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@@ -0,0 +1,5541 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Essays, by Francis Bacon + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Essays + The Essays Or Counsels, Civil And Moral, Of Francis Ld. + Verulam Viscount St. Albans + +Author: Francis Bacon + +Release Date: June, 1996 [Etext #575] +Posting Date: November 25, 2009 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ESSAYS *** + + + + +Produced by Judith Boss + + + + + +THE ESSAYS OR COUNSELS, CIVIL AND MORAL, + +OF FRANCIS Ld. VERULAM VISCOUNT ST. ALBANS + + +By Francis Bacon + + +THE ESSAYS + + Of Truth + Of Death + Of Unity in Religion + Of Revenge + Of Adversity + Of Simulation and Dissimulation + Of Parents and Children + Of Marriage and Single Life + Of Envy + Of Love + Of Great Place + Of Boldness + Of Goodness and Goodness of Nature + Of Nobility + Of Seditions and Troubles + Of Atheism + Of Superstition + Of Travel + Of Empire + Of Counsel + Of Delays + Of Cunning + Of Wisdom for a Man's Self + Of Innovations + Of Dispatch + Of Seeming Wise + Of Friendship + Of Expense + Of the True Greatness of Kingdoms and Estates + Of Regiment of Health + Of Suspicion + Of Discourse + Of Plantations + Of Riches + Of Prophecies + Of Ambition + Of Masques and Triumphs + Of Nature in Men + Of Custom and Education + Of Fortune + Of Usury + Of Youth and Age + Of Beauty + Of Deformity + Of Building + Of Gardens + Of Negotiating + Of Followers and Friends + Of Suitors + Of Studies + Of Faction + Of Ceremonies and Respects + Of Praise + Of Vain-glory + Of Honor and Reputation + Of Judicature + Of Anger + Of Vicissitude of Things + Of Fame + + +TO + +THE RIGHT HONORABLE + +MY VERY GOOD LORD + +THE DUKE OF BUCKINGHAM + +HIS GRACE, LORD + +HIGH ADMIRAL OF ENGLAND + + +EXCELLENT LORD: + +SALOMON saies; A good Name is as a precious oyntment; And I assure my +selfe, such wil your Graces Name bee, with Posteritie. For your Fortune, +and Merit both, have been Eminent. And you have planted Things, that +are like to last. I doe now publish my Essayes; which, of all my other +workes, have beene most Currant: For that, as it seemes, they come home, +to Mens Businesse, and Bosomes. I have enlarged them, both in Number, +and Weight; So that they are indeed a New Worke. I thought it therefore +agreeable, to my Affection, and Obligation to your Grace, to prefix your +Name before them, both in English, and in Latine. For I doe conceive, +that the Latine Volume of them, (being in the Universall Language) may +last, as long as Bookes last. My Instauration, I dedicated to the King: +My Historie of Henry the Seventh, (which I have now also translated into +Latine) and my Portions of Naturall History, to the Prince: And these +I dedicate to your Grace; Being of the best Fruits, that by the good +Encrease, which God gives to my Pen and Labours, I could yeeld. God +leade your Grace by the Hand. Your Graces most Obliged and faithfull +Servant, + +FR. ST. ALBAN + + + + + +Of Truth + + +WHAT is truth? said jesting Pilate, and would not stay for an answer. +Certainly there be, that delight in giddiness, and count it a bondage to +fix a belief; affecting free-will in thinking, as well as in acting. And +though the sects of philosophers of that kind be gone, yet there remain +certain discoursing wits, which are of the same veins, though there be +not so much blood in them, as was in those of the ancients. But it is +not only the difficulty and labor, which men take in finding out +of truth, nor again, that when it is found, it imposeth upon men's +thoughts, that doth bring lies in favor; but a natural, though corrupt +love, of the lie itself. One of the later school of the Grecians, +examineth the matter, and is at a stand, to think what should be in it, +that men should love lies; where neither they make for pleasure, as with +poets, nor for advantage, as with the merchant; but for the lie's sake. +But I cannot tell; this same truth, is a naked, and open day-light, that +doth not show the masks, and mummeries, and triumphs, of the world, half +so stately and daintily as candle-lights. Truth may perhaps come to the +price of a pearl, that showeth best by day; but it will not rise to the +price of a diamond, or carbuncle, that showeth best in varied lights. +A mixture of a lie doth ever add pleasure. Doth any man doubt, that if +there were taken out of men's minds, vain opinions, flattering hopes, +false valuations, imaginations as one would, and the like, but it would +leave the minds, of a number of men, poor shrunken things, full of +melancholy and indisposition, and unpleasing to themselves? + +One of the fathers, in great severity, called poesy vinum daemonum, +because it fireth the imagination; and yet, it is but with the shadow of +a lie. But it is not the lie that passeth through the mind, but the +lie that sinketh in, and settleth in it, that doth the hurt; such as we +spake of before. But howsoever these things are thus in men's depraved +judgments, and affections, yet truth, which only doth judge itself, +teacheth that the inquiry of truth, which is the love-making, or wooing +of it, the knowledge of truth, which is the presence of it, and the +belief of truth, which is the enjoying of it, is the sovereign good of +human nature. The first creature of God, in the works of the days, +was the light of the sense; the last, was the light of reason; and his +sabbath work ever since, is the illumination of his Spirit. First he +breathed light, upon the face of the matter or chaos; then he breathed +light, into the face of man; and still he breatheth and inspireth light, +into the face of his chosen. The poet, that beautified the sect, that +was otherwise inferior to the rest, saith yet excellently well: It is a +pleasure, to stand upon the shore, and to see ships tossed upon the sea; +a pleasure, to stand in the window of a castle, and to see a battle, +and the adventures thereof below: but no pleasure is comparable to the +standing upon the vantage ground of truth (a hill not to be commanded, +and where the air is always clear and serene), and to see the errors, +and wanderings, and mists, and tempests, in the vale below; so always +that this prospect be with pity, and not with swelling, or pride. +Certainly, it is heaven upon earth, to have a man's mind move in +charity, rest in providence, and turn upon the poles of truth. + +To pass from theological, and philosophical truth, to the truth of civil +business; it will be acknowledged, even by those that practise it not, +that clear, and round dealing, is the honor of man's nature; and that +mixture of falsehoods, is like alloy in coin of gold and silver, which +may make the metal work the better, but it embaseth it. For these +winding, and crooked courses, are the goings of the serpent; which goeth +basely upon the belly, and not upon the feet. There is no vice, that +doth so cover a man with shame, as to be found false and perfidious. And +therefore Montaigne saith prettily, when he inquired the reason, why the +word of the lie should be such a disgrace, and such an odious charge? +Saith he, If it be well weighed, to say that a man lieth, is as much to +say, as that he is brave towards God, and a coward towards men. For a +lie faces God, and shrinks from man. Surely the wickedness of falsehood, +and breach of faith, cannot possibly be so highly expressed, as in +that it shall be the last peal, to call the judgments of God upon the +generations of men; it being foretold, that when Christ cometh, he shall +not find faith upon the earth. + + + + +Of Death + + +MEN fear death, as children fear to go in the dark; and as that natural +fear in children, is increased with tales, so is the other. Certainly, +the contemplation of death, as the wages of sin, and passage to another +world, is holy and religious; but the fear of it, as a tribute due +unto nature, is weak. Yet in religious meditations, there is sometimes +mixture of vanity, and of superstition. You shall read, in some of the +friars' books of mortification, that a man should think with himself, +what the pain is, if he have but his finger's end pressed, or tortured, +and thereby imagine, what the pains of death are, when the whole body is +corrupted, and dissolved; when many times death passeth, with less +pain than the torture of a limb; for the most vital parts, are not the +quickest of sense. And by him that spake only as a philosopher, and +natural man, it was well said, Pompa mortis magis terret, quam mors +ipsa. Groans, and convulsions, and a discolored face, and friends +weeping, and blacks, and obsequies, and the like, show death terrible. +It is worthy the observing, that there is no passion in the mind of man, +so weak, but it mates, and masters, the fear of death; and therefore, +death is no such terrible enemy, when a man hath so many attendants +about him, that can win the combat of him. Revenge triumphs over +death; love slights it; honor aspireth to it; grief flieth to it; +fear preoccupateth it; nay, we read, after Otho the emperor had slain +himself, pity (which is the tenderest of affections) provoked many to +die, out of mere compassion to their sovereign, and as the truest sort +of followers. Nay, Seneca adds niceness and satiety: Cogita quamdiu +eadem feceris; mori velle, non tantum fortis aut miser, sed etiam +fastidiosus potest. A man would die, though he were neither valiant, nor +miserable, only upon a weariness to do the same thing so oft, over and +over. It is no less worthy, to observe, how little alteration in good +spirits, the approaches of death make; for they appear to be the same +men, till the last instant. Augustus Caesar died in a compliment; Livia, +conjugii nostri memor, vive et vale. Tiberius in dissimulation; as +Tacitus saith of him, Jam Tiberium vires et corpus, non dissimulatio, +deserebant. Vespasian in a jest, sitting upon the stool; Ut puto deus +fio. Galba with a sentence; Feri, si ex re sit populi Romani; holding +forth his neck. Septimius Severus in despatch; Adeste si quid mihi +restat agendum. And the like. Certainly the Stoics bestowed too much +cost upon death, and by their great preparations, made it appear more +fearful. Better saith he, qui finem vitae extremum inter munera ponat +naturae. It is as natural to die, as to be born; and to a little infant, +perhaps, the one is as painful, as the other. He that dies in an earnest +pursuit, is like one that is wounded in hot blood; who, for the time, +scarce feels the hurt; and therefore a mind fixed, and bent upon +somewhat that is good, doth avert the dolors of death. But, above all, +believe it, the sweetest canticle is', Nunc dimittis; when a man hath +obtained worthy ends, and expectations. Death hath this also; that +it openeth the gate to good fame, and extinguisheth envy.--Extinctus +amabitur idem. + + + + +Of Unity In Religion + + +RELIGION being the chief band of human society, it is a happy thing, +when itself is well contained within the true band of unity. The +quarrels, and divisions about religion, were evils unknown to the +heathen. The reason was, because the religion of the heathen, consisted +rather in rites and ceremonies, than in any constant belief. For you +may imagine, what kind of faith theirs was, when the chief doctors, +and fathers of their church, were the poets. But the true God hath this +attribute, that he is a jealous God; and therefore, his worship and +religion, will endure no mixture, nor partner. We shall therefore speak +a few words, concerning the unity of the church; what are the fruits +thereof; what the bounds; and what the means. + +The fruits of unity (next unto the well pleasing of God, which is all +in all) are two: the one, towards those that are without the church, +the other, towards those that are within. For the former; it is certain, +that heresies, and schisms, are of all others the greatest scandals; +yea, more than corruption of manners. For as in the natural body, a +wound, or solution of continuity, is worse than a corrupt humor; so in +the spiritual. So that nothing, doth so much keep men out of the church, +and drive men out of the church, as breach of unity. And therefore, +whensoever it cometh to that pass, that one saith, Ecce in deserto, +another saith, Ecce in penetralibus; that is, when some men seek Christ, +in the conventicles of heretics, and others, in an outward face of a +church, that voice had need continually to sound in men's ears, Nolite +exire,--Go not out. The doctor of the Gentiles (the propriety of whose +vocation, drew him to have a special care of those without) saith, if +an heathen come in, and hear you speak with several tongues, will he not +say that you are mad? And certainly it is little better, when atheists, +and profane persons, do hear of so many discordant, and contrary +opinions in religion; it doth avert them from the church, and maketh +them, to sit down in the chair of the scorners. It is but a light thing, +to be vouched in so serious a matter, but yet it expresseth well the +deformity. There is a master of scoffing, that in his catalogue of books +of a feigned library, sets down this title of a book, The Morris-Dance +of Heretics. For indeed, every sect of them, hath a diverse posture, or +cringe by themselves, which cannot but move derision in worldlings, and +depraved politics, who are apt to contemn holy things. + +As for the fruit towards those that are within; it is peace; which +containeth infinite blessings. It establisheth faith; it kindleth +charity; the outward peace of the church, distilleth into peace of +conscience; and it turneth the labors of writing, and reading of +controversies, into treaties of mortification and devotion. + +Concerning the bounds of unity; the true placing of them, importeth +exceedingly. There appear to be two extremes. For to certain zealants, +all speech of pacification is odious. Is it peace, Jehu,? What hast +thou to do with peace? turn thee behind me. Peace is not the matter, +but following, and party. Contrariwise, certain Laodiceans, and lukewarm +persons, think they may accommodate points of religion, by middle way, +and taking part of both, and witty reconcilements; as if they would +make an arbitrament between God and man. Both these extremes are to be +avoided; which will be done, if the league of Christians, penned by our +Savior himself, were in two cross clauses thereof, soundly and plainly +expounded: He that is not with us, is against us; and again, He that is +not against us, is with us; that is, if the points fundamental and of +substance in religion, were truly discerned and distinguished, from +points not merely of faith, but of opinion, order, or good intention. +This is a thing may seem to many a matter trivial, and done already. But +if it were done less partially, it would be embraced more generally. + +Of this I may give only this advice, according to my small model. +Men ought to take heed, of rending God's church, by two kinds of +controversies. The one is, when the matter of the point controverted, +is too small and light, not worth the heat and strife about it, kindled +only by contradiction. For, as it is noted, by one of the fathers, +Christ's coat indeed had no seam, but the church's vesture was of divers +colors; whereupon he saith, In veste varietas sit, scissura non sit; +they be two things, unity and uniformity. The other is, when the matter +of the point controverted, is great, but it is driven to an over-great +subtilty, and obscurity; so that it becometh a thing rather ingenious, +than substantial. A man that is of judgment and understanding, shall +sometimes hear ignorant men differ, and know well within himself, that +those which so differ, mean one thing, and yet they themselves would +never agree. And if it come so to pass, in that distance of judgment, +which is between man and man, shall we not think that God above, that +knows the heart, doth not discern that frail men, in some of their +contradictions, intend the same thing; and accepteth of both? The nature +of such controversies is excellently expressed, by St. Paul, in the +warning and precept, that he giveth concerning the same, Devita profanas +vocum novitates, et oppositiones falsi nominis scientiae. Men create +oppositions, which are not; and put them into new terms, so fixed, +as whereas the meaning ought to govern the term, the term in effect +governeth the meaning. There be also two false peaces, or unities: the +one, when the peace is grounded, but upon an implicit ignorance; for all +colors will agree in the dark: the other, when it is pieced up, upon +a direct admission of contraries, in fundamental points. For truth and +falsehood, in such things, are like the iron and clay, in the toes of +Nebuchadnezzar's image; they may cleave, but they will not incorporate. + +Concerning the means of procuring unity; men must beware, that in the +procuring, or reuniting, of religious unity, they do not dissolve and +deface the laws of charity, and of human society. There be two swords +amongst Christians, the spiritual and temporal; and both have their due +office and place, in the maintenance of religion. But we may not take up +the third sword, which is Mahomet's sword, or like unto it; that is, +to propagate religion by wars, or by sanguinary persecutions to force +consciences; except it be in cases of overt scandal, blasphemy, or +intermixture of practice against the state; much less to nourish +seditions; to authorize conspiracies and rebellions; to put the sword +into the people's hands; and the like; tending to the subversion of all +government, which is the ordinance of God. For this is but to dash the +first table against the second; and so to consider men as Christians, as +we forget that they are men. Lucretius the poet, when he beheld the act +of Agamemnon, that could endure the sacrificing of his own daughter, +exclaimed: Tantum Religio potuit suadere malorum. + +What would he have said, if he had known of the massacre in France, +or the powder treason of England? He would have been seven times more +Epicure, and atheist, than he was. For as the temporal sword is to be +drawn with great circumspection in cases of religion; so it is a thing +monstrous to put it into the hands of the common people. Let that be +left unto the Anabaptists, and other furies. It was great blasphemy, +when the devil said, I will ascend, and be like the highest; but it is +greater blasphemy, to personate God, and bring him in saying, I will +descend, and be like the prince of darkness; and what is it better, +to make the cause of religion to descend, to the cruel and execrable +actions of murthering princes, butchery of people, and subversion of +states and governments? Surely this is to bring down the Holy Ghost, +instead of the likeness of a dove, in the shape of a vulture or raven; +and set, out of the bark of a Christian church, a flag of a bark of +pirates, and assassins. Therefore it is most necessary, that the church, +by doctrine and decree, princes by their sword, and all learnings, both +Christian and moral, as by their Mercury rod, do damn and send to hell +for ever, those facts and opinions tending to the support of the same; +as hath been already in good part done. Surely in counsels concerning +religion, that counsel of the apostle would be prefixed, Ira hominis non +implet justitiam Dei. And it was a notable observation of a wise father, +and no less ingenuously confessed; that those which held and persuaded +pressure of consciences, were commonly interested therein, themselves, +for their own ends. + + + + +Of Revenge + + +REVENGE is a kind of wild justice; which the more man's nature runs to, +the more ought law to weed it out. For as for the first wrong, it doth +but offend the law; but the revenge of that wrong, putteth the law out +of office. Certainly, in taking revenge, a man is but even with his +enemy; but in passing it over, he is superior; for it is a prince's part +to pardon. And Solomon, I am sure, saith, It is the glory of a man, to +pass by an offence. That which is past is gone, and irrevocable; and +wise men have enough to do, with things present and to come; therefore +they do but trifle with themselves, that labor in past matters. There +is no man doth a wrong, for the wrong's sake; but thereby to purchase +himself profit, or pleasure, or honor, or the like. Therefore why should +I be angry with a man, for loving himself better than me? And if any man +should do wrong, merely out of ill-nature, why, yet it is but like the +thorn or briar, which prick and scratch, because they can do no other. +The most tolerable sort of revenge, is for those wrongs which there is +no law to remedy; but then let a man take heed, the revenge be such as +there is no law to punish; else a man's enemy is still before hand, and +it is two for one. Some, when they take revenge, are desirous, the +party should know, whence it cometh. This is the more generous. For the +delight seemeth to be, not so much in doing the hurt, as in making +the party repent. But base and crafty cowards, are like the arrow that +flieth in the dark. Cosmus, duke of Florence, had a desperate saying +against perfidious or neglecting friends, as if those wrongs were +unpardonable; You shall read (saith he) that we are commanded to forgive +our enemies; but you never read, that we are commanded to forgive our +friends. But yet the spirit of Job was in a better tune: Shall we (saith +he) take good at God's hands, and not be content to take evil also? And +so of friends in a proportion. This is certain, that a man that studieth +revenge, keeps his own wounds green, which otherwise would heal, and do +well. Public revenges are for the most part fortunate; as that for the +death of Caesar; for the death of Pertinax; for the death of Henry the +Third of France; and many more. But in private revenges, it is not so. +Nay rather, vindictive persons live the life of witches; who, as they +are mischievous, so end they infortunate. + + + + +Of Adversity + + +IT WAS an high speech of Seneca (after the manner of the Stoics), that +the good things, which belong to prosperity, are to be wished; but the +good things, that belong to adversity, are to be admired. Bona rerum +secundarum optabilia; adversarum mirabilia. Certainly if miracles be the +command over nature, they appear most in adversity. It is yet a higher +speech of his, than the other (much too high for a heathen), It is true +greatness, to have in one the frailty of a man, and the security of +a God. Vere magnum habere fragilitatem hominis, securitatem Dei. This +would have done better in poesy, where transcendences are more allowed. +And the poets indeed have been busy with it; for it is in effect the +thing, which figured in that strange fiction of the ancient poets, which +seemeth not to be without mystery; nay, and to have some approach to the +state of a Christian; that Hercules, when he went to unbind Prometheus +(by whom human nature is represented), sailed the length of the great +ocean, in an earthen pot or pitcher; lively describing Christian +resolution, that saileth in the frail bark of the flesh, through the +waves of the world. But to speak in a mean. The virtue of prosperity, +is temperance; the virtue of adversity, is fortitude; which in morals +is the more heroical virtue. Prosperity is the blessing of the Old +Testament; adversity is the blessing of the New; which carrieth the +greater benediction, and the clearer revelation of God's favor. Yet even +in the Old Testament, if you listen to David's harp, you shall hear as +many hearse-like airs as carols; and the pencil of the Holy Ghost hath +labored more in describing the afflictions of Job, than the felicities +of Solomon. Prosperity is not without many fears and distastes; and +adversity is not without comforts and hopes. We see in needle-works and +embroideries, it is more pleasing to have a lively work, upon a sad and +solemn ground, than to have a dark and melancholy work, upon a lightsome +ground: judge therefore of the pleasure of the heart, by the pleasure +of the eye. Certainly virtue is like precious odors, most fragrant when +they are incensed, or crushed: for prosperity doth best discover vice, +but adversity doth best discover virtue. + + + + +Of Simulation And Dissimulation + + +DISSIMULATION is but a faint kind of policy, or wisdom; for it asketh +a strong wit, and a strong heart, to know when to tell truth, and to +do it. Therefore it is the weaker sort of politics, that are the great +dissemblers. + +Tacitus saith, Livia sorted well with the arts of her husband, and +dissimulation of her son; attributing arts or policy to Augustus, +and dissimulation to Tiberius. And again, when Mucianus encourageth +Vespasian, to take arms against Vitellius, he saith, We rise not against +the piercing judgment of Augustus, nor the extreme caution or closeness +of Tiberius. These properties, of arts or policy, and dissimulation +or closeness, are indeed habits and faculties several, and to be +distinguished. For if a man have that penetration of judgment, as he can +discern what things are to be laid open, and what to be secreted, and +what to be showed at half lights, and to whom and when (which indeed are +arts of state, and arts of life, as Tacitus well calleth them), to him, +a habit of dissimulation is a hinderance and a poorness. But if a man +cannot obtain to that judgment, then it is left to him generally, to +be close, and a dissembler. For where a man cannot choose, or vary in +particulars, there it is good to take the safest, and wariest way, in +general; like the going softly, by one that cannot well see. Certainly +the ablest men that ever were, have had all an openness, and frankness, +of dealing; and a name of certainty and veracity; but then they were +like horses well managed; for they could tell passing well, when to stop +or turn; and at such times, when they thought the case indeed required +dissimulation, if then they used it, it came to pass that the former +opinion, spread abroad, of their good faith and clearness of dealing, +made them almost invisible. + +There be three degrees of this hiding and veiling of a man's self. The +first, closeness, reservation, and secrecy; when a man leaveth himself +without observation, or without hold to be taken, what he is. The +second, dissimulation, in the negative; when a man lets fall signs and +arguments, that he is not, that he is. And the third, simulation, in the +affirmative; when a man industriously and expressly feigns and pretends +to be, that he is not. + +For the first of these, secrecy; it is indeed the virtue of a confessor. +And assuredly, the secret man heareth many confessions. For who will +open himself, to a blab or a babbler? But if a man be thought secret, it +inviteth discovery; as the more close air sucketh in the more open; and +as in confession, the revealing is not for worldly use, but for the ease +of a man's heart, so secret men come to the knowledge of many things +in that kind; while men rather discharge their minds, than impart their +minds. In few words, mysteries are due to secrecy. Besides (to say +truth) nakedness is uncomely, as well in mind as body; and it addeth no +small reverence, to men's manners and actions, if they be not altogether +open. As for talkers and futile persons, they are commonly vain and +credulous withal. For he that talketh what he knoweth, will also talk +what he knoweth not. Therefore set it down, that an habit of secrecy, is +both politic and moral. And in this part, it is good that a man's face +give his tongue leave to speak. For the discovery of a man' s self, by +the tracts of his countenance, is a great weakness and betraying; by how +much it is many times more marked, and believed, than a man's words. + +For the second, which is dissimulation; it followeth many times upon +secrecy, by a necessity; so that he that will be secret, must be a +dissembler in some degree. For men are too cunning, to suffer a man to +keep an indifferent carriage between both, and to be secret, without +swaying the balance on either side. They will so beset a man with +questions, and draw him on, and pick it out of him, that, without an +absurd silence, he must show an inclination one way; or if he do not, +they will gather as much by his silence, as by his speech. As for +equivocations, or oraculous speeches, they cannot hold out long. So +that no man can be secret, except he give himself a little scope of +dissimulation; which is, as it were, but the skirts or train of secrecy. + +But for the third degree, which is simulation, and false profession; +that I hold more culpable, and less politic; except it be in great and +rare matters. And therefore a general custom of simulation (which is +this last degree) is a vice, using either of a natural falseness or +fearfulness, or of a mind that hath some main faults, which because +a man must needs disguise, it maketh him practise simulation in other +things, lest his hand should be out of use. + +The great advantages of simulation and dissimulation are three. First, +to lay asleep opposition, and to surprise. For where a man's intentions +are published, it is an alarum, to call up all that are against them. +The second is, to reserve to a man's self a fair retreat. For if a man +engage himself by a manifest declaration, he must go through or take a +fall. The third is, the better to discover the mind of another. For to +him that opens himself, men will hardly show themselves adverse; but +will fair let him go on, and turn their freedom of speech, to freedom of +thought. And therefore it is a good shrewd proverb of the Spaniard, Tell +a lie and find a troth. As if there were no way of discovery, but by +simulation. There be also three disadvantages, to set it even. The +first, that simulation and dissimulation commonly carry with them a show +of fearfulness, which in any business, doth spoil the feathers, of round +flying up to the mark. The second, that it puzzleth and perplexeth the +conceits of many, that perhaps would otherwise co-operate with him; and +makes a man walk almost alone, to his own ends. The third and greatest +is, that it depriveth a man of one of the most principal instruments for +action; which is trust and belief. The best composition and temperature, +is to have openness in fame and opinion; secrecy in habit; dissimulation +in seasonable use; and a power to feign, if there be no remedy. + + + + +Of Parents And Children + + +THE joys of parents are secret; and so are their griefs and fears. +They cannot utter the one; nor they will not utter the other. Children +sweeten labors; but they make misfortunes more bitter. They increase +the cares of life; but they mitigate the remembrance of death. The +perpetuity by generation is common to beasts; but memory, merit, and +noble works, are proper to men. And surely a man shall see the noblest +works and foundations have proceeded from childless men; which have +sought to express the images of their minds, where those of their bodies +have failed. So the care of posterity is most in them, that have no +posterity. They that are the first raisers of their houses, are most +indulgent towards their children; beholding them as the continuance, +not only of their kind, but of their work; and so both children and +creatures. + +The difference in affection, of parents towards their several children, +is many times unequal; and sometimes unworthy; especially in the +mothers; as Solomon saith, A wise son rejoiceth the father, but an +ungracious son shames the mother. A man shall see, where there is a +house full of children, one or two of the eldest respected, and the +youngest made wantons; but in the midst, some that are as it +were forgotten, who many times, nevertheless, prove the best. The +illiberality of parents, in allowance towards their children, is an +harmful error; makes them base; acquaints them with shifts; makes them +sort with mean company; and makes them surfeit more when they come to +plenty. And therefore the proof is best, when men keep their authority +towards the children, but not their purse. Men have a foolish manner +(both parents and schoolmasters and servants) in creating and breeding +an emulation between brothers, during childhood, which many times +sorteth to discord when they are men, and disturbeth families. The +Italians make little difference between children, and nephews or near +kinsfolks; but so they be of the lump, they care not though they pass +not through their own body. And, to say truth, in nature it is much +a like matter; insomuch that we see a nephew sometimes resembleth an +uncle, or a kinsman, more than his own parent; as the blood happens. +Let parents choose betimes, the vocations and courses they mean their +children should take; for then they are most flexible; and let them +not too much apply themselves to the disposition of their children, as +thinking they will take best to that, which they have most mind to. +It is true, that if the affection or aptness of the children be +extraordinary, then it is good not to cross it; but generally the +precept is good, optimum elige, suave et facile illud faciet consuetudo. +Younger brothers are commonly fortunate, but seldom or never where the +elder are disinherited. + + + + +Of Marriage And Single Life + + +HE THAT hath wife and children hath given hostages to fortune; for they +are impediments to great enterprises, either of virtue or mischief. +Certainly the best works, and of greatest merit for the public, have +proceeded from the unmarried or childless men; which both in affection +and means, have married and endowed the public. Yet it were great reason +that those that have children, should have greatest care of future +times; unto which they know they must transmit their dearest pledges. +Some there are, who though they lead a single life, yet their thoughts +do end with themselves, and account future times impertinences. Nay, +there are some other, that account wife and children, but as bills of +charges. Nay more, there are some foolish rich covetous men, that take +a pride, in having no children, because they may be thought so much the +richer. For perhaps they have heard some talk, Such an one is a great +rich man, and another except to it, Yea, but he hath a great charge +of children; as if it were an abatement to his riches. But the most +ordinary cause of a single life, is liberty, especially in certain +self-pleasing and humorous minds, which are so sensible of every +restraint, as they will go near to think their girdles and garters, to +be bonds and shackles. Unmarried men are best friends, best masters, +best servants; but not always best subjects; for they are light to run +away; and almost all fugitives, are of that condition. A single life +doth well with churchmen; for charity will hardly water the ground, +where it must first fill a pool. It is indifferent for judges and +magistrates; for if they be facile and corrupt, you shall have a +servant, five times worse than a wife. For soldiers, I find the generals +commonly in their hortatives, put men in mind of their wives and +children; and I think the despising of marriage amongst the Turks, +maketh the vulgar soldier more base. Certainly wife and children are a +kind of discipline of humanity; and single men, though they may be many +times more charitable, because their means are less exhaust, yet, on +the other side, they are more cruel and hardhearted (good to make severe +inquisitors), because their tenderness is not so oft called upon. Grave +natures, led by custom, and therefore constant, are commonly loving +husbands, as was said of Ulysses, vetulam suam praetulit immortalitati. +Chaste women are often proud and froward, as presuming upon the merit +of their chastity. It is one of the best bonds, both of chastity and +obedience, in the wife, if she think her husband wise; which she will +never do, if she find him jealous. Wives are young men's mistresses; +companions for middle age; and old men's nurses. So as a man may have a +quarrel to marry, when he will. But yet he was reputed one of the wise +men, that made answer to the question, when a man should marry,--A +young man not yet, an elder man not at all. It is often seen that bad +husbands, have very good wives; whether it be, that it raiseth the price +of their husband's kindness, when it comes; or that the wives take a +pride in their patience. But this never fails, if the bad husbands were +of their own choosing, against their friends' consent; for then they +will be sure to make good their own folly. + + + + +Of Envy + + +THERE be none of the affections, which have been noted to fascinate or +bewitch, but love and envy. They both have vehement wishes; they frame +themselves readily into imaginations and suggestions; and they come +easily into the eye, especially upon the present of the objects; which +are the points that conduce to fascination, if any such thing there +be. We see likewise, the Scripture calleth envy an evil eye; and the +astrologers, call the evil influences of the stars, evil aspects; so +that still there seemeth to be acknowledged, in the act of envy, an +ejaculation or irradiation of the eye. Nay, some have been so curious, +as to note, that the times when the stroke or percussion of an envious +eye doth most hurt, are when the party envied is beheld in glory or +triumph; for that sets an edge upon envy: and besides, at such times the +spirits of the person envied, do come forth most into the outward parts, +and so meet the blow. + +But leaving these curiosities (though not unworthy to be thought on, in +fit place), we will handle, what persons are apt to envy others; what +persons are most subject to be envied themselves; and what is the +difference between public and private envy. + +A man that hath no virtue in himself, ever envieth virtue in others. For +men's minds, will either feed upon their own good, or upon others' evil; +and who wanteth the one, will prey upon the other; and whoso is out of +hope, to attain to another's virtue, will seek to come at even hand, by +depressing another's fortune. + +A man that is busy, and inquisitive, is commonly envious. For to know +much of other men's matters, cannot be because all that ado may concern +his own estate; therefore it must needs be, that he taketh a kind of +play-pleasure, in looking upon the fortunes of others. Neither can he, +that mindeth but his own business, find much matter for envy. For envy +is a gadding passion, and walketh the streets, and doth not keep home: +Non est curiosus, quin idem sit malevolus. + +Men of noble birth, are noted to be envious towards new men, when they +rise. For the distance is altered, and it is like a deceit of the eye, +that when others come on, they think themselves, go back. + +Deformed persons, and eunuchs, and old men, and bastards, are envious. +For he that cannot possibly mend his own case, will do what he can, +to impair another's; except these defects light upon a very brave, and +heroical nature, which thinketh to make his natural wants part of his +honor; in that it should be said, that an eunuch, or a lame man, did +such great matters; affecting the honor of a miracle; as it was in +Narses the eunuch, and Agesilaus and Tamberlanes, that were lame men. + +The same is the case of men, that rise after calamities and misfortunes. +For they are as men fallen out with the times; and think other men's +harms, a redemption of their own sufferings. + +They that desire to excel in too many matters, out of levity and vain +glory, are ever envious. For they cannot want work; it being impossible, +but many, in some one of those things, should surpass them. Which was +the character of Adrian the Emperor; that mortally envied poets, and +painters, and artificers, in works wherein he had a vein to excel. + +Lastly, near kinsfolks, and fellows in office, and those that have been +bred together, are more apt to envy their equals, when they are raised. +For it doth upbraid unto them their own fortunes, and pointeth at them, +and cometh oftener into their remembrance, and incurreth likewise more +into the note of others; and envy ever redoubleth from speech and fame. +Cain's envy was the more vile and malignant, towards his brother Abel, +because when his sacrifice was better accepted, there was no body to +look on. Thus much for those, that are apt to envy. + +Concerning those that are more or less subject to envy: First, persons +of eminent virtue, when they are advanced, are less envied. For their +fortune seemeth, but due unto them; and no man envieth the payment of a +debt, but rewards and liberality rather. Again, envy is ever joined +with the comparing of a man's self; and where there is no comparison, no +envy; and therefore kings are not envied, but by kings. Nevertheless it +is to be noted, that unworthy persons are most envied, at their first +coming in, and afterwards overcome it better; whereas contrariwise, +persons of worth and merit are most envied, when their fortune +continueth long. For by that time, though their virtue be the same, yet +it hath not the same lustre; for fresh men grow up that darken it. + +Persons of noble blood, are less envied in their rising. For it seemeth +but right done to their birth. Besides, there seemeth not much added +to their fortune; and envy is as the sunbeams, that beat hotter upon a +bank, or steep rising ground, than upon a flat. And for the same reason, +those that are advanced by degrees, are less envied than those that are +advanced suddenly and per saltum. + +Those that have joined with their honor great travels, cares, or perils, +are less subject to envy. For men think that they earn their honors +hardly, and pity them sometimes; and pity ever healeth envy. Wherefore +you shall observe, that the more deep and sober sort of politic persons, +in their greatness, are ever bemoaning themselves, what a life they +lead; chanting a quanta patimur! Not that they feel it so, but only to +abate the edge of envy. But this is to be understood, of business +that is laid upon men, and not such, as they call unto themselves. +For nothing increaseth envy more, than an unnecessary and ambitious +engrossing of business. And nothing doth extinguish envy more, than for +a great person to preserve all other inferior officers, in their full +lights and pre-eminences of their places. For by that means, there be so +many screens between him and envy. + +Above all, those are most subject to envy, which carry the greatness of +their fortunes, in an insolent and proud manner; being never well, but +while they are showing how great they are, either by outward pomp, or +by triumphing over all opposition or competition; whereas wise men +will rather do sacrifice to envy, in suffering themselves sometimes of +purpose to be crossed, and overborne in things that do not much concern +them. Notwithstanding, so much is true, that the carriage of greatness, +in a plain and open manner (so it be without arrogancy and vain glory) +doth draw less envy, than if it be in a more crafty and cunning fashion. +For in that course, a man doth but disavow fortune; and seemeth to be +conscious of his own want in worth; and doth but teach others, to envy +him. + +Lastly, to conclude this part; as we said in the beginning, that the act +of envy had somewhat in it of witchcraft, so there is no other cure of +envy, but the cure of witchcraft; and that is, to remove the lot (as +they call it) and to lay it upon another. For which purpose, the wiser +sort of great persons, bring in ever upon the stage somebody upon whom +to derive the envy, that would come upon themselves; sometimes upon +ministers and servants; sometimes upon colleagues and associates; and +the like; and for that turn there are never wanting, some persons +of violent and undertaking natures, who, so they may have power and +business, will take it at any cost. + +Now, to speak of public envy. There is yet some good in public envy, +whereas in private, there is none. For public envy, is as an ostracism, +that eclipseth men, when they grow too great. And therefore it is a +bridle also to great ones, to keep them within bounds. + +This envy, being in the Latin word invidia, goeth in the modern +language, by the name of discontentment; of which we shall speak, in +handling sedition. It is a disease, in a state, like to infection. For +as infection spreadeth upon that which is sound, and tainteth it; +so when envy is gotten once into a state, it traduceth even the best +actions thereof, and turneth them into an ill odor. And therefore there +is little won, by intermingling of plausible actions. For that doth +argue but a weakness, and fear of envy, which hurteth so much the more, +as it is likewise usual in infections; which if you fear them, you call +them upon you. + +This public envy, seemeth to beat chiefly upon principal officers or +ministers, rather than upon kings, and estates themselves. But this is +a sure rule, that if the envy upon the minister be great, when the cause +of it in him is small; or if the envy be general, in a manner upon all +the ministers of an estate; then the envy (though hidden) is truly upon +the state itself. And so much of public envy or discontentment, and the +difference thereof from private envy, which was handled in the first +place. + +We will add this in general, touching the affection of envy; that of all +other affections, it is the most importune and continual. For of other +affections, there is occasion given, but now and then; and therefore it +was well said, Invidia festos dies non agit: for it is ever working upon +some or other. And it is also noted, that love and envy do make a man +pine, which other affections do not, because they are not so continual. +It is also the vilest affection, and the most depraved; for which cause +it is the proper attribute of the devil, who is called, the envious man, +that soweth tares amongst the wheat by night; as it always cometh to +pass, that envy worketh subtilly, and in the dark, and to the prejudice +of good things, such as is the wheat. + + + + +Of Love + + +THE stage is more beholding to love, than the life of man. For as to the +stage, love is ever matter of comedies, and now and then of tragedies; +but in life it doth much mischief; sometimes like a siren, sometimes +like a fury. You may observe, that amongst all the great and worthy +persons (whereof the memory remaineth, either ancient or recent) there +is not one, that hath been transported to the mad degree of love: which +shows that great spirits, and great business, do keep out this weak +passion. You must except, nevertheless, Marcus Antonius, the half +partner of the empire of Rome, and Appius Claudius, the decemvir +and lawgiver; whereof the former was indeed a voluptuous man, and +inordinate; but the latter was an austere and wise man: and therefore it +seems (though rarely) that love can find entrance, not only into an open +heart, but also into a heart well fortified, if watch be not well kept. +It is a poor saying of Epicurus, Satis magnum alter alteri theatrum +sumus; as if man, made for the contemplation of heaven, and all noble +objects, should do nothing but kneel before a little idol, and make +himself a subject, though not of the mouth (as beasts are), yet of the +eye; which was given him for higher purposes. It is a strange thing, to +note the excess of this passion, and how it braves the nature, and +value of things, by this; that the speaking in a perpetual hyperbole, is +comely in nothing but in love. Neither is it merely in the phrase; for +whereas it hath been well said, that the arch-flatterer, with whom all +the petty flatterers have intelligence, is a man's self; certainly the +lover is more. For there was never proud man thought so absurdly well +of himself, as the lover doth of the person loved; and therefore it was +well said, That it is impossible to love, and to be wise. Neither doth +this weakness appear to others only, and not to the party loved; but to +the loved most of all, except the love be reciproque. For it is a true +rule, that love is ever rewarded, either with the reciproque, or with an +inward and secret contempt. By how much the more, men ought to beware of +this passion, which loseth not only other things, but itself! As for the +other losses, the poet's relation doth well figure them: that he that +preferred Helena, quitted the gifts of Juno and Pallas. For whosoever +esteemeth too much of amorous affection, quitteth both riches and +wisdom. This passion hath his floods, in very times of weakness; which +are great prosperity, and great adversity; though this latter hath been +less observed: both which times kindle love, and make it more fervent, +and therefore show it to be the child of folly. They do best, who if +they cannot but admit love, yet make it keep quarters; and sever it +wholly from their serious affairs, and actions, of life; for if it check +once with business, it troubleth men's fortunes, and maketh men, that +they can no ways be true to their own ends. I know not how, but martial +men are given to love: I think, it is but as they are given to wine; for +perils commonly ask to be paid in pleasures. There is in man's nature, +a secret inclination and motion, towards love of others, which if it be +not spent upon some one or a few, doth naturally spread itself towards +many, and maketh men become humane and charitable; as it is seen +sometime in friars. Nuptial love maketh mankind; friendly love +perfecteth it; but wanton love corrupteth, and embaseth it. + + + + +Of Great Place + + +MEN in great place are thrice servants: servants of the sovereign or +state; servants of fame; and servants of business. So as they have no +freedom; neither in their persons, nor in their actions, nor in their +times. It is a strange desire, to seek power and to lose liberty: or to +seek power over others, and to lose power over a man's self. The rising +unto place is laborious; and by pains, men come to greater pains; and +it is sometimes base; and by indignities, men come to dignities. The +standing is slippery, and the regress is either a downfall, or at least +an eclipse, which is a melancholy thing. Cum non sis qui fueris, non +esse cur velis vivere. Nay, retire men cannot when they would, neither +will they, when it were reason; but are impatient of privateness, even +in age and sickness, which require the shadow; like old townsmen, that +will be still sitting at their street door, though thereby they offer +age to scom. Certainly great persons had need to borrow other men's +opinions, to think themselves happy; for if they judge by their own +feeling, they cannot find it; but if they think with themselves, what +other men think of them, and that other men would fain be, as they are, +then they are happy, as it were, by report; when perhaps they find the +contrary within. For they are the first, that find their own griefs, +though they be the last, that find their own faults. Certainly men in +great fortunes are strangers to themselves, and while they are in the +puzzle of business, they have no time to tend their health, either of +body or mind. Illi mors gravis incubat, qui notus nimis omnibus, ignotus +moritur sibi. In place, there is license to do good, and evil; whereof +the latter is a curse: for in evil, the best condition is not to win; +the second, not to can. But power to do good, is the true and lawful +end of aspiring. For good thoughts (though God accept them) yet, towards +men, are little better than good dreams, except they be put in act; and +that cannot be, without power and place, as the vantage, and commanding +ground. Merit and good works, is the end of man's motion; and conscience +of the same is the accomplishment of man's rest. For if a man can be +partaker of God's theatre, he shall likewise be partaker of God's rest. +Et conversus Deus, ut aspiceret opera quae fecerunt manus suae, vidit +quod omnia essent bona nimis; and then the sabbath. In the discharge of +thy place, set before thee the best examples; for imitation is a globe +of precepts. And after a time, set before thee thine own example; and +examine thyself strictly, whether thou didst not best at first. Neglect +not also the examples, of those that have carried themselves ill, in +the same place; not to set off thyself, by taxing their memory, but to +direct thyself, what to avoid. Reform therefore, without bravery, or +scandal of former times and persons; but yet set it down to thyself, as +well to create good precedents, as to follow them. Reduce things to the +first institution, and observe wherein, and how, they have degenerate; +but yet ask counsel of both times; of the ancient time, what is best; +and of the latter time, what is fittest. Seek to make thy course +regular, that men may know beforehand, what they may expect; but be +not too positive and peremptory; and express thyself well, when thou +digressest from thy rule. Preserve the right of thy place; but stir not +questions of jurisdiction; and rather assume thy right, in silence and +de facto, than voice it with claims, and challenges. Preserve likewise +the rights of inferior places; and think it more honor, to direct in +chief, than to be busy in all. Embrace and invite helps, and advices, +touching the execution of thy place; and do not drive away such, as +bring thee information, as meddlers; but accept of them in good part. +The vices of authority are chiefly four: delays, corruption, roughness, +and facility. For delays: give easy access; keep times appointed; go +through with that which is in hand, and interlace not business, but +of necessity. For corruption: do not only bind thine own hands, or thy +servants' hands, from taking, but bind the hands of suitors also, from +offering. For integrity used doth the one; but integrity professed, and +with a manifest detestation of bribery, doth the other. And avoid not +only the fault, but the suspicion. Whosoever is found variable, +and changeth manifestly without manifest cause, giveth suspicion of +corruption. Therefore always, when thou changest thine opinion or +course, profess it plainly, and declare it, together with the reasons +that move thee to change; and do not think to steal it. A servant or +a favorite, if he be inward, and no other apparent cause of esteem, is +commonly thought, but a by-way to close corruption. For roughness: it +is a needless cause of discontent: severity breedeth fear, but roughness +breedeth hate. Even reproofs from authority, ought to be grave, and not +taunting. As for facility: it is worse than bribery. For bribes come but +now and then; but if importunity, or idle respects, lead a man, he shall +never be without. As Solomon saith, To respect persons is not good; for +such a man will transgress for a piece of bread. It is most true, that +was anciently spoken, A place showeth the man. And it showeth some to +the better, and some to the worse. Omnium consensu capax imperii, nisi +imperasset, saith Tacitus of Galba; but of Vespasian he saith, Solus +imperantium, Vespasianus mutatus in melius; though the one was meant of +sufficiency, the other of manners, and affection. It is an assured sign +of a worthy and generous spirit, whom honor amends. For honor is, or +should be, the place of virtue; and as in nature, things move violently +to their place, and calmly in their place, so virtue in ambition is +violent, in authority settled and calm. All rising to great place is +by a winding star; and if there be factions, it is good to side a man's +self, whilst he is in the rising, and to balance himself when he is +placed. Use the memory of thy predecessor, fairly and tenderly; for if +thou dost not, it is a debt will sure be paid when thou art gone. If +thou have colleagues, respect them, and rather call them, when they +look not for it, than exclude them, when they have reason to look to +be called. Be not too sensible, or too remembering, of thy place in +conversation, and private answers to suitors; but let it rather be said, +When he sits in place, he is another man. + + + + +Of Boldness + + +IT IS a trivial grammar-school text, but yet worthy a wise man's +consideration. Question was asked of Demosthenes, what was the chief +part of an orator? he answered, action; what next? action; what next +again? action. He said it, that knew it best, and had, by nature, +himself no advantage in that he commended. A strange thing, that that +part of an orator, which is but superficial, and rather the virtue of +a player, should be placed so high, above those other noble parts, of +invention, elocution, and the rest; nay, almost alone, as if it were +all in all. But the reason is plain. There is in human nature generally, +more of the fool than of the wise; and therefore those faculties, +by which the foolish part of men's minds is taken, are most potent. +Wonderful like is the case of boldness in civil business: what first? +boldness; what second and third? boldness. And yet boldness is a child +of ignorance and baseness, far inferior to other parts. But nevertheless +it doth fascinate, and bind hand and foot, those that are either shallow +in judgment, or weak in courage, which are the greatest part; yea and +prevaileth with wise men at weak times. Therefore we see it hath done +wonders, in popular states; but with senates, and princes less; and +more ever upon the first entrance of bold persons into action, than soon +after; for boldness is an ill keeper of promise. Surely, as there are +mountebanks for the natural body, so are there mountebanks for the +politic body; men that undertake great cures, and perhaps have been +lucky, in two or three experiments, but want the grounds of science, and +therefore cannot hold out. Nay, you shall see a bold fellow many times +do Mahomet's miracle. Mahomet made the people believe that he would call +an hill to him, and from the top of it offer up his prayers, for the +observers of his law. The people assembled; Mahomet called the hill +to come to him, again and again; and when the hill stood still, he was +never a whit abashed, but said, If the hill will not come to Mahomet, +Mahomet will go to the hill. So these men, when they have promised great +matters, and failed most shamefully, yet (if they have the perfection +of boldness) they will but slight it over, and make a turn, and no more +ado. Certainly to men of great judgment, bold persons are a sport +to behold; nay, and to the vulgar also, boldness has somewhat of the +ridiculous. For if absurdity be the subject of laughter, doubt you not +but great boldness is seldom without some absurdity. Especially it is +a sport to see, when a bold fellow is out of countenance; for that puts +his face into a most shrunken, and wooden posture; as needs it must; for +in bashfulness, the spirits do a little go and come; but with bold men, +upon like occasion, they stand at a stay; like a stale at chess, where +it is no mate, but yet the game cannot stir. But this last were fitter +for a satire than for a serious observation. This is well to be +weighed; that boldness is ever blind; for it seeth not danger, and +inconveniences. Therefore it is ill in counsel, good in execution; so +that the right use of bold persons is, that they never command in chief, +but be seconds, and under the direction of others. For in counsel, it is +good to see dangers; and in execution, not to see them, except they be +very great. + + + + +Of Goodness and Goodness Of Nature + + +I TAKE goodness in this sense, the affecting of the weal of men, which +is that the Grecians call philanthropia; and the word humanity (as it +is used) is a little too light to express it. Goodness I call the +habit, and goodness of nature, the inclination. This of all virtues, +and dignities of the mind, is the greatest; being the character of the +Deity: and without it, man is a busy, mischievous, wretched thing; +no better than a kind of vermin. Goodness answers to the theological +virtue, charity, and admits no excess, but error. The desire of power +in excess, caused the angels to fall; the desire of knowledge in excess, +caused man to fall: but in charity there is no excess; neither can +angel, nor man, come in danger by it. The inclination to goodness, is +imprinted deeply in the nature of man; insomuch, that if it issue not +towards men, it will take unto other living creatures; as it is seen in +the Turks, a cruel people, who nevertheless are kind to beasts, and give +alms, to dogs and birds; insomuch, as Busbechius reporteth, a Christian +boy, in Constantinople, had like to have been stoned, for gagging in +a waggishness a long-billed fowl. Errors indeed in this virtue of +goodness, or charity, may be committed. The Italians have an ungracious +proverb, Tanto buon che val niente: so good, that he is good for +nothing. And one of the doctors of Italy, Nicholas Machiavel, had the +confidence to put in writing, almost in plain terms, That the Christian +faith, had given up good men, in prey to those that are tyrannical and +unjust. Which he spake, because indeed there was never law, or sect, or +opinion, did so much magnify goodness, as the Christian religion doth. +Therefore, to avoid the scandal and the danger both, it is good, to take +knowledge of the errors of an habit so excellent. Seek the good of other +men, but be not in bondage to their faces or fancies; for that is but +facility, or softness; which taketh an honest mind prisoner. Neither +give thou AEsop's cock a gem, who would be better pleased, and happier, +if he had had a barley-corn. The example of God, teacheth the lesson +truly: He sendeth his rain, and maketh his sun to shine, upon the just +and unjust; but he doth not rain wealth, nor shine honor and virtues, +upon men equally. Common benefits, are to be communicate with all; +but peculiar benefits, with choice. And beware how in making the +portraiture, thou breakest the pattern. For divinity, maketh the love of +ourselves the pattern; the love of our neighbors, but the portraiture. +Sell all thou hast, and give it to the poor, and follow me: but, sell +not all thou hast, except thou come and follow me; that is, except thou +have a vocation, wherein thou mayest do as much good, with little means +as with great; for otherwise, in feeding the streams, thou driest the +fountain. Neither is there only a habit of goodness, directed by right +reason; but there is in some men, even in nature, a disposition towards +it; as on the other side, there is a natural malignity. For there be, +that in their nature do not affect the good of others. The lighter sort +of malignity, turneth but to a crassness, or frowardness, or aptness to +oppose, or difficulties, or the like; but the deeper sort, to envy and +mere mischief. Such men, in other men's calamities, are, as it were, in +season, and are ever on the loading part: not so good as the dogs, that +licked Lazarus' sores; but like flies, that are still buzzing upon any +thing that is raw; misanthropi, that make it their practice, to bring +men to the bough, and yet never a tree for the purpose in their gardens, +as Timon had. Such dispositions, are the very errors of human nature; +and yet they are the fittest timber, to make great politics of; like to +knee timber, that is good for ships, that are ordained to be tossed; but +not for building houses, that shall stand firm. The parts and signs of +goodness, are many. If a man be gracious and courteous to strangers, it +shows he is a citizen of the world, and that his heart is no island, +cut off from other lands, but a continent, that joins to them. If he be +compassionate towards the afflictions of others, it shows that his heart +is like the noble tree, that is wounded itself, when it gives the balm. +If he easily pardons, and remits offences, it shows that his mind is +planted above injuries; so that he cannot be shot. If he be thankful +for small benefits, it shows that he weighs men's minds, and not their +trash. But above all, if he have St. Paul's perfection, that he would +wish to be anathema from Christ, for the salvation of his brethren, +it shows much of a divine nature, and a kind of conformity with Christ +himself. + + + + +Of Nobility + + +WE WILL speak of nobility, first as a portion of an estate, then as a +condition of particular persons. A monarchy, where there is no nobility +at all, is ever a pure and absolute tyranny; as that of the Turks. +For nobility attempers sovereignty, and draws the eyes of the people, +somewhat aside from the line royal. But for democracies, they need it +not; and they are commonly more quiet, and less subject to sedition, +than where there are stirps of nobles. For men's eyes are upon the +business, and not upon the persons; or if upon the persons, it is for +the business' sake, as fittest, and not for flags and pedigree. We see +the Switzers last well, notwithstanding their diversity of religion, +and of cantons. For utility is their bond, and not respects. The united +provinces of the Low Countries, in their government, excel; for where +there is an equality, the consultations are more indifferent, and the +payments and tributes, more cheerful. A great and potent nobility, +addeth majesty to a monarch, but diminisheth power; and putteth life +and spirit into the people, but presseth their fortune. It is well, +when nobles are not too great for sovereignty nor for justice; and yet +maintained in that height, as the insolency of inferiors may be broken +upon them, before it come on too fast upon the majesty of kings. A +numerous nobility causeth poverty, and inconvenience in a state; for it +is a surcharge of expense; and besides, it being of necessity, that many +of the nobility fall, in time, to be weak in fortune, it maketh a kind +of disproportion, between honor and means. + +As for nobility in particular persons; it is a reverend thing, to see an +ancient castle or building, not in decay; or to see a fair timber tree, +sound and perfect. How much more, to behold an ancient noble family, +which has stood against the waves and weathers of time! For new nobility +is but the act of power, but ancient nobility is the act of time. Those +that are first raised to nobility, are commonly more virtuous, but less +innocent, than their descendants; for there is rarely any rising, but +by a commixture of good and evil arts. But it is reason, the memory +of their virtues remain to their posterity, and their faults die with +themselves. Nobility of birth commonly abateth industry; and he that is +not industrious, envieth him that is. Besides, noble persons cannot +go much higher; and he that standeth at a stay, when others rise, can +hardly avoid motions of envy. On the other side, nobility extinguisheth +the passive envy from others, towards them; because they are in +possession of honor. Certainly, kings that have able men of their +nobility, shall find ease in employing them, and a better slide into +their business; for people naturally bend to them, as born in some sort +to command. + + + + +Of Seditions And Troubles + + +SHEPHERDS of people, had need know the calendars of tempests in state; +which are commonly greatest, when things grow to equality; as natural +tempests are greatest about the Equinoctia. And as there are certain +hollow blasts of wind, and secret swellings of seas before a tempest, so +are there in states: + + + --Ille etiam caecos instare tumultus + Saepe monet, fraudesque et operta tunescere bella. + + +Libels and licentious discourses against the state, when they are +frequent and open; and in like sort, false news often running up and +down, to the disadvantage of the state, and hastily embraced; are +amongst the signs of troubles. Virgil, giving the pedigree of Fame, +saith, she was sister to the Giants: + + +Illam Terra parens, irra irritata deorum, Extremam (ut perhibent) Coeo +Enceladoque sororem Progenuit. + +As if fames were the relics of seditions past; but they are no less, +indeed, the preludes of seditions to come. Howsoever he noteth it right, +that seditious tumults, and seditious fames, differ no more but as +brother and sister, masculine and feminine; especially if it come to +that, that the best actions of a state, and the most plausible, and +which ought to give greatest contentment, are taken in ill sense, and +traduced: for that shows the envy great, as Tacitus saith; conflata +magna invidia, seu bene seu male gesta premunt. Neither doth it follow, +that because these fames are a sign of troubles, that the suppressing +of them with too much severity, should be a remedy of troubles. For the +despising of them, many times checks them best; and the going about +to stop them, doth but make a wonder long-lived. Also that kind of +obedience, which Tacitus speaketh of, is to be held suspected: Erant +in officio, sed tamen qui mallent mandata imperantium interpretari quam +exequi; disputing, excusing, cavilling upon mandates and directions, is +a kind of shaking off the yoke, and assay of disobedience; especially if +in those disputings, they which are for the direction, speak fearfully +and tenderly, and those that are against it, audaciously. + +Also, as Machiavel noteth well, when princes, that ought to be common +parents, make themselves as a party, and lean to a side, it is as a +boat, that is overthrown by uneven weight on the one side; as was well +seen, in the time of Henry the Third of France; for first, himself +entered league for the extirpation of the Protestants; and presently +after, the same league was turned upon himself. For when the authority +of princes, is made but an accessory to a cause, and that there be other +bands, that tie faster than the band of sovereignty, kings begin to be +put almost out of possession. + +Also, when discords, and quarrels, and factions are carried openly and +audaciously, it is a sign the reverence of government is lost. For the +motions of the greatest persons in a government, ought to be as the +motions of the planets under primum mobile; according to the old +opinion: which is, that every of them, is carried swiftly by the highest +motion, and softly in their own motion. And therefore, when great +ones in their own particular motion, move violently, and, as Tacitus +expresseth it well, liberius quam ut imperantium meminissent; it is a +sign the orbs are out of frame. For reverence is that, wherewith princes +are girt from God; who threateneth the dissolving thereof; Solvam +cingula regum. + +So when any of the four pillars of government, are mainly shaken, or +weakened (which are religion, justice, counsel, and treasure), men +had need to pray for fair weather. But let us pass from this part of +predictions (concerning which, nevertheless, more light may be taken +from that which followeth); and let us speak first, of the materials of +seditions; then of the motives of them; and thirdly of the remedies. + +Concerning the materials of seditions. It is a thing well to be +considered; for the surest way to prevent seditions (if the times +do bear it) is to take away the matter of them. For if there be fuel +prepared, it is hard to tell, whence the spark shall come, that shall +set it on fire. The matter of seditions is of two kinds: much poverty, +and much discontentment. It is certain, so many overthrown estates, so +many votes for troubles. Lucan noteth well the state of Rome before the +Civil War, + + + Hinc usura vorax, rapidumque in tempore foenus, + Hinc concussa fides, et multis utile bellum. + + +This same multis utile bellum, is an assured and infallible sign, of a +state disposed to seditions and troubles. And if this poverty and broken +estate in the better sort, be joined with a want and necessity in the +mean people, the danger is imminent and great. For the rebellions of the +belly are the worst. As for discontentments, they are, in the politic +body, like to humors in the natural, which are apt to gather a +preternatural heat, and to inflame. And let no prince measure the +danger of them by this, whether they be just or unjust: for that were +to imagine people, to be too reasonable; who do often spurn at their +own good: nor yet by this, whether the griefs whereupon they rise, be +in fact great or small: for they are the most dangerous discontentments, +where the fear is greater than the feeling. Dolendi modus, timendi non +item. Besides, in great oppressions, the same things that provoke the +patience, do withal mate the courage; but in fears it is not so. Neither +let any prince, or state, be secure concerning discontentments, because +they have been often, or have been long, and yet no peril hath ensued: +for as it is true, that every vapor or fume doth not turn into a storm; +so it is nevertheless true, that storms, though they blow over divers +times, yet may fall at last; and, as the Spanish proverb noteth well, +The cord breaketh at the last by the weakest pull. + +The causes and motives of seditions are, innovation in religion; +taxes; alteration of laws and customs; breaking of privileges; general +oppression; advancement of unworthy persons; strangers; dearths; +disbanded soldiers; factions grown desperate; and what soever, in +offending people, joineth and knitteth them in a common cause. + +For the remedies; there may be some general preservatives, whereof +we will speak: as for the just cure, it must answer to the particular +disease; and so be left to counsel, rather than rule. + +The first remedy or prevention is to remove, by all means possible, that +material cause of sedition whereof we spake; which is, want and poverty +in the estate. To which purpose serveth the opening, and well-balancing +of trade; the cherishing of manufactures; the banishing of idleness; the +repressing of waste, and excess, by sumptuary laws; the improvement and +husbanding of the soil; the regulating of prices of things vendible; the +moderating of taxes and tributes; and the like. Generally, it is to be +foreseen that the population of a kingdom (especially if it be not +mown down by wars) do not exceed the stock of the kingdom, which should +maintain them. Neither is the population to be reckoned only by number; +for a smaller number, that spend more and earn less, do wear out an +estate sooner, than a greater number that live lower, and gather more. +Therefore the multiplying of nobility, and other degrees of quality, in +an over proportion to the common people, doth speedily bring a state +to necessity; and so doth likewise an overgrown clergy; for they bring +nothing to the stock; and in like manner, when more are bred scholars, +than preferments can take off. + +It is likewise to be remembered, that forasmuch as the increase of any +estate must be upon the foreigner (for whatsoever is somewhere gotten, +is somewhere lost), there be but three things, which one nation selleth +unto another; the commodity as nature yieldeth it; the manufacture; and +the vecture, or carriage. So that if these three wheels go, wealth +will flow as in a spring tide. And it cometh many times to pass, that +materiam superabit opus; that the work and carriage is more worth than +the material, and enricheth a state more; as is notably seen in the +Low-Countrymen, who have the best mines above ground, in the world. + +Above all things, good policy is to be used, that the treasure and +moneys, in a state, be not gathered into few hands. For otherwise a +state may have a great stock, and yet starve. And money is like muck, +not good except it be spread. This is done, chiefly by suppressing, +or at least keeping a strait hand, upon the devouring trades of usury, +ingrossing great pasturages, and the like. + +For removing discontentments, or at least the danger of them; there is +in every state (as we know) two portions of subjects; the noblesse +and the commonalty. When one of these is discontent, the danger is not +great; for common people are of slow motion, if they be not excited by +the greater sort; and the greater sort are of small strength, except the +multitude be apt, and ready to move of themselves. Then is the danger, +when the greater sort, do but wait for the troubling of the waters +amongst the meaner, that then they may declare themselves. The poets +feign, that the rest of the gods would have bound Jupiter; which he +hearing of, by the counsel of Pallas, sent for Briareus, with his +hundred hands, to come in to his aid. An emblem, no doubt, to show how +safe it is for monarchs, to make sure of the good will of common people. +To give moderate liberty for griefs and discontentments to evaporate +(so it be without too great insolency or bravery), is a safe way. For +he that turneth the humors back, and maketh the wound bleed inwards, +endangereth malign ulcers, and pernicious imposthumations. + +The part of Epimetheus mought well become Prometheus, in the case of +discontentments: for there is not a better provision against them. +Epimetheus, when griefs and evils flew abroad, at last shut the lid, +and kept hope in the bottom of the vessel. Certainly, the politic and +artificial nourishing, and entertaining of hopes, and carrying men +from hopes to hopes, is one of the best antidotes against the poison +of discontentments. And it is a certain sign of a wise government and +proceeding, when it can hold men's hearts by hopes, when it cannot by +satisfaction; and when it can handle things, in such manner, as no evil +shall appear so peremptory, but that it hath some outlet of hope; which +is the less hard to do, because both particular persons and factions, +are apt enough to flatter themselves, or at least to brave that, which +they believe not. + +Also the foresight and prevention, that there be no likely or fit head, +whereunto discontented persons may resort, and under whom they may join, +is a known, but an excellent point of caution. I understand a fit head, +to be one that hath greatness and reputation; that hath confidence with +the discontented party, and upon whom they turn their eyes; and that is +thought discontented, in his own particular: which kind of persons, are +either to be won, and reconciled to the state, and that in a fast and +true manner; or to be fronted with some other, of the same party, that +may oppose them, and so divide the reputation. Generally, the dividing +and breaking, of all factions and combinations that are adverse to +the state, and setting them at distance, or at least distrust, amongst +themselves, is not one of the worst remedies. For it is a desperate +case, if those that hold with the proceeding of the state, be full +of discord and faction, and those that are against it, be entire and +united. + +I have noted, that some witty and sharp speeches, which have fallen from +princes, have given fire to seditions. Caesar did himself infinite hurt +in that speech, Sylla nescivit literas, non potuit dictare; for it did +utterly cut off that hope, which men had entertained, that he would at +one time or other give over his dictatorship. Galba undid himself by +that speech, legi a se militem, non emi; for it put the soldiers out of +hope of the donative. Probus likewise, by that speech, Si vixero, non +opus erit amplius Romano imperio militibus; a speech of great despair +for the soldiers. And many the like. Surely princes had need, in tender +matters and ticklish times, to beware what they say; especially in these +short speeches, which fly abroad like darts, and are thought to be shot +out of their secret intentions. For as for large discourses, they are +flat things, and not so much noted. + + +Lastly, let princes, against all events, not be without some great +person, one or rather more, of military valor, near unto them, for the +repressing of seditions in their beginnings. For without that, there +useth to be more trepidation in court upon the first breaking out of +troubles, than were fit. And the state runneth the danger of that which +Tacitus saith; Atque is habitus animorum fuit, ut pessimum facinus +auderent pauci, plures vellent, omnes paterentur. But let such military +persons be assured, and well reputed of, rather than factious and +popular; holding also good correspondence with the other great men in +the state; or else the remedy, is worse than the disease. + + + + +Of Atheism + + +I HAD rather believe all the fables in the Legend, and the Talmud, +and the Alcoran, than that this universal frame is without a mind. And +therefore, God never wrought miracle, to convince atheism, because +his ordinary works convince it. It is true, that a little philosophy +inclineth man's mind to atheism; but depth in philosophy bringeth men's +minds about to religion. For while the mind of man looketh upon second +causes scattered, it may sometimes rest in them, and go no further; but +when it beholdeth the chain of them, confederate and linked together, it +must needs fly to Providence and Deity. Nay, even that school which is +most accused of atheism doth most demonstrate religion; that is, the +school of Leucippus and Democritus and Epicurus. For it is a thousand +times more credible, that four mutable elements, and one immutable fifth +essence, duly and eternally placed, need no God, than that an army of +infinite small portions, or seeds unplaced, should have produced this +order and beauty, without a divine marshal. The Scripture saith, The +fool hath said in his heart, there is no God; it is not said, The fool +hath thought in his heart; so as he rather saith it, by rote to himself, +as that he would have, than that he can thoroughly believe it, or be +persuaded of it. For none deny, there is a God, but those, for whom +it maketh that there were no God. It appeareth in nothing more, that +atheism is rather in the lip, than in the heart of man, than by this; +that atheists will ever be talking of that their opinion, as if they +fainted in it, within themselves, and would be glad to be strengthened, +by the consent of others. Nay more, you shall have atheists strive to +get disciples, as it fareth with other sects. And, which is most of all, +you shall have of them, that will suffer for atheism, and not recant; +whereas if they did truly think, that there were no such thing as God, +why should they trouble themselves? Epicurus is charged, that he did +but dissemble for his credit's sake, when he affirmed there were blessed +natures, but such as enjoyed themselves, without having respect to the +government of the world. Wherein they say he did temporize; though in +secret, he thought there was no God. But certainly he is traduced; for +his words are noble and divine: Non deos vulgi negare profanum; sed +vulgi opiniones diis applicare profanum. Plato could have said no more. +And although he had the confidence, to deny the administration, he had +not the power, to deny the nature. The Indians of the West, have names +for their particular gods, though they have no name for God: as if the +heathens should have had the names Jupiter, Apollo, Mars, etc., but not +the word Deus; which shows that even those barbarous people have the +notion, though they have not the latitude and extent of it. So that +against atheists, the very savages take part, with the very subtlest +philosophers. The contemplative atheist is rare: a Diagoras, a Bion, a +Lucian perhaps, and some others; and yet they seem to be more than they +are; for that all that impugn a received religion, or superstition, are +by the adverse part branded with the name of atheists. But the great +atheists, indeed are hypocrites; which are ever handling holy things, +but without feeling; so as they must needs be cauterized in the end. The +causes of atheism are: divisions in religion, if they be many; for +any one main division, addeth zeal to both sides; but many divisions +introduce atheism. Another is, scandal of priests; when it is come +to that which St. Bernard saith, non est jam dicere, ut populus sic +sacerdos; quia nec sic populus ut sacerdos. A third is, custom of +profane scoffing in holy matters; which doth, by little and little, +deface the reverence of religion. And lastly, learned times, specially +with peace and prosperity; for troubles and adversities do more bow +men's minds to religion. They that deny a God, destroy man's nobility; +for certainly man is of kin to the beasts, by his body; and, if he be +not of kin to God, by his spirit, he is a base and ignoble creature. It +destroys likewise magnanimity, and the raising of human nature; for take +an example of a dog, and mark what a generosity and courage he will put +on, when he finds himself maintained by a man; who to him is instead +of a God, or melior natura; which courage is manifestly such, as that +creature, without that confidence of a better nature than his own, could +never attain. So man, when he resteth and assureth himself, upon divine +protection and favor, gathered a force and faith, which human nature +in itself could not obtain. Therefore, as atheism is in all respects +hateful, so in this, that it depriveth human nature of the means to +exalt itself, above human frailty. As it is in particular persons, so it +is in nations. Never was there such a state for magnanimity as Rome. +Of this state hear what Cicero saith: Quam volumus licet, patres +conscripti, nos amemus, tamen nec numero Hispanos, nec robore Gallos, +nec calliditate Poenos, nec artibus Graecos, nec denique hoc ipso hujus +gentis et terrae domestico nativoque sensu Italos ipsos et Latinos; sed +pietate, ac religione, atque hac una sapientia, quod deorum immortalium +numine omnia regi gubernarique perspeximus, omnes gentes nationesque +superavimus. + + + + +Of Superstition + + +IT WERE better to have no opinion of God at all, than such an opinion, +as is unworthy of him. For the one is unbelief, the other is contumely; +and certainly superstition is the reproach of the Deity. Plutarch saith +well to that purpose: Surely (saith he) I had rather a great deal, men +should say, there was no such man at all, as Plutarch, than that they +should say, that there was one Plutarch, that would eat his children +as soon as they were born; as the poets speak of Saturn. And as the +contumely is greater towards God, so the danger is greater towards men. +Atheism leaves a man to sense, to philosophy, to natural piety, to +laws, to reputation; all which may be guides to an outward moral virtue, +though religion were not; but superstition dismounts all these, and +erecteth an absolute monarchy, in the minds of men. Therefore atheism did +never perturb states; for it makes men wary of themselves, as looking +no further: and we see the times inclined to atheism (as the time +of Augustus Caesar) were civil times. But superstition hath been the +confusion of many states, and bringeth in a new primum mobile, that +ravisheth all the spheres of government. The master of superstition, +is the people; and in all superstition, wise men follow fools; and +arguments are fitted to practice, in a reversed order. It was gravely +said by some of the prelates in the Council of Trent, where the +doctrine of the Schoolmen bare great sway, that the Schoolmen were like +astronomers, which did feign eccentrics and epicycles, and such engines +of orbs, to save the phenomena; though they knew there were no such +things; and in like manner, that the Schoolmen had framed a number of +subtle and intricate axioms, and theorems, to save the practice of the +church. The causes of superstition are: pleasing and sensual rites +and ceremonies; excess of outward and pharisaical holiness; overgreat +reverence of traditions, which cannot but load the church; the +stratagems of prelates, for their own ambition and lucre; the favoring +too much of good intentions, which openeth the gate to conceits and +novelties; the taking an aim at divine matters, by human, which cannot +but breed mixture of imaginations: and, lastly, barbarous times, +especially joined with calamities and disasters. Superstition, without a +veil, is a deformed thing; for, as it addeth deformity to an ape, to be +so like a man, so the similitude of superstition to religion, makes it +the more deformed. And as wholesome meat corrupteth to little worms, so +good forms and orders corrupt, into a number of petty observances. There +is a superstition in avoiding superstition, when men think to do best, +if they go furthest from the superstition, formerly received; therefore +care would be had that (as it fareth in ill purgings) the good be not +taken away with the bad; which commonly is done, when the people is the +reformer. + + + + +Of Travel + + +TRAVEL, in the younger sort, is a part of education, in the elder, a +part of experience. He that travelleth into a country, before he hath +some entrance into the language, goeth to school, and not to travel. +That young men travel under some tutor, or grave servant, I allow well; +so that he be such a one that hath the language, and hath been in the +country before; whereby he may be able to tell them what things are +worthy to be seen, in the country where they go; what acquaintances +they are to seek; what exercises, or discipline, the place yieldeth. For +else, young men shall go hooded, and look abroad little. It is a strange +thing, that in sea voyages, where there is nothing to be seen, but sky +and sea, men should make diaries; but in land-travel, wherein so much is +to be observed, for the most part they omit it; as if chance were fitter +to be registered, than observation. Let diaries, therefore, be brought +in use. The things to be seen and observed are: the courts of princes, +especially when they give audience to ambassadors; the courts of +justice, while they sit and hear causes; and so of consistories +ecclesiastic; the churches and monasteries, with the monuments which are +therein extant; the walls and fortifications of cities, and towns, and +so the heavens and harbors; antiquities and ruins; libraries; colleges, +disputations, and lectures, where any are; shipping and navies; +houses and gardens of state and pleasure, near great cities; armories; +arsenals; magazines; exchanges; burses; warehouses; exercises of +horsemanship, fencing, training of soldiers, and the like; comedies, +such whereunto the better sort of persons do resort; treasuries of +jewels and robes; cabinets and rarities; and, to conclude, whatsoever is +memorable, in the places where they go. After all which, the tutors, +or servants, ought to make diligent inquiry. As for triumphs, masks, +feasts, weddings, funerals, capital executions, and such shows, men need +not to be put in mind of them; yet are they not to be neglected. If you +will have a young man to put his travel into a little room, and in short +time to gather much, this you must do. First, as was said, he must have +some entrance into the language before he goeth. Then he must have such +a servant, or tutor, as knoweth the country, as was likewise said. Let +him carry with him also, some card or book, describing the country where +he travelleth; which will be a good key to his inquiry. Let him keep +also a diary. Let him not stay long, in one city or town; more or less +as the place deserveth, but not long; nay, when he stayeth in one city +or town, let him change his lodging from one end and part of the town, +to another; which is a great adamant of acquaintance. Let him sequester +himself, from the company of his countrymen, and diet in such places, +where there is good company of the nation where he travelleth. Let him, +upon his removes from one place to another, procure recommendation to +some person of quality, residing in the place whither he removeth; that +he may use his favor, in those things he desireth to see or know. Thus +he may abridge his travel, with much profit. As for the acquaintance, +which is to be sought in travel; that which is most of all profitable, +is acquaintance with the secretaries and employed men of ambassadors: +for so in travelling in one country, he shall suck the experience of +many. Let him also see, and visit, eminent persons in all kinds, which +are of great name abroad; that he may be able to tell, how the life +agreeth with the fame. For quarrels, they are with care and discretion +to be avoided. They are commonly for mistresses, healths, place, and +words. And let a man beware, how he keepeth company with choleric and +quarrelsome persons; for they will engage him into their own quarrels. +When a traveller returneth home, let him not leave the countries, where +he hath travelled, altogether behind him; but maintain a correspondence +by letters, with those of his acquaintance, which are of most worth. +And let his travel appear rather in his discourse, than his apparel or +gesture; and in his discourse, let him be rather advised in his answers, +than forward to tell stories; and let it appear that he doth not change +his country manners, for those of foreign parts; but only prick in some +flowers, of that he hath learned abroad, into the customs of his own +country. + + + + +Of Empire + + +IT IS a miserable state of mind, to have few things to desire, and many +things to fear; and yet that commonly is the case of kings; who, being +at the highest, want matter of desire, which makes their minds more +languishing; and have many representations of perils and shadows, which +makes their minds the less clear. And this is one reason also, of +that effect which the Scripture speaketh of, That the king's heart is +inscrutable. For multitude of jealousies, and lack of some predominant +desire, that should marshal and put in order all the rest, maketh +any man's heart, hard to find or sound. Hence it comes likewise, that +princes many times make themselves desires, and set their hearts upon +toys; sometimes upon a building; sometimes upon erecting of an order; +sometimes upon the advancing of a person; sometimes upon obtaining +excellency in some art, or feat of the hand; as Nero for playing on the +harp, Domitian for certainty of the hand with the arrow, Commodus for +playing at fence, Caracalla for driving chariots, and the like. This +seemeth incredible, unto those that know not the principle, that the +mind of man, is more cheered and refreshed by profiting in small things, +than by standing at a stay, in great. We see also that kings that have +been fortunate conquerors, in their first years, it being not possible +for them to go forward infinitely, but that they must have some +check, or arrest in their fortunes, turn in their latter years to be +superstitious, and melancholy; as did Alexander the Great; Diocletian; +and in our memory, Charles the Fifth; and others: for he that is used to +go forward, and findeth a stop, falleth out of his own favor, and is not +the thing he was. + +To speak now of the true temper of empire, it is a thing rare and hard +to keep; for both temper, and distemper, consist of contraries. But it +is one thing, to mingle contraries, another to interchange them. The +answer of Apollonius to Vespasian, is full of excellent instruction. +Vespasian asked him, What was Nero's overthrow? He answered, Nero could +touch and tune the harp well; but in government, sometimes he used to +wind the pins too high, sometimes to let them down too low. And certain +it is, that nothing destroyeth authority so much, as the unequal and +untimely interchange of power pressed too far, and relaxed too much. + +This is true, that the wisdom of all these latter times, in princes' +affairs, is rather fine deliveries, and shiftings of dangers and +mischiefs, when they are near, than solid and grounded courses to keep +them aloof. But this is but to try masteries with fortune. And let men +beware, how they neglect and suffer matter of trouble to be prepared; +for no man can forbid the spark, nor tell whence it may come. The +difficulties in princes' business are many and great; but the greatest +difficulty, is often in their own mind. For it is common with princes +(saith Tacitus) to will contradictories, Sunt plerumque regum voluntates +vehementes, et inter se contrariae. For it is the solecism of power, to +think to command the end, and yet not to endure the mean. + +Kings have to deal with their neighbors, their wives, their children, +their prelates or clergy, their nobles, their second-nobles or +gentlemen, their merchants, their commons, and their men of war; and +from all these arise dangers, if care and circumspection be not used. + +First for their neighbors; there can no general rule be given (for +occasions are so variable), save one, which ever holdeth, which is, that +princes do keep due sentinel, that none of their neighbors do ever grow +so (by increase of territory, by embracing of trade, by approaches, or +the like), as they become more able to annoy them, than they were. +And this is generally the work of standing counsels, to foresee and to +hinder it. During that triumvirate of kings, King Henry the Eighth +of England, Francis the First King of France, and Charles the Fifth +Emperor, there was such a watch kept, that none of the three could win a +palm of ground, but the other two would straightways balance it, either +by confederation, or, if need were, by a war; and would not in any wise +take up peace at interest. And the like was done by that league (which +Guicciardini saith was the security of Italy) made between Ferdinando +King of Naples, Lorenzius Medici, and Ludovicus Sforza, potentates, the +one of Florence, the other of Milan. Neither is the opinion of some of +the Schoolmen, to be received, that a war cannot justly be made, but +upon a precedent injury or provocation. For there is no question, but +a just fear of an imminent danger, though there be no blow given, is a +lawful cause of a war. + +For their wives; there are cruel examples of them. Livia is infamed, +for the poisoning of her husband; Roxalana, Solyman's wife, was the +destruction of that renowned prince, Sultan Mustapha, and otherwise +troubled his house and succession; Edward the Second of England, his +queen, had the principal hand in the deposing and murder of her husband. +This kind of danger, is then to be feared chiefly, when the wives have +plots, for the raising of their own children; or else that they be +advoutresses. + +For their children; the tragedies likewise of dangers from them, have +been many. And generally, the entering of fathers into suspicion of +their children, hath been ever unfortunate. The destruction of Mustapha +(that we named before) was so fatal to Solyman's line, as the succession +of the Turks, from Solyman until this day, is suspected to be untrue, +and of strange blood; for that Selymus the Second, was thought to +be suppositious. The destruction of Crispus, a young prince of rare +towardness, by Constantinus the Great, his father, was in like manner +fatal to his house; for both Constantinus and Constance, his sons, died +violent deaths; and Constantius, his other son, did little better; who +died indeed of sickness, but after that Julianus had taken arms against +him. The destruction of Demetrius, son to Philip the Second of Macedon, +turned upon the father, who died of repentance. And many like examples +there are; but few or none, where the fathers had good by such distrust; +except it were, where the sons were up in open arms against them; as +was Selymus the First against Bajazet; and the three sons of Henry the +Second, King of England. + +For their prelates; when they are proud and great, there is also danger +from them; as it was in the times of Anselmus, and Thomas Becket, +Archbishops of Canterbury; who, with their croziers, did almost try it +with the king's sword; and yet they had to deal with stout and haughty +kings, William Rufus, Henry the First, and Henry the Second. The danger +is not from that state, but where it hath a dependence of foreign +authority; or where the churchmen come in and are elected, not by the +collation of the king, or particular patrons, but by the people. + +For their nobles; to keep them at a distance, it is not amiss; but to +depress them, may make a king more absolute, but less safe; and less +able to perform, any thing that he desires. I have noted it, in +my History of King Henry the Seventh of England, who depressed his +nobility; whereupon it came to pass, that his times were full of +difficulties and troubles; for the nobility, though they continued loyal +unto him, yet did they not co-operate with him in his business. So that +in effect, he was fain to do all things himself. + +For their second-nobles; there is not much danger from them, being a +body dispersed. They may sometimes discourse high, but that doth little +hurt; besides, they are a counterpoise to the higher nobility, that they +grow not too potent; and, lastly, being the most immediate in authority, +with the common people, they do best temper popular commotions. + +For their merchants; they are vena porta; and if they flourish not, +a kingdom may have good limbs, but will have empty veins, and nourish +little. Taxes and imposts upon them, do seldom good to the king's +revenue; for that that he wins in the hundred, he leeseth in the shire; +the particular rates being increased, but the total bulk of trading, +rather decreased. + +For their commons; there is little danger from them, except it be, where +they have great and potent heads; or where you meddle with the point of +religion, or their customs, or means of life. + +For their men of war; it is a dangerous state, where they live and +remain in a body, and are used to donatives; whereof we see examples in +the janizaries, and pretorian bands of Rome; but trainings of men, and +arming them in several places, and under several commanders, and without +donatives, are things of defence, and no danger. + +Princes are like to heavenly bodies, which cause good or evil times; and +which have much veneration, but no rest. All precepts concerning kings, +are in effect comprehended in those two remembrances: memento quod es +homo; and memento quod es Deus, or vice Dei; the one bridleth their +power, and the other their will. + + + + +Of Counsel + + +THE greatest trust, between man and man, is the trust of giving counsel. +For in other confidences, men commit the parts of life; their lands, +their goods, their children, their credit, some particular affair; but +to such as they make their counsellors, they commit the whole: by how +much the more, they are obliged to all faith and integrity. The +wisest princes need not think it any diminution to their greatness, or +derogation to their sufficiency, to rely upon counsel. God himself is +not without, but hath made it one of the great names of his blessed Son: +The Counsellor. Solomon hath pronounced, that in counsel is stability. +Things will have their first, or second agitation: if they be not tossed +upon the arguments of counsel, they will be tossed upon the waves of +fortune; and be full of inconstancy, doing and undoing, like the reeling +of a drunken man. Solomon's son found the force of counsel, as his +father saw the necessity of it. For the beloved kingdom of God, was +first rent, and broken, by ill counsel; upon which counsel, there are +set for our instruction, the two marks whereby bad counsel is for ever +best discerned; that it was young counsel, for the person; and violent +counsel, for the matter. + +The ancient times, do set forth in figure, both the incorporation, and +inseparable conjunction, of counsel with kings, and the wise and politic +use of counsel by kings: the one, in that they say Jupiter did marry +Metis, which signifieth counsel; whereby they intend that Sovereignty, +is married to Counsel: the other in that which followeth, which was +thus: They say, after Jupiter was married to Metis, she conceived by +him, and was with child, but Jupiter suffered her not to stay, till she +brought forth, but eat her up; whereby he became himself with child, and +was delivered of Pallas armed, out of his head. Which monstrous fable +containeth a secret of empire; how kings are to make use of their +counsel of state. That first, they ought to refer matters unto them, +which is the first begetting, or impregnation; but when they are +elaborate, moulded, and shaped in the womb of their counsel, and grow +ripe, and ready to be brought forth, that then they suffer not their +counsel to go through with the resolution and direction, as if it +depended on them; but take the matter back into their own hands, and +make it appear to the world, that the decrees and final directions +(which, because they come forth, with prudence and power, are resembled +to Pallas armed) proceeded from themselves; and not only from their +authority, but (the more to add reputation to themselves) from their +head and device. + +Let us now speak of the inconveniences of counsel, and of the remedies. +The inconveniences that have been noted, in calling and using counsel, +are three. First, the revealing of affairs, whereby they become less +secret. Secondly, the weakening of the authority of princes, as if +they were less of themselves. Thirdly, the danger of being unfaithfully +counselled, and more for the good of them that counsel, than of him +that is counselled. For which inconveniences, the doctrine of Italy, +and practice of France, in some kings' times, hath introduced cabinet +counsels; a remedy worse than the disease. + +As to secrecy; princes are not bound to communicate all matters, with +all counsellors; but may extract and select. Neither is it necessary, +that he that consulteth what he should do, should declare what he will +do. But let princes beware, that the unsecreting of their affairs, comes +not from themselves. And as for cabinet counsels, it may be their motto, +plenus rimarum sum: one futile person, that maketh it his glory to tell, +will do more hurt than many, that know it their duty to conceal. It is +true there be some affairs, which require extreme secrecy, which will +hardly go beyond one or two persons, besides the king: neither are those +counsels unprosperous; for, besides the secrecy, they commonly go on +constantly, in one spirit of direction, without distraction. But then +it must be a prudent king, such as is able to grind with a handmill; and +those inward counsellors had need also be wise men, and especially true +and trusty to the king's ends; as it was with King Henry the Seventh of +England, who, in his great business, imparted himself to none, except it +were to Morton and Fox. + +For weakening of authority; the fable showeth the remedy. Nay, the +majesty of kings, is rather exalted than diminished, when they are in +the chair of counsel; neither was there ever prince, bereaved of his +dependences, by his counsel, except where there hath been, either an +over-greatness in one counsellor, or an over-strict combination in +divers; which are things soon found, and holpen. + +For the last inconvenience, that men will counsel, with an eye to +themselves; certainly, non inveniet fidem super terram is meant, of the +nature of times, and not of all particular persons. There be, that are +in nature faithful, and sincere, and plain, and direct; not crafty +and involved; let princes, above all, draw to themselves such +natures. Besides, counsellors are not commonly so united, but that one +counsellor, keepeth sentinel over another; so that if any do counsel out +of faction or private ends, it commonly comes to the king's ear. But +the best remedy is, if princes know their counsellors, as well as their +counsellors know them: + + +Principis est virtus maxima nosse suos. + +And on the other side, counsellors should not be too speculative into +their sovereign's person. The true composition of a counsellor, is +rather to be skilful in their master's business, than in his nature; for +then he is like to advise him, and not feed his humor. It is of singular +use to princes, if they take the opinions of their counsel, both +separately and together. For private opinion is more free; but opinion +before others, is more reverent. In private, men are more bold in their +own humors; and in consort, men are more obnoxious to others' humors; +therefore it is good to take both; and of the inferior sort, rather +in private, to preserve freedom; of the greater, rather in consort, to +preserve respect. It is in vain for princes, to take counsel concerning +matters, if they take no counsel likewise concerning persons; for all +matters are as dead images; and the life of the execution of affairs, +resteth in the good choice of persons. Neither is it enough, to consult +concerning persons secundum genera, as in an idea, or mathematical +description, what the kind and character of the person should be; for +the greatest errors are committed, and the most judgment is shown, in +the choice of individuals. It was truly said, optimi consiliarii mortui: +books will speak plain, when counsellors blanch. Therefore it is good to +be conversant in them, specially the books of such as themselves have +been actors upon the stage. + +The counsels at this day, in most places, are but familiar meetings, +where matters are rather talked on, than debated. And they run too +swift, to the order, or act, of counsel. It were better that in causes +of weight, the matter were propounded one day, and not spoken to till +the next day; in nocte consilium. So was it done in the Commission +of Union, between England and Scotland; which was a grave and orderly +assembly. I commend set days for petitions; for both it gives the +suitors more certainty for their attendance, and it frees the meetings +for matters of estate, that they may hoc agere. In choice of committees; +for ripening business for the counsel, it is better to choose +indifferent persons, than to make an indifferency, by putting in those, +that are strong on both sides. I commend also standing commissions; as +for trade, for treasure, for war, for suits, for some provinces; for +where there be divers particular counsels, and but one counsel of +estate (as it is in Spain), they are, in effect, no more than standing +commissions: save that they have greater authority. Let such as are +to inform counsels, out of their particular professions (as lawyers, +seamen, mintmen, and the like) be first heard before committees; and +then, as occasion serves, before the counsel. And let them not come in +multitudes, or in a tribunitious manner; for that is to clamor counsels, +not to inform them. A long table and a square table, or seats about the +walls, seem things of form, but are things of substance; for at a long +table a few at the upper end, in effect, sway all the business; but in +the other form, there is more use of the counsellors' opinions, that sit +lower. A king, when he presides in counsel, let him beware how he opens +his own inclination too much, in that which he propoundeth; for else +counsellors will but take the wind of him, and instead of giving free +counsel, sing him a song of placebo. + + + + +Of Delays + + +FORTUNE is like the market; where many times if you can stay a little, +the price will fall. Again, it is sometimes like Sibylla's offer; which +at first, offereth the commodity at full, then consumeth part and part, +and still holdeth up the price. For occasion (as it is in the common +verse) turneth a bald noddle, after she hath presented her locks in +front, and no hold taken; or at least turneth the handle of the bottle, +first to be received, and after the belly, which is hard to clasp. +There is surely no greater wisdom, than well to time the beginnings, and +onsets, of things. Dangers are no more light, if they once seem light; +and more dangers have deceived men, than forced them. Nay, it were +better, to meet some dangers half way, though they come nothing near, +than to keep too long a watch upon their approaches; for if a man watch +too long, it is odds he will fall asleep. On the other side, to be +deceived with too long shadows (as some have been, when the moon was +low, and shone on their enemies' back), and so to shoot off before the +time; or to teach dangers to come on, by over early buckling towards +them; is another extreme. The ripeness, or unripeness, of the occasion +(as we said) must ever be well weighed; and generally it is good, to +commit the beginnings of all great actions to Argus, with his hundred +eyes, and the ends to Briareus, with his hundred hands; first to watch, +and then to speed. For the helmet of Pluto, which maketh the politic man +go invisible, is secrecy in the counsel, and celerity in the execution. +For when things are once come to the execution, there is no secrecy, +comparable to celerity; like the motion of a bullet in the air, which +flieth so swift, as it outruns the eye. + + + + +Of Cunning + + +WE TAKE cunning for a sinister or crooked wisdom. And certainly there is +a great difference, between a cunning man, and a wise man; not only in +point of honesty, but in point of ability. There be, that can pack the +cards, and yet cannot play well; so there are some that are good in +canvasses and factions, that are otherwise weak men. Again, it is one +thing to understand persons, and another thing to understand matters; +for many are perfect in men's humors, that are not greatly capable of +the real part of business; which is the constitution of one that hath +studied men, more than books. Such men are fitter for practice, than +for counsel; and they are good, but in their own alley: turn them to new +men, and they have lost their aim; so as the old rule, to know a fool +from a wise man, Mitte ambos nudos ad ignotos, et videbis, doth scarce +hold for them. And because these cunning men, are like haberdashers of +small wares, it is not amiss to set forth their shop. + +It is a point of cunning, to wait upon him with whom you speak, with +your eye; as the Jesuits give it in precept: for there be many wise men, +that have secret hearts, and transparent countenances. Yet this would be +done with a demure abasing of your eye, sometimes, as the Jesuits also +do use. + +Another is, that when you have anything to obtain, of present despatch, +you entertain and amuse the party, with whom you deal, with some other +discourse; that he be not too much awake to make objections. I knew a +counsellor and secretary, that never came to Queen Elizabeth of +England, with bills to sign, but he would always first put her into some +discourse of estate, that she mought the less mind the bills. + +The like surprise may be made by moving things, when the party is in +haste, and cannot stay to consider advisedly of that is moved. + +If a man would cross a business, that he doubts some other would +handsomely and effectually move, let him pretend to wish it well, and +move it himself in such sort as may foil it. + +The breaking off, in the midst of that one was about to say, as if he +took himself up, breeds a greater appetite in him with whom you confer, +to know more. + +And because it works better, when anything seemeth to be gotten from you +by question, than if you offer it of yourself, you may lay a bait for a +question, by showing another visage, and countenance, than you are wont; +to the end to give occasion, for the party to ask, what the matter is +of the change? As Nehemias did; And I had not before that time, been sad +before the king. + +In things that are tender and unpleasing, it is good to break the ice, +by some whose words are of less weight, and to reserve the more weighty +voice, to come in as by chance, so that he may be asked the question +upon the other's speech: as Narcissus did, relating to Claudius the +marriage of Messalina and Silius. + +In things that a man would not be seen in himself, it is a point of +cunning, to borrow the name of the world; as to say, The world says, or +There is a speech abroad. + +I knew one that, when he wrote a letter, he would put that, which was +most material, in the postscript, as if it had been a by-matter. + +I knew another that, when he came to have speech, he would pass over +that, that he intended most; and go forth, and come back again, and +speak of it as of a thing, that he had almost forgot. + +Some procure themselves, to be surprised, at such times as it is like +the party that they work upon, will suddenly come upon them; and to be +found with a letter in their hand, or doing somewhat which they are not +accustomed; to the end, they may be apposed of those things, which of +themselves they are desirous to utter. + +It is a point of cunning, to let fall those words in a man's own name, +which he would have another man learn, and use, and thereupon take +advantage. I knew two, that were competitors for the secretary's place +in Queen Elizabeth's time, and yet kept good quarter between themselves; +and would confer, one with another, upon the business; and the one of +them said, That to be a secretary, in the declination of a monarchy, +was a ticklish thing, and that he did not affect it: the other straight +caught up those words, and discoursed with divers of his friends, that +he had no reason to desire to be secretary, in the declination of a +monarchy. The first man took hold of it, and found means it was told the +Queen; who, hearing of a declination of a monarchy, took it so ill, as +she would never after hear of the other's suit. + +There is a cunning, which we in England call, the turning of the cat in +the pan; which is, when that which a man says to another, he lays it as +if another had said it to him. And to say truth, it is not easy, when +such a matter passed between two, to make it appear from which of them +it first moved and began. + +It is a way that some men have, to glance and dart at others, by +justifying themselves by negatives; as to say, This I do not; as +Tigellinus did towards Burrhus, Se non diversas spes, sed incolumitatem +imperatoris simpliciter spectare. + +Some have in readiness so many tales and stories, as there is nothing +they would insinuate, but they can wrap it into a tale; which serveth +both to keep themselves more in guard, and to make others carry it with +more pleasure. It is a good point of cunning, for a man to shape the +answer he would have, in his own words and propositions; for it makes +the other party stick the less. + +It is strange how long some men will lie in wait to speak somewhat they +desire to say; and how far about they will fetch; and how many other +matters they will beat over, to come near it. It is a thing of great +patience, but yet of much use. + +A sudden, bold, and unexpected question doth many times surprise a man, +and lay him open. Like to him that, having changed his name, and walking +in Paul's, another suddenly came behind him, and called him by his true +name, whereat straightways he looked back. + +But these small wares, and petty points, of cunning, are infinite; and +it were a good deed to make a list of them; for that nothing doth more +hurt in a state, than that cunning men pass for wise. + +But certainly some there are that know the resorts and falls of +business, that cannot sink into the main of it; like a house that hath +convenient stairs and entries, but never a fair room. Therefore, you +shall see them find out pretty looses in the conclusion, but are no ways +able to examine or debate matters. And yet commonly they take advantage +of their inability, and would be thought wits of direction. Some build +rather upon the abusing of others, and (as we now say) putting tricks +upon them, than upon soundness of their own proceedings. But Solomon +saith, Prudens advertit ad gressus suos; stultus divertit ad dolos. + + + + +Of Wisdom For A Man's Self + + +AN ANT is a wise creature for itself, but it is a shrewd thing, in +an orchard or garden. And certainly, men that are great lovers of +themselves, waste the public. Divide with reason; between self-love and +society; and be so true to thyself, as thou be not false to others; +specially to thy king and country. It is a poor centre of a man's +actions, himself. It is right earth. For that only stands fast upon his +own centre; whereas all things, that have affinity with the heavens, +move upon the centre of another, which they benefit. The referring of +all to a man's self, is more tolerable in a sovereign prince; because +themselves are not only themselves, but their good and evil is at the +peril of the public fortune. But it is a desperate evil, in a servant to +a prince, or a citizen in a republic. For whatsoever affairs pass such a +man's hands, he crooketh them to his own ends; which must needs be often +eccentric to the ends of his master, or state. Therefore, let princes, +or states, choose such servants, as have not this mark; except they mean +their service should be made but the accessory. That which maketh +the effect more pernicious, is that all proportion is lost. It were +disproportion enough, for the servant's good to be preferred before the +master's; but yet it is a greater extreme, when a little good of the +servant, shall carry things against a great good of the master's. And +yet that is the case of bad officers, treasurers, ambassadors, generals, +and other false and corrupt servants; which set a bias upon their bowl, +of their own petty ends and envies, to the overthrow of their master's +great and important affairs. And for the most part, the good such +servants receive, is after the model of their own fortune; but the hurt +they sell for that good, is after the model of their master's fortune. +And certainly it is the nature of extreme self-lovers, as they will set +an house on fire, and it were but to roast their eggs; and yet these men +many times hold credit with their masters, because their study is but +to please them, and profit themselves; and for either respect, they will +abandon the good of their affairs. + +Wisdom for a man's self is, in many branches thereof, a depraved thing. +It is the wisdom of rats, that will be sure to leave a house, somewhat +before it fall. It is the wisdom of the fox, that thrusts out +the badger, who digged and made room for him. It is the wisdom of +crocodiles, that shed tears when they would devour. But that which is +specially to be noted is, that those which (as Cicero says of Pompey) +are sui amantes, sine rivali, are many times unfortunate. And whereas +they have, all their times, sacrificed to themselves, they become in the +end, themselves sacrifices to the inconstancy of fortune, whose wings +they thought, by their self-wisdom, to have pinioned. + + + + +Of Innovations + + +AS THE births of living creatures, at first are ill-shapen, so are all +innovations, which are the births of time. Yet notwithstanding, as those +that first bring honor into their family, are commonly more worthy than +most that succeed, so the first precedent (if it be good) is seldom +attained by imitation. For ill, to man's nature, as it stands perverted, +hath a natural motion, strongest in continuance; but good, as a forced +motion, strongest at first. Surely every medicine is an innovation; and +he that will not apply new remedies, must expect new evils; for time is +the greatest innovator; and if time of course alter things to the worse, +and wisdom and counsel shall not alter them to the better, what shall +be the end? It is true, that what is settled by custom, though it be +not good, yet at least it is fit; and those things which have long gone +together, are, as it were, confederate within themselves; whereas new +things piece not so well; but though they help by their utility, yet +they trouble by their inconformity. Besides, they are like strangers; +more admired, and less favored. All this is true, if time stood still; +which contrariwise moveth so round, that a froward retention of custom, +is as turbulent a thing as an innovation; and they that reverence too +much old times, are but a scorn to the new. It were good, therefore, +that men in their innovations would follow the example of time itself; +which indeed innovateth greatly, but quietly, by degrees scarce to be +perceived. For otherwise, whatsoever is new is unlooked for; and ever +it mends some, and pairs others; and he that is holpen, takes it for +a fortune, and thanks the time; and he that is hurt, for a wrong, and +imputeth it to the author. It is good also, not to try experiments in +states, except the necessity be urgent, or the utility evident; and well +to beware, that it be the reformation, that draweth on the change, and +not the desire of change, that pretendeth the reformation. And lastly, +that the novelty, though it be not rejected, yet be held for a suspect; +and, as the Scripture saith, that we make a stand upon the ancient way, +and then look about us, and discover what is the straight and right way, +and so to walk in it. + + + + +Of Dispatch + + +AFFECTED dispatch is one of the most dangerous things to business that +can be. It is like that, which the physicians call predigestion, or +hasty digestion; which is sure to fill the body full of crudities, and +secret seeds of diseases. Therefore measure not dispatch, by the times +of sitting, but by the advancement of the business. And as in races +it is not the large stride or high lift that makes the speed; so in +business, the keeping close to the matter, and not taking of it too much +at once, procureth dispatch. It is the care of some, only to come off +speedily for the time; or to contrive some false periods of business, +because they may seem men of dispatch. But it is one thing, to +abbreviate by contracting, another by cutting off. And business so +handled, at several sittings or meetings, goeth commonly backward and +forward in an unsteady manner. I knew a wise man that had it for a +byword, when he saw men hasten to a conclusion, Stay a little, that we +may make an end the sooner. + +On the other side, true dispatch is a rich thing. For time is the +measure of business, as money is of wares; and business is bought at +a dear hand, where there is small dispatch. The Spartans and Spaniards +have been noted to be of small dispatch; Mi venga la muerte de Spagna; +Let my death come from Spain; for then it will be sure to be long in +coming. + +Give good hearing to those, that give the first information in business; +and rather direct them in the beginning, than interrupt them in the +continuance of their speeches; for he that is put out of his own order, +will go forward and backward, and be more tedious, while he waits +upon his memory, than he could have been, if he had gone on in his +own course. But sometimes it is seen, that the moderator is more +troublesome, than the actor. + +Iterations are commonly loss of time. But there is no such gain of time, +as to iterate often the state of the question; for it chaseth away many +a frivolous speech, as it is coming forth. Long and curious speeches, +are as fit for dispatch, as a robe or mantle, with a long train, is +for race. Prefaces and passages, and excusations, and other speeches of +reference to the person, are great wastes of time; and though they +seem to proceed of modesty, they are bravery. Yet beware of being too +material, when there is any impediment or obstruction in men's wills; +for pre-occupation of mind ever requireth preface of speech; like a +fomentation to make the unguent enter. + +Above all things, order, and distribution, and singling out of parts, is +the life of dispatch; so as the distribution be not too subtle: for he +that doth not divide, will never enter well into business; and he that +divideth too much, will never come out of it clearly. To choose time, is +to save time; and an unseasonable motion, is but beating the air. There +be three parts of business; the preparation, the debate or examination, +and the perfection. Whereof, if you look for dispatch, let the middle +only be the work of many, and the first and last the work of few. The +proceeding upon somewhat conceived in writing, doth for the most part +facilitate dispatch: for though it should be wholly rejected, yet that +negative is more pregnant of direction, than an indefinite; as ashes are +more generative than dust. + + + + +Of Seeming Wise + + +IT HATH been an opinion, that the French are wiser than they seem, and +the Spaniards seem wiser than they are. But howsoever it be between +nations, certainly it is so between man and man. For as the Apostle +saith of godliness, Having a show of godliness, but denying the power +thereof; so certainly there are, in point of wisdom and sufficiency, +that do nothing or little very solemnly: magno conatu nugas. It is a +ridiculous thing, and fit for a satire to persons of judgment, to +see what shifts these formalists have, and what prospectives to make +superficies to seem body, that hath depth and bulk. Some are so close +and reserved, as they will not show their wares, but by a dark light; +and seem always to keep back somewhat; and when they know within +themselves, they speak of that they do not well know, would nevertheless +seem to others, to know of that which they may not well speak. Some +help themselves with countenance and gesture, and are wise by signs; as +Cicero saith of Piso, that when he answered him, he fetched one of +his brows up to his forehead, and bent the other down to his chin; +Respondes, altero ad frontem sublato, altero ad mentum depresso +supercilio, crudelitatem tibi non placere. Some think to bear it by +speaking a great word, and being peremptory; and go on, and take by +admittance, that which they cannot make good. Some, whatsoever is beyond +their reach, will seem to despise, or make light of it, as impertinent +or curious; and so would have their ignorance seem judgment. Some are +never without a difference, and commonly by amusing men with a subtilty, +blanch the matter; of whom A. Gellius saith, Hominem delirum, qui +verborum minutiis rerum frangit pondera. Of which kind also, Plato, +in his Protagoras, bringeth in Prodicus in scorn, and maketh him make a +speech, that consisteth of distinction from the beginning to the end. +Generally, such men in all deliberations find ease to be of the negative +side, and affect a credit to object and foretell difficulties; for +when propositions are denied, there is an end of them; but if they be +allowed, it requireth a new work; which false point of wisdom is the +bane of business. To conclude, there is no decaying merchant, or inward +beggar, hath so many tricks to uphold the credit of their wealth, as +these empty persons have, to maintain the credit of their sufficiency. +Seeming wise men may make shift to get opinion; but let no man choose +them for employment; for certainly you were better take for business, a +man somewhat absurd, than over-formal. + + + + +Of Friendship + + +IT HAD been hard for him that spake it to have put more truth and +untruth together in few words, than in that speech, Whatsoever is +delighted in solitude, is either a wild beast or a god. For it is most +true, that a natural and secret hatred, and aversation towards society, +in any man, hath somewhat of the savage beast; but it is most untrue, +that it should have any character at all, of the divine nature; except +it proceed, not out of a pleasure in solitude, but out of a love and +desire to sequester a man's self, for a higher conversation: such as +is found to have been falsely and feignedly in some of the heathen; as +Epimenides the Candian, Numa the Roman, Empedocles the Sicilian, and +Apollonius of Tyana; and truly and really, in divers of the ancient +hermits and holy fathers of the church. But little do men perceive what +solitude is, and how far it extendeth. For a crowd is not company; and +faces are but a gallery of pictures; and talk but a tinkling cymbal, +where there is no love. The Latin adage meeteth with it a little: Magna +civitas, magna solitudo; because in a great town friends are scattered; +so that there is not that fellowship, for the most part, which is in +less neighborhoods. But we may go further, and affirm most truly, that +it is a mere and miserable solitude to want true friends; without which +the world is but a wilderness; and even in this sense also of solitude, +whosoever in the frame of his nature and affections, is unfit for +friendship, he taketh it of the beast, and not from humanity. + +A principal fruit of friendship, is the ease and discharge of the +fulness and swellings of the heart, which passions of all kinds do cause +and induce. We know diseases of stoppings, and suffocations, are the +most dangerous in the body; and it is not much otherwise in the mind; +you may take sarza to open the liver, steel to open the spleen, flowers +of sulphur for the lungs, castoreum for the brain; but no receipt +openeth the heart, but a true friend; to whom you may impart griefs, +joys, fears, hopes, suspicions, counsels, and whatsoever lieth upon the +heart to oppress it, in a kind of civil shrift or confession. + +It is a strange thing to observe, how high a rate great kings and +monarchs do set upon this fruit of friendship, whereof we speak: so +great, as they purchase it, many times, at the hazard of their own +safety and greatness. For princes, in regard of the distance of their +fortune from that of their subjects and servants, cannot gather this +fruit, except (to make themselves capable thereof) they raise some +persons to be, as it were, companions and almost equals to themselves, +which many times sorteth to inconvenience. The modern languages give +unto such persons the name of favorites, or privadoes; as if it were +matter of grace, or conversation. But the Roman name attaineth the true +use and cause thereof, naming them participes curarum; for it is that +which tieth the knot. And we see plainly that this hath been done, not +by weak and passionate princes only, but by the wisest and most politic +that ever reigned; who have oftentimes joined to themselves some of +their servants; whom both themselves have called friends, and allowed +other likewise to call them in the same manner; using the word which is +received between private men. + +L. Sylla, when he commanded Rome, raised Pompey (after surnamed +the Great) to that height, that Pompey vaunted himself for Sylla's +overmatch. For when he had carried the consulship for a friend of +his, against the pursuit of Sylla, and that Sylla did a little resent +thereat, and began to speak great, Pompey turned upon him again, and in +effect bade him be quiet; for that more men adored the sun rising, than +the sun setting. With Julius Caesar, Decimus Brutus had obtained that +interest as he set him down in his testament, for heir in remainder, +after his nephew. And this was the man that had power with him, to +draw him forth to his death. For when Caesar would have discharged +the senate, in regard of some ill presages, and specially a dream of +Calpurnia; this man lifted him gently by the arm out of his chair, +telling him he hoped he would not dismiss the senate, till his wife +had dreamt a better dream. And it seemeth his favor was so great, as +Antonius, in a letter which is recited verbatim in one of Cicero's +Philippics, calleth him venefica, witch; as if he had enchanted Caesar. +Augustus raised Agrippa (though of mean birth) to that height, as when +he consulted with Maecenas, about the marriage of his daughter Julia, +Maecenas took the liberty to tell him, that he must either marry his +daughter to Agrippa, or take away his life; there was no third way, he +had made him so great. With Tiberius Caesar, Sejanus had ascended +to that height, as they two were termed, and reckoned, as a pair of +friends. Tiberius in a letter to him saith, Haec pro amicitia nostra non +occultavi; and the whole senate dedicated an altar to Friendship, as to +a goddess, in respect of the great dearness of friendship, between them +two. The like, or more, was between Septimius Severus and Plautianus. +For he forced his eldest son to marry the daughter of Plautianus; and +would often maintain Plautianus, in doing affronts to his son; and did +write also in a letter to the senate, by these words: I love the man so +well, as I wish he may over-live me. Now if these princes had been as +a Trajan, or a Marcus Aurelius, a man might have thought that this had +proceeded of an abundant goodness of nature; but being men so wise, of +such strength and severity of mind, and so extreme lovers of themselves, +as all these were, it proveth most plainly that they found their own +felicity (though as great as ever happened to mortal men) but as an half +piece, except they mought have a friend, to make it entire; and yet, +which is more, they were princes that had wives, sons, nephews; and yet +all these could not supply the comfort of friendship. + +It is not to be forgotten, what Comineus observeth of his first master, +Duke Charles the Hardy, namely, that he would communicate his secrets +with none; and least of all, those secrets which troubled him most. +Whereupon he goeth on, and saith that towards his latter time, that +closeness did impair, and a little perish his understanding. Surely +Comineus mought have made the same judgment also, if it had pleased him, +of his second master, Lewis the Eleventh, whose closeness was indeed his +tormentor. The parable of Pythagoras is dark, but true; Cor ne edito; +Eat not the heart. Certainly, if a man would give it a hard phrase, +those that want friends, to open themselves unto, are cannibals of +their own hearts. But one thing is most admirable (wherewith I +will conclude this first fruit of friendship), which is, that this +communicating of a man's self to his friend, works two contrary effects; +for it redoubleth joys, and cutteth griefs in halves. For there is no +man, that imparteth his joys to his friend, but he joyeth the more; +and no man that imparteth his griefs to his friend, but he grieveth the +less. So that it is in truth, of operation upon a man's mind, of like +virtue as the alchemists use to attribute to their stone, for man's +body; that it worketh all contrary effects, but still to the good and +benefit of nature. But yet without praying in aid of alchemists, there +is a manifest image of this, in the ordinary course of nature. For in +bodies, union strengtheneth and cherisheth any natural action; and on +the other side, weakeneth and dulleth any violent impression: and even +so it is of minds. + +The second fruit of friendship, is healthful and sovereign for the +understanding, as the first is for the affections. For friendship maketh +indeed a fair day in the affections, from storm and tempests; but it +maketh daylight in the understanding, out of darkness, and confusion +of thoughts. Neither is this to be understood only of faithful counsel, +which a man receiveth from his friend; but before you come to that, +certain it is, that whosoever hath his mind fraught with many thoughts, +his wits and understanding do clarify and break up, in the communicating +and discoursing with another; he tosseth his thoughts more easily; he +marshalleth them more orderly, he seeth how they look when they are +turned into words: finally, he waxeth wiser than himself; and that more +by an hour's discourse, than by a day's meditation. It was well said +by Themistocles, to the king of Persia, That speech was like cloth of +Arras, opened and put abroad; whereby the imagery doth appear in figure; +whereas in thoughts they lie but as in packs. Neither is this second +fruit of friendship, in opening the understanding, restrained only to +such friends as are able to give a man counsel; (they indeed are best;) +but even without that, a man learneth of himself, and bringeth his +own thoughts to light, and whetteth his wits as against a stone, which +itself cuts not. In a word, a man were better relate himself to a +statua, or picture, than to suffer his thoughts to pass in smother. + +Add now, to make this second fruit of friendship complete, that other +point, which lieth more open, and falleth within vulgar observation; +which is faithful counsel from a friend. Heraclitus saith well in one +of his enigmas, Dry light is ever the best. And certain it is, that the +light that a man receiveth by counsel from another, is drier and purer, +than that which cometh from his own understanding and judgment; which is +ever infused, and drenched, in his affections and customs. So as there +is as much difference between the counsel, that a friend giveth, and +that a man giveth himself, as there is between the counsel of a friend, +and of a flatterer. For there is no such flatterer as is a man's self; +and there is no such remedy against flattery of a man's self, as +the liberty of a friend. Counsel is of two sorts: the one concerning +manners, the other concerning business. For the first, the best +preservative to keep the mind in health, is the faithful admonition of a +friend. The calling of a man's self to a strict account, is a medicine, +sometime too piercing and corrosive. Reading good books of morality, +is a little flat and dead. Observing our faults in others, is sometimes +improper for our case. But the best receipt (best, I say, to work, and +best to take) is the admonition of a friend. It is a strange thing to +behold, what gross errors and extreme absurdities many (especially of +the greater sort) do commit, for want of a friend to tell them of them; +to the great damage both of their fame and fortune: for, as St. James +saith, they are as men that look sometimes into a glass, and presently +forget their own shape and favor. As for business, a man may think, if +he win, that two eyes see no more than one; or that a gamester seeth +always more than a looker-on; or that a man in anger, is as wise as he +that hath said over the four and twenty letters; or that a musket may be +shot off as well upon the arm, as upon a rest; and such other fond and +high imaginations, to think himself all in all. But when all is done, +the help of good counsel, is that which setteth business straight. And +if any man think that he will take counsel, but it shall be by pieces; +asking counsel in one business, of one man, and in another business, +of another man; it is well (that is to say, better, perhaps, than if he +asked none at all); but he runneth two dangers: one, that he shall not +be faithfully counselled; for it is a rare thing, except it be from a +perfect and entire friend, to have counsel given, but such as shall +be bowed and crooked to some ends, which he hath, that giveth it. The +other, that he shall have counsel given, hurtful and unsafe (though with +good meaning), and mixed partly of mischief and partly of remedy; even +as if you would call a physician, that is thought good for the cure of +the disease you complain of, but is unacquainted with your body; and +therefore may put you in way for a present cure, but overthroweth +your health in some other kind; and so cure the disease, and kill the +patient. But a friend that is wholly acquainted with a man's estate, +will beware, by furthering any present business, how he dasheth upon +other inconvenience. And therefore rest not upon scattered counsels; +they will rather distract and mislead, than settle and direct. + +After these two noble fruits of friendship (peace in the affections, and +support of the judgment), followeth the last fruit; which is like the +pomegranate, full of many kernels; I mean aid, and bearing a part, in +all actions and occasions. Here the best way to represent to life the +manifold use of friendship, is to cast and see how many things there +are, which a man cannot do himself; and then it will appear, that it +was a sparing speech of the ancients, to say, that a friend is another +himself; for that a friend is far more than himself. Men have +their time, and die many times, in desire of some things which they +principally take to heart; the bestowing of a child, the finishing of +a work, or the like. If a man have a true friend, he may rest almost +secure that the care of those things will continue after him. So that a +man hath, as it were, two lives in his desires. A man hath a body, and +that body is confined to a place; but where friendship is, all offices +of life are as it were granted to him, and his deputy. For he may +exercise them by his friend. How many things are there which a man +cannot, with any face or comeliness, say or do himself? A man can scarce +allege his own merits with modesty, much less extol them; a man cannot +sometimes brook to supplicate or beg; and a number of the like. But all +these things are graceful, in a friend's mouth, which are blushing in a +man's own. So again, a man's person hath many proper relations, which +he cannot put off. A man cannot speak to his son but as a father; to his +wife but as a husband; to his enemy but upon terms: whereas a friend may +speak as the case requires, and not as it sorteth with the person. But +to enumerate these things were endless; I have given the rule, where a +man cannot fitly play his own part; if he have not a friend, he may quit +the stage. + + + + +Of Expense + + +RICHES are for spending, and spending for honor and good actions. +Therefore extraordinary expense must be limited by the worth of the +occasion; for voluntary undoing, may be as well for a man's country, as +for the kingdom of heaven. But ordinary expense, ought to be limited +by a man's estate; and governed with such regard, as it be within his +compass; and not subject to deceit and abuse of servants; and ordered +to the best show, that the bills may be less than the estimation abroad. +Certainly, if a man will keep but of even hand, his ordinary expenses +ought to be but to the half of his receipts; and if he think to wax +rich, but to the third part. It is no baseness, for the greatest to +descend and look into their own estate. Some forbear it, not upon +negligence alone, but doubting to bring themselves into melancholy, in +respect they shall find it broken. But wounds cannot be cured without +searching. He that cannot look into his own estate at all, had need both +choose well those whom he employeth, and change them often; for new +are more timorous and less subtle. He that can look into his estate but +seldom, it behooveth him to turn all to certainties. A man had need, if +he be plentiful in some kind of expense, to be as saving again in some +other. As if he be plentiful in diet, to be saving in apparel; if he be +plentiful in the hall, to be saving in the stable; and the like. For +he that is plentiful in expenses of all kinds, will hardly be preserved +from decay. In clearing of a man's estate, he may as well hurt himself +in being too sudden, as in letting it run on too long. For hasty +selling, is commonly as disadvantageable as interest. Besides, he that +clears at once will relapse; for finding himself out of straits, he will +revert to his custom: but he that cleareth by degrees, induceth a habit +of frugality, and gaineth as well upon his mind, as upon his estate. +Certainly, who hath a state to repair, may not despise small things; +and commonly it is less dishonorable, to abridge petty charges, than to +stoop to petty gettings. A man ought warily to begin charges which once +begun will continue; but in matters that return not, he may be more +magnificent. + + + + +Of the True Greatness Of Kingdoms And Estates + + +THE speech of Themistocles the Athenian, which was haughty and arrogant, +in taking so much to himself, had been a grave and wise observation and +censure, applied at large to others. Desired at a feast to touch a lute, +he said, He could not fiddle, but yet he could make a small town, a +great city. These words (holpen a little with a metaphor) may express +two differing abilities, in those that deal in business of estate. For +if a true survey be taken of counsellors and statesmen, there may be +found (though rarely) those which can make a small state great, and yet +cannot fiddle; as on the other side, there will be found a great many, +that can fiddle very cunningly, but yet are so far from being able to +make a small state great, as their gift lieth the other way; to bring +a great and flourishing estate, to ruin and decay. And certainly whose +degenerate arts and shifts, whereby many counsellors and governors gain +both favor with their masters, and estimation with the vulgar, deserve +no better name than fiddling; being things rather pleasing for the +time, and graceful to themselves only, than tending to the weal and +advancement of the state which they serve. There are also (no doubt) +counsellors and governors which may be held sufficient (negotiis pares), +able to manage affairs, and to keep them from precipices and manifest +inconveniences; which nevertheless are far from the ability to raise and +amplify an estate in power, means, and fortune. But be the workmen what +they may be, let us speak of the work; that is, the true greatness of +kingdoms and estates, and the means thereof. An argument fit for great +and mighty princes to have in their hand; to the end that neither by +over-measuring their forces, they leese themselves in vain enterprises; +nor on the other side, by undervaluing them, they descend to fearful and +pusillanimous counsels. + +The greatness of an estate, in bulk and territory, doth fall under +measure; and the greatness of finances and revenue, doth fall under +computation. The population may appear by musters; and the number and +greatness of cities and towns by cards and maps. But yet there is not +any thing amongst civil affairs more subject to error, than the right +valuation and true judgment concerning the power and forces of an +estate. The kingdom of heaven is compared, not to any great kernel or +nut, but to a grain of mustard-seed: which is one of the least grains, +but hath in it a property and spirit hastily to get up and spread. So +are there states, great in territory, and yet not apt to enlarge or +command; and some that have but a small dimension of stem, and yet apt +to be the foundations of great monarchies. + +Walled towns, stored arsenals and armories, goodly races of horse, +chariots of war, elephants, ordnance, artillery, and the like; all this +is but a sheep in a lion's skin, except the breed and disposition of the +people, be stout and warlike. Nay, number (itself) in armies importeth +not much, where the people is of weak courage; for (as Virgil saith) It +never troubles a wolf, how many the sheep be. The army of the Persians, +in the plains of Arbela, was such a vast sea of people, as it did +somewhat astonish the commanders in Alexander's army; who came to him +therefore, and wished him to set upon them by night; and he answered, He +would not pilfer the victory. And the defeat was easy. When Tigranes +the Armenian, being encamped upon a hill with four hundred thousand men, +discovered the army of the Romans, being not above fourteen thousand, +marching towards him, he made himself merry with it, and said, Yonder +men are too many for an embassage, and too few for a fight. But before +the sun set, he found them enow to give him the chase with infinite +slaughter. Many are the examples of the great odds, between number and +courage; so that a man may truly make a judgment, that the principal +point of greatness in any state, is to have a race of military men. +Neither is money the sinews of war (as it is trivially said), where the +sinews of men's arms, in base and effeminate people, are failing. For +Solon said well to Croesus (when in ostentation he showed him his gold), +Sir, if any other come, that hath better iron, than you, he will be +master of all this gold. Therefore let any prince or state think solely +of his forces, except his militia of natives be of good and valiant +soldiers. And let princes, on the other side, that have subjects of +martial disposition, know their own strength; unless they be otherwise +wanting unto themselves. As for mercenary forces (which is the help in +this case), all examples show, that whatsoever estate or prince doth +rest upon them, he may spread his feathers for a time, but he will mew +them soon after. + +The blessing of Judah and Issachar will never meet; that the same +people, or nation, should be both the lion's whelp and the ass between +burthens; neither will it be, that a people overlaid with taxes, should +ever become valiant and martial. It is true that taxes levied by +consent of the estate, do abate men's courage less: as it hath been seen +notably, in the excises of the Low Countries; and, in some degree, in +the subsidies of England. For you must note, that we speak now of the +heart, and not of the purse. So that although the same tribute and tax, +laid by consent or by imposing, be all one to the purse, yet it works +diversely upon the courage. So that you may conclude, that no people +overcharged with tribute, is fit for empire. + +Let states that aim at greatness, take heed how their nobility and +gentlemen do multiply too fast. For that maketh the common subject, grow +to be a peasant and base swain, driven out of heart, and in effect but +the gentleman's laborer. Even as you may see in coppice woods; if you +leave your staddles too thick, you shall never have clean underwood, but +shrubs and bushes. So in countries, if the gentlemen be too many, +the commons will be base; and you will bring it to that, that not the +hundred poll, will be fit for an helmet; especially as to the infantry, +which is the nerve of an army; and so there will be great population, +and little strength. This which I speak of, hath been nowhere better +seen, than by comparing of England and France; whereof England, though +far less in territory and population, hath been (nevertheless) an +overmatch; in regard the middle people of England make good soldiers, +which the peasants of France do not. And herein the device of king Henry +the Seventh (whereof I have spoken largely in the History of his Life) +was profound and admirable; in making farms and houses of husbandry of a +standard; that is, maintained with such a proportion of land unto them, +as may breed a subject to live in convenient plenty and no servile +condition; and to keep the plough in the hands of the owners, and not +mere hirelings. And thus indeed you shall attain to Virgil's character +which he gives to ancient Italy: + + +Terra potens armis atque ubere glebae. + +Neither is that state (which, for any thing I know, is almost peculiar +to England, and hardly to be found anywhere else, except it be perhaps +in Poland) to be passed over; I mean the state of free servants, and +attendants upon noblemen and gentlemen; which are no ways inferior unto +the yeomanry for arms. And therefore out of all questions, the splendor +and magnificence, and great retinues and hospitality, of noblemen +and gentlemen, received into custom, doth much conduce unto martial +greatness. Whereas, contrariwise, the close and reserved living of +noblemen and gentlemen, causeth a penury of military forces. + +By all means it is to be procured, that the trunk of Nebuchadnezzar's +tree of monarchy, be great enough to bear the branches and the boughs; +that is, that the natural subjects of the crown or state, bear +a sufficient proportion to the stranger subjects, that they +govern. Therefore all states that are liberal of naturalization towards +strangers, are fit for empire. For to think that an handful of people +can, with the greatest courage and policy in the world, embrace too +large extent of dominion, it may hold for a time, but it will fail +suddenly. The Spartans were a nice people in point of naturalization; +whereby, while they kept their compass, they stood firm; but when they +did spread, and their boughs were becomen too great for their stem, they +became a windfall, upon the sudden. Never any state was in this point so +open to receive strangers into their body, as were the Romans. Therefore +it sorted with them accordingly; for they grew to the greatest monarchy. +Their manner was to grant naturalization (which they called jus +civitatis), and to grant it in the highest degree; that is, not only jus +commercii, jus connubii, jus haereditatis; but also jus suffragii, and +jus honorum. And this not to singular persons alone, but likewise to +whole families; yea to cities, and sometimes to nations. Add to this +their custom of plantation of colonies; whereby the Roman plant was +removed into the soil of other nations. And putting both constitutions +together, you will say that it was not the Romans that spread upon the +world, but it was the world that spread upon the Romans; and that was +the sure way of greatness. I have marvelled, sometimes, at Spain, +how they clasp and contain so large dominions, with so few natural +Spaniards; but sure the whole compass of Spain, is a very great body of +a tree; far above Rome and Sparta at the first. And besides, though they +have not had that usage, to naturalize liberally, yet they have that +which is next to it; that is, to employ, almost indifferently, all +nations in their militia of ordinary soldiers; yea, and sometimes +in their highest commands. Nay, it seemeth at this instant they are +sensible, of this want of natives; as by the Pragmatical Sanction, now +published, appeareth. + +It is certain that sedentary, and within-door arts, and delicate +manufactures (that require rather the finger than the arm), have, in +their nature, a contrariety to a military disposition. And generally, +all warlike people are a little idle, and love danger better than +travail. Neither must they be too much broken of it, if they shall be +preserved in vigor. Therefore it was great advantage, in the ancient +states of Sparta, Athens, Rome, and others, that they had the use +of slaves, which commonly did rid those manufactures. But that is +abolished, in greatest part, by the Christian law. That which cometh +nearest to it, is to leave those arts chiefly to strangers (which, for +that purpose, are the more easily to be received), and to contain +the principal bulk of the vulgar natives, within those three +kinds,--tillers of the ground; free servants; and handicraftsmen of +strong and manly arts, as smiths, masons, carpenters, etc.; not +reckoning professed soldiers. + +But above all, for empire and greatness, it importeth most, that a +nation do profess arms, as their principal honor, study, and occupation. +For the things which we formerly have spoken of, are but habilitations +towards arms; and what is habilitation without intention and act? +Romulus, after his death (as they report or feign), sent a present +to the Romans, that above all, they should intend arms; and then they +should prove the greatest empire of the world. The fabric of the state +of Sparta was wholly (though not wisely) framed and composed, to that +scope and end. The Persians and Macedonians had it for a flash. The +Gauls, Germans, Goths, Saxons, Normans, and others, had it for a time. +The Turks have it at this day, though in great declination. Of Christian +Europe, they that have it are, in effect, only the Spaniards. But it is +so plain, that every man profiteth in that, he most intendeth, that +it needeth not to be stood upon. It is enough to point at it; that no +nation which doth not directly profess arms, may look to have greatness +fall into their mouths. And on the other side, it is a most certain +oracle of time, that those states that continue long in that profession +(as the Romans and Turks principally have done) do wonders. And those +that have professed arms but for an age, have, notwithstanding, commonly +attained that greatness, in that age, which maintained them long after, +when their profession and exercise of arms hath grown to decay. + +Incident to this point is, for a state to have those laws or customs, +which may reach forth unto them just occasions (as may be pretended) +of war. For there is that justice, imprinted in the nature of men, that +they enter not upon wars (whereof so many calamities do ensue) but upon +some, at the least specious, grounds and quarrels. The Turk hath at +hand, for cause of war, the propagation of his law or sect; a quarrel +that he may always command. The Romans, though they esteemed the +extending the limits of their empire, to be great honor to their +generals, when it was done, yet they never rested upon that alone, to +begin a war. First, therefore, let nations that pretend to greatness +have this; that they be sensible of wrongs, either upon borderers, +merchants, or politic ministers; and that they sit not too long upon +a provocation. Secondly, let them be prest, and ready to give aids +and succors, to their confederates; as it ever was with the Romans; +insomuch, as if the confederate had leagues defensive, with divers other +states, and, upon invasion offered, did implore their aids severally, +yet the Romans would ever be the foremost, and leave it to none other to +have the honor. As for the wars which were anciently made, on the behalf +of a kind of party, or tacit conformity of estate, I do not see how they +may be well justified: as when the Romans made a war, for the liberty of +Grecia; or when the Lacedaemonians and Athenians, made wars to set up +or pull down democracies and oligarchies; or when wars were made by +foreigners, under the pretence of justice or protection, to deliver the +subjects of others, from tyranny and oppression; and the like. Let it +suffice, that no estate expect to be great, that is not awake upon any +just occasion of arming. + +No body can be healthful without exercise, neither natural body nor +politic; and certainly to a kingdom or estate, a just and honorable war, +is the true exercise. A civil war, indeed, is like the heat of a fever; +but a foreign war is like the heat of exercise, and serveth to keep the +body in health; for in a slothful peace, both courages will effeminate, +and manners corrupt. But howsoever it be for happiness, without all +question, for greatness, it maketh to be still for the most part in +arms; and the strength of a veteran army (though it be a chargeable +business) always on foot, is that which commonly giveth the law, or at +least the reputation, amongst all neighbor states; as may well be seen +in Spain, which hath had, in one part or other, a veteran army almost +continually, now by the space of six score years. + +To be master of the sea, is an abridgment of a monarchy. Cicero, writing +to Atticus of Pompey his preparation against Caesar, saith, Consilium +Pompeii plane Themistocleum est; putat enim, qui mari potitur, eum rerum +potiri. And, without doubt, Pompey had tired out Caesar, if upon vain +confidence, he had not left that way. We see the great effects of +battles by sea. The battle of Actium, decided the empire of the world. +The battle of Lepanto, arrested the greatness of the Turk. There be many +examples, where sea-fights have been final to the war; but this is when +princes or states have set up their rest, upon the battles. But thus +much is certain, that he that commands the sea, is at great liberty, and +may take as much, and as little, of the war as he will. Whereas those +that be strongest by land, are many times nevertheless in great straits. +Surely, at this day, with us of Europe, the vantage of strength at sea +(which is one of the principal dowries of this kingdom of Great Britain) +is great; both because most of the kingdoms of Europe, are not merely +inland, but girt with the sea most part of their compass; and because +the wealth of both Indies seems in great part, but an accessory to the +command of the seas. + +The wars of latter ages seem to be made in the dark, in respect of the +glory, and honor, which reflected upon men from the wars, in ancient +time. There be now, for martial encouragement, some degrees and orders +of chivalry; which nevertheless are conferred promiscuously, upon +soldiers and no soldiers; and some remembrance perhaps, upon the +scutcheon; and some hospitals for maimed soldiers; and such like +things. But in ancient times, the trophies erected upon the place of the +victory; the funeral laudatives and monuments for those that died in the +wars; the crowns and garlands personal; the style of emperor, which the +great kings of the world after borrowed; the triumphs of the generals, +upon their return; the great donatives and largesses, upon the +disbanding of the armies; were things able to inflame all men's +courages. But above all, that of the triumph, amongst the Romans, was +not pageants or gaudery, but one of the wisest and noblest institutions, +that ever was. For it contained three things: honor to the general; +riches to the treasury out of the spoils; and donatives to the army. +But that honor, perhaps were not fit for monarchies; except it be in the +person of the monarch himself, or his sons; as it came to pass in the +times of the Roman emperors, who did impropriate the actual triumphs to +themselves, and their sons, for such wars as they did achieve in person; +and left only, for wars achieved by subjects, some triumphal garments +and ensigns to the general. + +To conclude: no man can by care taking (as the Scripture saith) add a +cubit to his stature, in this little model of a man's body; but in the +great frame of kingdoms and commonwealths, it is in the power of princes +or estates, to add amplitude and greatness to their kingdoms; for by +introducing such ordinances, constitutions, and customs, as we have now +touched, they may sow greatness to their posterity and succession. But +these things are commonly not observed, but left to take their chance. + + + + +Of Regiment Of Health + + +THERE is a wisdom in this; beyond the rules of physic: a man's own +observation, what he finds good of, and what he finds hurt of, is the +best physic to preserve health. But it is a safer conclusion to say, +This agreeth not well with me, therefore, I will not continue it; than +this, I find no offence of this, therefore I may use it. For strength of +nature in youth, passeth over many excesses, which are owing a man till +his age. Discern of the coming on of years, and think not to do the same +things still; for age will not be defied. Beware of sudden change, in +any great point of diet, and, if necessity enforce it, fit the rest to +it. For it is a secret both in nature and state, that it is safer +to change many things, than one. Examine thy customs of diet, sleep, +exercise, apparel, and the like; and try, in any thing thou shalt judge +hurtful, to discontinue it, by little and little; but so, as if thou +dost find any inconvenience by the change, thou come back to it again: +for it is hard to distinguish that which is generally held good and +wholesome, from that which is good particularly, and fit for thine own +body. To be free-minded and cheerfully disposed, at hours of meat, and +of sleep, and of exercise, is one of the best precepts of long lasting. +As for the passions, and studies of the mind; avoid envy, anxious +fears; anger fretting inwards; subtle and knotty inquisitions; joys +and exhilarations in excess; sadness not communicated. Entertain hopes; +mirth rather than joy; variety of delights, rather than surfeit of them; +wonder and admiration, and therefore novelties; studies that fill the +mind with splendid and illustrious objects, as histories, fables, and +contemplations of nature. If you fly physic in health altogether, it +will be too strange for your body, when you shall need it. If you make +it too familiar, it will work no extraordinary effect, when sickness +cometh. I commend rather some diet for certain seasons, than frequent +use of physic, except it be grown into a custom. For those diets alter +the body more, and trouble it less. Despise no new accident in your +body, but ask opinion of it. In sickness, respect health principally; +and in health, action. For those that put their bodies to endure in +health, may in most sicknesses, which are not very sharp, be cured +only with diet, and tendering. Celsus could never have spoken it as a +physician, had he not been a wise man withal, when he giveth it for one +of the great precepts of health and lasting, that a man do vary, and +interchange contraries, but with an inclination to the more benign +extreme: use fasting and full eating, but rather full eating; watching +and sleep, but rather sleep; sitting and exercise, but rather exercise; +and the like. So shall nature be cherished, and yet taught masteries. +Physicians are, some of them, so pleasing and conformable to the humor +of the patient, as they press not the true cure of the disease; and some +other are so regular, in proceeding according to art for the disease, as +they respect not sufficiently the condition of the patient. Take one of +a middle temper; or if it may not be found in one man, combine two of +either sort; and forget not to call as well, the best acquainted with +your body, as the best reputed of for his faculty. + + + + +Of Suspicion + + +SUSPICIONS amongst thoughts, are like bats amongst birds, they ever +fly by twilight. Certainly they are to be repressed, or at least well +guarded: for they cloud the mind; they leese friends; and they check +with business, whereby business cannot go on currently and constantly. +They dispose kings to tyranny, husbands to jealousy, wise men to +irresolution and melancholy. They are defects, not in the heart, but +in the brain; for they take place in the stoutest natures; as in the +example of Henry the Seventh of England. There was not a more suspicious +man, nor a more stout. And in such a composition they do small hurt. For +commonly they are not admitted, but with examination, whether they be +likely or no. But in fearful natures they gain ground too fast. There +is nothing makes a man suspect much, more than to know little; and +therefore men should remedy suspicion, by procuring to know more, and +not to keep their suspicions in smother. What would men have? Do they +think, those they employ and deal with, are saints? Do they not think, +they will have their own ends, and be truer to themselves, than to +them? Therefore there is no better way, to moderate suspicions, than to +account upon such suspicions as true, and yet to bridle them as false. +For so far a man ought to make use of suspicions, as to provide, as +if that should be true, that he suspects, yet it may do him no hurt. +Suspicions that the mind of itself gathers, are but buzzes; but +suspicions that are artificially nourished, and put into men's heads, +by the tales and whisperings of others, have stings. Certainly, the best +mean, to clear the way in this same wood of suspicions, is frankly to +communicate them with the party, that he suspects; for thereby he shall +be sure to know more of the truth of them, than he did before; and +withal shall make that party more circumspect, not to give further cause +of suspicion. But this would not be done to men of base natures; for +they, if they find themselves once suspected, will never be true. +The Italian says, Sospetto licentia fede; as if suspicion, did give +a passport to faith; but it ought, rather, to kindle it to discharge +itself. + + + + +Of Discourse + + +SOME, in their discourse, desire rather commendation of wit, in being +able to hold all arguments, than of judgment, in discerning what is +true; as if it were a praise, to know what might be said, and not, what +should be thought. Some have certain common places, and themes, wherein +they are good and want variety; which kind of poverty is for the most +part tedious, and when it is once perceived, ridiculous. The honorablest +part of talk, is to give the occasion; and again to moderate, and +pass to somewhat else; for then a man leads the dance. It is good, in +discourse and speech of conversation, to vary and intermingle speech +of the present occasion, with arguments, tales with reasons, asking of +questions, with telling of opinions, and jest with earnest: for it is a +dull thing to tire, and, as we say now, to jade, any thing too far. As +for jest, there be certain things, which ought to be privileged from +it; namely, religion, matters of state, great persons, any man's present +business of importance, and any case that deserveth pity. Yet there +be some, that think their wits have been asleep, except they dart out +somewhat that is piquant, and to the quick. That is a vein which would +be bridled: + + +Parce, puer, stimulis, et fortius utere loris. + + +And generally, men ought to find the difference, between saltness and +bitterness. Certainly, he that hath a satirical vein, as he maketh +others afraid of his wit, so he had need be afraid of others' memory. +He that questioneth much, shall learn much, and content much; but +especially, if he apply his questions to the skill of the persons whom +he asketh; for he shall give them occasion, to please themselves in +speaking, and himself shall continually gather knowledge. But let his +questions not be troublesome; for that is fit for a poser. And let him +be sure to leave other men, their turns to speak. Nay, if there be any, +that would reign and take up all the time, let him find means to take +them off, and to bring others on; as musicians use to do, with those +that dance too long galliards. If you dissemble, sometimes, your +knowledge of that you are thought to know, you shall be thought, another +time, to know that you know not. Speech of a man's self ought to be +seldom, and well chosen. I knew one, was wont to say in scorn, He must +needs be a wise man, he speaks so much of himself: and there is but one +case, wherein a man may commend himself with good grace; and that is +in commending virtue in another; especially if it be such a virtue, +whereunto himself pretendeth. Speech of touch towards others, should +be sparingly used; for discourse ought to be as a field, without coming +home to any man. I knew two noblemen, of the west part of England, +whereof the one was given to scoff, but kept ever royal cheer in his +house; the other would ask, of those that had been at the other's table, +Tell truly, was there never a flout or dry blow given? To which the +guest would answer, Such and such a thing passed. The lord would say, I +thought, he would mar a good dinner. Discretion of speech, is more than +eloquence; and to speak agreeably to him, with whom we deal, is more +than to speak in good words, or in good order. A good continued speech, +without a good speech of interlocution, shows slowness: and a good reply +or second speech, without a good settled speech, showeth shallowness +and weakness. As we see in beasts, that those that are weakest in the +course, are yet nimblest in the turn; as it is betwixt the greyhound and +the hare. To use too many circumstances, ere one come to the matter, is +wearisome; to use none at all, is blunt. + + + + +Of Plantations + + +PLANTATIONS are amongst ancient, primitive, and heroical works. When the +world was young, it begat more children; but now it is old, it begets +fewer: for I may justly account new plantations, to be the children +of former kingdoms. I like a plantation in a pure soil; that is, where +people are not displanted, to the end, to plant in others. For else it +is rather an extirpation, than a plantation. Planting of countries, is +like planting of woods; for you must make account to leese almost twenty +years' profit, and expect your recompense in the end. For the principal +thing, that hath been the destruction of most plantations, hath been the +base and hasty drawing of profit, in the first years. It is true, speedy +profit is not to be neglected, as far as may stand with the good of the +plantation, but no further. It is a shameful and unblessed thing, to +take the scum of people, and wicked condemned men, to be the people with +whom you plant; and not only so, but it spoileth the plantation; for +they will ever live like rogues, and not fall to work, but be lazy, and +do mischief, and spend victuals, and be quickly weary, and then certify +over to their country, to the discredit of the plantation. The people +wherewith you plant ought to be gardeners, ploughmen, laborers, smiths, +carpenters, joiners, fishermen, fowlers, with some few apothecaries, +surgeons, cooks, and bakers. In a country of plantation, first look +about, what kind of victual the country yields of itself to hand; as +chestnuts, walnuts, pineapples, olives, dates, plums, cherries, wild +honey, and the like; and make use of them. Then consider what victual or +esculent things there are, which grow speedily, and within the year; as +parsnips, carrots, turnips, onions, radish, artichokes of Hierusalem, +maize, and the like. For wheat, barley, and oats, they ask too much +labor; but with pease and beans you may begin, both because they ask +less labor, and because they serve for meat, as well as for bread. And +of rice, likewise cometh a great increase, and it is a kind of meat. +Above all, there ought to be brought store of biscuit, oat-meal, flour, +meal, and the like, in the beginning, till bread may be had. For beasts, +or birds, take chiefly such as are least subject to diseases, and +multiply fastest; as swine, goats, cocks, hens, turkeys, geese, +house-doves, and the like. The victual in plantations, ought to be +expended almost as in a besieged town; that is, with certain allowance. +And let the main part of the ground, employed to gardens or corn, be to +a common stock; and to be laid in, and stored up, and then delivered out +in proportion; besides some spots of ground, that any particular person +will manure for his own private. Consider likewise what commodities, the +soil where the plantation is, doth naturally yield, that they may some +way help to defray the charge of the plantation (so it be not, as was +said, to the untimely prejudice of the main business), as it hath fared +with tobacco in Virginia. Wood commonly aboundeth but too much; and +therefore timber is fit to be one. If there be iron ore, and streams +whereupon to set the mills, iron is a brave commodity where wood +aboundeth. Making of bay-salt, if the climate be proper for it, would +be put in experience. Growing silk likewise, if any be, is a likely +commodity. Pitch and tar, where store of firs and pines are, will not +fail. So drugs and sweet woods, where they are, cannot but yield great +profit. Soap-ashes likewise, and other things that may be thought +of. But moil not too much under ground; for the hope of mines is very +uncertain, and useth to make the planters lazy, in other things. For +government; let it be in the hands of one, assisted with some counsel; +and let them have commission to exercise martial laws, with some +limitation. And above all, let men make that profit, of being in the +wilderness, as they have God always, and his service, before their +eyes. Let not the government of the plantation, depend upon too many +counsellors, and undertakers, in the country that planteth, but upon a +temperate number; and let those be rather noblemen and gentlemen, than +merchants; for they look ever to the present gain. Let there be freedom +from custom, till the plantation be of strength; and not only freedom +from custom, but freedom to carry their commodities, where they may make +their best of them, except there be some special cause of caution. Cram +not in people, by sending too fast company after company; but rather +harken how they waste, and send supplies proportionably; but so, as +the number may live well in the plantation, and not by surcharge be +in penury. It hath been a great endangering to the health of some +plantations, that they have built along the sea and rivers, in marish +and unwholesome grounds. Therefore, though you begin there, to avoid +carriage and like discommodities, yet build still rather upwards from +the streams, than along. It concerneth likewise the health of the +plantation, that they have good store of salt with them, that they may +use it in their victuals, when it shall be necessary. If you plant where +savages are, do not only entertain them, with trifles and gingles, but +use them justly and graciously, with sufficient guard nevertheless; and +do not win their favor, by helping them to invade their enemies, but for +their defence it is not amiss; and send oft of them, over to the country +that plants, that they may see a better condition than their own, and +commend it when they return. When the plantation grows to strength, then +it is time to plant with women, as well as with men; that the plantation +may spread into generations, and not be ever pieced from without. It is +the sinfullest thing in the world, to forsake or destitute a plantation +once in forwardness; for besides the dishonor, it is the guiltiness of +blood of many commiserable persons. + + + + +Of Riches + + +I CANNOT call riches better than the baggage of virtue. The Roman word +is better, impedimenta. For as the baggage is to an army, so is riches +to virtue. It cannot be spared, nor left behind, but it hindereth the +march; yea, and the care of it, sometimes loseth or disturbeth the +victory. Of great riches there is no real use, except it be in the +distribution; the rest is but conceit. So saith Solomon, Where much is, +there are many to consume it; and what hath the owner, but the sight of +it with his eyes? The personal fruition in any man, cannot reach to +feel great riches: there is a custody of them; or a power of dole, and +donative of them; or a fame of them; but no solid use to the owner. +Do you not see what feigned prices, are set upon little stones and +rarities? and what works of ostentation are undertaken, because there +might seem to be some use of great riches? But then you will say, they +may be of use, to buy men out of dangers or troubles. As Solomon saith, +Riches are as a strong hold, in the imagination of the rich man. But +this is excellently expressed, that it is in imagination, and not always +in fact. For certainly great riches, have sold more men, than they have +bought out. Seek not proud riches, but such as thou mayest get justly, +use soberly, distribute cheerfully, and leave contentedly. Yet have no +abstract nor friarly contempt of them. But distinguish, as Cicero saith +well of Rabirius Posthumus, In studio rei amplificandae apparebat, non +avaritiae praedam, sed instrumentum bonitati quaeri. Harken also to +Solomon, and beware of hasty gathering of riches; Qui festinat ad +divitias, non erit insons. The poets feign, that when Plutus (which is +Riches) is sent from Jupiter, he limps and goes slowly; but when he +is sent from Pluto, he runs, and is swift of foot. Meaning that riches +gotten by good means, and just labor, pace slowly; but when they come +by the death of others (as by the course of inheritance, testaments, +and the like), they come tumbling upon a man. But it mought be applied +likewise to Pluto, taking him for the devil. For when riches come from +the devil (as by fraud and oppression, and unjust means), they come upon +speed. The ways to enrich are many, and most of them foul. Parsimony is +one of the best, and yet is not innocent; for it withholdeth men from +works of liberality and charity. The improvement of the ground, is the +most natural obtaining of riches; for it is our great mother's blessing, +the earth's; but it is slow. And yet where men of great wealth do stoop +to husbandry, it multiplieth riches exceedingly. I knew a nobleman in +England, that had the greatest audits of any man in my time; a great +grazier, a great sheep-master, a great timber man, a great collier, a +great corn-master, a great lead-man, and so of iron, and a number of +the like points of husbandry. So as the earth seemed a sea to him, in +respect of the perpetual importation. It was truly observed by one, that +himself came very hardly, to a little riches, and very easily, to great +riches. For when a man's stock is come to that, that he can expect the +prime of markets, and overcome those bargains, which for their greatness +are few men's money, and be partner in the industries of younger men, he +cannot but increase mainly. The gains of ordinary trades and vocations +are honest; and furthered by two things chiefly: by diligence, and by a +good name, for good and fair dealing. But the gains of bargains, are +of a more doubtful nature; when men shall wait upon others' necessity, +broke by servants and instruments to draw them on, put off others +cunningly, that would be better chapmen, and the like practices, which +are crafty and naught. As for the chopping of bargains, when a man buys +not to hold but to sell over again, that commonly grindeth double, both +upon the seller, and upon the buyer. Sharings do greatly enrich, if the +hands be well chosen, that are trusted. Usury is the certainest means of +gain, though one of the worst; as that whereby a man doth eat his bread, +in sudore vultus alieni; and besides, doth plough upon Sundays. But yet +certain though it be, it hath flaws; for that the scriveners and brokers +do value unsound men, to serve their own turn. The fortune in being +the first, in an invention or in a privilege, doth cause sometimes a +wonderful overgrowth in riches; as it was with the first sugar man, in +the Canaries. Therefore if a man can play the true logician, to have as +well judgment, as invention, he may do great matters; especially if the +times be fit. He that resteth upon gains certain, shall hardly grow +to great riches; and he that puts all upon adventures, doth oftentimes +break and come to poverty: it is good, therefore, to guard adventures +with certainties, that may uphold losses. Monopolies, and coemption of +wares for re-sale, where they are not restrained, are great means to +enrich; especially if the party have intelligence, what things are like +to come into request, and so store himself beforehand. Riches gotten +by service, though it be of the best rise, yet when they are gotten +by flattery, feeding humors, and other servile conditions, they may +be placed amongst the worst. As for fishing for testaments and +executorships (as Tacitus saith of Seneca, testamenta et orbos tamquam +indagine capi), it is yet worse; by how much men submit themselves to +meaner persons, than in service. Believe not much, them that seem to +despise riches; for they despise them, that despair of them; and none +worse, when they come to them. Be not penny-wise; riches have wings, +and sometimes they fly away of themselves, sometimes they must be +set flying, to bring in more. Men leave their riches, either to their +kindred, or to the public; and moderate portions, prosper best in both. +A great state left to an heir, is as a lure to all the birds of prey +round about, to seize on him, if he be not the better stablished in +years and judgment. Likewise glorious gifts and foundations, are like +sacrifices without salt; and but the painted sepulchres of alms, which +soon will putrefy, and corrupt inwardly. Therefore measure not thine +advancements, by quantity, but frame them by measure: and defer not +charities till death; for, certainly, if a man weigh it rightly, he that +doth so, is rather liberal of another man's, than of his own. + + + + +Of Prophecies + + +I MEAN not to speak of divine prophecies; nor of heathen oracles; nor +of natural predictions; but only of prophecies that have been of certain +memory, and from hidden causes. Saith the Pythonissa to Saul, To-morrow +thou and thy son shall be with me. Homer hath these verses: + + +At domus AEneae cunctis dominabitur oris, Et nati natorum, et qui +nascentur ab illis. + + +A prophecy, as it seems, of the Roman empire. Seneca the tragedian hath +these verses: + + + --Venient annis + Saecula seris, quibus Oceanus + Vincula rerum laxet, et ingens + Pateat Tellus, Tiphysque novos + Detegat orbes; nec sit terris + Ultima Thule: + + +a prophecy of the discovery of America. The daughter of Polycrates, +dreamed that Jupiter bathed her father, and Apollo anointed him; and it +came to pass, that he was crucified in an open place, where the sun +made his body run with sweat, and the rain washed it. Philip of Macedon +dreamed, he sealed up his wife's belly; whereby he did expound it, that +his wife should be barren; but Aristander the soothsayer, told him his +wife was with child, because men do not use to seal vessels, that are +empty. A phantasm that appeared to M. Brutus, in his tent, said to him, +Philippis iterum me videbis. Tiberius said to Galba, Tu quoque, Galba, +degustabis imperium. In Vespasian's time, there went a prophecy in the +East, that those that should come forth of Judea, should reign over +the world: which though it may be was meant of our Savior; yet Tacitus +expounds it of Vespasian. Domitian dreamed, the night before he was +slain, that a golden head was growing, out of the nape of his neck: and +indeed, the succession that followed him for many years, made golden +times. Henry the Sixth of England, said of Henry the Seventh, when he +was a lad, and gave him water, This is the lad that shall enjoy the +crown, for which we strive. When I was in France, I heard from one Dr. +Pena, that the Queen Mother, who was given to curious arts, caused the +King her husband's nativity to be calculated, under a false name; and +the astrologer gave a judgment, that he should be killed in a duel; at +which the Queen laughed, thinking her husband to be above challenges +and duels: but he was slain upon a course at tilt, the splinters of the +staff of Montgomery going in at his beaver. The trivial prophecy, which +I heard when I was a child, and Queen Elizabeth was in the flower of her +years, was, + + + When hempe is spun + + England's done: + +whereby it was generally conceived, that after the princes had reigned, +which had the principal letters of that word hempe (which were Henry, +Edward, Mary, Philip, and Elizabeth), England should come to utter +confusion; which, thanks be to God, is verified only in the change of +the name; for that the King's style, is now no more of England but of +Britain. There was also another prophecy, before the year of '88, which +I do not well understand. + + + There shall be seen upon a day, + Between the Baugh and the May, + The black fleet of Norway. + When that that is come and gone, + England build houses of lime and stone, + For after wars shall you have none. + + +It was generally conceived to be meant, of the Spanish fleet that came +in '88: for that the king of Spain's surname, as they say, is Norway. +The prediction of Regiomontanus, + + + Octogesimus octavus mirabilis annus, + + +was thought likewise accomplished in the sending of that great fleet, +being the greatest in strength, though not in number, of all that ever +swam upon the sea. As for Cleon's dream, I think it was a jest. It was, +that he was devoured of a long dragon; and it was expounded of a maker +of sausages, that troubled him exceedingly. There are numbers of +the like kind; especially if you include dreams, and predictions of +astrology. But I have set down these few only, of certain credit, for +example. My judgment is, that they ought all to be despised; and +ought to serve but for winter talk by the fireside. Though when I say +despised, I mean it as for belief; for otherwise, the spreading, or +publishing, of them, is in no sort to be despised. For they have done +much mischief; and I see many severe laws made, to suppress them. That +that hath given them grace, and some credit, consisteth in three things. +First, that men mark when they hit, and never mark when they miss; +as they do generally also of dreams. The second is, that probable +conjectures, or obscure traditions, many times turn themselves into +prophecies; while the nature of man, which coveteth divination, thinks +it no peril to foretell that which indeed they do but collect. As that +of Seneca's verse. For so much was then subject to demonstration, that +the globe of the earth had great parts beyond the Atlantic, which +mought be probably conceived not to be all sea: and adding thereto the +tradition in Plato's Timaeus, and his Atlanticus, it mought encourage +one to turn it to a prediction. The third and last (which is the great +one) is, that almost all of them, being infinite in number, have been +impostures, and by idle and crafty brains merely contrived and feigned, +after the event past. + + + + +Of Ambition + + +AMBITION is like choler; which is an humor that maketh men active, +earnest, full of alacrity, and stirring, if it be not stopped. But if +it be stopped, and cannot have his way, it becometh adust, and thereby +malign and venomous. So ambitious men, if they find the way open +for their rising, and still get forward, they are rather busy than +dangerous; but if they be checked in their desires, they become secretly +discontent, and look upon men and matters with an evil eye, and are +best pleased, when things go backward; which is the worst property in a +servant of a prince, or state. Therefore it is good for princes, if they +use ambitious men, to handle it, so as they be still progressive and +not retrograde; which, because it cannot be without inconvenience, it +is good not to use such natures at all. For if they rise not with their +service, they will take order, to make their service fall with them. But +since we have said, it were good not to use men of ambitious natures, +except it be upon necessity, it is fit we speak, in what cases they are +of necessity. Good commanders in the wars must be taken, be they never +so ambitious; for the use of their service, dispenseth with the rest; +and to take a soldier without ambition, is to pull off his spurs. There +is also great use of ambitious men, in being screens to princes in +matters of danger and envy; for no man will take that part, except he be +like a seeled dove, that mounts and mounts, because he cannot see about +him. There is use also of ambitious men, in pulling down the greatness +of any subject that overtops; as Tiberius used Marco, in the pulling +down of Sejanus. Since, therefore, they must be used in such cases, +there resteth to speak, how they are to be bridled, that they may be +less dangerous. There is less danger of them, if they be of mean birth, +than if they be noble; and if they be rather harsh of nature, than +gracious and popular: and if they be rather new raised, than grown +cunning, and fortified, in their greatness. It is counted by some, a +weakness in princes, to have favorites; but it is, of all others, +the best remedy against ambitious great-ones. For when the way of +pleasuring, and displeasuring, lieth by the favorite, it is impossible +any other should be overgreat. Another means to curb them, is to balance +them by others, as proud as they. But then there must be some middle +counsellors, to keep things steady; for without that ballast, the ship +will roll too much. At the least, a prince may animate and inure some +meaner persons, to be as it were scourges, to ambitious men. As for the +having of them obnoxious to ruin; if they be of fearful natures, it +may do well; but if they be stout and daring, it may precipitate their +designs, and prove dangerous. As for the pulling of them down, if the +affairs require it, and that it may not be done with safety suddenly, +the only way is the interchange, continually, of favors and disgraces; +whereby they may not know what to expect, and be, as it were, in a +wood. Of ambitions, it is less harmful, the ambition to prevail in +great things, than that other, to appear in every thing; for that breeds +confusion, and mars business. But yet it is less danger, to have an +ambitious man stirring in business, than great in dependences. He that +seeketh to be eminent amongst able men, hath a great task; but that +is ever good for the public. But he, that plots to be the only figure +amongst ciphers, is the decay of a whole age. Honor hath three things in +it: the vantage ground to do good; the approach to kings and principal +persons; and the raising of a man's own fortunes. He that hath the +best of these intentions, when he aspireth, is an honest man; and that +prince, that can discern of these intentions in another that aspireth, +is a wise prince. Generally, let princes and states choose such +ministers, as are more sensible of duty than of using; and such as love +business rather upon conscience, than upon bravery, and let them discern +a busy nature, from a willing mind. + + + + +Of Masques And Triumphs + + +THESE things are but toys, to come amongst such serious observations. +But yet, since princes will have such things, it is better they should +be graced with elegancy, than daubed with cost. Dancing to song, is a +thing of great state and pleasure. I understand it, that the song be +in quire, placed aloft, and accompanied with some broken music; and the +ditty fitted to the device. Acting in song, especially in dialogues, +hath an extreme good grace; I say acting, not dancing (for that is a +mean and vulgar thing); and the voices of the dialogue would be strong +and manly (a base and a tenor; no treble); and the ditty high and +tragical; not nice or dainty. Several quires, placed one over against +another, and taking the voice by catches, anthem-wise, give great +pleasure. Turning dances into figure, is a childish curiosity. And +generally let it be noted, that those things which I here set down, are +such as do naturally take the sense, and not respect petty wonderments. +It is true, the alterations of scenes, so it be quietly and without +noise, are things of great beauty and pleasure; for they feed and +relieve the eye, before it be full of the same object. Let the scenes +abound with light, specially colored and varied; and let the masquers, +or any other, that are to come down from the scene, have some motions +upon the scene itself, before their coming down; for it draws the eye +strangely, and makes it, with great pleasure, to desire to see, that it +cannot perfectly discern. Let the songs be loud and cheerful, and not +chirpings or pulings. Let the music likewise be sharp and loud, and well +placed. The colors that show best by candle-light are white, carnation, +and a kind of sea-water-green; and oes, or spangs, as they are of no +great cost, so they are of most glory. As for rich embroidery, it is +lost and not discerned. Let the suits of the masquers be graceful, and +such as become the person, when the vizors are off; not after examples +of known attires; Turke, soldiers, mariners', and the like. Let +anti-masques not be long; they have been commonly of fools, satyrs, +baboons, wild-men, antics, beasts, sprites, witches, Ethiops, pigmies, +turquets, nymphs, rustics, Cupids, statuas moving, and the like. As +for angels, it is not comical enough, to put them in anti-masques; and +anything that is hideous, as devils, giants, is on the other side as +unfit. But chiefly, let the music of them be recreative, and with some +strange changes. Some sweet odors suddenly coming forth, without any +drops falling, are, in such a company as there is steam and heat, things +of great pleasure and refreshment. Double masques, one of men, another +of ladies, addeth state and variety. But all is nothing except the room +be kept clear and neat. + +For justs, and tourneys, and barriers; the glories of them are chiefly +in the chariots, wherein the challengers make their entry; especially +if they be drawn with strange beasts: as lions, bears, camels, and the +like; or in the devices of their entrance; or in the bravery of their +liveries; or in the goodly furniture of their horses and armor. But +enough of these toys. + + + + +Of Nature In Men + + +NATURE is often hidden; sometimes overcome; seldom extinguished. Force, +maketh nature more violent in the return; doctrine and discourse, maketh +nature less importune; but custom only doth alter and subdue nature. He +that seeketh victory over his nature, let him not set himself too great, +nor too small tasks; for the first will make him dejected by often +failings; and the second will make him a small proceeder, though by +often prevailings. And at the first let him practise with helps, as +swimmers do with bladders or rushes; but after a time let him practise +with disadvantages, as dancers do with thick shoes. For it breeds great +perfection, if the practice be harder than the use. Where nature is +mighty, and therefore the victory hard, the degrees had need be, first +to stay and arrest nature in time; like to him that would say over the +four and twenty letters when he was angry; then to go less in quantity; +as if one should, in forbearing wine, come from drinking healths, to a +draught at a meal; and lastly, to discontinue altogether. But if a man +have the fortitude, and resolution, to enfranchise himself at once, that +is the best: + + + Optimus ille animi vindex laedentia pectus + Vincula qui rupit, dedoluitque semel. + + +Neither is the ancient rule amiss, to bend nature, as a wand, to a +contrary extreme, whereby to set it right, understanding it, where the +contrary extreme is no vice. Let not a man force a habit upon himself, +with a perpetual continuance, but with some intermission. For both the +pause reinforceth the new onset; and if a man that is not perfect, +be ever in practice, he shall as well practise his errors, as his +abilities, and induce one habit of both; and there is no means to help +this, but by seasonable intermissions. But let not a man trust his +victory over his nature, too far; for nature will lay buried a great +time, and yet revive, upon the occasion or temptation. Like as it was +with AEsop's damsel, turned from a cat to a woman, who sat very demurely +at the board's end, till a mouse ran before her. Therefore, let a man +either avoid the occasion altogether; or put himself often to it, that +he may be little moved with it. A man's nature is best perceived in +privateness, for there is no affectation; in passion, for that putteth +a man out of his precepts; and in a new case or experiment, for there +custom leaveth him. They are happy men, whose natures sort with their +vocations; otherwise they may say, multum incola fuit anima mea; +when they converse in those things, they do not affect. In studies, +whatsoever a man commandeth upon himself, let him set hours for it; but +whatsoever is agreeable to his nature, let him take no care for any set +times; for his thoughts will fly to it, of themselves; so as the spaces +of other business, or studies, will suffice. A man's nature, runs either +to herbs or weeds; therefore let him seasonably water the one, and +destroy the other. + + + + +Of Custom And Education + + +MEN'S thoughts, are much according to their inclination; their discourse +and speeches, according to their learning and infused opinions; but +their deeds, are after as they have been accustomed. And therefore, as +Machiavel well noteth (though in an evil-favored instance), there is no +trusting to the force of nature, nor to the bravery of words, except it +be corroborate by custom. His instance is, that for the achieving of a +desperate conspiracy, a man should not rest upon the fierceness of any +man's nature, or his resolute undertakings; but take such an one, as +hath had his hands formerly in blood. But Machiavel knew not of a Friar +Clement, nor a Ravillac, nor a Jaureguy, nor a Baltazar Gerard; yet his +rule holdeth still, that nature, nor the engagement of words, are not so +forcible, as custom. Only superstition is now so well advanced, that men +of the first blood, are as firm as butchers by occupation; and votary +resolution, is made equipollent to custom, even in matter of blood. In +other things, the predominancy of custom is everywhere visible; insomuch +as a man would wonder, to hear men profess, protest, engage, give great +words, and then do, just as they have done before; as if they were dead +images, and engines moved only by the wheels of custom. We see also the +reign or tyranny of custom, what it is. The Indians (I mean the sect +of their wise men) lay themselves quietly upon a stock of wood, and so +sacrifice themselves by fire. Nay, the wives strive to be burned, with +the corpses of their husbands. The lads of Sparta, of ancient time, +were wont to be scourged upon the altar of Diana, without so much as +queching. I remember, in the beginning of Queen Elizabeth's time of +England, an Irish rebel condemned, put up a petition to the deputy, that +he might be hanged in a withe, and not in an halter; because it had been +so used, with former rebels. There be monks in Russia, for penance, that +will sit a whole night in a vessel of water, till they be engaged with +hard ice. Many examples may be put of the force of custom, both upon +mind and body. Therefore, since custom is the principal magistrate +of man's life, let men by all means endeavor, to obtain good customs. +Certainly custom is most perfect, when it beginneth in young years: this +we call education; which is, in effect, but an early custom. So we see, +in languages, the tongue is more pliant to all expressions and sounds, +the joints are more supple, to all feats of activity and motions, in +youth than afterwards. For it is true, that late learners cannot so +well take the ply; except it be in some minds, that have not suffered +themselves to fix, but have kept themselves open, and prepared to +receive continual amendment, which is exceeding rare. But if the force +of custom simple and separate, be great, the force of custom copulate +and conjoined and collegiate, is far greater. For there example +teacheth, company comforteth, emulation quickeneth, glory raiseth: so as +in such places the force of custom is in his exaltation. Certainly +the great multiplication of virtues upon human nature, resteth upon +societies well ordained and disciplined. For commonwealths, and good +governments, do nourish virtue grown but do not much mend the deeds. +But the misery is, that the most effectual means, are now applied to the +ends, least to be desired. + + + + +Of Fortune + + +IT CANNOT be denied, but outward accidents conduce much to fortune; +favor, opportunity, death of others, occasion fitting virtue. But +chiefly, the mould of a man's fortune is in his own hands. Faber quisque +fortunae suae, saith the poet. And the most frequent of external causes +is, that the folly of one man, is the fortune of another. For no man +prospers so suddenly, as by others' errors. Serpens nisi serpentem +comederit non fit draco. Overt and apparent virtues, bring forth praise; +but there be secret and hidden virtues, that bring forth fortune; +certain deliveries of a man's self, which have no name. The Spanish +name, desemboltura, partly expresseth them; when there be not stonds nor +restiveness in a man's nature; but that the wheels of his mind, keep way +with the wheels of his fortune. For so Livy (after he had described Cato +Major in these words, In illo viro tantum robur corporis et animi fuit, +ut quocunque loco natus esset, fortunam sibi facturus videretur) falleth +upon that, that he had versatile ingenium. Therefore if a man look +sharply and attentively, he shall see Fortune: for though she be blind, +yet she is not invisible. The way of fortune, is like the Milken Way in +the sky; which is a meeting or knot of a number of small stars; not seen +asunder, but giving light together. So are there a number of little, and +scarce discerned virtues, or rather faculties and customs, that make men +fortunate. The Italians note some of them, such as a man would little +think. When they speak of one that cannot do amiss, they will throw in, +into his other conditions, that he hath Poco di matto. And certainly +there be not two more fortunate properties, than to have a little of the +fool, and not too much of the honest. Therefore extreme lovers of their +country or masters, were never fortunate, neither can they be. For when +a man placeth his thoughts without himself, he goeth not his own way. +An hasty fortune maketh an enterpriser and remover (the French hath it +better, entreprenant, or remuant); but the exercised fortune maketh the +able man. Fortune is to be honored and respected, and it be but for her +daughters, Confidence and Reputation. For those two, Felicity breedeth; +the first within a man's self, the latter in others towards him. All +wise men, to decline the envy of their own virtues, use to ascribe them +to Providence and Fortune; for so they may the better assume them: and, +besides, it is greatness in a man, to be the care of the higher powers. +So Caesar said to the pilot in the tempest, Caesarem portas, et fortunam +ejus. So Sylla chose the name of Felix, and not of Magnus. And it hath +been noted, that those who ascribe openly too much to their own wisdom +and policy, end infortunate. It is written that Timotheus the Athenian, +after he had, in the account he gave to the state of his government, +often interlaced this speech, and in this, Fortune had no part, never +prospered in anything, he undertook afterwards. Certainly there be, +whose fortunes are like Homer's verses, that have a slide and easiness +more than the verses of other poets; as Plutarch saith of Timoleon's +fortune, in respect of that of Agesilaus or Epaminondas. And that this +should be, no doubt it is much, in a man's self. + + + + +Of Usury + + +MANY have made witty invectives against usury. They say that it is a +pity, the devil should have God's part, which is the tithe. That the +usurer is the greatest Sabbath-breaker, because his plough goeth every +Sunday. That the usurer is the drone, that Virgil speaketh of; + + + Ignavum fucos pecus a praesepibus arcent. + +That the usurer breaketh the first law, that was made for mankind after +the fall, which was, in sudore vultus tui comedes panem tuum; not, in +sudore vultus alieni. That usurers should have orange-tawny bonnets, +because they do judaize. That it is against nature for money to beget +money; and the like. I say this only, that usury is a concessum propter +duritiem cordis; for since there must be borrowing and lending, and +men are so hard of heart, as they will not lend freely, usury must be +permitted. Some others, have made suspicious and cunning propositions +of banks, discovery of men's estates, and other inventions. But few have +spoken of usury usefully. It is good to set before us, the incommodities +and commodities of usury, that the good, may be either weighed out or +culled out; and warily to provide, that while we make forth to that +which is better, we meet not with that which is worse. + +The discommodities of usury are, First, that it makes fewer merchants. +For were it not for this lazy trade of usury, money would not be still, +but would in great part be employed upon merchandizing; which is +the vena porta of wealth in a state. The second, that it makes poor +merchants. For, as a farmer cannot husband his ground so well, if he sit +at a great rent; so the merchant cannot drive his trade so well, if he +sit at great usury. The third is incident to the other two; and that +is the decay of customs of kings or states, which ebb or flow, with +merchandizing. The fourth, that it bringeth the treasure of a realm, or +state, into a few hands. For the usurer being at certainties, and others +at uncertainties, at the end of the game, most of the money will be +in the box; and ever a state flourisheth, when wealth is more equally +spread. The fifth, that it beats down the price of land; for the +employment of money, is chiefly either merchandizing or purchasing; +and usury waylays both. The sixth, that it doth dull and damp all +industries, improvements, and new inventions, wherein money would be +stirring, if it were not for this slug. The last, that it is the canker +and ruin of many men's estates; which, in process of time, breeds a +public poverty. + +On the other side, the commodities of usury are, first, that howsoever +usury in some respect hindereth merchandizing, yet in some other it +advanceth it; for it is certain that the greatest part of trade is +driven by young merchants, upon borrowing at interest; so as if the +usurer either call in, or keep back, his money, there will ensue, +presently, a great stand of trade. The second is, that were it not for +this easy borrowing upon interest, men's necessities would draw upon +them a most sudden undoing; in that they would be forced to sell their +means (be it lands or goods) far under foot; and so, whereas usury doth +but gnaw upon them, bad markets would swallow them quite up. As for +mortgaging or pawning, it will little mend the matter: for either men +will not take pawns without use; or if they do, they will look precisely +for the forfeiture. I remember a cruel moneyed man in the country, that +would say, The devil take this usury, it keeps us from forfeitures, +of mortgages and bonds. The third and last is, that it is a vanity to +conceive, that there would be ordinary borrowing without profit; and it +is impossible to conceive, the number of inconveniences that will ensue, +if borrowing be cramped. Therefore to speak of the abolishing of usury +is idle. All states have ever had it, in one kind or rate, or other. So +as that opinion must be sent to Utopia. + +To speak now of the reformation, and reiglement, of usury; how the +discommodities of it may be best avoided, and the commodities retained. +It appears, by the balance of commodities and discommodities of usury, +two things are to be reconciled. The one, that the tooth of usury be +grinded, that it bite not too much; the other, that there be left open +a means, to invite moneyed men to lend to the merchants, for the +continuing and quickening of trade. This cannot be done, except you +introduce two several sorts of usury, a less and a greater. For if you +reduce usury to one low rate, it will ease the common borrower, but +the merchant will be to seek for money. And it is to be noted, that the +trade of merchandize, being the most lucrative, may bear usury at a good +rate; other contracts not so. + +To serve both intentions, the way would be briefly thus. That there be +two rates of usury: the one free, and general for all; the other +under license only, to certain persons, and in certain places of +merchandizing. First, therefore, let usury in general, be reduced to +five in the hundred; and let that rate be proclaimed, to be free and +current; and let the state shut itself out, to take any penalty for the +same. This will preserve borrowing, from any general stop or dryness. +This will ease infinite borrowers in the country. This will, in good +part, raise the price of land, because land purchased at sixteen years' +purchase will yield six in the hundred, and somewhat more; whereas this +rate of interest, yields but five. This by like reason will encourage, +and edge, industrious and profitable improvements; because many will +rather venture in that kind, than take five in the hundred, especially +having been used to greater profit. Secondly, let there be certain +persons licensed, to lend to known merchants, upon usury at a higher +rate; and let it be with the cautions following. Let the rate be, even +with the merchant himself, somewhat more easy than that he used formerly +to pay; for by that means, all borrowers, shall have some ease by this +reformation, be he merchant, or whosoever. Let it be no bank or common +stock, but every man be master of his own money. Not that I altogether +mislike banks, but they will hardly be brooked, in regard of certain +suspicions. Let the state be answered some small matter for the license, +and the rest left to the lender; for if the abatement be but small, +it will no whit discourage the lender. For he, for example, that took +before ten or nine in the hundred, will sooner descend to eight in the +hundred than give over his trade of usury, and go from certain gains, to +gains of hazard. Let these licensed lenders be in number indefinite, but +restrained to certain principal cities and towns of merchandizing; +for then they will be hardly able to color other men's moneys in the +country: so as the license of nine will not suck away the current rate +of five; for no man will send his moneys far off, nor put them into +unknown hands. + +If it be objected that this doth in a sort authorize usury, which +before, was in some places but permissive; the answer is, that it is +better to mitigate usury, by declaration, than to suffer it to rage, by +connivance. + + + + +Of Youth And Age + + +A MAN that is young in years, may be old in hours, if he have lost no +time. But that happeneth rarely. Generally, youth is like the first +cogitations, not so wise as the second. For there is a youth in +thoughts, as well as in ages. And yet the invention of young men, is +more lively than that of old; and imaginations stream into their minds +better, and, as it were, more divinely. Natures that have much heat, and +great and violent desires and perturbations, are not ripe for action, +till they have passed the meridian of their years; as it was with +Julius Caesar and Septimius Severus. Of the latter, of whom it is said, +Juventutem egit erroribus, imo furoribus, plenam. And yet he was the +ablest emperor, almost, of all the list. But reposed natures may do well +in youth. As it is seen in Augustus Caesar, Cosmus Duke of Florence, +Gaston de Foix, and others. On the other side, heat and vivacity in +age, is an excellent composition for business. Young men are fitter +to invent, than to judge; fitter for execution, than for counsel; and +fitter for new projects, than for settled business. For the experience +of age, in things that fall within the compass of it, directeth them; +but in new things, abuseth them. + +The errors of young men, are the ruin of business; but the errors of +aged men, amount but to this, that more might have been done, or sooner. +Young men, in the conduct and manage of actions, embrace more than +they can hold; stir more than they can quiet; fly to the end, without +consideration of the means and degrees; pursue some few principles, +which they have chanced upon absurdly; care not to innovate, which draws +unknown inconveniences; use extreme remedies at first; and, that which +doubleth all errors, will not acknowledge or retract them; like an +unready horse, that will neither stop nor turn. Men of age object too +much, consult too long, adventure too little, repent too soon, and +seldom drive business home to the full period, but content themselves +with a mediocrity of success. Certainly it is good to compound +employments of both; for that will be good for the present, because the +virtues of either age, may correct the defects of both; and good for +succession, that young men may be learners, while men in age are actors; +and, lastly, good for extern accidents, because authority followeth old +men, and favor and popularity, youth. But for the moral part, perhaps +youth will have the pre-eminence, as age hath for the politic. A certain +rabbin, upon the text, Your young men shall see visions, and your old +men shall dream dreams, inferreth that young men, are admitted nearer to +God than old, because vision, is a clearer revelation, than a dream. +And certainly, the more a man drinketh of the world, the more it +intoxicateth; and age doth profit rather in the powers of understanding, +than in the virtues of the will and affections. There be some, have an +over-early ripeness in their years, which fadeth betimes. These are, +first, such as have brittle wits, the edge whereof is soon turned; such +as was Hermogenes the rhetorician, whose books are exceeding subtle; +who afterwards waxed stupid. A second sort, is of those that have some +natural dispositions which have better grace in youth, than in age; such +as is a fluent and luxuriant speech; which becomes youth well, but not +age: so Tully saith of Hortensius, Idem manebat, neque idem decebat. +The third is of such, as take too high a strain at the first, and +are magnanimous, more than tract of years can uphold. As was Scipio +Africanus, of whom Livy saith in effect, Ultima primis cedebant. + + + + +Of Beauty + + +VIRTUE is like a rich stone, best plain set; and surely virtue is best, +in a body that is comely, though not of delicate features; and that hath +rather dignity of presence, than beauty of aspect. Neither is it almost +seen, that very beautiful persons are otherwise of great virtue; as +if nature were rather busy, not to err, than in labor to produce +excellency. And therefore they prove accomplished, but not of great +spirit; and study rather behavior, than virtue. But this holds not +always: for Augustus Caesar, Titus Vespasianus, Philip le Belle of +France, Edward the Fourth of England, Alcibiades of Athens, Ismael +the Sophy of Persia, were all high and great spirits; and yet the most +beautiful men of their times. In beauty, that of favor, is more than +that of color; and that of decent and gracious motion, more than that of +favor. That is the best part of beauty, which a picture cannot express; +no, nor the first sight of the life. There is no excellent beauty, that +hath not some strangeness in the proportion. A man cannot tell whether +Apelles, or Albert Durer, were the more trifler; whereof the one, would +make a personage by geometrical proportions; the other, by taking the +best parts out of divers faces, to make one excellent. Such personages, +I think, would please nobody, but the painter that made them. Not but I +think a painter may make a better face than ever was; but he must do +it by a kind of felicity (as a musician that maketh an excellent air in +music), and not by rule. A man shall see faces, that if you examine them +part by part, you shall find never a good; and yet altogether do well. +If it be true that the principal part of beauty is in decent motion, +certainly it is no marvel, though persons in years seem many times more +amiable; pulchrorum autumnus pulcher; for no youth can be comely but by +pardon, and considering the youth, as to make up the comeliness. Beauty +is as summer fruits, which are easy to corrupt, and cannot last; and +for the most part it makes a dissolute youth, and an age a little out of +countenance; but yet certainly again, if it light well, it maketh virtue +shine, and vices blush. + + + + +Of Deformity + + +DEFORMED persons are commonly even with nature; for as nature hath +done ill by them, so do they by nature; being for the most part (as +the Scripture saith) void of natural affection; and so they have their +revenge of nature. Certainly there is a consent, between the body and +the mind; and where nature erreth in the one, she ventureth in the +other. Ubi peccat in uno, periclitatur in altero. But because there is, +in man, an election touching the frame of his mind, and a necessity in +the frame of his body, the stars of natural inclination are sometimes +obscured, by the sun of discipline and virtue. Therefore it is good to +consider of deformity, not as a sign, which is more deceivable; but as a +cause, which seldom faileth of the effect. Whosoever hath anything fixed +in his person, that doth induce contempt, hath also a perpetual spur +in himself, to rescue and deliver himself from scorn. Therefore all +deformed persons, are extreme bold. First, as in their own defence, as +being exposed to scorn; but in process of time, by a general habit. Also +it stirreth in them industry, and especially of this kind, to watch and +observe the weakness of others, that they may have somewhat to repay. +Again, in their superiors, it quencheth jealousy towards them, as +persons that they think they may, at pleasure, despise: and it layeth +their competitors and emulators asleep; as never believing they should +be in possibility of advancement, till they see them in possession. +So that upon the matter, in a great wit, deformity is an advantage to +rising. Kings in ancient times (and at this present in some countries) +were wont to put great trust in eunuchs; because they that are envious +towards all are more obnoxious and officious, towards one. But yet +their trust towards them, hath rather been as to good spials, and good +whisperers, than good magistrates and officers. And much like is the +reason of deformed persons. Still the ground is, they will, if they be +of spirit, seek to free themselves from scorn; which must be either by +virtue or malice; and therefore let it not be marvelled, if sometimes +they prove excellent persons; as was Agesilaus, Zanger the son of +Solyman, AEsop, Gasca, President of Peru; and Socrates may go likewise +amongst them; with others. + + + + +Of Building + + +HOUSES are built to live in, and not to look on; therefore let use be +preferred before uniformity, except where both may be had. Leave the +goodly fabrics of houses, for beauty only, to the enchanted palaces of +the poets; who build them with small cost. He that builds a fair house, +upon an ill seat, committeth himself to prison. Neither do I reckon it +an ill seat, only where the air is unwholesome; but likewise where the +air is unequal; as you shall see many fine seats set upon a knap of +ground, environed with higher hills round about it; whereby the heat +of the sun is pent in, and the wind gathereth as in troughs; so as you +shall have, and that suddenly, as great diversity of heat and cold as if +you dwelt in several places. Neither is it ill air only that maketh +an ill seat, but ill ways, ill markets; and, if you will consult with +Momus, ill neighbors. I speak not of many more; want of water; want of +wood, shade, and shelter; want of fruitfulness, and mixture of grounds +of several natures; want of prospect; want of level grounds; want of +places at some near distance for sports of hunting, hawking, and races; +too near the sea, too remote; having the commodity of navigable rivers, +or the discommodity of their overflowing; too far off from great +cities, which may hinder business, or too near them, which lurcheth all +provisions, and maketh everything dear; where a man hath a great living +laid together, and where he is scanted: all which, as it is impossible +perhaps to find together, so it is good to know them, and think of them, +that a man may take as many as he can; and if he have several dwellings, +that he sort them so that what he wanteth in the one, he may find in +the other. Lucullus answered Pompey well; who, when he saw his stately +galleries, and rooms so large and lightsome, in one of his houses, said, +Surely an excellent place for summer, but how do you in winter? Lucullus +answered, Why, do you not think me as wise as some fowl are, that ever +change their abode towards the winter? + +To pass from the seat, to the house itself; we will do as Cicero doth +in the orator's art; who writes books De Oratore, and a book he entitles +Orator; whereof the former, delivers the precepts of the art, and the +latter, the perfection. We will therefore describe a princely palace, +making a brief model thereof. For it is strange to see, now in Europe, +such huge buildings as the Vatican and Escurial and some others be, and +yet scarce a very fair room in them. + +First, therefore, I say you cannot have a perfect palace except you have +two several sides; a side for the banquet, as it is spoken of in the +book of Hester, and a side for the household; the one for feasts and +triumphs, and the other for dwelling. I understand both these sides to +be not only returns, but parts of the front; and to be uniform without, +though severally partitioned within; and to be on both sides of a great +and stately tower, in the midst of the front, that, as it were, joineth +them together on either hand. I would have on the side of the banquet, +in front, one only goodly room above stairs, of some forty foot high; +and under it a room for a dressing, or preparing place, at times of +triumphs. On the other side, which is the household side, I wish +it divided at the first, into a hall and a chapel (with a partition +between); both of good state and bigness; and those not to go all the +length, but to have at the further end, a winter and a summer parlor, +both fair. And under these rooms, a fair and large cellar, sunk under +ground; and likewise some privy kitchens, with butteries and pantries, +and the like. As for the tower, I would have it two stories, of eighteen +foot high apiece, above the two wings; and a goodly leads upon the +top, railed with statuas interposed; and the same tower to be divided +into rooms, as shall be thought fit. The stairs likewise to the upper +rooms, let them be upon a fair open newel, and finely railed in, with +images of wood, cast into a brass color; and a very fair landing-place +at the top. But this to be, if you do not point any of the lower rooms, +for a dining place of servants. For otherwise, you shall have the +servants' dinner after your own: for the steam of it, will come up as in +a tunnel. And so much for the front. Only I understand the height of the +first stairs to be sixteen foot, which is the height of the lower room. + +Beyond this front, is there to be a fair court, but three sides of it, +of a far lower building than the front. And in all the four corners of +that court, fair staircases, cast into turrets, on the outside, and not +within the row of buildings themselves. But those towers, are not to +be of the height of the front, but rather proportionable to the lower +building. Let the court not be paved, for that striketh up a great heat +in summer, and much cold in winter. But only some side alleys, with a +cross, and the quarters to graze, being kept shorn, but not too near +shorn. The row of return on the banquet side, let it be all stately +galleries: in which galleries let there be three, or five, fine cupolas +in the length of it, placed at equal distance; and fine colored windows +of several works. On the household side, chambers of presence and +ordinary entertainments, with some bed-chambers; and let all three sides +be a double house, without thorough lights on the sides, that you may +have rooms from the sun, both for forenoon and afternoon. Cast it also, +that you may have rooms, both for summer and winter; shady for summer, +and warm for winter. You shall have sometimes fair houses so full of +glass, that one cannot tell where to become, to be out of the sun or +cold. For inbowed windows, I hold them of good use (in cities, indeed, +upright do better, in respect of the uniformity towards the street); for +they be pretty retiring places for conference; and besides, they keep +both the wind and sun off; for that which would strike almost through +the room, doth scarce pass the window. But let them be but few, four in +the court, on the sides only. + +Beyond this court, let there be an inward court, of the same square and +height; which is to be environed with the garden on all sides; and in +the inside, cloistered on all sides, upon decent and beautiful arches, +as high as the first story. On the under story, towards the garden, let +it be turned to a grotto, or a place of shade, or estivation. And only +have opening and windows towards the garden; and be level upon the +floor, no whit sunken under ground, to avoid all dampishness. And let +there be a fountain, or some fair work of statuas, in the midst of this +court; and to be paved as the other court was. These buildings to be for +privy lodgings on both sides; and the end for privy galleries. Whereof +you must foresee that one of them be for an infirmary, if the prince +or any special person should be sick, with chambers, bed-chamber, +antecamera, and recamera joining to it. This upon the second story. Upon +the ground story, a fair gallery, open, upon pillars; and upon the third +story likewise, an open gallery, upon pillars, to take the prospect and +freshness of the garden. At both corners of the further side, by way +of return, let there be two delicate or rich cabinets, daintily paved, +richly hanged, glazed with crystalline glass, and a rich cupola in the +midst; and all other elegancy that may be thought upon. In the upper +gallery too, I wish that there may be, if the place will yield it, +some fountains running in divers places from the wall, with some fine +avoidances. And thus much for the model of the palace; save that you +must have, before you come to the front, three courts. A green court +plain, with a wall about it; a second court of the same, but more +garnished, with little turrets, or rather embellishments, upon the wall; +and a third court, to make a square with the front, but not to be built, +nor yet enclosed with a naked wall, but enclosed with terraces, leaded +aloft, and fairly garnished, on the three sides; and cloistered on the +inside, with pillars, and not with arches below. As for offices, let +them stand at distance, with some low galleries, to pass from them to +the palace itself. + + + + +Of Gardens + + +GOD Almighty first planted a garden. And indeed it is the purest of +human pleasures. It is the greatest refreshment to the spirits of man; +without which, buildings and palaces are but gross handiworks; and a man +shall ever see, that when ages grow to civility and elegancy, men come +to build stately sooner than to garden finely; as if gardening were +the greater perfection. I do hold it, in the royal ordering of gardens, +there ought to be gardens, for all the months in the year; in which +severally things of beauty may be then in season. For December, and +January, and the latter part of November, you must take such things as +are green all winter: holly; ivy; bays; juniper; cypress-trees; yew; +pine-apple-trees; fir-trees; rosemary; lavender; periwinkle, the white, +the purple, and the blue; germander; flags; orange-trees; lemon-trees; +and myrtles, if they be stoved; and sweet marjoram, warm set. +There followeth, for the latter part of January and February, the +mezereon-tree, which then blossoms; crocus vernus, both the yellow and +the grey; primroses, anemones; the early tulippa; hyacinthus orientalis; +chamairis; fritellaria. For March, there come violets, specially the +single blue, which are the earliest; the yellow daffodil; the daisy; the +almond-tree in blossom; the peach-tree in blossom; the cornelian-tree +in blossom; sweet-briar. In April follow the double white violet; the +wallflower; the stock-gilliflower; the cowslip; flowerdelices, and +lilies of all natures; rosemary-flowers; the tulippa; the double peony; +the pale daffodil; the French honeysuckle; the cherry-tree in blossom; +the damson and plum-trees in blossom; the white thorn in leaf; the +lilac-tree. In May and June come pinks of all sorts, specially the +blushpink; roses of all kinds, except the musk, which comes later; +honeysuckles; strawberries; bugloss; columbine; the French marigold, +flos Africanus; cherry-tree in fruit; ribes; figs in fruit; rasps; +vineflowers; lavender in flowers; the sweet satyrian, with the white +flower; herba muscaria; lilium convallium; the apple-tree in blossom. +In July come gilliflowers of all varieties; musk-roses; the lime-tree in +blossom; early pears and plums in fruit; jennetings, codlins. In +August come plums of all sorts in fruit; pears; apricocks; berberries; +filberds; musk-melons; monks-hoods, of all colors. In September come +grapes; apples; poppies of all colors; peaches; melocotones; nectarines; +cornelians; wardens; quinces. In October and the beginning of November +come services; medlars; bullaces; roses cut or removed to come late; +hollyhocks; and such like. These particulars are for the climate of +London; but my meaning is perceived, that you may have ver perpetuum, as +the place affords. + +And because the breath of flowers is far sweeter in the air (where it +comes and goes like the warbling of music) than in the hand, therefore +nothing is more fit for that delight, than to know what be the flowers +and plants that do best perfume the air. Roses, damask and red, are fast +flowers of their smells; so that you may walk by a whole row of them, +and find nothing of their sweetness; yea though it be in a morning's +dew. Bays likewise yield no smell as they grow. Rosemary little; nor +sweet marjoram. That which above all others yields the sweetest smell +in the air is the violet, specially the white double violet, which comes +twice a year; about the middle of April, and about Bartholomew-tide. +Next to that is the musk-rose. Then the strawberry-leaves dying, which +yield a most excellent cordial smell. Then the flower of vines; it is +a little dust, like the dust of a bent, which grows upon the cluster in +the first coming forth. Then sweet-briar. Then wall-flowers, which are +very delightful to be set under a parlor or lower chamber window. +Then pinks and gilliflowers, especially the matted pink and clove +gilliflower. Then the flowers of the lime-tree. Then the honeysuckles, +so they be somewhat afar off. Of beanflowers I speak not, because they +are field flowers. But those which perfume the air most delightfully, +not passed by as the rest, but being trodden upon and crushed, are +three; that is, burnet, wildthyme, and watermints. Therefore you are to +set whole alleys of them, to have the pleasure when you walk or tread. + +For gardens (speaking of those which are indeed princelike, as we have +done of buildings), the contents ought not well to be under thirty acres +of ground; and to be divided into three parts; a green in the entrance; +a heath or desert in the going forth; and the main garden in the midst; +besides alleys on both sides. And I like well that four acres of ground +be assigned to the green; six to the heath; four and four to either +side; and twelve to the main garden. The green hath two pleasures: the +one, because nothing is more pleasant to the eye than green grass kept +finely shorn; the other, because it will give you a fair alley in the +midst, by which you may go in front upon a stately hedge, which is to +enclose the garden. But because the alley will be long, and, in great +heat of the year or day, you ought not to buy the shade in the garden, +by going in the sun through the green, therefore you are, of either side +the green, to plant a covert alley upon carpenter's work, about twelve +foot in height, by which you may go in shade into the garden. As for the +making of knots or figures, with divers colored earths, that they may +lie under the windows of the house on that side which the garden stands, +they be but toys; you may see as good sights, many times, in tarts. The +garden is best to be square, encompassed on all the four sides with a +stately arched hedge. The arches to be upon pillars of carpenter's work, +of some ten foot high, and six foot broad; and the spaces between of the +same dimension with the breadth of the arch. Over the arches let there +be an entire hedge of some four foot high, framed also upon carpenter's +work; and upon the upper hedge, over every arch, a little turret, with +a belly, enough to receive a cage of birds: and over every space between +the arches some other little figure, with broad plates of round colored +glass gilt, for the sun to play upon. But this hedge I intend to be +raised upon a bank, not steep, but gently slope, of some six foot, set +all with flowers. Also I understand, that this square of the garden, +should not be the whole breadth of the ground, but to leave on either +side, ground enough for diversity of side alleys; unto which the two +covert alleys of the green, may deliver you. But there must be no alleys +with hedges, at either end of this great enclosure; not at the hither +end, for letting your prospect upon this fair hedge from the green; nor +at the further end, for letting your prospect from the hedge, through +the arches upon the heath. + +For the ordering of the ground, within the great hedge, I leave it to +variety of device; advising nevertheless, that whatsoever form you cast +it into, first, it be not too busy, or full of work. Wherein I, for my +part, do not like images cut out in juniper or other garden stuff; they +be for children. Little low hedges, round, like welts, with some pretty +pyramids, I like well; and in some places, fair columns upon frames of +carpenter's work. I would also have the alleys, spacious and fair. You +may have closer alleys, upon the side grounds, but none in the main +garden. I wish also, in the very middle, a fair mount, with three +ascents, and alleys, enough for four to walk abreast; which I would +have to be perfect circles, without any bulwarks or embossments; and the +whole mount to be thirty foot high; and some fine banqueting-house, with +some chimneys neatly cast, and without too much glass. + +For fountains, they are a great beauty and refreshment; but pools mar +all, and make the garden unwholesome, and full of flies and frogs. +Fountains I intend to be of two natures: the one that sprinkleth or +spouteth water; the other a fair receipt of water, of some thirty or +forty foot square, but without fish, or slime, or mud. For the first, +the ornaments of images gilt, or of marble, which are in use, do well: +but the main matter is so to convey the water, as it never stay, +either in the bowls or in the cistern; that the water be never by +rest discolored, green or red or the like; or gather any mossiness or +putrefaction. Besides that, it is to be cleansed every day by the hand. +Also some steps up to it, and some fine pavement about it, doth well. As +for the other kind of fountain, which we may call a bathing pool, it +may admit much curiosity and beauty; wherewith we will not trouble +ourselves: as, that the bottom be finely paved, and with images; the +sides likewise; and withal embellished with colored glass, and such +things of lustre; encompassed also with fine rails of low statuas. But +the main point is the same which we mentioned in the former kind of +fountain; which is, that the water be in perpetual motion, fed by a +water higher than the pool, and delivered into it by fair spouts, and +then discharged away under ground, by some equality of bores, that it +stay little. And for fine devices, of arching water without spilling, +and making it rise in several forms (of feathers, drinking glasses, +canopies, and the like), they be pretty things to look on, but nothing +to health and sweetness. + +For the heath, which was the third part of our plot, I wish it to be +framed, as much as may be, to a natural wildness. Trees I would have +none in it, but some thickets made only of sweet-briar and honeysuckle, +and some wild vine amongst; and the ground set with violets, +strawberries, and primroses. For these are sweet, and prosper in the +shade. And these to be in the heath, here and there, not in any order. I +like also little heaps, in the nature of mole-hills (such as are in wild +heaths), to be set, some with wild thyme; some with pinks; some with +germander, that gives a good flower to the eye; some with periwinkle; +some with violets; some with strawberries; some with cowslips; some with +daisies; some with red roses; some with lilium convallium; some with +sweet-williams red; some with bear's-foot: and the like low flowers, +being withal sweet and sightly. Part of which heaps, are to be with +standards of little bushes pricked upon their top, and part without. The +standards to be roses; juniper; holly; berberries (but here and there, +because of the smell of their blossoms); red currants; gooseberries; +rosemary; bays; sweetbriar; and such like. But these standards to be +kept with cutting, that they grow not out of course. + +For the side grounds, you are to fill them with variety of alleys, +private, to give a full shade, some of them, wheresoever the sun be. +You are to frame some of them, likewise, for shelter, that when the +wind blows sharp you may walk as in a gallery. And those alleys must +be likewise hedged at both ends, to keep out the wind; and these closer +alleys must be ever finely gravelled, and no grass, because of going +wet. In many of these alleys, likewise, you are to set fruit-trees +of all sorts; as well upon the walls, as in ranges. And this would be +generally observed, that the borders wherein you plant your fruit-trees, +be fair and large, and low, and not steep; and set with fine flowers, +but thin and sparingly, lest they deceive the trees. At the end of both +the side grounds, I would have a mount of some pretty height, leaving +the wall of the enclosure breast high, to look abroad into the fields. + +For the main garden, I do not deny, but there should be some fair +alleys ranged on both sides, with fruit-trees; and some pretty tufts of +fruit-trees, and arbors with seats, set in some decent order; but these +to be by no means set too thick; but to leave the main garden so as it +be not close, but the air open and free. For as for shade, I would have +you rest upon the alleys of the side grounds, there to walk, if you be +disposed, in the heat of the year or day; but to make account, that the +main garden is for the more temperate parts of the year; and in the heat +of summer, for the morning and the evening, or overcast days. + +For aviaries, I like them not, except they be of that largeness as they +may be turfed, and have living plants and bushes set in them; that the +birds may have more scope, and natural nesting, and that no foulness +appear in the floor of the aviary. So I have made a platform of a +princely garden, partly by precept, partly by drawing, not a model, but +some general lines of it; and in this I have spared for no cost. But it +is nothing for great princes, that for the most part taking advice with +workmen, with no less cost set their things together; and sometimes add +statuas and such things for state and magnificence, but nothing to the +true pleasure of a garden. + + + + +Of Negotiating + + +IT IS generally better to deal by speech than by letter; and by the +mediation of a third than by a man's self. Letters are good, when a man +would draw an answer by letter back again; or when it may serve for a +man's justification afterwards to produce his own letter; or where it +may be danger to be interrupted, or heard by pieces. To deal in person +is good, when a man's face breedeth regard, as commonly with inferiors; +or in tender cases, where a man's eye, upon the countenance of him with +whom he speaketh, may give him a direction how far to go; and generally, +where a man will reserve to himself liberty, either to disavow or to +expound. In choice of instruments, it is better to choose men of a +plainer sort, that are like to do that, that is committed to them, +and to report back again faithfully the success, than those that are +cunning, to contrive, out of other men's business, somewhat to grace +themselves, and will help the matter in report for satisfaction's sake. +Use also such persons as affect the business, wherein they are employed; +for that quickeneth much; and such, as are fit for the matter; as bold +men for expostulation, fair-spoken men for persuasion, crafty men for +inquiry and observation, froward, and absurd men, for business that +doth not well bear out itself. Use also such as have been lucky, and +prevailed before, in things wherein you have employed them; for that +breeds confidence, and they will strive to maintain their prescription. +It is better to sound a person, with whom one deals afar off, than to +fall upon the point at first; except you mean to surprise him by some +short question. It is better dealing with men in appetite, than with +those that are where they would be. If a man deal with another upon +conditions, the start or first performance is all; which a man cannot +reasonably demand, except either the nature of the thing be such, which +must go before; or else a man can persuade the other party, that he +shall still need him in some other thing; or else that he be counted +the honester man. All practice is to discover, or to work. Men discover +themselves in trust, in passion, at unawares, and of necessity, when +they would have somewhat done, and cannot find an apt pretext. If you +would work any man, you must either know his nature and fashions, and +so lead him; or his ends, and so persuade him; or his weakness and +disadvantages, and so awe him; or those that have interest in him, and +so govern him. In dealing with cunning persons, we must ever consider +their ends, to interpret their speeches; and it is good to say little +to them, and that which they least look for. In all negotiations of +difficulty, a man may not look to sow and reap at once; but must prepare +business, and so ripen it by degrees. + + + + +Of Followers And Friends + + +COSTLY followers are not to be liked; lest while a man maketh his train +longer, he make his wings shorter. I reckon to be costly, not them alone +which charge the purse, but which are wearisome, and importune in +suits. Ordinary followers ought to challenge no higher conditions, +than countenance, recommendation, and protection from wrongs. Factious +followers are worse to be liked, which follow not upon affection to +him, with whom they range themselves, but upon discontentment conceived +against some other; whereupon commonly ensueth that ill intelligence, +that we many times see between great personages. Likewise glorious +followers, who make themselves as trumpets of the commendation of those +they follow, are full of inconvenience; for they taint business through +want of secrecy; and they export honor from a man, and make him a return +in envy. There is a kind of followers likewise, which are dangerous, +being indeed espials; which inquire the secrets of the house, and bear +tales of them, to others. Yet such men, many times, are in great favor; +for they are officious, and commonly exchange tales. The following by +certain estates of men, answerable to that, which a great person himself +professeth (as of soldiers, to him that hath been employed in the wars, +and the like), hath ever been a thing civil, and well taken, even in +monarchies; so it be without too much pomp or popularity. But the most +honorable kind of following, is to be followed as one, that apprehendeth +to advance virtue, and desert, in all sorts of persons. And yet, where +there is no eminent odds in sufficiency, it is better to take with the +more passable, than with the more able. And besides, to speak truth, in +base times, active men are of more use than virtuous. It is true that +in government, it is good to use men of one rank equally: for to +countenance some extraordinarily, is to make them insolent, and the rest +discontent; because they may claim a due. But contrariwise, in favor, +to use men with much difference and election is good; for it maketh the +persons preferred more thankful, and the rest more officious: because +all is of favor. It is good discretion, not to make too much of any +man at the first; because one cannot hold out that proportion. To be +governed (as we call it) by one is not safe; for it shows softness, and +gives a freedom, to scandal and disreputation; for those, that would +not censure or speak ill of a man immediately, will talk more boldly of +those that are so great with them, and thereby wound their honor. Yet +to be distracted with many is worse; for it makes men to be of the last +impression, and full of change. To take advice of some few friends, is +ever honorable; for lookers-on many times see more than gamesters; and +the vale best discovereth the hill. There is little friendship in the +world, and least of all between equals, which was wont to be magnified. +That that is, is between superior and inferior, whose fortunes may +comprehend the one the other. + + + + +Of Suitors + + +MANY ill matters and projects are undertaken; and private suits do +putrefy the public good. Many good matters, are undertaken with bad +minds; I mean not only corrupt minds, but crafty minds, that intend not +performance. Some embrace suits, which never mean to deal effectually +in them; but if they see there may be life in the matter, by some other +mean, they will be content to win a thank, or take a second reward, or +at least to make use, in the meantime, of the suitor's hopes. Some take +hold of suits, only for an occasion to cross some other; or to make an +information, whereof they could not otherwise have apt pretext; without +care what become of the suit, when that turn is served; or, generally, +to make other men's business a kind of entertainment, to bring in their +own. Nay, some undertake suits, with a full purpose to let them fall; to +the end to gratify the adverse party, or competitor. Surely there is in +some sort a right in every suit; either a right of equity, if it be a +suit of controversy; or a right of desert, if it be a suit of petition. +If affection lead a man to favor the wrong side in justice, let him +rather use his countenance to compound the matter, than to carry it. If +affection lead a man to favor the less worthy in desert, let him do it, +without depraving or disabling the better deserver. In suits which a +man doth not well understand, it is good to refer them to some friend +of trust and judgment, that may report, whether he may deal in them with +honor: but let him choose well his referendaries, for else he may be led +by the nose. Suitors are so distasted with delays and abuses, that plain +dealing, in denying to deal in suits at first, and reporting the success +barely, and in challenging no more thanks than one hath deserved, is +grown not only honorable, but also gracious. In suits of favor, the +first coming ought to take little place: so far forth, consideration +may be had of his trust, that if intelligence of the matter could not +otherwise have been had, but by him, advantage be not taken of the note, +but the party left to his other means; and in some sort recompensed, for +his discovery. To be ignorant of the value of a suit, is simplicity; +as well as to be ignorant of the right thereof, is want of conscience. +Secrecy in suits, is a great mean of obtaining; for voicing them to be +in forwardness, may discourage some kind of suitors, but doth quicken +and awake others. But timing of the suit is the principal. Timing, I +say, not only in respect of the person that should grant it, but in +respect of those, which are like to cross it. Let a man, in the choice +of his mean, rather choose the fittest mean, than the greatest mean; and +rather them that deal in certain things, than those that are general. +The reparation of a denial, is sometimes equal to the first grant; if +a man show himself neither dejected nor discontented. Iniquum petas ut +aequum feras is a good rule, where a man hath strength of favor: but +otherwise, a man were better rise in his suit; for he, that would have +ventured at first to have lost the suitor, will not in the conclusion +lose both the suitor, and his own former favor. Nothing is thought so +easy a request to a great person, as his letter; and yet, if it be not +in a good cause, it is so much out of his reputation. There are no worse +instruments, than these general contrivers of suits; for they are but a +kind of poison, and infection, to public proceedings. + + + + +Of Studies + + +STUDIES serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability. Their chief +use for delight, is in privateness and retiring; for ornament, is in +discourse; and for ability, is in the judgment, and disposition of +business. For expert men can execute, and perhaps judge of particulars, +one by one; but the general counsels, and the plots and marshalling of +affairs, come best, from those that are learned. To spend too much time +in studies is sloth; to use them too much for ornament, is affectation; +to make judgment wholly by their rules, is the humor of a scholar. They +perfect nature, and are perfected by experience: for natural abilities +are like natural plants, that need proyning, by study; and studies +themselves, do give forth directions too much at large, except they be +bounded in by experience. Crafty men contemn studies, simple men admire +them, and wise men use them; for they teach not their own use; but that +is a wisdom without them, and above them, won by observation. Read not +to contradict and confute; nor to believe and take for granted; nor to +find talk and discourse; but to weigh and consider. Some books are to be +tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested; +that is, some books are to be read only in parts; others to be read, but +not curiously; and some few to be read wholly, and with diligence and +attention. Some books also may be read by deputy, and extracts made of +them by others; but that would be only in the less important arguments, +and the meaner sort of books, else distilled books are like common +distilled waters, flashy things. Reading maketh a full man; conference +a ready man; and writing an exact man. And therefore, if a man write +little, he had need have a great memory; if he confer little, he had +need have a present wit: and if he read little, he had need have much +cunning, to seem to know, that he doth not. Histories make men wise; +poets witty; the mathematics subtile; natural philosophy deep; moral +grave; logic and rhetoric able to contend. Abeunt studia in mores. Nay, +there is no stond or impediment in the wit, but may be wrought out +by fit studies; like as diseases of the body, may have appropriate +exercises. Bowling is good for the stone and reins; shooting for the +lungs and breast; gentle walking for the stomach; riding for the +head; and the like. So if a man's wit be wandering, let him study the +mathematics; for in demonstrations, if his wit be called away never so +little, he must begin again. If his wit be not apt to distinguish or +find differences, let him study the Schoolmen; for they are cymini +sectores. If he be not apt to beat over matters, and to call up one +thing to prove and illustrate another, let him study the lawyers' +cases. So every defect of the mind, may have a special receipt. + + + + +Of Faction + + +MANY have an opinion not wise, that for a prince to govern his estate, +or for a great person to govern his proceedings, according to +the respect of factions, is a principal part of policy; whereas +contrariwise, the chiefest wisdom, is either in ordering those things +which are general, and wherein men of several factions do nevertheless +agree; or in dealing with correspondence to particular persons, one +by one. But I say not that the considerations of factions, is to be +neglected. Mean men, in their rising, must adhere; but great men, +that have strength in themselves, were better to maintain themselves +indifferent, and neutral. Yet even in beginners, to adhere so +moderately, as he be a man of the one faction, which is most passable +with the other, commonly giveth best way. The lower and weaker faction, +is the firmer in conjunction; and it is often seen, that a few that are +stiff, do tire out a greater number, that are more moderate. When one of +the factions is extinguished, the remaining subdivideth; as the faction +between Lucullus, and the rest of the nobles of the senate (which they +called Optimates) held out awhile, against the faction of Pompey and +Caesar; but when the senate's authority was pulled down, Caesar and +Pompey soon after brake. The faction or party of Antonius and Octavianus +Caesar, against Brutus and Cassius, held out likewise for a time; but +when Brutus and Cassius were overthrown, then soon after, Antonius and +Octavianus brake and subdivided. These examples are of wars, but the +same holdeth in private factions. And therefore, those that are +seconds in factions, do many times, when the faction subdivideth, prove +principals; but many times also, they prove ciphers and cashiered; +for many a man's strength is in opposition; and when that faileth, he +groweth out of use. It is commonly seen, that men, once placed, take in +with the contrary faction, to that by which they enter: thinking belike, +that they have the first sure, and now are ready for a new purchase. The +traitor in faction, lightly goeth away with it; for when matters have +stuck long in balancing, the winning of some one man casteth them, +and he getteth all the thanks. The even carriage between two factions, +proceedeth not always of moderation, but of a trueness to a man's self, +with end to make use of both. Certainly in Italy, they hold it a little +suspect in popes, when they have often in their mouth Padre commune: and +take it to be a sign of one, that meaneth to refer all to the greatness +of his own house. Kings had need beware, how they side themselves, and +make themselves as of a faction or party; for leagues within the +state, are ever pernicious to monarchies: for they raise an obligation, +paramount to obligation of sovereignty, and make the king tanquam unus +ex nobis; as was to be seen in the League of France. When factions are +carried too high and too violently, it is a sign of weakness in princes; +and much to the prejudice, both of their authority and business. The +motions of factions under kings ought to be, like the motions (as the +astronomers speak) of the inferior orbs, which may have their proper +motions, but yet still are quietly carried, by the higher motion of +primum mobile. + + + + +Of Ceremonies, And Respects + + +HE THAT is only real, had need have exceeding great parts of virtue; as +the stone had need to be rich, that is set without foil. But if a man +mark it well, it is, in praise and commendation of men, as it is in +gettings and gains: for the proverb is true, That light gains make heavy +purses; for light gains come thick, whereas great, come but now and +then. So it is true, that small matters win great commendation, because +they are continually in use and in note: whereas the occasion of any +great virtue, cometh but on festivals. Therefore it doth much add to a +man's reputation, and is (as Queen Isabella said) like perpetual letters +commendatory, to have good forms. To attain them, it almost sufficeth +not to despise them; for so shall a man observe them in others; and let +him trust himself with the rest. For if he labor too much to express +them, he shall lose their grace; which is to be natural and unaffected. +Some men's behavior is like a verse, wherein every syllable is measured; +how can a man comprehend great matters, that breaketh his mind too much, +to small observations? Not to use ceremonies at all, is to teach others +not to use them again; and so diminisheth respect to himself; especially +they be not to be omitted, to strangers and formal natures; but the +dwelling upon them, and exalting them above the moon, is not only +tedious, but doth diminish the faith and credit of him that speaks. And +certainly, there is a kind of conveying, of effectual and imprinting +passages amongst compliments, which is of singular use, if a man can hit +upon it. Amongst a man's peers, a man shall be sure of familiarity; and +therefore it is good, a little to keep state. Amongst a man's inferiors +one shall be sure of reverence; and therefore it is good, a little to +be familiar. He that is too much in anything, so that he giveth another +occasion of satiety, maketh himself cheap. To apply one's self to +others, is good; so it be with demonstration, that a man doth it upon +regard, and not upon facility. It is a good precept generally, in +seconding another, yet to add somewhat of one's own: as if you will +grant his opinion, let it be with some distinction; if you will follow +his motion, let it be with condition; if you allow his counsel, let it +be with alleging further reason. Men had need beware, how they be too +perfect in compliments; for be they never so sufficient otherwise, their +enviers will be sure to give them that attribute, to the disadvantage +of their greater virtues. It is loss also in business, to be too full +of respects, or to be curious, in observing times and opportunities. +Solomon saith, He that considereth the wind, shall not sow, and he +that looketh to the clouds, shall not reap. A wise man will make more +opportunities, than he finds. Men's behavior should be, like their +apparel, not too strait or point device, but free for exercise or +motion. + + + + +Of Praise + + +PRAISE is the reflection of virtue; but it is as the glass or body, +which giveth the reflection. If it be from the common people, it is +commonly false and naught; and rather followeth vain persons, than +virtuous. For the common people understand not many excellent virtues. +The lowest virtues draw praise from them; the middle virtues work in +them astonishment or admiration; but of the highest virtues, they +have no sense of perceiving at all. But shows, and species virtutibus +similes, serve best with them. Certainly fame is like a river, that +beareth up things light and swoln, and drowns things weighty and solid. +But if persons of quality and judgment concur, then it is (as the +Scripture saith) nomen bonum instar unguenti fragrantis. It fireth all +round about, and will not easily away. For the odors of ointments are +more durable, than those of flowers. There be so many false points of +praise, that a man may justly hold it a suspect. Some praises proceed +merely of flattery; and if he be an ordinary flatterer, he will have +certain common attributes, which may serve every man; if he be a cunning +flatterer, he will follow the archflatterer, which is a man's self; +and wherein a man thinketh best of himself, therein the flatterer will +uphold him most: but if he be an impudent flatterer, look wherein a man +is conscious to himself, that he is most defective, and is most out of +countenance in himself, that will the flatterer entitle him to perforce, +spreta conscientia. Some praises come of good wishes and respects, +which is a form due, in civility, to kings and great persons, laudando +praecipere, when by telling men what they are, they represent to them, +what they should be. Some men are praised maliciously, to their +hurt, thereby to stir envy and jealousy towards them: pessimum genus +inimicorum laudantium; insomuch as it was a proverb, amongst the +Grecians, that he that was praised to his hurt, should have a push rise +upon his nose; as we say, that a blister will rise upon one's tongue, +that tells a lie. Certainly moderate praise, used with opportunity, and +not vulgar, is that which doth the good. Solomon saith, He that praiseth +his friend aloud, rising early, it shall be to him no better than +a curse. Too much magnifying of man or matter, doth irritate +contradiction, and procure envy and scorn. To praise a man's self, +cannot be decent, except it be in rare cases; but to praise a man's +office or profession, he may do it with good grace, and with a kind of +magnanimity. The cardinals of Rome, which are theologues, and friars, +and Schoolmen, have a phrase of notable contempt and scorn towards +civil business: for they call all temporal business of wars, +embassages, judicature, and other employments, sbirrerie, which is +under-sheriffries; as if they were but matters, for under-sheriffs and +catchpoles: though many times those under-sheriffries do more good, than +their high speculations. St. Paul, when he boasts of himself, he doth +oft interlace, I speak like a fool; but speaking of his calling, he +saith, magnificabo apostolatum meum. + + + + +Of Vain-glory + + +IT WAS prettily devised of AEsop, The fly sat upon the axle-tree of the +chariot wheel, and said, What a dust do I raise! So are there some vain +persons, that whatsoever goeth alone, or moveth upon greater means, if +they have never so little hand in it, they think it is they that carry +it. They that are glorious, must needs be factious; for all bravery +stands upon comparisons. They must needs be violent, to make good their +own vaunts. Neither can they be secret, and therefore not effectual; but +according to the French proverb, Beaucoup de bruit, peu de fruit; Much +bruit little fruit. Yet certainly, there is use of this quality in civil +affairs. Where there is an opinion and fame to be created, either of +virtue or greatness, these men are good trumpeters. Again, as Titus +Livius noteth, in the case of Antiochus and the AEtolians, There are +sometimes great effects, of cross lies; as if a man, that negotiates +between two princes, to draw them to join in a war against the third, +doth extol the forces of either of them, above measure, the one to the +other: and sometimes he that deals between man and man, raiseth his own +credit with both, by pretending greater interest than he hath in either. +And in these and the like kinds, it often falls out, that somewhat +is produced of nothing; for lies are sufficient to breed opinion, +and opinion brings on substance. In militar commanders and soldiers, +vain-glory is an essential point; for as iron sharpens iron, so by +glory, one courage sharpeneth another. In cases of great enterprise upon +charge and adventure, a composition of glorious natures, doth put life +into business; and those that are of solid and sober natures, have more +of the ballast, than of the sail. In fame of learning, the flight will +be slow without some feathers of ostentation. Qui de contemnenda gloria +libros scribunt, nomen, suum inscribunt. Socrates, Aristotle, Galen, +were men full of ostentation. Certainly vain-glory helpeth to perpetuate +a man's memory; and virtue was never so beholding to human nature, as +it received his due at the second hand. Neither had the fame of Cicero, +Seneca, Plinius Secundus, borne her age so well, if it had not been +joined with some vanity in themselves; like unto varnish, that makes +ceilings not only shine but last. But all this while, when I speak of +vain-glory, I mean not of that property, that Tacitus doth attribute +to Mucianus; Omnium quae dixerat feceratque arte quadam ostentator: for +that proceeds not of vanity, but of natural magnanimity and discretion; +and in some persons, is not only comely, but gracious. For excusations, +cessions, modesty itself well governed, are but arts of ostentation. +And amongst those arts, there is none better than that which Plinius +Secundus speaketh of, which is to be liberal of praise and commendation +to others, in that, wherein a man's self hath any perfection. For saith +Pliny, very wittily, In commending another, you do yourself right; for +he that you commend, is either superior to you in that you commend, or +inferior. If he be inferior, if he be to be commended, you much more; +if he be superior, if he be not to be commended, you much less. Glorious +men are the scorn of wise men, the admiration of fools, the idols of +parasites, and the slaves of their own vaunts. + + + + +Of Honor And Reputation + + +THE winning of honor, is but the revealing of a man's virtue and worth, +without disadvantage. For some in their actions, do woo and effect honor +and reputation, which sort of men, are commonly much talked of, but +inwardly little admired. And some, contrariwise, darken their virtue in +the show of it; so as they be undervalued in opinion. If a man perform +that, which hath not been attempted before; or attempted and given +over; or hath been achieved, but not with so good circumstance; he shall +purchase more honor, than by effecting a matter of greater difficulty or +virtue, wherein he is but a follower. If a man so temper his actions, +as in some one of them he doth content every faction, or combination +of people, the music will be the fuller. A man is an ill husband of his +honor, that entereth into any action, the failing wherein may disgrace +him, more than the carrying of it through, can honor him. Honor that +is gained and broken upon another, hath the quickest reflection, like +diamonds cut with facets. And therefore, let a man contend to excel any +competitors of his in honor, in outshooting them, if he can, in their +own bow. Discreet followers and servants, help much to reputation. Omnis +fama a domesticis emanat. Envy, which is the canker of honor, is best +extinguished by declaring a man's self in his ends, rather to seek +merit than fame; and by attributing a man's successes, rather to divine +Providence and felicity, than to his own virtue or policy. + +The true marshalling of the degrees of sovereign honor, are these: +In the first place are conditores imperiorum, founders of states and +commonwealths; such as were Romulus, Cyrus, Caesar, Ottoman, Ismael. +In the second place are legislatores, lawgivers; which are also called +second founders, or perpetui principes, because they govern by their +ordinances after they are gone; such were Lycurgus, Solon, Justinian, +Eadgar, Alphonsus of Castile, the Wise, that made the Siete Partidas. +In the third place are liberatores, or salvatores, such as compound the +long miseries of civil wars, or deliver their countries from servitude +of strangers or tyrants; as Augustus Caesar, Vespasianus, Aurelianus, +Theodoricus, King Henry the Seventh of England, King Henry the Fourth of +France. In the fourth place are propagatores or propugnatores imperii; +such as in honorable wars enlarge their territories, or make noble +defence against invaders. And in the last place are patres patriae; +which reign justly, and make the times good wherein they live. Both +which last kinds need no examples, they are in such number. Degrees +of honor, in subjects, are, first participes curarum, those upon whom, +princes do discharge the greatest weight of their affairs; their right +hands, as we call them. The next are duces belli, great leaders in war; +such as are princes' lieutenants, and do them notable services in +the wars. The third are gratiosi, favorites; such as exceed not this +scantling, to be solace to the sovereign, and harmless to the people. +And the fourth, negotiis pares; such as have great places under princes, +and execute their places, with sufficiency. There is an honor, likewise, +which may be ranked amongst the greatest, which happeneth rarely; that +is, of such as sacrifice themselves to death or danger for the good of +their country; as was M. Regulus, and the two Decii. + + + + +Of Judicature + + +JUDGES ought to remember, that their office is jus dicere, and not jus +dare; to interpret law, and not to make law, or give law. Else will +it be like the authority, claimed by the Church of Rome, which under +pretext of exposition of Scripture, doth not stick to add and alter; and +to pronounce that which they do not find; and by show of antiquity, to +introduce novelty. Judges ought to be more learned, than witty, more +reverend, than plausible, and more advised, than confident. Above all +things, integrity is their portion and proper virtue. Cursed (saith the +law) is he that removeth the landmark. The mislayer of a mere-stone is +to blame. But it is the unjust judge, that is the capital remover of +landmarks, when he defineth amiss, of lands and property. One foul +sentence doth more hurt, than many foul examples. For these do but +corrupt the stream, the other corrupteth the fountain. So with Solomon, +Fons turbatus, et vena corrupta, est justus cadens in causa sua coram +adversario. The office of judges may have reference unto the parties +that use, unto the advocates that plead, unto the clerks and ministers +of justice underneath them, and to the sovereign or state above them. + +First, for the causes or parties that sue. There be (saith the +Scripture) that turn judgment, into wormwood; and surely there be also, +that turn it into vinegar; for injustice maketh it bitter, and delays +make it sour. The principal duty of a judge, is to suppress force and +fraud; whereof force is the more pernicious, when it is open, and fraud, +when it is close and disguised. Add thereto contentious suits, which +ought to be spewed out, as the surfeit of courts. A judge ought to +prepare his way to a just sentence, as God useth to prepare his way, by +raising valleys and taking down hills: so when there appeareth on +either side an high hand, violent prosecution, cunning advantages taken, +combination, power, great counsel, then is the virtue of a judge seen, +to make inequality equal; that he may plant his judgment as upon an even +ground. Qui fortiter emungit, elicit sanguinem; and where the wine-press +is hard wrought, it yields a harsh wine, that tastes of the grape-stone. +Judges must beware of hard constructions, and strained inferences; for +there is no worse torture, than the torture of laws. Specially in case +of laws penal, they ought to have care, that that which was meant for +terror, be not turned into rigor; and that they bring not upon the +people, that shower whereof the Scripture speaketh, Pluet super eos +laqueos; for penal laws pressed, are a shower of snares upon the people. +Therefore let penal laws, if they have been sleepers of long, or if they +be grown unfit for the present time, be by wise judges confined in the +execution: Judicis officium est, ut res, ita tempora rerum, etc. In +causes of life and death, judges ought (as far as the law permitteth) +in justice to remember mercy; and to cast a severe eye upon the example, +but a merciful eye upon the person. + +Secondly, for the advocates and counsel that plead. Patience and gravity +of hearing, is an essential part of justice; and an overspeaking judge +is no well-tuned cymbal. It is no grace to a judge, first to find that, +which he might have heard in due time from the bar; or to show quickness +of conceit, in cutting off evidence or counsel too short; or to prevent +information by questions, though pertinent. The parts of a judge +in hearing, are four: to direct the evidence; to moderate length, +repetition, or impertinency of speech; to recapitulate, select, and +collate the material points, of that which hath been said; and to +give the rule or sentence. Whatsoever is above these is too much; and +proceedeth either of glory, and willingness to speak, or of impatience +to hear, or of shortness of memory, or of want of a staid and equal +attention. It is a strange thing to see, that the boldness of advocates +should prevail with judges; whereas they should imitate God, in whose +seat they sit; who represseth the presumptuous, and giveth grace to the +modest. But it is more strange, that judges should have noted favorites; +which cannot but cause multiplication of fees, and suspicion of by-ways. +There is due from the judge to the advocate, some commendation and +gracing, where causes are well handled and fair pleaded; especially +towards the side which obtaineth not; for that upholds in the client, +the reputation of his counsel, and beats down in him the conceit of +his cause. There is likewise due to the public, a civil reprehension of +advocates, where there appeareth cunning counsel, gross neglect, slight +information, indiscreet pressing, or an overbold defence. And let not +the counsel at the bar, chop with the judge, nor wind himself into the +handling of the cause anew, after the judge hath declared his sentence; +but, on the other side, let not the judge meet the cause half way, nor +give occasion to the party, to say his counsel or proofs were not heard. + +Thirdly, for that that concerns clerks and ministers. The place of +justice is an hallowed place; and therefore not only the bench, but the +foot-place; and precincts and purprise thereof, ought to be preserved +without scandal and corruption. For certainly grapes (as the Scripture +saith) will not be gathered of thorns or thistles; neither can justice +yield her fruit with sweetness, amongst the briars and brambles of +catching and polling clerks, and ministers. The attendance of courts, is +subject to four bad instruments. First, certain persons that are sowers +of suits; which make the court swell, and the country pine. The second +sort is of those, that engage courts in quarrels of jurisdiction, and +are not truly amici curiae, but parasiti curiae, in puffing a court up +beyond her bounds, for their own scraps and advantage. The third sort, +is of those that may be accounted the left hands of courts; persons that +are full of nimble and sinister tricks and shifts, whereby they pervert +the plain and direct courses of courts, and bring justice into oblique +lines and labyrinths. And the fourth, is the poller and exacter of fees; +which justifies the common resemblance of the courts of justice, to the +bush whereunto, while the sheep flies for defence in weather, he is sure +to lose part of his fleece. On the other side, an ancient clerk, skilful +in precedents, wary in proceeding, and understanding in the business of +the court, is an excellent finger of a court; and doth many times point +the way to the judge himself. + +Fourthly, for that which may concern the sovereign and estate. Judges +ought above all to remember the conclusion of the Roman Twelve Tables; +Salus populi suprema lex; and to know that laws, except they be in order +to that end, are but things captious, and oracles not well inspired. +Therefore it is an happy thing in a state, when kings and states do +often consult with judges; and again, when judges do often consult with +the king and state: the one, when there is matter of law, intervenient +in business of state; the other, when there is some consideration of +state, intervenient in matter of law. For many times the things deduced +to judgment may be meum and tuum, when the reason and consequence +thereof may trench to point of estate: I call matter of estate, not +only the parts of sovereignty, but whatsoever introduceth any great +alteration, or dangerous precedent; or concerneth manifestly any great +portion of people. And let no man weakly conceive, that just laws +and true policy have any antipathy; for they are like the spirits and +sinews, that one moves with the other. Let judges also remember, that +Solomon's throne was supported by lions on both sides: let them be +lions, but yet lions under the throne; being circumspect that they do +not check or oppose any points of sovereignty. Let not judges also be +ignorant of their own right, as to think there is not left to them, as a +principal part of their office, a wise use and application of laws. For +they may remember, what the apostle saith of a greater law than theirs; +Nos scimus quia lex bona est, modo quis ea utatur legitime. + + + + +Of Anger + + +TO SEEK to extinguish anger utterly, is but a bravery of the Stoics. We +have better oracles: Be angry, but sin not. Let not the sun go down +upon your anger. Anger must be limited and confined, both in race and +in time. We will first speak how the natural inclination and habit to be +angry, may be attempted and calmed. Secondly, how the particular motions +of anger may be repressed, or at least refrained from doing mischief. +Thirdly, how to raise anger, or appease anger in another. + +For the first; there is no other way but to meditate, and ruminate well +upon the effects of anger, how it troubles man's life. And the best time +to do this, is to look back upon anger, when the fit is thoroughly over. +Seneca saith well, That anger is like ruin, which breaks itself upon +that it falls. The Scripture exhorteth us to possess our souls in +patience. Whosoever is out of patience, is out of possession of his +soul. Men must not turn bees; + + +... animasque in vulnere ponunt. + + +Anger is certainly a kind of baseness; as it appears well in the +weakness of those subjects in whom it reigns; children, women, old +folks, sick folks. Only men must beware, that they carry their anger +rather with scorn, than with fear; so that they may seem rather to be +above the injury, than below it; which is a thing easily done, if a man +will give law to himself in it. + +For the second point; the causes and motives of anger, are chiefly +three. First, to be too sensible of hurt; for no man is angry, that +feels not himself hurt; and therefore tender and delicate persons must +needs be oft angry; they have so many things to trouble them, which more +robust natures have little sense of. The next is, the apprehension and +construction of the injury offered, to be, in the circumstances thereof, +full of contempt: for contempt is that, which putteth an edge upon +anger, as much or more than the hurt itself. And therefore, when men are +ingenious in picking out circumstances of contempt, they do kindle their +anger much. Lastly, opinion of the touch of a man's reputation, doth +multiply and sharpen anger. Wherein the remedy is, that a man should +have, as Consalvo was wont to say, telam honoris crassiorem. But in all +refrainings of anger, it is the best remedy to win time; and to make a +man's self believe, that the opportunity of his revenge is not yet +come, but that he foresees a time for it; and so to still himself in the +meantime, and reserve it. + +To contain anger from mischief, though it take hold of a man, there be +two things, whereof you must have special caution. The one, of extreme +bitterness of words, especially if they be aculeate and proper; for +cummunia maledicta are nothing so much; and again, that in anger a man +reveal no secrets; for that, makes him not fit for society. The other, +that you do not peremptorily break off, in any business, in a fit of +anger; but howsoever you show bitterness, do not act anything, that is +not revocable. + +For raising and appeasing anger in another; it is done chiefly by +choosing of times, when men are frowardest and worst disposed, to +incense them. Again, by gathering (as was touched before) all that you +can find out, to aggravate the contempt. And the two remedies are by the +contraries. The former to take good times, when first to relate to a man +an angry business; for the first impression is much; and the other is, +to sever, as much as may be, the construction of the injury from the +point of contempt; imputing it to misunderstanding, fear, passion, or +what you will. + + + + +Of Vicissitude Of Things + + +SOLOMON saith, There is no new thing upon the earth. So that as Plato +had an imagination, That all knowledge was but remembrance; so Solomon +giveth his sentence, That all novelty is but oblivion. Whereby you may +see, that the river of Lethe runneth as well above ground as below. +There is an abstruse astrologer that saith, If it were not for two +things that are constant (the one is, that the fixed stars ever stand a +like distance one from another, and never come nearer together, nor go +further asunder; the other, that the diurnal motion perpetually keepeth +time), no individual would last one moment. Certain it is, that +the matter is in a perpetual flux, and never at a stay. The great +winding-sheets, that bury all things in oblivion, are two; deluges +and earthquakes. As for conflagrations and great droughts, they do not +merely dispeople and destroy. Phaeton's car went but a day. And the +three years' drought in the time of Elias, was but particular, and left +people alive. As for the great burnings by lightnings, which are +often in the West Indies, they are but narrow. But in the other two +destructions, by deluge and earthquake, it is further to be noted, that +the remnant of people which hap to be reserved, are commonly ignorant +and mountainous people, that can give no account of the time past; so +that the oblivion is all one, as if none had been left. If you consider +well of the people of the West Indies, it is very probable that they are +a newer or a younger people, than the people of the Old World. And it is +much more likely, that the destruction that hath heretofore been there, +was not by earthquakes (as the Egyptian priest told Solon concerning the +island of Atlantis, that it was swallowed by an earthquake), but rather +that it was desolated by a particular deluge. For earthquakes are seldom +in those parts. But on the other side, they have such pouring rivers, as +the rivers of Asia and Africk and Europe, are but brooks to them. +Their Andes, likewise, or mountains, are far higher than those with us; +whereby it seems, that the remnants of generation of men, were in such +a particular deluge saved. As for the observation that Machiavel hath, +that the jealousy of sects, doth much extinguish the memory of things; +traducing Gregory the Great, that he did what in him lay, to extinguish +all heathen antiquities; I do not find that those zeals do any great +effects, nor last long; as it appeared in the succession of Sabinian, +who did revive the former antiquities. + +The vicissitude of mutations in the superior globe, are no fit matter +for this present argument. It may be, Plato's great year, if the world +should last so long, would have some effect; not in renewing the state +of like individuals (for that is the fume of those, that conceive the +celestial bodies have more accurate influences upon these things below, +than indeed they have), but in gross. Comets, out of question, have +likewise power and effect, over the gross and mass of things; but they +are rather gazed upon, and waited upon in their journey, than wisely +observed in their effects; specially in, their respective effects; that +is, what kind of comet, for magnitude, color, version of the beams, +placing in the reign of heaven, or lasting, produceth what kind of +effects. + +There is a toy which I have heard, and I would not have it given over, +but waited upon a little. They say it is observed in the Low Countries +(I know not in what part) that every five and thirty years, the same +kind and suit of years and weathers come about again; as great frosts, +great wet, great droughts, warm winters, summers with little heat, and +the like; and they call it the Prime. It is a thing I do the rather +mention, because, computing backwards, I have found some concurrence. + +But to leave these points of nature, and to come to men. The greatest +vicissitude of things amongst men, is the vicissitude of sects and +religions. For those orbs rule in men's minds most. The true religion +is built upon the rock; the rest are tossed, upon the waves of time. To +speak, therefore, of the causes of new sects; and to give some counsel +concerning them, as far as the weakness of human judgment can give stay, +to so great revolutions. When the religion formerly received, is rent +by discords; and when the holiness of the professors of religion, is +decayed and full of scandal; and withal the times be stupid, ignorant, +and barbarous; you may doubt the springing up of a new sect; if then +also, there should arise any extravagant and strange spirit, to make +himself author thereof. All which points held, when Mahomet published +his law. If a new sect have not two properties, fear it not; for it will +not spread. The one is the supplanting, or the opposing, of authority +established; for nothing is more popular than that. The other is +the giving license to pleasures, and a voluptuous life. For as for +speculative heresies (such as were in ancient times the Arians, and now +the Arminians), though they work mightily upon men's wits, yet they do +not produce any great alterations in states; except it be by the help of +civil occasions. There be three manner of plantations of new sects. By +the power of signs and miracles; by the eloquence, and wisdom, of speech +and persuasion; and by the sword. For martyrdoms, I reckon them amongst +miracles; because they seem to exceed the strength of human nature: and +I may do the like, of superlative and admirable holiness of life. Surely +there is no better way, to stop the rising of new sects and schisms, +than to reform abuses; to compound the smaller differences; to proceed +mildly, and not with sanguinary persecutions; and rather to take off the +principal authors by winning and advancing them, than to enrage them by +violence and bitterness. + +The changes and vicissitude in wars are many; but chiefly in three +things; in the seats or stages of the war; in the weapons; and in the +manner of the conduct. Wars, in ancient time, seemed more to move from +east to west; for the Persians, Assyrians, Arabians, Tartars (which +were the invaders) were all eastern people. It is true, the Gauls +were western; but we read but of two incursions of theirs: the one +to Gallo-Grecia, the other to Rome. But east and west have no certain +points of heaven; and no more have the wars, either from the east or +west, any certainty of observation. But north and south are fixed; and +it hath seldom or never been seen that the far southern people have +invaded the northern, but contrariwise. Whereby it is manifest that the +northern tract of the world, is in nature the more martial region: be it +in respect of the stars of that hemisphere; or of the great continents +that are upon the north, whereas the south part, for aught that is +known, is almost all sea; or (which is most apparent) of the cold of +the northern parts, which is that which, without aid of discipline, doth +make the bodies hardest, and the courages warmest. + +Upon the breaking and shivering of a great state and empire, you may be +sure to have wars. For great empires, while they stand, do enervate and +destroy the forces of the natives which they have subdued, resting upon +their own protecting forces; and then when they fail also, all goes +to ruin, and they become a prey. So was it in the decay of the Roman +empire; and likewise in the empire of Almaigne, after Charles the Great, +every bird taking a feather; and were not unlike to befall to Spain, +if it should break. The great accessions and unions of kingdoms, do +likewise stir up wars; for when a state grows to an over-power, it is +like a great flood, that will be sure to overflow. As it hath been seen +in the states of Rome, Turkey, Spain, and others. Look when the world +hath fewest barbarous peoples, but such as commonly will not marry or +generate, except they know means to live (as it is almost everywhere at +this day, except Tartary), there is no danger of inundations of people; +but when there be great shoals of people, which go on to populate, +without foreseeing means of life and sustentation, it is of necessity +that once in an age or two, they discharge a portion of their people +upon other nations; which the ancient northern people were wont to do +by lot; casting lots what part should stay at home, and what should seek +their fortunes. When a warlike state grows soft and effeminate, they may +be sure of a war. For commonly such states are grown rich in the time +of their degenerating; and so the prey inviteth, and their decay in +valor, encourageth a war. + +As for the weapons, it hardly falleth under rule and observation: yet +we see even they, have returns and vicissitudes. For certain it is, that +ordnance was known in the city of the Oxidrakes in India; and was that, +which the Macedonians called thunder and lightning, and magic. And it +is well known that the use of ordnance, hath been in China above two +thousand years. The conditions of weapons, and their improvement, are; +First, the fetching afar off; for that outruns the danger; as it is +seen in ordnance and muskets. Secondly, the strength of the percussion; +wherein likewise ordnance do exceed all arietations and ancient +inventions. The third is, the commodious use of them; as that they may +serve in all weathers; that the carriage may be light and manageable; +and the like. + +For the conduct of the war: at the first, men rested extremely upon +number: they did put the wars likewise upon main force and valor; +pointing days for pitched fields, and so trying it out upon an even +match and they were more ignorant in ranging and arraying their battles. +After, they grew to rest upon number rather competent, than vast; they +grew to advantages of place, cunning diversions, and the like: and they +grew more skilful in the ordering of their battles. + +In the youth of a state, arms do flourish; in the middle age of a state, +learning; and then both of them together for a time; in the declining +age of a state, mechanical arts and merchandize. Learning hath his +infancy, when it is but beginning and almost childish; then his youth, +when it is luxuriant and juvenile; then his strength of years, when it +is solid and reduced; and lastly, his old age, when it waxeth dry and +exhaust. But it is not good to look too long upon these turning wheels +of vicissitude, lest we become giddy. As for the philology of them, that +is but a circle of tales, and therefore not fit for this writing. + + + + +Of Fame + + +THE poets make Fame a monster. They describe her in part finely and +elegantly, and in part gravely and sententiously. They say, look how +many feathers she hath, so many eyes she hath underneath; so many +tongues; so many voices; she pricks up so many ears. + +This is a flourish. There follow excellent parables; as that, she +gathereth strength in going; that she goeth upon the ground, and yet +hideth her head in the clouds; that in the daytime she sitteth in a +watch tower, and flieth most by night; that she mingleth things done, +with things not done; and that she is a terror to great cities. But that +which passeth all the rest is: They do recount that the Earth, mother +of the giants that made war against Jupiter, and were by him destroyed, +thereupon in an anger brought forth Fame. For certain it is, that +rebels, figured by the giants, and seditious fames and libels, are but +brothers and sisters, masculine and feminine. But now, if a man can tame +this monster, and bring her to feed at the hand, and govern her, and +with her fly other ravening fowl and kill them, it is somewhat worth. +But we are infected with the style of the poets. To speak now in a sad +and serious manner: There is not, in all the politics, a place less +handled and more worthy to be handled, than this of fame. We will +therefore speak of these points: What are false fames; and what are true +fames; and how they may be best discerned; how fames may be sown, and +raised; how they may be spread, and multiplied; and how they may be +checked, and laid dead. And other things concerning the nature of fame. +Fame is of that force, as there is scarcely any great action, wherein it +hath not a great part; especially in the war. Mucianus undid Vitellius, +by a fame that he scattered, that Vitellius had in purpose to remove the +legions of Syria into Germany, and the legions of Germany into Syria; +whereupon the legions of Syria were infinitely inflamed. Julius Caesar +took Pompey unprovided, and laid asleep his industry and preparations, +by a fame that he cunningly gave out: Caesar's own soldiers loved him +not, and being wearied with the wars, and laden with the spoils of Gaul, +would forsake him, as soon as he came into Italy. Livia settled all +things for the succession of her son Tiberius, by continual giving out, +that her husband Augustus was upon recovery and amendment, and it is an +usual thing with the pashas, to conceal the death of the Great Turk from +the janizaries and men of war, to save the sacking of Constantinople +and other towns, as their manner is. Themistocles made Xerxes, king of +Persia, post apace out of Grecia, by giving out, that the Grecians had +a purpose to break his bridge of ships, which he had made athwart +Hellespont. There be a thousand such like examples; and the more they +are, the less they need to be repeated; because a man meeteth with them +everywhere. Therefore let all wise governors have as great a watch and +care over fames, as they have of the actions and designs themselves. + + +[This essay was not finished] + + + + +A Glossary Of Archaic Words And Phrases + + + Abridgment: miniature + Absurd: stupid, unpolished + Abuse: cheat, deceive + Aculeate: stinging + Adamant: loadstone + Adust: scorched + Advoutress: adulteress + Affect: like, desire + Antic: clown + Appose: question + Arietation: battering-ram + Audit: revenue + Avoidance: secret outlet + Battle: battalion + Bestow: settle in life + Blanch: flatter, evade + Brave: boastful + Bravery: boast, ostentation + Broke: deal in brokerage + Broken: shine by comparison + Broken music: part music + Cabinet: secret + Calendar: weather forecast + Card: chart, map + Care not to: are reckless + Cast: plan + Cat: cate, cake + Charge and adventure: cost and + risk + Check with: interfere + Chop: bandy words + Civil: peaceful + Close: secret, secretive + Collect: infer + Compound: compromise + Consent: agreement + Curious: elaborate + Custom: import duties + Deceive: rob + Derive: divert + Difficileness: moroseness + Discover: reveal + Donative: money gift + Doubt: fear + Equipollent: equally powerful + Espial: spy + Estate: state + Facility: of easy persuasion + Fair: rather + Fame: rumor + Favor: feature + Flashy: insipid + Foot-pace: lobby + Foreseen: guarded against + Froward: stubborn + Futile: babbling + Globe: complete body + Glorious: showy, boastful + Humorous: capricious + Hundred poll: hundredth head + Impertinent: irrelevant + Implicit: entangled + In a mean: in moderation + In smother: suppressed + Indifferent: impartial + Intend: attend to + Knap: knoll + Leese: lose + Let: hinder + Loose: shot + Lot: spell + Lurch: intercept + Make: profit, get + Manage: train + Mate: conquer + Material: business-like + Mere-stone: boundary stone + Muniting: fortifying + Nerve: sinew + Obnoxious: subservient, liable + Oes: round spangles + Pair: impair + Pardon: allowance + Passable: mediocre + Pine-apple-tree: pine + Plantation: colony + Platform: plan + Plausible: praiseworthy + Point device: excessively precise + Politic: politician + Poll: extort + Poser: examiner + Practice: plotting + Preoccupate: anticipate + Prest: prepared + Prick: plant + Proper: personal + Prospective: stereoscope + Proyne: prune + Purprise: enclosure + Push: pimple + Quarrel: pretext + Quech: flinch + Reason: principle + Recamera: retiring-room + Return: reaction + Return: wing running back + Rise: dignity + Round: straight + Save: account for + Scantling: measure + Seel: blind + Shrewd: mischievous + Sort: associate + Spial: spy + Staddle: sapling + Steal: do secretly + Stirp: family + Stond: stop, stand + Stoved: hot-housed + Style: title + Success: outcome + Sumptuary law: law against + extravagance + Superior globe: the heavens + Temper: proportion + Tendering: nursing + Tract: line, trait + Travel: travail, labor + Treaties: treatises + Trench to: touch + Trivial: common + Turquet: Turkish dwarf + Under foot: below value + Unready: untrained + Usury: interest + Value: certify + Virtuous: able + Votary: vowed + Wanton: spoiled + Wood: maze + Work: manage, utilize + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Essays, by Francis Bacon + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ESSAYS *** + +***** This file should be named 575.txt or 575.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/5/7/575/ + +Produced by Judith Boss + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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