
+
+    Hoist for Heavy Goods                                              27
+
+    Hoists                                                             18
+
+    Holden, Arthur & Co, Ltd.                                         167
+
+    Holes in Woodwork, Stopping                                        29
+
+    Hook for Suspending                                            17, 64
+
+    Hot Air Method                                                    235
+
+
+    Illingworth on White Spirit                                        76
+
+    Imitating Marbles                                                 210
+
+    Imitation Wood Effects                                            183
+
+    Immersing Mangle Frames                                            35
+
+    Immersion, Painting by                                          7, 11
+
+    Implement Manufacturers                                            14
+
+    Indian Red                                                         70
+
+    Introduction                                                        1
+
+    Invincible Sprayer                                                105
+
+    Iron, Filler for                                                   26
+
+    Iron Hanger                                                        38
+
+    Iron Rods                                                          34
+
+    Iron Sashes                                                         7
+
+    Iron Window Frames                                                 37
+
+    Italian Raw Sienna                                                 70
+
+
+    Joist and Wheels Supplying Hanger                                  16
+
+
+    Kerosene Oil                                                       75
+
+    Kettle Type of Spray                                               78
+
+    Khaki Paint                                                        57
+
+    Kingsbury Manufacturing Co, Ltd.                                  168
+
+
+    Lacquers for Spraying                                              80
+
+    Lacquers, Paints, etc, for Spraying                               177
+
+    Lamp Shades, Designs done by Spraying                             203
+
+    Lime and Whitewash Sprayers                                       241
+
+    Limewashing by Machine with 8ft. Bamboo Pole                      245
+
+    Limewhite Sprayer, Merryweathers                                  247
+
+    Location of Work Cabinets                                         127
+
+    Lockers                                                            38
+
+    Lowering Piano Cases into the Varnish Tank                         47
+
+    Lucas, John & Co.                                                 188
+
+    Lucas, Joseph, Ltd.                           160, 169, 173, 175, 181
+
+
+    Machine for Metal Spraying                                        256
+
+    Making Stencils                                                   144
+
+    Mander Brothers                                                   154
+
+    Mangle Frames Immersing                                            35
+
+    Marble Grounds                                                    210
+
+    Marshall Sons & Co, Ltd.                                           59
+
+    Mask Hart Patent                                                  143
+
+    Masks and Stencils                                                141
+
+    Masks for Gas Meters                                              142
+
+    Masury, John W. & Son                                             189
+
+    McLennan System                                                     9
+
+    Melting and Spraying Jets in Action                               259
+
+    Merryweather Limewhite Sprayer                                    247
+
+    Metal Decoration                                                  241
+
+    Metal Furniture                                                    38
+
+    Metal Goods                                                        38
+
+    Metal Motor Parts                                                  41
+
+    Metal, Primers for                                                 74
+
+    Metal Sheets, Dipping                                              58
+
+    Metal Sprayer, Details of                                         257
+
+    Metal Spraying                                                    255
+
+    Metal Spraying Machine                                            256
+
+    Metal, White Dipping for                                           75
+
+    Midland Sprayer                                                   108
+
+    Model Drying Room                                                  67
+
+    Moller and Schumann Co.                                           180
+
+    Morris, Herbert, Limited                                           21
+
+    Morris Standard Electric Trolley Hoist                             23
+
+    Motor Bodies, The Floco System of Painting                        224
+
+    Motor Car Shops                                                   231
+
+    Motor Outfit for Spraying                                          83
+
+    Motor Parts, Metal                                                 41
+
+    Motor Wheels                                                       54
+
+
+    Objections sometimes urged against Spraying                       194
+
+    Ochre                                                              70
+
+    Office Partitions                                                  60
+
+    Oil and Water Separator                                           111
+
+    Oil in Dipping Paints                                              72
+
+    Oxford Ochre                                                       70
+
+    Oven Baking Methods                                               232
+
+    Overhead Rails                                                     57
+
+
+    Paasche Air Brush                                                 109
+
+    Paasche Automatic Electric Controller                             111
+
+    Paasche Motor Driven Fan                                          124
+
+    Paasche Turn-Table                                                135
+
+    Paint Dipping                                                       7
+
+    Paint Dipping Plant, Cost of                                        2
+
+    Paint Dipping, Simple Form of                                       7
+
+    Paint Dipping Tank                                                 10
+
+    Paint for Casements                                                37
+
+    Paint for Metal Work                                               41
+
+    Paint for Wagons                                                   57
+
+    Paint, Number of Coats                                             21
+
+    Paint Proof Bearings                                               13
+
+    Paint Sprayer, Portable                                           250
+
+    Paint Spraying Apparatus Used by the Pennsylvania Railroad        252
+
+    Paint Spraying, Artistic Application of                           201
+
+    Paint, Supply of                                             113, 122
+
+    Paint Tank                                                          8
+
+    Painting a Freight Car                                            250
+
+    Painting by Compressed Air                                         78
+
+    Painting by Immersion                                           7, 11
+
+    Painting Gasometer                                                 83
+
+    Painting Motor Bodies the Floco System of                         224
+
+    Painting Motor Wheels                                              54
+
+    Paints Durability of                                                1
+
+    Paint for Dipping                                                  70
+
+    Paints, Spreading Capacity of                                      77
+
+    Part End Elevation of Plant for 12 Operators                      159
+
+    Pennsylvania Railroad Company                                     250
+
+    Perkins System of Heating                                         235
+
+    Phillips & Son                                                     58
+
+    Philorite                                                          30
+
+    Piano Cases, Lowering into the Varnish Tank                        47
+
+    Pianos, Finishing of                                               39
+
+    Pickling Metal Parts                                               41
+
+    Picture Frames                                                    149
+
+    Picture Mouldings                                                 149
+
+    Piece Work                                                        145
+
+    Pigment Colours, Safe Baking Heats for                            187
+
+    Pinchin Johnson's Drying Room                                      68
+
+    Plants, Some Typical                                          54, 158
+
+    Platform, Dipping                                                   9
+
+    Portable Paint Sprayer for Railing and other Work                 250
+
+    Precipitated Barytes                                               70
+
+    Preparing Wood Before Painting                                     25
+
+    Pressure in Spraying                                               80
+
+    Primers and Surfacers                                             235
+
+    Primers for Metal                                                  71
+
+    Primers for Soft Wood                                              74
+
+    Protecting Parts not to be Painted                                 24
+
+    Prussian Blue                                                      70
+
+    Purifying Air                                                     114
+
+
+    Quantity of Paint Required for Dipping                             77
+
+
+    Raido process                                                     232
+
+    Rails and Hanging Apparatus                                        16
+
+    Rails for Overhead                                                 57
+
+    Railway Work, Portable Paint Sprayer for                          250
+
+    Raw Sienna                                                         70
+
+    Recipe for Celluloid Varnish                                      150
+
+    Record Pistol                                                  97, 99
+
+    Reds                                                              205
+
+    Reducing Varnish                                                   87
+
+    Requirements of Special Trades                           33, 141, 145
+
+    Rims and Wheels                                                    41
+
+    Rods, Iron                                                         34
+
+    Rubbing Down                                                       30
+
+
+    Safe Baking Heats of Pigment Colours                              187
+
+    Scrubbing Air                                                     114
+
+    Scumbling and Colour Glazing                                      202
+
+    Scumbling and Graining                                            208
+
+    Second Coat Dipping Paints                                         74
+
+    Sectional Drawing of Metal Spraying Machine                       258
+
+    Sewing Machine Parts, Dipping                                      34
+
+    Shaded Effects produced by Spraying                               213
+
+    Shaded Work by the Aerograph                                      263
+
+    Shafting for Tank                                                  14
+
+    Sheets Metal Dipping                                           38, 58
+
+    Shellac Spraying                                                   87
+
+    Ships' Hulls Spraying                                             151
+
+    Spraying Plant, Elevation of                                      199
+
+    Spraying, Quantity of Paint Required                               77
+
+    Spraying Requirement of Different Trades                          121
+
+    Spraying Ships' Hulls                                             151
+
+    Spraying versus Brushing                                          193
+
+    Staircases                                                          7
+
+    Standard Hydraulic Immersion System                                42
+
+    Standard Varnish Co                                                42
+
+    Steel Casements                                                    60
+
+    Steel Furniture Enamels                                           183
+
+    Steel Implements                                                  197
+
+    Steel Office Partitions                                            60
+
+    Steel Plate Fan                                                   125
+
+    Steel Sheets                                                    1, 12
+
+    Steel Wheels                                                       41
+
+    Steel Wool for Rubbing Down                                        30
+
+    Stencils and Masks                                                141
+
+    Stencils, Making                                                  144
+
+    Stirrers and Blinds for Paint Dipping Tank                         10
+
+    Stopping Holes in Woodwork                                         29
+
+    Stove, a Typical Goodyear                                         237
+
+    Stoving Blacks                                                    179
+
+    Show Card Done by Spraying                          69, 209, 225, 239
+
+    Shop Fronts                                                        60
+
+    Side Elevation of Plant for 12 Operators                          158
+
+    Skylights                                                          60
+
+    Slate Enamelling                                                  152
+
+    Sliding Doors                                                      60
+
+    Soft Wood, White Dip for                                           75
+
+    Soft Woods, Primers for                                            74
+
+    Spray, Concentric Form of                                          79
+
+    Sprayed Decorative Work, An Example                               261
+
+    Spraying and Dipping Compared                                     197
+
+    Spraying and Dipping Paints Compared                              188
+
+    Spraying Apparatus for Painting Freight Cars                      252
+
+    Spraying Apparatus, Types of                                       81
+
+    Spraying Cabinets                                                 127
+
+    Spreading Capacity of Paints                                       77
+
+    Spraying Colour Specimens                                         153
+
+    Spraying Metal                                                    255
+
+    Spraying, Objections Sometimes Urged Against                      194
+
+    Spraying Plant, Cost of                                             2
+
+    Stoving Enamel                                                63, 178
+
+    Stoving or Baking, Hints on                                       180
+
+    Stoving Temperatures                                              187
+
+    Stoves, Notes on the Construction of                              235
+
+    Sub Frame for Tank                                                 14
+
+    Supply of Compressed Air                                          113
+
+    Supply of Paint                                                   122
+
+    Suspending Hook                                                    64
+
+
+    Table Cover Decorated with the Airostyle                          219
+
+    Tank and Air Pump Combined                                        118
+
+    Tanks for Dipping                                                  57
+
+    Tank for Dipping Metal Windows                                     63
+
+    Tank for Painting Steel Sheets                                     12
+
+    Tank Paint                                                          8
+
+    Tank, Special Form of                                               9
+
+    Tank Used in Flowing on Paint                                     222
+
+    Tapered Cans                                                        7
+
+    Temperatures for Stoving                                          187
+
+    Test for White Spirit                                              76
+
+    Three Tank Plant                                                   15
+
+    Thornley and Knight, Ltd.                                         157
+
+    Time Saving                                                         1
+
+    Toys                                                                1
+
+    Trade, Requirements of Different                                   33
+
+    Tramcars                                                          154
+
+    Transparent Colour Varnishes                                      184
+
+    Trolley Hoist                                                      19
+
+    Troughs                                                            41
+
+    Tumbling Barrel Process                                      248, 249
+
+    Turkey Umber                                                       70
+
+    Turn-Tables                                             129, 130, 134
+
+    Turpentine, Flash Point of                                         76
+
+    Type G Aeron                                                       68
+
+    Types of Spraying Apparatus                                        81
+
+    Typical Hoist                                                      19
+
+    Typical Plants, Some                                          54, 158
+
+
+    Ultra Airostyle                                                   101
+
+    Umber                                                              70
+
+
+    Varnish, Quantity Required for Piano Cases                         46
+
+    Varnishes for Spraying                                        80, 177
+
+    Varnishes, Transparent Colour                                     184
+
+    Venetian Red                                                       70
+
+    Ventilation of Paint Shop                                          67
+
+    Ventilator for Plant                                              123
+
+    Volume of Air in Spraying                                          80
+
+
+    Wagons, Painting                                                   54
+
+    Wagons, Store Room                                                 61
+
+    Wells, A. C. & Co.                                                244
+
+    Wheels, Rims of                                                    41
+
+    White Dipping for Meta                                             75
+
+    White Paint for Dipping                                            71
+
+    White Paste Primer                                                 75
+
+    "White Paints and Painting Materials"                              72
+
+    White Spirit                                                       76
+
+    White Work Bedsteads, etc.                                    33, 184
+
+    Whitewash Sprayers                                                241
+
+    Whitewashing Machines                                              78
+
+    Whiting                                                            73
+
+    Wilkinson, Heywood and Clark                                       11
+
+    Willys-Overland Automobile Factory                                228
+
+    Winch                                                              18
+
+    Window Frames, Iron                                                37
+
+    Wood Effects, Imitation                                           183
+
+    Woodwork Preparing before Painting                                 25
+
+    Woodwork, Stopping Holes in                                        29
+
+    Woolwich Arsenal, Carriage Department                              54
+
+    Woolwich Arsenal Store Room                                        61
+
+    Work Cabinets                                                     127
+
+
+    Yellows                                                           206
+
+
+    Zinc Oxide                                                         73
+
+    Zinc Stencils                                                     145
+
+_ADVERTISEMENTS._
+
+
+STANDARD VARNISH WORKS.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Consulting Specialists respecting, and Manufacturers of every class of
+Varnish for all Industrial purposes INSULATING VARNISHES, CARRIAGE,
+AUTOMOBILE, MARINE & DECORATORS' VARNISHES, etc.
+
+Patentees of the new STANDARD HYDRAULIC IMMERSION SYSTEM described on
+pages 42-53 of this publication.
+
+Correspondence invited from responsible houses:
+
+  NEW YORK     ELM PARK, STATEN ISLAND.
+  CHICAGO      2,600 FEDERAL STREET.
+  TORONTO      INTERNATIONAL VARNISH Co., Ltd.
+  BRUSSELS     26, RUE GAUCHERET.
+  PARIS        34, RUE DE CHABROL.
+  MELBOURNE    479, COLLINS STREET.
+  LONDON       27, BEVIS MARKS, E.C.
+
+THE AIROSTYLE
+
+THE ONE COMPLETE & EFFICIENT SYSTEM OF COMPRESSED AIR PAINTING,
+JAPANNING, VARNISHING, Etc.
+
+
+Manufactured throughout by
+
+The AIROSTYLE & LITHOS, Ltd.,
+
+35, St. Bride Street, Ludgate Circus,
+
+  TELE PHONE: 12025 CENTRAL.
+       GRAMS: STAINLESS, LONDON.      London, E.C.
+
+THE
+
+AIROSTYLE
+
+COMPRESSED AIR
+
+PAINTING PLANTS
+
+ARE IN DAILY USE
+
+at the Leading Works for
+
+  Motor Cars, Side Cars, etc.
+  Gas Meters
+  Gas Fires, Radiators, etc.
+  Kitchen Ranges, Grates, etc.
+  Cycles and Motor Cycles
+  Cycle and Motor Accessories
+  Carriage Lamps
+  Leather Manufactures
+  Buttons
+  Toys
+  Baby Carriages
+  Sewing Machines
+  China and Glass
+  Electrical Apparatus
+  Scientific Instruments
+  Constructional Work
+  Horticultural Buildings, etc.
+  Tinplate Work
+  Munitions
+  General Japanned Goods
+  Porcelain Enamelled Goods
+  Advertising Signs
+  Textile Productions
+  Rubber Goods
+  Typewriters
+  Tiles
+
+etc., etc., etc., etc.
+
+Manufactured throughout by
+
+The AIROSTYLE & LITHOS, Ltd.,
+
+35, St. Bride Street, Ludgate Circus,
+
+  TELE PHONE: 12025 CENTRAL.           London, E.C.
+       GRAMS: STAINLESS, LONDON.
+
+PECORA
+
+FIRST COATERS, FINISHING COATS & THINNERS FOR USE BY THE IMMERSION
+(DIPPING) PROCESS OR APPLICATION BY COMPRESSED AIR (SPRAY) ARE THE
+RESULT OF
+
+  1st.--Theoretical Combinations of pigments
+  and vehicles.
+
+  2nd.--Careful _practical_ test of these combinations
+  and changes to meet given
+  requirements.
+
+  3rd.--Close study of the finished article to
+  determine durability.
+
+  4th.--Twenty-five years experience in the
+  production of special finishes, which
+  must meet unusually severe conditions.
+
+Our Experimental Laboratory is equipped with a complete dipping,
+spraying and baking plant, and is at the service of any interested
+person.
+
+We would be glad to finish samples of your product along any desired
+lines, or to follow out our own ideas as to the most desirable method.
+
+
+PECORA PAINT COMPANY.
+
+4th & Erie Ave. Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.A.
+
+  Est. 1862 by Smith Bowen.         Incorporated 1911.
+
+ARE YOU USING
+
+"AEROGRAPH" SPRAYS
+
+[Illustration]
+
+_FOR_
+
+Plain Painting, Decorating, Japanning, Enamelling, Varnishing and
+Lacquering. Also for Distempers of all kinds. Five times Faster than
+any other Method.
+
+Stationary and Portable Painting Outfits
+
+_PERFECT CONTROL. SUPERIOR RESULTS._
+
+THE AEROGRAPH CO., LTD.
+
+43, HOLBORN VIADUCT, LONDON, E.C.
+
+BRITISH AND FOREIGN GOVERNMENT CONTRACTORS.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+_CRANE'S SPRAYERS_
+
+[Illustration]
+
+For ENAMELS, PAINTS, LACQUERS, VARNISHES, ETC., ARE
+
+--THE GREATEST ECONOMISERS OF TIME-- MATERIAL & LABOUR EXTANT--The
+Handiest and most Efficient yet Devised and further
+
+[Illustration]
+
+They ENSURE the Best Results.
+
+Write for details:
+
+FREDK. CRANE CHEMICAL Co.,
+
+Bordesley Green, B'HAM.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+W. GOODYEAR & Sons,
+
+[Illustration] Manufacturers, DUDLEY. [Illustration]
+
+SPECIALISTS IN:
+
+_Enamelling Stoves_
+
+_for_
+
+[Illustration] _All Purposes_ [Illustration]
+
+WRITE FOR CATALOGUE.
+
+
+[Illustration: ESTABLISHED ·1760·]
+
+If you will come to Homerton to see a practical demonstration of the
+finishing of your own products by the economical Spraying process,
+our facilities are at your service without charge or obligation.
+Those facilities are: a fully equipped spraying plant--probably the
+first spraying expert in the Kingdom--and a range of spray paints
+covering the entire process from Filler to Varnish coat, perfected by
+experience. We specialise too in paints for Dipping and shall be glad
+to demonstrate to you the economy of either or both.
+
+Berger's Spray Paints & Dipping Paints.
+
+Lewis Berger & Sons, Ltd.
+
+Makers of Paints, Colours & Varnishes,
+
+HOMERTON, LONDON, N.E.
+
+Branches--Paris, Copenhagen, Sydney, Wellington, Bombay, New York.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+PNEUMATIC SPRAYING
+
+OF PAINTS, ENAMELS, LACQUERS, VARNISHES, RUBBER SOLUTION, &c.
+
+If you use any of the above in quantities you cannot afford to be
+without a
+
+PNEUMATIC SPRAYING PLANT.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+BETTER FINISH, SMALLER BILLS for material, much cheaper production.
+
+The Midland Pneumatic Spraying Plant is the product of practical
+Engineers and is ALL BRITISH.
+
+LET US DEMONSTRATE ITS POSSIBILITIES AND ADVISE YOU.
+
+Wire--Blast, Birmingham; 'Phone--Central 5463; or write--
+
+The MIDLAND FAN Co., Ltd., 46, Aston Road, BIRMINGHAM.
+
+
+[Illustration: GITTINGS, HILLS & BOOTHBY, L^D. BIRMINGHAM.]
+
+SPECIALISTS FOR
+
+SPRAYING, DIPPING & STOVING VARNISHES & PAINTS.
+
+  G. H. & B., Ltd., will be pleased to show their Spraying
+  Installation to any firm desirous of seeing
+  and testing same--customers' own material
+  sprayed.
+
+  DIPPING TANKS loaned to customers to enable adequate
+  tests to be made.
+
+DO YOU WANT TO
+
+SAVE MONEY ?
+
+Then take up the most economical methods of painting, viz.,
+
+DIPPING AND SPRAYING.
+
+  Gittings, Hills & Boothby, Ltd.,
+
+  Varnish and Paint Manufacturers,
+
+  LONG ACRE,
+  BIRMINGHAM.
+
+  And at
+  82, TURNMILL STREET,
+  LONDON. E. C.
+
+_One Man with the Aeron is worth 2 to 10 without_
+
+There is not only this 50 to 90% saving in time and labour, because of
+the speed that is possible with the AERON SYSTEM of spraying, but there
+is also produced a better quality of finish than is obtainable with any
+other method. The surface is absolutely uniform, smooth and even of
+thickness. It is free from all sags, runs, thin spots or fatty edges.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The AERON SYSTEM is simple and easy to operate. Ordinarily inaccessible
+places, and carved and irregular surfaces, are quickly and uniformly
+finished.
+
+The AERON SYSTEM installed in your finishing room will produce the
+utmost in results at the lowest possible cost.
+
+  Address:
+
+  The DeVilbiss Manufacturing Co.
+
+  71 Newman St.,
+  Oxford St., London, W., Eng.: Toledo, Ohio, U.S.A.
+
+Finish Your Products, Large or Small, Wood or Metal, with the
+
+[Illustration: Guaranteed _Aeron System_ Paints With Air]
+
+The AERON SYSTEM of applying varnishes, enamels, shellacs, lacquers,
+japans, bronzes, and practically every kind of finishing material, on
+wood and metal products with compressed air, is the result of extensive
+painting and mechanical experience, and a comprehensive study of
+finishing problems.
+
+The AERON SYSTEM is complete in every detail. Every angle and problem
+of the application of finishing materials is successfully met with a
+thoroughness and positiveness--with a certainty of greater quality,
+speed, economy and efficiency--by this SYSTEM. There is a wide variety
+of "best type" Aerons and Accessory Equipment, meeting all requirements
+and enabling the operator to obtain striking results.
+
+Let us send you full and interesting particulars, --and a booklet of
+equipment facts.--
+
+  Address:
+
+  The DeVilbiss Manufacturing Co.
+
+  71 Newman St.,
+  Oxford St., London, W., Eng.: Toledo, Ohio, U.S.A.
+
+Telegrams--Varnish, Birmingham.
+
+ARTHUR HOLDEN & SONS, Ld.
+
+(Established nearly a Century)
+
+Bradford Street, BIRMINGHAM.
+
+Specialists in Spraying Finishes for every Trade.
+
+Spraying Paints, Enamels, Japans, Varnishes, Varnish Paints, etc.,
+
+FOR STOVING OR SELF-DRYING IN ALL COLOURS AND QUALITIES.
+
+TRADES ALREADY SUPPLIED:--
+
+  Photographic, Optical, Electrical & Surgical Apparatus Manufacturers.
+  Bicycles, Motor Bodies, Motor and Cycle accessories. Steel Toys, Wood
+  Toys, Lamps, Iron Fittings. Mail Carts, Radiators, Trunks, Weighing
+  Machines, Scales, etc., etc.
+
+The DeVilbiss Aeron
+
+[Illustration]
+
+  The most Efficient and Flexible
+  ::     Spraying Machine.     ::
+
+Sold by
+
+LLEWELLYN RYLAND, LTD.,
+
+BIRMINGHAM.
+
+Manufacturers of
+
+LACQUERS, PAINTS, JAPANS AND VARNISHES,
+
+Suitable for Spraying.
+
+
+Wells' "Lightning" Lime & Colour Washer.
+
+A Great SAVING of TIME, LABOUR AND MONEY.
+
+NO OUTSIDE POWER REQUIRED. OVER 5,000 SOLD.
+
+SAVES its Cost in a Few Days
+
+  LIME, WHITING, or COLD WATER PAINTS
+
+  applied at a speed of from 10 to 20 square
+  yards per minute, in a manner superior to
+  brushwork. One coat with the machine on
+  rough surfaces is equal to two applied with
+  brushes.
+
+ENLARGED PATTERNS.
+
+REDUCED PRICES.
+
+  No. 6a--Small Size, fed from
+          pail, 5 gallons           £5 5 0
+   "  4--8 gallons                  £8 5 0
+   "  4a On Wheels, same capacity   £9 0 0
+   "  5a--On Wheels, 12 gallons    £11 5 0
+
+A. C. WELLS & CO., MIDLAND ROAD, ST. PANCRAS, LONDON.
+
+Works--Carnarvon Street, MANCHESTER.
+
+[Illustration: Nos. 4a and 5a Patterns.]
+
+
+THE
+
+PERKINS CLOSED SYSTEM
+
+OF
+
+HEATING BY HOT WATER
+
+FOR
+
+ENAMELLING, JAPANNING, DRYING, etc.
+
+_Schemes & Estimates Submitted Free of Charge._
+
+PERKINS, ENGINEERS, LTD.,
+
+KINGSWAY HOUSE, KINGSWAY, W.C.
+
+  _Telephone No._              _Telegraphic Address--_
+  _482 Gerrard._             _"Arktos" Westcent, London._
+
+"PAINT & COLOUR MIXING."
+
+By ARTHUR SEYMOUR JENNINGS.
+
+5th EDITION, REVISED & ENLARGED.
+
+A Practical Handbook for Painters, Decorators, Artists, and all who
+have to mix colours.
+
+Containing 300 samples of actual oil and water paints and water colours
+of various colours, including the principal graining grounds and
+upwards of 600 different colour mixtures, with instructions on colour
+and paint mixing generally, testing colours, &c., &c.
+
+With fourteen coloured plates.
+
+Contents.--Paints and Colour Mixing, Colours or Stainers, How to
+learn to mix and match colours, Reds and how to mix them, Blues and
+how to mix them, Yellows and how to mix them, Greens and how to mix
+them, Browns and how to mix them, Greys and Greys, White and Blacks,
+Black Japan in colour mixing, Glazing, Graining grounds and Graining
+colours, Mixing paints and colours on the manufacturing scale, Water
+paints, Distempers, Artists' water colours and how to mix them, testing
+colours, notes on harmony, The proportions of materials, Notes, &c.
+
+POST FREE 5/4.
+
+  E. & F. N. SPON, Ltd.,
+  57, Haymarket, S.W.
+
+THE PAINTERS' POCKET BOOK.
+
+By ARTHUR SEYMOUR JENNINGS.
+
+Many thousands of copies of this exceedingly useful book have been sold.
+
+3s. 3d. Post Free.
+
+_SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS._
+
+  Simple methods for Painters' materials.
+
+  Behaviour of different pigments.
+
+  How to measure Painters' work.
+
+  Painters' Prices for all kinds of Paint work, Sign
+  Writing, Varnishing, Gilding, Enamelling,
+  Marbling, Graining, Paperhanging, etc., etc.
+
+  Many Miniature Stencils which can be submitted
+  to clients for their selection and afterwards
+  be increased in size.
+
+  Ribbons for Church Decoration.
+
+  Defects in Painting and how to remedy them.
+
+  Colours and how to mix them.
+
+  Hints on Practical Geometry and setting out of
+  work.
+
+  Symbols and Emblems in Church Decoration,
+  on Flags, in Heraldry, etc.
+
+  Poisoning and remedies.
+
+  Concise Dictionary of terms used in Painting,
+  Building, Architecture, Art, Applied Chemistry,
+  etc., etc., with many illustrations.
+
+  Hints on Paperhanging.
+
+  Tables for Wallpapers, English, French, and
+  American.
+
+  Table for ceiling papers.
+
+  Table of superficial yards.
+
+  Table of materials required according to the
+  surface to be painted.
+
+  Roman Numerals.
+
+  Table for calculating the price of Linseed Oil
+  and Turpentine.
+
+  Wages Table.
+
+  The Orders, Greek and Roman.
+
+  Table of Prices.
+
+  Table of discounts and percentages.
+
+  Colours and Pigments, permanent and otherwise.
+
+  Linseed Oil--percentage required for grinding
+  dry Pigments.
+
+  How oils are sold.
+
+  How far paints will spread.
+
+  Mensuration.
+
+  English and American gallons.
+
+  Specific gravity.
+
+  Table of Thermometrical degrees.
+
+  Superficial contents of squares of glass.
+
+  Ready reckoner.
+
+  Notes of Insurance.
+
+  Table of Pigments, etc., etc.
+
+  THE TRADE PAPERS PUBLISHING CO., LTD.,
+  365, Birkbeck Bank Chambers,
+  HIGH HOLBORN, W.C.
+
+PRACTICAL BOOKS FOR PAINTERS.
+
+  Post Free.
+
+  PAINT AND COLOUR MIXING. A Practical
+  Handbook for Painters, Decorators, Artists, and all
+  who have to mix colours. Containing 300 samples
+  of actual oil and water colours. By Arthur Seymour
+  Jennings                                               5/4
+
+  HOUSE PAINTING AND DECORATION. A
+  popular guide, by Arthur Seymour Jennings              2/3
+
+  PRACTICAL CHURCH DECORATION. A guide
+  to the Design and Execution of Decoration of
+  Churches, Chapels and Ecclesiastical Structures.
+  By Arthur Louis Duthie                                 3/3
+
+  SCUMBLING AND COLOUR GLAZING, illustrated
+  with 48 examples of glazed work. By Andrew Millar      3/3
+
+  ZINC OXIDE AND ITS USES. By J. Cruickshank
+  Smith                                                  2/3
+
+  PRACTICAL GILDING, BRONZING, LACQUERING
+  AND GLASS EMBOSSING. Illustrated
+  by actual examples of Gilded and Lacquered Relief
+  and other Decorations. By F. Scott-Mitchell            3/3
+
+  THE PAINTERS' AND BUILDERS' POCKET
+  BOOK. By Arthur Seymour Jennings. Consists of
+  252 pages, containing a large amount of information
+  of the greatest use to Painters and Builders           3/3
+
+  DECORATORS' SYMBOLS, EMBLEMS AND
+  DEVICES. By G. C. Rothery                              3/3
+
+  GRAINING AND MARBLING, THE PRACTICAL
+  ARTS OF. By James Petrie. Each plate measures
+  17-1/2 × 11-1/2 and gives the different stages of the work.
+  Published in 14 parts at 2/6 each, or bound volume
+                                                         25/-
+
+  Office of "THE DECORATOR,"
+  365, Birkbeck Bank Chambers,
+  High Holborn, London, W.C.
+
+PRACTICAL BOOKS FOR PAINTERS.
+
+  Post Free.
+
+  STENCILS AND STENCILLING. For all purposes,
+  Artistic and Decorative. 154 pages of designs. By
+  Arthur Louis Duthie                                             3/3
+
+  PAINT AND PAINTING DEFECTS, their Detection,
+  Cause and Cure. By J. Cruickshank Smith                         3/3
+
+  PAINTERS' BUSINESS BOOK. A manual of up-to-date
+  methods of obtaining business, submitting
+  Estimates, Book-keeping, Buying and Testing
+  materials, etc., with many tables. By C. E. Oliver              3/3
+
+  CLARK'S BOOK OF ALPHABETS, two parts.
+  For Signwriters, Designers, Decorators, and
+  Draughtsmen, each                                               1/2
+
+  HEWETT'S DISTINCTIVE LETTERING AND
+  DESIGNS                                                         1/2
+
+  KAEMMERER'S LETTER BOOK. Containing
+  several hundred alphabets in 140 plates, together
+  with descriptive text                                          18/6
+
+  THE ART OF SHOW CARD WRITING. By C. J.
+  Strong. Contains many beautiful Designs                        10/-
+
+  STRONG'S BOOK OF DESIGNS. Invaluable to
+  the Signpainter, Show Card Writer, etc. Containing,
+  in addition to Posters, Show Cards, Ribbons, etc.,
+  33 pages of ornamental work in Colour                          20/-
+
+  ATKINSON'S SIGN PAINTING, replete with original
+  Designs, Colour Combinations, etc.                             12/7
+
+  GRAINING, ANCIENT AND MODERN. By Wm.
+  E. Wall                                                        12/4
+
+  Office of "THE DECORATOR,"
+  365, Birkbeck Bank Chambers,
+  High Holborn, London, W.C.
+
+THE OFFICIAL ORGAN OF
+
+  The London Association of Foremen Engineers.
+      The Leeds Association of Engineers.
+  The Stoke-on-Trent Engineers' Association.
+
+Sixpence a Copy.
+
+_THE_
+
+_"Managing Engineer."_
+
+Five Shillings a Year.
+
+PUBLISHED BY
+
+THOMAS TOFTS, 93 & 94, Chancery Lane, London, W.C.
+
+
+
+
+              Transcribers Notes:
+
+Punctuation and spelling inaccuracies were silently corrected.
+
+Archaic and variable spelling has been preserved.
+
+Variations in hyphenation and compound words have been preserved.
+
+Fig 125. Design for Show Card is wrongly shown to be on page 223
+in the list of illustrations. This has been corrected to page 233.
+
+In the index 'Sheets Metal Dipping 40, 58', has been altered to 38, 58.
+Page 40 was a blank page and page 38 is near and in context
+but maybe an inaccurate alteration.
+
+Both middle and modern decimal points are used.
+
+Italics are shown thus: _sloping_.
+
+Bold type is shown thus: =shout=.
+
+Small capitals have been capitalised.
+
+The caret character (^) has been used to denote superscript.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Painting by Immersion and by
+Compressed Air, by Arthur Seymour Jennings
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 57562 ***