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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 57507 ***
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+         THE HOPI INDIANS
+
+
+         By WALTER HOUGH
+
+  Curator Division of Ethnology,
+  United States National Museum,
+        Washington, D. C.
+
+
+       [Publisher's device]
+
+
+        CEDAR RAPIDS, IOWA
+      THE TORCH PRESS, 1915
+
+
+            Copyright
+               1915
+        By The Torch Press
+             _April_
+
+
+
+
+               LITTLE HISTORIES
+           OF NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS
+
+                  Number Four
+
+
+             _IN THE SAME SERIES_
+
+
+                  THE NAVAHO
+
+               By Oscar H. Lipps
+  Supervisor in Charge, U. S. Indian School,
+                Carlisle, Penn.
+
+   With map and illustration in three colors
+
+
+                   THE IOWA
+
+            By William Harvey Miner
+
+    With map and illustrations in halftone
+
+
+        THE INDIANS OF GREATER NEW YORK
+
+              By Alanson Skinner
+      Assistant Curator of Anthropology,
+  American Museum of Natural History,
+                   New York
+
+           With a map of the region
+
+
+          Each Volume 12mo, $1.00 net
+                Delivery extra
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: A MADONNA AMONG THE MOKI
+    _Photo by P. G. Gates_]
+
+
+
+
+_To My Wife_
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  The Country, Towns, and Peoples          13
+
+  Social Life                              28
+
+  Food and Rearing                         49
+
+  The Workers                              69
+
+  Amusements                              102
+
+  Birth, Marriage, and Death              114
+
+  Religious Life                          132
+
+  Myths                                   179
+
+  Traditions and History                  201
+
+  Brief Biographies                       218
+
+  The Ancient People                      250
+
+  Index                                   263
+
+
+
+
+MESA FOLK OF HOPILAND
+
+
+
+
+_PREFACE_
+
+
+Whoever visits the Hopi falls perforce under the magic influence of
+their life and personality. If anyone entertains the belief that "a
+good Indian is a dead Indian," let him travel to the heart of the
+Southwest and dispel his illusions in the presence of the sturdy,
+self-supporting, self-respecting citizens of the pueblos. Many
+sojourns in a region whose fascinations are second to no other,
+experiences that were happy and associations with a people who
+interest all coming in contact with them combined to indite the
+following pages. If the writer may seem biased in favor of the "Quaker
+Indians," as Lummis calls them, be it known that he is moved by
+affection not less than by respect for the Hopi and moreover believes
+that his commendations are worthily bestowed.
+
+The recording of these sidelights on the Hopi far from being an
+irksome task has been a pleasure which it is hoped may be passed on to
+the reader, who may here receive an impression of a tribe of Indians
+living at the threshold of modern civilizing influences and still
+retaining in great measure the life of the ancient house-builders of
+the unwatered lands.
+
+To Mr. F. W. Hodge of the Bureau of American Ethnology of the
+Smithsonian Institution, a fellow worker in the Pueblo field, grateful
+acknowledgments are due for his criticism and advice in the
+preparation of this book. The frontispiece is by that distinguished
+amateur P. G. Gates of Pasadena. Under the auspices of the
+explorations carried on by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, for the Bureau of
+American Ethnology, the writer had in 1896 his first introduction to
+the Hopi, a favor and a pleasure that will always be remembered with
+gratitude on his part. The indebtedness of science to the researches
+of Dr. Fewkes among the Hopi is very great and this book has profited
+by his inspiration as well as by his counsel.
+
+
+
+
+I
+
+THE COUNTRY, TOWNS, AND PEOPLES
+
+
+The Hopi, or Peaceful People, as their name expresses, live in six
+rock-built towns perched on three mesas in northeastern Arizona. They
+number about 1,600 and speak a dialect of the language called the
+Shoshonean, the tongue of the Ute, Comanche, and other tribes in the
+United States. There is another town, called Hano, making up seven on
+these mesas, but its people are Tewas who came from the Rio Grande
+valley in New Mexico more than two centuries ago.
+
+There are a number of ways of reaching the Hopi pueblos. If one would
+go in by the east, he may choose to start from Holbrook on the Santa
+Fé Pacific Railroad, or Winslow (two days each), or by the west from
+Canyon Diablo (two days), or Flagstaff (three days). The estimates of
+time are based on "traveling light" and with few interruptions. A
+longer journey may be made from Gallup, during which the Canyon de
+Chelly, with its wonderful cliff dwellings, may be visited if one has
+a sufficient outfit and plenty of time.
+
+The home-land of the Hopi, known as Tusayan from old times, is a
+semi-desert, lying a mile and a quarter above sea-level. It is deeply
+scarred by canyons and plentifully studded with buttes and mesas,
+though there are vast stretches which seem level till one gets closer
+acquaintance. From the pueblos the view is open from the northwest to
+the southeast, and uninterrupted over the great basin of the Colorado
+Chiquito, or Little Colorado River, rimmed on the far horizon by the
+peaks of the San Francisco, Mogollon, and White Mountains, while in
+the other quarters broken mesas shut out the view.
+
+The rainfall almost immediately sinking into the sandy wastes,
+determines that there shall be no perennially-flowing rivers in
+Tusayan, and that springs must be few and far between and the most
+valued of all possessions. Were it not for winter snows and summer
+thunder-storms, Tusayan would be a desert indeed.
+
+The hardy grasses and desert plants do their best to cover the
+nakedness of the country; along the washes are a few cottonwoods; on
+the mesas are junipers and piñons; and in the higher lands to the
+north small oaks strive for an existence. At times, when the rains are
+favoring, plants spring up and the desert is painted with great masses
+of color; here and there are stretches green with grass or yellow with
+the flowering bunches of the "rabbit brush" or gray with the ice
+plant. In sheltered spots many rare and beautiful flowers may be
+found.
+
+The Hopi enjoy a summer climate the temperature of which is that of
+Maine and a winter climate that is far less severe than the latter,
+since most days are bright and the sun has power. Even in the warmest
+season the nights are cool, and an enjoyable coolness is found by day
+in the shade. The dryness of the region renders it ideal for healthful
+sleeping in the open air. A pure atmosphere like that of the sea
+bathes Tusayan; no microbes pollute it with their presence and it
+fills the body with good blood and an exhilaration like wine.
+
+Perforce the Hopi are agricultural, and since there is little game to
+be hunted, they are also largely vegetarians, their chief food being
+corn. When the corn crop fails the desert plants are relied on to
+prevent starvation. The Hopi thus form a good example of a people
+whose very existence depends on the plants of the earth, and it speaks
+well for their skill as farmers, in so unfavorable an environment,
+that there are any of them living in Tusayan at this day.
+
+Out of this environment the Hopi has shaped his religious beliefs,
+whose strenuous appeal is for food and life from the grasping
+destroyers of nature that whelm him. And in like manner he has drawn
+from this niggard stretch his house, his pottery, baskets, clothing
+and all the arts that show how man can rise above his environment. But
+let us have a closer view of this Indian who is so worthy of the
+respect of his superiors in culture.
+
+The Hopi man is moderate of stature, well-framed, hard-muscled, and
+agile, since he depended on his own feet for going anywhere and on his
+arms for work before the day of the burro and the horse. Black,
+straight hair worn long, brownish skin, the smooth and expressive face
+in the young men, intensifying as they grow older, bringing out the
+high cheek-bones, the nose, the large mouth and accenting them with
+wrinkles, but never developing a sullen, ferocious cast of
+countenance, always preserving the lines of worth and dignity and the
+pleasing curves of humor and good-fellowship to the end of
+life,--these are the salient characters of the Hopi.
+
+The same remarks apply to the other sex, who from childhood to old age
+run the course in milder degree. Many of the maidens are pretty and
+the matrons are comely and wholesome to behold. The old, wrinkled and
+bowed go their way with quiet mien and busy themselves with the light
+duties in which their experience counts for much.
+
+In spite of the luxuriant hair that adorns the heads of this people,
+one may notice the difference of head shape which distinguishes them
+from the tribes of the plains. The cradle-board is partly responsible
+for this, since, from infancy, the children are bound to the cradle
+and obliged to lie on the back for longer or shorter intervals, and
+thus begins the flattening of the back of the skull. But the heads of
+the women are rarely flattened, probably because the girls are not so
+well cared for as the boys.
+
+There are among the Hopi a greater number of albinos in proportion to
+the population than may be found almost anywhere else. They go about
+their avocations like the rest and are in no way regarded as different
+from their kin. The impulse is to address them in English, and one
+feels surprised when they do not comprehend. One albino maiden of
+Mishongnovi has a marvelous growth of golden hair which shows to great
+advantage in her ample hair whorls. Many students believe that
+albinism has its origin in the nervous system, and perhaps the
+timidity of the Hopi explains the number of these remarkable people in
+their midst; but this is a theory, based on a theory. It has been
+observed that some of the albinos are below the average in
+intelligence, and it has been ascertained that the larger proportion
+of them are second in order of birth in a family.
+
+From the number of old people in the pueblos one would gain the
+impression that the Hopi are long-lived. All things considered, this
+is doubtless the truth, but there are no statistics to settle the
+matter; besides, the question of age is a doubtful one among the Hopi
+themselves. If "sans everything" is any criterion of a centenarian,
+there are such among the Peaceful People. One must conclude that, on
+passing childhood, the average Hopi is due for a second term of the
+helpless period.
+
+"Welcome" is not written over every Hopi door, but the spirit of
+hospitality pervades the entire population. This is one of the
+pleasant features of the Pueblos and is the chief reason why the Hopi
+are held in friendly remembrance by visitors. An acquaintance with the
+Indians in the different pueblos of the Southwest will convince one
+that there is a considerable range of disposition among them. Perhaps
+the extremes are the untractable Santo Domingans and the
+impressionable Hopi. It seems to be a matter of the elements of which
+the tribes have been made up and of their past experiences and
+associations.
+
+High up on the gray rocks the Hopi towns look as though they were part
+of the native cliff. The seven towns,--though twenty miles and three
+distinct mesas separate the extremes,--Hano and Oraibi,--are built on
+the same stratum of sandstone. The rock shows tints of light red,
+yellow, and brown, and cleaves into great cubical pillars and blocks,
+leaving the face of the cliff always vertical. Trails at different
+points lead up over the low masses of talus and reach the flat top
+through crevices and breaks in this rock-wall, often over surfaces
+where pockets have been cut in the stone for hand and foot. A very
+little powder, properly applied, would render these mesas as difficult
+of ascent as the Enchanted Mesa near Acoma.
+
+Once on top and breathing normally after the four hundred feet or so
+of precipitous climbing, one sees why the outer walls of the towns
+seem to be a continuation of the living rock. The houses are built of
+slabs of stone of various sizes, quarried from the mesa and laid up
+in mud. They are of terrace style, rarely more than of two stories,
+flat-roofed, and grouped in masses so as to form streets and plazas
+and conforming to the irregularities of the surface and outline of the
+mesas. For this reason not much order can be found in a Hopi pueblo.
+The uneven surface of the mesas gives a varying height to the houses
+and increases the picturesqueness of the skyline.
+
+These Hopi towns are the most primitive of the inhabited pueblos.
+Before us is a picture of the ancient life as true as may be found in
+this day of inquisitive travelers and of rapid transportation to the
+ends of the earth. But this state of things is changing with
+increasing rapidity; the Hopi is becoming progressive and yearns for
+the things of the white man with increasing desire, therefore it is
+evident that, before many years, much that is charming in Tusayan by
+reason of the ancient touch about it will have vanished from the lives
+of its brown inhabitants.
+
+This change is most marked at Walpi, because the East Mesa people have
+longest been in contact with the civilizing influences of schools,
+missions, and trading posts; besides, they were always apparently the
+most tractable of the Hopi. Many families have abandoned the villages
+on the cliffs, and their modern, red-roofed houses dotting the lower
+ground near the fields show the tendency to forsake the crowded
+hill-towns. But the old towns exist in all their primitiveness and
+furnish bits of surpassing interest to lovers of the picturesque. To
+these the bulk of the conservative Hopi still cling with all the force
+of their inherited instinct.
+
+Two centuries ago visitors arrived at Walpi from the Rio Grande. These
+were a tribe of Tewa, invited to come to Tusayan to aid in fighting
+off the Apache and Ute, those wily nomad adversaries with whom the
+Peaceful People for so long had to contend. Here they have lived ever
+since in their village of Hano, at the head of the most readily
+accessible trail up the mesa, preserving their language and customs,
+and besides their own tongue, speaking well the language of their
+friends and neighbors. The Tewa brought with them their potter's art
+and now have the honor to be practically the only makers of
+earthenware in Tusayan. Nampeo is the best potter at Hano and her work
+shows her to be a worthy descendant of the ancient artists, whose
+graceful vessels lie with the bones of the dead beneath the sands of
+the great Southwest.
+
+Beyond Hano, and midway between it and Walpi, is Sichomovi, which
+signifies "flower mound." Sichomovi, if we may judge from the good
+preservation of its houses and the regularity with which the town is
+laid out, seems to be comparatively new, and indeed, there is
+traditionary testimony to this effect. The dusky historians of Walpi
+relate the circumstances of its foundation, when the yellow flowers
+grew in the crevices of the rock at the place where several stranger
+clans were allowed to settle.
+
+Passing out of Sichomovi and crossing a narrow neck of the mesa
+traversed by a well-worn trail, Walpi is reached. This village from
+different points of view presents the appearance of a confused jumble
+of dilapidated houses, and a walk through its alleys and passages
+confirms the impression. Walpi was a town of necessity and was erected
+in 1590, having been moved up from a lower point after troubles with
+the Spanish conquistadores.
+
+Looking down from the town one may trace the site of Old Walpi and
+descry the pottery-strewn mounds of still older settlements, since
+around this mesa the first comers to Tusayan probably located. At the
+foot of the mesa are also springs and shrines, one of the latter being
+the true "center of the world" to the Hopi mind, a point which gave
+the ancients much trouble to determine. Along the ledges are corrals
+for the motley flocks of black and white sheep and goats, adepts in
+subsisting on all sorts of unpalatable brush. Farther down in the
+level are the fields, at the proper season green with the prospect of
+corn, melons, and beans.
+
+Walpi streets are the living rock of the mesa worn smooth by human
+feet and swept by the officious wind-god, whose dry air, with the aid
+of the sun, form the board of health of the Hopiland. This rocky
+surface must have been a great trial to the _kiva_ builders, as
+traditional custom requires that such meeting places of the secret
+societies or brotherhoods should be underground. The _kivas_ along the
+streets thus represent a great amount of work in their construction,
+and it is clear that, when the builders found a cleft in the rock or a
+niche in the cliff-edge, they appropriated it as the site of a _kiva_,
+then built an outer wall overhanging the precipice and prepared the
+deep oblong room with toilsome labor, for they had only the rude tools
+of the stone age.
+
+The two poles of the ladder project from the _kiva_ hatchway, and one
+may descend if no ceremony is on hand. There is not much to see except
+an empty, smoke-blackened room with stone-paved floor, plastered
+walls, and ceiling crossed by heavy beams. Just in front of the ladder
+is a fireplace, consisting of a stone box sunk in the floor, and the
+portion of the room back of the ladder is elevated. These subterranean
+chambers are now found in use only in Tusayan, where this manner of
+building them, along with many other ancient customs, has been
+preserved by the Hopi through many generations.
+
+Hopi houses are small, and as in the other pueblos of the Southwest,
+the first families live in the second story, which is reached by a
+ladder. In recent times, though, the ground floor, which formerly was
+used chiefly for storage, has been cleaned out, furnished with doors,
+and occupied as habitations. Steps on the dividing walls lead to the
+upper story and the roof forms a general loitering-place. The living
+room is kept in good order, and a goodly array of blankets, harness,
+and clothes hanging from a swinging pole are looked on with pride and
+complacency. In the granary, which is generally a back room, the ears
+of corn are often sorted by color and laid up in neat walls and one
+year's crop is always kept in reserve for a bad season. Red corn,
+yellow corn, white corn, blue corn, black corn, and mottled corn make
+a Hopi grain room a study in color. Three oblong hollowed stones or
+metates of graded fineness are sunk in the floor of every Hopi house,
+and on these, with another stone held in the hands, the corn is ground
+to fine meal, the grinders singing shrill songs at their back-breaking
+work.
+
+In the corner of the baking-room is a fireplace covered with a smoke
+hood and containing slabs of stone for the baking of _piki_, or paper
+bread, while scattered about are many baskets, jars, bowls, cups, and
+other utensils of pottery well fitted for the purposes of the Hopi
+culinary art. Outside the house is a sunken pit in which corn-pudding
+is baked.
+
+These and many other things about the Hopi villages will interest the
+visitor, who will not have serious difficulty in overlooking the
+innovations or in obtaining a clear idea of Pueblo life as it was in
+the times long past.
+
+If one crosses the plain to the three villages of the Middle Mesa, he
+will find still less of the effect of contact with modern things.
+Mushongnovi, the second town of Tusayan in point of size, presented as
+late as 1906 a perfect picture of an unmodified pueblo on its giant
+mesa, the eastern and northern walls of the town blank and high like
+the face of a cliff. Within this closely-built village the terraced
+houses face the streets and open plazas, after the ancient fashion.
+Because of their harmony with their primitive surroundings, one
+hesitates to believe in the modernness of the chimneys of these
+pueblos, yet it appears to be true that the idea is of Spanish
+introduction.
+
+Shipaulovi, on its high vantage point, seems newer than Shumopavi, its
+neighbor, the latter being the most regular pueblo in Tusayan. Some
+fifteen miles beyond Shumopavi is Oraibi, the largest of the seven
+Hopi towns, whose rough walls give it an appearance of great age.
+Oraibi held out longest against the white intruders, and even now
+would much prefer to be left alone in the enjoyment of its accustomed
+ways, but the school-houses and the red roofs brought by the white man
+increasingly menace its old-world notions.
+
+The nearest neighbors of the Hopi are the Navaho, that large and
+rapidly growing tribe who are what they call themselves, _Dene_,
+"men." They crowd upon the Hopi, and when the opportunity offers
+"raise" some stock or dictate with sublime egotism the conduct of the
+ceremonies. Several hundred years of contact with the pueblo folk have
+made the once uncultured Navaho in many respects like them. The timid
+Hopi do not choose to affiliate with the Navaho, but marriages are not
+infrequent among members of the two tribes. Generally it is a Navaho
+brave who seeks a Hopi maiden to wife, coming to live with her
+people, but rarely does a Hopi youth lead a "Teshab" girl to his
+hearth as did Anowita of Walpi.
+
+A few Zuñi have cast their lot at Tusayan and several of the latter
+live at Zuñi and in some of the Rio Grande pueblos. Not many years
+ago, a Hopi was chief of an important fraternity at Sia, a pueblo on
+the Jemez River in New Mexico. The Zuñi are quite neighborly and visit
+Tusayan to witness the ceremonies or to exchange necklaces of shell
+and turquoise beads for blankets. Tradition has it that some of the
+clans from the Rio Grande came by way of Zuñi and that Sichomovi has a
+strong admixture from that pueblo. In support of this it may be said
+that the Zuñi visitors are usually domiciled at Sichomovi, where they
+seem very much at home, and many of the people there speak the Zuñi
+language.
+
+At the time of the ceremonies, especially those performed in summer,
+Tewa from the Rio Grande pueblos come to visit and trade and enjoy the
+merrymaking that attends the dances. Some of the people of Hano have
+visited their relatives on the Rio Grande, but few of the Hopi are so
+far-traveled in these days. There has been for centuries, however,
+more or less communication across the vast stretch of arid country
+lying between the Great River and Tusayan, and in a number of
+instances in the distant past, whole tribes have emigrated from the
+east to the Hopi country where they have founded new towns. Although
+100 miles away, the Havasupai may also be regarded as near neighbors
+who cross the desert to sell their fine baskets and superior
+white-tanned deerskins, for which articles there is great demand. The
+Hopi also traverse the sandy waste to visit the "People of the
+Ladders," as they call the Havasupai, and bring back sacred red ocher
+and green copper stone for pigments. The Havasupai and Hopi are
+likewise linked by traditions of an ancient time.
+
+Long ago, say the Hopi, the Paiute, who are uncultured but strong in
+the art of warfare, came down from the north and harassed them until
+the people of Hano vanquished them. The Paiute, although remotely
+related, were not friendly to the Hopi, and besides, there was much of
+value to be seized from the mesa-dwellers. For this reason the Hopi
+did not cultivate the friendship with the Paiute and the only one of
+that tribe living in Tusayan is "Tom Sawyer," whose portrait is drawn
+in another place.
+
+Nor were the Apache more desirable neighbors. The Hopi tell of the
+troublous times when these nomads came from the south and compelled
+them to draw up their ladders from the cliff at night. Still, Paiute
+and Apache baskets and other aboriginal manufactures found their way
+to the pueblos, who were always cosmopolitan in their tastes and did
+not allow tribal enmity to interfere with trade.
+
+Far to the south another people were friends of the Hopi. Very long
+ago the Pima were closer neighbors and allies of some of the Hopi
+clans, who touched them in their wide migrations, which brought them
+to the "Palatkwabi." This is the Red Land of the south, lying on the
+Verde River and its tributaries. The Hopi lay claim to the Tonto Basin
+in southern Arizona, which has been thought to be their ancient
+country since far and wide over this southern region is found the
+yellow pottery so characteristic of the golden age of the Hopi.
+Sometimes still the Hopi visit the Pima, and it is known that formerly
+they joined in a fair that was held in the Pima country and brought
+back various commodities in exchange for their own products. Even
+today agave sweetmeats and alder bark, the latter used for dyeing
+leather, are found in Hopi dwellings, having been brought from beyond
+"Apache House," as they call the region south of the San Francisco
+Mountains where the Apache formerly lived.
+
+
+
+
+II
+
+SOCIAL LIFE
+
+
+When the crops are harvested and Indian summer is gone and the cold
+winds buffet the mesas, the Hopi find comfort in their substantial
+houses around their hearth-stones. The change of the season enforces a
+pleasant reunion and the people who were occupied with the care as
+well as the delights of outdoor summer life, begin to get acquainted
+again.
+
+The men have plenty of idle time on their hands,--the masks need
+repairing and refurbishing with new colors; there are always moccasins
+to be made; the carvers of dolls construct these odd painted figures
+from cottonwood procured during the summer, and the weaver works at
+his loom. Now the basket maker draws on her stock of split yucca
+leaves, twigs and grass, but the potter's craft is in abeyance till
+the warm months.
+
+One would think that the winter work falls pretty severely on the
+women, but their duties are largely the same in all seasons. There is
+corn to be ground, food to be prepared, and water to be carried up the
+steep trails. The winter store must be guarded against mice and
+vermin and occasionally sunned on the roof. There are, no doubt, many
+cares and much labor, but the women take their time and everyone, from
+the little child to the experienced old grandmother, lends a helping
+hand. A Hopi woman would perhaps not understand our kind commiseration
+for the lot that her sex has experienced and thriven under from time
+immemorial.
+
+Winter in Tusayan is more enjoyable than otherwise, as the sun is
+bright and the sky a clear blue. The snows of winter are nearly as
+rare as the rain-storms of summer, much to the regret of the Hopi.
+Often the cold at night is intense, but the day may have the crisp
+though mild air of a rare day in spring at the East.
+
+Not much change comes over the landscape of Tusayan by the advent of
+winter. There are few trees to lose their leaves after a gorgeous
+pageant of farewell. The desert plants scarcely ever alter the
+appearance of the earth by their leaf tints of spring, summer, or
+autumn; with their diminutive leaves and sober color they sink into
+the vast surface and are lost among the vivid aerial tints and the
+bright hues of the rocks and plains. There are no rivers to be covered
+by a sheen of ice, and rarely does a mantle of snow reach across the
+deserts from the snow-clad mountains. The winds rave and whirlwinds
+swirl the sand along the plain in giant columns, while the sun hangs
+lower and lower in the southwest until the Hopi fear that he will
+finally depart and leave them in the grasp of winter. But the priests
+have potent charms to draw him back, and after the Soyaluna ceremony
+at the winter solstice anyone can see that the sun no longer wanders.
+
+Those Hopi who have not laid in a supply of fuel must go
+wood-gathering right speedily when cold weather approaches, for the
+trees are distant and the day is hardly long enough to get a burro
+load piled on the house wall. Every morning also the flocks of sheep
+and goats must be driven out from the corrals on the ledges under the
+mesas, to browse on the leafless brush.
+
+October is called the Harvest moon. The women who garner the grain
+hold a ceremony at this time and great is the feasting and rejoicing
+in the pueblo. The winter tightens in November, called the "Neophyte
+moon," since the youths of proper age are initiated into the societies
+in this month. These beginners bear the sportive name of "Pigeon
+Hawks." In even years comes the great ceremony of the New Fire, full
+of strange rites of fire worship handed down from the olden time. In
+odd years occurs the Na-a-ish-nya ceremony, which like the other is
+performed by the New Fire Society. By December, Tusayan is hard in the
+grip of winter, and as the spirits are held fast beneath the frozen
+ground, they cannot do ill to anyone who speaks about them, so that
+many legends and stories and much sacred lore are freely divulged
+around the glowing fires of fat piñon wood in the Hopi houses.
+Everyone is also on the qui vive for the Soyaluna, in many respects
+the most important ceremony in the Hopi calendar, when the first
+kachinas appear. December is called the "Hoe moon" because in this
+month it is prescribed that the fields shall be cleared for the spring
+planting. The wind has perhaps done its share toward clearing movable
+things from the fields, but much remains to be done in leveling the
+surface for the spring sowing.
+
+No month of winter is too cold for a ceremony. January, called the
+"Prayer-stick moon," brings the Alosaka, a ceremony of the Horn
+Society with their grotesque masks. During the vicissitudes of this
+hard month, more of the beloved kachinas return to their people from
+the high peaks of the San Francisco Mountains, poetically known as the
+"snow houses," and to these ancestral beings many petitions are made.
+
+February, the hardest month of all the winter, is called the
+"Getting-ready moon." It was in this month that the hero of the
+Kachina people found melons and green corn near the San Francisco
+Mountains. The Powamu ceremony is held during this moon.
+
+If the Hopi should have nearly reached the starvation point, March is
+likely to inspire a hope of reaching the end of the disastrous season,
+for in sheltered places a few shoots of green appear, and if the
+moisture from melting snow is sufficient, perhaps the little _wiwa_
+plant springs up, furnishing palatable and nourishing greens. For some
+reason March is called the "Prickly-pear moon," and it is the only
+month named from a natural object. Perhaps the designation points to a
+time when some of the Hopi lived in a clime where the prickly-pear
+bloomed in March. This might have been in southern Arizona, whence a
+number of clans, for instance, such as the "Agave People," have
+derived their names. March ushers in the most disagreeable part of the
+year, the season of fierce winds charged with dust and sand which
+drift like snow against the sides of the mesas.
+
+This chronicle of the winter of the Hopi, incomplete as it is, shows
+that the "Peaceful People" get a great deal of enjoyment out of life
+at this season. Many important ceremonies belong to the wintertime and
+there are conventions of the different societies. In the underground
+meeting-places those entitled to the privileges drop in for gossip, as
+at a club, being sure of warmth, agreeable company, and perhaps a
+smoke to while away the time. Around the fireside, also, there is a
+good company, and plenty of stories, well worth the hearing, are told.
+The men may go hunting or make a winter journey to the settlements or
+the mountains.
+
+As for the cold, the Hopi seem to regard it lightly. There is little
+or no change in the costume, though the blanket or the rabbit-fur robe
+comes in handy for a wrap. If a man has an errand out of doors he
+trusts to running to keep up the circulation. After the ceremonies,
+the men usually ascend, scantily clothed, from the superheated _kivas_
+into the bitter air, with utter disregard for the rules of health. The
+purity of the air is a saving factor; nevertheless, pulmonary diseases
+are common, due to the close, badly ventilated houses more than to any
+other causes.
+
+Most visitors to Tusayan see the Hopiland at the best season, when the
+cornfields are green and the cottonwoods are in full leaf, when the
+desert smiles to its greatest capability and the people are well fed
+and happy. The rebirth of Nature begins in April, when the thrifty
+farmers cut brush and set up long wind-breaks to protect prospective
+crops. The month is named for this circumstance, and like everything
+else at the pueblos the time for beginning work is prescribed,
+according to custom, by those in authority over the clans.
+
+Frosts and lashing winds often destroy every green shoot in the
+spring, save the native plants, which are inured to the weather, and
+the people frequently have to mourn the loss of their peaches, their
+only desirable fruit, for which they owe a debt to the Spanish friars
+of long ago.
+
+In the "Waiting moon," as May is called, all is activity in the
+fields, for the planting of the sweet corn goes merrily on and the
+Hopi become, for most of the time, an outdoor people. The winds
+perhaps have abated their power or have ceased entirely, and life is
+more pleasant under the warm sun. Still, with all the work incident to
+the care of the fields there is time for ceremony and during the
+period between the arrival of the kachinas in December and their
+departure in July, there are many minor celebrations by masked dancers
+in addition to the great monthly ceremonies. Especially interesting in
+the season of awakening life and growing crops are these kachina
+dances with their pleasing songs and pageantry, their unlimited
+variety and surprises. The "Peaceful People" enjoy this season in the
+highest degree. June and July see every Hopi happy, unless there is
+something constitutionally wrong with him or he is afflicted with
+sickness. It is difficult to realize how thoroughly all Hopi life is
+linked with growing things, showing out in their every word and action
+and entering into their ideas of the unseen world.
+
+When the sun pauses in his march along the eastern horizon at the
+summer solstice, the Hopi spend the day in making feather
+prayer-plumes as petitions for blessings. These children of the sun
+know the course of _Dawa_, the sun, and read his positions as we the
+hands of a clock.
+
+With the departure of the kachinas a new class of ceremonies begins.
+The dancers who previously appeared in strange masks and headgear now
+perform unmasked, and the cumbrous paraphernalia is laid away for
+another year. The great event of the summer, the Snake Dance, is now
+at hand, and everyone sets about preparing for a good time. In the
+latter part of August, after this ceremony, the pueblo resumes its
+normal state and the people settle down to the feast of good things
+from their fields, which they attack with primitive zest and
+enjoyment. It is greatly to the credit of the Hopi that they work well
+and rest well like the unconscious philosophers they are.
+
+The moon of September watches over a scene of peace and plenty in
+Tusayan. The cool, clear nights betoken that frosts and the time of
+harvest are approaching. The heat of summer is gone and the season is
+ideal.
+
+Since the Hopi are good people one would infer that they need no
+rulers. One might live among the Hopi for some time and not wittingly
+come in contact with a chief or a policeman or any evidence of laws,
+but the rulers and laws are there nevertheless.
+
+The voice of the town crier awakens one to the fact that here is the
+striking apparatus of some sort of a social clock. It will be found
+that there is an organization of which the crier is the ultimate
+utterance. Chiefs are there in abundance, the house chief, the kiva
+chief, the war chief, the speaker chief who is the crier; chiefs of
+clans, who are chiefs of the fraternities: all these are members of
+the council that rules the pueblo. The council meets on occasion and
+acts for the common weal, and the village chief publishes their
+mandates by crier.
+
+In this most democratic organization the agents of the Government who
+wish to treat with the Hopi, not finding a responsible head, felt
+forced to appoint one. Thus each Hopi pueblo received a supreme ruler,
+who neither deceived himself nor the people as to the power he
+acquired from Washington, which was nil. The true rulers are the heads
+of the clans, and by their wise advice and their knowledge of the
+traditional unwritten laws everything is regulated for the tractable
+Hopi. Each pueblo acts for itself and knows nothing and cares less for
+the doings of the other pueblos, so there has never been a league of
+Hopi tribes. In a few instances there was a temporary unity of action,
+as when the people of other pueblos destroyed Awatobi, an event
+related circumstantially in the tradition. (See p. 210.) Traces of
+this independence of action abound in the Southwest. The ancient ruins
+show that the clans built each its house cluster apart from the others
+and moved when it liked. The present villages are made up of clans and
+fragments of clans, each living in the ward where it settled when it
+joined the others in the old time.
+
+These clans are larger families of blood relations, who trace their
+descent from the mother and who have a general family name or totem,
+as Eagle, Tobacco Plant, Cloud, etc. Although no blood relationship
+may be traceable between them, no youth and maid of the same clan may
+marry, and this seems to be the first law of the clan. The working of
+the strange law of mother-right makes the children of no clan
+relation to the father. Since the woman owns the house and the
+children, the father is only a sojourner in the clan of his wife.
+
+Another law of the greater family was that of mutual help, providing
+for the weak, infirm, and unprotected members. From this grows the
+hospitality of the Indian, and nowhere does this graceful custom
+prevail more than among the Hopi.
+
+As if in recognition of the interests of the whole people in the
+farming lands the messengers sent out to bear plume-prayers to the
+nature gods while the ceremonies are in progress encircle all the
+fields of the pueblo, so that all may receive the blessings of rain.
+While the lands are spoken of as belonging to the village, they are
+known to have been immemorially divided among the clans, hence at
+Walpi the oldest and otherwise ranking clans have the best land. The
+division of the land in severalty by the United States government some
+years ago had no effect on the ancient boundaries and no one but the
+surveyor knows where his lines ran.
+
+Every once in a while the Hopi have a "raising," but instead of the
+kind and willing neighbors of the "bee" in the States, here the
+workers are clan relations. Coöperation or communal effort goes a long
+way toward explaining why the days of the Pueblo dweller are long in
+the land and the Mormon settlers in the Southwest also followed this
+primitive law which goes into effect wherever men are gathered for the
+common weal.
+
+Laws are but expressions of common sense formulated by the wisest and
+most experienced. The Hopi must have good laws, for though their laws
+are stronger by far than those written and refined by civilization,
+the people observe them unconsciously and never feel the burden. There
+are so few infractions of the law that it is difficult to say what the
+various punishments are. The taking of life by force or law is
+unknown; the respect of mine and thine is the rule among the Hopi, and
+so on through the temptations of life that beset mortals. There is no
+desire to place the Hopi on a pedestal and declare them perfect, for
+they are not; but in many ways they set their civilized brothers an
+example. As to punishment, it is probable that a loss of standing in a
+fraternity, ostracism from the clan or pueblo, and ridicule are the
+suasive penalties.
+
+With the increased influence of education and contact with white
+people the business side of the Hopi is being brought out, and because
+from time immemorial they have been chief among the traffickers in the
+primitive commerce of the Southwest, they have rapidly assimilated the
+devices of modern trade. They have their own native merchants and are
+gradually becoming independent of the trader. The latter say they
+would rather deal with six Navaho than one Hopi, because the Navaho
+does not haggle, while the Hopi, with the thrift that is bringing him
+to the front, is determined to get the benefit of a bargain.
+
+The Pueblo folk retire early and leave the safety of the village to
+the patrol. Some one is always on guard about the pueblo, whether it
+be the children amusing themselves on the rocks,--and these little
+folks have eyes as sharp as any,--or the grown people looking off into
+the country for "signs," a custom which has become habitual with them.
+The night patrol is a survival of the times when the whole village was
+a committee of safety, for the outside foes were fierce and
+treacherous.
+
+If running about the town keeping the dogs barking and good folks
+awake is the principal office of the patrol, then it is eminently
+successful and the pueblos furnish nocturnal noises on the scale of
+the cities of civilization. The tradition of the coming of the Flute
+clan speaks of the watchman of Walpi, who was Alosaka, a horned being
+alert as a mountain sheep. The Flute migrants also sent out "Mountain
+Sheep" to ascertain whether human beings lived in the locality. During
+some of the ceremonies there are vigilant patrols, and on a few
+ceremonial days no living being is allowed to come into the pueblo
+from the outside, formerly under pain of death at the hands of the
+fraternity guards. It is thought that the trouble arising between the
+Spaniards and the Hopi on that first visit to Tusayan in 1540 was due
+to a violation of the ceremonial bar, and not to the belligerent habit
+of the Indians.
+
+The village shepherds have an easy, though very monotonous
+occupation. They have the advantage of other Arizona shepherds because
+their charges are brought at nightfall into secure corrals among the
+rocks below the town and do not require care till morning. Frequently
+one sees a woman and a child driving the herd around, in what seems a
+vain search for green things that a sheep with a not too fastidious
+appetite might eat. Formerly, at least, the office of herder was
+bestowed by the village chief, much as was once the case with the
+village swineherd or gooseherd of Europe in olden time.
+
+Perhaps a visitor straying about a Hopi village at a time when there
+are no ceremonies in progress may find a quaint street market,
+conducted by a few women squatted on the ground, with their wares
+spread in front of them. Such markets are only a faint reflection of
+those which have been held in Mexico from time immemorial; but it is
+interesting to know that the Hopi have such an institution, because it
+shows a step in political economy that has been rarely noticed among
+the Indians in the United States. The little barter by exchange that
+goes on here, accompanied with the jollity of the Hopi women, has in
+it the germ of commerce with its world-embracing activities. Here it
+is found also that woman has her place as the beginner and promoter of
+buying and selling as she has in the inception of many other lines of
+human progress.
+
+Honi, the speaker-chief, is the living newspaper of Walpi, or rather
+he is a vocal bulletin-board. Like the reader for the United States
+Senate, his voice is of the robust kind, and for this qualification,
+perhaps, he was selected to make the numerous announcements from the
+housetops. His news is principally of a religious character, such as
+the beginning and progress of the many ceremonies at the pueblo, but
+there is a fair sprinkling of secular notices of interest to the
+community. Honi, however, is only a voice crying in the wilderness at
+the bidding of the secret council or of the heads of the brotherhoods
+who are the true rulers of the pueblos, because they have the destiny
+of the flock in their hands. He holds, however, the office of
+speaker-chief, the pay of which is not highly remunerative, but the
+duties do not interfere with the pursuit of other occupations, since
+his announcements are made usually when the people have gathered in
+the town after their day's labor in the fields. No doubt, Honi regards
+himself and is regarded by others as an important functionary who,
+with the house chief, has the privilege of frequenting the Mong-kiva
+or council chamber of the pueblo. The town crier's announcements
+attracted the notice of the Spanish conquerors in the early days as
+they have that of modern travelers. In the quaint language of
+Castañeda, speaking of Zuñi: "They have priests who preach to them
+whom they call papas. These are the elders. They go up on the highest
+roof of the village and preach to the village from there, like public
+criers in the morning while the sun is rising, the whole village
+being silent and sitting in the galleries, to listen. They tell them
+how to live, and I believe that they give certain commandments for
+them to keep."
+
+It must be admitted that Honi's is an ancient and honorable office,
+found useful by civilized communities before the time of newspapers
+and surviving yet, as the _sereno_ of Spain.
+
+It is surprising, by the way, how fast news flies in Hopiland. The
+arrival of a white man is known the whole length and breadth of
+Tusayan in an incredibly short time. A fondness for small talk,
+together with the dearth of news, make it incumbent upon every Hopi,
+when anything happens, to pass the word along.
+
+To a visitor encamped below the Walpi mesa the novelty of hearing the
+speaker-chief for the first time is a thing long to be remembered. Out
+of the darkness and indescribable silence of the desert comes a voice,
+and such a voice! From the heights above it seems to come out of space
+and to be audible for an infinite distance. It takes the form of a
+chant, long drawn and full of sonorous quality. Everyone listens
+breathlessly to the important message, and when the crier finishes
+after the third repetition, an Indian informs us that the substance of
+the announcement was that the wire which "Washington" had promised to
+send had come and that in two days the villages would go out to build
+fences.
+
+That Honi's messages are worth hearing is witnessed by the following
+announcement of the New Fire ceremony. Honi, standing on the housetop
+at sun-up, intones:
+
+    All people awake, open your eyes, arise,
+    Become children of light, vigorous, active, sprightly;
+    Hasten, Clouds, from the four world-quarters.
+    Come, Snow, in plenty, that water may abound when summer appears.
+    Come, Ice, and cover the fields that after planting, they may yield
+        abundantly.
+    Let all hearts be glad.
+    The Wuwutchimtu will assemble in four days.
+    They will encircle the villages, dancing and singing.
+    Let the women be ready to pour water upon them
+    That moisture may come in plenty and all shall rejoice.
+
+This is a good example of the poetry of the Hopi which, in the kachina
+songs, is of no low degree of artistic expression.
+
+The Hopi use the world for a dial and the sun for the clock-hand. The
+sun-priest from his observatory on a point of the mesa watches the
+luminary as carefully as any astronomer. He determines the time for
+the beginning of each ceremony or important event in the life of the
+pueblo, such as corn planting, by the rising or setting of the sun
+behind a certain peak or notch in the marvelous mountain profile on
+the eastern and western horizons. These profiles are known to him as
+we know the figures on a watch face. Along them he notes the march of
+the seasons, and at the proper time the town-crier chants his
+announcement from the housetops.
+
+The clear air of Tusayan renders the task of the sun-priest easy; this
+primitive astronomer has the best of skies for observation. By day the
+San Francisco peaks, a hundred miles away, stand clearly silhouetted
+on the horizon; by night the stars are so brilliant that one can
+distinguish objects by their light.
+
+The Hopi also know much of astronomy, and not only do they have names
+for the planets and particular stars, but are familiar with many
+constellations, the Pleiades especially being venerated, as among many
+primitive peoples. The rising and position of the Pleiades determine
+the time of some important ceremonies when the "sweet influences"
+reign. Any fixed star may be used to mark off a period of time by
+position and progress in the heavens as the sun is used by day. The
+moon determines the months, but there is no word for "year" or for the
+longer periods of time. Days are marked by "sleeps," thus today is
+_pui_ or "now"; the days of the week are two sleeps, three sleeps,
+etc.; _tabuco_ is "yesterday."
+
+While the larger periods of time are kept with accuracy, so that the
+time of beginning the ceremonies varies but little from year to year,
+the Hopi have poor memories for dates. No one knows his age, and many
+of these villages seem to live within the shifting horizons of
+yesterday and tomorrow. The priests, however, keep a record of the
+ceremonies by adding to their _tiponi_, or palladium of their society,
+a feather for each celebration. At Zuñi a record of the death of
+priests of the war society is kept by making scratches on the face of
+a large rock near a shrine, and by this method a Hopi woman keeps
+count of the days from the child's birth to the natal ceremony. Ask a
+Hopi when some event happened, and he will say, "_Pai he sat o_,"
+meaning "some time ago, when my father was a boy"; stress on the word
+means a longer time, and if the event was long beyond the memory of
+man, the Indian will almost shake his head off with emphasis.
+
+The only notched time-stick is that jealously guarded by the sun
+priest, and no one knows just how he makes his calculations from it.
+
+As for dinner time, the great sun and "the clock inside" attend to
+that; _dawa yamu_, _dawa nashab_, and _dawa poki_ stand for "sunrise,"
+"noonday," and "sunset." If the Hopi makes an appointment for a
+special hour, he points to where the sun will be at that time. The
+seasons are known to him in a general way as the time of the cold or
+snow, the coming back of the sun (winter solstice), the time of bean
+or corn planting, the time of green corn, the time of harvest, etc.,
+but there is a calendar marked by the ceremonies held during each
+month.
+
+Perhaps these children of the sun are happier in not being slaves of
+the second as we have become. Our watches, which they call _dawa_,
+"the sun," have not bound them to the wheel by whose turning we seem
+to advance. They are satisfied with the grander procession of the
+heavenly bodies, and their days fade into happy forgetfulness.
+
+An experience of several years ago may here be related in order to
+show how the clan name of a Hopi is a veritable part of himself and
+also links him to his clan and the most intimate religious and secular
+life of the pueblo.
+
+There was a jolly crowd of Hopi under the dense shade of a cottonwood
+on the Little Colorado River one hot day in July. The mound of earth,
+strewn with chips of flint and potsherds like a buried city on the
+Euphrates, had yielded its secrets, and the house walls of the ancient
+town of Homolobi resembled a huge honeycomb on the bluff.
+
+The Hopi, who had worked like Trojans in laying bare the habitations
+of their presumptive ancestors, were now assembled to receive their
+wages in silver dollars, which they expressively call "little white
+cakes." Around were scattered the various belongings of an Indian
+camp, among which tin cans were prominent; a wind-break had been
+constructed of cottonwood boughs; from the tree hung the shells of
+turtles caught in the river; a quantity of wild tobacco was spread out
+to dry in the sun, and several crop-eared burros hobbling about on
+three legs were enjoying an unusually luxuriant pasture of sage-brush.
+
+"Paying off" is surrounded with attractions for all sorts and
+conditions of men. The Hopi seemed like a lot of children anticipating
+a holiday, as they sat in a circle around Dr. Fewkes, who was
+paymaster. This was their first experience, perhaps, with Government
+"red tape," of whose intricacies they must have had but the faintest
+idea. There are times when blissful ignorance is to be envied.
+
+The "sub-vouchers" were filled out with the time of service and the
+amount to be paid, and as the doctor's clerk called out the names, the
+boys came forward to sign. An Indian sign his name! Curiously enough,
+every Hopi from the least to the greatest can sign his name, and he
+does not have to resort to the "X-mark" of our boasted civilization.
+
+Perhaps it would be better to say "draws his name," for when the first
+Indian grasped the pen in the most unfamiliar way imaginable, he drew
+the picture of a rabbit, the next drew a tobacco plant, the third a
+lizard, and so on, until the strangest collection of signatures that
+ever graced a Government voucher-book was completed.
+
+It must be explained that each Hopi has an everyday name which his
+fond relatives devised for him during infancy, and a clan name, which
+shows his blood relationship or family. Nowhere, even in these days of
+ancestor hunting, is more importance given to family than in Hopiland.
+If you ask, "Who is this man?" the answer may be, for instance,
+"Kopeli," his individual name. "But what is he in Walpi?" "He is a
+_chua_," that is, he belongs to the important Snake clan and his totem
+signature is a crawling reptile.
+
+It affords great amusement to the Hopi when a person, not acquainted
+with their customs, asks a man his name; it is also very embarrassing
+to the man asked, unless there is a third party at hand to volunteer
+the service, because no Hopi can be prevailed on to speak his own name
+for fear of the bad consequences following "giving himself away."
+
+
+
+
+III
+
+FOOD AND REARING
+
+
+Indian legend tells of a time when all was water; then land was made;
+for a long time the earth was too wet for human beings and at last the
+earth was dried out by a mighty fire. All these are pretty stories for
+those who are looking for deluge legends and the effects of blazing
+comets, but if the Indian account is true, the drying process was
+carried entirely too far in the Southwest. Water! water! water! The
+word gains a new significance in this arid region. There is a
+rippling, cooling, refreshing note in it, a soothing of parched lips
+and a guaranty against death from thirst. So, all conversation among
+the people is replete with references to this mainstay of life, and
+one comes, like them, to discuss the water question with an earnest
+regard for its problems.
+
+Wherever there is water, almost always will there be found ancient
+ruins. In modern times the windmill of the settler often stands by the
+spring which quenched the thirst of the ancient inhabitants of a now
+crumbling pueblo. The blessings which were invoked in Biblical times
+upon the man who "digged a well" apply also in this semi-desert, for
+Syria and Arizona do not differ greatly in climate. The Bedouin with
+his horses and camels would not be out of place on the sand wastes of
+our Sahara; nor were the Spanish conquerors on unfamiliar ground when
+they exchanged the dusty plains and naked sierras of their native land
+for those of the New World.
+
+The traveler in Spain, northern Africa, or Asia Minor is impressed
+with the similarity between these countries and our Southwest, so that
+the name of New Spain, early applied by the Spaniards to all of
+Mexico, seems very appropriate. Like these countries, too, our
+Southwest is a land of thirst; the dry air and fervent sun parch the
+skin and devour every trace of moisture. (One feels as though he were
+placed under a bell glass exhausted of air undergoing the shriveling
+process of the apple in the experiment.)
+
+So, before taking a journey, one inquires not so much of the roads and
+distances, but whether water may be found, for it is often necessary
+to submit to that most unpleasant of contingencies, a "dry camp." Many
+parts of Arizona and New Mexico cannot easily be visited except in
+favorable seasons, because one is told, "it's a hundred miles to
+water." The Hopi often provide for the long journeys across waterless
+country by hiding water at points along the route. This wise
+precaution, which was noticed by the Spanish explorers of the
+sixteenth century, consists of burying sealed water-jars in the sand,
+their situation being indicated by "signs." Far from the ancient or
+modern habitation these jars, uncovered by the wind, are often
+discovered by riders on the cattle ranges.
+
+Not only must the dusty explorer "haul water," for even the railroads
+across the semi-desert are provided with tank trains for water
+service, and the water tanks of the huge locomotive tenders of all
+trains are of unusual capacity.
+
+Far out on the sandy, sage-brush plains are frequently seen small
+cairns of stones, called by the knowing ones "Indian water signs,"
+pointing out the direction of water, but the more common signs are the
+trails made by cattle on which a myriad of tracks in the dust point to
+water, miles away perhaps, and oftentimes, when the tracks are not
+fresh, leading to a dried-up pool, surrounded by carcasses or
+bleaching bones.
+
+The Navaho herdsman or herdswoman is a person with great
+responsibility, for the sheep and ponies must have water at least
+every three or four days. When a well-defined thunder-storm passes
+within twenty or thirty miles of his camp he starts for the path of
+its influence, knowing that there will be pools of water and
+quick-springing herbs and grass. This chasing a thunder-storm is
+novel--and much more satisfactory than chasing a rainbow. Even the
+wild cattle scent the water and make for it, running like race-horses.
+
+As a matter of fact, the animals of the desert have of necessity
+become used to doing without water. So far as one can determine, the
+rats, mice, squirrels, badgers, coyotes, prairie-dogs, skunks, and
+other denizens of the sand-wastes so rarely get a good drink of water
+that they seem to have outgrown the need of it. Cattle and horses have
+also developed such powers of abstinence as might put a camel to
+shame. There is a belief in the Western country that at least one of
+the burrows of a prairie-dog town penetrates to water, but whether
+this be true or not, judging from some of the locations of these queer
+animal villages the tribe of gophers must contain adepts in abysmal
+engineering.
+
+One does not live long in the wilds of Arizona without becoming
+weatherwise and, perhaps, skilled in signs and trails like a
+frontiersman. The country is so open that the weather for a hundred
+miles or more can be taken in at a glance and the march of several
+storms observed at once, even though the sound of wind and thunder be
+far out of hearing. At Flagstaff, for instance, it is easy to tell
+when the Hopi are rejoicing in a rain, although it is more than a
+hundred miles away.
+
+In a country with so little rainfall as Tusayan and in which the soil
+consists largely of sand with underlying porous rocks, springs are few
+and their flow scanty. The rivers, also, during most of the year, flow
+far beneath their sandy beds, which only once in a while are torn by
+raging torrents. This is one of the many novelties of a country that
+probably offers more attractions than any land on earth.
+
+Around the springs the life of the Hopi comes to a focus, for here, at
+all hours of the day, women and girls may be seen filling their
+canteens, getting them well adjusted in the blankets on their backs
+for the toilsome climb up the trail. A feeling of admiration tinged
+with pity arises for these sturdy little women who in the blanket tied
+across the forehead literally by the sweat of their brows carry half a
+hundredweight of water up a height of nearly half a thousand feet.
+_Mang i uh_, "tired?" one asks them. _Okiowa mang i uh_, "Yes, alas,
+very tired!" they answer, these slaves of the spring.
+
+At the edge of the water in the spring, where nothing can disturb
+them, are green-painted sticks with dangling feathers. These are
+offerings to the gods who rule the water element. At none of the
+frequent ceremonies of the Hopi are the springs forgotten, for a
+messenger carries prayer-sticks to them and places them in the water.
+In former times offerings of pottery and other objects were thrown
+into springs by devout worshippers.
+
+Around the springs are gardens in which onions and other "garden
+sauce" are grown. When it is possible, a little rill is led from the
+spring into the gardens. The growing greens lend much to the drear
+surroundings of the springs, but the plants must be enclosed by a
+stone wall to keep away marauding burros and goats.
+
+At least one spring at each pueblo is dug out and enlarged, forming a
+pool at the bottom of an excavation ten feet deep and thirty in
+diameter, with a graded way leading down to the water. These springs
+are convenient for watering the thirsty stock, but they are especially
+used in the ceremonies. During the Flute Dance, for example, they form
+the theater of an elaborate ceremony in which the priests wade in the
+spring and blow their flutes in the water.
+
+All the springs have been given descriptive names. At Walpi, there are
+Dawapa, "sun spring"; Ishba, "wolf spring"; Canelba, "sheep spring";
+Kokiungba, "spider spring"; Wipoba, "rush spring"; Kachinapa, "kachina
+spring," and a number of others, around which cluster many
+associations dear to the good people of the East Mesa. Like the Hopi,
+every other human being who fares in the dry Southwest unconsciously
+becomes a devotee of water worship and eventually finds himself in the
+grip of the powers of Nature whom the Indians beseech for the
+fertilizing rain.
+
+Springs are often uncertain quantities in this region. Earthquakes
+have been known to swallow up springs in one place and to cause them
+to burst out at another far away. One can readily imagine what a
+terrible calamity such a phenomenon can be in so dry a country, for
+the only thing the people can do under such circumstances is to move
+and to move quickly. It seems probable that some of the many ancient
+Indian settlements that make the Southwest a ruin-strewn region have
+been caused by just such fickleness in the water supply.
+
+When modern engineering comes to the aid of the Hopi in storing the
+occasional vast rushes of water for use throughout the year, a new era
+will dawn for the Peaceful People. They may then become prosperous
+farmers and gradually forget the days when they invoked the powers of
+nature with strange charms and ceremonies.
+
+If the Hopi know well the springs, they are not less perfect in
+knowledge of plants that are useful to them. One day Kopeli, the
+former Snake chief, undertook to teach his pupil, Kuktaimu, the lore
+of the plants growing near the East Mesa. They set out for a flooded
+cornfield near the wash, and long before they reached it, they could
+hear the watchers emitting blood-curdling yells to scare away the
+hated _angwishey_, crows, that from time to time made a dash for the
+toothsome ears.
+
+It goes without saying that the day was beautiful, for in August
+thunder-cloud masses often fill the sky with graceful forms, tinted
+beneath by a rosy glow reflected from the surface of the red plains.
+The rain had started the vegetation anew and the deep green cornfields
+showed its benign influences.
+
+Kopeli was communicative, but Kuktaimu, although having been blessed
+by Saalako with a Hopi name, was weak in the subtleties of Hopi speech
+and missed many points to which, out of politeness, he responded
+_Owi_, "yes." Still, the queer-sounding names of the plants and their
+uses given by Kopeli were duly put down on paper, for which the Hopi
+have a word which literally means _corn-husk_. On their journey around
+the cornfields they met various groups of watchers, some reclining
+beneath the sloping farm shelters of cottonwood boughs, some chatting
+together or gnawing ears of corn roasted in a little fire. Everyone
+requested matches and willingly assisted in conferences over plants of
+which Kopeli might be doubtful. Boys with their bows and arrows tried
+for shots at crows, and little girls minded the babies. Life in the
+fields is full of enjoyment to the Hopi, and the children especially
+delight to spend a day picnicking amidst the rustling corn-leaves.
+
+The plants having been hunted out in the cornfields, Kopeli and
+Kuktaimu sought higher ground among the rocks below the mesa, where
+different species of plants grow. At the foot of the gray rocks are
+found many plants of great medicinal and ceremonial value to the Hopi,
+according to the Snake priest, who grew enthusiastic over a small
+silvery specimen with pungent odor. "Very good medicine," he said. At
+this juncture, when the plant had been carefully placed in the
+collecting papers, Kopeli made a characteristic gesture by rapidly
+sliding one of his palms over the other and said _pasha_, "all." The
+nearness of the evening meal must have been the influence that caused
+Kopeli to say that the flora of Tusayan had been exhausted in a
+single day's search, for subsequent journeys about the mesas brought
+to light many other plants that have place in Hopi botany.
+
+It is surprising to find such a general knowledge of the plants of
+their country as is met with among the Hopi. No doubt this wonder
+arises among those who live the artificial life of the cities. The
+Hopi is a true child of the desert and near to the desert's heart. His
+surroundings do not furnish clear streams, grassy meadows, and massy
+trees; there is much that is stern and barren at first glance, and
+there is a meagerness except in vast outlooks and brilliant coloring.
+Here Nature is stripped and all her outlines are revealed; the rocks,
+plains and mountains stand out boldly in the clear air. Still, in all
+this barrenness there is abundance of animal and vegetal life which
+has adapted itself to the semi-desert, and if one becomes for the time
+a Hopi, he may find in odd nooks and corners many things delightful
+both to the eyes and the understanding.
+
+There are few Hopi who do not know the herbs and simples, and some are
+familiar with the plants that grow, in the mountains and canyons,
+hundreds of miles from their villages. Even the children know many of
+the herbs, and more than once I have successfully asked them for their
+Indian names. This is not strange, because such things are a part of
+their education and in this way they are in advance of the majority of
+their civilized brothers. After a while the idea impresses one that
+the Hopi depend on the crops of Nature's sowing as much as on the
+products of their well-tilled fields. Many a time, as the legends
+tell, the people were kept from famine by the plants of the desert,
+which, good or bad seasons alike, thrust their gray-green shoots
+through the dry sands, a reminder of the basis of all flesh.
+
+Perhaps all the Hopi believe that the wild plants are most valuable
+for healing and religious purposes, for the plants they use in
+medicine would stock a primitive drug store. Bunches of dried herbs,
+roots, etc., hang from the ceiling beams of every house, reminding one
+of the mysterious bundles of "yarbs" in a negro cabin, and, as
+occasion requires, are made into teas and powders for all sorts of
+ills.
+
+Hopi doctors have a theory and practice of medicine, just as have
+their more learned white brethren. Without the remotest acquaintance
+with the schools dividing the opinions of our medicine-afflicted race,
+they unconsciously follow a number of the famous teachings. So, if a
+patient has a prickling sensation in the throat a tea made from the
+thistle will perform a cure, as "like cures like." The hairy seeds of
+the clematis will make the hair grow, and the fruit of a prolific
+creeping plant should be placed in the watermelon hills to insure many
+melons. The leaves of a plant named for the bat are placed on the head
+of a restless child to induce it to sleep in the daytime, because that
+is the time the slothful bat sleeps. It is not often that Hopi
+children require an application of bat-plant medicine, but even the
+best of children get fractious sometimes.
+
+Many are the strange uses of plants by the Hopi, and much curious lore
+has gathered about them. Some of the plants are named for the animals
+and insects which live upon them, such as "the caterpillar, his corn,"
+"the mole, his corn"; while some, from fancied resemblances, are
+called "rat's ear," "bat plant," "rattle plant," etc. Two plants
+growing in company are believed to be related and one is spoken of as
+the child of the other. Plants are also known as male and female, and
+each belongs to its special point of the compass. Many are used in the
+religious ceremonies; those beloved by the gods appear on the
+prayer-sticks offered to beseech the kind offices of the nature
+deities.
+
+Strange as it may seem, the Hopi have medicine women as well as
+medicine men. The best known of these is Saalako, the mother of the
+Snake priest. She brews the dark medicine for the Snake dance and
+guards the secret of the antidote for snake bites. The writer once met
+at the place called "Broad House" a Navaho medicine man. He was a
+wrinkled, grizzled specimen of humanity mounted on a burro and was
+hunting for herbs, as was seen by a glance into the pouch which he
+wore by his side. A little tobacco induced him to dismount and spread
+out his store of herbs. When shown the writer's collection of plants,
+he became much interested, no doubt believing that he had found a
+fellow practitioner. He requested samples of several of the plants,
+and when they were given him, stored them away in his pouch with every
+evidence of satisfaction.
+
+The Hopi priests are also very glad to receive any herb coming from
+far off, especially from the sea-coast, "the land of the far water,"
+as they call it. They treasure such carefully and mix it with sacred
+smoking tobacco or introduce it into the "charm liquid" which is used
+in every ceremony to mix the paint for the prayer-sticks and to
+sprinkle during their strange rites.
+
+An American farmer might be at a loss to recognize a Hopi cornfield
+when he saw one. In the usually dry stream beds or "washes" he would
+see low clumps of vegetation, arranged with some regularity over the
+sand. This is the Hopi cornfield, so planted in order to get the
+benefit of rains which, falling higher up, may fill the washes, for
+the summer thunder-storms are very erratic in their favors.
+
+The Hopi farmer sets out to plant, armed only with a dibble which
+serves as plow, hoe, and cultivator combined. Arriving at the waste of
+sand which is his unpromising seed-field, he sits down on the ground,
+digs a hole, and puts in perhaps twenty grains, covering them with the
+hands. Whether he has any rule like
+
+    One for the cutworm,
+      One for the crow,
+    One for luck,
+
+is doubtful, but in the years when cutworms are likely to be
+plentiful he plants more corn to the hill.
+
+One hill finished, he gets up, moves away about ten feet, sits down,
+and goes through the same process. He never thins the corn, but leaves
+the numerous stalks close together for shade and protection from the
+winds. His care of the field consists merely in hoeing the weeds and
+keeping a watch on the crows, which he frightens away by demoniac
+shouts. His scarecrows are also wonders of ingenuity, and many a time
+one takes them for watchful Indians.
+
+When the corn is fit for roasting ears the Hopi get fat and there is
+feasting from morn till night. Tall columns of smoke arise from the
+roasting pits in the fields. These large pits are dug in the sand,
+heated with burning brush, filled with roasting ears, and closed up
+tightly for a day. The opening of a pit is usually the occasion of
+frolicking and feasting, where laughter and song prevail. Some of the
+corn is consumed at once in making puddings and other dishes of which
+the Hopi prepare many, and what remains is dried on the cob and hung
+in bunches in the houses for the winter.
+
+The ears of the Indian corn are close to the ground and are hidden by
+the blades, which touch the sand. The blades are usually tattered and
+blown away by the wind, so that by the time the corn is ripe, the
+fodder is not of much value. The ripe corn is gathered and laboriously
+carried by back-loads up the steep mesa to the houses, where it is
+stored away in the corn chamber. Here the ears are piled up in
+symmetrical walls, separate from the last year's crop, which may now
+be used, as the Hopi, taught by famine, keep one year's harvest in
+reserve. Once in a while, the women bring out the old corn, spread it
+on the roof to sun, and carefully brush off each ear before returning
+it to the granary, for in this dry country, though corn never molds,
+insect pests are numerous.
+
+Among the superstitions connected with corn the Hopi believe that the
+cobs of the seed corn must not be burned until rain has fallen on the
+crop for fear of keeping away or "drying up" the rains.
+
+No cereal in the world is so beautiful as Hopi corn. The grains,
+though small, are full and highly polished; the ears are white,
+yellow, red of several shades, a lovely rose madder, blue, a very dark
+blue or purple which the Hopi call black, and mottled. A tray of
+shelled corn of various colors looks like a mosaic.
+
+In the division of labor, the planting, care of the corn in the fields
+and the harvesting belong to the men. When the brilliant ears are
+garnered, then the women's work begins. No other feature of the Hopi
+household is so interesting as the row of three or more slabs placed
+slantwise in stone-lined troughs sunk in the floor; these are their
+mills. They are of graded fineness, and this is also true of the
+oblong hand stones, or _manos_, which are rubbed upon them with an up
+and down motion as in using a washboard. Sometimes three women work
+at the mills; the first woman grinds the corn into coarse meal on the
+coarse stone and passes her product over to the second, who grinds it
+still finer, and the third finishes it on the last stone; sometimes
+one woman alone carries the meal through the successive stages, but it
+is a poor household that cannot furnish two grinders. The skill with
+which the woman spreads the meal over the grinding slab by a flirt of
+the hand as the _mano_ is brought up for the return stroke is truly
+remarkable, and the rhythmic precision of all the motions suggests a
+machine. The weird song sung by the grinders and the rumble of the
+mill are characteristic sounds of the Hopi pueblos, and as the women
+grinders powder their perspiring faces with meal while they work, they
+look well the part of millers. Little girls are early taught to grind,
+and they often may be prevailed upon to display their accomplishment
+before visitors.
+
+The finely ground meal is piled and patted into conical heaps on the
+flat basket trays, making quite an exhibition of which the Hopi women
+are very proud, much meal indicating diligence as well as a bountiful
+supply of the staff of life. Grinding is back-breaking work, and one
+humanely wishes that the Hopi women, and especially the immature
+girls, could be relieved of this too heavy task.
+
+While corn-meal enters into all Hopi cooking as the chief ingredient,
+most of it is made into "paper bread," called _piki_, resembling more
+than anything else the material of a hornet's nest. This bread is
+made from batter, colored gray with wood ashes, dexterously spread
+very thinly with the hand over a heated slab of stone. _Piki_ bakes
+quickly, coming free from the slab and is directly folded up into
+convenient compass and so crisp is it that it crackles like paper.
+Sometimes it is tinted with attractive colors for festal occasions,
+such as the Kachina ceremonies.
+
+Before a dance the women busily prepare food and the girls go about
+speechless, with mouths full of meal, "chewing yeast" for the corn
+pudding. This and other ins and outs of the kitchen make the knowing
+traveler rather shy of the otherwise attractive-looking Hopi food.
+
+Surely corn is the "mother" of the Hopi. All the powers of nature are
+invoked to grant a good crop by giving rain and fertility, and the
+desire for corn is the central motive of the numerous ceremonies of
+the villagers of Tusayan. If the prayers of the Hopi could be
+formulated like the "_Om mane padme hum_" of the Hindus, it would be
+in the smaller compass of these words, "Grant us corn!" Nor are these
+simple villagers ungrateful for such blessings. Kopeli used to stand
+looking over his thriving cornfield and say with fervor, "_Kwa kwi,
+Kwa kwi_," "thanks, thanks," and it was evident that the utterance was
+made with true thankfulness and a spirit of devotion.
+
+It is difficult to imagine the ancient people without corn; but very
+long ago, as the legends tell, they did not know this cereal. Certain
+it is they were not then pueblo dwellers and had not spread far in the
+Southwest. They lived in the places where there was game, and for the
+same reason that the important food animals lived in such places,--the
+presence of vegetation that would sustain life.
+
+Their life was along the foot hills of well-watered and timbered
+mountains rising from plains, where with the flesh of game and seeds
+and roots of plants they could supply their semi-savage wants. Long
+perhaps they roved thus as hunters until they drifted to the land of
+promise--the semi-desert where agriculture of grain plants was born
+and there they received "mother corn." Henceforward all the former
+sources of food wrested from a niggard Nature became as nothing to
+this food of foods, but even to this day the Hopi have not forgotten
+their old-time intimate knowledge of the resources in fields not sown
+by human hands. With corn, which possesses a high food value and is
+easily raised, stored, and preserved, the Hopi and their Pueblo
+brethren spread without fear throughout the semi-arid lands.
+
+It has been pointed out that a constant diet of corn produces
+disagreeable physiological effects, and this is suggested for the use
+of chile and other condiments, the mixture of corn food with meat and
+vegetable substances, and, in fact, for the multifarious ways of
+preparing and cooking corn. This necessity for variety also gives an
+explanation of the resourcefulness of the Hopi housewife and has
+acted as a spur to her invention of palatable dishes.
+
+The vocabulary of corn in the Hopi language is extensive and contains
+words descriptive even of the parts of the plant that are lacking to
+most civilized people. The importance of corn is also reflected in the
+numerous words describing the kinds of meal, the dishes made from corn
+or in which corn enters, and of the various ways in which it is
+prepared by fire for the consumption of the ever-hungry Hopi. To give
+an incomplete census of corn foods, there are fifteen kinds of _piki_
+or paper bread, three kinds of mush; five of short-cake; eleven of
+boiled corn; four kinds baked or roasted in the coals; two cooked by
+frying; four stewed and eight of cooked shelled corn, making fifty-two
+varieties.
+
+After the paper bread, perhaps the most popular food is _pigame_, or
+sweet corn mush, wrapped in corn-husk and baked in an underground
+oven. Another standby is shelled corn soaked and boiled till each
+grain swells to several times the normal size. The Hopi like their
+food well-cooked and know the art of making each starch grain expand
+to the limit. A book of Hopi cookery would be bulky, but how
+interesting to the housewife who would know how to make plain food
+appetizing without milk or eggs, and who would learn new and strange
+combinations! There are cakes made from dried fruits, chopped meat,
+and straw, put on the roof to dry; dumplings formed around old
+hammerstones, corn dodgers, pats of corn-meal mush wrapped in corn
+husk and boiled or baked, and many other styles of food that would
+seem strange to other than a Hopi epicure.
+
+When it is time to dine, a large bowl of stew is placed on the floor
+as the _piece de resistance_ and beside it a tray of _piki_. Each
+member of the family breaks off a piece of _piki_, and, holding it
+between thumb and finger, it is dragged through the stew much like a
+seine to catch as many particles of meat as possible, then deposited
+far back in the mouth so that the stew adhering to the fingers may be
+cleared off with a resounding smack of the lips. A traveler to Hopi in
+1869 describes a more formal meal which consisted of mutton, dried
+peaches, blue _piki_, coffee, and a drink made by steeping the roasted
+heart of agave in water. This writer says:
+
+  You take a small piece, lay a fragment of mutton and some peaches
+  upon it or a little of the sweet liquid and bolt the mass, spoon
+  and all. This dinner, though prepared and cooked by Indians,
+  tasted better than many a meal eaten by us in border settlements
+  cooked by whites.
+
+Hopi women assiduously gather the seeds of grasses and other plants,
+which they grind up and add to corn-meal to improve the flavor of the
+bread, or, perhaps, a prized bread is made entirely of the ground seed
+of some desert plant. Oily seeds, such as those of the piñon, pumpkin,
+and melons are ground to form shortening in various cakes and to add
+richness to stews. Often food is colored with harmless vegetable
+dyes, no doubt with the deep-laid scheme on the part of the mother of
+the household to cause the familiar fare to be attacked with renewed
+zest. Our tradition of "spring lamb with mint sauce" is duplicated by
+stewed rabbit with _nanakopshi_ greens, which, with various other
+herbs, are put to appropriate uses by the master of the Hopi culinary
+art.
+
+
+
+
+IV
+
+THE WORKERS
+
+
+The Hopi believe in the gospel of work, which is evenly divided
+between the men and the women.
+
+When it is said that people work, there is, unconsciously perhaps, a
+desire to know the reason, which is rarely a subject of curiosity when
+people amuse themselves. Come to think of it, the answer is an old
+one, and a Hopi, if asked why he works, might put forward the first
+great cause, _nusha_, "food."
+
+Not only must the Hopi work to supply his wife and little ones, but he
+must do his share for his clan, which is the large family of
+blood-relations, bound together by the strongest ties and customs of
+mutual helpfulness. This family is an object of the greatest pride, a
+little world of its own, in which every member from the least to the
+greatest has duties and responsibilities. So all labor--men, women,
+and the little ones, who add their tiny share. The general division of
+work gives the woman the affairs of the household, and the man the
+cultivation of the fields. Men plant corn and the older women often
+help hoe it, and the women and children frequently go down to the
+fields and watch the crops to keep off birds.
+
+When the harvest is gathered, taken up the mesa, and put into the
+granary, man's interest in it ceases, except in the matter of eating a
+large share. Never was a Hopi who was not hungry. Much of the woman's
+time is taken up in grinding corn and baking bread. The water-carrying
+falls to her, and this duty might give rise to a suspicion that she
+has the larger share of the burdens, if the Hopi were not compelled to
+be frugal in the use of water. Besides the duties mentioned, she may
+also add that of potter, basket maker, house builder, and sometimes
+carver of dolls and maker of moccasins. Then the children must be
+cared for, but everyone takes a hand at that, including the children
+themselves. If it were not for the numerous ceremonies, woman's work
+in Hopiland would be much easier. Grinding, baking, water-carrying,
+and the bother and hurry of preparation for various events continue
+with painful iteration. The Hopi housewife can give full condolence to
+her white sister who has borne the burdens of a church festival, and
+the plaint that "woman's work is never done" would sound familiar to
+her ears. Still, rarely is she heard to bewail her lot, and it may be
+depended on that no maidens bloom in idleness about her house.
+
+But the men also follow crafts, and of these, carding, spinning,
+dyeing, and weaving are exclusively man's work in contrast with the
+Navaho, among whom such matters are woman's work. His also is the task
+of wood-gathering, which takes him far afield, since there is hardly
+a growing thing in the neighborhood worth collecting for fuel. Coal
+there is in the ground in plenty, but the Hopi make less use of it
+than did their ancestors, and the householder sets out from time to
+time with a burro or two for the distant mesas, where the stunted
+cedars grow, to lay in wood for cooking. Each year the cedars get
+farther away, so that at some future time the Hopi may have to make
+use of the neglected coal.
+
+A Hopi is in a fair way to become a great man among his kin when he
+owns horses and a wagon. In consequence of such wealth, he usually
+shows his pride by the airs he assumes over his less fortunate
+tribesmen, and justly, too, because hauling supplies for the schools
+and traders brings in the silver dollars that replenish the larder
+with white man's food. Ponies are cheap, and twenty can exist as well
+as one on the semi-starvation of the desert, so a Hopi teamster often
+takes along his whole herd when on a freighting trip, to make sure of
+arriving at his journey's end, and a look at his horses will prove him
+a wise man.
+
+Seemingly the men work harder making paraphernalia and costumes for
+the ceremonies than at anything else, but it should be remembered that
+in ancient days everything depended, in Hopi belief, on propitiating
+the deities. Still if we would pick the threads of religion from the
+warp and woof of Hopi life there apparently would not be much left. It
+must be recorded, in the interests of truth, that Hopi men will work
+at day's labor and give satisfaction except when a ceremony is about
+to take place at the pueblo, and duty to their religion interferes
+with steady employment much as fiestas do in the easy-going countries
+to the southward.
+
+Really, the Hopi deserve great credit for their industry, frugality,
+and provident habits, and one must commend them because they do not
+shun work and because in fairness both men and women share in the
+labor for the common good.
+
+An account of the arts which are carried on in the Hopi towns may
+prove interesting to the reader who would like to know something of
+the methods of the moccasin maker, potter, weaver, carver, basket
+maker, and house builder, examples of whose handiwork are scattered
+widely among collectors of artistic and remarkable things.
+
+As though to keep up the dignity of the Peaceful People the wife of
+"Harry," the new Snake chief of Walpi, frequently wears the cumbrous
+foot-gear common along the Rio Grande. In spite of the scarcity of
+deerskins, every Hopi bride must have as part of her trousseau a pair
+of these remarkable foot-coverings, which require a large deerskin for
+their manufacture. When the burdensome ceremony of marriage is over
+the moccasins are laid away or worn out and never again may the woman
+expect to have her measure taken for another pair.
+
+But as moccasins are a part of the men's costume without which they
+cannot run well over the yielding sand, and as there is no village
+shoemaker, every man must make his own or go barefoot. Frequently in
+the villages one meets a moccasin maker, chewing at the rawhide and
+busily plying his awl and sinew while he goes gadding about. Just
+before the Snake Dance, when every Snake priest must provide a pair of
+new moccasins for himself, this art is very much in evidence.
+
+The moccasin maker takes pride in hiding his stitches, and it must be
+said that his sewing is exceptionally good in spite of the crude tools
+of his craft. With the same skill he displays in other crafts, the
+Hopi prepares the leather for the indispensable moccasins. The
+simplest way of giving color to the leather is to rub red ocher or
+other clay into the soft-tanned skin, as is seen in the red moccasins
+of the Snake dancers. A warm brown is given to the leather with an
+infusion of the bark of the water birch, and a black dye is made by
+burning piñon resin with crude native alum. Sometimes the esthetic
+tastes of a young man are gratified by moccasins dyed with aniline red
+or blue according to his fancy.
+
+If the visitor will give an order for a pair of _totchi_, he may see
+the whole process at his leisure. A piece of well-curried cowhide,
+preferably from the back of the animal, is produced, the outline of
+the foot is marked out on it and a margin is left by the cutter for
+the turning up of the sole. This is all the moccasin maker seems to
+require, and his formula for the height of the instep has not been
+divulged, but it must be effective, because moccasins are made to fit
+with greater art than is displayed by many civilized shoemakers.
+
+The soles are buried in damp sand to make them pliable, and the front
+section of the top is sewn around the edge reaching to about the ankle
+bones. The moccasin is then turned inside out and the ankle section
+sewn on. Tying strings are added, or if especial style is desired,
+silver buttons made by Navaho from dimes or quarters take their place.
+
+The Hopi live a very long way from the range of the deer, a fact which
+accounts largely for their use of woven fabrics. But deerskins must
+always have been in demand, and these were got in exchange with the
+Navaho, Havasupai, and other neighbors. In this way in old times
+buffalo skins and pelts of animals came to Tusayan, and Hopi bread and
+blankets went to remote mountains and plains.
+
+It would be interesting to know whether the Hopi formerly were sandal
+people or moccasin people, and this knowledge would reveal a great
+deal that is now mere guesswork as to their history. The sandal people
+would mean those of the south who were of Mexico, where no moccasins
+seem ever to have been worn. The moccasin people would be those of the
+north, the tribes of our mountains and plains, among whom this
+foot-wear is typical. Perhaps the Hopi belong to both classes. The
+cliff-dwellers wore sandals, and for winter had boots of network to
+which turkey feathers were skilfully fastened as covering. The sandals
+found in the cliff-houses are variously woven from rushes or agave
+strips, or maybe a plain sole of leather with the toe cord, but those
+worked of cotton showing ingenious designs are worthy of the highest
+admiration.
+
+Those clans of the cliff-people and the clans from the south that
+congregated in Tusayan centuries ago were sandal wearers, while the
+resident clans and those coming from the north, perhaps bands of the
+Ute,--were moccasin wearers and impressed their language and moccasins
+on the Hopi. This was much to the advantage of the Hopi, granting that
+they had never thought of better protection than sandals from the
+biting winter.
+
+Everyone who visits Tusayan will bring away as a souvenir some of the
+work of Nampeo, the potter who lives with her husband Lesu in the
+house of her parents at Hano, the little Tewa village on the great
+Walpi mesa near the gap. The house belongs to Nampeo's mother
+according to Pueblo property right, wherein she and her husband, both
+aged and ruddy Tewa, with their children and grandchildren live
+amicably as is usual among the Peaceful People. The house below the
+mesa, topped with a glowing red iron "Government" roof, is Nampeo's,
+who thus has two houses, but she spends most of her time in the
+parental dwelling at Hano.
+
+Nampeo is a remarkable woman. No feeling of her racial inferiority
+arises even on the first meeting with this Indian woman, barefoot,
+bonnetless, and clad in her quaint costume. For Nampeo is an
+artist-potter, the sole survivor in Hano of the generations of women
+artists who have deposited the product of their handicraft in the care
+of the dead.
+
+In the household her aged father and mother are final authority on the
+interpretation of ancient symbolic or cult representations in art.
+Nampeo likewise carefully copies on paper the decorations of all
+available ancient pottery for future use. Her archeological methods
+are further shown by her quest for the clays used by those excellent
+potters of old Sikyatki and by her emulation of their technique.
+
+One noon under the burning August sun, Doctor Fewkes and the writer
+climbed the East Mesa, the former to attend the Flute Ceremony at
+Walpi and the latter with an appointment to pry into the secrets of
+Nampeo, the potter. In the house, pleasantly cool and shaded, sat the
+old couple and Lesu. The baby was being secured to its board for its
+afternoon nap, while Lesu spun. It was a pleasure to examine the
+quaint surroundings and the curious belongings hung on the wall or
+thrust above the great ceiling beams,--strings of dried _wiwa_, that
+early spring plant which has before now tided the Peaceful People over
+famine, gaily painted dolls, blankets, arrows, feathers, and other
+objects enough to stock a museum. Lesu did the honors and said among
+other things that some of the ceiling beams of the room came from
+ancient Awatobi, destroyed in 1700.
+
+A small niche in the rear wall of the living room, at the back of
+which stood a short notched log-ladder, caused some speculation. Quite
+unexpectedly and in a somewhat startling way its purpose was
+explained, for, when someone called the absent Nampeo, a pair of feet
+were seen coming down the steps of the ladder, followed finally by
+Nampeo, who, after a profound bodily contortion, smilingly emerged
+from the narrow passage into the room.
+
+Nampeo was prepared to instruct. Samples of the various clays were at
+hand and the novice was initiated into the qualities of the _hisat
+chuoka_, or ancient clay, white, unctuous and fragrant, to which the
+ancient Sikyatki potters owed the perfection of their ware; the
+reddish clay, _siwu chuoka_, also from Sikyatki; the hard,
+iron-stained clay, _choku chuoka_, a white clay with which vessels are
+coated for finishing and decoration, coming from about twelve miles
+southeast of Walpi. In contrast with Nampeo's four clays the Hopi
+women use only two, a gray body clay, _chakabutska_, and a white slip
+clay, _kutsatsuka_.
+
+Continuing her instructions Nampeo transferred a handful of
+well-soaked ancient clay from a bowl on the floor by her side to a
+smooth, flat stone, like those found in the ruined pueblos. The clay
+was thrust forward by the base of the right hand and brought back by
+the hooked fingers, the stones, sticks, and hairs being carefully
+removed. After sufficient working, the clay was daubed on a board,
+which was carried out, slanted against the house, and submitted to the
+all-drying Tusayan sun and air. In a short time the clay was
+transferred from the board to a slab of stone and applied in the same
+way, the reason being a minor one known to Nampeo,--perhaps because
+the clay after drying to a certain degree may adhere better to stone
+than to wood. Sooner than anyone merely acquainted with the
+desiccating properties of the moisture-laden air of the East might
+imagine, the clay was ready to work and the plastic mass was ductile
+under the fingers of the potter.
+
+Nampeo set out first to show the process of coiling a vessel. The even
+"ropes" of clay were rolled out from her smooth palms in a marvelous
+way, and efforts to rival excited a smile from the family sitting
+around as interested spectators. The concave dish called _tabipi_, in
+which she began the coiled vessel and which turns easily on its curved
+bottom, seems to be the nearest approach of the Pueblos to the
+potter's wheel. The seeming traces of unobliterated coiling on the
+bases of some vessels may be the imprints from the coils of the
+_tabipi_. As the vessel was a small one, the coiling proceeded to the
+finish and the interims of drying as observed in the manufacture of
+large jars were not necessary. Then gourd smoothers, _tuhupbi_, were
+employed to close up the coiling grooves, and were always backed from
+the outside or inside by the fingers. Finally the smooth "green"
+vessel was set aside to dry.
+
+Then a toy canteen was begun by taking a lump of clay which, by
+modeling, soon assumed the shape of a low vase. With a small stick, a
+hole was punched through each side, a roll of clay was doubled for the
+handles, the ends thrust through the holes and smoothed down inside
+the vase, through the opening. The neck of the canteen was inserted in
+a similar way. Now the problem was to close the opening in this soft
+vessel from the outside. Nampeo threw a coil around the edge of the
+opening, pressing the layers together, gradually drawing in, making
+the orifices smaller until it presented a funnel shape. Then the
+funnel was pressed toward the body of the canteen, the edges closed
+together, soldered, smoothed, and presto! it was done and all traces
+of handling hidden. Anyone knowing the difficulties will appreciate
+this surprisingly dextrous piece of manipulation. Afterward, Nampeo
+made a small vase-shaped vessel, by modeling alone, without the
+addition of coiling as in the shaping of the canteen.
+
+The ware when it becomes sufficiently dry must receive a wash of the
+white clay called _hopi chuoka_ or _kutsatsuka_, which burns white.
+Thereupon it is carefully polished with a smooth pebble, shining from
+long use, and is ready for decoration. The use of the glaring white
+slip clay as a ground for decoration was probably brought from the
+Rio Grande by the Tewa; ancient Hopi ware is much more artistic, being
+polished on the body or paste, which usually blends in harmony with
+the decoration.
+
+Nampeo exhibited samples of her paints, of which she knows only red
+and dark brown. The red paint is yellow ocher, called _sikyatho_,
+turning red on firing. It was mixed on a concave stone with water. The
+dark brown paint is made from _toho_, an iron stone brought from a
+distant mesa. It was ground on a slab with a medium made from the seed
+of the tansy mustard (_Sisymbrium canescens_). The brushes were two
+strips of yucca, _mohu_, one for each color. With these slender means,
+without measurement, Nampeo rapidly covered the vessels with designs,
+either geometrical or conventionalized, human or cult,--figures or
+symbols. The narrow brush, held like a painter's striper, is effective
+for fine lines. In broad lines or wide portions of the decoration, the
+outlines are sharply defined and the spaces are filled in. No mistakes
+are made, for emendations and corrections are impossible.
+
+Quite opportunely the next day, an invitation to see the burning of
+pottery came from an aged potter who resides at the Sun Spring. When
+the great Hopi clock reached the appointed place in the heavens, the
+bowed yet active potter was found getting ready for the important work
+of firing the ware. In the heap of cinders, ashes, and bits of rock
+left from former firings, the little old woman scooped out a concave
+ring. Nearby was a heap of slabs of dry sheep's droppings, quarried
+from the floor of a fold perched on a ledge high up the mesa and
+brought down in the indispensable blanket. In the center of the
+concave kiln floor a heap of this fuel was ignited by the aid of some
+frayed cedar bark and a borrowed match from the opportune Pahana,
+"people of the far water," the name by which white men are known. When
+the fire was well established, it was gradually spread over the floor
+to near the margin and the decorated bowls brought from the house were
+set up around with the concave sides toward the fire, while the potter
+brought, in her blanket, a back load of friable sandstone from a
+neighboring hillock.
+
+Under the first heat the ware turned from white to purple gray or
+lavender, gradually assuming a lead color. They were soon heated
+enough and were ready for the kiln. Guarding her hand by the
+interposition of a fold of the blanket, the potter set the vessels,
+now quite unattractive, aside, proceeded to rake the fire flat and
+laid thereon fragments of stone at intervals to serve as rests or
+stilts for the ware. Larger vessels were set over smaller and all were
+arranged as compactly as possible. Piece by piece, dextrously as a
+mason, the potter built around the vessels a wall of fuel, narrowing
+at the top, till a few slabs completed the dome of the structure,
+itself kiln and fuel.
+
+Care was taken not to allow the fuel to touch the vessels, as a
+discoloration of the ware would result, which might subject the potter
+to the shafts of ridicule. Gradually the fire from below creeps up the
+walls till the interior is aglow and the ware becomes red hot. Little
+attention is now needed except closing burned out apertures with new
+pieces of fuel; the potter, who before, during the careful and exact
+dispositions, has been giving little ejaculations as though talking to
+a small child, visits the kiln intermittently from the nearby house.
+Here she seeks refuge from the penetrating, unaromatic smoke and the
+blazing sun.
+
+The Hopi have an odd superstition that if any one speaks above a
+whisper during the burning of pottery the spirit inhabiting the vessel
+will cause it to break. No doubt the potter had this in mind while she
+was whispering and was using all her blandishments to induce the small
+spirits to be good.
+
+She remarked that when the sun should hang over the brow of the mesa
+at the height indicated by her laborious fingers, the ware would be
+baked, the kiln a heap of ashes, the yellow decoration a lively red
+and the black a dark brown on a rich cream-color ground. Next day,
+with true foresight, she brought her quaint wares to the camp and made
+a good bargain for them, incidentally asking, "Matches all gone?"
+
+One woman at least in Tusayan is a weaver of blankets. Anowita's wife
+enjoys that distinction because she is a Navaho, among whom weaving is
+woman's work. The Hopi housewives have enough to do keeping house, a
+thing not burdensome to the Navaho, and as has been explained, the
+Hopi men hold a monopoly of the spinning and weaving.
+
+Time out of mind the Hopi have grown cotton in their little fields,
+and the first white men that made their acquaintance were presented
+with "towels" of their weaving as a peace offering. In the
+cliff-houses of the ancient people are found woven fabrics of cotton
+and rugs made of strips of rabbit fur like those now to be seen in the
+pueblos. The ancient people also had feather garments made by tying
+plumage to a network of cords. In the ruins of the pueblos one often
+finds cotton seeds which have been buried with the dead, and the
+braided mats of yucca or bark and bits of cloth fortunately preserved
+show that the people of former times were skilful weavers. There is no
+reason to doubt that the Hopi stuffs were prized for their excellence
+throughout the Southwest in the early times as they are now.
+
+When the Spaniards brought sheep among the pueblos, the weavers and
+fabric makers seem to have appreciated the value of wool at once, and
+the ancient garments of feathers and skins quickly disappeared. Cotton
+remained in use only for ceremonial costumes or for cord employed in
+the religious ceremonies. The rabbit-fur robes which once were made
+throughout a vast region of the Rockies from Alaska to the Gulf of
+California were largely displaced by blankets, in later years,
+gorgeously dyed and cunningly woven. Long before the introduction of
+trade dyes the Hopi were satisfied with sober colors; the dark blue
+and brown given to the yarn by the women were from the plants. Even
+now the Hopi weavers stick to their colors and refuse to perpetrate
+the zigzags of the Navaho. For this reason the women of all the
+pueblos of the Southwest dress in dark blue and brown, as the Hopi are
+purveyors of stuffs for wear to all their fellow house-dwellers of
+Indian lineage. Good cloth it is, too, and worthy of its renown, for
+it wears exceedingly well. More than one generation often enjoys its
+service, and when the older folks get through with their blanket
+dresses, the little ones have garments fashioned from them for their
+own apparel.
+
+If one will examine the Hopi blankets, he will be surprised at the
+skilful weaving they show. The blanket dress often has the body of
+plain weaving in black and the two ends bordered with damask or basket
+weave in blue. Sometimes a whole blanket is of damask, giving a
+surface that, on close inspection, has a pleasing effect. The women's
+ceremonial blanket of cotton with blue and red borders sometimes show
+three kinds of weaving and several varieties of cording. The belts
+also have a wonderful range of patterns. On the whole, one is led to
+believe that the Hopi are more adept at weaving than their rivals, the
+Navaho.
+
+The carding and spinning are thoroughly done, the resulting yarn
+being strong, even, and tightly twisted with the simple spindle.
+Sometimes the spinner dresses and finishes the yarn by means of a corn
+cob smoothed by long use. The women, by virtue of their skill in
+culinary matters, are usually the dyers, and the dye they concoct from
+sunflower seeds or blue beans is a fast blue. In old times cotton was
+prepared for spinning by whipping it with slender switches on a bed of
+sand, and this process is yet required for the cotton used for the
+sacred sashes. Now nearly every family is provided with wire cards
+purchased from traders. These cards look quite out of place in the
+hands of priests in the _kiva_, where they are used in combing the
+cotton for the sacred cord used in tying the feathers to the _pahos_.
+
+When the kiva is not in use for a ceremony it is common to find there
+a weaver busy at his rude loom and growing web. To the great beams of
+the roof is fastened the upper yarn beam of the loom, and secured to
+pegs in holes in the stone slabs of the floor is the lower yarn beam.
+Between these is tightly stretched the warp. The weaver squats on the
+floor before the loom, having ready by him the few simple implements
+of his craft, consisting of a wooden knife or batten highly polished
+from use, for beating down the yarn, a wooden comb also for pressing
+home the woof, and the bobbins which are merely sticks with the yarn
+wrapped back and forward spirally upon them. He picks out a certain
+number of warp threads with the batten, passes through the bobbin,
+beats the yarn home with great patience, and so continues, making slow
+headway.
+
+There are several reasons why the kiva is used by the weavers. These
+subterranean rooms, usually the property of the men, are cool and
+quiet, and the light streams down from overhead across the surface of
+the web, allowing the stitches to be seen to good advantage. The best
+reason is that the kiva ceiling is high enough to allow the stretching
+of the warp to the full length of a blanket, which cannot be done in
+the low living rooms of the dwellings.
+
+Belts, garters, and hair tapes are made on a small loom provided with
+reed or heddle frame, and usually this is woman's work. Strangely
+enough the belt loom is a kind of harness, for the warp is stretched
+out between the woman's feet and a yoke that extends across her back.
+The yarn used for belts is bought from the trader. The old belts are
+marvels of design and are among the most pleasing specimens of the art
+work of the Hopi.
+
+With the introduction of dyed trader's yarns and coal-tar colors has
+come a deterioration in the work of the Navaho weavers. Among the Hopi
+this is not noticeable, but, no doubt, for this reason the embroidery
+on the hems of the ceremonial blankets, sashes, and kilts is gayer
+than in former times when subdued mineral colors and vegetable dyes
+only were available.
+
+Every visitor to the Hopi pueblos is attracted by the carved wooden
+figures painted in bright colors and decorated with feathers, etc.,
+that hang from the rafters of the houses. "Dolls," they are usually
+called, but the Hopi know that they are representations of the
+spiritual beings who live in the unseen world, and a great variety
+there is of them. Thousands of these figures are made by the Hopi,
+many to be sold to visitors, a thing no Zuñi would do, because in that
+pueblo these images have a religious character and are hidden away,
+while the Hopi decorate the houses with them.
+
+The carvers of these strange figurines must be granted the possession
+of much skill and ability in their art, which is carried on with a few
+simple tools. The country far and near is ransacked for cottonwood,
+this being the wood prescribed for masks, dolls, prayer-sticks, etc.
+The soft cottonwood, especially the root, is easily worked with the
+dull knives that the Hopi possess. On every hand is soft, coarse
+sandstone for rubbing the wood into shape, and much of the work is not
+only finished, but formed by this means. For this reason the rocks
+around a Hopi village are covered with grooves and pits left by the
+workers in wood.
+
+If any parts, such as ears, hair, whorls, etc., are to be added to the
+figures, they are pegged on quite insecurely. Some of the terraces
+which surmount the kachina masks are remarkable structures built up of
+wood pegged together. A little string, a few twigs and pieces of
+cottonwood suffice the Hopi for the construction of flowers and
+complicated parts of the decoration of dolls and masks or other
+ceremonial belongings. Corn husks, dyed horsehair, woolen yarn,
+deerskin, cotton cloth, twigs, basketry, and feathers are worked in
+and the result, though crude, is effective.
+
+But in the realm of mechanical apparatus the Hopi is even ahead of the
+toy makers of the Schwartzwald. For the Palulukong ceremony he
+arranges startling effects, causing the Great Plumed Snake to emerge
+through screens, out of jars, or from the ceiling of the kiva, to the
+number of nine appearances, each requiring artful devices. The head of
+the Snake is a gourd furnished with eyes, having the mouth cut into
+sharp teeth, a long tongue, a plume, and the whole surface painted.
+The body is made up of wooden hoops over which cords run and is
+covered with cloth. Often two of these grotesque monsters are caused,
+by the pulling of cords, to advance and withdraw through flaps in the
+screen and to struggle against each other with striking realism.
+Nothing in Hopiland is more remarkable than this drama, as one may
+gather from Dr. Fewkes' account of it given at another place.
+
+Little of the Hopi's skill as a carver and decorator goes to the
+furnishing or building of the house; almost all is taken up with
+ceremonial matters. Previous to a few years ago chairs were unknown,
+as was any other domestic joinery, except the Hopi head masks,
+prayer-sticks and the thousand objects used in his pagan worship, in
+the manufacture of which he was master of all expedients. As a worker
+in stone and shell he still knows the arts of the ancient times, but
+lacks the skill of his forebears. The turquoise mosaics of old days so
+regularly and finely set on the backs of sea shells, have given place
+to the uneven scraps of turquoise set in confusion on bits of wood, as
+on the woman's earrings. Many devices have gone out entirely, and it
+is probable that no Hopi could make an axe of hard stone like the old
+ones or chip a finely proportioned arrowhead. The hand-stones for
+grinding corn are still made, and a woman pecking away at one with a
+stone hammer is not infrequently seen and heard.
+
+The Hopi were never metal-workers, because free metals are scarce in
+the Southwest. Their name for silver, with which they became familiar
+in the shape of coins, is _shiba_, "a little white cake." Gold they
+regard with suspicion, since it resembles copper or brass, with which
+they have been deceived at times by unscrupulous persons. A few
+workers in silver have produced some crude ornaments, but the Hopi
+gets his buttons, belt ornaments, etc., from the adept Navaho,
+silversmiths by trade, through whom also strings of beads come from
+the pueblos of the Rio Grande.
+
+The rocks all over the Southwest bear witness that the Hopi can draw.
+In thousands of instances he expressed his meaning in symbols or in
+compositions representing the chase of the deer or mountain goat. One
+of these groups on the smooth rocks near Holbrook, Arizona, shows a
+man driving a flock of turkeys, and is exceedingly graphic. On the
+cliff faces below Walpi are numerous well-executed pictographs, and
+occasionally one runs across recent work on the mesa top that excites
+admiration. With sculpture in the round the Hopi has done nothing
+remarkable because his tastes and materials have never led in this
+direction. A few rather large figures rudely carved from soft
+sandstone may be seen around the pueblos, and numerous fetiches, some
+of very hard stone, representing wolves, bears, and other animals, are
+still in the keeping of the societies. Some of these are very well
+done, but show little progress in sculpture. The visitor must beware
+of the little fetiches whittled from soft stone and offered for sale
+as genuine by the guileful Hopi in quest of _shiba_.
+
+The industry which the Hopi woman has all in her own hands is
+basket-making, and the work is apportioned to such as have the skill
+and fancy for it, as if there were a division of labor. The women of
+the three towns on the East Mesa do not make baskets at all, those of
+the Middle Mesa sew only coiled baskets, while the women of Oraibi
+weave wicker baskets exclusively. Thus, there is no difficulty in
+saying just where a Hopi basket comes from, and there is also no
+excuse for not recognizing these specimens of Hopi woman's work at
+first glance, as they have a strong individuality that separates them
+from all other baskets of the Indians.
+
+If one should visit the most skilful basket-maker of the Middle Mesa,
+Kuchyeampsi, that modest little woman, might be seen busily at work,
+and from her a great deal about the construction of coiled baskets
+could be learned. But it would take some time and patience to find
+that the grass whose stems she gathers for the body of the coil is
+named _takashu_, which botanists know as _Hilaria jamesii_, and that
+the strips which she sews over and joins the coil are from the leaves
+of the useful _mohu_ (_Yucca glauca_).
+
+Then when Kuchyeampsi comes home laden with her basket materials one
+must take further lessons in stripping the yucca leaves, splitting
+them with the thumb-nail to uniform size, and dyeing some of them
+various colors, for which anilines are principally used in these
+degenerate days. One must have an eye for the colors of the natural
+leaves of the yucca and select the yellow or yellowish green of the
+old leaves, the vivid green of the young leaves, and the white of the
+heart leaves, for the basket weaver discriminates all of these and
+uses them in her work.
+
+Of course Kuchyeampsi has all her material ready, the strips buried in
+moist sand, the grass moistened, and she may be starting a plaque. The
+slender coil at the center is too small to be formed with grass stems,
+so she builds it up of waste bits from the leaf-stripping, wrapping it
+with yucca strips, and taking only a few stitches with the encircling
+coil, since the bone awl is too clumsy for continuous stitching at the
+outset. After the third round the bone awl is plied, continuously
+piercing through under the coil and taking in the stitches beneath
+strips. As a hole is made the yucca strip is threaded through and
+drawn tight on the grass coil, and so the patient work goes on till
+the basket is complete. The patterns which appear on the baskets are
+stored up in the maker's brain and unfold as the coil progresses with
+the same accuracy as is evinced by the pottery decorator. The finish
+of the end of the coil gives an interesting commentary on Hopi
+beliefs. It is said that the woman who leaves the coil end unfinished
+does not complete it because that would close her life and no more
+children would bless her.
+
+At Oraibi one may see the women making wicker tray-baskets. Three or
+four slender sumach twigs are wickered together side by side at the
+middle and another similar bundle laid across the first at right
+angles. Then dyed branches of a desert plant known as "rabbit brush"
+are woven in and out between the twigs, and as the basket progresses
+she adds other radial rods until the basket is large enough. She
+finishes the edge by bending over the sumach ribs, forming a core,
+around which she wraps strips of yucca.
+
+One must admire the accuracy with which the designs are kept in mind
+and woven into the structure of the basket with splints of various
+colors or strips of tough yucca. The translation of a design into the
+radiating sewing of the coiled basket or the horizontal filling of
+the wicker basket shows the necessity of the different treatments,
+contrasting with the freedom which it is the potter's privilege to
+display on the smooth surface of her ware. So far as known the Hopi
+women never fail in applying their designs, however intricate.
+Frequently these designs represent mythical birds, butterflies,
+clouds, etc.
+
+Among the Hopi certain of the villages are noted for their local
+manufactures. Thus Walpi and Hano are practically the only towns where
+pottery is made, the Middle Mesa towns are headquarters for coiled
+baskets, and Oraibi furnishes wicker baskets. Perhaps the meaning of
+this is that these arts belong to clans, who have preserved them and
+know the secrets, and with the dying out of the workers or migration
+of the clans the arts have disappeared or have been transformed.
+Another cause which will suggest itself is the local abundance and
+quality of the materials required to be found in the surrounding
+plains and mountains.
+
+Basketry has at least as many uses as pottery among the Hopi, and a
+number of kinds besides the familiar plaques with symbolical
+decoration have been eagerly sought by collectors. The crops from the
+fields are borne to the houses on the mesas in carrying baskets,
+resembling a pannier, which are worked of wicker over a frame of two
+bent sticks crossed at right angles. In the house the coiled and
+wicker trays heaped high with corn meal, the basket for parched corn
+and the sifting basket near the corn grinding stones, will be found.
+In the bread-baking room is the coarse, though effective, _piki_ tray,
+and occasionally one may still see a neatly made floor mat. The thin
+checker mat of ancient days has long since gone out of use, but
+formerly, the dead were wrapped in such mats before they were placed
+in the earth.
+
+Over the fireplace is a hood of basketry plastered to prevent burning.
+The wicker cradle to which the infant hopeful is bound must not be
+forgotten. Several small globular wicker baskets for various purposes
+may also be displayed among the household belongings. The mat of grass
+stems in which the wedding blanket is folded is also a kind of
+basketry, as are the twined mats for covering the hatchway of the kiva
+and the twined fence around the fields.
+
+With all their own resources, the Hopi are great collectors of baskets
+from other tribes. One must not be surprised to see in use in the Hopi
+houses the water bottles coated with pitch and the well-made
+basket-bowls from the Havasupai of Cataract Canyon, the Pimas of
+southern Arizona, and other tribes touched by Hopi commerce.
+
+The vizors of old masks used in the ceremonies were of basketry,
+generally a section cut from a Ute basket-bowl, which shows one of the
+most interesting employments of baskets among the Hopi. The highly
+decorated trays may also be said to have a sacred character from their
+frequent appearance in the ceremonies, where they are used to contain
+prayer-sticks, meal, etc. Appropriately the women's ceremonies display
+many baskets on the altars, and in the public dances each woman
+carries a bright plaque. One of the episodes of these ceremonies is
+full of action when women throw baskets to men who struggle
+energetically for them. On this account these ceremonies have been
+called Basket Dances.
+
+One of the frequent sights in a Hopi town is a woman carrying a
+heaped-up plaque of meal of her own grinding as a present to some
+friend. This usually happens on the eve of a ceremony, like our
+Christmas gifts, but no one must fail to notice that an equal present
+is religiously brought in return.
+
+The Hopi value their baskets; they appreciate fully a pretty thing,
+and this explains why one of the Sichomovi men, who is rich in
+Havasupai baskets, has had the good taste to decorate the walls of the
+best room of his house with these trophies of Cataract Canyon.
+
+Judging from the number of ruins in the Southwest, it might be thought
+that the former inhabitants spent much of their time in laying up
+walls and considered the work easy. What these ruins do show in an
+emphatic way is the organization of the builders and what mutual aid
+will accomplish.
+
+Dismiss the idea of the modern architect, builder, laborers, brick
+makers, planing mill hands, plumbers, etc., combining to get ready a
+dwelling for a family, and substitute in their place all the Indian
+relatives, from the infant to the superannuated, lending willing
+hands for the "raising." The primitive architect is there, builders
+too, of skill and experience and a full corps of those who furnish
+builders' supplies, including the tot who carries a little sand in her
+dress and those who ransack the country round for brush, clay, beams,
+stones, and water.
+
+Before going farther it must be understood that house-building is
+women's work among the Hopi, and these likewise are the house-owners.
+It seems rather startling, then, that all the walls of the uninhabited
+houses and the fallen walls of the ruins that prevail in the Southwest
+should be mainly the work of women's hands, whose touch we might
+expect to find on the decorated pottery, but not on the structures
+that cause the Pueblo people to be known as house-builders. From this
+one begins to understand the importance of woman in these little
+nations of the desert.
+
+Let us suppose that an addition is to be made to a Hopi village of a
+house containing a single room, built without regard to the future
+additions which may later form a house cluster. The plan of such a
+house would be familiar to any Hopi child, since it is merely a
+rectangular box. When the location has been determined, word is passed
+around among the kinsfolk and the collection of stones, beams, etc.,
+is begun. Cottonwood trees for many miles around are laid under
+contribution. Some beams may be supplied from trees growing nearby
+along the washes and in the cornfields, and some may require journeys
+of eighty or a hundred miles, representing immense labor. Beams are
+precious, and in this dry climate they last indefinitely, so that one
+may not be surprised to find timber in the present houses from Awatobi
+or older ruins, or from Spanish mission times. It is also probable
+that often when pueblos were abandoned, they were revisited later and
+the timbers torn out and brought to the new location, thus the ruins
+might appear more ancient than they really are. With the advent of the
+burro, the horse, and the iron axe, timbering became easier than in
+the stone age, but it was still no sinecure.
+
+Stones are gathered from the sides of the mesa not far away, those not
+larger than a moderate burden being selected. The sand-rock of the
+mesa is soft and with a hammer-stone convenient masses may be broken
+off. At present there is a quarry on the Walpi mesa; the blocks gotten
+out by means of axes are more regular than those in the old houses,
+which show little or no traces of working. Between the layers of rock
+are beds of clay which require only moistening with water to become
+ready for the mason.
+
+The architect has paced off the ground and determined the dimensions
+of the house, giving the arm measurement of the timbers to the logging
+party who, with the rest, have got the materials ready. The next step
+is to find the house-chief and secure from him four eagle-feather
+prayer-plumes. These are deposited under the four corner stones with
+appropriate ceremony of breath-prayers for the welfare of the house
+and its occupants. The plumes are dedicated to the god of the
+underworld, the sun, and other deities concerned with house-life. The
+builder then determines where the door shall be and places an offering
+of food on either side of it; he then walks around the site from left
+to right, sprinkling a mixture of _piki_ crumbs and other food with
+tobacco along the line of the walls, singing to the sun his
+_kitdauwi_, "house song"; _Si-si, a-hai, si-si, a-hai_, the meaning of
+which has long been forgotten.
+
+The walls are laid in irregular courses, mortar being sparingly used.
+The addition of plastering to the outside and inside of the house
+awaits some future time, though sometimes work on the outside coat is
+put off to an ever vanishing _mañana_. When the house walls, seven or
+eight feet in height and of irregular thickness from seventeen to
+twenty-two inches are completed, the women begin on the roof. The
+beams are laid across the side walls at intervals of two feet; above
+these and parallel with the side walls are laid poles; across these is
+placed a layer of rods or willow brush, and above this is piled grass
+or small twigs. A layer of mud comes next, and when this is dry, earth
+is placed on it and tramped down until hard. The roof, which is
+complicated and ingenious, is nearly level, but provision is made for
+carrying off the water by means of spouts.
+
+When the roof is finished the women put a thick coating of mud on the
+floor and plaster the walls. At Zuñi floors are nearly always made of
+slabs of stone, but in Hopi mud is the rule. The process of plastering
+a floor is interesting to an onlooker. Clay dug from under the cliffs,
+crushed and softened in water and tempered with sand is smeared on the
+floor with the hand, a little area at a time. The floor may be dry and
+occasionally the mud gets too hard; a dash of water corrects this.
+When the mud dries to the proper stage, it is rubbed with a smooth
+stone having a flat face, giving the completed floor a fine finish
+like pottery. As an extra finish to the room a dado is painted around
+the wall, in a wash of red ocher by means of a rabbit skin used as a
+brush. Formerly a small space on the wall was left unplastered; it was
+believed that a _kachina_ came and finished it, and although the space
+remained bare it was considered covered with invisible mud.
+
+Before the house can be occupied the builder prepares four feathers
+for its dedication. He ties the _nakwakwoci_ or breath feathers to a
+willow twig, the end of which is inserted over one of the central
+roof-beams. The builder also appeases Masauah, the God of Death, by an
+offering in which the house is "fed" by putting fragments of food
+among the rafters or in a niche in the door lintels, beseeching the
+god not to hasten the departure of any of the family to the
+underworld. At the feast of Soyaluna in December, the feathers,
+forming the "soul" of the house, are renewed, and at this season when
+the sun returns northward, the village house-chief visits the houses
+which have been built within the year and performs a ceremony over
+them.
+
+A hole is left in one corner of the roof, under which the women build
+the mud fireplace, with its knob andirons and the column of pots with
+the bottoms knocked out which form the chimney. Over the fireplace, a
+chimney hood, usually supported on posts, is constructed of
+basket-work, plastered over with mud. A row of mealing stones slanted
+in sunken stone boxes in the floor must not be forgotten, and no one
+in Hopiland could set up housekeeping without a smooth stone slab to
+bake _piki_ upon. Some of the houses have a low bench along one or two
+sides of the room which forms convenient seats. The windows are small,
+being often mere chinks, through which the curious spy without being
+seen. Stones are usually at hand, by means of which, and mud, windows
+and doors may be closed when the family go off on a rather protracted
+stay.
+
+This one-room house is the nucleus of the village. When the daughters
+marry and require space for themselves, another house is built in
+front of and adjoining the first one, and a second story may be added
+to the original house. Thus the cluster grows, and around the spaces
+reserved for streets and plazas other clusters grow until they touch
+one another and rise three or four stories, the inner rooms being dark
+from the addition to the later houses and these become storage
+places.
+
+While the old houses were entered from the trapdoors in the roof, the
+new houses have doors at the ground level and often windows glazed in
+the most approved style. Frequently in the march of progress doors are
+cut into the old houses, and the streets begin to assume the
+appearance of a Mexican town; but the old nucleus buried under the
+successive buildings rarely shows and may be traced with difficulty.
+In winter the people withdraw from the exposed and retire to the old
+enclosed rooms, huddling together to keep warm, enlivening the
+confinement with many a song, legend, and story.
+
+So much for the woman builders of Tusayan, to whom all honor.[1]
+
+    [1] One who desires to pursue this subject in more detail should
+    consult Mindeleff's paper on Pueblo Architecture in the 8th
+    Annual Report Bureau American Ethnology, 1886-1887.
+
+
+
+
+V
+
+AMUSEMENTS
+
+
+The enviable title of "Song-Makers" has been earned by the
+music-loving Indians of Tusayan, and their fame as singers has gone
+out among all the tribes of the "Land of Little Rain." Many a less
+inventive Indian has come a long, wearisome journey to learn songs
+from the Hopi, bringing also his fee, since songs that give the singer
+magic power over the gods and forces of nature are not to be had for
+the asking, besides to their learning a man must give the full
+devotion of his being and sit humbly at the feet of his instructors.
+The land where the Hopi live may seem to furnish slight incentive to
+song, especially when one's ideas of the desert are of its dreariness
+and desolation; but when one sets foot in the sacred precincts of the
+mysterious desert a new revelation comes to him and he sees with these
+Indians that the wastes which unfold from the high mesas are full of
+beauty of form and brilliancy of color. Sunrise and sunset bring
+wonderful tints into the landscape,--the distant blue mountains, the
+violet cloud shadows, the tawny, whirling sand columns, the far-off
+thunder-storm, the vibration of the midday air, and the sparkling
+night sky must inspire the most prosaic mind. There comes to one in
+these surroundings a feeling of freedom, together with a sense of the
+vastness, transparency, and mystery of the desert which stir the
+emotions and makes the close pent life of crowded cities left behind
+seem but an unsubstantial dream. Here the Hopi have been always free;
+the isolated life on the narrow mesas brings about a close
+companionship and a true home-life besides. The air of the desert
+makes a man healthy and hungry, thus cheerfulness cannot but follow,
+expressed in songs that are from the soul.
+
+It must be confessed that the impression of Indian music one draws
+from various sources is that it consists of whoops, yells, and odd,
+guttural noises, but this is far from describing Hopi music. Between
+the light and airy _Kachina_ songs and the stirring though somewhat
+gruesome chants of the Snake ceremony, there is a variety of
+compositions to many of which the most enlightened music lovers would
+listen with pleasure.
+
+The Flute music is especially pleasing. In the summer of 1896, the
+writer had the good fortune to witness the Flute ceremony at the Hopi
+pueblo of Walpi. In the course of the ritual, which is an invocation
+for rain, a series of songs are repeated each day for several days. To
+one hearing Indian music for the first time the sensation was quite
+novel. The chorus of priests, rattle in hand, sang in unison before
+the Flute altar, in a narrow, low, windowless room that greatly
+augmented the volume of sound. The time was set by the speaker-chief,
+who uniformly shook his rattle eight beats in five seconds for all the
+songs and for each day's songs with the accuracy of a metronome. There
+were three beats in each measure. The pitch was low, the range
+limited, and the deep, vibrant voices seemed to portray the winds,
+thunder, rain, the rushing water and the elemental forces of nature.
+
+The notation is chromatic, not possible to be expressed on any
+instrument save the violin, or the five-hole transverse flutes which
+later accompanied the singing. These flutes were played in unison on
+the octave above the voices, and their shrill, harsh notes marred the
+singing. In general effect the music is minor, but frequently major
+motives of great beauty spring out of dead-level monotonous minors.
+Sometimes a major motive is followed by a minor counterpart of the
+same. There is much slurring, and an occasional reduplication comes in
+with great effect. A number of songs are monotonous, with once in a
+while a vigorous movement. The closing song is spirited and may truly
+be called beautiful. It consists of several legato verses, each
+closing with a turn, a rapid vibration of the rattle, and a solemn
+refrain. In structure and melody it resembles a Christian hymn. The
+music reminds one of the Gregorian chants, and to the listener some
+of the motives seemed quite equal to those upon which Handel built his
+great oratorios.
+
+It is a pity that the many beautiful songs of Tusayan cannot be
+written down and preserved but this will no doubt soon be
+accomplished. Perhaps some genius like Liszt who gave the world the
+spirit of Hungarian folk-music will arise to ravish our ears with
+these musical expressions passed down from aboriginal American sweet
+singers.
+
+While the music which most attracts our attention in Hopiland is that
+of the various ceremonies, there is still a cycle of songs, many in
+number, of love, war, or for amusement; those sung by mothers to their
+infants, or shrilled by the women grinding corn. The men sing at their
+work, the children at their play in this land of the Song Makers.
+
+If songs are numerous beyond computation among the Hopi there are also
+more games conducing to their amusement than one finds among many
+other tribes. One may surmise that these games have been brought in by
+the clans that came from all points of the compass to make up the
+Hopi, and who must have touched elbows with other tribes of different
+lineage during the wanderings. All games seem to have been borrowed,
+and no one may, in the light of present knowledge, say when, where,
+and by whom any one of the typical games was invented, any more than
+the father of a proverb or a joke may have the parentage ascribed to
+him.
+
+But the Hopi are not disturbed by such philosophical considerations
+and adhere to the traditional and time-honored games they know without
+desire for innovation. With them athletic games are most popular, are
+pursued with whole-souled abandon, and are accompanied with a world of
+noise and rough play; but the races and games connected with the
+religious ceremonies are carried on with due decorum. Stout shinny
+sticks of oak brought from the north show that the Hopi know the
+widespread sport that warms the blood of many an American boy, but,
+alas! there is no ice for its full enjoyment. Among other athletic
+sports one may reckon throwing darts, shooting with bow and arrow at a
+mark, or hurling the boomerang-like club, which is an ancient weapon,
+or even impromptu trials of skill in throwing stones or in bouts of
+friendly wrestling. The most amusing struggle game is the _Nuitiwa_,
+played by both sexes after the close of the Snake ceremony. Men and
+boys provide themselves with some piece of pottery or other object of
+value and run through the village crying "Wa ha ha! Wa ha ha!" pursued
+by the fleet-footed women who chase them and struggle for the prize
+with much laughter and shortness of breath. The men take the
+precaution to remove their shirts, if they value them, before they
+begin, for that garment is not worth a moment's purchase when the
+girls reach for the prize held at arm-length above the head.
+
+Many of the sacred games are of an athletic character. Of these may
+be mentioned the numerous races, including the kicking race in which
+stones are carried on top of one foot, and the sacred game of ball.
+One might include in the list the bow-women of the _Mamzrauti_
+ceremony and basket throwers of the _Lalakonti_ ceremony, since it can
+be seen that games are closely connected with primitive religious
+beliefs and may all have originated as a form of divination, or some
+other early attempts of man either to influence the beings or to spy
+into the future. It may be that some games are remnants of
+long-forgotten ceremonies, once of great import to early worshippers.
+
+Of sedentary games there are a number. One like "fox and geese,"
+called _totolospi_, is the _patoli_ of the Mexicans, which is said to
+be in turn the _pachise_ of the Hindus, and the rectangular plan of
+this game may sometimes be found on the rocks near the villages. There
+is "cup and ball," a guessing game in which four cups cut from wood
+and a stone about the size of a marble form the paraphernalia; and
+there is a game in which reed dice with markings are thrown. A set of
+these dice was found in an ancient ruin near Winslow, Arizona, and
+they are represented on an ancient bowl from Sikyatki, a ruin near
+Walpi.
+
+With all these games the Hopi are not gamblers and appear to have the
+same aversion to it as they have to fire-water, differing in this
+respect from the Navaho, Zuñi, and many other tribes of Indians. Most
+of their games, like those of the ancient Greeks, are full of the
+exhilaration of life, the glow of physical training, the doing of
+something to win the favor of the gods.
+
+In this account the children must not be left out. Imitating the
+customs of their seniors, they not only carry out the great games but
+also enter with abandon the childish sports of chasing, tag, ring
+around a rosy, ball, and other juveniles. Tops and popguns are not
+unknown, and if a boy has a pebble shooter made of an agave stalk with
+a spring of elastic wood he can go as far in mischief as ever Hopi
+children do, but he never fires away peas or beans, for they are too
+precious.
+
+It may be well to recount here the endurance of the Hopi in their
+great national accomplishment--that of making long runs at record
+speed.
+
+One morning about seven o'clock at Winslow, Arizona, a message was
+brought to the hotel that an Indian wished to see the leader of an
+exploring party. On stepping out on the street the Indian was found
+sitting on the curbstone, mouth agape with wonder at the trains moving
+about on the Santa Fé Pacific Railroad.
+
+He delivered a note from a white man at Oraibi and it was ascertained
+that he had started from that place at four on the previous afternoon,
+and arrived at Winslow some time about the middle of the night. When
+it is known that the distance is sixty-five miles and the Indian ran
+over a country with which he was not familiar, the feat seems
+remarkable. It is presumed that he ran until it became dark and then
+waited till the moon rose, finishing the journey by moonlight.
+
+On his back he carried a canteen of water wrapped in a blanket. He
+took only a sandwich, explaining that if he ate he could not run, and
+receiving the answer to the note, resumed his journey to Oraibi.
+Afterward it was learned that the runner reached Oraibi with the
+answer that afternoon, having been promised a bonus if he made the
+trip in one day. The distance run cannot be less than 130 miles, a
+pretty long course to get over in the time, and this Indian is not the
+best runner in Oraibi. There is one man who takes a morning practice
+of thirty miles or so in order to get in trim for the dawn races in
+some of the ceremonies, and it is said that he won in such a race some
+years ago, distancing all competitors.
+
+Nothing in the whole realm of animal motion can be imagined more
+graceful than the movements of one of these runners as he passes by in
+the desert, his polished sinewy muscles playing with the utmost
+precision--nothing but flight can be compared with it. The Indians say
+that moccasins are the best foot-wear for travel over sandy country,
+as the foot, so clad, presses the loose sand into a firm, rounded
+bunch, giving a fulcrum for the forward spring, but the naked feet
+scatters the sand, and this, on experiment, was found to be true.
+
+While excavating at Winslow one day some of the workmen looked up
+toward the north and cried out, _Hopi tu, Hopi tu_, "The Hopi are
+coming." It was some time before our eyes could pick them out, but
+soon three men could be seen running, driving a little burro in front
+at the top of its speed. These were Walpi men journeying to a creek
+some miles beyond Winslow to get sacred water for one of their
+ceremonies. Similar journeys are made to San Francisco Mountains for
+pine boughs and to the Cataract of the Colorado to trade with the
+Havasupai. The Spanish conquerors were struck with the ability of the
+Hopi runners, and they record that the Indians could easily run in one
+day across the desert to the Grand Canyon, a distance which the
+Spaniards required three days' march to accomplish.
+
+Often a crowd of Hopi young men will go out afoot to hunt rabbits, and
+woe to the bunny that comes in reach! He is soon run down and
+dispatched with their curved boomerangs.
+
+Though baseball, football, and many other athletic games of
+civilization have no place among the Hopi sports, of foot racing they
+are as passionately fond as even the ancient Greeks. Almost every one
+of the many ceremonies has its foot race in which the whole pueblo
+takes the greatest interest, for all the Hopi honor the swift runners.
+
+This brings to mind the story of how Sikyabotoma lost his hair.
+Sikyabotoma, who bears the school name of John, is the finest
+specimen of physical manhood at the East Mesa. John is not unaware of
+this gift of nature, as he poses on all occasions out of sheer pride.
+
+One cannot observe that John got anything out of his American
+schooling; he seemingly does not speak a word of English, and he is
+beyond all reason taciturn for a Hopi. It may be that John is a
+backslider, having forgotten or thrown over his early education and
+relapsed to his present state under the influence of Hopi paganism.
+
+As runner for the Walpi Flute Society, his duty is to carry the
+offerings to the various shrines and springs, skirting on the first
+day the entire circuit of the cultivated fields of the pueblo, and
+coming nearer and nearer each day till he tolls the gods to the very
+doors of Walpi. It is no small task to include all the fields in the
+blessings asked by the Flute priests, since the circuit must exceed
+twenty miles. Each day Sikyabotoma, wearing an embroidered kilt around
+his loins, his long, glossy hair hanging free, stands before the Flute
+priests, a brave sight to behold. They fasten a small pouch of sacred
+meal at his side and anoint him with honey on the tip of the tongue,
+the forehead, breast, arms, and legs, perhaps to make him swift as the
+bee. Then he receives the prayer-sticks, and away he goes down the
+mesa as though he had leaped down the five hundred feet, his long,
+black hair streaming. He stops at a spring, then at a shrine, and in
+a very short time can scarcely be distinguished running far out by the
+arroyo bounding the fields. John in this role is a sight not soon to
+be forgotten.
+
+This brings us to the story of John's Waterloo. At sunrise on the last
+day of the _Wawash_ ceremony there are foot races in honor of the
+gods, and a curious condition of these races is that the loser
+forfeits his hair. Now the Hopi are like the Chinese in having an
+aversion to losing this adornment. A bald Hopi is a great rarity, and
+the generality of the men have long, beautiful locks, black as a
+raven's wing, washed with soaproot and made wavy by being tied tightly
+in a knot at the back of the head. Sikyabotoma entered the _Wawash_
+race with confidence, but when the runners came back on the tortuous
+trail up the rocks Sikyabotoma was second. A pair of sheep shears in
+the hands of his adversary soon made havoc with his locks. At the time
+this sketch was written John's hair had grown again to a respectable
+length.
+
+In making his toilet as Flute Messenger, to which the writer was a
+witness, John found it necessary to have his bang trimmed. This
+service was performed by an old fellow who picked up from the floor a
+dubious looking brush made of stiff grass stems, moistened it with his
+tongue occasionally as he brushed John's hair, and finally with a pair
+of rickety scissors cut the bang to regulation shape.
+
+Sikyabotoma, in spite of the drawbacks pointed out, is one of the
+lions of Walpi by birth; he also belongs to the first families.
+Divested of civilized garb, and as a winged Mercury flying with
+messages to the good beings, he is an object to be gazed on with
+admiration, disposing one to be lenient with his besetting vanity.
+
+
+
+
+VI
+
+BIRTH, MARRIAGE, AND DEATH
+
+
+A blanket hangs over the usually opened door and a feeble wail issuing
+from within the dusky house betokens that a baby has come into the
+world, and awaits only a name before he becomes a member of the Hopi
+commonwealth. The ceremony by which the baby is to be dedicated to the
+sun and given a name that will bind him indissolubly to the religious
+system of his people is interesting from the light it casts on the
+customs of the Hopi and the parallels it offers to the natal rites of
+other peoples.
+
+On the mud-plastered wall of the house, the mother has made, day by
+day, certain scratches which mark the infant's age, or perhaps reckons
+the time on her fingers till nineteen days have passed. The morning of
+the twentieth day brings the ceremony.
+
+Meanwhile the little one has been made to know some of the trials of
+life. On the first day of his entrance into this arena, his head has
+been washed in soaproot suds and his diminutive body rubbed with
+ashes, the latter, it is alleged, to kill the hair, and his mother
+must also undergo the ceremonial head washing, which must be repeated
+on the fifth, tenth, and fifteenth days with the amole root, which is
+the only soap known to the Hopi. Besides, the mother must never be
+touched by the direct rays of the sun during the first five days,
+which explains the blanket often hung before the doorway; nor may she
+put on her moccasins, for fear of ill luck.
+
+At last, on the evening of the nineteenth day, comes the paternal
+grandmother, who, by custom, is the mistress of ceremonies, a fact
+which seems a little strange, for though the child takes its descent
+from the mother, the father's people name the baby and conduct the
+ceremony. The grandmother sees to the fire and attends to the stew of
+mutton with shelled corn, called _nukwibi_, and the sweet corn
+pudding, called _pigame_, cooking for the feast in the morning. While
+she is bustling about, boiling a tea of juniper twigs, placing a few
+stones in the fire to heat for use in the morning, and pounding
+soaproot, the relatives are bringing plaques of basket-work heaped
+with fine meal as presents to the new-born. These the mother receives
+with the woman's words of thanks, _eskwali_--the men's word being _kwa
+kwi_--and invites the guests to partake of food. It is late when the
+relatives depart, and the mother busies herself with getting ready the
+return presents, adding, perhaps, with a generous hand, more than was
+given, while the object of all this preparation is sleeping oblivious,
+hidden beneath his blanket.
+
+At the first glint of dawn the godmother arises, renews the fire, and
+draws with fine meal four short parallel lines on the walls, floor,
+and ceiling of the room, and on the lines on the floor puts a prayer
+feather tied to a cotton string, and above that places a bowl of amole
+suds. The mother kneels by the bowl, her long black hair falling in
+the foam, and the godmother dips an ear of corn in the suds four times
+and touches each time the head of the mother with the end, then bathes
+her head. Perhaps others of the guests who have come early for the
+ceremony use the suds in turn with an idea of getting some imaginary
+benefit; the practical benefit of cleanliness is obtained at any rate.
+The mother's arms and legs are bathed in the juniper tea; the heated
+stones placed in a cracked bowl and some of the tea thrown over them,
+form an impromptu sweat bath, while she stands, wrapped in a blanket,
+over the steam. This finishes the part of the ceremony designed for
+purification.
+
+The old woman carefully sweeps up the room and puts all the sweepings
+in a bowl which she throws over the mesa, while another woman
+sprinkles water on the floor, saying, "clouds and rain," the two magic
+words which are often on the lips and in their thoughts. Now the baby
+is waked from his blissful sleep, bathed in soapsuds, and rinsed with
+a mouthful of water applied in the manner of a Chinese laundryman.
+This time it is not ashes but white corn meal with which he is rubbed,
+and all the company rub suds on his head with ears of corn dipped in
+the wash bowl. The godmother puts meal on the baby's face and neck,
+and, waving an ear of corn, prays over the mother and child. This is
+the prayer: "May you live to be old, may you have good corn, may you
+keep well, and now I name you Samiwiki," ("roasting ears"), or she
+bestows any name which strikes her fancy. All the other relatives give
+the baby a name and it is a matter of chance which one survives.
+
+The naming of the baby being ended, the dedication of the child to the
+sun is next in order. As a preliminary, the baby is introduced to the
+hard lot of the cradle. The cradle may be a bent stick interlaced with
+twigs, a cushion of frayed juniper bark placed on it and a bow
+attached to the upper end to protect the baby's face. A small blanket
+or two form the covering. The mother tucks the little fellow in,
+placing his arms straight along his sides and finishes by lashing him
+round and round with a sash until he resembles a miniature mummy. The
+godmother has not been idle meanwhile. She has taken meal and made a
+white path out the door, and at a signal from the father, who has been
+anxiously watching for sunrise from a neighboring housetop, she
+quickly takes up the cradle and carries it low down over the path of
+meal, out to where the sun may be seen. The women have put on their
+clean mantas, the mother has arrayed herself in her embroidered cotton
+wedding blanket, and they stand in the clear dawn, a picturesque group
+of sun-worshippers. The godmother draws away the blanket from the
+baby's face, holds a handful of meal to her mouth, and says a short
+prayer over it and throws it toward the sun; so also does the mother,
+and the ceremony is over.
+
+The assembly then turns to the _nukwibi_, _pigame_, and other good
+things, for among the Hopi a feast always follows a ceremony, just as
+enlightened people enjoy a good dinner after church; but before they
+begin the repast, a pinch of the food must be taken out and thrown by
+the ladder or into an inner room as an offering to the sun. The baby,
+being guest of honor, is first to eat of the food, though the act
+would seem a mere pretense. Directly he is laid aside to resume his
+broken slumbers while all assembled fall to with keen appetites. Soon
+the guests arise to depart, and receiving their "Indian gifts" return
+to their homes.
+
+Custom demands, however, that other things for the welfare of the
+child be done. A boy should have a swift insect called _bimonnuh_ tied
+to his wrist to make him a runner, and a girl a cocoon of a butterfly
+to make her wrists strong for grinding corn. Later, for some reason, a
+band of yucca is put on the child's wrist and ankle and left on for
+several days, when the child is held over an ant hill, the bands taken
+off and left to the ants.
+
+It is pleasant to know that the Hopi are good to the old. In the
+ceremony just described they are given special gifts of food and meal,
+and if the grandmother is an invalid she is tenderly carried to the
+dedication.[2]
+
+    [2] From Natal Ceremonies of the Hopi Indians. J. G. Owens,
+    Journal of American Ethnology and Archaeology, Vol. II, 1892.
+
+When the number of children born is considered, there seems to be no
+reason why the Hopi should not soon have a dense population, instead
+of remaining stationary. When more is known, though, of the unripe
+melons and other green things given the children to eat at their own
+sweet will, the wonder is that any of them ever reach the years of
+discretion. It is a wise provision of custom that the children are not
+required to wear any clothes whatever, and one soon becomes accustomed
+to the graceful, animated little bronzes that swarm in the quaint,
+terraced pueblos.
+
+Nowhere are these little flowers of the tree of life more cunning and
+interesting. Like the Japanese children they seem to deserve no
+correction, and it is as rare a sight as green grass, in the land of
+Tusayan, to see a parent strike a child. Always instead there is
+kindness and affection worthy of the highest praise. It is refreshing
+to observe the association of children with their parents or near
+relatives, and how quiet and obedient they are. This close parental
+attention must be the secret of good children wherever the country may
+be. The Hopi children are fortunate in having many teachers who, at
+home or in the fields or in the country, explain to them the useful
+things which they should know in order to become good citizens of
+Tusayan. It surprises visitors to find out how much the little people
+have learned, not only of the birds, plants, and other sides of
+nature, but of their future duties in the house, the fields, and the
+village, and one comes to respect the Hopi kindergarten in which the
+children are taught through play-work and unconsciously come to "know
+how." Even the odd-looking dolls, which the Hopi children love with
+the same fervor as the rest of the little men and women of the child
+world, assist in teaching. These dolls, carved from cottonwood and
+brilliantly decorated with paint, feathers, and shells, represent the
+numerous beings who inhabit the spiritual world supposed to rule the
+destinies of the Hopi. The children are given these wooden figures to
+play with, and thus they learn the appearance of the gods and at the
+same time get a lesson in mythology.
+
+In their sport, several little fellows armed with bows and arrows may
+pretend to guard the pueblo, and no doubt they have the same proud
+feeling in possessing these savage weapons of war as a small white boy
+has when master of a toy gun. Little tots scarcely able to walk will
+be encouraged to shoot at a target made of a bundle of sage-brush set
+up in the sand at no great distance, and loud is the applause from the
+parents and other onlookers when one of these infants bowls over the
+target. The girls congregate in a secluded street and play, their soft
+voices quite in contrast with any such group of white children.
+Perhaps the game is "play house," with the help of a few stones and
+much imagination. The moment, however, a visitor casts his eye in
+their direction the game is broken up and all become painfully
+conscious of his presence. Should a rain fill the water holes on the
+mesa the children have great sport bathing, splashing around like
+ducks and chasing one another. This must be a rare treat to the
+children, because, like Christmas, the good fortune of a rainwater
+bath may come but once a year.
+
+Wherever the grown people go, the children go along, berrying,
+gathering grass and yucca for baskets, or seeds of the wild plants for
+food, watching the cornfield, or gathering the crops, each having a
+little share in the work and a good portion of amusement. One soon
+sees that the children of the Hopi help in everything that is going on
+and take care not to hinder. If a house is being built, the little
+ones work as hard as their elders, carrying in their baskets a tiny
+load of stones or earth for the building with an earnestness that is
+really amusing. Outside of the Hopi towns one usually finds a number
+of inscriptions in picture writing on the rocks. Besides the
+inscriptions there are many cup-shaped depressions that have puzzled
+more than one visitor. One day some children were seen hammering
+diligently on the rocks with hand-stones, and it was found that they
+were digging cup-cavities in the soft sandstone, perhaps making tiny
+play-reservoirs to catch rain water. The children may also be
+responsible for many of the queer pictures that adorn the smooth sides
+of the rocks around the villages; and who knows but that many ancient
+inscriptions on the Arizona rocks were cut by childish hands.
+
+In every Hopi child's life the time comes when he must join some one
+of the brotherhoods or societies, which take in nearly every one in
+the pueblos, so that a young man to have any standing must belong to
+one at least of the Kachina brotherhoods. The boys during their solemn
+initiation are soundly whipped by the "flogger," whose name need but
+be mentioned to the little ones to make them scamper.
+
+But this takes us beyond the age of tender childhood in the children's
+Paradise. To a children's friend the Hopi tots are a perennial joy.
+Their bright eyes are full of appreciation, though bashfulness may
+make them hide behind mother's skirts, but there is a magic word they
+have learned from the white people which overcomes that. A picture
+still dwells in the writer's mind of a little fellow who approached
+some visitors as near as he dared and spoke the two words of English
+he knew: "Hello, kente" (candy).
+
+Although the ceremony of marriage is of small importance in comparison
+with the endless ceremonies of the Hopi priesthoods, yet a great deal
+of interest clusters around it and it is really a complicated affair.
+The trying antecedent stage of courtship, so amusing to those not
+concerned, is the same as among civilized young men and maidens. One
+of the first questions Hopi women ask one is, "Have you a wife?" and
+if the answer is negative, they express condolence and sympathy, if
+they do not go so far as to inquire the reason. As elsewhere, the
+young man must show some possession and likewise an ability to provide
+before he can take the step of matrimony, and of course, the most
+inflexible rule of all those which regulate the affairs in Hopiland is
+observed in making the choice of a wife--the absolute prohibition
+against marriage between members of the same clan. If both have the
+totem of the tobacco plant, for instance, it would be hopeless to
+think of union even if it were imaginable that such a thing would ever
+enter a Hopi's thoughts. There may be no relationship, but if the clan
+name is the same, there is an effectual bar.
+
+One of the sure signs that matters are going smoothly is when a girl
+is seen combing a young man's hair, seated perhaps in the doorway
+where all the world may stare. This is taken to mean a betrothal, but
+long before this in a community where everyone's business is known,
+the "match" has been no secret. Hopi courtship presents advantages. No
+prospectively irate parents have to be asked; the Peaceful People do
+not put thorns in the path of true love, but let things adjust
+themselves in a simple, natural way. There are no first families with
+pride of birth or wealth, no exclusive circles or cliques, there is no
+bar except the totem in this perfect democracy.
+
+When the young people decide to be married, the girl informs her
+mother, who takes her daughter, bearing a tray of meal made from white
+corn, to the house of the bridegroom where she is received by his
+mother with thanks. During that day she must labor at the mealing
+stones, grinding white corn, silent and unnoticed; the next day she
+must continue her task with the white corn. On the third day of this
+laborious trial she grinds the dark blue corn which the Hopi call
+black, no doubt glad when the evening brings a group of her friends,
+laden with trays of meal of their own grinding, as presents, and
+according to custom, these presents are returned in kind, the trays
+being sent back next day heavy with choice ears of corn.
+
+After this three days' probation, which would indicate that a Hopi
+maiden must be very devoted to undertake it, comes the wedding. Upon
+that day, the mother cuts the bride's front hair at the level of her
+chin and dresses the longer locks in two coils, which she must always
+wear over her breast to give token that she is no longer a maiden. At
+the dawn of the fourth day the relatives of both families assemble,
+each one bringing a small quantity of water in a vessel. The two
+mothers pound up roots of the yucca used as soap and prepare two bowls
+of foaming suds. The young man kneels before the bowl prepared by his
+future mother-in-law as the bride before the bowl of the young man's
+mother, and their heads are thoroughly washed and the relatives take
+part by pouring handsful of suds over the bowed heads of the couple.
+While this ceremonial head-washing is going on, some of the women and
+girls creep in between the couple and try to hold their heads over the
+bowls while others strive to tear away the intruders, and a great
+deal of jollity ensues. When the head-washing is over the visitors
+rinse the hair of the couple with the water they have brought, and
+return home. Then the bridal couple each takes a pinch of corn-meal
+and leaving the house go silently to the eastern side of the mesa on
+which the pueblo of Oraibi stands. Holding the meal to their lips,
+they cast the meal toward the dawn, breathing a prayer for a long and
+prosperous life, and return to the house as husband and wife.
+
+The ceremony over, the mother of the bride builds a fire under the
+baking stone, while the daughter prepares the batter and begins to
+bake a large quantity of paper bread. After this practical and
+beautiful starting of the young folks in life the mother returns to
+her home. But there is much more to do before the newly married merge
+into the staid married folks of Tusayan. The wedding breakfast follows
+closely on the heels of the ceremony and the father of the young man
+must run through the pueblo with a bag of cotton, handfuls of which he
+gives to the relatives and friends, who pick out the seeds and return
+the cotton to him. This cotton is for the wedding blankets and sash
+which are to be the trousseau of the bride.
+
+The practical side and the mutual helpfulness of the Hopi come out
+strongly here, when a few days later the loud-voiced crier announces
+the time for the spinning of the cotton for the bride's blankets.
+This takes place in the kivas, where usually all the weaving is done
+by the man, and with jollity and many a story the task is soon
+finished. The spun cotton is handed over to the bridegroom as a
+contribution from the village, to be paid for, like everything else
+Hopi, by a sumptuous feast which has been prepared by the women for
+the spinners. Perhaps ten sage-brush-fed sheep and goats, tough beyond
+reason, are being softened in a stew, consisting mainly of corn;
+stacks of paper bread have been baked; various other dishes have been
+concocted, and all is ready when the crier calls in the hungry
+multitude. They fall to, like the genius of famine, without knives and
+forks, but with active, though not over-clean digits, at the start.
+When they are through, there is little left for the gaunt,
+half-starved dogs that scent the savors of the feast outside the door.
+If one desires to see the Hopi at his happiest he must find him
+squatted on the floor before an ample and well-spread feast.
+
+With the spun cotton serious work begins for the bridegroom and his
+male relatives lasting several weeks. A large white blanket five by
+six feet and one four and a half by five feet must be woven, and a
+reed mat made in which the blankets are to be rolled. A white sash
+with long fringe, and a pair of moccasins, each having half a deerskin
+for leggings, like those worn by the women of the Rio Grande pueblos,
+complete the costume. The blankets must have elaborate tassels at the
+four corners. Shortly before sunrise the bride, arrayed in her
+finery, performs the last act in the drama, called "going home." It
+must be explained that up to this time the bride has remained in the
+house of her husband's people. Wearing the large white blanket
+picturesquely disposed over her head and carrying the small blanket
+wrapped in the reed mat in her hands, she walks to her mother's house,
+where she is received with a few words of greeting, and the long
+ceremony is over.
+
+In this land of women's rights the husband must live with his wife's
+relatives. The children, also, are hers, taking their descent from her
+and are nearer kin to her brothers and sisters than to the father. The
+house they live in is hers, and all the corn and other food brought
+into its grain room. In case of domestic troubles, she alone has the
+right of separation and can turn the man from her door. Though this
+dark side of the picture is sometimes presented, the rule is that
+husband and wife are faithful and live happily, as becomes the
+Peaceful People.
+
+It may be interesting to follow the history of the wedding costume,
+which plays such a prominent part in the ceremony. The moccasins are
+soon put to use and worn out, and thereafter the woman goes barefoot
+like the rest of her sisters. The sash and blankets are rolled in a
+mat and hung from a roof-beam in a back room. Perhaps the larger
+blanket is embroidered, when it becomes a ceremonial blanket, or it
+may be pressed into use for carrying corn and watermelons from the
+fields. The smaller blanket is kept as one of the most sacred
+possessions; the young mother puts it on only at the name-giving
+ceremony of her first-born, and often it enshrouds her for the last
+rites among the rocks below the mesa where the dead are laid away. At
+the farewell ceremony of the Kachinas all the brides of the year dress
+in their white robes and appear among the spectators, look on for a
+time, and then return to their homes. This review of the brides adds
+much to the picturesqueness of this festive occasion.[3]
+
+    [3] The details of the marriage ceremony are taken from an
+    article by H. R. Voth in the American Anthropologist, N. S.,
+    Vol. 2, No. 2, April-June, 1900.
+
+There is no doubt that to the wise customs of the pueblo dwellers is
+due their survival in the deserts of the Southwest. One can only
+admire the workings of the unwritten laws which have lived from out of
+the experience of past centuries and continue yet to regulate the life
+of Tusayan.
+
+There is no more interesting chapter of human beliefs than that which
+deals with the ideas entertained by primitive peoples of death and the
+hereafter. The Hopi, like other peoples, have thought out the deep
+questions of origin and destiny, peopled the mysterious spaces with
+spiritual beings, and penetrated the realm of the hereafter to
+describe the life after death. Thus they say that the breath body
+travels and has various experiences on its way to the underworld, and
+"as everyone came up from out of the _sipapu_, or earth navel, so
+through the _sipapu_ to the underworld of spirits must he go after
+death. Far to the west in the track of the sun must he travel to the
+_sipapu_ which leads down through a lake. Food must he have for the
+journey, and money of shell and green turquoise; hence bowls of food
+and treasures we place in his grave. Masauah, the ruler of the
+underworld, first receives the spirit. If it is the spirit of a good
+man, straightway he speeds it along the pathway of the sun to the
+happy abode, where the ancestors feast and dance and hold ceremonies
+like those of the Hopi on the earth. Truly, we received the ceremonies
+from them, long ago."
+
+If the spirit is not good, it must be tried, so Masauah sends it on to
+the keeper of the first furnace in which the spirit is placed. Should
+it come out clean, forthwith it is free; if not, on it goes to a
+second or a third master of the furnace, but if the third fire testing
+does not cleanse the spirit, the demon seizes it and destroys it,
+because it is _pash kalolomi_, "very not good!" Just how much of this
+has been influenced by later teachings is a vexed question and must be
+left open.
+
+In the underworld the spirits of the ancestors are represented as
+living a life of perennial enjoyment. Often they visit the upperworld,
+and since the Hopi believe that their chief care is to guard the
+interests of the pueblos of Tusayan, they must be appeased by prayers
+and offerings in order to secure their good will.
+
+The last offices of the dead are very simple. In sitting posture with
+head between the knees, with cotton mask, symbolic of the rain cloud,
+over the face, and sewed fast in a ceremonial blanket, the body is
+carried down among the rocks by two men, who have cleared out a place
+with their hoes. The relatives follow and without a word the body is
+placed in the rude grave. A bowl containing food is set near by under
+the rocks, and all return, the women washing their feet before
+entering the house.
+
+For four days the relatives visit the grave and place upon it bowls
+containing morsels of food, and they also deposit there feathered
+prayer-sticks. At the end of four days the "breath body" descends to
+the underworld, whence it came, and is judged by the ordeal of fire.
+In a closely-built town like Walpi the house is not vacated after a
+death, but it would seem that this widespread custom is observed in
+some of the pueblos. The Navaho, in pursuance of this custom, throw
+down the earth-covered hogan over the dead, and in the course of time
+a mound filled with decaying timbers marks the spot. Hopi burial
+customs have not changed for centuries; they have never burned their
+dead, as formerly did the Zuñi and the peoples of the Gila valley. The
+ancient Hopi ceremonies contain almost the only records of their past
+history in the pottery, ornaments, weapons, and relics of bone, shell,
+stone, traces of prayer-sticks, cloth, baskets, and matting. These
+serve to give an idea of the life and arts of the ancient Americans
+who left no written record.
+
+When one inquires for a person who, perchance, is dead, the Hopi say
+he is _shilui_, which means, "gone." On closer inquiry they may tell
+of the mysterious journey of the dead, through the _sipapu_, to the
+land of the underworld, which is below the far-off lake.
+
+
+
+
+VII
+
+RELIGIOUS LIFE
+
+
+The chief feature attracting popular interest to the Hopi is the
+number and remarkable character of their ceremonies. These "dances,"
+as they are usually called, seem to be going on with little
+intermission. Every Hopi is touched by some one of the numerous
+ceremonies and nearly every able-bodied inhabitant of the seven towns
+takes an active part during the year.
+
+This keeps the Hopi out of mischief and gives them a good reputation
+for minding their own business, besides furnishing them with the best
+round of free theatrical entertainments enjoyed by any people in the
+world, for nearly every ceremony has its diverting as well as its
+serious side, for religion and the drama are here united as in
+primitive times. The Hopi live and move and have their being in
+religion. They have peopled the unseen world with a host of beings,
+and they view all nature as full of life. The sun, moon, stars, rocks,
+winds, rain, and rivers are members of the Hopi pantheon to be
+reckoned with in their complicated worship.
+
+Every moon brings its ceremony, and the cycle of the different
+"dances" is completed in perhaps four years; a few dances indeed may
+have even longer intervals, but these dances do not seem to fall in
+the calendar and are held whenever decided upon by the proper chief.
+Some of the dances alternate also, the Snake Dance, for instance,
+being held one year and the Flute Dance the following year. For half
+the year, from August to January, the actors in the ceremonies wear
+masks, while for the remainder of the year the dancers appear
+unmasked; and as every ceremony has its particular costumes, ritual,
+and songs, there is great variety for the looker-on in Tusayan. So
+many are the ceremonies, which differ more or less in the different
+villages, and so overwhelming is the immemorial detail of their
+performance, that one might well despair of recording them, much less
+of finding out a tithe of their meaning.
+
+There is grouped around these dances the lore of clans in the bygone
+centuries, innumerable songs and prayers and rites gathered up here
+and there in the weary march, strewn with shells of old towns of the
+forgotten days. No fear that this inexhaustible mine will be delved
+out by investigators before it disappears utterly; the wonder is that
+it has survived so long into this prosaic age of anti-fable. We have
+here the most complete Freemasonry in the world, which, if preserved,
+would form an important chapter in the history of human cults, and in
+the opinion of enlightened men, it should have a record before the
+march of civilization treads it in the dust.
+
+The searcher for truth at the bottom of the Hopi well is likely to
+get various answers. Seeing the importance of the sun in Hopi thoughts
+and rites, one feels inclined to say "sun worship," but the clouds,
+wind, rain, rocks, springs, rivers that enter into this paganism make
+for "nature worship"; then the birds and beasts give "animal worship";
+the plants for food and ceremony, "plant worship"; the snake means
+"serpent worship," and the communion with deified ancestors shows
+"ancestor worship" with unmistakable plainness.
+
+The oldest gods in the Hopi conception of the unseen world are the
+deified manifestations of Nature and the natural objects that force
+themselves to his notice. The lightning, the cloud, the wind, the
+snow, the rain, the water, the rainbow, the dawn, the fire, all are
+beings. The sun, the moon, certain planets and constellations, and the
+sky are beings of power. The surface of the earth is ruled by a mighty
+being whose sway extends to the underworld and over death, fire, and
+the fields; springs, rivers, and mountains have their presiding
+deities. Among animals also there are many gods,--the eagle, bear,
+deer, mountain lion, badger, coyote, and mole among the rest. Among
+the insects the butterfly, dragonfly, and spider are most important,
+the latter as the Spider Woman or Earth Goddess. She is spouse of the
+Sun and as mother of the warrior culture heroes of the race is revered
+by the Hopi. To the plants, however, the list of beings does not
+extend, except in few instances, as the Corn Maid or Goddess of Corn,
+and perhaps to the Goddess of Germs. There are beings of the six
+directions; a god of chance in games and of barter; gods of war and
+the chase; a god of the oven, and endless beings, good and bad, that
+have arisen in the Hopi fancy as the centuries rolled by with their
+changes of culture.
+
+At some period a group of beings called _Kachinas_ and new to Hopi
+worship was added to the pantheon. Most of these were brought in by
+the Badger clans, as tradition relates, from the East, which means the
+upper Rio Grande, and some were probably introduced during the great
+westward migrations of other clans from that region. The _Kachinas_
+are believed to be the spirits of ancestors in some part, but the
+_Kachina_ worship is remarkable for the diversity of beings that it
+includes, from the representation of a tribe as the Apache _Kachina_,
+to the nature beings as the sun, but many of them are not true
+Kachinas. (See Chapter X, Intiwa, p. 227.)
+
+As might be anticipated from the fact that the Hopi are made up of
+clans and fragments of clans of various origin, each with its separate
+ideas and practices, their beliefs and customs as to the unseen world
+show a surprising variety and include those of lower and higher
+comparative rank. One idea, however, running through all the
+ceremonies gives a clue to their intention, obvious to any man of the
+Southwest, be his skin white or brown, the desire for rain so there
+shall be food and life. To wheedling, placating, or coercing the
+agencies which are thought to have power to bring rain all the
+energies of the Hopi are bent. Included among these petitions are
+prayers for other things that seem good and desirable, and the
+ceremonies also embrace such episodes as the installing of a chief, or
+the initiation of novitiates, the hunts, races, etc.
+
+From these ceremonies, which fall under one or the other of the
+thirteen moons, we may select the more striking for a brief
+description of their more salient features.
+
+No one can determine which ceremony begins the Hopi calendar, but
+perhaps the Soyaluna, celebrated at the last of December, should have
+the honor. Not because it nearly coincides with our Christmas, but
+because it marks the astronomical period known as the winter solstice,
+an important date which ought by right to begin the new year. Few
+strangers see the Soyaluna, but those who have braved the winter to be
+present say that it is one of the most remarkable of the Hopi
+ceremonies. All the kivas are in use by the various societies taking
+part, and while there is only a simple public "dance," there are
+dramatic observances of surprising character going on in the meeting
+places.
+
+When the faint winter sun descends into his "south house," which is a
+notch in the Elden Mesa near Flagstaff, there is great activity in the
+Hopi pueblos, and as in our holiday season the people exchange
+greetings of good wishes and make presents of _nakwakwoshi_,
+consisting of a downy eagle feather and long pine needles tied to a
+cotton string. December is a sacred month when all occupations are
+limited and few games are allowed, so that the Soyal is at the center
+of a "holy truce," a time of "peace on earth and good will to men,"
+but strangely celebrated by pagan sun-worshippers. For the Soyal is
+peculiarly a ceremony brought to Hopiland by the Patki people who came
+from the south where in past centuries they worshipped the god of day.
+The warrior societies of the pueblos have made this their great
+festival and are most prominent in its celebration.
+
+In the principal kiva the customary elaborate ritual has been
+conducted for nine days by the Soyal fraternity, which is made up of
+members of the Agave, Horn, Singers, and New Fire societies. At one
+end of the kiva is placed the altar, consisting of a frame with
+parallel slats on which are tied bunches of grass, and in these
+bunches are thrust hundreds of gaudily painted artificial flowers. On
+the top are bows covered with cotton, representing snow clouds. Before
+the altar is a pile of corn laid up like a wall which has been
+collected in the village to be returned filled with fertility after
+the ceremony. Before the corn wall is a ridge of sand on which are set
+corn fetiches of stone and wood. The medicine bowl and many pipes,
+feather prayer-sticks, etc., are in position on the floor. There is
+also in the Walpi ceremony a performance of the Great Feathered
+Serpent who thrusts his grotesque head through an orifice in the
+screen and roars in answer to the prayers of the priests.
+
+After a series of musical songs accompanied by rattles, flutes,
+whistles, and bull-roarers, and interspersed with prayers, there is an
+initiation of novices. Then enters the first bird man, elaborately
+costumed, whose postures and pantomime imitate a bird. Next come
+another bird man and the Soyaluna maid who perform a strange dance,
+then comes Eototo, the forerunner of the _Kachinas_, bearing corn, and
+this episode closes with a stirring dance of the priests around the
+fireplace accompanied with song.
+
+Next occurs the fierce assault by members from the different kivas on
+the Soyal shield-bearer. With wild yells and dramatic action they
+thrust their shields against the sun shield as in deadly combat, but
+the sun shield-bearer forces them back and vanquishes them in turn.
+This remarkable drama represents perhaps the driving of the sun back
+into his northward path, so that he may bring life to the Hopi. The
+Soyal public dance is performed by a _Kachina_ and two _Kachina_ maids
+and is simple compared with the elaborate, multicolored pageant of
+other dances. At the close of the public ceremony the corn is
+distributed to the villagers, and for four days consecrated pahos are
+placed in the shrines, some for the dead and some for increase of
+flocks, corn, peaches, and all good things spiritual and temporal and
+the people feast and are happy.
+
+In February comes a ceremony called Powamu with its introductory
+ceremony called Powalawu. Some expectancy of the coming activities in
+the fields is in the air and hence, as the name indicates, the
+ceremony relates to getting ready, preparing the fields, etc. One of
+the chief features is the sprouting of beans in the kivas and the
+distribution of the sprouts to various persons. Another is the
+initiation of youthful candidates, accompanied by severe flogging with
+yucca switches at the hands of ferocious _Kachinas_. The ceremony
+lasts nine days and is presided over by the chief of the Powamu
+fraternity assisted by the _Kachina_ chief. In the kivas various rites
+are carried on and altars of bright-colored sand are made. The most
+interesting event is the recital of the myth of the Powamu on which
+the ceremony is based. This account is given by a costumed priest who
+represents the _Kachina_ Muyingwa, the god of germs, and relates to
+the wanderings of certain clans and their arrival in Tusayan.
+
+On the ninth and last day bands of different _Kachinas_ roam the
+village, some furnishing amusement to the people and others bringing
+terror to naughty children, while still others go about distributing
+bean sprouts or on various errands. With this ceremony the joyous
+season of the _Kachinas_ begins. Dr. Fewkes says:[4]
+
+  The origin of this feast dates from the adventures of a hero of
+  the _Ka-tci-nyu-muh_, "_Ka-tci-nia_ people." The following legend
+  of this people is preserved. While the group of gentes known by
+  this name was on its travels, they halted near the San Francisco
+  Mountains and built houses. During this moon the hero went out to
+  hunt rabbits, and came to a region where there was no snow. There
+  he saw another _Ka-tci-na_ people dancing amidst beautiful
+  gardens. He received melons from them, and carrying them home,
+  told a strange story of a people who inhabited a country where
+  there were flowering plants in midwinter. The hero and a comrade
+  were sent back, and they stayed with these people, returning home,
+  loaded with fruit, during February. They had learned the songs of
+  those with whom they had lived, and taught them in the kib-va of
+  their own people.
+
+    [4] For an extended study of this ceremony see The Oraibi Powamu
+    Ceremony by H. R. Voth, Publication 61, Field Columbian Museum,
+    Chicago, 1901, and Tusayan Katcinas by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes,
+    15th Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology.
+
+The Great Plumed Serpent who appears in the mythology of many American
+tribes is the chief actor in the Palulukong ceremony, which is held in
+March. It is a serpent drama in which the sun also has high honor. The
+actors are masked, as the ceremony is under the control of the
+_Kachinas_, who are adept at theatrical performances when represented
+by the fertile-minded Hopi.
+
+The clans have gathered in their respective kivas, where painting of
+masks and other paraphernalia, rehearsals, etc., have continued for
+several days. In the kiva which is for the nonce to be the theater, a
+crowd of visitors have assembled, and in the middle of the room two
+old kiva chiefs sit around the fire, which they feed with small twigs
+of greasewood to produce an uncertain, flickering light.
+
+The arrival of the first group of actors is heralded by strange cries
+from without the kiva, and a ball of corn meal thrown down the
+hatchway is answered with invitations to enter. The fire is darkened
+by a blanket held over it, and the actors climb down the ladder and
+arrange their properties. The fire tenders drop the blankets, and on
+the floor is seen a miniature field of corn made by fastening sprouted
+corn in clay pedestals. Behind this corn field is a cloth screen
+decorated with figures of human beings, corn, clouds, lightning, etc.,
+hung across the room, and along the screen six openings masked by
+flaps. On either side of the screen stand several masked men, one
+dressed as a woman holding a basket tray of meal and an ear of corn. A
+song begins and the actors dance to the music; the hoarse roar of a
+gourd horn resounds through the kiva, and instantly the flaps in the
+screen are drawn up and the heads of grotesque serpents with goggle
+eyes, feather crest, horn, fierce teeth, and red tongues, appear in
+the six openings. Farther and farther they seem to thrust themselves
+out, until four feet of the painted body can be seen. Then as the
+song grows louder the plumed snakes sway in time to the music, biting
+at each other and darting toward the actors. Suddenly they bend their
+heads down and sweep the imitation cornfield into a confused heap,
+then raise their wagging heads as before, and it is seen that the
+central serpent has udders and suckles the others. Amid the roars of
+the horn and great excitement offerings of meal and prayers are made
+to the plumed serpents. The actor dressed as a woman and who
+represents the mother of the _Kachinas_ now presents the corn and meal
+to the serpents as food and offers his breasts to them.
+
+Now the song diminishes, the effigies are drawn back, and the flaps
+with the sun symbol painted on them let down; the blankets are again
+held around the fire, the spectacle is dismantled, the actors file
+out, and the people among whom the corn hills have been distributed
+wait for other actors to appear, while foreign visitors wonder at the
+mechanical skill displayed in constructing and manipulating the
+effigies.
+
+Now Tewan actors from Hano give a remarkable buffalo dance. They wear
+helmets, representing buffalo heads, and are clad in black sheep
+pelts. In their hands they hold zigzag lightning wands, and to the
+beat of a drum dance with characteristic postures; with them dance a
+man and boy dressed as eagles, who give forth shrill bird calls. This
+dance is an introduction from Rio Grande Pueblos.
+
+After them comes another group of actors clothed in ceremonial kilts
+and wearing helmet masks. They are called the "Stone War Club
+_Kachinas_" and with them are two men dressed as women; one,
+representing the Spider Woman, dances before the fire with graceful
+movements of the arms and body to the sound of singing and the beat of
+a drum. At the close of the dance she distributes seeds of corn,
+melons, and useful plants.
+
+The fourth act is that of the Maiden Corn Grinders. First, two masked
+men bring down the ladder bundles containing two grinding slabs and
+grinding stones and arrange them on the floor. After them come two
+masked girls in elaborate ceremonial attire, followed in a little
+while by a line of masked dancers who form the chorus. At a signal the
+chorus begins to sing and posture while the maids grind corn in time
+with the song. They then leave the mills and dance in the middle of
+the room with graceful movements, pointing at the audience with ears
+of corn, while the bearers of the mill stones put pinches of meal in
+the mouths of the spectators.
+
+The fifth act is somewhat like the first, except that there are two
+huge snakes, and several of the actors as chorus, with knobs of mud on
+their masks, wrestle with the snakes in a most realistic fashion and
+afford great entertainment.
+
+After this act another set of performers gives a more remarkable
+serpent drama. Back of the field of corn on the floor are seen two
+large pottery vases, and, as if by magic, the covers of the vases fly
+back, and from them two serpents emerge, swoop down and overthrow the
+corn hills, struggle with each other and perform many gyrations, then
+withdraw into the vases. In the dim light of the kiva fire the cords
+by which the serpents are manipulated cannot be seen, and the realism
+of the act is wonderful. In other years the acts are even more
+startling, as when masked men wrestle with serpents which seem to try
+to coil about their victims. The actor thrusts one arm in the body of
+the snake in order to give these movements, while a false arm is tied
+to his shoulder. Sometimes also the corn-maid grinders are represented
+by joined figures surrounded by a framework. They are made to bend
+backward and forward and grind corn on small _metates_. At times they
+raise one hand and rub meal on their faces, like the Hopi corn
+grinders in daily life, while above them on the framework two birds
+carved from wood and painted are made to walk back and forth. On the
+day of the public dance the corn maids attended by many masked
+_Kachinas_ grind in the dance plaza.
+
+The Great Plumed Serpent who has control of all the waters of the
+earth and who frequents the springs, once, as the legend goes, caused
+a great flood and was appeased only by the sacrifice of a boy and
+girl. (See Myths.) The home of this monster was in the Red Land of the
+South, whence some of the Hopi clans came. Dr. J. Walter Fewkes
+believes that the great serpent of Mexican and Central American
+mythology is this same being, which shows the debt of the Hopi to the
+culture of the south.
+
+Now the _Kachinas_ throng the pueblos and a perfect carnival reigns
+with the joyful Hopi. There is a bewildering review of the hosts of
+the good things and bad, interwoven with countless episodes. Songs of
+great beauty, strange masked pageants, bright-tinted _piki_ and
+_Kachina_ bread attract powerfully three of the senses, and the Hopi
+enjoy the season to the full with the knowledge that the growing crops
+thrive toward perfection in the fields below the mesa.
+
+The _Kachinas_ are the deified spirits of the ancestors, who came from
+San Francisco Mountains and perhaps from the Rio Grande and other
+places, to visit their people. Their name means the "sitters," because
+of the custom of burial in a sitting posture, and they resemble "The
+watchers sitting below" of _Faust_. They are believed to guard the
+interests of the Hopi and to intercede with the gods of rain and
+fertility. Their first coming is in December at the Soyal ceremony,
+and others continue to come till August when the great Niman, or
+Farewell _Kachina_, is celebrated with songs, dances, and feasting.
+
+These deified spirits, or _Kachinas_, are personated by Indians who
+sometimes go outside the town, dress themselves in appropriate
+costume, present themselves at the gate, and are escorted through the
+streets with great fun and frolic. Every few days there is a new
+arrival and a fresh festival. Each year there is something new, and
+the Indians rack their inventive genius to produce the most startling
+masks and costumes. The _kachinas_ admit of any character in the
+extensive Hopi mythology. Almost any character from a clown to a god
+can be introduced, and there are songs belonging to each. Every male
+Hopi takes some part in the _kachinas_, and all dates and distances
+are cancelled when these dances are in progress.
+
+The _kachina_ dances promote sociability among the pueblos. The Walpi
+boys, for instance, may give a representation of a _kachina_ at a
+neighboring pueblo in return for a like expression of good-will on
+some other occasion. It goes without saying that there is a friendly
+rivalry among the pueblos, each striving to give the best dance. Like
+his white brothers, the Indian works harder at his amusement than at
+almost anything else.
+
+These dances also show the cheerful Hopi at his best,--a true,
+spontaneous child of nature. They are the most characteristic
+ceremonies of the pueblos, most musical, spectacular, and pleasing.
+They are really more worthy of the attention of white people than the
+forbidding Snake Dance, which overshadows them by the element of
+horror.
+
+In July the _kachinas_ take their flight, and with a great culminating
+ceremony the Hopi bid them farewell. The Niman, or Farewell ceremony,
+begins about July 20th and lasts nine days, like the four great
+ceremonies between August and November, and like them also having a
+regular secret ritual in the kivas. Instead, however, of one day or so
+of public ceremony, the Niman furnishes many surprises and sallyings
+forth to the amusement of the populace. Delegates hurry on very long
+journeys for sacred water, pine boughs, and other essentials for the
+use of the priests. Sad indeed is the state of the Hopi that fate
+detains, and strong must be circumstances that prevent his reunion
+with his people at this great festival.
+
+The Niman public dances which follow the eight days of kiva rites are
+imposing spectacles. The first takes place before sunrise and the
+second in the afternoon. There are many _kachinas_ in rich costumes,
+wearing strange helmets and adorned in many striking ways. They carry
+planting sticks, hoes, and other emblematic paraphernalia. A number
+are dressed as female _kachinas_. These furnished an accompaniment to
+the song by rasping sheep's scapulæ over notched sticks placed on
+wooden sounding boxes. The male and female dancers stand in two lines
+and posture to the music, and the former turn around repeatedly during
+the dance. The children especially enjoy the dance, because the
+_kachinas_ have brought great loads of corn, beans, and melons, and
+baskets of peaches, which are gifts for the young folks, and dolls,
+bows, and arrows are also given them. The dance is repeated in the
+afternoon in another plaza, after which the procession departs to
+carry offerings to a shrine outside the town and the drama of the
+Farewell _kachina_ is over.
+
+With the coming of the different clans, each having some ceremony
+peculiar to itself, and held at a certain time in the year, there must
+have been an adjustment of interests to fit the ceremonies to the
+moons, as we now see in the Hopi calendar. This may explain the fusing
+of the Snake-Antelope ceremonies and the two Flutes, which come in
+August, and the assignment of the two groups to alternate years. It is
+to be expected also that rain ceremonies would preponderate in the
+Southwest, and by mutual concessions the clans making up the Hopi
+would arrange their rites to fit in the month when the rain-makers are
+needed. Thus, the women's ceremonies in September and October would
+not need to be disturbed, perhaps to the relief of the obscure Hopi
+who, like Julius Cæsar, reformed the calendar.
+
+The Snake and Flute ceremonies of the Hopi are most widely known,
+since at this season of the year most travelers visit Tusayan, and
+besides, the Snake Dance, from its elements of horror, has
+overshadowed other ceremonies that are beautiful and interesting.
+Still, the Snake Dance is unique, and in its unfolding displays virile
+action and the compelling force of man over the lesser animate
+creation, giving to the drama a certain grandeur not observed in other
+ceremonies. No form of language is capable of describing it. Those
+who have seen it make it an unforgettable episode in their lives.
+Those who have made it a study declare that the mind of man has never
+conceived its equal.
+
+When the Snake and Antelope fraternities descend into their respective
+kivas about the middle of August, the rites commence. The events that
+attract popular interest begin at once on the first day, when a party
+of Snake priests, painted and costumed and with snake whips and
+digging sticks in their hands, descend from the mesa to hunt snakes in
+the north quarter. These men, keenly watching for snake trails,
+eagerly search, beating the sage-brush and digging in holes that may
+harbor their quarry, thrusting their hands into such places with the
+utmost fearlessness. At sunset, after an exhausting day's work, they
+return from the hunt with snakes, if they have been successful, which
+are transferred from their pouches into the snake jars. For four days
+the hunt goes on, each day to a different world quarter. If a snake is
+seen it is sprinkled with meal, and as it tries to escape, one of the
+hunters seizes it a few inches back of the head and places it in his
+pouch.
+
+When the snakes, big and little, venomous and harmless, have been
+collected and stowed away in the jars like those used by the women to
+carry water, there comes the great event of snake washing. The priests
+assemble in the kiva and seat themselves on stone seats around the
+wall, holding in the hand a snake whip made of two eagle feathers
+secured to a short stick. On the floor dry sand has been spread out
+and on it a medicine bowl of water. The snakes have been placed in
+bags near by in the care of priests, and the snake washer, arrayed as
+a warrior, sets himself before the bowl, while back of him stand two
+men waving snake whips. A weird song begins, and the warrior thrusts
+his hand into the bag and draws out a handful of snakes, plunges them
+into the medicine water, and drops them on the sand. Then the snakes
+are rapidly passed to the warrior, who plunges them and casts them
+forth, while the priests wave their wands and sing, now low and now
+loudly and vehemently. Some of the snakes try to escape, but are
+herded on the sand field, which is for the purpose of drying them. The
+snakes are left on the floor for a few hours intervening before the
+public dance, a writhing mass, watched over by naked boys. These boys,
+barefoot and otherwise entirely naked, sit down on the stones and with
+their whips or naked hands, play with the snakes, permitting them to
+crawl over and under their feet, between their legs, handling them,
+using them as playthings, paying no more attention to the rattlesnakes
+than to the smallest harmless whip-snakes, creating a sight never to
+be forgotten. It must be admitted, however, that owing to the absolute
+abandon and recklessness used by the boys in handling these snakes,
+all of one's preconceived notions of the dangerousness of the
+rattlesnake entirely disappear. Occasionally, one of the snakes,
+being tossed to a distance of four or five feet, apparently resents
+the insult, but before the snake has had sufficient time to coil, it
+will be straightened out by one of the other boys or tossed back to
+its original position, and so the sport (for it was nothing less to
+these boys) continue, as has been stated, for more than two hours.[5]
+
+    [5] The Mishongnovi Ceremonies of the Snake and Antelope
+    Ceremonies. G. A. Dorsey and H. R. Voth. Field Columbian Museum,
+    Chicago, 1902, p. 247-248.
+
+Dr. Fewkes thus describes the Walpi snake washing:
+
+  The Snake Priests, who stood by the snake jars which were in the
+  east corner of the room, began to take out the reptiles, and stood
+  holding several of them in their hands behind Su-pe-la, so that my
+  attention was distracted by them. Su-pe-la then prayed, and after
+  a short interval two rattlesnakes were handed him, after which
+  venomous snakes were passed to the others, and each of the six
+  priests who sat around the bowl held two rattlesnakes by the necks
+  with their heads elevated above the bowl. A low noise from the
+  rattles of the priests, which shortly after was accompanied by a
+  melodious hum by all present, then began. The priests who held the
+  snakes beat time up and down above the liquid with the reptiles,
+  which, although not vicious, wound their bodies around the arms of
+  the holders. The song went on and frequently changed, growing
+  louder and wilder, until it burst forth into a fierce,
+  blood-curdling yell, or war-cry. At this moment the heads of the
+  snakes were thrust several times into the liquid, so that even
+  parts of their bodies were submerged, and were then drawn out,
+  not having left the hands of the priests, and forcibly thrown
+  across the room upon the sand mosaic, knocking down the crooks and
+  other objects placed about it. As they fell on the sand picture
+  three Snake priests stood in readiness, and while the reptiles
+  squirmed about or coiled for defense, these men with their snake
+  whips brushed them back and forth in the sand of the altar. The
+  excitement which accompanied this ceremony cannot be adequately
+  described. The low song, breaking into piercing shrieks, the
+  red-stained singers, the snakes thrown by the chiefs, and the
+  fierce attitudes of the reptiles as they lashed on the sand
+  mosaic, made it next to impossible to sit calmly down, and quietly
+  note the events which followed one after another in quick
+  succession. The sight haunted me for weeks afterwards, and I can
+  never forget this wildest of all the aboriginal rites of this
+  strange people, which showed no element of our present
+  civilization. It was a performance which might have been expected
+  in the heart of Africa rather than in the American Union, and
+  certainly one could not realize that he was in the United States
+  at the end of the nineteenth century. The low weird song continued
+  while other rattlesnakes were taken in the hands of the priests,
+  and as the song rose again to the wild war-cry, these snakes were
+  also plunged into the liquid and thrown upon the writhing mass
+  which now occupied the place of the altar. Again and again this
+  was repeated until all the snakes had been treated in the same
+  way, and reptiles, fetiches, crooks and sand were mixed together
+  in one confused mass. As the excitement subsided and the snakes
+  crawled to the corners of the _kiva_, seeking vainly for
+  protection, they were pushed back in the mass, and brushed
+  together in the sand in order that their bodies might be
+  thoroughly dried. Every snake in the collection was thus washed,
+  the harmless varieties being bathed after the venomous. In the
+  destruction of the altar by the reptiles the snake _ti-po-ni_
+  stood upright until all had been washed, and then one of the
+  priests turned it on its side, as a sign that the observance had
+  ended. The low, weird song of the Snake men continued, and
+  gradually died away until there was no sound but the warning
+  rattle of the snakes, mingled with that of the rattles in the
+  hands of the chiefs, and finally the motion of the snake whips
+  ceased, and all was silent.
+
+On the previous day the Antelope society had celebrated its race and
+public dance, which duplicate those of the Snake society, except that
+the former take first place, and instead of snakes, the priests dance
+about, the leader holding a bundle of cornstalks in the mouth.
+
+Now comes the stirring dawn race of the Snake society. The race is
+from a distant spring to the mesa and is full of excitement, filling
+one with surprise at the endurance of the runners. The winner will
+arrive at the kiva, breathing more freely, perhaps, than usual, but
+showing almost no traces of his strenuous efforts, and will wait
+quietly for the award of the prize. In the kiva meanwhile the priests
+have been enacting a drama of the Snake legend.
+
+After a few hours, when the sun is getting low, the Antelope priests
+file out and after circling the plaza stand in line awaiting the Snake
+priests, who advance with tragic strides. They circle the plaza three
+times, each stamping on a plank in front of the cottonwood bower,
+_kisi_, to notify the denizens of the underworld that a ceremony in
+their honor is progressing. They face the Antelope chorus, the rattles
+tremble with a sound like the warning of the rattlesnake, and a deep,
+low-toned chant begins like a distant storm. The chant increases in
+volume, the lines sway, then undulate backward and forward, and at
+last, in a culminating burst of the chant, the Snake men form in
+groups of three and dance around the plaza with a strange step like a
+restrained leap. The snakes have been placed in the _kisi_ in care of
+the passer hidden among the boughs. As the trios in succession arrive
+before the _kisi_ the carrier drops to his knees, secures a snake
+which he grasps in his mouth, rises and dances around in a circular
+path four times, when the snake is dropped to the ground and is picked
+up with lightning rapidity by the third member of the trio who retains
+the squirming reptile in his hands. Thus these groups of _demons_
+circle until all the snakes have been carried. The chant ceases; a
+priest draws a cloud symbol in white meal on the rock floor of the
+mesa, and with wild action the gatherers throw the snakes on the meal;
+a fierce scramble ensues, and in a moment one sees the priests running
+down the trails to deposit their brothers among the rocks a mile or so
+away.
+
+After all, no ceremony goes on in Hopiland without the aid of the
+gentler sex. While the dance has focussed the attention of every eye a
+group of maids and matrons, neat and clean as to hair and costume, and
+holding trays of sacred meal, have sprinkled the dancers and snakes
+as they passed by. The Antelopes take up their line, march around the
+plaza the required number of times, file away to their kiva, and the
+public dance is over. Those who wish, however, go to the mesa side to
+see the effects of the powerful emetic taken by the Snake priests as a
+purification. At Walpi, the old Snake Woman, Saalako, brews the
+medicine, and she knows how many black bettles must be stewed in this
+concoction of herbs. Last, but not least, comes the feast consumed
+with the appetite of youth amid general rejoicing if the August rain
+cumuli burst over the fields. For several days after the Snake Dance
+the young and not too old play jolly comes the feast consumed with the
+appetite of youth, childlike simplicity.
+
+A bite from a venomous snake so rarely occurs that there is no eye
+witness, so far as is known, to such happening. The fangs are not
+extracted, nor are the snakes stupefied. Careful handling and the
+herding of the reptiles with others of their kind before the ceremony
+perhaps give the explanation.
+
+The Snake Ceremony, whose wild scenes rack the nerves of the onlooker,
+is a prayer for rain and is based on a legend whose sentiment might be
+applauded if the other passive actors were not subject to an
+instinctive enmity. Snakes are blood brothers of the Hopi Snake clan.
+
+The legend relates that a youth, having the curiosity to know where
+the waters flowed, embarked in a hollow log, closed except a small
+orifice, and went down the Great Colorado to its mouth, thus
+antedating the perilous feat of Major Powell by a long time! Here he
+found the Spider Woman, who prompted him in his dealings with the
+people living there. After many strange adventures, during which he
+was taught the rites now practiced by the Snake society, he won the
+daughter of a Snake chief and brought her to his country. The first
+fruits of this union were snakes, who bit the Hopi and who were driven
+away on this account. Later, children were human, and with them
+originated the Snake clan, whose wanderings brought them at last to
+Walpi; and tradition affirms that they were among the first arrivals
+there.
+
+The Flute Ceremony, which alternates with the Snake-Antelope Ceremony,
+is most pleasing and interesting. Visitors to Hopiland in August of
+the proper year are always charmed with the dramatic performance and
+beautiful songs of the Flute society. In Walpi there is only one
+priesthood of the Flute, but in other pueblos of the Middle Mesa and
+in Oraibi there are two, one of the Blue Flute and the other of the
+Gray Flute.
+
+On the first day the sand altar is made and at night the songs are
+begun. Within the kiva the interminable rites go on, and daily the
+cycle of songs accompanied with flutes is rehearsed. A messenger clad
+in an embroidered kilt and anointed with honey runs with flowing hair
+to deposit prayer-sticks at the shrines, encircling the fields in his
+runs and coming nearer the pueblo on each circuit. During the seventh
+and eighth days a visit is made to three important springs where
+ceremonies are held, and on the return of the priests they are
+received by an assemblage of the Bear and Snake societies, the chiefs
+of which challenge them and tell them that if they are good people, as
+they claim, they can bring rain.
+
+After an interesting interchange of ceremonies the Flute priests
+return to their kiva to prepare for the public dance on the morrow.
+When at 3 A. M. the belt of Orion is at a certain place in the heavens
+the priests file into the plaza, where a cottonwood bower has been
+erected over the shrine called the entrance to the underworld. Here
+the priests sing, accompanied with flutes, the shrine is ceremonially
+opened and prayer-sticks placed within, and they return to the kiva.
+At some of the pueblos there is a race up the mesa at dawn on the
+ninth day as in other ceremonies.
+
+On the evening of the ninth day the Flute procession forms and winds
+down the trail to the spring in order: a leader, the Snake maiden and
+two Snake youths, the priests, and in the rear a costumed warrior with
+bow and whizzer. At the spring they sit on the north side of the pool,
+and as one of the priests plays a flute the others sing, while one of
+their number wades into the spring, dives under the water, and plants
+a prayer-stick in the muddy bottom. Then taking a flute he again wades
+into the spring and sounds it in the water to the four cardinal
+points. Meanwhile sunflowers and cornstalks have been brought to the
+spring by messengers. Each priest places the sunflowers on his head
+and each takes two cornstalks in his hands, and the procession, two
+abreast, forms to ascend the mesa. A priest draws on the trail with
+white corn meal a line and across it three cloud symbols. The Flute
+children throw the offerings they hold in their hands upon the symbols
+and advance to the symbols, followed by the priests who sing to the
+sound of the flutes. The children pick the offerings from the ground
+with sticks held in the hand, and the same performance is repeated
+till they stand again in the plaza on the mesa before the cottonwood
+bower, when they sing melodious songs, then disperse.
+
+The Flute legend, of which the ceremony is a dramatization, relates
+that the Bear and Snake people in early times lived along the Walpi.
+The Horn and Flute people came that way and halted at a spring. Not
+knowing whether other people lived in their neighborhood, they sent
+out a spy who returned and reported that he had seen traces of other
+peoples. The Flute people set forth to find them, and so they came to
+the Walpi houses, halting at the foot of the mesa and moving up the
+trail, as in the ceremony, with songs and the music of flutes.
+
+The Walpi people had drawn a line of meal across the trail, closing it
+from all comers, and demanded whence the Flutes were going and what
+they desired. Then the Flute chief said:
+
+  "We are of your blood, Hopi. Our hearts are good and our speech
+  straight. We carry on our backs the tabernacle of the Flute Altar.
+  We can cause rain to fall." Four times they challenged the Flute
+  people as they stood before the line of meal and four times this
+  reply was given. Then the Walpians erased the meal barrier and the
+  Flutes passed into the pueblo, set up their altar, sang the
+  cloud-compelling songs and brought the welcome rain. Then the Bear
+  and Snake chiefs said, "Surely your chief shall be one of our
+  chiefs."
+
+It will be seen that this legend, collected by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes,
+is enacted in the ceremony just described. And the Flute priests also
+think they are more successful rain makers than the Snake-Antelope
+priests, and do not hesitate to so declare.[6]
+
+    [6] The Walpi Flute Observance, Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, Jour. Am.
+    Folk-Lore, Vol. 7, Oct.-Dec., 1894.
+
+In the September moon the Hopi women of five of the pueblos hold a
+celebration of their own, which is not the least interesting ceremony
+in the calendar. It is called the Lalakonti, and like the other
+ceremonies of this part of the year extends over nine days. Sometimes
+it is called the Basket Dance--from the great use made of the sacred
+plaques in the ceremony--a quite appropriate use, since these baskets
+are peculiarly the product of women's taste and skill. The details of
+the kiva rites, such as _paho_ making, the construction of a sand
+altar, initiation of novitiates, dispatching of messengers, songs,
+etc., need not be entered into, since they belong to all the
+ceremonies and have much in common.
+
+On the morning of the fourth day, if one is up at the faintest dawn he
+may see a procession emerging from the kiva and marching single-file
+to deposit, with much ceremony, offerings at a shrine. At six in the
+evening of the eighth day a picturesque procession winds down the
+trail among the rocks to the sacred spring, where _pahos_ are planted
+and rites performed. Then comes the stirring event, the race up the
+trail to the kiva. Under the supervision of an old priest an even
+start is made and the women run up the trail. As Hopi women in
+contrast with the men are stout, the chances are that a lithe,
+clean-limbed young girl will win the goal over her breathless sisters.
+
+At daybreak on the ninth day the Lalakonti race is eagerly awaited by
+the spectators and by the Lakone maid, who stands gorgeously costumed,
+basket in her hand, on the trail by which the runners will come. As
+the dawn brightens, they may be seen, mere specks on the trail over
+the plain, and soon they run up the trail to the villages amid great
+excitement and applause for the winner. The priestesses have marched
+to the dance plaza, where they form a circle, and as the racers come
+they rush through the circle and this act of the drama is over. Later
+in the day comes the public dance, when the circle of priestesses,
+each carrying a basket plaque, again forms in the plaza and begins
+singing in chorus. The baskets are held in the two hands with concave
+side to the front, and as the song continues the women sway their
+bodies and raise the baskets slowly, first to one breast, then to the
+other, and finally bring them downward to a line with the hips. In a
+short time two gorgeously decorated maidens, wearing ceremonial
+blankets and having bundles on their backs, advance within the circle.
+All interest is centered in them as they untie their bundles and stand
+for a moment at opposite sides of the circle, holding up in their
+hands a basket, and then crossing back and forth and exchanging
+places. All at once they throw their baskets high in the air and into
+the crowd of young men. Then begins a titanic struggle that would put
+a football melee in the shade. Fiercely they wrestle, till out of the
+squirming, perspiring, now ragged mass emerges the lucky young man
+with a much damaged basket for his prize. Sometimes these struggles
+last a long time, but there is no slugging and no blood is spilt, and
+there is a great deal of jollity. This closes the Lalakonti ceremony
+and the celebrants return to their homes to take up their ordinary
+avocations. Supela is one of the two men who aid the women in the
+Lalakonti ceremony, and he also has an important place in the
+Mamzrauti ceremony, described below, of which his wife, Saalako, is
+the chief priestess.
+
+The Mamzrauti ceremony, held at the October moon, is a harvest dance,
+and fortunate are the Hopi when they can celebrate it with joyful
+heart and abundant feasting. The Mamzrau resembles in many points the
+Lalakonti, but the differences are more important. A sand picture is
+made, a frame of painted slabs erected back of it, and fetiches placed
+around the medicine bowl and sand picture. Novices are initiated in a
+tedious ceremony lasting through several days, and messengers are sent
+to springs and shrines to deposit prayer-sticks. There are ceremonial
+head washings as in other ceremonies, and various secret rites are
+performed in the kiva. On the fourth day the final initiation of the
+novices takes place, and the priestesses dance around a pile of
+peaches on the kiva floor, and, what is more, enjoy a good feast of
+this prized fruit. On the sixth day a public dance is held by actors
+who imitate certain _kachinas_, and on the seventh day, just at
+sunset, the priestesses, some disguised as men, dance the spirited
+buffalo dance. On the eighth day, disguised as clowns, they parade
+around the pueblo and are attacked by the men who throw water none too
+clean and various unpleasant things upon them, and after much noise
+and fun, the women run home.
+
+There is no dawn race on the morning of the ninth day, but early the
+priestesses have donned their costumes and assemble in the court where
+they dance and throw green cornstalks among the men who crowd around.
+Later in the day comes the concluding dance, when the celebrants,
+holding gaily painted slabs of wood in each hand, march into the plaza
+and form a horseshoe figure with the opening toward the east. From the
+kiva now come two women dressed as men, having bows and arrows in
+their hands. As they advance they throw before them a package of corn
+husks and shoot their arrows at it, the act representing lightning
+striking and fertilizing the fields. Thus they advance by stages to
+the circle of dancers and throw the bundle in their midst, shooting at
+it, then shooting two arrows in the air they return to the kiva. In a
+few minutes they appear again, carrying trays of dumplings of sweet
+corn meal which they toss one by one to the eager spectators. Then the
+circle of dancers disperse, but again and again throughout the day,
+the distributors return to dispense their offerings. At sunset, the
+sand pictures, fetiches, and altar slabs are removed by Saalako and
+the Mamzrau is over.
+
+At night there is a serenade by two parties of men, each party singing
+loudly as though to drown the voices of the other. This serenade is
+said to be in honor of the women for their pious celebration of the
+Mamzrau.[7]
+
+    [7] The Mamzrauti: A Tusayan Ceremony, by J. Walter Fewkes and
+    A. M. Stephen, American Anthropologist, Vol. 5, No. 3, July,
+    1892.
+
+One of the most complicated ceremonies of the Hopi is the New Fire,
+which occurs in November at five of the pueblos. Every fourth year the
+ceremony is extended by the initiation of novices, but in ordinary
+years it is abbreviated. Four societies take part and these include
+almost every male adult in the villages, so there is no lack of
+performers.
+
+The first event that is noteworthy is the making of new fire by two of
+the societies. Two pairs of fire makers each place a piece of
+cottonwood on the kiva floor and drill upon it with a slender rod
+revolved between the palms of the hands, until the friction of the
+drill on the wood ignites the dust which has been ground off. The
+little coal of fire is fed with shredded bark until flame is produced;
+from this the fuel on the kiva fireplace is lighted and with a bark
+fuse is carried to the kivas of the three other societies. This fire
+is sacred and no one may blow upon it, or take a light from it, and
+after the end of the ceremony it is suffered to go out and the ashes
+are thrown over the mesa with prescribed rites. Sacrifices of pine
+needles are made to the sacred fire soon after it is kindled. Most of
+the Hopi are familiar with the ancient method of making fire by the
+friction of wood, and it is not many years since they knew no other
+way. Now matches of a particularly sulphurous variety are easy to get,
+and the primitive fire drill is in force only in the New Fire
+ceremony.
+
+From day to day there are processions of the celebrating societies,
+who dance through the pueblo, forming a line with locked hands and
+moving with a sidelong halting step forward and backward, while the
+women from the houses drench them with water and shout rude jests. At
+night there are patrols of the celebrants, who ring cowbells or beat
+on tin cans and make night hideous. The novices take their nocturnal
+rounds at breakneck speed led by a priest, somewhat in the way of a
+college initiation. These poor fellows have a hard life of fasting and
+vigils; one of their ordeals is to go to a mountain about fifteen
+miles away to dig soap root and white earth with which they return
+gaunt and worn.
+
+This ceremony presents more life and public exhibition than almost any
+other in Hopiland, hence a description of it in brief compass is
+impossible. To an onlooker it must exhibit a chaos of acts by the four
+powerful fraternities that perform it, a bewildering pageant by day
+and alarms and sallying forth by night, with rites also in progress in
+all the kivas.
+
+The meaning of the New Fire Ceremony is obscure, but it seems in our
+present knowledge to be a prayer to the Germ God for fertility of
+human beings, animals, and crops. The Germ Gods, earth gods, and fire
+gods are to be placated and honored by these rites, and no doubt the
+new fire ceremonies of all times and peoples were held with such
+intent, for the relation of life and fire was a philosophic
+observation of the remote past. With this ceremony the round of the
+year has been finished and the Hopi are ready to begin again.[8]
+
+    [8] The Naac-nai-ya. By J. Walter Fewkes and A. M. Stephen;
+    Jour. American Folk-Lore, Vol. 5, 1892. The Tusayan New Fire
+    Ceremony, by J. Walter Fewkes; Proc. Bost. Society Nat. Hist.,
+    Vol. 26, 1895. The New Fire Ceremony at Walpi, by J. Walter
+    Fewkes; Am. Anthropologist (N. S.), Vol. 2, Jan., 1900.
+
+The Yayawimpkia are fire priests who heal by fire. They are experts
+in the art of making fire by drilling with a stick on a bit of wood
+and they perform this act in the Sumaikoli or Little New Fire
+Ceremony. There are few of them remaining, and their services are
+sometimes called for when a burn is to be treated, or some such
+matter. One woman whose breast had been blistered by a too liberal
+application of kerosene was healed by the Yaya, who filled his mouth
+with soot and spurted the fluid over the burn, the theory of the Yaya
+being that wounds made by fire should be checked by fire or the
+products of fire.
+
+The Yaya priests are supposed to be able to bring to life people who
+have been killed in accidents. There is a story that a man who was
+pushed off the high mesa upon the rocks below was restored to his
+friends by the magical power of the Yaya. Other fabulous stories,
+always placed among the happenings of the past, tell of the wonderful
+doings of the Yaya. The Hopi relate that one Yaya standing at the edge
+of the mesa said: "Do you see that butte over yonder [the Giant's
+Chair, 30 miles distant]; it is black, is it not? I will paint it
+white." So with a lump of kaolin the Yaya made magical passes skyward,
+and behold, the mountain was white! A brother Yaya said, "I will make
+it black again!" So with soot he made magical passes horizonward, and
+behold, the butte resumed again its natural color!
+
+Notwithstanding the style of these stories, of which there are many,
+the fire-priests do perform wonderful feats of juggling and
+legerdemain, especially in winter when abbreviated ceremonies are
+held. On account of these performances of sleight-of-hand and
+deception the Hopi are renowned as jugglers and have a reputation
+extending far and wide over the Southwest.
+
+Besides the Yaya there are many other medicine men, or shamans, who
+relieve persons afflicted by sorcerers.
+
+  The sufferer believes that a sorcerer has shot with his span-long
+  bow an old turquoise bead or arrowhead into some part of his body.
+  He, therefore, summons one of his shamans to relieve him. A single
+  shaman is called _Tu hi ky a_, "the one who knows by feeling or
+  touching." The first treatment adopted to relieve the sufferer is
+  to pass an eagle feather, held by the shaman in his fingers, over
+  the body of the afflicted person until the shaman asserts he feels
+  and locates the missile.
+
+  The term applied to more than one of these shamans is Poboctu or
+  eye seekers. In the concluding part of the conjuring, in which
+  more than one person usually engages, the shamans move around
+  peering and gazing everywhere, until they determine the direction
+  in which the malign influence lies. I have been informed by Mr.
+  Stephen that he saw them engaged over a victim in Sitcumovi many
+  years ago and that they cleverly pretended to take out of the
+  sufferer's breast a stone arrowhead half the size of the hand.[9]
+
+    [9] Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, Journal of American Ethnology and
+    Archaeology, Vol. II, Boston, 1892, p. 157.
+
+One may chance to see, even yet, a patient being treated for headache
+or some minor ailment. The method is very like massage, the eyebrows,
+forehead, temples and root of the nose being rubbed with straight
+strokes or passes, with occasional pressure at certain points, while a
+preternatural gravity is maintained by the operator.
+
+The Hopi ideas and customs as to animals connected with their
+religious observances form an interesting and picturesque feature of
+their life. An account of some of the more striking customs in this
+regard follows:
+
+A few years ago a story went the rounds about a Hopi and his eagle
+which a Navaho had taken. It was related that the Hopi hurried to the
+agent with his grievance and secured a written order commanding the
+Navaho to restore the bird. With considerable temerity the Hopi
+presented the "talk paper" to the lordly Navaho, and as might have
+been expected got no satisfaction. This story produced a great deal of
+amusement at the time, but no one realized that there was embodied
+history, folk-lore, religious custom, tribal organization, archeology,
+and a number of other matters recently made clear by Dr. J. Walter
+Fewkes.[10]
+
+    [10] Property-Right in Eagles among the Hopi; Am.
+    Anthropologist, N. S., Vol. II, Oct.-Dec., 1900.
+
+It transpired that the Navaho had not bodily and by force seized an
+eagle which the Hopi had captured by his craft, though one not knowing
+the relations between those desert neighbors might have so thought. On
+the contrary, the Navaho had taken the eagle from an eyrie on a
+mountain many miles away from the Hopi villages, not dreaming of
+poaching on anyone's preserves.
+
+He would probably care as little to know that the Snake clan claims
+the eagle nests near their old village of Tokonabi to the north of
+Walpi; the Horn clan those to the northeast; the Firewood clan those
+at the upper end of Keam's Canyon; the Bear clan those at the mouth of
+the same canyon; the Tobacco clan those on the crags of Awatobi; the
+Rain Cloud clan the nests in the Moki Buttes; the Reed clan those in
+the region of their old town forty miles north of Navajo Springs on
+the Santa Fé railroad; the Lizard clan the nests on Bitahuchi or Red
+Rocks, about forty miles south of Walpi; or that the eagle nests west
+of the pueblos along the Little Colorado and Great Colorado belong to
+the Oraibi and Middle Mesa villagers. He would disdain the fact that
+one cannot meddle with eagles within forty or fifty miles of the Hopi
+towns without trespassing on property rights.
+
+The curious fact comes out that these eagle preserves are near the
+place of ancient occupancy of the clans, and show in a most
+interesting way the lines of migration by which the several clans
+traveled to the villages where they now live. These rights are
+jealously guarded by the Hopi and are one of the sore spots in their
+relations with the Navaho; they frequently ask to have the Government
+define their eagle reservations by survey to establish the boundaries
+free from molestation.
+
+It may be well to say here that the eagle is a Hopi sacred bird and
+one of the most important. Its feathers, like those of the turkey,
+parrot, and other birds, are of especial use in the religious
+ceremonies. The downy plumes moving at the faintest breath are thought
+to be efficacious in carrying to the nature gods the prayers of their
+humble worshippers.
+
+Among the sacred hunts that of the eagle was one of the most ancient
+as well as important. Small circular stone towers about four feet in
+height were built and across the top were laid beams to which were
+tied dead rabbits as a bait. Perhaps the mysterious towers of the
+Mancos and of the north in Colorado may be explained in this light.
+Within the tower the hunter hid after a ceremonial head washing
+symbolic of purification, and the deposit of a prayer-offering at a
+shrine. The eagle, attracted by the rabbits, circled around and at
+last launched himself upon his prey. When he had fastened his talons
+in a rabbit the concealed hunter reached through the beams and grasped
+the king of the air by the legs and made him captive, taking him to
+the village where a cage was provided for his reception. At each hunt
+one eagle was liberated after a prayer-stick had been tied to his
+thigh in the belief that the bird would carry the prayer to the mighty
+beings with whom he was supposed to be on familiar terms.
+
+This describes the method pursued formerly and which some of the old
+men have witnessed. Now the Hopi eagle hunters take upon themselves
+the difficult and somewhat hazardous task of visiting the eyries to
+seize the eaglets. Not all are taken from the nest, since a wise
+prohibition requires that some be left to continue the species. The
+eaglets are brought to the pueblo, where their heads are washed with
+due ceremony, and they are sprinkled with sacred meal. Then the
+feathers are plucked out and the birds are killed by pressure on the
+breastbone so as not to shed blood, and they are buried in a special
+cemetery in a cleft among the rocks where a few stones are put upon
+the bodies after the ritual. At the close of the ceremony of the
+departure of the gods, called the Niman, or Farewell ceremony, small
+painted wooden dolls and little bows and arrows are placed upon the
+eagle graves and liberally sprinkled with sacred meal.
+
+But this does not end the Hopi eagle customs. Near the school at
+Dawapa, below Walpi, one may stumble upon a collection of oval objects
+of wood, placed among rocks, some weathered and some bearing traces of
+spots of white paint and feathers. He may learn also that this is an
+eagle shrine and that these wooden eggs are prayers for the increase
+of eagles prepared during the Soyaluna or Winter Solstice ceremony.
+At present figurines of the domestic animals are also offered for the
+same purpose. Perhaps we have here a step toward the domestication of
+animals which was carried out with the turkey, parrot, and dog. In any
+case, however, there is shown the veneration of the Hopi for the birds
+of the air and especially the eagle, which is honored in the symbols
+of so many peoples.
+
+Among the sacred animals of the Hopi the turkey is of great
+importance. In accord with the belief that the markings on the tail
+feathers were caused by the foam and slime of an ancient deluge, the
+feathers are prescribed for all pahos; since through their mythical
+association with water they have great power in bringing rain. The
+Spanish Conquerors of the sixteenth century when they visited the
+pueblos spoke of "cocks with great hanging chins" they saw there, and
+this is the first notice of the bird for which the world is indebted
+to America. In the villages turkeys roam around without restraint and
+become household pets. Sometimes also they dispute the entrance of a
+village by a stranger and put him to a great deal of annoyance by
+their attacks, which are usually in the nature of a surprise from the
+rear. At present the Hopi keep them for their feathers, which are
+plucked as occasion requires, so that the village turkey commonly has
+a ragged appearance.
+
+There were ceremonial antelope hunts before cattle and horses
+destroyed the grass on the ranges and while these members of the deer
+tribe were plentiful. One of the most beautiful flowers of the
+Southwest, the scarlet gilia, is thought to be especially liked by the
+antelope, and tradition says that for this reason the hunter formerly
+ground up the flowers with sacred meal and made offerings with it for
+success in hunting that graceful animal. Remains of extensive stake
+fences and corrals built by the Navaho for driving the antelope are to
+be seen south of the Hopi Reservation. One of these is called the
+"Chindi corral," because the Navaho say that in the last great hunt
+those who ate of the antelope captured were made sick and many died.
+Hence no Navaho will camp in this bewitched corral or use a piece of
+the wood for camp fires, no matter how great the necessity.
+
+The Hopi sometimes hunted the antelope by driving, but usually relied
+on surprise, fleetness of foot, the bow and arrow, and the boomerang.
+No doubt the deer and great elk were ceremonially hunted in the old
+days of tradition. There is little reason to believe that the Hopi
+vegetarians have for centuries gained more than a flavor of animal
+food to vary their diet. Formerly the antelope must have been more
+important, though always difficult to capture. Now, the Hopi perforce
+hunt rabbits, as the _tabo_ or cottontail and the _sowi_ or jackrabbit
+alone of all the game animals survive in this region.
+
+If one chances to see a hunting party set out or to encounter them in
+active chase he will have a novel experience and wonder what all the
+screaming, barking of dogs, and running hither and thither mean, if he
+does not fear that he has met the Peaceful People on the warpath. The
+hunters smeared with clay present a strange appearance. In their hands
+they carry bow and arrows, boomerangs of oak, and various clubs and
+sticks. One of the party is delegated to carry the rabbits, and he
+usually rides a burro. In and out among the rocks of the mesa sides
+they skirmish like coyotes and with quite as fiendish noise. Rabbits
+have little chance unless they take to earth, and even then the Hopi
+stop to dig or twist them out. Such a hunt means sixty or seventy
+miles, perhaps, of hard work before the hunters dash up the home mesa
+with their game to "feed the eagles" or for some other ceremonial
+purpose.
+
+Some of the ceremonial hunts bring out as many as a hundred Hopi, and
+in such case those on horse or burro or afoot drive the rabbits into a
+narrowing circle and close in with an exciting melee that displays
+more energy than a football game. If for any reason the rabbits are
+scarce and the result of a hunt is small, the Hopi return somewhat
+dejected and have little to say, but if the _sowimaktu_ has been a
+success they make a triumphant entry with much shouting and exultant
+song.
+
+In walking about the pueblos one sees many things connected with the
+religious life of the Hopi, especially shrines. An account of the more
+notable of these may prove of interest.
+
+It is not often granted one to stand at the center of the world. The
+feeling ought not to be different from that occasioned by standing at
+any other place on the earth, but in the presence of the shrine by
+which the Walpians mark that mysterious spot a number of inquiries
+spring up in the mind. At Jerusalem, at Mecca, and at perhaps a
+hundred other places are authentic earth centers, each fixed by edicts
+of church or the last word of wise men and upheld against all comers.
+The disputes over the center of the world in the times before men knew
+that the world was round are amusing to enlightened nineteenth century
+people.
+
+The Hopi felt the need of an earth center just as other benighted
+folks did in early times, so beneath the mesa cliffs among the rocks
+they placed their shrine and bestowed their offerings. Just what the
+Hopi believe about this particular shrine no doubt would be very
+interesting.
+
+Other shrines abound near each pueblo and are likely to be happened
+upon in out-of-the-way places among the rocks where the offerings are
+scattered about, some new with fresh paint and feathers and some much
+weather-worn. Near the Sun Spring at Walpi there is a spot where many
+rounded blocks of wood lie on the ground. This is the Eagle Shrine and
+the bits of wood represent eagle eggs; the green paint and cotton
+string with the prayer feather decorating them soon disappear in the
+sun and wind.
+
+While it is not good policy to pry around these sacred places,
+knowing that the keen eyes of the Hopi watch from the mesa top, yet
+casually some of the more interesting shrines may be visited.
+
+At the point of the Walpi mesa where the old town stood several
+centuries ago, are several shrines, to one of which the _kachinas_
+after the ceremonies go in order to deposit their wreaths of pine
+brought from the San Francisco Mountains and to make "breath-feather"
+offerings of paint and meal. Here also they make offerings of food to
+the dead. At another spot the bushes are hung with little disks of
+painted gourd, each with a feather representing the squash flower.
+
+A heap of small stones is a Mas a uah shrine, and a stone is added by
+each one who passes as an offering to the terrible god of the earth,
+death, and fire. No orthodox Hopi would dare to omit throwing a stone
+accompanied with a prayer to Masauah, of whom all speak in fear and
+with bated breath. For a good reason, then, many shrines to this god
+may be seen in Hopiland, as it is necessary to appease this avenging
+being.
+
+Everyone who goes to Walpi sees the great shrine in the gap which is
+called the "shrine of the end of the trail." The base and sides are
+large slabs of stone, and within are various odd-shaped stones
+surrounding a coiled fossil believed by the Hopi to be a stone
+serpent. During the winter Sun ceremony this whole stone box blossoms
+with feathered prayer-sticks, almost hiding the shrine, and converting
+it into a thing of beauty.
+
+Other holy places, most of them ruins of abandoned towns, are visited
+at times by this people, who cheerfully make long journeys to
+mountains and running streams for sacred water, pine boughs, or herbs.
+They carry with them feather prayer-sticks and sacred meal as
+offerings to the gods of the place. One of the streams from which holy
+water is brought is Clear Creek near the town of Winslow, seventy-five
+miles south of Walpi.
+
+Each field has a shrine and _pahos_ are often seen there; this is also
+the custom among the Zuñi and other of the Pueblos. In the center of
+the main plaza of each pueblo may be seen a stone box with a slab of
+stone for a door which opens to the east. This is called the _pahoki_,
+or "house of the pahos," the central shrine of the village, and it is
+carefully sealed up when not in use.
+
+It is to be expected that the shrines of the ancient pueblos would
+have vanished, and it is true that such remains are the rarest
+encountered in exploring ruins. Still a few traces reward a careful
+search in the outskirts of many of the ruins. A shrine made of slabs
+of stone painted with symbolic designs of the rain cloud was found at
+the ancient town of Awatobi, and is now in the National Museum.
+
+In caves and rock recesses of the mesas are deposits of the sacred
+belongings of the societies. These places, while not shrines perhaps,
+are kept inviolably sacred, and no curious white visitors have peered
+into them, even those highest in the good graces of the priests.
+
+Once by chance two explorers came upon such a treasure house and with
+some trepidation took a photograph of it. In a dark cleft under the
+rocks were the jars in which the "snake medicine" is carried. These
+were arranged without much order near a most remarkable carved stone
+figure of _Talatumsi_, the "dawn goddess" painted and arrayed in the
+costume of that deity. In truth, this little cavern had a gruesome
+look, and knowing also the prohibition against prying, one breathed
+more freely on getting away from the neighborhood.
+
+Though the Hopi may have no house shrines, and this is said with
+caution, because not much is known of their domestic life, yet in some
+of the houses are rude stone images which are venerated. These images
+may be household gods like the Lares and Penates of the ancients. No
+one would be surprised to know that the Hopi hold the fireplace sacred
+and make sacrifice to it as the shrine of Masauah, the dread ruler of
+the underworld.
+
+So while our towns have interesting churches and historical buildings,
+none of them can compete with the high houses of the Hopi surrounded
+by primitive shrines to the nature gods, who, in their simple belief,
+protect the people and send the rains which insure abundant harvests.
+
+
+
+
+VIII
+
+MYTHS
+
+
+As yet the myths of the Hopi have not been systematically collected,
+hence our view of the deeper workings of the Hopi mind is a limited
+one. No observer familiar with the language has lived with the Good
+People in order to hear from the wrinkled sages the tales of
+beginnings and the explanations of things that must be stored in their
+minds, if the fragmentary utterances that are extant may give
+indication. A few myths collated principally from the writings of Dr.
+J. Walter Fewkes are given as examples, displaying the range and depth
+of the imagination of these Indians.[11]
+
+    [11] Since writing this Rev. H. R. Voth has published a valuable
+    collection of folk-tales and myths. Field Mus. Pub. 96.
+
+In the early days when the world was young, many monsters, most of
+whom were hostile to man, roamed the earth or infested the sky, and
+particularly harassed the Hopi. These monsters were gigantic in size
+and possessed special weapons of tremendous power to assist them in
+their supernatural craft. Long the people groaned under the ravages of
+the monsters, and the time and manner of their deliverance they
+delight to recount in many weird stories during the winter nights by
+their flickering fires of piñon wood.
+
+In the earth lived the Spider Woman, ancient of days, full of wisdom,
+and having a tender regard for her people, the Hopi. Born to her from
+a light-ray and a drop of rain were the Twins; one, the son of light,
+was the little war-god called the Youth; the other was Echo, the son
+of the cloud.
+
+The Youth became the savior of the people; his heroic deeds of the old
+times in slaying the monsters cause him still to be held in reverence
+by the Hopi and remembered in their ceremonies.
+
+The conquests of the Twins gave rise to many strange adventures. The
+transformation of the man-eagle by the Twins is a favorite legend of
+the Hopi.
+
+In the above, in the heart of the sky, lived the Man-Eagle. On the
+people of the whole earth he swooped down, carrying aloft women and
+maidens to his house, where after four days he devoured them. The
+Youth, journeying to the San Francisco Mountains, met at the
+foot-hills the Piñon maids dressed in mantles of piñon bark and grass,
+and here likewise he met the Spider Woman and the Mole. "You have
+come," said they in greeting; "sit down; whence go you?" Then said the
+Youth, "Man-Eagle has carried away my bride and I seek to bring her
+back." "I will aid you," said the Spider Woman.
+
+She bade the Piñon maids to gather piñon gum, wash it, and make a
+garment in exact imitation of the flint arrow head armor which
+rendered Man-Eagle invulnerable. So did they, and the Spider Woman
+gave it, with charm flour, to the Youth. As a spider, then, so small
+as to be invisible, she perched on the right ear of the Youth that she
+might whisper advice. Mole led the way to the top of the mountains,
+but the Piñon maids remained behind.
+
+When they reached the summit, Eagle swooped down; they got on his back
+and he soared aloft with them till he was tired. Hawk came close by,
+and on his back he carried them still higher in the sky. When he was
+weary, Gray Hawk took them and mounted to the heavens with them till
+he could go no farther, and Red Hawk received the burden; thus, for an
+immense distance, upward they flew, until the adventurers reached a
+chasm in the sky through which the Youth, Spider Woman, and Mole
+passed, and saw the great white house in which Man-Eagle lived.
+
+The ladder which led into the house had for rungs sharp flint knives.
+The Spider Woman advised the Youth, before mounting the ladder, to
+gather a handful of sumach berries and give them to Lizard, who
+received them with thanks, chewed them and gave him back the cud. The
+Youth rubbed the sharp rungs with the chewed berries and they became
+dull at once, and he was able to climb the ladder without cutting
+himself. When he entered the house of Man-Eagle he saw hanging the
+monster's flint arrow head armor, on a peg in a recess, and he at once
+exchanged it for the false armor the Piñon maids had given him. In
+another recess he saw Man-Eagle and his lost wife. He called out to
+her that he had come to rescue her from the monster, and she replied
+that she was glad, but that he could not do so, as no one ever left
+the place alive. The Youth replied, "Have no fear; you will soon be
+mine again."
+
+The Spider Woman's charm was so powerful that the Man-Eagle did not
+hear what was said, but he soon awoke, and put on the imitation flint
+armor without detecting the fraud. He then for the first time became
+aware of the Youth's presence, and demanded what he wished. "I have
+come to take my wife home," answered the hero. Man-Eagle said, "We
+must gamble to decide that, and if you lose I shall slay you," to
+which the Youth agreed. Man-Eagle brought out a huge pipe, larger than
+a man's head, and having filled it with tobacco, gave it to the hero,
+saying, "You must smoke this entirely out, and if you become dizzy or
+nauseated, you lose." So the Youth lit the pipe and smoked, but
+exhaled nothing. He kept the pipe aglow and swallowed all the smoke
+and felt no ill effect, for he passed it through his body into an
+underground passageway that Mole had dug. Man-Eagle was amazed and
+asked what had become of the smoke. The Youth, going to the door,
+showed him great clouds of dense smoke issuing from the four cardinal
+points, and the monster saw that he had lost.
+
+But Man-Eagle tried a second time with the hero. He brought two
+deer-antlers, saying, "We will each choose one, and he who fails to
+break the one he chooses loses." The antler which he laid down on the
+northwest side was a real antler, but that on the southeast was an
+imitation made of brittle wood. Spider Woman prompted the Youth to
+demand the first choice, but Man-Eagle refused him that right. After
+the youth had insisted four times, Man-Eagle yielded, and the hero
+chose the brittle antler and tore its prongs asunder, but Man-Eagle
+could not break the real antler, and thus lost a second time.
+
+Man-Eagle had two fine, large pine trees growing near his house, and
+said to the hero, "You choose one of these trees and I will take the
+other, and whoever plucks one up by the roots shall win." Now Mole had
+burrowed under one of them and had gnawed through all its roots,
+cutting them off; and had run through his tunnel and was sitting at
+its mouth, peering through the grass, anxious to see the Youth win.
+The hero, with the help of his grandmother, chose the tree that Mole
+had prepared and plucked it up, and threw it over the cliff, but
+Man-Eagle struggled with the other tree and could not move it, so he
+was unhappy in his third defeat.
+
+Then Man-Eagle spread a great supply of food on the floor and said to
+the Youth that he must eat all at one sitting. The Youth sat and ate
+all the meat, bread, and porridge, emptying one food basin after
+another, and showed no sign of being satisfied before all was
+consumed; for Mole had again aided him and dug a large hole below to
+receive it, and the Youth was a winner the fourth time.
+
+Man-Eagle then made a great wood-pile and directed the Youth to sit
+upon it, saying he would ignite it and that if he were unharmed he
+would submit himself to the same test. The Youth took his allotted
+place, and Man-Eagle set fire to the pile of wood at the four cardinal
+points, and it speedily was ablaze. The arrow heads of which the flint
+armor was made were coated with ice, which melted so that water
+trickled down and prevented the Youth from being burnt, and all the
+wood-pile was consumed, leaving the Youth unharmed.
+
+The monster was filled with wonder and grieved very much when he saw
+the Youth making another great pile of wood. Still thinking that he
+wore his fire-proof suit, he mounted the wood-pile, which the Youth
+lit at the four cardinal points. The fuel blazed up, and as soon as
+the fire caught the imitation armor of gum, it ignited with a flash
+and the monster was consumed. At the prompting of the Spider Woman,
+the Youth approached the ashes, took the charm in his mouth, and
+spurted it over them, when suddenly a handsome man arose. The Spider
+Woman said to him, "Will you refrain from killing people, and will
+you forsake your evil habits?" The Man-Eagle assented with a fervent
+promise, and the Youth, rejoicing, ran to his wife, embraced her, and
+set free all the captive women wives of the Hopi and other peoples, of
+whom there were many. Eagle and Hawk carried them to the ground on
+their broad pinions.
+
+Over the plains and through the mountains roamed the Giant Elk. Many
+times larger was he than an ordinary elk, and an enemy to the Hopi,
+whom he slew with his great horns, laughing at their arrows and flint
+knives.
+
+No one was safe from this roaming monster, enemy to living beings, so
+the Twins set out to have a trial of strength and skill with him. As
+it chanced, the Giant Elk was lying down in a beautiful valley, under
+the aspen trees of the San Francisco Mountains. Near the house of the
+Youths was this valley, and as they sought to stalk the Giant Elk the
+Mole met them and said, "Do not encounter him, for he is mighty and
+may kill you; wait here and I will help you."
+
+The Mole then excavated four chambers in the earth, one below another,
+and made the Twins remain in the upper one. He dug a long tunnel and
+coming up under the Elk, plucked a little soft hair from over his
+heart, at which the Elk turned his head and looked down, but the Mole
+said, "Be not angry, I only want a little soft hair to make a bed for
+my children." So the Elk allowed him to continue the plucking. But the
+Mole took away enough fur to leave the skin quite bare over the
+heart, and expose the Elk to death. He then returned to the Twins and
+told them what he had done, and they threw bolts of lightning and
+wounded the Elk, who sprang to his feet and charged fiercely. But the
+Twins concealed themselves in the upper chamber, and when the Elk
+tried to gore them his horns were not long enough; again he charged,
+and thrust his horns downward, but the Twins had safely retreated to
+the second chamber; again he tried to reach them, but they were safe
+in the third room. They retreated to the fourth chamber, and when the
+Elk made another attempt he fell dead.
+
+The Chipmunk who had witnessed the fight hurried up, and after
+thanking the Twins said he had come to show them how to cut up the
+monster's body, which with his sharp teeth he soon accomplished. One
+of the Twins thanked Chipmunk, and, stooping, he dipped the tips of
+the first two fingers of his right hand in the Elk's blood and drawing
+them along the body of the Chipmunk, made on it the marks which he
+still bears.
+
+This is the story of how the Twins killed Chaveyo, who was a giant of
+the old times, clad in armor made of flint and seeking always for
+people to devour.
+
+One day the Twins went to a great pool near Mt. Taylor, and soon
+Chaveyo came there likewise; he knelt down and drank four times,
+emptying the pool. He then arose and smelt the Twins and threw his
+weapon at them, but one of the Twins sprang in the air and as the
+weapon passed under him he caught it in his hand. Chaveyo then flung
+his lightning at the hero, but one of the Twins caught this as he had
+the weapon. The little war-god now flung his weapon at Chaveyo, but it
+glanced off his flint shirt. Then the Youth threw the lightning, but
+it only staggered him. After this they threw more lightning at
+Chaveyo, which knocked him down and killed him outright.
+
+Another story tells how the Twins visited the sun.
+
+The Twins lived with Spider Woman, their mother, on the west side of
+Mt. Taylor, and desired to see the home of their father. Spider Woman
+gave them as a charm a kind of meal, and directed that when they met
+the guardians of the home of the Sun, to chew a little and spurt it
+upon them.
+
+The Twins journeyed far to the sunrise where the Sun's home is entered
+through a canyon in the sky. There Bear, Mountain Lion, Snake, and
+Canyon Closing keep watch. The sky is solid in this place, and the
+walls of the entrance are constantly opening and closing, and would
+crush any unauthorized person who attempted to pass through.
+
+As the Twins approached the ever-fierce watchers, the trail lay along
+a narrow way; they found it led them to a place on one side of which
+was the face of a vertical cliff, and on the other a precipice which
+sunk sheer to the Below (Underworld). An old man sat there, with his
+back against the wall and his knees drawn up close to his chin. When
+they attempted to pass, the old man suddenly thrust out his legs,
+trying to knock the passers over the cliff. But they leaped back and
+saved themselves, and in reply to a protest the old man said his legs
+were cramped and he simply extended them for relief. Whereupon the
+hero remembered the charm which he had for the southwest direction,
+and spurted it upon the old man, forcing the malignant old fellow to
+remain quite still with legs drawn up, until the Twins had passed.
+
+They then went on to the watchers, guardians of the entrance to the
+Sun's house, whom they subdued in the same manner. They also spurted
+the charm on the sides of the cliff, so that it ceased its
+oscillations and remained open until they had passed.
+
+These dangers being past, they entered the Sun's house and were
+greeted by the Sun's wife, who laid them on a bed of mats. Soon Sun
+came home from his trip through the underworld, saying,
+
+  I smell strange children here; when men go away their wives
+  receive the embraces of strangers. Where are the children whom you
+  have?
+
+So she brought the Twins to him, and he put them in a flint oven and
+made a hot fire. After a while, when he opened the door of the oven,
+the Twins capered out laughing and dancing about his knees, and he
+knew that they were his sons.[12]
+
+    [12] From "The Destruction of the Tusayan Monsters," by J.
+    Walter Fewkes; Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore, April-June, 1895, pp.
+    136-137.
+
+Dr. J. Walter Fewkes says:
+
+  The Hopi, like many people, look back to a mythic time when they
+  believe their ancestors lived in a "paradise," a state or place
+  where food (corn) was plenty and rains abundant--a world of
+  perpetual summer and flowers. Their legends recount how, when corn
+  failed or rains ceased, culture heroes have sought this imaginary
+  or ideal ancestral home to learn the "medicine" which blessed this
+  happy land. Each sacerdotal society tells the story of its own
+  hero, who generally brought from that land a bride who transmitted
+  to her son the knowledge of the altars, songs, and prayers which
+  forced the crops to grow and the rains to fall in her native
+  country. To become thoroughly conversant with the rites he marries
+  the maid, since otherwise at his death they would be lost, as
+  knowledge of the "medicine" is transmitted not through his clan,
+  but to the child of his wife. So the Snake hero brought the Snake
+  maid (Corn-rain girl) from the underworld, the Flute hero, her
+  sister, the Little War God the _Lakone mana_. A _Katcina_ hero, in
+  the old times, on a rabbit hunt, came to a region where there was
+  no snow. There he saw other _Katcina_ people dancing amidst
+  beautiful gardens. He received melons from them and carrying them
+  home told a strange story of a people who inhabited a country
+  where there were flowering plants in midwinter. The hero and a
+  comrade were sent back and they stayed with these people,
+  returning home loaded with fruit during February. They had learned
+  the songs of those with whom they had lived and taught them in the
+  kiva of their own people.[13]
+
+    [13] The Journ. Amer. Eth. and Arch., Vol. II, p. 152. The
+    Kachina hero in this story would appear not to have brought a
+    wife from this people.
+
+Most of the migration traditions are full of mythic elements which
+have been incorporated with what has often been found to be veritable
+history. One of these, recounting the wanderings of certain Southern
+clans, is given by Dr. Fewkes.
+
+  At the Red House in the south internecine wars prevailed, and the
+  two branches of the Patki people separated from the other Hopi and
+  determined to return to the fatherland in the north. But these two
+  branches were not on the best of terms, and they traveled
+  northward by separate routes, the (later settlers of) Miconinovi
+  holding to the east of the (later settlers of) Walpi.
+
+  The Patki traveled north until they came to the Little Colorado
+  River, and built houses on its banks. After living there many
+  years the factional dissensions, which seem to have ever haunted
+  these people, again broke out, and the greater portion of them
+  withdrew still farther north and built villages the ruins of which
+  are still discernable not far from the site of the villages their
+  descendants inhabit at present.
+
+  The Squash (Miconinovi) also trended slowly northward, occupying,
+  like all their legendary movements, a protracted period of
+  indefinite length--years during which they planted and built homes
+  alternating with years of devious travel. They grew lax in the
+  observance of festivals, and Muinwu inflicted punishment upon
+  them. He caused the water to turn red, and the color of the people
+  also turned red; he then changed the water to blue, and the people
+  changed to a similar color. The Snow _katcina_ appeared and urged
+  them to return to their religion, but they gave no heed to him, so
+  he left them and took away corn. _Muinwu_ then sent _Palulukon_
+  who killed rabbits and poured their blood in the springs and
+  streams, and all the water was changed to blood and the people
+  were stricken with a plague. They now returned to their religious
+  observances, and danced and sang, but none of the deities would
+  listen to them.
+
+  A horned _katcina_ appeared to the oldest woman and told her that
+  on the following morning the oldest man should go out and procure
+  a root, and that she and a young virgin of her clan should eat it.
+  After a time she (the old woman) would give birth to a son who
+  would marry the virgin, and their offspring would redeem the
+  people. The old woman and the virgin obeyed the _katcina_, and the
+  former gave birth to a son who had two horns upon his head. The
+  people would not believe that the child was of divine origin; they
+  called it a monster and killed it.
+
+  After this all manner of distressing punishments were inflicted
+  upon them, and wherever they halted, the grass immediately
+  withered and dried. Their wanderings brought them to the foot of
+  the San Francisco Mountains, where they dwelt for a long time, and
+  at that place the virgin gave birth to a daughter who had a little
+  knob on each side of her forehead. They preserved this child, and
+  when she had grown to be a woman, the horned _katcina_ appeared
+  and announced to her that she would give birth to horned twins,
+  who would bring rain and remove the punishment from their people.
+  This woman was married, and the twins, a boy and a girl, were
+  born; but she concealed their divine origin, fearing they would be
+  destroyed.
+
+  The _Patun_ (Squash) now moved to the Little Colorado, where they
+  built houses and met some of the _Patki_ people to whom they
+  related their distresses. A wise man of the _Patki_ came over to
+  see them, and on seeing the twins at once pronounced them to be
+  the _Alosaka_. They had no horns up to this time, but as soon as
+  this announcement was made, their horns became visible and the
+  twins then spoke to the people and said it had been ordained that
+  they were to be unable to help their people until the people
+  themselves discovered who they were. The _Patun_ were so enraged
+  to think that the _Alosaka_ had been with them, unknown so many
+  years, that they killed them, and still greater sufferings ensued.
+
+  They again repented, and carved two stone images of the _Alosaka_
+  which they painted and decked with feathers and sought to
+  propitiate the mother. She was full of pity for her people and
+  prayed to the Sky-god to relieve them. A period elapsed in which
+  their troubles were in great measure abated.
+
+  The _Patun_ then sought to join the _Patki_ clans, but the _Patki_
+  would not permit this, and compelled them to keep east of Awatobi.
+
+  Many ruins of phratry and family houses of the _Patun_ people
+  exist on the small watercourses north of the Puerco at various
+  distances eastward from the present village of Walpi. The nearest
+  are almost fifteen miles, the farthest about fifty miles.
+
+  Their wandering course was now stayed. When they essayed to move
+  farther eastward, a nomadic hunting race who occupied that region
+  besought them not to advance farther. Their evil notoriety had
+  preceded them, and the nomads feared the maleficent influence of
+  their neighborhood. It would seem, however, that instead of
+  hostile demonstrations the nomads entered into a treaty with them,
+  offering to pay tribute of venison, roots, and grass-seeds, if
+  they would abstain from traversing and blighting their land, to
+  which the _Patun_ agreed.
+
+  But these unfortunate wretches were soon again embroiled in
+  factional warfare which finally involved all the Hopi, and the
+  stone images of the _Alosaka_ were lost or destroyed. Famine and
+  pestilence again decimated them, until finally the _Alosaka
+  katcina_ appeared to them and instructed them to carve two wooden
+  images, but threatening them that if these images should be lost
+  or destroyed, all the people would die.
+
+Many other but widely divergent legends exist regarding the _Alosaka_,
+a number of which are associated with the pueblo of Awatobi, which was
+formerly one of the most populous Hopi towns. At one time this village
+experienced drought and famine, and _Alosaka_, from his home in the
+San Francisco Mountains, observed the trouble of the people. Disguised
+as a youth he visited Awatobi and became enamored with a maiden of
+that town. Several times he visited her, but no one knew whence he
+came or whither he went, for his trail no one could follow. The
+parents of the girl at last discovered that he came on the rainbow,
+and recognized him as a divine being. The children of this maid were
+horned beings, or _Alosakas_, but their identity was not at first
+recognized.
+
+Like all the cultus heroes, _Alosaka_ is said, in legends, to have
+been miraculously born of a virgin. His father was the Sun, his mother
+an Earth-goddess, sometimes called a maiden. Like many gods, he
+traveled on the rainbow; he lived at Tawaki, the house of his father,
+the Sun, or the San Francisco Mountains.[14]
+
+    [14] The Alosaka Cult of the Hopi Indians, by J. Walter Fewkes;
+    American Anthropologist (N. S.), Vol. I, July, 1899, pp.
+    535-539.
+
+There is another tradition of the clans that moved from the southward
+collected by the late A. M. Stephen from no less a personage than
+Anowita (p. 208), who was chief of the Cloud people. The tradition is
+as follows:
+
+  We did not come direct to this region [Tusayan],--we had no fixed
+  intention as to where we should go. We are the Patki nyumu, and we
+  dwelt at Palatkwabi [Red land] where the agave grows high and
+  plentiful; perhaps it was in the region the Americans call Gila
+  valley, but of that I am not certain. It was far south of here,
+  and a large river flowed past our village, which was large, and
+  the houses were high, and a strange thing happened there.
+
+  Our people were not living peaceably at that time, we were
+  quarreling among ourselves, over huts and other things, I have
+  heard, but who can tell what caused their quarrels? There was a
+  famous hunter of our people, and he cut off the tips from the
+  antlers of the deer which he killed and [wore them for a necklace]
+  he always carried them. He lay down in a hollow in the court of
+  the village, as if he had died, but our people doubted this; they
+  thought he was only shamming death, yet they covered him up with
+  earth. Next day his extended hand protruded, the four fingers
+  erect, and the first day after that one finger disappeared [was
+  doubled up?]; each day a finger disappeared, until on the fourth
+  day his hand was no longer visible and the old people thought
+  that he dug down to the underworld with the horn tips.
+
+  On the fifth day water spouted up from the hole where his hand had
+  been and it spread over everywhere. On the sixth day, _Palulukona_
+  [the Serpent Deity] protruded from this hole and looked around in
+  every direction. All the lower ground was covered and many were
+  drowned, but most of our people had fled to some knolls not far
+  from the village and which were not yet submerged.
+
+  When the old men saw _Palulukona_ they asked him what he wanted,
+  because they knew he had caused this flood; and _Palulukona_ said,
+  "I want you to give me a youth and a maiden." The elders consulted
+  and then selected the handsomest youth and fairest maid and
+  arrayed them in their finest apparel, the youth with a white kilt
+  and paroquet plume, and the maid with a fine blue tunic and white
+  mantle. These children wept and besought their parents not to send
+  them to _Palulukona_, but an old chief said, "You must go; do not
+  be afraid: I will guide you." And he led them toward the village
+  court and stood at the edge of the water, but sent the children
+  wading in toward _Palulukona_, and when they had reached the
+  center of the court where _Palulukona_ was the deity, the children
+  disappeared. The water then rushed down after them, through a
+  great cavity, and the earth quaked and many houses tumbled down,
+  and from this cavity a great mound of dark rock protruded. This
+  rock mound was glossy and of all colors; it was beautiful, and, as
+  I have been told, it still remains there.
+
+The White Mountain Apache have told me that they know a place in the
+south where the old houses surround a great rock, and the land in the
+vicinity is wet and boggy.
+
+  We traveled northward from _Palatkwabi_ and continued to travel
+  just as long as any strength was left in the people,--as long as
+  they had breath. During these journeys we would halt only for one
+  day at a time. Then our chief planted corn in the morning and the
+  dragonfly came and hovered over the stalks and by noon the corn
+  was ripe; before sunset it was quite dry and the stalks, fell
+  over, and in whichever way they pointed, in that direction we
+  traveled.
+
+  When anyone became ill, or when children fretted and cried, or the
+  young people became homesick the Coiyal Katcina (a youth and a
+  maiden) came and danced before them; then the sick got well,
+  children laughed, and sad ones became cheerful. We would continue
+  to travel until everyone was thoroughly worn out, then we would
+  halt and build houses and plant, remaining perhaps many years. One
+  of these places where we lived is not far from San Carlos, in a
+  valley, and another is on a mesa near a spring called Coyote Water
+  by the Apache.
+
+  When we came to the valley of the Little Colorado, south of where
+  Winslow now is, we built houses and lived there; then we crossed
+  to the northern side of the valley and built houses at Homolobi.
+  This was a good place for a time, but a plague of flies came and
+  bit the suckling children, causing many of them to die, so we left
+  there and traveled to Cipa (near Kuma spring). Finally we found
+  the Hopi, some going to each of the villages except Awatobi; none
+  went there.[15]
+
+    [15] Cosmos Mindeleff, 13th Annual Report of the Bureau of
+    American Ethnology, pp. 188-189.
+
+The figure of a hand with extended fingers is very common, in the
+vicinity of ruins, as a rock etching, and also is frequently seen
+daubed on the rocks with colored pigments or white clay. These are
+vestiges of a test formerly practiced by the young men who aspired for
+admission to the fraternity of the Calako. The Calako is a trinity of
+two women and a man from whom the Hopi obtained the first corn, and of
+whom the following legend is told:
+
+  There was neither springs nor streams, although water was so near
+  the surface that it could be found by pulling up a tuft of grass.
+  The people had but little food, however, and they besought
+  Masauwuh to help them, but he could not.
+
+  There came a little old man, a dwarf, who said that he had two
+  sisters who were the wives of Calako, and it might be well to
+  petition them. So they prepared an altar, every man making a
+  _paho_, and these were set in the ground so as to encircle a sand
+  hillock, for this occurred before houses were known.
+
+  Masauwuh's brother came and told them that when Calako came to the
+  earth's surface wherever he placed his foot a deep chasm was made,
+  then they brought to the altar a huge rock, on which Calako might
+  stand, and they set it between the two _pahos_ placed for his
+  wives. Then the people got their rattles and stood around the
+  altar, each man in front of his own _paho_; but they stood in
+  silence, for they knew no song with which to invoke this strange
+  god. They stood there for a long while, for they were afraid to
+  begin the ceremonies, until a young lad, selecting the largest
+  rattle, began to shake it and sing. Presently a sound like
+  rushing water was heard, but no water was seen; a sound also like
+  great winds, but the air was perfectly still, and it was seen that
+  the rock was pierced with a great hole through the center. The
+  people were frightened and ran away, all save the young lad who
+  had sung the invocation.
+
+  The lad soon afterward rejoined them, and they saw that his back
+  was cut and bleeding, and covered with splinters of yucca and
+  willow. The flagellation, he told them, had been administered by
+  Calako, who told him that he must endure this laceration before he
+  could look upon the beings he had invoked; that only to those who
+  passed through his ordeals could Calako become visible; and as the
+  lad had braved the test so well, he should henceforth be chief of
+  the Calako altar. The lad could not describe Calako, but said that
+  his two wives were exceedingly beautiful and arrayed with all
+  manner of fine garments. They wore great headdresses of clouds and
+  every kind of corn which they were to give to the Hopi to plant
+  for food. These were white, red, yellow, blue, black, blue and
+  white speckled, and red and yellow speckled corn, and a seeded
+  grass (_kwapi_).
+
+  The lad returned to the altar and shook his rattle over the hole
+  in the rock and from its interior Calako conversed with him and
+  gave him instructions. In accordance with these he gathered all
+  the Hopi youths and brought them to the rock, that Calako might
+  select certain of them to be his priests. The first test was that
+  of putting their hands in the mud and impressing them upon the
+  rock. Only those were chosen as novices the imprints of whose
+  hands had dried on the instant. The selected youths then moved
+  within the altar and underwent the test of flagellation. Calako
+  lashed them with yucca and willow. Those who made no outcry were
+  told to remain in the altar, to abstain from salt and flesh for
+  ten days, when Calako would return and instruct them concerning
+  the rites to be performed when they sought his aid.
+
+  Calako and his two wives appeared at the appointed time, and after
+  many ceremonials gave to each of the initiated five grains of each
+  of the different kinds of corn. The Hopi women had been instructed
+  to place baskets woven of grass at the foot of the rock, and in
+  these Calako's wives placed the seeds of squashes, melons, beans,
+  and all the other vegetables which the Hopi have since possessed.
+  Calako and his wives, after announcing that they would again
+  return, took off their masks and garments, and laying them on the
+  rock disappeared within it.
+
+  Some time after this, when the initiated were assembled in the
+  altar, the Great Plumed Snake appeared to them and said that
+  Calako could not return unless one of them was brave enough to
+  take the mask and garments down into the hole and give it to him.
+  They were all afraid, but the oldest man of the Hopi took them
+  down and was deputed to return and represent Calako.
+
+  Shortly afterward Masauwuh stole the paraphernalia and with his
+  two brothers masqueraded as Calako and his wives. This led the
+  Hopi into great trouble, and they incurred the wrath of Muiyinwuh,
+  who withered all their grain and corn. One of the Hopi finally
+  discovered that the supposed Calako carried a cedar bough in his
+  hand, when it should have been willow; then they knew it was
+  Masauwuh who had been misleading them. The boy hero one day found
+  Masauwuh asleep, and so regained possession of the mask, Muiyinwuh
+  then withdrew his punishments and sent _Palulukon_ (The Plumed
+  Snake) to tell the Hopi that Calako would never return to them,
+  but that the boy hero should wear his mask and represent him, and
+  his festival should be celebrated when they had a proper number of
+  novices to be initiated.
+
+         *       *       *       *       *
+
+  The celebration occurs in the modern Hopi pueblos in the Powamu
+  ceremony, where the representative of Calako flogs the children.
+  Calako's picture is found on the Powamu altars of several of the
+  villages of the Hopi.[16]
+
+    [16] Dr. J. Walter Fewkes, Expedition to Arizona in 1895, 17th
+    Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part 2,
+    Washington, 1898. C has the sound of sh.
+
+
+
+
+IX
+
+TRADITIONS AND HISTORY
+
+
+When men grow old, they become, as if realizing their passing years,
+willing or even anxious to transfer to younger minds what they have
+learned. To the old men the historian of Hopi turns for information;
+the young men by the laws of growth live in the present. So when an
+old man dies there is a feeling of regret; especially when one as
+versed in the lore of his people as Masimptua departs, for who knows
+whether the pictures of his brain are impressed upon the minds of the
+new generation or whether they are lost forever?
+
+Masimptua was one of the chief men of the East Mesa. His house was as
+large and neatly-kept as any in Sichomovi, where there is more room to
+build large dwellings than in circumscribed Walpi with its narrow
+cells. His children were grown up and married, and a number of little
+ones called him grandfather. Still his resting place is among the
+rocks on the mesa slope below the town, unmarked, as are those of his
+ancestors who sleep outside of the walls of the ruined cities of the
+Southwest. It is pleasant to remember "Masi" in his cheerful days,
+before warning shadow fell across his sunny spirit. In those days he
+was a genuine Hopi, a little boisterous, perhaps, but truly
+openhearted. No man in all the tribe could relate more vividly the
+legendary history of the old times, hence Masi stands to all who knew
+him as the exponent of Hopi traditions. Often summer evenings,
+returning from his fields he would tarry at the camp of the white
+people at the Sun Spring for a friendly smoke and chat. Here under the
+genial influences, led on by skillful questioning, he would unfold
+many a tale as interesting as those of an Eastern storyteller, till
+the sunset faded and the bright stars twinkled in the clear night sky.
+
+One of his stories gives an idea of the happenings in Hopiland some
+centuries ago. At that time the people suffered from the attacks of
+the bands of Apache, who came out of their hunting grounds to the
+south in search of trouble. The trails to the mesa were closed and the
+Hopi went up and down the precipitous rock sides by means of a ladder
+which could be drawn up in time of danger. Masi could not avoid
+painting the prowess of the Hopi in strong colors while he described
+the last attack the Apache made when his grandfather was a boy. He
+gesticulated excitedly as though he were giving the death-blow to each
+of the fallen enemy that had fled before the valiant Hopi, and his
+hearer caught the contagion of his enthusiasm and slew with him the
+hated foe.
+
+Another tradition he related was about the ancient people. Looking
+toward the Southwest he said, "Do you see two small peaks close
+together on the horizon? There is one of the houses of the sun, where
+he rests when he is in the west. Our people once lived in a rock town
+on the peak to the left. The town was called '_Chub i o chala ki_,'
+'The house of the place of the Antelopes,' where also there are pine
+trees, shrubs and flowers, grass and much water. Perhaps it was here,
+who knows?" said he, "that the people were almost overwhelmed by a
+great flood which kept rising over the plains and over the hills till
+it reached nearly the tops of the mountains where the ancestors were
+waiting in fear. When the boy and girl were thrown into the flood,
+then came safety, for the wrath of the earth-god was appeased and the
+waters went down. But the youth and maiden heroes were turned into two
+great stone pillars, which bear their names to this day." (See Myths.)
+
+This striking legend of some almost forgotten deluge related by Masi
+is not found alone among the Hopi, but is widespread among the Pueblos
+of the Southwest. Surely, there is no danger now of a flood in this
+dry region, but in former times as the vast levels and the beds of
+ancient lakes show, there must have been plenty of water. Masi's
+traditions do not go into geological periods, however.
+
+Another time, while in reminiscent mood, Masi divulged that "very,
+very when" ago the Peaceful People lived on the Little Colorado River
+near Winslow. The name of the region where several towns were
+scattered over an extent of fifteen miles or so was Homolobi, "the
+place of two views." Here the people lived centuries before they came
+to the precipitous mesas of Hopiland. Later, when explorers tested the
+accuracy of Masi's tradition, they found in the low mounds that mark
+the ruined towns of Homolobi, many wonderful relics of the people who
+lived there before America was even a name. So Masi was proved a
+reliable traditionist, and an "honisht man," as Toby, the Tewa, says.
+
+It is truly remarkable how the traditions and legendary lore have been
+carried down from ancient times among the Hopi. The moderns, who are
+accustomed to place reliance in recorded history, might be inclined to
+doubt the accuracy of oral tradition, if there were not much reason to
+believe otherwise. For instance, the Hopi have a number of traditions
+of the Spanish friars who lived in their country after the discovery
+by Coronado about three hundred and seventy-five years ago. An Oraibi
+Indian relates one of these minor traditions which might be expected
+to have been lost in the lapse of time but has been passed down with
+complete preservation of all the details.
+
+It is thus: the friars who lived at Oraibi did not relish the water
+from the springs near the pueblo. Now the water at Moenkapi, the
+summer village of Oraibi, is excellent. The priests used to compel
+the Indians to bring water from that place. It chanced that the
+Indian whose duty it was to carry water from Moenkapi, not liking to
+bring water many miles _por el amor de Dios_, one day filled his
+canteen with the water of Oraibi and brought it to the friars. On
+tasting the water, they accused the Indian of deceit and compelled him
+to go to Moenkapi for more.
+
+An old chief of Walpi gave a long and circumstantial account of the
+rule of the friars, against whom even at this late day he was very
+bitter. He said with emphasis, "_Castil shimuno posh kalolomi_," "The
+Spanish are very bad," and related how they strove to enslave the
+people, making them carry large cottonwood beams from the Little
+Colorado for the churches. To our knowledge, a few of these beams from
+the old churches, curiously carved, are now doing service in the
+ceilings of pagan kivas or underground rooms where secret ceremonies
+are carried on. The "long gowns," as the Indians also call them, might
+have held this tractable, timid people long in subjection in the
+non-essential things, such as labor, but as the old chief relates,
+they interfered with their time-honored ceremonies of ancestor and
+nature worship. "They said the dances were very bad and we must stop
+them," explained the old chief. There was still another grievance that
+the Hopi allege against the friars, and that was their treatment of
+the women. Interference with religion and custom have been at the
+bottom of most of the troubles of humanity. At last the Peaceful
+People turned and the _Castil shinumo_ were thrown over the rocky
+mesa, and from that time to this their names have been execrated by
+the Hopi.
+
+Traditions of the very first appearance of Spaniards before the
+Pueblos have come down for ten generations as fresh as though the
+events had happened last year, and they can be compared with the
+accounts of the conquerors themselves. This lapse of time has not
+given mythical tinge to these events. It may be believed, then, that
+the ancient history which has become mythical dates very far back and
+to regions far removed from the present mesas of Hopiland. Every ruin
+in the province, those south on the Little Colorado and farther beyond
+the dim Mogollon Mountains on the horizon and those to other compass
+points for surprising distances are known in Hopi traditions, and wise
+is the student of ancient things in Tusayan who first fortifies
+himself by delving in this store of unwritten history.
+
+The duties of the warrior chiefs are not burdensome, since the Hopi
+have fostered the arts of peace till it has become a national
+characteristic. It is fortunate for the Hopi that they belong to those
+who run away, not even "to fight another day," desirous to live in
+contentment and happy to exist on the earth, after the fierce enemies
+have jostled many tribes out of existence. Still, the Hopi keep up in
+a feeble, traditional way a warrior society, which corresponds to the
+powerful Priesthood of the Bow who are said to rule Zuñi. So in the
+villages of Tusayan the warriors are merely ornamental and dance
+bravely in some ceremonies, though at some critical period of invasion
+the necessity of drawing the "dead line" might fall upon the warrior
+society, as it has beforetimes.
+
+When one day in the year 1540 the Spaniards halted under the Hopi
+towns there was consternation among the people at the sight of the
+armored conquerors and all held back in their houses for fear of them.
+Not so the warrior priests, who, striding down the trail, sprinkled a
+line of meal between the town and the Spaniards. According to
+immemorial custom this line of meal means that no one shall pass under
+penalty of death. One of the Spanish soldiers crossed the line and was
+killed by the warriors. Then the Spanish friar who came with the
+expedition in quest of new souls to save, cried out in effect, "What
+are we here for?"; a volley followed; the Hopi heard the report of a
+gun for the first time, and a number of them bit the dust. The
+remainder fled to the village, which was thoroughly frightened at the
+terrible visitation of bearded foes. On the next day a deputation came
+down to the Spanish camp bringing presents and offering humble
+submission to the white men.
+
+More than three centuries later, a body of United States troops who
+were sent to coerce the Oraibi because they would not send their
+children to school, met with a similar experience, but by good
+management no blood was shed and the Indian leaders were exiled to
+California for a year or so. It is a curious circumstance that in our
+country where the past is forgotten so soon there should exist a
+people who remember and take warning from the events of almost four
+centuries ago.
+
+On the rocks below Walpi there is a curiously carved record which has
+a good bit of war history connected with it. Hear Anowita, the Warrior
+Chief, tell the story:
+
+  Very when ago [long time] the Ute and Apache were always wishing
+  to kill the Good People. They were very bad. At that time there
+  was no trail up the great rocks to _Hopi-ki_ "Walpi." The people
+  climbed up and down a long ladder which could be drawn up at
+  night. I can show you where the ladder stood. It was bad for the
+  people to be frightened all the time, so they sent messengers to
+  ask the Tewa from the Great River to come and dwell at Walpi to
+  fight their enemies. The Tewa came, many families of them; there
+  was a battle at a spring north of Walpi and the Tewa killed as
+  many Utes as there are marks cut in the rock below the Gap. The
+  Ute did not come back again. The Tewa were given lands and springs
+  to the eastward and their village was set at the head of the trail
+  near the Gap so that they could guard the mesa.
+
+This is the origin of the Tewa town of Hano on the East Mesa, through
+which everyone must go who seeks an easy entrance into Walpi. One
+cannot avoid thinking that the recorder of the battle of the spring
+was not sparing with his list of dead Ute, which he scored with a
+series of lines cut in a smooth sandstone face.
+
+The explorations in the buried towns of a section of the ancient Hopi
+which extend in a line from the Gila River to their present mesa homes
+show that for all these centuries they have been unwarlike people.
+There is the greatest scarcity of weapons, such as arrowheads and
+spearheads, and there are few war axes to be found among the numerous
+relics of peaceful pursuits, though wooden clubs were no doubt used.
+This accords with the situation of the towns on high, easily defended
+positions and the building of houses in clusters, the outer walls
+forming a fortification which defied assailants.
+
+Only once during their history did the Hopi light the fires of war,
+and this was a religious conflict carried on in true Indian fashion.
+About the beginning of the seventeenth century the Spanish priests had
+gained a foothold in the town of Awatobi, situated on a high mesa
+south of Walpi. The Awatobi Hopi had prospered, and their valley,
+presenting to the south a marvelous panorama of the lava buttes,
+produced abundant food besides cotton for woven fabrics. Awatobi was a
+large town of Hopiland; the walls of the mission church still stand
+high enough to be a landmark miles away. The houses were four stories
+high and they were sufficient to accommodate 1,000 souls.
+
+Perhaps this prosperity caused envy; perhaps the submission to the
+priests roused enmity; the other Hopi said that the Awatobi were
+witches, and one night they gathered to exterminate them. The Awatobi
+men were conducting a ceremony in the underground rooms when blazing
+fagots were thrown down, followed by pepper pods, and they perished
+miserably. Those who were captured in the houses were led out to a
+spring and massacred. The women and children, many of them, were taken
+to other Hopi towns and their lives spared.
+
+This massacre took place about the year 1700 and forms the darkest
+page in the history of Tusayan; it shows also that the Peaceful People
+can be overzealous at times. In times much before this, according to
+tradition, Sikyatki, the home of the Firewood people, who were the
+last potters of Tusayan, was destroyed, as were, no doubt, other
+pueblos of tribes of different origin from the Hopi.
+
+The story of Saalako, who descends from a survivor of the Awatobi
+massacre, runs as follows:
+
+  The chiefs Wiki and Simo, and others, have told you their stories,
+  and surely their ancestors were living here at Walpi when Awatobi
+  was occupied. It was a large village, and many people lived there,
+  and the village chief was called Tapolo, but he was not at peace
+  with his people, and there was quarreling and trouble. Owing to
+  this conflict only a little rain fell, but the land was fertile
+  and fair harvests were still gathered. The Awatobi men were bad
+  [_powako_, sorcerers]. Sometimes they went in small bands among
+  the fields of the other villagers and cudgeled any solitary
+  workers they found. If they overtook any woman they ravished her,
+  and they waylaid hunting parties, taking the game and sometimes
+  killing the hunters. There was considerable trouble at Awatobi,
+  and Tapolo sent to the Oraibi chief asking him to bring his people
+  and kill the evil Awatobeans. The Oraibis came and fought with
+  them, and many were killed on both sides, but the Oraibis were not
+  strong enough to enter the village and were compelled to withdraw.
+  On his way back, the Oraibi chief stopped at Walpi and talked with
+  the chiefs there. Said he, "I can not tell why Tapolo wants the
+  Oraibis to kill his folks, but we have tried and have not
+  succeeded very well. Even if we did succeed, what benefit would
+  come to us who live too far away to occupy the land? You Walpi
+  people live close to them and have suffered most at their hands;
+  it is for you to try." While they were talking Tapolo had also
+  come, and it was then decided that other chiefs of all the
+  villages should convene at Walpi to consult. Couriers were sent
+  out, and when all the chiefs had arrived Tapolo declared that his
+  people had become sorcerers [Christians], and hence should all be
+  destroyed.
+
+  It was then arranged that in four days large bands from all the
+  other villages should prepare themselves, and assemble at a spring
+  not far away from Awatobi. A long while before this, when the
+  Spaniards lived there, they had built a wall on the side of the
+  village that needed protection, and in this wall was a great,
+  strong door. Tapolo proposed that the assailants should come
+  before dawn, and he would be at this door ready to admit them, and
+  under this compact he returned to his village. During the fourth
+  night after this, as agreed upon, the various bands assembled at
+  the deep gulch spring, and every man carried, besides his weapons,
+  a cedar-bark torch and a bundle of greasewood. Just before dawn
+  they moved silently up to the mesa summit, and, going directly to
+  the east side of the village they entered the gate, which opened
+  as they approached. In one of the courts was a large kiva, and in
+  it were a number of men engaged in sorcerer's rites. The
+  assailants at once made for the kiva, and plucking up the ladder,
+  they stood around the hatchway, shooting arrows down among the
+  entrapped occupants. In the numerous cooking pits fire had been
+  maintained through the night for the preparation of food for a
+  feast on the appointed morning, and from these they lighted their
+  torches. Great numbers of these and the bundles of greasewood
+  being set on fire were then cast down the hatchway, and firewood
+  from stacks upon the house terraces was also thrown into the kiva.
+  The red peppers for which Awatobi was famous were hanging in thick
+  clusters along the fronts of the houses, and these they crushed in
+  their hands and flung upon the blazing fire in the kiva to torment
+  their blazing occupants. After this, all who were capable of
+  moving were compelled to travel or drag themselves until they came
+  to the sand hills of Miconinovi, and there the final disposition
+  of the prisoners was made.
+
+  My maternal ancestor had recognized a woman chief (_Mamzrau
+  monwi_), and saved her at the place of massacre called Maski, and
+  now he asked her whether she would be willing to initiate the
+  women of Walpi in the rites of the Mamzrau. She complied, and thus
+  the observance of the ceremony called Mamzrauti came to the other
+  villages. This _Mamzrau monwi_ had no children and hence my
+  maternal ancestor's sister became chief, and her badge of office,
+  or tiponi, came to me. Some of the other Awatobi women knew how to
+  bring rain, and such of them as were willing to teach their songs
+  were spared and went to different villages. The Oraibi chief saved
+  a man who knew how to cause the peach to grow, and that is why
+  Oraibi has such an abundance of peaches now. The Miconinovi chief
+  saved a prisoner who knew how to make the sweet, small-ear corn
+  grow, and this is why it is more abundant there than elsewhere.
+  All the women who knew prayers and were willing to teach them were
+  spared, and no children were designedly killed, but were divided
+  among the villages, most of them going to Miconinovi. The
+  remainder of the prisoners, men and women, were again tortured and
+  dismembered and left to die on the sand hills, and there their
+  bones are, and the place is called Mastcomo, or Death Mound. This
+  is the story of Awatobi told by my people.[17]
+
+    [17] "Preliminary account of an expedition to the cliff villages
+    of the Red Rock country; and the Tusayan ruins of Sikyatki and
+    Awatobi, Arizona, in 1895." By J. Walter Fewkes, from the
+    Smithsonian Report for 1895, pp. 568-569.
+
+It is difficult to conceive of the conservatism of some of the older
+Hopi. A glimpse of the clinging to the myth of the golden age is shown
+by the speech of the old chief Nashihiptuwa, to whom the past was an
+ideal time of plenty and contentment under the bright sky of Tusayan.
+
+It was Sunday and the camp by a peach orchard in a deep valley at the
+Middle Mesa was made lively by the presence of about thirty Indian
+laborers, mostly Walpi "boys." Far above on the rocky mesas could be
+seen three Hopi towns which bear names difficult of pronunciation,
+"The place of peaches" being most picturesque. To the West were
+innumerable barren hillocks, furrowed and gullied, rising toward the
+warm sandstone cliffs bearing the pueblos at the top. Along the wash
+which from time immemorial had been carving out this wonderfully
+sculptured valley were the bean and melon patches of the Indians, and
+on the higher ground dark green peach orchards. Out of the mouth of
+the valley there stretched the wide plain, merging into the many-hued
+desert.
+
+On this particular Sunday the exploring party felt out of sorts. The
+Indian workmen who had been digging in the ruins of an ancient pueblo
+near by had been served notice by the chief of the neighboring village
+to quit and a warning sent to our party in this wise, "Go away, you
+are bad; you bring the wind and keep away the rains." This is a grave
+charge in a country where winds disperse the thunder clouds with their
+precious burden before they reach the corn fields. No invention could
+devise a more damaging statement. The Walpi, who are freer from
+superstition than most of the Hopi, felt less desire to earn the
+coveted silver after this announcement. Finally it was decided to ask
+Nashihiptuwa to a council, talk it over with him and persuade him to
+withdraw his ultimatum. A boy was dispatched to find him in his field
+where he was at work.
+
+Shortly the old chief of Shumopavi appeared in the distance, clad in a
+breech-clout and with a hoe on his shoulder. He stopped outside the
+camp and put on an abbreviated cotton shirt, making himself somewhat
+more presentable. Squatting on the sand with hands clasped around the
+knees, a favorite Indian posture, the superannuated chief helped
+himself to tobacco and prepared for the argument with the circle of
+interested listeners. The day was very warm and a bank of clouds
+slowly coming up from the San Francisco Mountains seemed to promise
+rain which might convince the old man of the fallacy of his views.
+Hence the progress of this rain storm was an object of uncommon
+solicitude to the explorers. Dan, a school boy, who had been taught
+English, acted as interpreter.
+
+After a few preliminary remarks in which the old chief craftily laid
+the blame of the edict to the chief of another town whom all the
+Middle Mesa people fear, the discussion began as to whether the
+contact with the white man had been beneficial or injurious to the
+Hopi. Since circumstances, geographical and governmental, have
+conspired to keep the Hopi away from strong drink and other
+contaminations, the white man had a better case than usual. On his
+side the old chief mumbled that in the good old times the fields were
+more fruitful, the country covered with grass waist high, there were
+no cares, the people were happy and long-lived, the gods propitious,
+Urukiwa, the wind-god, did not drive away the rains; now all this was
+changed.
+
+The Walpi spokesman then in his turn pointed out the benefits which
+the white man had brought. Said he:
+
+  "What were we before the white man from the far water came? Half
+  naked, working our scanty crops with hoes of wood, often suffering
+  from famine as the traditions relate, without sheep and beasts of
+  burden, without peach trees and many vegetables, without sugar,
+  flour and tobacco, and driven from place to place in the deserts
+  by our ancient enemies. Where did you get your shirt, your cotton
+  cloth, and your hoe? Has not Wasintona given us wagons and many
+  other things, and protected us from the Navaho and Apache? The
+  white man is _pash lolomi_, 'very good.'"
+
+  The old man seemed vexed at the force of this argument, and he
+  began a speech which lasted, it seemed to the listeners, about two
+  hours. It is a loss to science that this speech could not be taken
+  down. As near as could be gathered he began at the beginning when
+  the people came up from the underworld, and traced the history
+  through its various stages, detailing the events, weaving in
+  ancient lore arguing, expanding, and digressing until he brought
+  it down to the present.
+
+  As he drew his remarks to a close, a blast of wind charged with
+  sand blew down the canvas sun-shade. The old chief found in this a
+  corroboration of his contention, and, in the confusion, seized his
+  hoe and a can of peaches, which was a present, and made off
+  angrily, firing as a parting shot, "Go away; you are very bad!"
+
+  It is scarcely necessary to say that the next day, bright and
+  early, witnessed the exodus of all strangers from that quiet
+  valley near the Middle Mesa. Nashihiptuwa, clad in his natural
+  wrinkled bronze costume, was hoeing in his bean patch, looking
+  neither to the right nor to the left.
+
+
+
+
+X
+
+BRIEF BIOGRAPHIES
+
+
+The former chief Snake Priest of Walpi was a young man of good
+presence, of splendid physique, with regular features and grave,
+dignified look; in whose face there seemed to be often a trace of
+melancholy, arising perhaps from deep thought. For it takes a man to
+be Snake Priest, and the office brings out all there is in one.
+
+Kopeli was as well trained as any civilized man whatsoever, taking
+into consideration the demands of the different planes of culture.
+Education is as general among these Indians as it is among the more
+enlightened people. It would be too long to go into details, but
+briefly the Hopi child's life is largely a kindergarten of
+play-instruction by kind teachers of things useful in active life. He
+is wrapped in the customs which have become religion, he is initiated
+into manhood, and takes his place, perhaps inherited, in the
+fraternities. With all these he is taught the lore, the practices, and
+the songs--minutiæ which require a strong memory. He learns the plants
+and the animals to which the Hopi had given descriptive names long
+before Linnæus or Cuvier. The sun is his clock, and all nature is near
+to him. He must work also in the fields if he would eat--no drones are
+tolerated. In short, there is a surprising complexity in this life,
+and its demands are weighty. Thus Kopeli at the head of the most
+powerful and awe-inspiring society of his people has been put to many
+tests and bore upon his shoulders the weight of immemorial custom.
+
+While there was in Kopeli a dignity which commands respect from the
+mirthful Hopi, he could on occasion be as entertaining as any of his
+tribe, and usually was cheerful and friendly. The exception is when
+the Snake rites are in progress. Then he seemed a different person,
+and it was not proper for him to recognize his best friend.
+
+The Walpi Snake Ceremony, of which the public dance is known to many
+persons, is well worth braving the journey to see. The grand entry of
+the Snake and Antelope priests on the dance plaza headed by Kopeli and
+Wiki is one of the most impressive spectacles that can be witnessed on
+this continent. There is so much energy put into the work; with
+strides positively tragic, the file of strangely costumed priests
+march to the _kisi_, where the snakes have been deposited. Then
+commences the weird dance with live rattlesnakes held in the mouth to
+the distant chant of Antelope priests. Kopeli was here at his best. He
+was a notable figure; no other participant displayed such eagerness
+and force. These were some of the salient elements of his character,
+and by these he succeeded, whether as a farmer or as Snake Priest, and
+took his high position among his people. There is an interesting
+mingling of the old and new at Walpi. Kopeli became a typical example
+of the union of past and present. Wiki, his Nestor, was in every fiber
+imbued with the usages and traditions of the past. One instinctively
+admires the old man's firm belief, and his respect for the ancient
+ceremonies. The leaven of the new was in Kopeli, as may be seen from
+the following. A wide-awake town in New Mexico wanted the Hopi Snake
+Dance reproduced at the fair held there in the autumn, realizing that
+it would be a feature to attract many visitors. Kopeli was approached
+and offered what seemed to him a large sum of money for the
+performance. Though in some doubt as to the care and transportation of
+the snakes, Kopeli and the younger snake priests were tempted to favor
+the scheme, through his avaricious father, Supela. When Wiki, chief of
+the related society of the Antelopes, heard the proposal, he became
+very angry and put his foot down, reading the young men of lax morals
+a severe lecture on their duties to their religion.
+
+Even had this plan been carried out and had proved a death blow to the
+so-called pagan and heathenish rites of the Hopi, one would have
+regretted Kopeli's share in it. It is well known, too, that, at
+present, money will admit strangers to view the sacred rites of the
+Snake Dance, which formerly were kept inviolably secret. Evidently,
+the Hopi are deteriorating, when they barter their religion for
+silver; at no distant date, when the elder men are dead, the curious
+ceremonies of the Hopi will decay and disappear, and let us trust that
+a new and better light may be given them.
+
+Some years ago Kopeli passed from the scene, and his brother, "Harry,"
+took his place as Snake Chief.
+
+Dr. J. Walter Fewkes has given an estimate of him as follows:
+
+  Kopeli, the Snake chief at the Tusayan pueblo of Walpi, Arizona,
+  died suddenly on January 2, 1899. He was the son of Saliko, the
+  oldest woman of the Snake clan, which is one of the most
+  influential as well as one of the most ancient in Tusayan. His
+  father was Supela, one of the chiefs of the Patki, or Rain-cloud
+  people, who came to Walpi from southern Arizona about the close of
+  the seventeenth century. As chief of the Snake priests at Walpi in
+  the last five presentations of the Snake dance at that pueblo,
+  Kopeli has come to be one of the best known of all the Hopi
+  Indians. He inherited his badge of office as Snake Chief from his
+  uncle, and was the only chief in Tusayan who had a Snake _tiponi_.
+  His predecessor in this duty was Nuvaiwinu, his uncle, who is
+  still living, and who led the Snake priests in a single ceremony,
+  after which it was found necessary for him to retire on account of
+  his infirmities. At the celebration of the Snake dance in 1883,
+  described by Bourke, Natciwa, an uncle of Kopeli, was Snake
+  chief. The oldest Snake chief of whom I can get any information
+  was Murpi, a contemporary of Macali, the Antelope chief preceding
+  Wiki. Kopeli was a relative on his mother's side of both these
+  men. At the time of his death Kopeli was not far from twenty-five
+  years of age; he had a strong, vigorous constitution, was of
+  medium size, with an attractive face and dignified manner that won
+  him many friends both among his own people and the Americans with
+  whom he was brought in contact. He was a thoroughly reliable man,
+  industrious and self-respecting. Although a conscientious chief of
+  one of the most conservative priesthoods in Walpi, he was a
+  zealous friend of the whites, and supported innovations introduced
+  by them for the good of his people. He believed in the efficacy of
+  the ceremonial rites of his ancestors and performed his duty as
+  priest without shirking. As Mr. Thomas V. Keam, who knows the
+  Walpi people better than any other white man, told the chiefs in
+  council a few days after the Snake chief's death: "Kopeli was the
+  best man of the Hopis." He was a _pac lolomai taka_, an excellent
+  man, whose heart was good and whose speech was straight. To most
+  Americans who are interested in the Hopi, Kopeli was simply the
+  energetic chief in barbaric attire, who dashed into the Walpi
+  plaza leading his Snake priests in the biennial Snake dance. This
+  is one of the most striking episodes of the ceremony, and its
+  dramatic effect is not equaled in any of the other pueblos. It was
+  through Kopeli's influence that the Snake dance at Walpi was the
+  largest and most striking of these weird ceremonies in the Hopi
+  pueblos. Kopeli welcomed the educational movement and had two
+  children in the school at Keam's Canyon at the time of his death.
+  He was buried among the rocks at the base of the Walpi mesa with
+  simple ceremonies appropriate to a chief of his standing.[18]
+
+    [18] American Anthropologist (N. S.), Vol. I, Jan., 1899.
+
+Wiki, the genial, good-hearted old chief of the Antelope Society was
+one of the celebrities of Walpi. His very presence breathed benignity
+and his heart was full of kindness. The years were telling on Wiki,
+however, and the marks of age were becoming apparent in his wrinkled
+face. He gave one the impression of a Hopi gentleman of the old
+school, a survivor of the best of the past generation. Still, Wiki's
+form was not bent, nor his hair gray, and he led the Antelope dance
+with all the fire of youth. Stored away in his brain was a vast stock
+of ancient lore, of legend, myth, and song. Since he was quite deaf,
+his body of information was somewhat difficult of access.
+
+Wiki maintained a certain dignity and attention to his own affairs,
+which commendable trait a few of the prominent Hopi possess. He has
+long been known by the scientific explorers who have visited Tusayan,
+and all who have come in contact with him speak highly of his good
+qualities.
+
+Supela is in some respects the antithesis of Wiki. Wiki was identified
+with the Antelope Society or brotherhood, Supela assumed a part in
+everything. Great must be Supela's ability, since he is capable of
+counselling the numerous societies on any doubtful points in their
+rites and ceremonies. In fact, it seems that no observance in Walpi
+can get along without his aid, and even the farther towns often call
+upon him to assist them in delicate points involved in the conduct of
+their religious celebrations.
+
+It is time we should have a pen picture of him. Short of stature,
+thick, gray hair hanging to his shoulders around a not unpleasant,
+mobile face. Nervous of movement, cordial, but occupied with pressing
+business, going somewhere, has scarcely time more than to ask a few
+curious questions, he seems to have the burden of Atlas on his
+shoulders. He resembles a promoter or a ward politician and he covers
+more ground in a day than Wiki could in a week.
+
+If Supela seems head and front of everything religious in the summer,
+in the winter he plays a more prominent part in the Soyaluna, which is
+held at the last of December. Of this wonderful sun ceremony he is
+chief, and is as illustrious a personage to the Hopi as Santa Claus is
+to the fair-skinned children. At this time Supela is in his element
+and proud of himself to the last degree, for does he not regulate the
+rites that are to bring back the sun from his far winter wanderings?
+
+Wiki was a man of action, coming forward to add power and dignity to
+that most astounding ceremony ever originated by human brain, the
+Snake Dance; Supela is a man of craft, a worker by formulas and
+incantations, but first and last a believer in getting all the silver
+he can in return for an insight into the mysteries--a thing that Wiki
+has never stooped to countenance.
+
+There are first families in Tusayan. Saalako enjoys the distinction of
+being by birthright the chief snake priestess of all Hopiland. Hence
+Kopeli, her son, was chief priest of the powerful Snake Society in
+that metropolis of Tusayan, Walpi; while Supela, her husband, has no
+credit for his share in passing on the inheritance. At present, her
+son "Harry" is the Snake Chief in place of the beloved Kopeli.
+
+Saalako is an old, wise woman. The mystery which hangs around her is
+born of her connection with the fearful rites of the Snake cult and
+her store of the knowledge which has been passed down from time
+immemorial "by living words from lips long dust." This connection
+carries her to distant pueblos to mix the "medicine" for the
+ceremonies, no one in the whole province being better versed in herbs
+and spells than she. One might meet her on this errand far out in the
+desert or among the rugged mesas on the trail to Oraibi, afoot, moving
+actively for a person apparently so frail. It is difficult to measure,
+especially in a limited time and short acquaintance, the respect and
+honor given by the Walpi people to Saalako and the Snake Chief's
+family. It would seem that there is a certain dignity and reserve
+natural to people of rank, although in the common associations the
+Hopi are quite democratic. In any case Saalako is free from the habit
+of begging, so often observed among her people, which is probably due
+to this dignity. It is very evident, however, that the vice of begging
+is becoming general among the Pueblos which have been most in contact
+with white people.
+
+This sketch of Saalako would be incomplete without the mention of her
+chief shortcoming, inordinate curiosity. Apologists commend rather
+than excuse laudable curiosity, affirming it to be a desirable quality
+in an investigator. No doubt Saalako owes her acquaintance with nature
+to this class, but she is famous for curiosity in other minor matters.
+No visitor to Walpi escapes the ordeal of her questions, and popular
+account has it that very few happenings escape her notice. The Hopi of
+both sexes are most curious; Saalako has the trait in greater degree.
+The hoary error of attributing curiosity to woman alone has small
+countenance in Hopi. However, Saalako's curiosity is well meaning and
+harmless. It is only an expression of the infantile which blossoms in
+this peaceful and isolated people.
+
+Saalako felt it her duty to give a name to one of the exploring party
+under the direction of Dr. Fewkes. After several days meditation,
+having tried and rejected several queer sounding appellations, she at
+last dubbed him _Kuktaimu_, briefly, "Investigator," and kindly
+offered to adopt him; the adoption, however, was not consummated.
+Kuktaimu owes his name to the ardor with which he collected plants,
+insects, and geological specimens, this not escaping the sharp eyes
+of Saalako.
+
+This sketch is given as a tribute to a remarkable Hopi woman whose
+history is worthy of fuller presentation.
+
+Intiwa was another celebrity whose acquaintance early ripened into a
+regard for his true worth. His was a modest personality; in him one
+saw the living presentment of the sages who guided the people before
+America dawned upon history. A striking instance that came to notice
+concerning him gives an interesting sidelight on Hopi customs.
+
+One day Intiwa went down to his cornfield to see how the crops were
+getting on. As he was reaching under the drooping corn blades, feeling
+for the ripening ears, a rattlesnake struck him on the hand. He
+hurried home and applied all the remedies which Hopi medical knowledge
+could suggest, but got no relief. Some white visitors who happened to
+be near were called in and did all they could for the man, and
+finally, after much suffering, Intiwa recovered. Now comes the curious
+sequel of the snake bite. The Snake Fraternity decided that Intiwa,
+being specially favored by the bite of the snake, must of necessity
+belong to their order. Perhaps Intiwa was not impressed with the
+alleged favor of the snake. Still he took the initiation and became a
+full-fledged snake priest. This is the first record of such happening
+in Tusayan.
+
+Beside the honor thus thrust upon him, Intiwa was the _Kachina_ chief
+of Walpi, and thus an important man, the _impresario_ and chief
+entertainer of his town, honored by the rain-bringing serpent, blessed
+with a large family, ample house and abundant food--gifts no doubt of
+the good fairy _Kachina_.
+
+Several years ago Intiwa took a journey to the underworld across the
+deserts and down through the _sipapu_, or earth-navel, finding at last
+that wondrous land whence all people came out and where they finally
+must return, according to Hopi belief. Walpi will suffer the loss of
+his great knowledge; who knows but that he will emerge, and, sitting
+with the zealous _kachinas_, watch over the scene of his earthly
+triumphs?
+
+The first meeting with the Hopi and with the Honani family was one of
+the most pleasurable experiences of the journey from Winslow to the
+Middle Mesa several years ago.
+
+The party had toiled to the north for nearly three days through the
+brilliantly painted deserts that lie between the Little Colorado and
+the Hopi villages. The grotesque black buttes whose contours had
+changed so many times during the journey were left behind to the south
+and the gray cretaceous mesas began to narrow in on the dry washes,
+fringed with sage-green desert plants that characterize the region of
+the Hopi villages. Everyone felt that though many miles of loose sand
+still intervened, this was the home stretch to the goal. Far ahead on
+the plain several black dots were sighted, and with lively interest
+the party began to speculate as to what they might be. After a while
+it could be seen that a mounted party was coming, perhaps Navaho on
+first thought, likely Hopi on reflection. Soon they were decided to be
+a number of Hopi mounted on burros and ponies, and in a short time
+they were greeting the Americans with the fervor of a long-lost
+brother, their faces wreathed with smiles. These, then, were the
+taciturn Indians of the story-books.
+
+Honani, "the Badger," citizen of Shumopavi, was escorting his family
+on an outing of many miles after berries. Berries, such as they are,
+do grow in the desert, but they may be enjoyed only by those who never
+tasted any other variety. Honani's wife and her three pretty daughters
+were astride ponies, while the baby was securely fastened in his
+mother's blanket; the old grandfather and grandmother who bestrode
+burros made up the rest of the party, which formed a very picturesque
+group. The women asked for water, and Honani spoke the magic word
+_piba_, tobacco, followed by the word, _matchi_. These words one very
+soon finds are the indispensable preliminary to a "smoke talk" in
+Hopiland.
+
+Honani's better half is no light weight. So thought her pony which,
+without warning, proceeded to lie down. Amidst the screaming and
+chattering, the stout lady managed to extricate herself, being much
+hampered by her prudence in tying her blanket to the horn of the
+saddle. When all were quieted and the pony soundly thumped, they
+started again on their way berrying.
+
+Honani is quite a prominent man and was one time chief of his pueblo.
+He is one of the very few Hopi who have made the grand tour to
+Washington--_Wasintona_, as they call it. He has a farm in the
+country, where he lives in summer. The vagrant Navaho who encroach on
+his premises are the bane of his life, and when none of this tribe is
+near he wishes them all sorts of unpleasant things. Honani himself is
+no saint; from all accounts, it is advisable to leave nothing loose
+while he is around. His wife has a pleasant, matronly face that one
+cannot help admiring. She is a skillful basket-maker and keeps her
+house neat and clean, which is more than can be said of her
+contemporaries.
+
+There is a good deal of feeling, mingled with a large element of
+jealousy, against Honani in the minds of his fellow villagers, because
+of his friendliness toward the white man and his stand in favor of
+educating the children in the schools provided by the Government. At
+Zuñi, through some pretext or other, Honani would be hung as a wizard,
+whereas the amicable Hopi merely ignore him for a while.
+
+On another occasion, while the party was encamped in a sheltered
+valley of the Middle Mesa, the "Honanis" came visiting. It was about
+supper time; the connection of the time and visit needs no
+explanation. Among the scanty utensils of the party two cans of
+similar shape contained respectively salt and sugar. Honani's wife
+liberally sweetened her coffee and gave the baby a taste. In a moment
+his hitherto placid face assumed the contortions of a Hindu idol, and
+he squirmed and yelled. His mother, not knowing what was the matter,
+shook him and punched his fat stomach to find out. Then she took a sip
+of coffee and screamed out, "_Ingiwa!_" (salt). Her reproachful look
+seemed to convey the idea that someone had designs on the baby. A few
+words of explanation soon put her mind at rest on that score, and
+smiles were again restored. When she heard that several of the party
+had been at times sufferers from those same malicious salt and sugar
+boxes, she enjoyed the joke hugely; fellow sufferers are always
+appreciated the world over.
+
+There is at least one open and above-board infidel at the East Mesa.
+Chakwaina is his name, and he is a Tewa of Hano. The old nature faith
+in this pueblo does not show many signs of weakening, so that were
+Chakwaina less in possessions and in consequent influence, he might
+have been brought to book long ago for his sins. Chakwaina says "the
+_kachinas_ are no good." Perhaps the poor people who so depend on the
+crops for their existence believe devoutly in the gift-bearing
+_kachinas_ from ignorance or selfish motives, while _Chakwaina_, who
+has sheep, flour, and money, feels independent of any spiritual aids;
+this is the old story. Chakwaina undoubtedly feels able to take care
+of himself, for no one has succeeded in getting ahead of him at a
+bargain. Of course when a pair of sheep shears or a stone is too
+frequently found in a bag of wool after weighing, people will suspect
+cheating. It is well to keep watch on Chakwaina!
+
+On the other hand, Chakwaina was one of the first to move down
+permanently from the mesa when the Government offered inducements to
+the Hopi to descend from their eyrie. He has always been friendly to
+the white people; he aided in the establishment of a day school at the
+"Sun Spring," and used his influence to persuade the people to send
+pupils to the school at Keam's Canyon. He has also traveled much,
+adding Spanish, Navaho, and a smattering of "American" to his
+Hopi-Tewan repertory of languages, for the Tewa, besides being the
+most progressive inhabitants of Tusayan, are the best linguists. This
+is due to the fact that the people of the little town of Hano have
+preserved their own language, and being within a stone-throw of Walpi,
+must also know Hopi. Hence the step toward learning other tongues is
+made easier.
+
+Chakwaina has his house near Ishba, or "wolf spring," in very
+picturesque surroundings. Below, in the wash, are his cornfields and
+melon patches, showing skillful engineering in diverting the water on
+the arable ground by means of dams and wings. Here he and his faithful
+adjutant, "Tom Sawyer," the Paiute, put in many a laborious hour, the
+latter waging deadly warfare on the obnoxious prairie dogs whose fate
+is to be eaten if caught.
+
+Chakwaina is disposed to poke fun at the scientific men who come to
+Tusayan to study the ways of the Hopi. He has a remarkable laugh, and
+his mimicry of the Snake Dance is one of the most amusing things to be
+seen in Hopiland. His object is to ridicule all parties by making
+himself ridiculous. It is evident that Chakwaina has not the
+accustomed contentment of the Hopi. Having denied the first article of
+faith in the _kachinas_ and having received nothing higher in return,
+he stands in the unhappy position of all unbelievers of whatever race
+or time.
+
+A portrait gallery of the celebrities of Tusayan would not be complete
+without Mungwe, or, as his name is translated, "El Capitan," "Cap" for
+short; but his name is properly _Mongwe_, "the owl." "Cap" is a Tewa
+whose ancestors were invited long ago to come from the Rio Grande and
+cast their lot with the Hopi on the Walpi Mesa. Here their descendants
+still dwell in the village of Hano, preserving the language and
+customs transplanted from the "Great River of the North." "Cap" is one
+of the most energetic and capable Indians in all Hopiland. Wiry in
+figure, alert of movement, loquacious, quick of comprehension,
+trustworthy and experienced, he is quite in advance of the large
+majority of his contemporaries. Long ago he abandoned the inconvenient
+mesa; his farm-house with its red roof can be seen among his
+cornfields far out in the broad valley to the southeast of Walpi. The
+men who work for Mongwe seem to be pervaded with his energy, and there
+is no doubt that he is regarded by them as a captain of industry, for
+he allows no laggards to eat his bread. In the line of teaming, Cap
+excels. No matter how long or bad the road or how heavy the load, his
+staunch little ponies will carry it through. A rickety wagon and
+providence-tempting harness seem to prove no bar to any attempt, where
+money is to be earned. Hence, though a number of the Hopi possess
+wagons through the generosity of the Government, Mongwe gets most of
+the hauling.
+
+Our friend, alas, is not modest in the announcement of his worth. It
+is a subject on which his tongue works like a spinning-jenny. At night
+after the cares of the day, sitting around the camp-fire with ample
+bread, unlimited rashers of bacon, and a circle of hearers, Cap eats
+and talks in the plural. The word plural calls for a sentence or two
+in reference to Cap's wives. Not that he has ever defied Hopi customs
+to the extent of having more than one wife at a time, but the list of
+the ones who have disagreed with him, if completely up to date, would
+be interesting reading. From what can be gleaned, in this Utopian
+land, women have the right of divorce. The relationship of Cap's
+children, it will be seen, is very assorted. To hazard a guess, Cap's
+matrimonial ventures are marred by his general "fussiness."
+
+Aside from this, Mongwe is an honor to Hopiland. His success has
+drawn to him a party of the young generation who are afflicted with
+the universal desire for _shiba_ (silver), and if they are inspired
+with Mongwe's example it will be a benefit to Tusayan, the Hopi body
+politic, which needs active young blood to overcome the centuries of
+inertion.
+
+Another vivacious Hopi is Wupa, whose name means "great." The fatherly
+interest which Wupa takes in the white man was sufficient
+recommendation to attach him to our camp as man-of-all-work, and a
+closer acquaintance brought to view other sides of his character in
+which the gay features far outnumber the grave. Faithful to the extent
+of his lights, though averse to steady work, he managed to earn his
+bread and a small stipend, but considering the entertainment he
+furnished, his pay should have been equal to that of the end-man in a
+minstrel show.
+
+So it happens that the memories of Wupa bring forth a flood of
+pleasing recollections. The merriest of all that merry race of
+laughing, joking, singing Hopi, his presence around the camp-fire
+diffused an atmosphere of cheerfulness which does not always prevail
+amidst the discomforts of roughing-it in the desert. Short of stature
+and bandy-legged, possessed of a headpiece wrinkled and quizzical, one
+cannot by any stretch of the imagination make him out handsome; but he
+is so loquacious, witty, and full of tricks that it is not possible to
+doubt his fitness for the position of king's jester. Wupa has his
+moods, though. Sometimes an air of preternatural gravity and
+unspeakable wisdom enwraps him; very close behind this mask, for such
+it is, lurks a mirth-provoking skit and boisterous laugh. Like other
+humorists Wupa has the fatality of being most amusing when serious.
+Still, in the iridescent interworld between smiles and tears Wupa has
+a romantic and sad history.
+
+The _dramatis personae_ woven into this history are white men,
+Mexicans, Zuñi Indians, and his fellow Hopi. The first misfortune that
+befell Wupa was to be born at the time when famine harried the
+Peaceful People in their seven villages to the north of the Little
+Colorado. Famine is an old story with the Hopi. For two years no rain
+had fallen, and neither the Snake nor the Flute dance availed to bring
+the good will of their gods. The sacredly reserved corn laid up to
+tide over a bad year had been eaten, and the Hopi were in distress.
+They gathered the wild plants that seem to be independent of drought,
+and tried to keep soul and body together till the rain-clouds should
+again sweep across the Painted Desert; but many were those who never
+saw the time of ripe corn. Many deserted the pueblos and cast their
+lot among the Navaho shepherds, the Havasupai of Cataract Canyon, and
+other more fortunate tribes of friendly people.
+
+So it happened that Wupa's mother with her hungry babe took the
+well-known trail to Zuñi 100 miles away, and nerved with the strength
+of desperation at last reached the pueblo under "Corn Mountain."
+Indian philanthropy rarely extends outside the circle of relatives,
+and the Zuñi had no mind to give corn to the poor Hopi woman beyond
+enough to keep her from starving. But little Wupa was worth a bushel
+of the precious ears, and for that amount he was exchanged, becoming,
+without being consulted, a Zuñi, while his mother trudged back to
+Hopiland with food for her starving kinsfolk, feeling, no doubt,
+little sorrow at the loss of her babe, so great is the levelling power
+of famine and misfortune. There are usually strays at all Indian
+villages, and thus the presence of the little Hopi stranger passed
+without notice. When the crops were assured in the fields of the
+famine-stricken Hopi, they ceased coming to Zuñi, and Wupa seems to
+have been unclaimed and forgotten.
+
+When he was five or six, the Zuñi in turn sold him to some Mexicans,
+and the next account there is of him he was living at Albuquerque, a
+stout young _peon_, with cropped hair, a devout Catholic, speaking
+Castilian after the fashion of the "Greasers." Wupa thus became, to
+all intents and purposes, a Mexican, and perhaps had lost sight of his
+origin. Neither is the transition from Indian to Mexican at all
+difficult or incongruous. Few Americans realize the new problem of the
+population that came to us through the treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo,
+the clannish, unprogressive foreigners who were made American citizens
+without being consulted. It must be said, however, that the
+Anglo-Saxon prejudice of the Latin leaves quite out of sight the good
+qualities of the Mexican; it rarely considers that his ignorance is
+due largely to lack of advantages during several centuries, and that
+the strain of Indian blood has not helped matters. According to the
+white man's way of looking at it, this listless race, seemingly
+satisfied to be _peons_ in the land of the free, is inferior and
+doubtfully classed with the Indians, with the doubt in the latter's
+favor.
+
+Wupa quickly picked up the language and associations of his accidental
+compatriots, and soon the Padre rejoiced in another brand plucked from
+the burning. His next step was to find a señorita and to marry her,
+and after the semi-barbarous wedding his woes really begin. In
+explanation of the description given of Wupa as he appears at present,
+it may be fair to say that twenty years off his age would leave him a
+passably young man, but even with this gloss, one cannot form a very
+high estimate of the señorita's taste.
+
+During the period of Wupa's exile, one knowing the Hopi would be
+curious to find out how he bore himself and whether an inherited love
+for the freedom of the desert was ever shown. Perhaps the early age at
+which he began kicking about the world, and his varied experiences,
+completely lost him to the feeling of his kith and kin. Civilization
+is irksome to the desert-bred Hopi and he soon becomes as homesick for
+his wind-swept mesas as the Eskimo for his land of ice or the Bedouin
+for the Sahara. These questions may have a suggested answer in the
+home-coming of Wupa, for he returned again to his native pueblo after
+one of the most varied and remarkable series of adventures that ever
+filled out a true story. The events that led up to the home-coming of
+Wupa form not the least interesting episodes in his history and
+occurred along the old Santa Fé Trail, immortalized by Josiah Gregg.
+The railroad builders had labored across the plains, up the steep
+slopes of the Rockies, following the famous trail to old Santa Fé,
+leaving behind two bands of steel. Blasting, cutting, filling, and
+bridging, they were advancing toward quiet Albuquerque on the lazy Rio
+Grande, and the news of these activities stirred that ancient town
+from center to circumference.
+
+The dwellers in the Southwest are brought squarely up against the
+"proposition," as they call it, that one must work if he would live.
+The Mexicans, though reputed lazy, are on the contrary always anxious
+to work for wages, and the motley and wicked railroad camp had a large
+population of the dark-skinned believers in Montezuma recruited from
+long distances.
+
+Wupa joined with the Albuquerque contingent. What his duties were it
+is not difficult to imagine; his skill in "rustling" wood and water in
+later years gives a good clue as to his work on the railroad. As
+messenger and general utility boy where steady labor was not required,
+he no doubt proved useful and picked up sundry pieces of silver for
+his señora. Perhaps not the least of his services lay in his
+unfailing good-humor expressed in cheering songs with which he
+softened the trials of railroad pioneering through that almost desert
+country.
+
+The picturesque wickedness of the westward traveling construction camp
+with its fringe of saloons, gambling hells, and camp followers seems
+never to have taken Wupa in its snares. Of shooting irons and drunken
+men he had the inborn terror shown always by the Hopi, a feeling still
+kept alive among them by that later incursion into New Mexico and
+Arizona, the Texas cowboy. There was no fight in Wupa; the most that
+could be gotten out of him was a disarming laugh and a disappearance,
+as soon as that move could be made. Picturesque as was the
+construction camp, the stern side of life came very near, and the
+wonderful hues of the landscape were but mockery to the tired and
+thirsty men, who prepared the Santa Fé Trail for the iron horse. Poor
+food, worse water, alkali dust, parching heat and chilly nights of
+summer and the severity of winter were living realities; there were
+health and vigor in the air of the mountains and elevated plateaus,
+though food and appetite did not always strike a balance of
+compensation.
+
+Wupa moved along with the camp, little realizing the meaning of the
+struggle with the drifting sand, the rocky canyons, and the dry rivers
+that became torrents and in an hour swept away the work of a month,
+burying ties and rails in the limbo of boiling sand. By night he
+rolled himself in his blanket and after his orisons slept under the
+brilliant stars, while his fellow Mexicans snored in strangely
+assorted heaps among the sage-clumps.
+
+The rails came down the treacherous Puerco and along the banks of the
+Little Colorado. To the north the dark blue Hopi Domes reared their
+fantastic summits, signifying nothing to this expatriated Indian,
+though the mother who bore him and sold him into bondage waited for
+him there. To the west the San Francisco peaks stood always in view,
+but Wupa was ignorant of the traditions of his tribe that cluster
+around them. The rails left the river, stretched across a flat
+country, and halted at the edge of a tremendous chasm, whose presence
+could not be suspected until it yawned beneath the feet. Here the camp
+halted for months, while a spider's web of steel was spun across the
+Devil's Canyon.
+
+One day several Hopi came to the camp, and after staring,
+open-mouthed, at the labors of the white man, wandered about, as if
+looking for someone. Soon they ran across Wupa, and the leader spoke
+to him in Hopi language to this effect: "You are a Hopi; we come to
+bring you to your house." A doubtful shake of the head from Wupa, who
+did not understand the tongue of his people.
+
+"Yes, come; they sit up there waiting for you." This ought to have
+stirred in Wupa a desire to go at once, but he "no sabe." Finally,
+after parleying in a mixture of Hopi, Zuñi, and Spanish, pieced out
+here and there with sign language, they persuaded him to desert the
+camp and set out with them for his native town a hundred miles to the
+north.
+
+The home-coming of Wupa was a great affair, and his reintroduction to
+his mother was touching, for the Hopi are more demonstrative than
+other Indians. The event must have been a nine days' wonder in the
+gossipy pueblo of Walpi. His education was taken up at once with the
+intention of eradicating the evil effects of Mexican training,
+especially on the side of his religious instruction. If the grave
+priests are satisfied with their labors in helping Wupa to begin anew
+as a Hopi, an outsider would consider the results as rather mixed. To
+this day Wupa is taunted with being a Mexican; these taunts he answers
+with silence and an air of superiority he knows so well how to assume;
+how, indeed, can they know what he has gone through in his remarkable
+experiences?
+
+While Wupa was willing to desert and become a pagan, as were his
+ancestors, exchanging the quaint cathedral of Albuquerque with its
+figures of saints and grewsome Corpus Cristi in a glass case for a
+dimly lighted room underground and familiarity with rattlesnakes, his
+señora had other ideas. Wupa mourned that his señora would not cast
+her lot with the "Peaceful People" of Tusayan; but money was scarce
+and the distance too great for a personal interview; the letters
+written by a laborious Mexican scribe were productive of no results.
+Though the señora might have done worse, who will blame her? During
+the years that passed one might think that Wupa would have forgotten
+his wife on the Rio Grande, but it was always the dream of his life to
+bring her to him at Walpi. It was pathetic to hear his schemes and to
+see the way in which he treasured letters from her written in the
+scrawl of the town scribe and addressed to Señor Don José Padilla,
+which is Wupa's high-sounding Castilian name. His constancy seemed
+admirable, for he did not take an Indian wife, granting that he could
+have secured one of the Hopi belles for spouse.
+
+Still, with all this care Wupa was light-hearted, caroled with abandon
+Mexican or Hopi songs, or intoned solemn church music. Though a
+much-traveled man, he remained at his native place, the mainstay of
+his old mother who sold him aforetime, his father long since having
+traveled to the underworld. Hopi-Mexican, Pagan-Christian, he still
+occupies a somewhat anomalous position among his people, who have
+consistently hated the proud proselyting Spaniards during the more
+than two hundred years since they threw the "long gowns" from the
+rocky mesa.
+
+About the camp Wupa was very useful. Mounted on his agile _burro_, a
+sight well worth seeing, he brought the mail from Keam's Canyon. He
+collected wood and water, indulging in many a song and exclamation.
+The cook especially seemed to him a fit subject of jest. The cook was
+really an adept at snoring and the still watches of the desert night
+were often too vocal. Wupa used to sing out "_Dawa yamu, Kook!_"
+"Daybreak, cook!" followed by a fine imitation of snoring which the
+subject of the jest did not enjoy. But Wupa was at his best when
+prospecting an ancient ruin to locate the most promising place to dig
+for relics. At such times his gravity and wisdom fairly bulged out.
+His advice was clearly and forcibly given, but the nemesis of
+humorists followed him, and no one ever thought of taking him
+seriously. And he never seemed disappointed. Wupa is a true humorist,
+without bitterness, one to be laughed at and loved. He was almost
+tearful at parting and made many protestations of friendship, at the
+same time presenting two watermelons from his field. These melons were
+unripe, according to un-Hopi standards, but were received in the
+spirit in which they were given, and later some natives met on the
+road to Keam's Canyon had an unexpected feast.
+
+The romance of Wupa's devotion to his Mexican señora and the fine
+flavor of constancy he showed toward her received a rude shattering
+the year after the commencement of this account. He took unto himself
+a Hopi helpmeet,--an albino,--and a whimsical pair they looked when
+they came to the Snake Dance the following summer.
+
+This step of Wupa's, in view of the repeated confidences that Hopi
+maidens were not to his taste anyhow, was a surprise to his friends.
+His choice of an albino for a mate clears him to some extent, as no
+doubt he believes her to be as near an approach to a white woman as a
+Hopi may hope to reach. However, his friends wish him well and feel
+like saying, "Long live Wupa, 'great' by name and truly great in quip,
+gibe, and gest by nature."
+
+A visit to the East Mesa cannot be regarded as complete without an
+interview with Toby. Usually no one leaves this portion of Tusayan
+without seeing him. His name, which means "the fly," exactly fits
+Toby, who has all the pertinacity of that well-known insect.
+
+Several years ago, however, the writer failed to meet Toby and
+remained in complete ignorance of his great possibilities, except by
+hearsay, until the next season. Then when the party wound its way up
+to the first bench of the mesa under the dizzy cliffs and camped on a
+level spot near a peach tree on land which the Tewa have held for two
+centuries, Toby was there as a reception committee.
+
+His "how do" was rather startling and unexpected. After the routine of
+handshaking, Toby remarked, "This my lan'," and pointing to the
+antique tree long past fruit-bearing, "This my peach tlee." Proud of
+his possessions he squatted on the ground and drew a plan of his lan'
+and inquired as he pointed out the locations of his crops, "Have you
+seen my con [corn]? Have you seen my beanzes?" Suddenly an idea struck
+him. He approached the leader of the party and put these questions to
+him, "You good man, uneshtan', you honesht man?" Then as if satisfied,
+he turned to another of the party and said, "You handsome man; you
+beautiful man," and it was not long before Toby had a packet of
+coveted smoking tobacco, although from the unkempt appearance of the
+explorers, his laudations were base flattery.
+
+It was plain that Toby was desirous of airing his remarkable English,
+of which he is very proud, and also of paving the way to sundry small
+gratuities. These intentions of the Hopi are quite as apparent as that
+of the little child who says, "Ducky likes sweet cakes." Toby was
+asked to bring in a burro load of wood for cooking purposes, but with
+great suavity he explained that on this day the Snake priests hunted
+in the East world-quarter, and according to custom no one must work in
+that direction. On account of these conscientious scruples of Toby's,
+the venerable peach tree was requisitioned for enough dead branches
+till such time as he should sally forth with his burros for cedar
+billets.
+
+The day before the Antelope Dance Toby came down to the camp on
+important business chewing a moccasin sole which he was stitching. He
+broached the subject by mysteriously saying, "Plenty Navaho come to
+see Snake Dance. Navaho velly bad, steal evelything." (This in a
+furtive way, because the Hopi are afraid of the Navaho.) "Me stay,
+watch camp; you go see dance; Navaho bad man." It is well to say that
+after Toby's watchful care at the camp all the baking powder and
+matches were missing. Few Hopi are proof against these articles,
+especially before a feast, and Toby is evidently no exception. He
+fought shy of camp after that, no doubt fearing a "rounding up."
+Perhaps, however, Toby appropriated the matches and baking powder as
+rent for his "lan'."
+
+Toby is father of a large family. When asked to give a census, he
+counted on his fingers, "Boy, girl; boy, girl; boy," then with great
+enthusiasm, "Babee!" Toby's command of English is due to the fact that
+he was the prize pupil of a teacher at the Keam's Canyon School some
+years ago. He delights to show how he can spell. If no one should ask
+him to exhibit this accomplishment, he usually brings up the subject
+by asking, for instance, "How you spell box?" pronounced "boxsh." If
+ignorance is professed, Toby spells b-o-x, and follows with _dog_,
+_cat_, _man_, and other words of one syllable, and proudly finishes by
+writing his own name in the sand.
+
+Toby thus furnishes great amusement to sojourners at Walpi and also
+leaves the suspicion in the minds of most that he is a trifle "light
+in the upper story."
+
+Another character is "Tom Sawyer," a Paiute Indian who lives with the
+Peaceful People at the East Mesa. As handsome as a Japanese grotesque
+mask and almost as taciturn, his gravity seems to have telescoped his
+squat figure and multiplied the wrinkles in his face, half hidden by
+his lank, grizzled hair. Keen, shrewd eyes has he and very evasive.
+Tom, however, is not "bad" in the Arizona sense, nor will his make-up
+allow him to be altogether good. He is, therefore, a man, for which
+this sketch is to be congratulated. While Tom's early history may
+never be known to the world, his step in leaving the Paiute for the
+Hopi is very much in his favor. Here he fell naturally in his place as
+serf to Chakwaina, of whom something has already been said.
+
+Tom became washerman for the Fewkes expedition while the party
+sojourned at Walpi. Percy, who prides himself on his faultless
+"American," held the position in former years, but having gotten a few
+dollars ahead, felt above work at this time. It must be said that Tom
+is an excellent laundryman. The idiosyncrasies of wayworn civilized
+garb do not stump him; in fact, he is "ol' clo'es man" for the whole
+East Mesa. His many quests for discarded garments to Winslow,
+Holbrook, and other points on the railroad are always successful. The
+people of Winslow affirm that wearing apparel often disappears from
+clotheslines and other exposed situations coincidently with the visits
+of Hopi, who clear the town of rags as the winds do of loose paper.
+When the physician of the place lost a pair of overshoes which were
+reposing on the back kitchen steps, he remembered too late that a Hopi
+had gone down the alley sometime before. The disappearance of the
+overshoes can scarcely arouse as much wonder as their presence and
+utility in arid, dusty Winslow. No doubt Tom has caused many of these
+mysterious disappearances and the spoils borne northward on his
+patient burros have promoted a dressed-up feeling among the Hopi
+braves.
+
+It has not yet been found out whether Tom gave an exhibition of
+artistic lying or was telling the truth about the following matter.
+Tom was starting on one of his periodical clothes raids to Winslow,
+and he was asked to bring back a can of plaster. About a week later
+Tom returned with the following laconic tale, "Snake bite burro, burro
+die; me take can back, give to man."
+
+At the time it was thought that Tom had overloaded his burro with old
+clothes and had invented the story. There is much to be said on Indian
+invention. If Tom is living he is still an active citizen of Hopiland.
+
+
+
+
+XI
+
+THE ANCIENT PEOPLE
+
+
+The Southwest has always been a storied land to its native dwellers.
+Mountain profile, sweep of plain, carved-out mesa, deep canyon, cave,
+lava stream, level lake bed, painted desert, river shore, spring and
+forest are theirs in intimacy, and around them have gathered legends
+which are bits of ancient history, together with multitude of myths of
+nature deities reaching back into the misty beginning.
+
+Deep is this intimacy in the practical affairs of life, teaching the
+way to the salt, the place of the springs, the range of the game, the
+nest of the honey bee, the home of the useful plants, the quarry of
+the prized stones, and the beds of clay for pottery, for the desert is
+home and there is no thing hidden from keen eyes. From far off, too,
+came in trade shells from the Pacific, feathers from Mexico, buffalo
+pelts from the Plains, and, perhaps, pipestone from Minnesota, so that
+the land of sunshine was not so isolated as one might think, and its
+resources fed, clothed, and ministered to the esthetic and religious
+needs of numerous tribes of men from the old days to the present.
+
+The white men who tracked across the vast stretches of the "Great
+American Desert" no doubt saw ruined towns sown over the waste, and
+perhaps believed them lost to history, little suspecting that within
+reach lived dusky-hued men, to whom these potsherd-strewn mounds and
+crumbling walls were no sealed book. The newer explorers have drawn
+the old-world stories from the lips of living traditionists, and by
+their friendly aid have gathered the clues which, when joined, will
+throw a flood of light on the wanderings of the ancient people.
+Through them it has been learned that each pueblo preserves with
+faithful care the history of its beginnings and the wanderings of its
+clans. This at proper times the old men repeat and the story often
+takes a poetical form chanted with great effect in the ceremonies. As
+an example of these interesting myths, one should read the Zuñi Ritual
+of Creation, that Saga of the Americans which reveals a beauty and
+depth of thought and form surprising to those who have a limited view
+of the ability of the Indian.
+
+One thing is settled in the minds of the Pueblo dwellers. In the
+beginning all the people lived in the seven-story cave of the
+underworld, whence they climbed toward the light and after reaching
+the surface of the earth, migrated, led by supernatural beings. Where
+the mythical underworld adventures leave off begins a real account,
+telling the wanderings of the clans and the laying of the foundations
+of the multitudinous ruins of the Pueblo region. It may not be
+possible to connect all the ruinous villages with the migrations of
+the present Indians, for there is room enough in this vast country to
+have sunk into oblivion other peoples and languages, as the vanished
+Piro, who passed away since the white strangers came to Cibola, but
+much may be done to gather the glittering threads before they slip
+from sight.
+
+The journeyings and campings of the ancient people becomes
+intelligible when the make-up of the present pueblos is known. One
+finds that every pueblo consists of clans which are larger families of
+blood relations having certain duties and responsibilities together; a
+name, such as the bear, cloud, or century plant; certain rites and
+ceremonies to the beings; clan officers and customs amounting to laws,
+and a history preserved in the minds of the members. So it will be
+seen that a tribe among the house-builders is composed of a number of
+smaller tribes, called clans, each complete and able to take care of
+itself, forming the present villages. Often in the early days a
+powerful clan migrated long distances and left members in many
+different places, because clan law forbids marriage within the clan,
+and the man must live with the people of his wife. In these migrations
+portions of a clan would break off and cast their lot with other
+villages, and often several clans traveled in company, building their
+pueblos near one another, and thus came the groups of ruins so common
+in the Southwest.
+
+For this reason, all the present villages have received swarms from
+other hives and have sent out in turn swarms from the home village,
+during their slow migrations around the compass. The habits of the
+ancient people thus led to a constant flux and reflux in the currents
+of life in the Southwest and in spite of their substantial houses and
+works costly of labor the Pueblo Indians were as migratory as the
+tent-dwellers of the Plains, though they moved more slowly. Their
+many-celled villages on mesas or on the banks of streams, in the
+cliffs of the profound canyons, dug in the soft rocks or built in the
+lava caves, were but camps of the wanderers, to be abandoned sooner or
+later, leaving the dead to the ministrations of the drifting sand.
+
+Nor with the coming of the white people did the wandering cease. There
+were Seven Cities of Cibola in the subsequent stretch of time, these
+seven towns were fused into the Pueblo of Zuñi and again came a
+dispersal and from this great pueblo formed the small summer villages
+of Nutria, Pescado, and Ojo Caliente. A human swarm built Laguna two
+centuries ago to swarm again other times. Acoma is mistress of
+Acomita; Isleta has a namesake on an island in the Rio Grande near El
+Paso, and in Tusayan the farming pueblo of Moenkapi Hotavila and
+Ushtioki in the plains in front of Walpi, are late additions. Thus, in
+times of peace, these hamlets spring up, each having the possibilities
+of becoming large settlements, and in times of danger they come
+together to better withstand the common enemy, for the union born of
+need and strengthened by the coming of wily foes was inculcated by
+former experiences. But these unions were never close, even between
+the clans when they forsook their small community houses and came
+together forming tribes. Between tribes of the same language there
+were but the faintest traces of combinations for mutual welfare.
+
+Perhaps about the time of the landfall of Columbus a group of tribes
+began to push their way into the region of the house-builders[19].
+These tribes were related and had crept down from the north, where now
+their kinsfolk live under the Arctic Circle. It was many years before
+the Apache and Navaho were strong enough to try conclusions with the
+settled peoples, but when they had gathered to themselves the lawless
+from many tribes, then began terrible chapters of history which only
+recently have been written to a finis. Wherever these conscienceless
+savages ranged were carnage and destruction. The habits of the
+house-builders changed and the ruins on high mesas and the lookouts on
+every hill tell plainly how they sought defence from the scouting
+enemy. The large towns in the Salinas of Manzano passed into oblivion
+under the attacks of the Apache and began a mythical career as the
+"Gran Quivira" of treasure hunters. Great was the devastation of
+which the complete story may never be told, yet nearly every tribe
+preserves legends of bloody contacts with the Navaho and Apache.
+
+    [19] The Early Navaho and Apache. F. W. Hodge, Amer.
+    Anthropologist, July, 1895.
+
+Still at an early period the Navaho became changed from a fierce
+warrior to a comparatively peaceful herdsman, subject to the maddening
+vagaries of that most whimsical of gentle creatures, the sheep. Early
+in the Spanish colonial period the Navaho preyed on the flocks of
+sheep of the Rio Grande pueblos, where they had been brought by the
+Conquistadores, and by that act his destiny was altered. Later on,
+instead of hunting the scalps of his fellow creatures, his flint knife
+became more useful in removing the wool from the backs of his charges;
+he thus became famous as a blanket weaver, and soon excelled his
+teachers in that peaceful art.
+
+Other visitors and neighbors of the Pueblo people were almost as
+undesirable as the Apache and Navaho. The Comanche of the Plains
+brought ruin to many a clan by his forays, and his brother, the Ute,
+from the mountains to the north, was a dangerous enemy to encounter
+and at many times in the past attacked the villages of the Hopi. To
+the west were the Yuma and Mohave, to the south were the Pima,
+extending into Mexico, and in the Cataract Canyon of the Colorado
+lived the Havasupai deep in the earth. These have been the neighbors
+of the Pueblos since recorded history began. Also the tent dwellers of
+the buffalo plains sometimes visited the Pueblos, tracking up the
+Canadian, and perhaps other neighbors there were, now vanished beyond
+resurrection or legend or the spade of the archeologist into the dust
+of the wind-swept plains.
+
+Besides the harrying of enemies of the wandering sort, there were
+quarrels among the sedentary tribes and the old-fashioned way of
+fighting it out according to Indian methods left many a village
+desolate. For this reason the villages were often built on mesas
+before the ancient enemies of their occupants began their range of the
+Southwest, and hostilities were carried on against brothers located
+near the corn lands and life-giving springs of the Pueblo country.
+
+In the ancient days, as at present, the secret of the distribution of
+Pueblo men was the distribution of water. It seems that in the vast
+expanse embraced in the Pueblo region every spring has been visited by
+the Indians, since whoever would live must know where there is water.
+The chief springs near the villages they dug out and walled up and
+built steps or a graded way down to the water, and often these works
+represent great labor. Likewise, the irrigation canals and reservoirs
+of southern Arizona show what he could do and surprise the moderns.
+One soon sees that there is not a spring near the present villages
+that does not receive its offerings of painted sticks adorned with
+feathers, as prayers to the givers of water. These simple-hearted folk
+in the toils of drought seem to have all their ceremonies to bring
+rain, and there is nothing else quite as important in their thoughts.
+In the same way the Southwest has made the settlers workers in stone
+and clay, for Nature has withheld the precious wood. Few other parts
+of the world show so clear an instance of the compelling power of the
+surroundings on the customs of a people.
+
+Why or how the pueblo builders came into this inhospitable region no
+one may decide. The great plateau extending from Fremont's Peak to the
+Isthmus of Tehuantepec, with its varied scenery, its plants and
+animals, and its human occupants is replete with interesting problems
+of the Old New World. Perhaps as the people crowded from the North
+along the Rockies toward the fertile lands of Mexico, some weaker
+tribes were thrust into the embrace of the desert and remained to work
+out their destiny. It would appear that no tribe could adopt the land
+as a home through free choice, because the sparseness of the arid
+country must make living a desperate struggle to those who had not the
+precious seeds of corn.
+
+Corn is the mother of the Pueblos, ancient and modern. Around it the
+Indian's whole existence centers, and the prevalent prayers for rain
+have corn as the motive, for corn is life. Given corn and rain or
+flowing water, even in small amount, and the Indian has no fear of
+hard times, but prospers and multiplies in the sanitorium where his
+lot is cast.
+
+If we travel backward into the Ancient Southwest we must leave behind
+many things that came to the people since the Spaniards sallied from
+Mexico to the new land of wonders. Sheep, goats, chickens, burros,
+horses, cattle there are none, and the children of the sun have no
+domestic animal except the turkey. The coyote-like dog haunted the
+pueblos, but his ancient enemy, the cat, was not there to dispute with
+him. No peaches or apricots were on the bill of fare, and the desert
+must be scoured for small berries and the fruit of the yucca and
+prickly-pear. Corn, beans, melons, and squashes there were, but wheat,
+oats, and alfalfa came from other hands. What would be the deprivation
+if sugar, coffee, flour, and baking powder were cut off from the
+present Indians. The ancients had none, nor were the useful vessels of
+tin and iron for cooking dreamed of. The agave of the South furnished
+a sweet in the roasted leaves, which took the place of sugar and went
+far and wide by early commerce. Tobacco always grew wild around the
+pueblos, but the ancients never knew the fascination of the modern
+leaf.
+
+Before the trader's cotton stuffs, were those of native cotton and
+before woolen stuffs there were warm blankets of strips of rabbit fur
+interwoven with cord, feather garments, mats of yucca, and blankets of
+mountain goat and buffalo wool, with girdles and stockings of the same
+textile. Perhaps more in use than these for clothing were the tanned
+skins of the elk, deer, and antelope, ornamented with native colors
+before aniline dyes came into existence. Buffalo skins were a part of
+the belongings of the ancients secured through trade with the people
+of the plains. There were sandals of plaited yucca and moccasins of
+turkey feathers. For jewelry there were seeds of the pine, shells,
+beads, and ornaments of turquoise and colored stones, quite enough to
+satisfy the love of ornament and quite suitable to the dusky skins of
+the Indians, as anyone may verify, if he will travel to the pueblos.
+
+About the houses every vestige of metal and glass is absent. The
+windows may have been glazed with irregular plates of selenite, and
+the marks of fire and the rude stone axe are upon the beams. Instead
+of the gun, curved clubs, the bow, and stone-tipped arrows hang from
+the rafters with the lance thrown by the atlatl. In the corner stands
+a hoe of stone and a digging stick; pottery, gourds, and basketry are
+the sole utensils, the knife is a chipped stone blade set with pine
+gum in a wooden handle, and the horns of the mountain sheep are formed
+into spoons.
+
+The rooms are smoky and dark, since the chimney is not yet, and the
+fire on the floor must be nursed, for, when it goes out, it must be
+rekindled by the friction of two pieces of wood or borrowed from a
+neighbor in the manner of primitive times, not yet forgotten among the
+advanced sharers of civilization. Much might be added to this picture
+of the early life of the Pueblos, and the exploration of the ruins
+will tell us yet more to excite our interest and admiration.
+
+Among the inhabited Hopi pueblos are many seats of the ancient people
+now become mounds or fallen walls and their memory a tradition. There
+were four mission churches; hardly a vestige of them remains, and a
+few of the carved beams support the roofs of pagan kivas. This bears
+strong testimony to the completeness of the weeding out of the foreign
+missions by the Hopi more than two centuries ago. The Hopi have always
+been free and independent, even when the search for gold by the
+Conquistadores had been turned to the search for souls to the
+subjugation of most of the other Pueblos in the Southwest.
+
+Several of the interesting ruins in Tusayan have been explored.
+Sikyatki, or "Yellow House," lying on the sand hills four miles east
+of Walpi, has yielded many strange and beautiful relics of pottery and
+stone, as has Awatobi, a large town on a mesa ten miles southeast of
+Walpi, destroyed about the year 1700 by the other villagers. Here may
+be traced the walls of the mission of San Bernardino de Awatobi, a
+large church built of blocks of adobe mixed with straw. The church
+stood on the mesa commanding a superb view of the lava buttes to the
+south and must have been in its time an imposing building. The old
+town of Kisakobi, near Walpi, has yielded relics in profusion of a
+later period than the sites mentioned, and it is here that we must
+look for the arts of the Hopi just before they came into the light of
+history.
+
+The prevalence of ruins around the Hopi mesas is in keeping with the
+movements of the tribes in the Pueblo region. Of the seven Hopi towns,
+Oraibi is the only one now on the site it occupied when the Spaniards
+came to Tusayan.
+
+Not long ago, according to Hopi traditionists, some clans withdrew
+from Tusayan and rebuilt cliff-houses in the Canyon de Chelly, where
+before some of the clans that finally settled in Tusayan lived for a
+time.
+
+Without doubt the connection between the early Hopi clans and the
+people who lived in the cliff-dwellings was close at a former period,
+and there is reason to believe that the older clans who are said to
+have come in from the North possessed the black-and-white pottery and
+the arts of the cliff-dwellers. Other clans coming from the South must
+have worked considerable changes in Hopi arts. While the southern
+clans brought yellow pottery, it remained for the great influx of
+peoples from the Rio Grande to introduce the artistic ware with
+complicated symbolic decoration that rendered the Tusayan ceramics
+superior to all others in northern America.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  Albinos, 17
+
+  Ancient life, pictures of, 257-259
+
+  Announcements of town crier, 43
+
+  Apache, 26
+
+  Astronomy, primitive, 44
+
+  Attacks of Navaho and Apache, 254
+
+
+  Basket dance, 159
+
+  Baskets, kinds of, 90
+
+  Basket making, 91-95
+
+  Basket, materials of, 91
+
+  Basket struggle, 161
+
+  Baskets, uses of, 93
+
+  Blessing of the fields, 37
+
+  Burial, 130, 131
+
+
+  Carving, joinery, painting and drawing, 87-90
+
+  Ceremonies, 132;
+    basis of, 135, 136
+
+  Ceremonial calendar, regulation of, 148
+
+  Chakwaina, biography of, 231-233
+
+  Children, games of, 107, 108;
+    education of, 119-122
+
+  Clan ceremonies, 135;
+    laws, 36
+
+  Cliff dwellers, 261
+
+  Climate, 15
+
+  Cold, disregard of, 33
+
+  Communication of news, 42
+
+  Constellations named, 44
+
+  Coöperation, 37
+
+  Corn, cooking of, 66;
+    cultivation and care of, 61, 62;
+    diet of, 65;
+    feast, 61;
+    grinding, 62;
+    meal, 64;
+    origin myth of, 65;
+    planting of, 60, 61
+
+  Cornfield, appearance of, 60
+
+  Cotton, use of, 83
+
+  Courtship, 122-123
+
+  Crafts, 70
+
+
+  Day, division of, 45
+
+  Death, ideas concerning, 128, 129, 130
+
+  Dedication of infant to the sun, 117
+
+  Dolls, making of, 87
+
+  Dyeing, 85
+
+
+  Eagle capture, 170;
+    cemetery, 171;
+    egg shrine, 171;
+    feathers in ceremony, 170;
+    ownership of, 168
+
+  Education of children, 218, 219
+
+  Environment, effect in shaping culture, 15
+
+
+  Fewkes (Dr. J. Walter), 12, 47, 88, 151, 159, 179;
+    on Kopeli, 221-223
+
+  Fields, guarding of, 56
+
+  Flute, ceremony of, 156-159
+
+  Fire priests, 166, 167;
+    making, 164
+
+  Founding of new villages, 253
+
+  Fuel gathering, 71
+
+
+  Games, athletic and sedentary, 105, 106
+
+  Gardens, 53
+
+
+  Hano, origin of, 20
+
+  Havasupai, 25
+
+  Head flattening, 16
+
+  Herbs, collection of, 58;
+    mixed with tobacco, 60
+
+  Historical ruins, 260
+
+  Hodge (F. W.), 11, 254
+
+  Honani family, account of, 228-231
+
+  House, arrangement of, 100;
+    building of, 95-101;
+    dedication ceremonies, 99, 100;
+    description of, 22-23
+
+  Hunts, ceremonial, 172, 173, 174
+
+
+  Industry, 71
+
+  Intiwa, biography of, 227, 228
+
+
+  Kachinas, 135
+
+  Kachina ceremonies, 145-146
+
+  Kisakobi, 260
+
+  Kivas, construction of, Walpi, 21-22
+
+  Kopeli, biography of, 218-223
+
+
+  Labor, division of, 69
+
+  Lalakonti ceremony, 159-161
+
+  Land, ownership of, 37
+
+  Laws, 38
+
+  Longevity, 17
+
+  Lummis (C. F.), 11
+
+
+  Mamzrauti ceremony, 161-163
+
+  Marriage, 123-128
+
+  Meals, 67
+
+  Medicine men, 167, 168;
+    theory and practice, 58
+
+  Migration of Apache and Navaho, 254;
+    of Pueblo, 253
+
+  Mindeleff (Cosmos), 101
+
+  Mission churches, 260
+
+  Moccasin making, 72, 73, 74
+
+  Months of summer, 33, 34, 35;
+    of winter 30, 31, 32
+
+  Mungwe, biography of, 233-235
+
+  Mushongnovi pueblo, 23
+
+  Music, character of, 103;
+    of Flute ceremony, 103, 104, 105
+
+  Myth of Alosaka, 193;
+    Dr. Fewkes quoted, 189;
+    of flint clad giant, 186, 187;
+    of Great Elk, 185, 186;
+    of man-eagle, 180-185;
+    of migration, 190-194, 196, 197-200;
+    of monsters, 179;
+    of plumed serpent, 194, 195;
+    of sun twins, 187, 188
+
+
+  Naming customs, 117
+
+  Nampeo, 75, 76
+
+  Nampeo, potter, 20
+
+  Nashihiptuwa on the golden age, 213-217
+
+  Natal rites, 114-115
+
+  Native worship, 134-135
+
+  Navaho contracts, 24
+
+  New fire ceremony, 163-165
+
+  Niman Kachina ceremony, 146-148
+
+
+  Oraibi, location of, 260;
+    pueblo, 24
+
+  Organization of ancient Pueblos, 252
+
+  Origin of pueblo builders, 257
+
+
+  Paiute, 26
+
+  Palulukong ceremony, 140-145
+
+  Physical characteristics, 16
+
+  Pima, 26, 27
+
+  Plants, knowledge of, 57;
+    lore of, 59;
+    uses of, 59
+
+  Planting stick, 60
+
+  Pottery, ancient, 261;
+    burning, 80, 81, 82;
+    clays, 77;
+    evolution of, 78, 79;
+    paints, 80;
+    superstition regarding, 82;
+    tools, 78
+
+  Powamu ceremony, 139, 140
+
+  Prayer-sticks in springs, 256
+
+  Preservation of tradition, 251
+
+  Primitive commerce, 250
+
+  Pueblo origin accounts, 251, 252
+
+  Punishments, 38
+
+
+  Routes to Pueblos, 13
+
+  Running, feats of, 108, 113
+
+
+  Saalako, medicine woman, biography of, 225-227
+
+  Sandals, 74, 75
+
+  Seed gathering, 67
+
+  Social organization, 35
+
+  Sheep, introduction of, 83, 255
+
+  Shepherds, 39-40
+
+  Shipaulovi pueblo, 24
+
+  Shrines, 175-178
+
+  Shumopavi pueblo, 24
+
+  Sichomovi pueblo, origin of name, 20
+
+  Sikyatki, ancient pueblo destroyed, 210;
+    ruins of, 260
+
+  Snake dance, 148-155;
+    legend, 155-156
+
+  Songs, purchase of, 102;
+    variety of, 105
+
+  Soyaluna ceremony, 136-139
+
+  Springs, 53;
+    disappearance of, 54;
+    Flute Dance in, 54;
+    names of, 54;
+    offerings in, 53;
+    sacred, 54
+
+  Street market, 40
+
+  Summer occupations, 33
+
+
+  Tewa, migration of, 20; visits of pueblos, 25
+
+  Time, determination of, 43, 44;
+    reckoning in birth rites, 114;
+    record, 44
+
+  Toby, biography of, 245, 247
+
+  "Tom Sawyer," biography of, 247-249
+
+  Totem names, 46, 47
+
+  Town crier, or speaker chief, 41, 42
+
+  Town patrol, 39
+
+  Traders, ability of, 38
+
+  Tradition of Apache raids, 202;
+    of destruction of Awatobi, 210-213;
+    of flood, 203;
+    of former location, 204;
+    of origin of Hano, 208;
+    of Spanish conquerors, 206, 207;
+    of the Spanish Friars, 204, 205
+
+  Turkey, 172
+
+  Tusayan, physical description of, 13
+
+
+  Unwarlike character of Hopi, 209
+
+
+  Villages located near water, 50;
+    on mesas, 18
+
+  Voth (H. R.), 128
+
+
+  Walpi, changes due to contact, 19;
+    description of, 21;
+    founded 1590, 21
+
+  Wars among Pueblos, 256
+
+  Water, abstinence from by animals, 52;
+    carriers, 53;
+    hunting of, 51;
+    jars, hidden, 50;
+    signs, 51
+
+  Weaving, 82-86
+
+  Wedding costume, 127, 128;
+    blanket, 126
+
+  Wiki and Supela, biography of, 223, 224, 225
+
+  Winter occupations, 29, 30
+
+  Women, house builders, 96
+
+  Wupa, biography of, 235-245
+
+
+  Yeast, chewed, 64
+
+
+  Zuñi, association with, 25
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+Minor punctuation errors have been repaired.
+
+Hyphenation has been made consistent throughout the main body of the
+book, but preserved as printed in quoted material.
+
+Spelling has been made consistent where there was a clear prevalence
+of one form over another. Such changes are included in the list of
+amendments below. Otherwise, archaic and variant spellings are preserved
+as printed.
+
+As no later editions of this book could be found, the transcriber has
+estimated the most likely place for an apparently omitted closing
+quote on page 129. This appears to be at the paragraph ending with
+'Truly, we received the ceremonies from them long ago,' as there are
+several references to 'we' preceding it, suggesting it is all quoted
+material.
+
+The following text appears on page 155: 'For several days after the
+Snake Dance the young and not too old play jolly comes the feast
+consumed with the appetite of youth, childlike simplicity.' There may
+be missing words or punctuation, but as the transcriber is unable to
+establish these, it is preserved as printed.
+
+Both Castil shimuno (page 205) and Castil shinumo (page 206) appear.
+One of these is presumably a typographic error, but as the transcriber
+found no way to determine which is correct, they have both been
+preserved as printed.
+
+Both Mishongnovi and Mushongnovi appear as variant spellings, and are
+preserved as printed.
+
+The quoted matter on page 221 uses Saliko as an alternate spelling of
+Saalako, and this is preserved as printed.
+
+The following amendments have been made:
+
+  Page 14--pinyons amended to piñons--... on the mesas are junipers
+  and piñons; ...
+
+  Page 30--Soyalana amended to Soyaluna--... and after the Soyaluna
+  ceremony ...
+
+  Page 55--Salako amended to Saalako--... although having been
+  blessed by Saalako ...
+
+  Page 68--witr amended to with--... which, with various other
+  herbs, ...
+
+  Page 80--ochre amended to ocher--The red paint is yellow ocher,
+  ...
+
+  Page 91--leaf-tripping amended to leaf-stripping--... waste bits
+  from the leaf-stripping, ...
+
+  Page 101, footnote--Mendeleff's amended to Mindeleff's--...
+  should consult Mindeleff's paper ...
+
+  Page 110--distince amended to distance--... a distance which the
+  Spaniards required ...
+
+  Page 121--confield amended to cornfield--... watching the
+  cornfield, or gathering the crops, ...
+
+  Page 124--back amended to black--... she grinds the dark blue corn
+  which the Hopi call black, ...
+
+  Page 129--It amended to If it--If it is the spirit of a good man,
+  ...
+
+  Page 145--themelves amended to themselves--... dress themselves in
+  appropriate costume, ...
+
+  Page 148--it amended to its--... the Snake Dance, from its
+  elements of horror, ...
+
+  Page 161--Salako amended to Saalako--... of which his wife,
+  Saalako, ...
+
+  Page 162--prayer-stick amended to prayer-sticks--... and
+  messengers are sent to springs and shrines to deposit
+  prayer-sticks.
+
+  Page 168--follaws amended to follows--... more striking customs in
+  this regard follows: ...
+
+  Page 186--empting amended to emptying--... and drank four times,
+  emptying the pool.
+
+  Page 195--Palulokona amended to Palulukona--On the sixth day,
+  _Palulukona_ [the Serpent Deity] ...
+
+  Page 198--seded amended to seeded (confirmed with the quoted
+  source)--... and red and yellow speckled corn, and a seeded grass
+  ...
+
+  Page 200--formed amended to found (confirmed with the quoted
+  source)--Calako's picture is found on the Powamu altars ...
+
+  Page 208--county amended to country--... in our country where the
+  past is forgotten ...
+
+  Page 220--as as amended to or as--... whether as a farmer or as
+  Snake Priest, ...
+
+  Page 226--Wapli amended to Walpi--No visitor to Walpi escapes the
+  ordeal ...
+
+  Page 250--XII amended to XI--XI THE ANCIENT PEOPLE
+
+  Page 253--ing amended to in--There were Seven Cities of Cibola in
+  the subsequent stretch ...
+
+  Page 255--undersirable amended to undesirable--... were almost as
+  undesirable as ...
+
+  Page 263--xl amended to 12--Fewkes (Dr. J. Walter), 12, 47 ...
+
+  Page 263--x amended to 11--Hodge (F. W.), 11, 254
+
+  Page 264--4 amended to 11--Lummis (C. F.), 11
+
+  Page 264--83 amended to 82--Pottery, superstition regarding,
+  82;
+
+  Page 264--304 amended to 204--Tradition of Apache raids, ... of
+  former location, 204; ...
+
+The frontispiece illustration and list of other books in the series
+have been moved to follow the title page.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Hopi Indians, by Walter Hough
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 57507 ***