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diff --git a/57431-0.txt b/57431-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1dccdbd --- /dev/null +++ b/57431-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11044 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 57431 *** + + + + + + + + + + + + + The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898 + + Explorations by early navigators, descriptions of the islands and + their peoples, their history and records of the catholic missions, + as related in contemporaneous books and manuscripts, showing the + political, economic, commercial and religious conditions of those + islands from their earliest relations with European nations to the + close of the nineteenth century, + + Volume LII, 1841-1898 + + + + Edited and annotated by Emma Helen Blair and James Alexander Robertson + with historical introduction and additional notes by Edward Gaylord + Bourne. + + + + The Arthur H. Clark Company + Cleveland, Ohio + MCMVII + + + + + + + + +CONTENTS OF VOLUME LII + + + Preface 13 + + Documents of 1841-1898 + + Internal political condition of the Philippines. + Sinibaldo de Mas; Madrid, 1842 29 + Matta's report. Juan Manuel de la Matta; Manila, + February 25, 1843 91 + The Philippines, 1860-1898: some comment and + bibliographical notes. James A. LeRoy; Durango, + Mexico, 1907 112 + Events in Filipinas, 1841-1872. [Summarized from + Montero y Vidal's Historia de Filipinas.] 208 + Constitution of the Liga Filipina. José Rizal; Tondo, + July 3, 1892 217 + The friar memorial of 1898. Manuel Gutierrez, O.S.A., + and others; Manila, April 21, 1898 227 + + Bibliographical Data 287 + + Appendix: Agriculture in Filipinas. Joseph Basco y Vargas, + and others 291 + + Errata and addenda to VOLUMES I-LII 325 + + + + + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + + + Map of East India Islands, in James Bell's System of + Geography (Glasgow, 1836), v, map 2; photographic + facsimile from copy in Library of Harvard + University Frontispiece + Map of the Dolores or Garbanzos Islands (the Carolinas), + 1731; photographic facsimile of original MS. map, + drawn by Juan Antonio Cantova, S.J., in Archivo general + de Indias, Sevilla 37 + Map of the Philippine and Mariana Islands; enlarged + photographic facsimile of map in Lettres édifiantes, xi + (Paris, M. DCC. XV), p. 74; from copy in Library of + Harvard University 209 + Autograph signatures of Diego Luis San Vitores, S.J., and + others; photographic facsimile from original MS. in Archivo + general de Indias, Sevilla 337 + Map of portion of the Palaos Islands, discovered 1710 by + expedition under Francisco Padilla; drawn by José Somera, + chief pilot; photographic facsimile of original MS. map + in Archivo general de Indias, Sevilla 347 + Chart of the port of Sisiran, in the province of Camarines; + photographic facsimile from Arandia's Ordenanzas de marina + (Manila, 1757) between pp. 26-27; from copy in Library of + Congress 355 + + + + + + + + +PREFACE + + +In this final documentary volume of our series we present matter which +is planned to bring out the salient points of the highly important +period from 1841 to 1898, a little more than the last half-century +of the Spanish régime, together with such bibliographical aids as +will enable students to find readily the best and most available +sources for the history of that time. The first two documents (written +respectively by a civil official and a military commander) furnish +a reliable and intelligent survey, by eyewitnesses, of political, +economic, and social conditions in the islands in 1842-43; and thus +supplement the similar relations (in VOL. LI) dated fifteen years +earlier. The admirable paper by James A. LeRoy who is well known as the +leading authority on Philippine affairs, places before our readers a +clear and orderly review of the last four decades of Spanish rule in +Filipinas--with keen but impartial comments on conditions, events, +and men therein; and with full and well-selected bibliographical +references to the best works on the subject. It gives us pleasure +to present here the hitherto unpublished constitution of the Liga +Filipina, from Rizal's own MS. draft; and the friar memorial of 1898 +(a curiously mediæval document for the end of the nineteenth century), +which heretofore had appeared only in a limited Spanish edition and +a partial and unsatisfactory English translation. To these documents +is added an appendix on agricultural conditions in Filipinas, giving a +view of these in 1784 and another in 1866; an outline of the projects, +efforts, and achievements of the noted Economic Society of Manila; +and bibliographical references for the use of the reader. Following +is a synopsis of the above documents: + +Of exceeding interest and importance is the third volume of Mas's +Informe, on the policy of the Spanish government as regards internal +affairs in the Philippine Islands. Intended almost exclusively for the +use of the government, but comparatively few copies were published, +and hence the volume is of great rarity, and is not mentioned by +most of the bibliographers. We know with certainty of four copies: +two owned in the Philippines, one by the heirs of Clemente Zulueta, +and the other by Epifanio de los Santos (our translation being made +from a typewritten copy of the latter); one in the Peabody Institute, +Baltimore, and one in the collection of the Compañía General de +Tabacos de Filipinas, Barcelona. Its chief value and importance lie +in its treatment of various vital questions that had already begun to +present themselves to some minds more or less clearly--the relation of +the Filipino-Spaniards to those of the Peninsula; questions concerning +the natives, Chinese mestizos, and Spaniards; separation from Spain; +and lastly, the proposition to free the islands. The document, while +containing many things that are general in nature, and which even +appear childish and visionary, is in many other things clear-sighted, +and shows deep and keen observation. The first two volumes of Mas's +work (which have been cited so frequently in this series) were +written in order to form a suitable background to the third volume, +and thus lead to it naturally, by giving a résumé in succinct form +of the history, government, and social and economic conditions of +the islands. Proceeding to his purpose, the author states that the +intentions of Spain in regard to the colony may be one of three: +perpetual possession; utter neglect; or emancipation. He treats only +of the first and third. To ensure perpetual possession, there are +three principles to be borne in mind and acted upon: the reduction +of the white population; the subordination of the natives; and the +general reform of the Spanish administration. The growth of the white +population fosters the spirit of independence, for the Spaniards of the +Philippines look upon the islands as their own country, and have no +affection for Spain. Their only concern is to hold possession of the +government posts, but they are lazy and ignorant. They are naturally +disgruntled by the appointment of peninsular Spaniards to posts in the +islands; for, since the promotions are limited, they cannot hope for +the advancement that they believe is due them. Their discontent was +seen in practical form in the insurrection instigated in 1822 because +of the officials brought from Spain by Antonio Martinez; and there +was evident discontent because of the new contingent that appeared in +1825. There are more than one thousand Filipino-Spanish males in the +Philippines, but only four hundred posts, and their hopes continually +wane at the appearance of officials from Spain, although Spain has +an evident right to send whom it will to the islands. To obviate the +trouble, Mas suggests that only single men be sent to the islands from +Spain to act as officials, and that they be required to return to the +Peninsula after twenty years' service, with the option of returning in +ten years. These men will probably marry Spanish women in the islands, +and on their return to Spain will take their families with them, thus +reducing the white population considerably. It is a mistake to send +women to the colony, and a grave error to endeavor to increase the +white population there. A plan is proposed for the further reduction of +the white population by sending all males to Spain at the government +expense, at the age of sixteen, where they shall be educated at the +expense of the Manila treasury. The sending of the situado from Spain +for the support of the islands was formerly a large factor in keeping +the colony loyal, but since that has become unnecessary the one great +check on the colony has disappeared. But separation now would mean +that the whites would disappear in the mass of the natives, and would +even become inferior to them. It is wrong to infer that the whites and +the natives will work together, for there is a barrier between them, +and the recent outbreak in Tayabas cannot in any way be ascribed to +the former. The salvation of the whites lies in agriculture, and great +profits are to be acquired therein, although the Spaniards are loath +to engage in such work. Their fields can be cultivated by Chinese +labor, and by captured Moros, and contracts can be made, in addition, +with individual Filipinos, under certain exemptions. Mas favors +the system of indentured servants, for self-interest will dictate +good treatment to them. To ensure native respect for the whites, the +education of the former must be very restricted, and the colleges at +Manila be closed. Filipino soldiers shall not rise above the rank +of private or corporal. Filipino secular priests must be reduced +in numbers, and must, in general, act only as the assistants of the +regulars. Filipinos cannot maintain the dignity of the priestly office, +and instead debauch it, as Mas proves by various letters. Religion +is the mainstay of the islands, and the regular curas must be given +as much power as possible, and officials must work in harmony with +them. The friars must, however, live morally, abstain from trade, +and not meddle in temporal affairs. Emancipation will be the ruin of +the friars; and, in order that they may conserve Spanish interests, +all the curas must be Spaniards from Spain. Curas lose respect among +the natives because they are compelled to collect the marriage +and burial fees, and the government should come to their aid by +collecting these under the form of a specified tax. Above all, +the whites must observe religious ceremonies, which they now almost +utterly neglect. The laws of the Indias are executed too rigidly, and +are too favorable to the natives. The latter are becoming arrogant +and impudent, and will end by driving out the Spaniards. Mas would +require a distinctive dress for the natives, the chiefs to be the +only ones who may wear jackets. The priests have been guilty of +destroying rank among them. Natives must salute all Spaniards and +show great outward respect. The title of "Don" must be given them +no longer, for this gives the idea of equality with the whites. All +government officials must be given decent pay, and must be made to +spend it liberally. Offices should not be given in order that their +incumbents may amass money. Only Spaniards of good character should be +allowed to go to the islands. If the treasury officials are decreased +in number and the collections farmed out, this work should be done +by natives and mestizos, as this is an odious office, and engenders +much ill-will. Race hatred must be developed between the Filipinos +and Chinese mestizos as much as possible. The latter are the richer +and more intelligent, and in case of emancipation at this moment would +soon gain the upper hand. They are hated by the natives. It is highly +important to have a respectable and moral Spanish force in the islands, +for should the native troops mutiny nothing can be done as matters now +stand. Curas should have the power of intervention in the meetings +of the principales, as this method will avoid conspiracy. Natives +should not be taught how to cast artillery or make firearms and +powder. Indeed, the powder factory recently established should +be suppressed, as the contract under which it was allowed is not +advantageous, and better powder is manufactured in Murcia. Steam +vessels are needed for quick communication among the islands, +and to repel Moro invasions, and suppress insurrections. Spanish +should not be taught to the natives. Newspapers may be allowed, +under proper censorship; and curas should translate into the native +dialect such articles as are important for the natives. A complete +system of police is necessary. Trouble is to be expected from China, +but it will be quite safe to allow the entrance of a certain number +of Chinese laborers to work on the estates of the whites. They can +be counted on in case of trouble with the natives, and in case they +themselves revolt native hatred will soon finish them. It is advisable +to watch the intercourse between foreigners living in the islands and +the natives. A complete reform is needed in the administration of the +government, which, as now constituted, is honeycombed with laxity +and graft. The laws of the Indias are confused and contradictory, +as is proved by numerous citations. Government is too little +centralized. Spanish statesmen have been guilty of strange errors +in regard to the Philippines, through their ignorance. Mas proposes +a regency of three men, the president to be a Spanish grandee. The +duties of this body are outlined, which in general correspond to +those of the governor-general and Audiencia. The plan contemplates a +Council of State; and thorough judiciary reforms, in order to render +the judiciary independent of the government. The prestige of rank is +to be observed, as this is a large factor in preserving the status +quo. In the provinces, the provincial chiefs (who are to be sent from +Spain) shall hold all the power, as at present. The treasury reforms +suggested look toward a lessening of graft, and greater economy. In +case the Spanish government decides to emancipate the Philippines, the +exactly opposite course must be chosen to the one outlined so fully +for their conservation. Education and the arts must be encouraged, +newspapers allowed with but a mild censorship, and the population +must become amalgamated. To effect the last, dowries should be paid +to the women in all crossed marriages. Native assemblies should be +established in order to train them in political matters. Mas favors +emancipation. The islands have been a drag on Spain from the first, +and, if a violent separation comes, it will result in a further loss +of life and treasure. It is interesting to note that he adds a plea +for the greater humanitarianism of the emancipation plan. + +Matta's report of 1843 in regard to the moral condition of the +Philippines, and the reforms necessary in administrational and economic +matters for the conservation of the islands is of great practical +value. The report was called forth by the sedition of Apolinario, +the founder of the cofradia of San José, and the revolt in 1843 of a +portion of the troops. It sets forth the loss of prestige by both the +government and the regular clergy (once the prime support of Spanish +authority in the islands), and the confusion that is rife throughout +Manila and the provinces, a state approaching anarchy. Political +factions, the troubles arising from the contradictory character of the +natives, the demoralization in military circles, all demand radical +reforms. A system of law taking into consideration the character +of the natives is needed, as well as greater centralization in the +government, with well defined powers granted to subordinate officials; +suppression of various religious educational institutions as breeders +of discontent and trouble, and the establishment of commercial and +other schools; abolition of the residencia; and other legislative +and economic measures. For the development of the islands capital +is needed, but reform must precede in order that capital may be +attracted. Agriculture is the main support of the islands, and must be +developed by the whites, mestizos, and Chinese, who will support the +government, and thus offset the immense numbers of the natives. The +report calls for extensive military reforms and the establishment of +a good police system. Tagálog academies are proposed, so that Spanish +officers may learn the native language. It is of great importance to +conciliate both Peninsulars and Spaniards born in the Philippines, +and to show partiality to neither, in order that prosperity may reign. + +Mr. LeRoy's contribution to this volume consists of two parts: +a general editorial comment on the modern era of the Philippines, +and some bibliographical notes and further comments for the study of +that period. The first shows the influences working in and through +the Philippines and the Filipinos, and is necessarily treated on +broad lines, detail being scrupulously avoided. The second part is +written in the same spirit, but in notes and titles gives the student +full material for the study of the modern era. By the modern era, +Mr. LeRoy means roughly the last half of the nineteenth century, +but necessarily, in speaking of it, he has been compelled to go back +to influences beginning to be felt before that time. Very briefly +he sketches the elements making for a broader life in economic and +social and political lines; the break-down of old ideas, whose longer +continuance was untenable in material, intellectual, and religious +progress; and the rise of the greater respect and self-consciousness +of the Filipinos. In his bibliographical section, the author treats +fairly and impartially of the threefold development of the Filipinos +and the Philippines: viz., the social; the economic--under which +are discussed general considerations, agriculture, land, etc., the +Chinese, industries, commerce, internal trade, navigation, etc., and +currency--and the political, under which are discussed the Spanish +administration and the Filipino propaganda and revolution. Under the +first division of the latter are treated the administrative organism, +the administration as actually working, taxation, legal and judicial +matters, science and material resources, the Moros and pagan peoples; +and under the second, the religious question, the friar estates, +the Filipino clergy and their cause, the revolt of 1872, reform and +demands for more "assimilation," the propagandists, Masonry, the Liga +Filipina, etc., the Katipunan, the insurrection of 1896-97, the pact +of Biak-na-bató and the question of independence. By its mass of +comment and titles, this section fully supplements the first part, +and presents to the student a comprehensive survey of Philippine +life and development, that will be found the most useful material +yet published for detailed study of the modern era. + +In "Events in Filipinas, 1841-1872," the attempt is made only to +indicate general conditions in the islands, by citing very briefly +some of the more important matters during that period in social, +religious and economic lines. In addition to this, we have added a +short bibliography, from which the student may gather abundant and +accessible material for this period. + +Through the kindness of Sr. Epifanio de los Santos we are enabled +to present in full for the first time the constitution of the Liga +Filipina (which was organized by Rizal on July 3, 1892) from a copy +made from the manuscript of Rizal. This constitution shows the Liga +not to have been formed for the purpose of independence, but for mutual +aid and protection of its members, and the fostering of a more united +spirit among Filipinos. Nowhere does it contain a word against the +sovereignty of Spain or against religion. In it are declared the ends, +form, duties of members and officials, rights of members and officials, +the investment of funds, and general rules. The one exception that +might be taken to the constitution is that implicit and unquestioning +obedience to all superior commands is required from the members. + +As the last document proper in this series we present the Friar +Memorial of April 21, 1898, which voices the protest of all the orders +(Augustinians, Franciscans, Recollects, Dominicans, and Jesuits), +but which was destined never to reach officially those for whom it +was intended (the Spanish government, through the minister of the +colonies), because of the appearance in Spanish waters of the American +squadron, and the defeat of the Spanish fleet. It is fitting, however, +to present this document in this series, as it is a complete statement +of the friars' standpoint, and especially as the last document of +the series, as it marks the passing of the old Spanish régime. The +beginning and ending alike express the loyalty of the orders to +the Spanish government, and throughout the document is noted the +expression of the patriotism of all the members of the orders as +Spaniards. The memorial, as a whole, is a protest against the charges +brought against the friars from both Spanish and Philippine sources; +against free-thought; against Masonry and other secret societies; +against the secularization of the orders, episcopal visitation, +secularization of schools, and all the other demands of the separatists +and insurgents. That the friars are the cause of the insurrection, they +indignantly deny. They have ever done their duty, and have worked in +the interests of religion and the Spanish fatherland. The insurgents, +the filibusters, the separatists, of both Spain and the islands, +have directed their whole cry against religion in order to veil their +real purpose. The friars have borne all the vilification that has +been directed against them patiently, but they cannot for their own +honor do so longer. They are proud of their record throughout the +history of the islands, and are mindful that, as the only permanent +peninsular social factor in the Philippines, they have christianized +the islands, have maintained peaceful relations therein, and have +kept them for Spain. Only since the entrance of those imbued with +the revolutionary free-thought, and of Freemasons, have the islands +been disturbed--a period of about thirty years. The Katipunan society +is nothing else than a society constructed on Masonic principles, +and its rapid diffusion of late throughout many districts greatly +complicates the problem and renders the remedy more difficult. Had +the orders been silent in the face of the attempts of the Masons, +of the filibusters, and of the insurgents, they would not have +become an object of persecution; but since they always stood out +for the traditional religion and for Spain, the storm of abuse and +ill-treatment has fallen upon them. They challenge their detractors and +calumniators to prove charges that they have not fulfilled their duty, +and those of personal immorality. They have not committed abuse in the +taking of parochial fees; they are not hostile to education (indeed, +all the education of the islands has been established and fostered +by them); they do not despise the educated natives, but, as is easily +proved, are good friends with them. Most of the graduates from their +institutions have remained loyal, and the same is generally true of +the wealthy classes. The real cause of the rebellion can be traced +back to the government in allowing the entrance of free-thought into +the islands and the dissemination of Masonic doctrines, which have +led to the lessening of respect for religion and for Spain; and, as +this has come about, it has been natural for race hatred to spring +up. The only way of obtaining peace is to strengthen the religious +life of the islands, and to force out all the revolutionary forces +of free-thought and Masonry. The mission of the friars must receive +government support and respect, else it will be impossible for them +longer to remain in the islands. They do not desire temporal honors, or +to take part in the civil affairs of government; they are even willing +to relinquish the slight official intervention that they possess: but +they must demand the honor due to religion which has always been theirs +by right. They are governed in their actions by the Syllabus errorum +of Pius IX. The laws of the Indias, the actions of the sovereigns, the +instructions to Legazpi: all commit Spain to the maintenance of friars +in the Philippines, and to the greater interests of religion. Even +earlier, the Siete Partidas of Alfonso the Wise command respect to +ecclesiastical persons. This respect, therefore, the friars demand, +if they are longer to remain in the islands, and be the support of the +government. This memorial is one by those who are fighting for life, +and who see dimly ahead the fate that may overtake them. + +The subject of agriculture in the islands is briefly treated in +an appendix, showing conditions in the islands in 1784 and 1866, as +described by Governor Basco and the German traveler Jagor respectively; +the aims and achievements of the Economic Society of Manila; and +references to the more important writings on agriculture in the +islands. All show how backward were the conditions of that industry, +even to the end of the Spanish régime, although various efforts +were made by Spain to institute reforms and promote the cultivation +of the soil; but most of these were too superficial and partial to +be successful--indeed, they were continually hindered by the whole +system of Spanish colonial administration and the deficiencies in +the native character and training. + + + +In conclusion, the Editors desire to express their cordial thanks and +acknowledgments for information, suggestions, and other assistance +rendered by the many friends of this undertaking. The majority of +these have been already mentioned in previous volumes, especially in +annotations furnished by them; and the names of several more appear +in the list of "Errata and addenda" (at the end of this volume) +which is unavoidable in any series so extensive as this. Therein +is contained much information which reached the Editors too late +for insertion in its proper place, or was furnished by those whose +personal knowledge enabled them to correct misstatements in works cited +as authorities. The following persons may be mentioned as meriting +special thanks for aid rendered to the Editors: Manuel de Yriarte, +chief of Division of Archives, Manila; Epifanio de los Santos, Malolos, +Bulacan, Luzón; T. H. Pardo de Tavera, of the Philippine Commission, +Manila; and Rev. Anthony Huonder, S.J., Luxembourg, Europe. + + +The Editors + +June, 1907. + + + + + + + + +DOCUMENTS OF 1841-1898 + + + Internal political condition of the Philippines. Sinibaldo de + Mas; 1842. + Matta's report. Juan Manuel de la Matta; February 25, 1843. + The Philippines, 1860-1898: some comment and bibliographical + notes. James A. LeRoy; 1907. + Events in Filipinas, 1841-1872. [Summarized from Montero y Vidal.] + Constitution of the Liga Filipina. José Rizal; July 3, 1892. + The friar memorial of 1898. Manuel Gutierrez, O.S.A., and others; + April 21, 1898. + + +Sources: The first of these documents, the rare volume iii of Mas's +Informe, is obtained from a typewritten copy furnished by Epifanio de +los Santos from the printed original in his possession; the second, +from an unpublished MS. in the possession of T. H. Pardo de Tavera, +who furnished to the Editors a typewritten copy of it; the third is +written especially for this series by James A. LeRoy; the fourth is +summarized from volume iii of Montero y Vidal's Historia de Filipinas; +the fifth is obtained from a copy, furnished by E. de los Santos, +of Rizal's original MS.; the sixth, from James A. LeRoy's copy of one +of the printed originals, revised by a printed copy belonging to the +Madrid edition. + +Translations: All these documents (outside of the third) are translated +by James Alexander Robertson. + + + + + + + + +INTERNAL POLITICAL CONDITION OF THE PHILIPPINES, 1842 + + +Report on the condition of the Filipinas Islands in 1842. Written +by the author of the "Aristodemo," of the "Sistema musical de la +lengua castellana," etc. [1] Volume III. Their internal political +condition. Madrid, January, 1843. + +The twenty-four chapters which I have presented hitherto, [2] have +only been preliminary studies, in order that I might treat of the +present matter; for it would be an ill thing to speak of the internal +administration of the country, or of the line of policy that it is +of advantage to adopt therein, without passing in review its anterior +data, analyzing its elements, and forming an opinion of its resources. + +The laws of every state must have one object, and the wiser and more +perfect they are, the better they fulfil their end. To discourse, +then, on those laws which are advisable in Filipinas, one must take +note of the intentions that the government may have in regard to the +islands. These intentions will probably be reduced to the following +plans or principles. + +To conserve the colony forever, that is to say, without its separation +being even thought of. + +To consider indifferently its loss or its conservation, and the fate +of the Spaniards living in the colony. + +To resolve upon emancipation, and prepare the colony for giving it +freedom. [3] + +In regard to the second of these three fundamental policies, +nothing occurs to me to say, except that it follows in everything, +as hitherto. I shall treat, then, only of the first and last. + +In order to conserve the colony, it is necessary, in my opinion, to +work with reference to the spirit of the following three principles, +which I shall endeavor successively to explain: 1st. It is advisable +to reduce the Spanish-Filipino [4] population to the least possible +number. 2d. The people of color must voluntarily give respect and +obedience to the whites. 3rd. The general administration demands a +complete reform. + +1st. It is advisable to reduce the population, etc. In the epochs +when the light of experience was lacking, it was believed that the +most powerful means of assuring the possession of a colony was to +increase the white race therein as much as possible; and, as a school +for this conviction, they preferred to send thither as employes +those who had the most children, especially female. The Council of +Indias [5] has, up to its last gasp, given proofs of this erroneous +idea. But since then it has been seen that, in fleeing from Scylla, +it has fallen into Charybdis; for among this white population born in +the country, there is formed a local interest opposed to that of the +mother-country, which begins by creating a discontent, and ends by +suggesting the desire for independence. [Although a Filipino-Spaniard +calls himself a Spaniard, all his sympathies are in the Philippines, +and Spain is only secondary in his thoughts. Generally the sons or +grandsons of government employes, Filipino-Spaniards, receive but +little education, are fond of playing the gentleman, are lazy and +dissipated. Little inclined to a professional or business career, +they put all their efforts on securing a government post. As it +is about one-half of the posts do belong to them, but since the +best posts depend upon the favor of the Madrid ministers, the +Filipino-Spaniards are constantly disappointed in the promotion +which they believe belongs to them by right. Consequently, there is +much ill-will and complaint. Camba's pamphlet, [6] although chiefly +written to prove that there was no disloyalty in the Philippines, +yet noted the anger and consequent mutiny (June 2-3, 1823) [7] +because of the arrival of Governor J. Antonio Martinez (October, +1822) with a large staff of Peninsular officials and sergeants; as +well as the displeasure manifested in October, 1825, by the arrival +of a new contingent of civil and military officers with Governor +Mariano Ricafort. Still, it is not right to expect that, so long as +Spain does not intend to abandon the Philippines, it should refrain +from sending Peninsulars to fill the posts there or cease to exercise +the appointing or removing power as it sees fit. If all the posts are +reserved for the Filipino-Spaniards, it cannot be expected that the +islands will remain loyal to a country so distant from them. In fact, +the Filipino-Spaniards, under existing circumstances, cannot receive +greater consideration than at present. The natural and necessary +preference for Peninsulars in the posts of the Philippines engenders +the hatred of the Filipino-Spaniards toward them; but, on the other +hand, this hatred has been greatly exaggerated by the Peninsulars, +who are intolerant and contemptuous of the colonials. This contempt, +Mas illustrates by two examples, of which he was an eyewitness. Such +things, together with the contemptuous nickname given them by +the Peninsulars, gives rise to much ill-will on the part of the +Filipino-Spaniards, who declare that all the cause of the enmity +between the two classes comes from the former. The real cause, however, +of the hatred, is economic, and a matter of the posts. Each of the male +Filipino-Spaniards is seeking a post, but since there are only four +hundred posts of all kinds in the islands, while the Filipino-Spaniards +number about one thousand, the trouble must be continuous and must even +become exaggerated, just so long as a remedy is not applied. Such a +remedy would be for the government to refuse them any post in the army +or other department of government service in the Philippines, although +recognizing them as Spaniards with full rights if they come to reside +in the Peninsula. Mas proceeds to elaborate his plan for decreasing the +white population of the Philippines. All Spaniards going from Europe to +the Philippines before the age of fifteen or sixteen must be regarded +as Filipino-Spaniards. It is proposed that only single men be sent to +fill posts in the islands, and that they be compelled to return to the +Peninsula after twenty years, with permission to return in ten if they +so please. It will be natural for these men to marry Filipino-Spanish +women, who with their children will accompany their husbands to the +Peninsula at the end of the twenty years. Transportation should be +at national expense. On a basis of three passages for each family, +the cost would be only 450 pesos. Each twenty years, there would be +one thousand two hundred return passages to be paid. This would cost +only 27,000 pesos annually. In return, four hundred men would have +to be sent to the islands each twenty years, or with allowance for +deaths and other contingencies, five hundred. At 300 pesos apiece, +this would cost annually 8,750 pesos; and the total transportation +expense would be only 35,750 pesos. Although transportation is not +now paid by the government, the strange mismanagement is practiced +of sending married men with families, thus increasing the white +population. On the basis that there are three thousand five hundred +young Filipino-Spaniards in the islands (both male and female), and +reckoning sixty years as the average life of the individual, there +would be fifty-eight and one-third individuals for each year of the +sixty years, of whom one-half would be women (and hence eligible for +marriage with the Peninsulars). All the males shall be taken to Spain +at the end of the fifteenth or sixteenth year at national expense, +and there educated at the expense of the Manila treasury in whatever +profession they choose. These shall reside in the Peninsula thereafter, +where they shall be given a post. Some few of the thirty or so of the +males reaching the indicated age annually, will doubtless prefer to +devote themselves to commerce or industry; hence at the most there will +be only about twenty-five passages of young men to reckon on annually, +which will be an inconsiderable expense. If this plan be carried out +there will be few children to transport after sixteen years. European +Spaniards, if prohibited from marrying native Filipino and mestizo +women, will marry only Filipino-Spanish women. Hence, as they +continue to retire to Spain, the white population will constantly +decrease. There will not be a sufficiently large number of whites to +become turbulent, and the domination of the Peninsula over the islands +will be ensured. This plan can be carried out at an annual expense +of about 40,000 pesos, and probably much less. This will really be +a saving over present expenses, for retirement and widows' pensions +cost more, the widow of an oidor receiving 18,000 reals vellon. Hence, +the passive classes receive about 175,000 pesos annually. However, +Mas does not advocate that those receiving pensions at present be +deprived of them or sent to Spain, as this would be unjust and cause +discontent. In former years the quarrels and discontent did not lead to +desire for independence. The population was not so great as now; also +(and especially) since an annual situado was sent from the Peninsula +to pay the government employes, and the latter thus depended on the +Spanish treasury, they would have gained nothing by rebelling. This +is the case at present in the Marianas Islands, where the officials +are paid and supported from the money and food sent there, and the +few whites there, consequently, have no desire for independence.] It +will also be asked, in addition, whether, in case the Philippine colony +separated at present, it would be possible for the white population to +become masters of the country, or would there be a tendency for them, +perhaps, to amalgamate with the colored population. The observation +is very just. The Filipino-Spaniards do not think of forming a body +with the (Indian) natives, nor is it possible for them to desire it, +for now they are the masters and in such an event they would become +equals and even inferiors, since the vast mass of the natives would +quickly reduce them to nullity in the matter of government, and +in place of the privileges and exemptions from paying taxes, which +they at present enjoy, they would more than once have to obey and +humble themselves before the very one who now mops the ground that +their foot touches. In the recent occurrence of Tayabas, [8] when +the first news of the insurrection arrived, I was at a gathering of +several Spanish leaders, and they all believed, or at least suspected, +that the whites of the country had compromised themselves in the +matter. I maintained immediately, and obstinately, that they were +mistaken in this, since however disloyal and intemperate one may fancy +the Filipino-Spaniards, it was impossible for me to believe that it +would ever enter their heads to arouse and arm the natives. In fact, +the true spirit of the movement was soon known, and it was seen that +the Filipino-Spaniards were as alarmed at the result (if not more +so) as were the Europeans. Their hopes and plans, then, can only be +based on the persuasion that the natives and Chinese mestizos will +continue quiet, and pay the tribute as at present, and that they will +make their patrimony from the country, and share its posts. This idea +is highly absurd, no doubt. Much less loved by the natives than the +Europeans, without the support of the friars (for even granting the +case that those living in the country should remain, others would +cease to go from the Peninsula), without capital, in a weak minority +for the subjugation of more than two hundred thousand rich, active, +and intelligent mestizos, and three and one-half millions of natives +(who have already rebelled against the Spaniards themselves, in spite +of the great prestige of the reenforcements that could be received from +the other side of the seas), and compelled by force of circumstances +to adopt a liberal and intelligent system with reference to these +same natives, which would speedily make the latter more arrogant and +exacting than at present, it is quite easy to see that the government +of Filipinas, would within a very few years, fall into the hands of the +Indian Filipinos, or, perhaps, into those of the Chinese mestizos, or +of the two races mixed, and that the whites would become submissive to +the people of color--if they were not despoiled of all their property, +as having been usurped and without valid title, just as happened to the +Turkish families who had acquired possession in that land during the +long rule of the Turks in Greece, in which, since the insurrection, +not a single Mussulman has remained. It is clear, therefore, that +this Spanish population, long established in the country, is the one +that has most to lose. In case of an outbreak, the Europeans would +return to España, where they would continue their professions and +would find their kin. The Filipino-Spaniards, however, would have +to change utterly, for they would lose everything, and would have +to seek another country. These are obvious and important truths, and +nevertheless, can we tax the individuals in question with being blind +or stupid, when we see repeatedly in the history of popular revolts +that a Bailly, a Danton, in fine, that the most clever and eminent +men persuade themselves that they are able to stop a revolution at +the line which they trace, and do not suspect that they are going to +be the victims of the masses who rise? + +For the white population that remains in the country, and for all +who are living there at present, agriculture offers an abundant +resource. Very fatal is the deep-rooted idea that Spaniards cannot +prosper in it. [Mas cites several instances to prove that Spaniards can +succeed in agriculture in the Philippines. He also cites the instances +of the Ansaldos family as told by father Agustin de Santa Maria, who +acquired great wealth from agriculture, and who moved to the Peninsula +during the English invasion.] Reflection: Just as the two Ansaldos +brothers, leaving the life of trade, which the Spaniards in the Indias +generally follow, applied themselves to the cultivation of the soil +through their own efforts, lived many years, and succeeded in amassing +a fixed and permanent capital, why could not the same be done by so +many idle spongers who go about Manila with their white faces begging, +deceiving, terrifying, exciting, and confounding all the inhabitants? + +The present superintendent of the islands, Don Juan M. de la Matta, +[9] whose opinion I greatly respect, because I truly believe that +he is one of the few Spaniards who know the country, and that he has +the capacity, honor, patriotism, and energy to do something good and +solid there, wrote me in a letter now before me: "It is necessary +for the Spanish population to stick to agriculture, the only source +capable of providing abundantly for their necessities, for which the +profit from any other employ in the different careers of the state +is indeed very insufficient. I have already called the attention +of the ministry of the treasury to this particular, showing that a +wretched generation, and consequently, one dissolute and turbulent, +is increasing daily, and that the government must prevent in time +the fatal consequences, by inviting them to turn their attention +to agriculture. [10] In fact, there are rich and extensive lands +which have been abandoned, which ought to invite the attention of a +Filipino-Spaniard more than the posts, for with an estate not only +can he live in ease and independently, but he can also establish a +rich patrimony for his descendants. Lands that now are worth little, +or even nothing, will in time have a greater or less price by reason +of the population of the territory and the perfection to which its +cultivation is carried. There is today in the charity hospital of +Sidney an aged woman, whose husband owned a bit of land, which he +sold thirty years back for three pounds sterling, and at this moment +it is worth one-half million pesos fuertes. And this, only because +of the rapid increase in population! In Filipinas itself, any one +can be convinced of this manifest fact, which is a trivial truth +among economists. In Laguna and other provinces, there are most +fertile fields, abandoned and at the disposal of the one who will +take them; and in Bulacan and Tondo, whose soil is very inferior, +all have owners and a value. In the environs of Malolos and Manila, +land costs one thousand pesos fuertes per quiñon. One hundred years +ago, this same quiñon could be bought for fifty." + +[The difficulty in attracting the whites to an agricultural life lies +in the labor question. Mas does not consider advisable the system of +the Dutch in Java, [11] and prescribed by certain laws of the Indies, +of compelling the natives to work in estates at the established wage +scale, "as the natives have been accustomed for three centuries to +be humored and allowed freely to work or live in idleness according +to their fancy." He proposes that the heavy tribute of the Chinese +who cultivate the lands of the Spaniards be reduced to the small +amount paid by the Chinese mestizos; also that negritos, Igorots, +and captured Moro pirates be made to cultivate the fields for the +Spaniards. He also recommends the plan of indenturing the condemned +criminals out to the cultivators, as England did with its criminals, +who were sent to America in former periods. This system Mas does +not consider as unjust or inhumane, but quite the contrary, for the +farmers, since their pocket book is touched, will be more considerate +than the prison officials. He recommends the awarding of prizes for +the cultivation of cacao and coffee; and "finally, the authorization of +individual contracts, by means of which Filipinos may bind themselves +to work on the estate of a Spaniard for a certain number of years, +as is done in the military service, such Spaniards then remaining +subject until the termination of the contract. These persons, during +said time, shall be exempt from service in the army, and exemption +from polos and personal service may even be conceded to some (for +instance, to one for each quiñon of land)."] + +2d. People of color must voluntarily respect and obey the whites. In +order to attain this object, it is necessary to maintain the former +race in an intellectual and moral condition which will make of their +numerical majority a political force less than that which resides +in the second, just as a pile of straw in the balance weighs less +than a gold nugget. The farmer or the goatherd does not read social +contracts, or know more than what takes place in his own village. This +is not the class of people who have overthrown absolutism in España, +but that class who are educated in the colleges, and who know the +price of guarantees, and fight for them. We must not depart from +this point of view, if we are to discuss the matter sincerely. The +making of liberals must be necessarily avoided, for in a colony +the words liberal and insurgent are synonymous. The consequence of +the idea will be to admit the principle that each step forward is +a treading backward. It is necessary to circumscribe the education +to primary schools where reading, writing, and arithmetic will be +taught, continuing as at present with one school in each village, +and leaving their direction to the curas. The colleges for males +now existing in Manila must be closed. [12] In English India, whose +educational institutions and free government are of so much weight +with some, there is nothing similar to this, and an Englishman who +wishes to become a lawyer, a notary, a physician, or a military or +civil official, has to go to England for study and graduation--I say +Englishman, for the natives do not even enter into the question. + +In the service of arms, they must not rise beyond privates or at the +most corporals. It is much better to make a sergeant or officer from +a Spanish farmer, even though he cannot read and write, than from the +more capable native. On the contrary, the more dexterous and deserving +is the latter, so much greater will be the mistake committed. Here +the one who plays for gain loses. It is less dangerous and more +tolerable to bestow the rank of officer on a very stupid, vicious, +and cowardly fellow. + +It is necessary to provide that a Spanish cura be placed in +each village, and it is preferable to leave a village without a +minister rather than to place it in charge of a Filipino secular +priest. Between Filipinas and España there is no other bond of union +than the Christian religion. This bond is very powerful, and may +induce the islanders to love and to defend the Spanish domination as +a duty. In no place better than in España is it known of what the +religious influence on the masses is capable, even in violation of +their most direct interests. To imagine that the natives will become +fond of our government because they judge it good or the best possible, +I believe a vain project. Their ignorance regarding the condition of +other peoples does not permit of their entering into such comparisons; +and those who might be capable of doing it, will discuss political +matters; and however excellent such men consider our domination, +they would always think that it would be more advantageous for them +to withdraw from the yoke and seize the scepter in their own hands, +and pass by this method from their humble condition of vassals and +subjugated to that of masters and mandarins. Therefore, just as the +community is sustained by virtue and the monarchy by fidelity, this +colony, in my opinion, must be maintained by religion. Starting from +this beginning, nothing can become so direct an agent for promoting +emancipation, as the ordaining of priests among the natives. [13] Some +persons observe that they are unfit and vicious, and consequently, +do not infuse respect, exercise influence or cause fear. More, if a +Filipino secular priest lives in a state of intoxication, and even +commits, as has indeed happened, atrocious crimes which lead him to +the scaffold, he does not for this cease to be a priest; and thus he +degrades the class to which he belongs, and undermines the prestige +of sanctity surrounding the character of a religious man. And this +idea, namely, that because they are Filipinos, they cannot have any +influence, has been destroyed by merely the recent insurrection in +Tayabas, where a lay-brother, a young fellow, without any personal or +antecedent quality that could make him respected, was able, by means +of a religious matter--without the printed copies of the admonition +of the archbishop of Manila, or the Spanish friars of the neighboring +territory, being able to prevent it--to cause a settlement to mutiny +and to arm a crowd of three or four thousand men, even to the point of +firing upon their own pastors, who only saved themselves by means of +flight; to kill the governor of the province; and attack the national +troops. And so that my opinion in regard to this matter is, and has +been, that of many others who studied the country, I shall copy a +few extracts illustrative of the matter. [14] + +[Mas's first extract is from a communication to the king from +Governor Aguilar, dated November 25, 1804. In this letter, Aguilar +characterizes the native secular priests as lazy and dissolute. He +cites a recent example of a village, evidently previously in charge +of the native seculars, where a Recollect priest has been placed in +charge, and where in consequence the church has been completed and +order preserved. Although there are some good native priests, they +do not infuse the respect that the regulars do, for the latter are +never intimate with their parishioners, while the native priests, +on the other hand, live on an intimate footing with them, and enter +into every detail of their lives. Consequently, the regulars can +manage the natives better than the native secular priests. Again the +religious have no ties, and hence their only care is their church +and their duty. The native seculars are burdened with relatives, +who even live in the curacies with them, and hence, they neglect +their churches which soon fall into ruin. It would be bad indeed +for the islands if the bishops were to transfer the curacies to the +native seculars. That might be done when there are Spanish secular +priests who possess the right qualities, but to transfer them to +the natives would be committing a great wrong. If all the villages +in charge of native secular priests had friar curas, they would be +in a much better condition. In Negros, which is in charge of the +native seculars, nothing is done, a ruinous condition prevails, and +the villages are greatly depopulated. If the matter were left to him, +he would not allow a single native secular priest to have charge of a +village. They might profitably be used as assistants to the regulars.] + +[The second letter is one from the Manila Ayuntamiento, dated July +12, 1804. This letter is highly laudatory of the friars, who spare +no pains to fulfil their duties. The native secular priests however, +are only in few instances found efficient, and are in general only +fit to act as assistants to the friar curas. The Filipinos with +their weak intellects, seem unfitted for the office of priest, +by reason of their lack of constancy. They have not the education +requisite for the office of priest, for the conciliar seminaries +are little more than a name in which a few native secular priests, +themselves without sufficient education, attempt to teach. The regulars +subjected to the royal patronage would be much better than any native +seculars. After Mindoro was transferred from the Recollects to the +native seculars, the missions quickly declined, churches were ruined, +Moro raids increased, and the tribute of the villages fell off. In +consequence, the government now wishes to replace the native clergy +by the Recollects. The regulars also further the temporal affairs, +and have done notable things in agriculture. The Ayuntamiento hopes +that the complaints against the regulars will be disregarded, "for +although there are some defects which they may have, they are always +useful to religion and the state."] + +[The third citation is from San Agustin's famous letter on the +character of the natives. [15]] + +Taking the Christian religion as the foundation upon which +our domination is sustained, it is evident that everything that +contributes to destroy the religious spirit, destroys and undermines +this foundation. Under this idea nothing can have more direct harm +than the degradation and corruption of the minister of divine worship, +and experience has demonstrated this truth. For just as the first +sectarians of Jesus Christ extended his religion rapidly by means of +the enthusiasm which took possession of their minds, and by means of +the martyrdoms which they suffered, so also, in all places where the +priests have given themselves to effeminacy, to feasting, to ambition, +and to vices, the belief of the peoples has diminished from that +moment, and they have ended by falling into religious indifference. The +government ought, then, to consider the clergy as a power; and just as +great care is taken not to introduce insubordination and demoralization +into an army, so also the government ought to watch over the conduct of +the curas. Let them have all the influence possible over the village, +but let them always be Spanish Europeans, and allow them to feel no +other interest than España. This is the vital question. If the matter +be considered under this point of view, one cannot exaggerate the harm +that a goodly portion of the friars are doing, and the moral force +that our government is losing because of the manner in which they are +living. The most general weakness is that of concubinage. Many keep +a mistress (who is there called a stewardess [despensera]), inside +or outside the convent. The convent in Filipinas has no cloister, as +it is a parochial house. And this fault, if one considers the climate +of the country, the circumstances, and the ideas of the natives, is, +to say truth, the most excusable and the least harmful. + +The most pernicious and transcendental fault into which many curas have +fallen especially for some time back--a fault ten times more harmful +than the one to which we have referred--is that of avarice, fed by +the practice of trading. It is well known that the mode of trading in +that country usually consists in usury, that is, in advancing money in +order later to receive products in kind at a very low price. And even +leaving aside this aspect of the matter, it happens, as is natural, +that the minister, as soon as he has become a speculator, contrives +to get some profit from his position, and from the influence which +his ministry and the policy indispensable in that country give him, +and thinks little or nothing of the means so long as they conduce to +the increase of his capital. Sometimes this vice is united with the +first, and the stewardess or her husband--who is generally one of the +servants of the convent, whom the friar has married to her, in order +to save appearances--is charged with the gathering, magazines, shops, +sales, etc. But it must be confessed that the government has had a +great part in this corruption, by protecting the religious against +their superiors. Two left during the term of General Lardizabal, +taking a large amount with them. When the Augustinian provincial, +Father Grijalvo, went with his secretary, Father Fausto Lopez, to +see him [i.e., Lardizabal] about one of them (Father Jarava) [16] who +wished to go away with his money, and said provincial asserted to him +that this was a very bad example, as there were many who would devote +their energies to making money, and then leave, although religious are +so necessary in these islands, the said general answered him: "Do not +believe it. You are not so necessary. You are deceived in this. The +English government in India has no friars, and yet that country is +sustained and prospers." Nevertheless, in Singapor, he [i.e., Father +Jarava] boasted in conversation with the good Bishop Courvery (as the +latter mentioned to me) of the gold which he carried; and told him of +the presents which he had had to bestow in Manila in order to obtain +his passport, especially to the assessor of the government. The most +illustrious bishop wrote that to that capital, and on learning it, +the guileless general Lardizabal was angry enough to tear his hair, +as was mentioned by the secretary of the government, Cambronero. [17] +In 1840 they went to inform the alcalde-mayor of a province that +all those who went away with indigo, unless provided with a pass by +the cura, were detained in the bantayan (a kind of sentry-box) of +a village in his jurisdiction. The alcalde ordered the matter to be +investigated, and found it to be so; and some passes were brought to +him, which stated little more or less than "permit So-and-so to pass +with so many quintals of indigo." The reason for this was that the cura +had advanced money to them, and feared that if they carried away the +indigo and sold it, it would afterward be impossible to collect the +money. The alcalde ordered a verbal process to be formulated, in which +two friars and two secular priests made their depositions in the most +effective terms against the cura in question. [The alcalde-mayor wrote +to the vicar of the province, who answered him under date of Batac, +July 25, 1840, to the effect that the freedom given by the government +to the friars, who had been relieved of obedience to their prelates, +accounted for this. The government and the ideas of the present time +were to blame, consequently, not the friar prelates. The friar of +whom the alcalde-mayor and the vicar wrote boasted that when he was +attacked on the one side he took refuge in the jurisdiction of the +other. Although he boasted that he intended to take his 40,000 pesos +and enjoy life with a female companion, yet he obtained governmental +permission to remain in his curacy.] The curas generally suffer +from another defect, namely, that of meddling in temporal matters, +or rather, of endeavoring to abrogate all jurisdictions, and then +assume these in themselves. It is evident that there must be a +limit to everything, and that those friars who display an insolent +spirit and are usurpers of command must restrain themselves within +limits. But this evil is one of the least, if our chief and vital +object be considered to be the conservation of the state. Is it or not +a fact that, for España to maintain this colony under its dominion, +it needs the influence of the religious over the inhabitants? If +it is a fact, one must consider these persons as instruments; their +influence must be positive; the alcaldes and other employes must be +wheels of the machine, who must be in communication with them, and +to a certain point move at their impulse. So long as the villages +obey the voice of the friars, the islands will be Spanish, for the +friars can do no less than be so. Emancipation would inevitably cause +their ruin. This will appear hard and unendurable to many who are +not friends of theoretic intervention, especially among the present +military and civil officers of Filipinas; but I understand it in this +way, and do not see by what other agency a handful of Spaniards can, +at six thousand leguas' distance, and without Spanish troops, keep +obedient a vast and wealthy country, which has need of us for nothing, +in which there are not a few elements of independence, and which is +coveted by many foreign nations. + +And if all this is a fact, we can do no less than lament the +unjustifiable imprudence of having printed in the ordinances of good +government now in force, which were printed and distributed throughout +the whole country, the following: + +[Here follow ordinances 17, 18, 24, 30, 31, 85, 87, 89, 91 and 92 +(some only in part), for a synopsis of which see VOL. I., pp. 234, +235, 236, 238, 239, and 256-261. Mas continues:] + +In no part did the animosity with which these ordinances were written +appear so much as in these last two articles, for they treat of +the construction of convents, churches, and royal houses; and since +none of these edifices can be erected without the instructions of a +special measure and by authorization, it follows that the government +is dictating provisions to itself, and consequently, it was quite +useless to insert them in a public law; and although it was intended +that they should contain the expression of the royal will, the latter +would always have been sufficient provided that action were taken +in the proper bureau. Moreover, what ordinance 91 says about the +possibility of the sumptuous convents being used as a shelter by the +enemy, as was experienced in the war with the English, seems to me to +be lacking in common sense. For if they are susceptible of being used +as fortresses, they will be an advantage to those possessing them, +who may, if they wish, burn them when they have to abandon them. In +the same category are all the strongholds. For example, in the war +with the English above mentioned, the latter captured Manila, and +immediately made use of the forts to protect themselves from Anda's +troops. Consequently, according to the argument, the fortifications of +Manila ought to be demolished. If the enemy defend themselves in the +convents, it will be because they have to flee from us, and then we +can desire nothing better than that they shut themselves up, so that +we may surround them and take them prisoners. If the Spaniards are in +such a condition that they look upon the convent as a refuge, they can, +since they are in their own country, get aid at any moment. A large +and beautiful church, in the midst of a village of bamboo or board +houses, contributes not a little to inspire a lofty idea of what is +within it. All the sumptuous edifices of the ancients were temples. + +The utility of protecting the religious spirit having been admitted, +the Spaniards of the province, who in general give a contrary example, +by not fulfilling their church duties, do great harm. This is so +much more harmful, as they are in the sight of the entire village, +which knows quite well the actions of their most private life. Finding +myself on the day of Corpus Christi at a place where a large procession +and Church function were being made, not a single Spaniard of the +several who were there, went to mass, including the governor of the +province. For an alcalde not to go to mass, becomes so much the more +scandalous, as it is the custom for the gobernadorcillo with all the +community and past captains to go to get him at the royal house in +order to accompany him as a matter of ceremony to the church. + +It happens on account of this that it is enough for them to give +notice of a Spaniard to the cura so that the latter may have the cura +told that he is not at home--a thing which contributes to destroy +the prestige of our name and dominion. Surely, this, joined with +other motives, has contributed to diminish the spirit of devotion, +especially for the last fifteen or twenty years. This decrease is not +imaginary. I have assured myself of it through several channels, among +others, through a house that formerly traded in books of religion and +prints. From this I deduce that our foundations are becoming weaker, +and if they are not strengthened, it may be delayed more or less, +but the edifice will fall. I opine then, that if the colony is to +be conserved, it is absolutely necessary to take positive measures +to check the exterior manifestations of irreligion; to cause the +priests to appear under the most possible venerable point of view; +and to endeavor to have their influence over the masses powerful. One +of the acts to which the curas now see themselves obliged, and which +robs them of great prestige, is the collection of the parochial +fees at marriages and burials. A person who has lost a child or +a parent by death, has in addition to the grief for his loss, the +expense which it occasions. He goes to the cura weeping, and tells +him that he has no money. The cura, nevertheless, must show himself +inexorable; finally the native hands the cura a portion of the sum; +the parish priest bids him go get the part lacking; he returns with +another portion; and after seeing that the pretense of his poverty +avails him nothing, he pays the whole fee. There are some who come +with the money divided into the four corners of their handkerchiefs, +and unwrap them one after the other, trying each time to avoid the +payment. The same thing happens in marriages; and there are many +who live in concubinage waiting until the cura marries them free +of charge. These scenes are very unpleasant to the religious, and +yet, they can do no less than show themselves hard, for if they did +otherwise they would be unable to collect any of the fees which belong +to them and form the greater part of their income. And the worst of +all is, that this money which the cura would lose, would probably not +be used in reproductive investments, but would be spent in feasting +and the cockpit. It would be, then, much more advisable, and very +much to the taste of the religious, to have a general tax imposed, +and collected by the alcalde, as now happens with the sanctorum. [18] +One-half real annually for each soul would be sufficient and would +compensate, as some of them have assured me, for the present sum of +the parochial fees. The display in the ceremony of marriage and burial +ought to be suitable and designated by rules. Those who desired any +music or some extraordinary mourning decorations could pay something +extra. In that way, the parishioners would experience nothing more +from their parish priests than agreeable things--counsel, protection, +and alms. + +Since it is very important that the religious, as guides of public +opinion, have essentially Spanish hearts, it is absolutely necessary +for all these men to be born, to have been educated and ordained in +España. From this is deduced the need of protecting the colleges +existing at present, and where friars are made who take a vow for +Filipinas. [19] + +Their pride must be entirely broken, and they must in all places +and on all occasions consider the Spaniard as their master, and not +their equal. Our laws of Indias, dictated in the most beneficent, +but not always in the most wise, spirit, not only concede them all +the rights of Spaniards, but seem in several points to prefer them to +the Spaniards, especially in the possession of lands. These benevolent +regulations, often executed with exaggeration by the auditors of the +Audiencia, the protector of the Indians, and the governors-general +who come from España, overflowing with ideas of philanthropy and +humanity, and without knowing the natives otherwise than by their +humble hypocritical exterior with influential persons, have raised +their pretensions to an alarming degree. + +[The natives have committed many acts of violence and contempt. A +Recollect cura was beheaded in Talibong, Cebú; the provincial governor +of Negros was assassinated in 1833, and another Spaniard severely +wounded; the alcalde-mayor of Capis was attacked in 1836, but saved +himself by his presence of mind; the house of the alcalde-mayor +of Antique was burned and he barely escaped the flames; another +alcalde-mayor was taken prisoner to Manila in an iron cage; the +cura and government employes were ridiculed in pantomimic dances +in Capan in 1841; a comedy was to have been enacted at the feast-day +celebrations at Santa Cruz, Laguna, in 1840, in which the alcalde-mayor +and his court were to be held up to ridicule, but it was avoided +by the arrest of the actors. It has happened sometimes that the +gobernadorcillo remains seated in the presence of a Spaniard with +whom he has contests in the ayuntamiento. The members of the village +ayuntamientos are not accustomed to rise when a Spaniard enters the +town hall, and even laugh at them; and should the Spaniard grow angry +and strike any of them, complaint is forthwith made to the governor, +who punishes the Spaniard. An artillery captain and an advocate +were stoned without cause in a Laguna village. A Spaniard, angered +by the insolent answer of a native, struck him, whereupon the native +threatened his life. In Manila, the natives are insolent. They do not +yield the sidewalk to Spaniards; coachmen and porters do not rise in +the presence of Spaniards; Filipino women do not yield to Spanish +women either in the stores or the church. Since the new governor, +Oraá, has ordered a verbal process against a commandant for punishing +a servant, they have become more insolent than ever. Other acts of +insolence are noted. These things are not heard of by the governor, or +they lay no stress upon them as they do not recognize their political +importance. "Before the justice, the Spaniards and the Filipinos are +equal." The latter, however, get better treatment from the governors, +who have even punished provincial governors severely, while they have +treated the natives with clemency. The prestige of the Spanish name +must be preserved. "He who merits it must without doubt be punished, +not only for the crime which he commits against humanity and justice, +but also because it obscures the luster of the Spanish character from +which righteousness, benevolence, and liberality ought always shine +forth. But it is advisable that this be among Spaniards, and that no +account or satisfaction of it be given to the natives. Place them +in the way of rights, and they will not pay until driving us from +their soil." It is wrong to treat the native with less severity than +the Spaniard. Mas asserts that in all the countries in which he has +traveled, he has had to exercise patience to no greater degree than in +the Philippines. The insolence and disrespect which he has witnessed +do not allow him to see safety and security for the Spaniards. "It +seems to me that the islands were more secure in the times when a +native got down on his knees when a Spaniard passed." Mas advises that +Spaniards alone be allowed to wear the neckerchief, and that natives +and mestizos be distinguished by the loose shirt and straw hat which +they have chosen themselves. Principales only should be permitted +to wear jackets. The religious have destroyed distinction in rank +among the natives in great measure, but while this is generous and +democratic, "the destruction of rank also destroys the principle of +ambition, the stimulus for economy and work."] + +The places of cabezas de barangay must not be hereditary, but these +posts ought to be filled by the most wealthy. Among these people +aristocracy of money has great influence, but not that of family. In +the colony, there must be no noble blood except the Spanish. When the +Filipino or mestizo meets a Spaniard, the former shall be obliged to +stop (except at Manila) to salute him. If seated, he shall rise when +the Spaniard addresses him or passes in front of him. He who raises his +hand against a Spaniard, although it be to defend his own life, shall +incur the penalty of laboring on the public works all his life. If the +offense is verbal, the punishment shall be decreased in proportion to +the case. A Spaniard shall not give a seat in his house to a Filipino +or mestizo, much less sit at table with him. He who falls into this +fault of decorum, shall be punished the first two times by a fine, +and the third time he shall be exiled from the colony. No Spaniard, +under any consideration, shall be allowed to contract marriage with +any Filipino or mestizo woman. The Filipinos or mestizos who desire +to use a carriage or a saddle horse, shall have to obtain a permit +for which an annual tax shall be charged, so that those who sustain +this luxury may be very few. [Mas condemns the custom of giving +the title "Don" to gobernadorcillos and principales. Even almost +naked Tinguianes and Igorots are found with that title--which is +ridiculous. Let the Filipinos use their own native equivalents for +"Don" and "Doña." Also the natives should not be allowed to present +petitions which are disrespectful because of their ignorance of the +language, such as for instance calling the governor a robber.] + +Government employes should be well paid, for in a country where +appearances count for so much as in the Philippines, it is not well to +live in a miserly manner. There are no Spanish grandees in the colony, +and but few of the merchants can afford to live luxuriously. Mere +living expenses are cheaper than in Spain, and one could if he +desired save more, but if the natives live better than the ruling +class, there will be a loss of prestige. Better salaries are paid in +the Philippines than in Spain, but this is necessary. The governor, +for instance, must really give some idea of the royal master whom +he is serving, and this can be done through a certain amount of +display. Each official ought to spend at least two-thirds of his pay. + +No Spaniard ought to be allowed to go to the provinces who is not of +well-known good behavior, and who does not leave in Manila a bondsman +for the debts which he may contract. Passports are at times given to +poor Spaniards, soldiers, or licensed corporals, for example, who go +through the villages of the interior defrauding, guzzling, entering +the houses of the town in an unbecoming manner, asking perhaps, +food or baggage without paying for them, and finally obliging the +natives to arrest them. The pernicious consequences of these examples +are incalculable. + +[In case that the employes of the treasury are decreased in number, and +collections are made by contractors, only natives and Chinese mestizos +should be accepted as such, on account of the odium incurred. The +latter class will probably take the contract, which will result in good +as it will tend to develop race hatred between them and the Filipinos.] + +Those races are the ones who make up the population. The one excels and +is strong through its number, and the other through its intelligence, +activity, and wealth. The ability of the government will consist +in keeping them always separated, and at swords' points, in order +that they may never form a common mass or public spirit, but that, +on the contrary, the one may serve as an instrument to subject the +other. Filipinos would rather associate with mestizos than with +Spaniards, for although the first tyrannize over them, and draw them +under the yoke so far as possible, they invite them to dine, and treat +them so that they all appear united. The Spaniards, for the most part, +always talk to them with an air of superiority, and keep them at a +certain distance--a thing which naturally disgusts the Filipino. + +[The Filipinos do not, however, like the Chinese any better, +but on the contrary, respect the Spaniards more as coming from a +higher race. They regard the mestizos as a bastard race and beneath +themselves. There are many lawsuits between the two classes for +preference in rank. In villages where there are both mestizos and +natives, each class has its own gobernadorcillo, although that of the +latter has now been declared superior in rank, and in case of the death +or absence of the alcalde-mayor, takes his place. They are jealous of +these privileges, and in case of immediate separation, the mestizos +would not become the dominant force in the country. This rivalry +is useful for Spanish interests and must be preserved. The Chinese +mestizos will within a century have grown to at least one million +by natural increase and immigration from China; and will possess the +greater part of the wealth of the islands. They are the proprietors, +merchants, and educated people of the country, and will dominate public +opinion. This class has no sympathy for Spain and will be difficult to +subdue. Therefore, the moral force of the natives must be preserved, +and the rivalry between the two classes fomented, so that the natives +may not become the vassals of the mestizos. Mas proposes a land tax +on the mestizos and a distinctive dress. Theaters for both natives +and mestizos, where they can rival and ridicule each other will be +helpful. Arts and the prosperity of the country must be stimulated, +for if the natives are left to their natural incapacity and sloth, +they will be in the power of the Chinese mestizos within a century.] + +[A Spanish force of at least one thousand or five hundred men is +needed. If the native soldiers mutiny, nothing can restore discipline +unless there is a Spanish force. Some of the governors have opposed +even Spanish corporals and sergeants. The country seems quiet but +a terrible mutiny and revolt may occur any day. There were only +Spanish soldiers in the old days, and respect was more manifest. Native +regiments are of modern date. The disreputable regiment of Asia made up +largely of criminals has caused the Spanish soldiers to lose prestige +among the natives. And besides they have been wretchedly treated. It +would be well to have soldiers from Borneo or other islands outside the +archipelago. If the British do not object, men might even be enlisted +cheaply in India. This would relieve the natives from service, from +which they would gladly be free; and the country would be more secure, +and more prosperous.] + +[The principales should be allowed to hold meetings only in the +presence of the cura. It is well known that they plot against the +alcalde-mayor and the cura at times when they assemble for any +common matter.] + +The Spanish language ought not to be taught them, but they ought +to learn to read and write in their own. It is impossible to avoid +the introduction of papers and books into the provinces which it is +unadvisable for them to read, and experience demonstrates that those +who know our language, are almost always the restless ones of the +villages and those who murmur at, censure, and act contrary to the +curas and alcaldes. + +[It is folly to teach the natives how to make artillery and +firearms. Factories for the manufacture of these are now being +finished in the islands. It would be better to send everything of +this nature from Spain. Another imprudence is the manufacture of +powder. Besides its inferiority to Spanish powder, and the danger of +allowing the natives to learn to make it, it costs more than that sent +from Spain. Although after the delivery of twelve thousand quintals, +the factory and its effects are to become national property, the +works which are now not worth more than ten thousand pesos, will +be worthless.] + +[Mas recommends the use of steam vessels for inter-island +communication, for the rapid moving of troops, and the better +protection of Spanish interests. They can also be used against the +Moros [20] with better effect than the small squadron of sailing +vessels now employed, and will be more economical. Coal and wood +abound in the islands and can be used as fuel.] + +The publication of a newspaper shall be permitted under the supervision +of the government. In them shall be inserted descriptions of the +best methods of making sugar, indigo, etc., dyeing thread, tempering +iron, and in fact everything that may conduce to the instruction of +agriculture and manufacture; the edicts and orders of the government; +and political news, both peninsular and foreign, edited in the manner +that is found advisable. [All the village ayuntamientos shall be +compelled to subscribe to such a paper, and the cura shall be asked +to translate into the native vernacular all useful articles. Foreign +papers are admitted without any charge, and prove, instead of a +benefit, an injury, for they are all democratic in tone, and foment +disorder and discontent.] The non-existence of newspapers in Filipinas +causes a very bad result among foreigners, who consider them and with +reason, the foremost mark of civilization, and at the same time, the +government is deprived of the advantage of guiding public opinion. [21] + +A system of police must be established, especially in the capital. Not +many years ago, there was a commission of public vigilance, which +was abolished, I believe, during the government of General Camba. The +neglect of the captains-general in this regard at present is scarce +credible. + +[Although China has caused and will cause trouble in the future, +still the salutary punishments that the Chinese have received, and +the rapid increase in the Filipino population, justify the admission +into the islands of 15,000 or 20,000 more Chinese, on the basis +that there are only 8,000 or 10,000 now in the islands. These can +be scattered through the islands and would work only on the estates +of Spaniards.] Twenty thousand Chinese could work 10,000 quiñons of +land, which planted with sugar cane would yield annually 2,000,000 +picos of sugar. This sugar sold at Manila at only 3 pesos fuertes +[per quintal] would produce the sum of 6,000,000 pesos fuertes. [In +case of a popular insurrection the Chinese would all side with the +government and if an attack were threatened from China, it would be +sufficient to turn them over to the Filipinos, who, because of their +hatred for them, on account of their superior industry, would soon +make short work of them.] + +[Foreigners are useful because of their knowledge and capital, and +create much wealth for the islands through their continued traffic +with their own countries. But their presence does not promote the +conservation of the colony.] Formerly the feeling against this class of +persons was very pronounced, owing in great measure to the religious, +who always spoke of the English, Dutch, etc., as heretics, drunkards, +and barbarians. The antipathy thus engendered was highly important, +in case of an outside attack. [The natives are now friendly to +foreigners, who pay more liberally than Spaniards, and even Spaniards +at Manila are aping the English and are friendly to them. Undesirable +books have and will surely be introduced through the foreigners; and +consequently, the laws forbidding them to go to the provinces must +be enforced, and entrance to Manila must not be easy. La Place, the +Frenchman, although he wrote many inaccurate things of the islands, +[22] recognized the danger from foreigners, when speaking of the +slaughter of the foreigners in 1819 during the cholera.] + +3rd. The administration requires a complete reform. The command of +Filipinas has always been entrusted to a governor and captain-general, +as if it were a province of España. To set some balance to his +power, because of the distance from the throne, certain privileges +and preeminences have been granted to other persons, especially to +the Audiencia, even to the point of making of the latter a court of +appeal against the measures of the chief of the islands. Besides, the +revenues have been removed from his jurisdiction, and the office of +the intendant has been constituted, who obeys no others than the orders +communicated to him by the ministry of the treasury from Madrid. [23] +It is very obvious that this single point is quite sufficient to +paralyze completely the action of the governor-general. Besides, +since there are many matters which require to be passed on by distinct +ministries, it happens that two contrary orders touch the same matter, +or that one order is lacking, which is enough to render its execution +impossible, the contingency moreover arising that a chief may detain +a communication, even after he has received it, if it does not suit +him. This system of setting obstacles in the way of the governor of a +distant colony is wise and absolutely necessary, but since the Leyes +de Indias are not a constitutional code, but a compilation made in +the year 1754 [24] of royal orders despatched at various epochs and by +distinct monarchs, in which are decided points of government, justice, +war, politics, revenue, procedure, etc., there results rather than +a balance among the various departments of authority a confusion of +jurisdictions, the fatal fount of eternal discord. [Mas cites laws +from Leyes de Indias showing the great confusion and contrariety +of the orders to governor and Audiencia. This confusion has given +rise to scandalous and tragic events because of the contests over +authority. During these latter years have occurred many offenses of +like nature. General Enrile had them with the intendant, and General +Camba mentions several during the period of his government. To +these difficulties, is added another, in order that the chariot may +run right and easily; the government of the provinces is in charge +of an alcalde-mayor, [25] who is at once judge of first instance, +chief of the political matters, subdelegate of the treasury, and +war captain or military commandant, for whose different attributes +he is subject to authorities distinct from one another. This appears +inconceivable, but yet it is a fact, although the cleverness of our +India legislators has not been so great that it could free the system +of the inconveniences which necessarily must obstruct it. + +Whatever difficulty occurs in the fulfilment of an order, it must be +solved by means of a conference and advice [consulta], [26] from which +a reply is not obtained until from twelve to fourteen months. These +difficulties are more frequent in Filipinas than in a province of the +Peninsula, because of the lack of knowledge of the country generally +possessed by the ministers who dictate the measures. Things have gone +so far that it has been ordered that the cultivation of the balate +(a fish) be encouraged; and that the situado of Zamboanga be sent +overland, because of the loss of the ship which was carrying it across +to the island of Mindanao, where D. Infantes was then governing said +presidio. The superintendent Enriquez says in the document which he +printed on leaving his post in 1836, [27] that in the short period in +which he filled the superintendency, he sent to the court six hundred +and twenty-seven questions for resolution. And to these springs of +torpor in the administration of the government, we must add that +the captains-general scarcely decide any question whatever, without +handing the matter for report to the assessor, fiscal, Audiencia, etc., +because of the distance and impossibility of consulting España, and +through their fear of compromising themselves, since on many occasions, +measures have been obtained against them in Madrid, through agents and +representatives or through complaints sent from the islands. The same +thing happens with regard to the intendant and other authorities. From +this practice arises the system of expedientes [28] which reigns, +and which is so fatal to the prosperity and good government of the +country, since very often the arrangement that appears good to some, +is contrary to the opinions or interests of others. [Expedientes +lasting for years have been formulated for matters requiring immediate +attention. For instance, one lasting for years was formulated in +regard to an expedition against the Moro pirates. An expediente is +formed when a foreigner arrives at Manila without a passport from +Spain and asks permission to remain in the country, although the law +on this point is explicit. Thus much valuable time is lost and the +expedientes result in only a waste of paper, besides great injury +to the islands. The governor often has to conform to the opinions +expressed in the expediente, although he knows they will be the cause +of injustice. [29] On the other hand, the governor is often directly +at fault, because he enforces his own opinion on his assessor, who has +often obtained his position through favoritism and is not a lawyer, +and decides questions according to the will of the governor. Besides, +the governor has the armed force at his disposal. The chiefs of +the various departments at Manila carry on correspondence with +the directors-general of their respective departments in Madrid, +without the knowledge of the governor, a fact that increases the +confusion and disorder. The director of the mails even is at fault +in this, and renders accounts to the general post-office department +in Spain.] A sub-inspector of engineers newly created, just went to +Manila with orders to extend the fortifications of the capital to +its suburbs. The suburbs contain about fifty thousand inhabitants +scattered throughout various villages which are composed of houses +all of one story in height, which is enough to give an idea of the +extension of the imagined fortification. The amount of artillery for +garrisoning their walls, the workshop necessary to keep the artillery +in good condition, the garrison necessary for their defense, besides +the operating gangs: all were to be in the greatest magnitude, and +demand an annual expense which the treasury of the colony could not +even remotely meet. And if one reflect that the enemy can take all the +other islands and even disembark at any point of Luzon itself without +the necessity of going to Manila; that if this capital were besieged, +it would be by enemies coming by sea, and hence, being masters of the +port, they would very quickly take by hunger a place of one hundred and +fifty thousand souls, or indeed it would be surrendered by the natives, +and then the inhabitants, instead of contributing to the defense, +would open their doors to the aggressors; and that the concentration +of the forces, the property, the archives, and public and private +wealth, at one single enclosed point, is to form a target to call +the attention of exterior and interior enemies: we can do no less +than agree that the plan of extending the fortifications of Manila +to all its suburbs lacks all reasonable foundation, and that it will +be advocated only by the many people who possess houses on the shores +of the Pasig River, within cannon range, because of their fear lest, +if the events of 1762 are again repeated, all those edifices which +they were by a fatal lack of foresight permitted to raise successively +(an evil which it is now very difficult if not impossible to remedy), +would be leveled to the ground. + +[However, the present condition of the treasury will not allow this +plan to be executed. The sub-inspector of the artillery has petitioned +that all companies of the regiment be commanded by captains of the +staff. This would cause discontent among the subalterns who would +see all hope of promotion vanish forever. They can rise now only to +captain, and some of them are even now angry. The artillery corps +has always been loyal to the government and it is advisable to keep +it so. Officers might indeed be trained in the military college, +but in that case the promotion of the sergeants must be arranged +for. Complaints of the military in the Philippines mean more than they +do in Spain where the complainers are retired or exercise patience. But +this substitution may be made without consulting the governor, as it +is a matter concerning the artillery itself.] + +In the various departments of the administration there may also be +abuses to examine or correct, which will never be known or exactly +proved by chiefs resident in Madrid, because of the distance which is +so favorable to the distortion of facts. For example, the brigadier of +the navy, Don J. Ruiz de Apodaca, told me before the sub-inspector +of artillery and another chief that all the articles which were +bought by the treasury for the arsenal, were charged at a much +higher price than those for the fort, etc., and he invited me to go +to his house where he would prove it to me with the documents. On +the other side, I have heard complaints that after a contract had +been made with the treasury for cables, iron, etc., it is impossible +to get a receipt for them in the arsenal, unless for a bonus; that +quantities of timber will not be receipted for and those who have +transported it to Cavite have to sell it at any price; and that it +is bought by the very ones who have qualified it as useless; that +many houses have been built in Cavite with the timber given out as +no good, only with the object of making new bargains. Don F. Ossorio +told me in the house of the secretary of the government, and in the +presence of several respectable persons, that when he was commandant +of artillery at that place, he made all the furniture of his house +with wood which he bought in the arsenal as firewood. It is a fact +that naval construction is very dear, and that the fragata "Esperanza" +cost more than 600,000 pesos fuertes. During my stay in the islands, +there has been talk of trickery in the outlay of tobacco, besides a +defalcation in the magazines of three thousand eight hundred bundles +of leaf. It was declared that there was introduced, for example, into +the factory magazines, a quantity of bundled tobacco, in which was one +part composed of fillers [palos] which had to be burned as useless; but +if these fillers amounted to five thousand arrobas, only four thousand +were destroyed. The other thousand arrobas were taken out as leaf of +the best brand [from the magazines] and was carried to private houses +where it was manufactured as contraband. This leaf was replaced by the +fillers which ought to have been burned. For that reason, the cigars +which were sent to the tobacco shops of the provinces, and even those +which were sold to the trade, were sometimes of the worst quality; +that the boxes were short weight; that choice lots were finished with +care, and marked with a mark, and papers were given authorizing the +exchange of tobacco in the factory, by which means the associates in +these speculations could buy the poor tobacco which was given to the +public, and leave it in the national magazines, taking in place of +it, that manufactured properly and reserved. But what I know to be +a positive fact in this matter is that few or many superior or fine +boxes were made, which were obtained by favor in Manila; and that when +Don Luis Urrijola [30] left the intendancy, the tobacco had lost its +credit, and nine thousand boxes were held in the magazines, which no +merchant then or since has cared to buy. The new superintendent, Don +J. M. de la Matta took direct and positive measures by separating the +magazine from the factory, and reducing the functions of the latter +to the manufacture only, etc., whereupon the requests for the new +tobacco were renewed, so that when I left Manila, it was impossible +by a great amount to meet the demands of the trade. But had it not +been for the providential appointment to the superintendency of said +clever and zealous employe, perhaps that revenue would have entirely +ceased. This is one of the foremost resources of that country, and +the governor-general would at this moment find himself, perhaps, in +the greatest straits, and it would be impossible to prevent the evil, +although he knew its origin and progress, as he had no intervention in +the department of the treasury, which is, nevertheless, the soul of all +government. In the same place I also heard talk of the sale of posts, +of abuses in the pay of vouchers and other matters. [These things +may be misrepresentation or calumny, but they are ever increasing in +force and are being repeated with exaggeration--which tends to weaken +Spanish prestige which is the source of their moral strength.] + +I believe that all that I have observed is enough and more than enough +to show that the actual system of administration suffers from capital +defects, and to assert that, in my opinion, the organization of a +government is peremptory, which besides being a check on despotism +and a barrier to ambition, by means of correction and reform through +itself, contains the elements of unity, concord, prudence, rectitude, +power, and duration. Here follows for what it may be worth, a plan +circumscribed on fundamental bases. [31] + +[Mas's plan provides for a regency or commission of three persons, +one of whom shall be the president and exercise the powers of the +governor-general. A fourth member is to be elected as a substitute in +case of death or illness, who, until called upon to fill any vacancy, +shall travel through the provinces and study the conditions of the +country. All matters of importance, especially money matters must be +decided at a meeting of the regency, and appear by an act signed by +all three. The president shall communicate and sign all orders, and +all official communications must be sent to him. The two secretaries, +political and military, shall receive orders only from the president, +and shall attend the meetings of the regency without vote. The +president alone shall decide questions of detail and procedure and +execution, in accordance with the regulations, always expressing +whether any measure has been voted on or not. The secretary shall +send concise daily reports of all communications signed during the +day by the president, noting after each one whether it was with or +without the vote of the regency. Thus the other two regents having it +in their power to call for the rough draft of any measure, can easily +tell whether the president has overstepped his executory powers and +encroached on the powers of the entire regency. This provision will +obviate any such tendency on the president's part, and will remove +the jealousy of his two associates. The plan further provides for +a commander-in-chief of all the army; a commander of the navy; a +superintendent of the treasury; a court of justice; and a Council +of State, to be composed of the officials above mentioned, together +with the chiefs of artillery and fortification, the contador-mayor +of accounts, the contadors of the army and treasury, the archbishop +of Manila, and the provincials of the religious orders. The Council +which has no power to assemble of its own accord, shall be assembled +to consult on serious matters by the regency. At the death of the +president, the senior regent shall assume his office, the substitute +shall take a regular seat in the regency, and the Council shall appoint +a new substitute to act provisionally until the court make a regular +appointment, which shall never be the provisional appointment of +the Council. The deliberations of the Council shall be secret and +the regents shall only state the matters for discussion and then +retire. The Council may be assembled at the request of the regents +acting either singly or in accord. In impeachments of the president, +if the impeachment is sustained, the senior regent shall take his +place; if it is not sustained, the Council shall retire, but may +be assembled any number of times for the same matter. There is a +clause against lobbying in the Council to influence the votes of the +members. In case of two summons at the same time, the Council shall +obey the one emanating from the president or senior regent first.] + +The members of the regency shall be jurisconsults, owners of estates, +or military men, and the regularly-appointed president shall always be +a grandee of España. It is highly important that, at that distance, +the first chief impose some personal respect, and that even his very +lineage make him appear superior to all the others. + +[The dissension manifest in Basco's term as governor was due to +his low rank, as he was only a captain of fragata when he went to +the islands as governor, a fact that gave rise to envy. He was an +excellent governor, but the ministry that supported him did not know +the sentiments that move the human heart. Governor Lardizabal also +was of lower rank than some who served in subordinate positions in +the islands. It would be better to appoint a grandee to the post of +governor; for, having his estates in Spain, he would be more loyal. A +grandee also could better support the prestige of the government than +a poor soldier or man of no rank, as he would be more accustomed to +the duties of that life. A soldier generally desires to make money, +and will neglect his real duties. As a rule there are no battles +to be fought, while there are many duties of an administrational and +industrial character. The governor must have tact with the natives, and +look carefully after foreign, commercial, and industrial relations, +and the progress of the islands. It would be highly advisable to +choose such a man when General Alcala is relieved.] + +[For the government of the provinces, advocates shall be appointed +from Spain, and they shall remain no longer than twenty years in +the islands. There shall be three classes of provincial governments +with distinct salaries. In addition to the requisite number of +provincial governors there shall be six or eight substitutes in case +of vacancies. These shall receive a salary of fifty pesos per month, +so long as they are not called upon to fill a vacancy, and shall +meanwhile do the bidding of the regency. A vacancy in the governments +of the first class shall be filled by the regency from the governors +of the second and third classes; and one in the third class from the +substitutes. Governors may be transferred at will by the regency, +and the relative importance of the various provinces may also vary.] + +The provincial governors shall be as now political chiefs, judges of +first instance, subdelegates of the treasury for the receiving of +the direct incomes, managers of the mails, and war captains. This +centralization has many advantages, a very chief one being the +economic. The inconveniences which follow from it, will disappear +when there is one supreme authority in the islands. + +The limits of the provincial courts shall be enlarged to include +both civil and criminal cases. This will increase the power of +the subordinate authorities, and decrease the troubles of the +Audiencia. The party [in the suit] shall always have the recourse +of appeal. + +The superior court of justice shall be composed of three persons, +one of whom shall be the president. It shall try criminal, civil, +and contentious matters as well as trade questions by appeal. Appeal +may be had from its sentences to the regency, which shall appoint +three advocates to judge the case. These latter shall become joint +judges, and together with the three judges shall form the court of +appeal. This court shall be presided over by one of the regents or +by the substitute with a vote, the jurisconsult member being rightly +preferred for this if there is one in the regency. + +[The fees of the court of appeal shall be larger than those of +the Audiencia; and if the decision of the latter is found correct +the penalty shall be increased; the death sentence, however, +being abolished. A vacancy in the court of justice shall be filled +provisionally by the regency, and regular appointment shall be made +from Madrid, which must be otherwise than the provisional one made +by the regency, unless such appointment be made before the action of +the regents is known in Spain. This will tend to make the judiciary +independent of the government.] + +[In regard to the treasury employes a plan similar to that of the +provincial governors shall be adopted. The custom of sending employes +for any of the treasury posts from Madrid, many of whom are ignorant +even of bookkeeping, means death to the hopes of those already in +the islands, and breeds discontent.] + +[This plan does not involve any extra expense. The president shall +have a yearly salary of 12,000 pesos, in addition to the palace of +Manila and the house at Malacañang; the two regents shall each receive +6,000 pesos and 1,000 pesos extra for a house; and the substitute +4,000 pesos--a total of 30,000 pesos. [32] Posts of rank in Manila +have lately been increased, and now there are a lieutenant-general, +a mariscal de campo, six brigadier-generals, and many colonels and +commandants; and yet men of lower rank than all these have been +appointed governor of the islands. There is no need of so many +military titles. A brigadier-general, with 6,000 pesos' pay acts as +second commandant of the navy, which consists of but a few gunboats; +and a sub-inspector of engineers has just arrived who has only +two officers under him. Colonels can serve in place of brigadiers, +and since they receive 2,000 pesos less, this will be a saving of +at least 10,000 pesos. This added to the 7,000 pesos that can be +saved from the affairs of justice being managed by three persons, +who have no administrational duties, the 13,000 pesos saved from the +present salary of the captain-general, and the 1,000 pesos given as +a gratification to the commandant of the marine corps, will mean a +total saving of 31,000 pesos.] + +[Mas also proposes the establishment at Madrid of a ministry of the +colonies, [33] through whom all the communications of the regency shall +pass. It should have departments of government, war, navy, revenues, +and justice. It can easily turn over to other ministries what primarily +concerns them, and work in harmony with them. For instance it would +not elect bishops, but would determine their number and salary.] + +Thus far I have given minute details on the three principles which, +in my opinion, I said it was necessary to adopt as basic policies +in order to conserve the Filipinas: namely, to avoid the increase +of the white population; make of the colored population, a docile +and well-inclined mass; and reform the present administration. I +have still to add that I conceive it to be of the foremost interest +to always have in that treasury a sufficient store of spare funds +to at least cover the expenses of one year. [It will be impossible +to realize loans in case of either internal or external war. The +treasury has been continually exhausted for years, and has drawn on +the obras pías. Notes have been drawn on the Manila treasury for over +three million pesos, on which interest is being paid, and there is +no hope of paying the principal.] Such a method of doing things, is, +in my opinion, a political imprudence twice over--in the first place +because the islands are left exposed to reverses from a faction or +from a foreign enemy; in the second, because it causes certain murmurs +among their inhabitants, and a discontent difficult to conceive of +here, and which may precipitate their ruin. + + + +After having discussed the means of conserving the colony, supposing +that this is always the intention of the government, let us consider +the other extreme, taken in review, namely, to resolve to emancipate +it and prepare it for giving it liberty. + +In order to attain this end, it becomes natural, as is necessary, +to adopt a system diametrically opposed to the first. The chief +object must be that it does not cause the shedding of blood, that the +relations of friendship and of trade with España are not interrupted, +that the European Spaniards living there do not lose their chattels +or landed property, and, especially, that our race there, the +Filipino-Spaniards, preserve their estates and their rights of +naturalization, and free from the unfortunate fate that threatens +them, and which is even inevitably expected for them, if the colony +separates by force and at this moment. It is needful to encourage +public instruction in all ways possible, permit newspapers subject +to a liberal censure, to establish in Manila a college of medicine, +surgery, and pharmacy: in order to break down the barriers that divide +the races, and amalgamate them all into one. For that purpose, the +Spaniards of the country, the Chinese mestizos, and the Filipinos +shall be admitted with perfect equality as cadets of the military +corps; the personal-service tax shall be abolished, or an equal and +general tax shall be imposed, to which all the Spaniards shall be +subject. This last plan appears to me more advisable, as the poll-tax +is already established, and it is not opportune to make a trial of +new taxes when it is a question of allowing the country to be governed +by itself. Since the annual tribute is unequal, the average shall be +taken and shall be fixed, consequently, at fifteen or sixteen reals +per whole tribute, or perhaps one peso fuerte annually from each +adult tributary person. This regulation will produce an increase in +the revenue of 200,000 or 300,000 pesos fuertes, and this sum shall +be set aside to give the impulse for the amalgamation of the races, +favoring crossed marriages by means of dowries granted to the single +women in the following manner. To a Chinese mestizo woman who marries +a Filipino shall be given 100 pesos; to a Filipino woman who marries +a Chinese mestizo, 100 pesos; to a Chinese mestizo woman who marries +a Spaniard, 1,000 pesos; to a Spanish woman who marries a Chinese +mestizo, 2,000 pesos; to a Filipino woman who marries a Spaniard, +2,000 pesos; to a Spanish woman who marries a Filipino chief, 3,000 or +4,000 pesos. Some mestizo and Filipino alcaldes-mayor of the provinces +shall be appointed. It shall be ordered that when a Filipino chief +goes to the house of a Spaniard, he shall seat himself as the latter's +equal. In a word, by these and other means, the idea that they and +the Castilians are two kinds of distinct races shall be erased from +the minds of the natives, and the families shall become related by +marriage in such manner that when free of the Castilian dominion +should any exalted Filipinos try to expel or enslave our race, they +would find it so interlaced with their own that their plan would be +practically impossible. + +After some years, when this population was sufficiently trimmed +off, an assembly of deputies shall be formed from the people, in +order that they may hold sessions in Manila for two or three months +every year. In those sessions they shall discuss public affairs, +especially those treating of taxes and budgets. Then after some time +of such political education, our government may be withdrawn without +fear, fixing before doing that the kind of government that is to be +established--probably some constitutional form analogous to those of +Europe, with a royal prince at its head chosen from among our infantes. + +My task is concluded. Which of the two plans, above analyzed, it is +the most just or advisable to follow, does not concern me to recommend, +much less propose. + + + +I will add, however, a page to express my opinion as an individual of +the Spanish nation. If I had to choose I would vote for the last. I +cannot see what benefits we have had from the colonies: depopulation, +decadence in the arts, and the public debt, which come in great +measure from them. The interest of a state consists, as I see it, in +having a dense and well-educated population, and I do not speak only +of literary or political education, but of that general education, +which makes each one perfect in his trade, I mean in that education +which constitutes a cabinet-maker, a weaver, a blacksmith, the best +cabinet-maker, weaver, or blacksmith possible. The greater or less +number of machines is, in our century, an almost sure thermometer by +which to gage the power of empires. + +A colony cannot be useful except with the end of filling one of the +following three objects: to make of it a tributary country, for the +increase of the income of the mother-country (as Holland effects +by means of a compulsory and exclusive system); to erect it into a +second country, and a place of immigration of the surplus population +(such as are especially Australia, Van Diemen's land and New Zealand); +finally to procure in it, a place wherein to expend the products +of the national manufactures (as is the principal aim of the modern +colonial establishments). For the first, we have already seen that the +Filipinas are a poor resource, and will be for a long time; and I shall +not wonder that before losing them, they will cost us, on the contrary, +some millions. As for the second, they are not necessary, for we have +no surplus population to unload. And for the third they are useless, +for we ourselves have no manufactures to export. Barcelona, which has +the most factories in the Peninsula, does not have the least direct +communication with the islands. All that is taken there from Cadiz +consists of a little paper, oil, and liquors. If it were not for the +tobacco and the passengers who go and come, one or two vessels annually +would be enough to take care of all the mercantile speculations between +both countries. [Separation will not deprive Spain of a future rich +market in the Philippines, as the case of the American colonies and +England shows. Even if Spain should have a surplus population within a +century, the Philippines will also have no lack of inhabitants, and it +will be necessary for the Spaniards to emigrate to the Marianas. Mas +is not concerned by the argument that separation would mean the loss +of the Christian religion in the islands. To the argument that the +islands might fall into the hands of the British, French, Dutch, +or Chinese, he asks why Spain should become a knight errant for all +unprotected peoples. Spaniards in the islands can always return to +Spain. People assert that since Spain has spent over 300,000,000 pesos +on the islands, it is but proper that that country be reimbursed; +but although it has also spent much on the holy land, it never expects +any return therefor. Let the Filipinos pay heavier taxes under their +own government; why is that any concern? Even if ninety per cent of +the population should desire to remain under Spain's domination, that +is no sign that there may not be a better condition.] In conclusion, +if we are conserving the islands for love of the islanders, we are +losing our time, and merit, for gratitude is sometimes met with +in persons, but never can it be hoped for from peoples; and indeed +through our love, why do we fall into an anomaly, such as combining +our claim for liberty for ourselves, and our wish at the same time +to impose our law on remote peoples? Why do we deny to others the +benefit which we desire for our fatherland? By these principles of +universal morality and justice, and because I am persuaded that in the +midst of the political circumstances in which España is at present, +the condition of that colony will be neglected; that none of the +measures which I propose for its conservation (this is my conviction) +will be adopted; and that it will emancipate itself violently with the +loss of considerable property and many lives of European Spaniards and +Filipinos: I think that it would be infinitely more easy, more useful, +and more glorious for us to acquire the glory of the work by being the +first to show generosity. Hence, the foreign authors who have unjustly +printed so many calumnies against our colonial governments, authors +belonging to nations who never satisfy their hunger for colonies, +would have to say at least this once: "The Spaniards crossing new +and remote seas, extended the domain of geography by discovering +the Filipinas Islands. They found anarchy and despotism there, and +established order and justice. They encountered slavery and destroyed +it, and imposed political equality. They ruled their inhabitants with +laws, and just laws. They christianized them, civilized them, defended +them from the Chinese, from Moro pirates, and from European aggressors; +they spent much gold on them, and then gave them liberty." [34] + + + + + + + + +MATTA'S REPORT, 1843 + + +Communication from the intendant of the army and treasury [Intendente +de Ejercito y Hacienda] of the Filipinas Islands, Don Juan Manuel de +la Matta, [35] to the governor and captain-general of said islands, +Don Marcelino Oraá, in regard to the moral condition of the country +after the insurrection of a portion of the troops of the third +regiment of the line, which happened at daybreak of the twenty-first +of last January; and declaration of the chief legislative reforms, +and of the peremptory measures of precaution and security, demanded +by said condition. + + +[The recent disaffection of a portion of the Philippine troops +has caused the government to issue instructions in case of the +occurrence of any excitement, insurrection, or alarm in the city +of Manila and its environs. Matta, on receiving these instructions, +has transmitted secretly to the commander of the revenue guard [36] +(whom he has advised in case of any danger to assemble all his command +in the tobacco factory of Binondo) the portion of the instructions that +concerns him. Also the forces of the station of San Fernando are to be +embarked on the boats in the river belonging to the revenue guard, and +placed in command of the port captain. In addition to the instructions +above cited, it seems advisable, "considering the moral condition of +the country, to adopt radical measures to avoid the evil before having +to punish it, thereby to shelter the colony from new seditions, which +cannot be repeated without imminent risk of sad consequences." The +suppression of the attempts of the insurgents and the calming of +Manila was due to the loyalty of the artillerymen quartered at the +fort of Santiago and the presence of other loyal troops.] + +The sedition of Apolinario [37] in the province of Tayabas, at the +end of October, 1841, and the insurrection of part of the third +regiment of the line, which occurred in the capital at daybreak +of January 21, [38] have in little more than one year placed these +important possessions at the verge of a terrible civil war, and have +compromised great interests. + +[The discipline of the third regiment of the line before the +insurrection was poor, a fact that was attributed, among other +things, to the bad condition of the barracks. On the other hand, +a corps composed of native troops recruited from Manila and the +neighboring places remained loyal, and was used to good effect +in putting down the insurrection. In the opinion of many, native +troops officered by Spaniards (even to the sergeants and corporals) +would prevent disaffection in the future, and be much better than +Peninsular troops. In this treatise it is Matta's purpose to set forth +"the measures by which the tranquillity of these inhabitants and +the conservation of this precious portion of the Spanish monarchy, +will be conserved in the future." The moral condition of the islands +is most delicate and merits the close attention of the government, +"and most especially of your Excellency, to whom is chiefly confided +the tranquillity and conservation of these important possessions--which +now demand radical administrational and economic reforms that will +permit the development of the wealth of their fertile soil, and +the welfare of all their inhabitants; and peremptory measures of +foresight and security, which will render those advantages lasting, +keep the country loyal, and inalterably bind the union of the islands +with the mother-country." In consequence of the civil wars in Spain, +the Spanish government has been compelled to draw heavy sums against +the treasury of the Philippines, by which not only has the treasury +been exhausted but a debt of more than four million pesos incurred--a +debt that cannot be met for years, "both because the needs of the +colony are increasing annually, and because the remainder left +from the revenues, after covering the ordinary obligations of the +budgets, is almost all spent in tobacco leaf, which is sent for the +consumption of the mother-country, in accordance with the orders of +the government." In regard to the military defense of the country, +conditions are as bad. "There are but few arms and they are in poor +shape. The provinces are undefended. The army is composed almost +exclusively of natives, and they are so few in number that the army +is insufficient to defend the capital and fort of Cavite in case of +a foreign invasion." Indeed, in case of invasion it might be best to +raze the fortifications built at the expense of so great sacrifices.] + +In general there is to be seen considerable indifference, and even +disaffection, to Peninsular interests. Ideas of emancipation are +sheltered in many bosoms. Discontent swarms in all places. It is +given utterance with effrontery, and is developed and fomented +in various manners. Since the beginning of the colony, boldness, +deceit, and acrimonious speech have had a foremost seat, but greed +is today the dominant passion in the white people. Their needs are +many and there are few means of satisfying them. The hot climate +especially contributes to captiousness, and the development of vehement +passions. A multitude of jealous, complaining, and evil-intentioned men +foment the discontent, to which also pusillanimous persons contribute +by their indiscreet and excessive fear. Although by means of different +passions, there is a manifest tendency to constantly discredit the +dispositions of the government, to attack maliciously the authorities +who represent it, and to foment rivalry and discord among them, to +which both the complexity of the legislation and the burning climate +lend themselves. Thus all concur in weakening the prestige that +gives force to the government. The malcontents have the necessary +time to gather new proselytes, to consolidate a faction against the +mother-country, to prepare the will of the masses; and they await the +time and opportunity for the realization of their desires. This plan +is not in writing, but is engraved in the hearts of those who direct +it, shows itself by its works, and is the result of the tendency of +the age, of the calamitous circumstances in which the mother-country +finds itself, and of the kind of abandonment in which these important +possessions are held. + +[Notwithstanding the royal order of April 25, 1837, prohibiting +publications that might disturb public order and weaken the prestige +of the government, such publications have circulated freely in Manila, +thus increasing the discontent. In such publications the followers +of Apolinario are called innocent, and the execution of the rebels +in the camp of Alitao has been termed assassination. All things have +combined to destroy in Manila "the prestige and moral force that have +been hitherto the principal foundation of our domination."] + +[Although the provinces are not yet so greatly disaffected as is +Manila], their moral condition is very different from that when they +generally pronounced against the English in 1762 and gave the victory +to Anda. Mejico belonged to España, and its treasury contributed +to the support of the islands, which had the exclusive benefit of a +traffic which the public especially valued, and whose conservation +was inseparable from union to the mother-country. North-American +independence and the French revolution had not yet come to fix the +future destiny of all the colonial possessions of the world. [39] +The regular clergy, the principal base of our domination, then +exercised an influence over the inhabitants, which time has almost +entirely vitiated. Little care is taken for the instruction of their +members, from which it results that some of them with their gross +manners, stupid pretensions, and exactions from the chiefs of the +provinces, and the gobernadorcillos and notables of the villages, +occasion anger, quarrels, and discord which disturb the quiet of the +inhabitants, distract and embarrass the authorities, and nourish those +indiscreet and tenacious struggles in which all lose, and which have +contributed so greatly to the rapid undermining of the base of our +power in the provinces. The mistrust of a sad future leads many of +them to engage in commercial business, and conduces to avarice and +to a worldly life, so that they have lost their religious prestige, +without gaining the respect and the consideration due to eminent and +beneficent citizens. Without doubt there are respectable men among the +individuals of the regular clergy, who, superior to circumstances, +devote themselves entirely to the fulfilment of the duties of +their sacred ministry; who as true fathers of their parishioners, +look carefully after their comfort and welfare; and who, for that +reason possessing their esteem, are, consequently, one of the chief +supports of the action of the government in the villages. It is with +reference to these that I have remarked in another place that both +religion and policy recommend them. Let all be placed in the same +category, and let strict watch be put on the instruction and conduct +of the parish priests, in which, truly, there is much to correct; +and the happiness of the provinces will be secure, if, in addition, +the improvements demanded by the state of civilization and of wealth +in some of the provinces, and by the genius and circumstances of the +various races inhabiting them, and the differences of the times in +which we are living, are made in their government and administration. + +For that purpose it must be kept in mind that ambition is wont to +affect the Spanish people transplanted to these distant and hot climes; +that arrogant presumption is the distinctive characteristic of their +descendants; and we must consider duly the characteristic qualities +of the natives. + +As I have remarked to your Excellency on a different occasion, I +consider the moral picture of the Indian as very difficult to draw, +for frequently one finds united in him abjectness and ferocity, +timidity and a wonderful fearlessness and courage in danger, +and indolent laziness and slovenliness combined with industry and +avaricious self-interest. It is impossible to represent exactly under +one single stroke all the phases of their contradictory character. But +in general the Indian is pacific, superstitious, indolent, respectful +to authority, heedless, distrustful, and deceitful. Dominated by his +first sensations, and most fertile in expedients to extricate himself +from difficulties, or to carry out his design at a moment's notice, +he must be considered as a minor who follows the dictates of his +own will; and, as such, he must be directed for his own good, his +difficulties must be forestalled, corrected and punished. The natives +are also spiteful and revengeful when they believe themselves offended; +and at such times, hiding their ill-will under the veil of a deceitful +humility, they await the opportunity for satisfying it, and generally +give rein suddenly to their ill-will with perfidy and ferocity. + +[The contradictory character of the Filipino native explains the ease +with which a large province can be governed by one official with the +aid of the parish priests and two or three dozen soldiers; while, on +the other hand, the insurance companies of India refuse to stand the +risks of mutiny in a vessel employing half a dozen natives from Manila +in its crew. The natives know no middle path between abject respect +and insolent contempt, in their attitude toward the whites. In case +of a foreign or internal war the governors or alcaldes-mayor of the +provinces would be the least capable of directing affairs, because +of their ignorance of the native languages and customs, and because +they are in continual conflict with the natives over the collection of +the tribute, while at the same time they exercise a monopoly in trade.] + +For a very long period the elements of discord among the authorities +have been numerous for lack of a special and analogous legislation, +enacted with regard to the genius and circumstances of the various +peoples inhabiting these islands and the enormous distance separating +them from the mother-country. During these latter years, there have +been heaped up on this unfavorable foundation the elements emanating +from the civil war which has covered the mother-country with mourning, +and those of our own political dissensions; the development and +tendencies of the revolutionary principles common to all the colonial +possessions of the world, and which only force, supported by the +interest of self-preservation, is capable of restraining; and lastly +the impressions which it has been impossible to keep from transmission +to the natives and other races, in proportion as the knowledge of our +language becomes general to them, and as they become civilized, and +contract our tastes and necessities through the increase of commerce +and industry, and observe from anear the confusion resulting from +our lack of harmony. This is, in my opinion, the chief cancer of this +body politic, and will finish it very speedily unless your Excellency, +acting with the discretion and the energy so strongly charged in the +laws, and especially in the royal order of April 25, 1837, apply the +remedy peremptorily demanded by our situation. + +[Discord and confusion and the spirit of resistance are rife throughout +the provinces. The events of 1820 and 1823, the sedition of Apolinario +in October, 1841, and the mutiny of the troops, although different +in their origin, all exhibit the "perfidy and ferocity that always +accompany movements of color in Ultramar." The prestige of the +government is weakened, which formerly was, with religion, the chief +foundation of Spanish domination. The political factions that have +arisen in the last six years, and which are now perfectly organized, +are greatly to blame. The Peninsulars and Spanish Filipinos will +end by destroying each other if the fitting remedy is not speedily +applied. In a report made to the government after the sedition of +Apolinario had been put down, Matta said that the origin of the +confraternity consisted "only in the character of the superstition +which distinguishes these natives, who most readily believe whatever +is presented to them under the veil of religion and of the marvellous; +asserted that it became fanaticism as soon as measures were taken +against Apolinario and his confreres, and that it became a declared +sedition when the unfortunate Ortega attacked them in Ygsaban with more +valor than prudence; and that from that time presenting the appearance +of a near insurrection in the neighboring provinces, it is to be +feared that it would have been converted into a revolution capable +of compromising the conservation of these important possessions had +not the seditious ones been promptly defeated and severely punished +in Alitao." Matta's report also said that probably Apolinario's +expulsion from the hospital of San Juan de Dios in Manila, and the +measures taken against his associates, together with the suggestions +of the adherents of independence, contributed to the holding of the +novena in Tayabas in spite of the precautions taken by the military +and ecclesiastical authorities. These occurrences were principally +the effect of superstition and fanaticism; and although the ideas of +emancipation have been present in the Philippines, as in all colonies +since the Spanish-American revolution, yet ideas of emancipation +are limited in the islands to a few Spaniards who do not even form a +political party, but only a crowd of complainers who are either not +government employees, or are employees who take it ill that Spaniards +are sent from the Peninsula to fill offices that they believe belong +properly to themselves. [40] The ideas of emancipation have not yet +contaminated, nor will they in a long time contaminate the Chinese, the +Chinese mestizos, Spanish mestizos, or the natives, with the exception +of a few of the "secular clergy, as insignificant because of their +ignorance and few resources as by their lack of influence among their +countrymen." Whatever be the opinions of the influential Spaniards +born in the islands, they recognise that political upheavals would be +as fatal to themselves as to the Peninsulars. In the insurrection of +last January, among the six white officers assassinated or wounded, +three of those killed and one wounded belonged to the revolting +regiment, while the two remaining who were wounded were Europeans. The +safety of all lies in the stability of the government; but it must +be noted that events are daily more serious and that the discontent +is spreading. Important reforms are necessary, but matters must be +viewed only in the light of the public cause. "Without virtues there +can be no prestige; and, without prestige, it will also be impossible +for the lesser part to dominate the great whole." The conservation +of the islands depends on "radical reforms in their legislation, +and peremptory measures of precaution and security." Such reforms are:] + +1st. The formation of a special law for these islands, analogous +and framed with reference to the genius and circumstances of the +various peoples inhabiting them, and to their great distance from +the mother-country. [Matta believes in a law that will outline +the duties of the governor and captain-general, and place under +his general supervision real heads of the various departments of +government, who shall be responsible. A Colonial Council or Cabinet +for consultation on affairs of general public interest should also be +formed. This separation of duties into specific classes, the heads +of each department to be subordinate to the governor, in accordance +with law ii, título ii, book iii, will ensure the right use of the +governing functions. To continue so many unconnected duties under +the governor will only add to the confusion.] + +2d. The improvement of the government and administration of the +provinces by organizing them with reference to their present state +of civilization and wealth. For they cannot now, without serious +inconveniences, without transcendental harm, have the government, +judicial, military and revenue functions, together with commercial +occupations and cares, united under one person alone. [The system of +placing one person in command of all these departments is opposed to +civilization and to the mercantile spirit that has penetrated into +the provinces. Civil governors should be appointed who should have +charge of the government, administration of justice, and the promotion +of the welfare of the inhabitants. Such governors should have learned +the native tongue and should know something of the native manners and +customs. The collection of tributes should not be entrusted to them, +and their posts should be permanent, except for transfers, promotions, +and suspension by the governor and captain-general, or sentence by +the suitable tribunal. This will give such provincial chiefs the +necessary prestige, in accordance with the royal order of December +10, 1839. In the provinces, passion often takes the place of reason, +and anything at all can be justified because of the facility with +which the natives contradict and perjure themselves. The position of +the provincial chief demands that his authority be very vigorous and +held in respect. The native must be kept respectful by tact, justice, +punishment, and energy. Jueces pesquisidores [41] and judges to take +the residencia should not be sent to the provinces, as that tends to +weaken the authority of the provincial chief. Easy recourse can be +had in the provinces to the tribunals and superior authorities of the +islands, while the natives and Chinese can appeal to their protectors, +who are generally very zealous in their behalf.] + +3rd. The suppression of the colleges of Santo Tomas, San Jose, [42] +and San Juan de Letran of this capital, and the conciliar seminaries +of the bishoprics, as perpetual nurseries of corruption, laziness, or +subversive ideas, as contrary to the quiet and welfare of the villages +as to peninsular interests. [The suppression of the last three can be +made at once, and they should be replaced with schools of agriculture, +[43] arts, [44] and commerce, which will conduce to the prosperity of +the colony. As regards Santo Tomas, inasmuch as immediate suppression +would anger the Spaniards and Chinese mestizos who have control of +almost all the capital of the islands, a new plan should be adopted by +which desire to attend it would be gradually decreased until it can be +suppressed without any trouble. Sensible Spaniards generally believe +that the suppression of these institutions would conduce to the good +of the islands and of Spain. From them come the swarms of ignorant +and vicious secular priests, and the pettifogging lawyers, who stir +up so much trouble among the natives, and cause the provincial chiefs +so great inconvenience. Although not much attention is paid to this +class, they are the most vicious and worthless in the islands. Public +convenience demands the teaching of agriculture, the arts, and +commerce, instead of the theology and law to which the institutions +above mentioned are devoted. It should not be forgotten that the +Spanish-American revolutions were fostered by curas and lawyers, +who since they know both the native language and Spanish, have great +influence with the masses. The influence of the friar parish priests +is now very much weakened, for they have almost entirely abandoned the +spiritual administration to their native assistants. These assistants, +by working on the superstitious character of the natives, can rouse +them to any act that will satisfy their own desires for vengeance.] + +4th. The eternal abolition of the sentences of residencia, to which, +as governors, the captains-general of the provinces of Ultramar are +still subject. [These sentences have been of no use to the inhabitants +of the islands, but on the contrary of great harm. Appeal lies to +the Audiencia from the judicial acts of the governor, and to the +Spanish court from his purely administrational acts. The free press, +in which all things are bruited, is also of great use. Communication +with Spain is now frequent. The governor and the chief of the treasury +have been divested of almost all governmental authority through the +residencia. The judicial and contentious have invaded everything +and obscured the action of the provincial chiefs as well as the +superintendent and intendant and the governor. The chief authorities +of the islands need more energy and freer action.] + +5th. [The adoption of various other legislative and economic measures +which Matta has before proposed to the government.] + +[Capitalists and workers are needed in the islands, but, in order +to attract them, there must be governmental and administrational +reforms. The natives must be considered and various reforms made +concerning them, and the heavy tribute on the Chinese must be +reduced to not more than the twelve reals per annum for those +engaging in agriculture. The public wealth of the islands must be +increased. Whites, Chinese, and mestizos must be encouraged to go +to the islands in greater numbers, in order to correct the laziness +of the natives, and, by their wealth and prestige, to offset the +numerical majority of the natives. The increase of consumers in +the islands will give a greater outlet to Spanish products from the +Peninsula. The revenues must be increased in proportion to the public +wealth, in order to sustain the increase of necessary forces.] + +[The reforms looking toward security and conservation which are +urgently demanded by the moral condition of the country are as +follows:] + +1st. The reëstablishment of the well-organized military commission of +police, vigilance, and public safety. [This would be able to check +all sorts of disorder and conspiracy. Its members should be paid by +the state, such pay to come from the licenses issued to travelers +going to the interior, from licenses to carry arms, from fines, +and from the fourth part of all contraband goods confiscated.] + +2d. The institution of night-watches in the city and villages outside +its walls, which require them, as almost all the traders and a +considerable portion of the white population live therein. [These +night-watches would relieve the troops of patrol duty in many +instances. They would be under the alcaldes-in-ordinary, and paid +from the municipal funds.] + +3rd. The constant maintenance of a guard of at least one thousand +European troops. [These are necessary for the garrisoning of +the fort at Santiago, the palace, the Parián gate, and the other +necessary points. Matta's plan also calls for the reëstablishment +of the Spanish guard of halberdiers of one hundred men, to act as +interior palace guard, and serve as a source of supply for sergeants +for the native regiments. He recommends the establishment of Tagálog +academies in order that the Spanish officers and sergeants may learn +the native language. [45] Certain privileges are proposed for the +European soldiers, whereby their pay may be greater than that of +the native soldiers, for their necessities are greater. The term +of service in the Philippines ought to be eight years, as provided +by royal order of July 26, 1836; but those who are fit ought to be +allowed to reënlist and be transferred to the revenue guard [cuerpo +del resguardo], in order to save cost on transportation. Matta is +against having fewer Europeans in the service as has been urged by +many persons of experience in the Philippines. The system outlined by +him is not one merely of military occupation, but looks to a close +bond with the mother-country and to the industrial development of +the islands. Agriculture is the best occupation for the whites, and +is in fact the only one that will give a good comfortable living. A +greater number of Europeans will mean a greater proportion of mestizos; +[46] and if these, together with the Chinese and some of the whites, +engage in agriculture they will throw their influence on the side +of the government, because of self-interest. Exaggerated ideas are +voiced regarding the Peninsulars. They are never more dangerous +than during the first few years in the islands; but, as they become +accustomed to the climate and learn to know the inhabitants, their +ideas moderate. Consequently, for this reason, and because of the +expense, Matta is against frequent reliefs of soldiers. Vacancies in +the ranks should always be filled with recruits from Spain, and never +with natives. Discipline must not be relaxed on the voyage from Spain; +and the soldiers must be kept in good form physically. A special +boat is recommended for the transport of soldiers to and from Spain; +and cost of transport can be reduced.] + +4th. The completion of the organization of the valuable corps of +the revenue guards [cuerpo del resguardo]. [This can be done by +carrying out the royal order of October 18, 1837, and the three +parts of the regulations drawn up by Matta's predecessor June 4, +1841, the first two parts of which have already been approved. Matta +has endeavored without avail, and supported by various officials, +to gain the governor's approval to the third part. The corps of the +revenue guards is always loyal to the governor. With the increase +provided in the plan for organization, this corps will be the most +suitable to defend the country either against foreign or internal +foes. Since the immediate object of the revenue guards is the custody, +defense, and guard of the revenues, they ought to depend immediately +on the treasury department, although they may be available when the +public safety demands it for any other duty. By a decree of Matta's +predecessor, of April 25, 1839, the revenue guards of the various +departments--those of the Bay, and of the tobacco and wine and liquor +monopoly revenues--were united into one corps. This extensive corps, +which absorbs annually the sum of 191,589 pesos, has no adequate +organization, a matter to which immediate attention should be given.] + +5th and last. That the attempt be made, in a truly impartial and +foresighted system, to conciliate the minds of people, and to put +an end to that pernicious mistrust that has been introduced between +the peninsular Spaniards and the sons of the country [i.e., the +Spaniards born in the Philippines], which is so contrary to the common +interest. [The government must not be partial to any one class of men, +for each class contains good men who should be rewarded and advanced, +and bad men who should be closely watched and punished. Merit should +be the only cause for advancement. In closing Matta says that his +private life in the islands and his long public service have given him +abundant opportunity to observe and study people and conditions. This +memorial is dated Manila, February 25, 1843.] [47] + + + + + + + + +THE PHILIPPINES, 1860-1898--SOME COMMENT AND BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES + +BY JAMES A. LEROY + + +The "modern era" in the Philippine Islands--which indeed, in certain +respects, did not really begin until after the establishment of +American rule--coincides roughly with the last half of the nineteenth +century. It is impossible to assign arbitrarily any date as precisely +that of its commencement. One will be inclined to lay stress upon this +or that circumstance, and to choose this or that date, as he places +importance mostly upon matters connected with economic development, +or with social progress, or with political reforms. The truth is that +there was advancement in all these lines, as also there were hindrances +to progress in each of them, and that only by surveying it in each +of these phases of its development can we come to understand in how +considerable a degree Philippine society was remade during this period. + +Looking primarily at the expansion of trade and foreign relations, +we might date the new era in the Philippines from the opening of the +Suez Canal in 1869. Yet that event, while greatly stimulating trade and +agricultural development, did not inaugurate the modern era in that +respect. The presence of foreign traders, introducing agricultural +machinery and advancing money on crops, was the chief stimulus to +the opening of new areas of cultivation, the betterment of methods of +tilling and preparing crops for the market, and the consequent growth +of exports; indeed, one may almost say that certain American (United +States) and English trading houses nurtured the sugar and hemp crops of +the Philippines into existence. And their pioneer work in this respect +was done before the opening of the Suez Canal brought the Philippines +into vital touch with Europe by means of steam navigation--American +influence being then, in fact, already on the wane. One might more +readily, from this point of view, assign importance as a date to 1856, +when Iloilo (and soon after Sebú) was opened to foreign trade (hitherto +confined to one port of entry, Manila) and foreigners were permitted +to open business houses outside of Manila and to trade and traffic +in the provinces; or, even, to 1859, when the first steam sugar-mill +was set up in Negros island. But the entering wedge had been driven +by foreign traders into Spain's policy of exclusion even before the +cessation of the galleon-trade, the monopoly which confined Manila's +trade to a few Spaniards resident there and their backers in Mexico, +who saw in Manila only a depot of exchange for Chinese and other +Oriental commodities, and commonly despised the idea of giving any +attention to the crude products of the Philippines or endeavoring +to stimulate Philippine agriculture and exportation properly so +called. From the date when this ruinous monopoly expired with the +occupation by Mexican insurgents of Acapulco, the port to which the +galleons brought their silks, cottons, etc., attention was perforce +turned upon Philippine products as a source of trade, and Philippine +exports began to grow. [48] Spanish traders being too few, and utterly +untrained in the ways of competition, and Spanish ships being scarce in +the Orient, foreign traders and foreign ships gathered the bulk of the +business even in the face of useless and annoying restrictions, until +finally these foreigners had broken down the barriers sufficiently to +enter and take a hand in actively fostering agricultural development +in the Philippines. Hence, the opening of the Suez Canal only gave +a new turn and a great acceleration to a movement that, as regards +Philippine internal development, may more logically be dated from 1815, +the year of the last voyage of the galleon. + +In one sense, indeed, the opening of the Suez Canal tended to lessen, +relatively, the influence of foreign business and banking houses in +the development of the Philippines, in that it led to direct steamship +connection with Spain, awakening interest at home in this hitherto +neglected colony and bringing to the Philippines for the first time +in three hundred years more than a mere handful of Spaniards. After +the early adventurers and encomenderos had disappeared, the number +of Spanish civilians in private life was few indeed, numbering the +favored merchants who had shares in the galleon trade-monopoly, and an +occasional planter, descended perhaps from a family of encomenderos +rooted in the Philippines, or being an ex-army officer who had +remained in the islands. Moreover, the small army maintained in the +islands was to a considerable extent officered by Mexican creoles or +half-castes, its soldiers being mostly Filipinos and Mexicans. The list +of civilian officials was itself small, the governor (alcalde mayor) of +a province combining with his executive functions and (very commonly) +his command of the troops garrisoned therein, the powers of a superior +judge for both civil and criminal jurisdictions. The members of the +religious orders constituted the largest numerically, as well as the +most influential, element of Spaniards in the Philippines. Outside +of this class, the Spanish population of the archipelago, always +very small even in its total, was mostly gathered in a few places, +Manila containing by far the greater proportion. The general rule in +the provinces was that only one white man, the friar-curate, was to be +found in a town, a number of the smaller towns, moreover, not having +a friar-curate, but a Filipino secular priest. [49] The movement of +Spaniards to the Philippines had, indeed, begun before the opening +of the Suez Canal. The inauguration of the Spanish-Philippine Bank in +Manila in 1852 afforded evidence much less, however, of the growth of +Spanish commercial interests than of a desire to foster the growth of +such interests by supplying credit facilities more nearly up to date +than those hitherto available (at ruinous rates of interest) from the +old "pious funds" [obras pías] of various sorts, especially since the +foreign trading houses were virtually performing the functions of +banks in their ways of extending credit to agriculturists, or were +being aided by private bankers associated with them. [50] The loss +of Spain's colonies on the mainland, besides turning many loyal or +proscribed Spaniards toward Cuba and the Peninsula, had in a small +degree encouraged such emigration to the more distant Philippines, and +the history of certain of the most prominent Spanish families in the +Philippines dates from the decades immediately following the political +upheavals in Spanish-America. In the main, however, such immigrants +as came to the Philippines in this way were government employees who, +being ousted from the American continent, must rest as pensioners on +the home government if the latter could not find them places in the +Spanish Antilles or the Philippines. Such immigration, it need not +be said, was not altogether an unmixed good; and some of the various +"administrative reforms" designed for the Philippines in the fifties +and sixties showed the influence of this pressure to provide places for +officeholders with a claim on the government. The number of Spaniards +who came to the Philippines on their private initiative was very small +until direct steam communication with the Peninsula was opened, and +though it never became large during the last thirty years of Spanish +rule, Spanish commercial interests in the islands gained relatively +on those of foreigners after the opening of the canal. A direct +steamship line from Barcelona was soon established under subsidy. The +domestic shipping laws of Spain were even more fully extended over +the Philippine archipelago, and the already existing preferential +customs duties and regulations aided the growth of Spanish trade in +the islands thereafter more than they had done before. [51] + +The opening of the Suez Canal and the entry of Spaniards into the +archipelago in greater numbers marks an epoch even more in a social +way than as respects trade and commerce. And the new social era then +inaugurated was closely allied thenceforward with the discussion of +political reforms, with the essay of some such reforms on the part +of government, and finally with an organized Filipino propaganda for +greater social and political freedom. When the Spanish revolution +of 1868 occurred the Philippines were still far remote from the +mother-country, with its disturbing agitations, wherein violence and +utopianism were destined to prepare the way for the reaction; the new +governor-general sent out by the reformers who expelled Isabel II +came to Manila by the Cape of Good Hope, the old voyage which took +four months or more to bring even the news of what was going on in +Spain. The Constitution of 1868 had been proclaimed in the Philippines +but a few months back when, early in 1870, the first steamer arrived +direct from Barcelona via Suez. Thenceforward, the capital of this +remote Spanish outpost in the Orient was but one month distant from +Barcelona for mail and passengers; soon after ocean cables to the +ports of China (eventually extended to Manila) put the Philippines +in daily touch, as it were, with important occurrences in Spain. The +old régime of slumbering exclusion, already breaking down under the +influence of trade, was ended. + +The influx of Spaniards from this time forward had in it, from +the first to the last, more of "politics" than of individual +initiative. More of them came out to take governmental positions than +to engage in trade, or, less frequently, in agriculture, though many +who lost their places by changes in administration stayed in the +islands and occupied themselves in private enterprises. It was the +"reformers" of the revolutionary period in Spain who first undertook +to make a "clean sweep" of the offices in the Philippines, putting in +their friends. Administrative reforms, and to a considerable extent +a change of officials, was needed; but a more or less complicated +bureaucracy was introduced along with some laudable reforms, and there +was then inaugurated the pernicious custom of changing the lower +Spanish officials in the Philippines, as well as the higher, with +every change of administration in Spain--the "dance and counter-dance +of employees," as one writer has named it. [52] + +There is undoubtedly some truth in the charge made by the defenders +of the Philippine friars that the entry of Spaniards, especially +officeholders, during the latter part of the nineteenth century +lowered the prestige of the Spanish name in the islands, and was +a cause (the friars would make it the chief or sole cause) of the +discontent, eventually the rebellion, of the Filipinos. Administrative +reforms, some of which were highly beneficial, such as the abolition +of the tobacco monopoly [53] and the reorganization of provincial +governments, nevertheless had the chief effect, in the eyes of +the Filipinos, of raising direct taxes and of burdening them with +the support of new sets of officeholders, whose presence was not +infrequently distasteful. By far too large a proportion of these +officeholders, who came out to an unhealthful clime to take places +which were miserably paid and might be taken away from them in two +or three years, were concerned rather with the "pickings" than with +the duties attached to their offices. Some were openly contemptuous +of the natives, and thus helped to destroy the former good feeling +between the races. The grievance of the friars was, however, far +more frequently vented upon a class of Spanish officeholders quite +different from those who gained odium through tyranny or corruption +or both; the special hostility of the friars was visited upon their +countrymen who gained great popularity with the natives, because of +their more democratic beliefs and manners. Such men were commonly of +the anti-clerical party in Spain, and the bitterest element in home +politics was thus transferred to the Philippines. One may recognize +that such men were all too commonly quixotic and indiscreet, as Spanish +Liberals notoriously are. To refuse to kiss the friar's hand, and to +speak contemptuously of him and all his kind (perhaps even to stir up +scandal against them), may have seemed to such men a very natural and +proper method of asserting their political beliefs and their sense of +individual independence; yet the friars have rightly said that such +actions, and the many things growing out of them, struck a blow at +the very foundations of the structure upon which Spanish supremacy +had been built in the islands. Hence it was that not infrequently +a more far-seeing Liberal, after some years of experience in the +islands, would come out as a defender of the Philippine friars and +their views as to the political régime to be maintained there; he +would perhaps explain it by saying that he was "a Liberal at home, +but in the Philippines all ought to be Spaniards and only that." + +Even if we give full faith to the complaints of the friars' defenders +on this score--and their representations of the last half of the +nineteenth century are very one-sided--even if we admire and accept +as truthful the picture they draw of a sort of Eden in the Philippines +back of 1860, and particularly in the two preceding centuries, wherein +the humble Filipino lived practically free of taxation, exempt from +abuses from above, guileless of serious crime, and watched over by a +paternal superior who directed his steps to the eternal bliss of the +other world: still, accepting the friars' case at its face value, it is +plain that they asked for and expected the impossible when they fought +to perpetuate medieval conditions in a country opened to trade and +commerce and to modern thought and contact with the world at large. We +may doubt that ignorance was bliss even in the "good old days;" but it +was certain that those days must come to an end when the Philippines +were awakened by steamships, telegraph lines, newspapers, and books +(even though under clerical and political censorship). Clear-sighted +prophecy was that of Feodor Jagor, the German scientist who traveled +through the Philippines just before 1860, and who, though he found +much to praise in the old paternal régime, said: + +"The old situation is no longer possible of maintenance, with the +changed conditions of the present time. The colony can no longer be +shut off from the outside. Every facility in communication opens a +breach in the ancient system and necessarily leads to reforms of a +liberal character. The more that foreign capital and foreign ideas +penetrate there, the more they increase prosperity, intelligence, +and self-esteem, making the existing evils the more intolerable." [54] + +The echoes of Spanish partisanship and the talk of nineteenth-century +reforms had been heard in the Philippines before the revolution of +1868 and the opening of the Suez Canal, though it was only after these +events that the people generally began to be stirred, and then only +in the most populous districts. Because the clerical influence was +all-powerful anyway, and the whole fabric of Philippine government +reposed upon it, Carlism was felt in the islands before 1850 rather +as an influence in certain military mutinies and as a source of +strife between rival sets of civil officials than as involving +primarily a defense of ecclesiastical privilege. Foremost among the +events of the decade preceding the revolution of 1868 may be put the +return of the Jesuits to the islands in 1859 (allowed by decree of +1852) and the beginning of educational reform with the decrees of +1863 ordering the establishment of a normal school and of primary +schools under government control and supported directly by the local +governments. [55] The Jesuits had already opened a secondary school +in Manila, introducing for the first time something besides merely +theoretical instruction in natural sciences, and more modern methods +of instruction generally. Their secondary school was subsidized by +the city government of Manila, their meteorological observatory was +subsidized by the insular government, which also employed them to +inaugurate and conduct the new normal school. [56] From this time +forward the Society was both directly and indirectly a stimulus +to educational progress in the Philippines, was influential both +in diffusing more generally primary instruction and in improving +methods and widening curriculums of higher instruction. In a large +degree, the educational program remained to the end of Spanish rule +a pretentious but most superficial thing, more sounding brass than +solid achievement. But we may fairly date a new epoch in this respect +from the return of the Jesuits and the decrees of 1863. + +In another way the return of the Jesuits is to be associated with the +beginning of a new era in the islands. They were not permitted to +resume the parochial benefices which their order had held prior to +their expulsion in 1768, but were to engage in missions in Mindanao +and in educational and scientific work. Their resumption of the old +missions in Mindanao was accomplished at the expense of the order +of Recollects, which was thereupon given the provision of certain +parishes, including several wealthy parishes in Luzon, which had +for greater or less intervals been held by the more prominent and +able of the secular priests, Filipinos of pure native blood or +half-castes. [57] The cabildo of the Manila cathedral, including +the more notable of the secular priests, and the curates of the few +conspicuous parishes (in central Luzon) which it fell to the lot of +the secular clergy to occupy, had come to regard these benefices +as their property, in a "corporate" sense, as it were, quite as +each religious order felt that certain parishes, or whole provinces +"belonged" to it as an order. It is significant that here, for the +first time, one notes a feeling of solidarity among the Filipino +secular clergy--for the demonstration of which feeling one has looked +in vain, except in isolated cases, prior to that time, above all in +connection with the effort (1770) of the Spanish archbishop Santa +Justa y Rufina, to secularize the parishes and displace the friars +with native priests. Only the bolder of the Filipino priests expressed +the complaints of their fellows, even now, and open talk of a campaign +for secularization of all the parishes was scarcely heard until some +courage was infused into these few and the small party of Filipino +Liberals (mostly half-castes or Spaniards of Philippine birth) after +the revolution of 1868 and the arrival of a governor-general who +permitted public demonstrations in behalf of Liberal reforms. From +the time of the execution of three Filipino priests for alleged +complicity in the Cavite mutiny of 1872 [58]--the proofs of whose +guilt the public has not seen, if the military courts which tried them +did--there was added to the campaign for the expulsion of the friars +[59] on account of their landed estates and of their stifling of +intellectual freedom the demand that Philippine parishes be entrusted +to a native priesthood. Only since American occupation has the demand +for a national clergy found full expression, but it had for a quarter +of a century before that been an important phase of the sentiment of +nationality, a sentiment that was growing steadily, though slowly and +in the main secretly until 1896 in the Tagálog provinces and 1898 in +the archipelago at large. + +The reactionary party had partially regained the upper hand when +the mutiny occurred in Cavite in 1872. Instead of treating it as +its comparative insignificance demanded, and as prudent statecraft +would have counseled, they employed it as an excuse for vengeful +violence, as a means for resuming full control of Philippine policy, +and continued for twenty-five years thereafter to point to it as their +most useful "horrible example," as an evidence of what must follow +the inauguration, even in the slightest degree, of a liberal policy +in the government of the islands. Rightly or wrongly, the people of +that and the succeeding generation in the Tagálog provinces, and to a +less degree in the others, were schooled in racial resentment through +the belief that the native priests had been done to death, upon a +pretext of manufactured evidence, by the malevolence of the friars. The +proscription of the more conspicuous of the then small Liberal element +among the Filipinos had consequences of no less importance. Those +who were sent into exile for alleged complicity in the Cavite mutiny +were certain conspicuous half-castes and a few Spaniards of Philippine +birth or of long residence in the islands. The native element proper +was for the moment scarcely affected, even in Manila and its environs; +and no one has ever demonstrated that the few more advanced men of +Spanish blood who were moved by the revolution in Spain to take a stand +for Liberal measures in the Philippines were engaged in anything but +legitimate political discussion, or indeed that they talked of going +so far in this direction in the Philippines as had already been done +in the Peninsula. These proscriptions powerfully stimulated the idea +of a "Filipino cause." Some of the exiles escaped to Hongkong, and +there founded a Filipino colony. Others settled eventually in Europe; +the more progressive and ambitious Filipinos began sending their +sons to Madrid and Paris for education in contact with the thought +of modern Europe; and in these capitals, and later in Japan, little +Filipino colonies became centers of discussion of political reforms, +and through letters, publications in the Liberal periodicals of Spain, +and finally through their own books and periodicals of propaganda, +greatly influenced the growth of a public opinion in the backward +society of the Philippines. Spanish Masonry gradually extended the +circle of its initiations and of its secret operations (necessarily +secret to an extraordinary degree) in the islands. At first only +Spaniards had been admitted to a few lodges, then mestizos were +admitted, and finally natives of some degree of education without +regard to race. In the eighties and nineties, there seems to be +no doubt, a sort of independent Grand Lodge in Spain (asserted by +some to be of spurious Masonry), [60] managed by zealous Liberal +propagandists with whom certain of the Filipino propagandists in +Barcelona had associated themselves, directed the active organization +of lodges in as many Filipino towns as contained favorable material, +for the purpose of fostering in the islands a demand for political +reforms, of distributing the literature of the propaganda, and of +collecting funds to support the campaign in Spain for the extension of +greater social, political, and religious freedom to the Filipinos. The +Spaniards associated with this movement were for the most part men +of no standing and quixotic visionaries. Some of the Filipinos who +figured in the propaganda abroad were quite as unpractical, being +inexperienced and excitable youths, full of jealousy of each other, +while some few of them, moreover, misused the funds raised for them +by their fellows at home. The whole program for "assimilation" of the +Philippines to Spain as a province of the Peninsula, giving a distant +archipelago in the Orient with its widely different population, social +status, and economic conditions and needs, a government just like that +of European Spain was manifestly absurd and inimical to the interests +of the Filipinos themselves, not to add that its realization was an +utter impossibility. But these things should not have been allowed +to hide the justice of the demand for such reforms and privileges +as were practical and compatible with the needs and conditions of +the archipelago and its people: for a spokesman or spokesmen of the +Philippines in the Cortes at Madrid; for reforms in judiciary and +fundamental laws, not blindly copied from those promulgated in Spain +but adapted to the Philippines, or if necessary especially drafted for +them; for administrative reforms, above all as to the civil service +and looking toward an increasing recognition of the native element in +government, and toward a decentralization that should be gradually +extended as far as deeply rooted habits and long-standing customs +would permit; and, finally, for greater individual and social freedom, +both in a political and a religious sense. This last was really the +crux of the whole situation, so far as the continuance of Spanish +sovereignty should not come to depend purely on force. In the old +days it had rested on religious teachings, on the friars in fact, +with the sense of race-prestige in the background to support Spanish +authority. It was futile for the friars to cry out for a return +to the old conditions, and to denounce as dangerous any reforms +in the direction of freedom of thought or of speech; the pages of +history could not be turned back. The idea of future independence +from Spain was, to be sure, in the minds of some at least of the +Filipino propagandists. But their present campaign was for greater +political liberty, and the measures they advocated, and even the +methods they employed almost to the last, would have been legitimate +in any free country--were, in fact, legitimate even then in the +Peninsula itself, where they could advocate publicly what they +must whisper among their fellows at home. The very fact that such +organizations as these spurious Masonic lodges were under the ban, +and that even to be suspected of belonging thereto was to invite the +danger of deportation from home as a "conspirator," is sufficient +proof of the essential righteousness of the propagandists' cause. And +the campaign that began with a few Spanish-Filipinos in Manila and +gradually extended to the more independent men of education in the +provinces eventually, under half-educated leaders of the small middle +class, reached in a perverted form the masses themselves, especially in +central Luzon, and found expression at last in violence and an outburst +of race-hatred. The Katipunan was not Masonic, as the friars asserted, +only copying some of the Masonic formulæ; but it was a natural and +logical outgrowth of the smothering of what had been a legitimate +movement for the expression of Filipino reform sentiment. + +The title to these notes has indicated the year 1860 as marking in a +general way the opening of the modern era in the Philippines, without +reference to any one particular event. It is proposed to give here, +briefly, such further notes as will afford a working bibliography on +this period, while calling attention to some subjects and certain +points that are commonly disregarded in the bibliographies and +published works dealing with the last years of Spanish rule in the +Philippines. No pretense to completeness is made. The aim is to call +attention, under their proper heads, to the more distinctly useful +(or, in some cases, the more unreliable, and hence to be avoided) +titles already listed in the Philippine bibliography that is to be most +readily obtained, and which is also the most complete and satisfactory +work of this sort, viz., that published at Washington in 1903; [61] +and also to supplement these titles with others there unnoticed and +with other data not easily found. In the main, only such works are +cited as the writer has himself consulted, though in some cases the +notes or recommendations of others have been followed. + +The first essential to a study of this period is a fair and +comprehensive survey of Philippine conditions in the years just +preceding--the "old régime," as we may call it, though it was then +breaking down in certain particulars. One book alone will serve the +student's purpose in this respect; and, whatever others are read, +Jagor's [62] is indispensable. Next to him, and in addition to the +documents appearing in this series immediately preceding the present +volume may be cited the 1842 Informe of the Spanish diplomat in the +Orient, Sinibaldo de Mas, and the two-volume treatise of 1846 by the +Frenchman, J. Mallat. In certain respects, the latter has closely +followed Mas; but his is no mere translated plagiarism, like that +of John Bowring (1859), who was only a temporary visitor entertained +by Spanish officialdom in Manila. The work of Paul de la Gironière, +not his Twenty Years in the Philippines, but his more serious work +of 1855 (Aventures d'un gentilhomme breton aux îles Philippines), +merits attention as containing the observations of a cultivated +foreigner who had the advantage of years of residence in Manila and +a neighboring province. + +As was indicated at the beginning of these notes, to make a thorough +study of this period, we should consider it under three heads, +viz., economic development, social development, and political +development. Not only has there been no comprehensive review of the +period as a whole, but there exists no review of it under any one of +these heads, nor even any group of writings which can be offered to +the inquirer as covering the field of inquiry in any one of these +respects. For one thing, we must draw mainly upon Spanish sources +of information, official and private, and rare indeed is the Spanish +writer who does not either proceed regardless of the economic point +of view, or else give entirely secondary consideration to the vital +matter concerned in the economic and social progress of a people +independently of political forms and governmental influences. The +result is that Spanish writers, with them the Filipinos, and to a +great extent the writers of Philippine treatises in other languages +(drawing hastily upon Spanish sources), have over-emphasized the +political history of this Philippine period. Of course, in Spain and +the Spanish countries long-standing habit makes it the tendency to look +to government for everything, and to think of all amelioration of evils +and all incitements to progress as coming from above; while social +and economic conditions in the Philippines are such as to emphasize +this tendency, the aristocracy of wealth and education standing apart +from the masses and being, to the latter, identified in the main with +the government, with the "powers above." Nevertheless, it is to be +insisted that social and economic progress in the Philippines during +the last half-century should be considered separately and studied +more particularly than they have been thus far. + +It need hardly be said, for another thing, that it is not possible +to make an absolute separation of this subject under the headings +thus indicated. Such a thing cannot be done with any people in any +period of history. In this particular case, one need only mention the +Religious Question, with its phases as a contest between friars and +native clergy, as a demand for modern freedom of thought and speech, +and as an agrarian question, to show at once that matters social, +economic, and political are here interwoven. So also the Spanish +administration cannot be considered wholly apart from its bearing +upon economic and social as well as purely political matters. No +rigid classification is possible, but the student who approaches +the history of this period--which, apart from its own interest, has +had ever since 1898 the most vital bearing upon a public question of +great importance in the United States today--will avoid confusion by +giving consideration to these separate points of view. + + + + +SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT + +One would welcome an attempt by some one of the more ambitious +Filipino writers and students whose attention has been occupied almost +exclusively with political controversy to write the social history of +his people during this last period of Spanish rule. The materials for +such a study, so far as they now exist in print, are very fragmentary, +and the work could hardly be well done by any but a resident of the +islands during that period. But few references need be given here, +and the inquirer must derive most of his information on this line from +the numerous books and pamphlets whose object is primarily political +questions and from the economic and fiscal tables and studies which +shed light upon the general status of the people. + +General historical surveys of the period are lacking. Montero y +Vidal's three-volume history comes down only to 1873. And, though +it is the best Philippine historical work for reference purposes, +it is, after all, hardly more than a chronology of important events +and compilation of official orders and projects, touching the life +of the people scarcely at all. The same author's work of 1886, El +archipiélago filipino, merits attention also in this connection, +though primarily it sets forth facts geographical, statistical, +etc. The works of Manuel Scheidnagel deserve also citation as those of +a Spanish official of long and varied experience in the Philippines, +and as shedding, incidentally to the particular subjects which they +treat, light upon the conditions of country and people in general. [63] + +The foreigners who traveled in the Philippines during this period, and +who have written thereon, were occupied in most cases with scientific +pursuits, and have confined themselves mainly to these objects in +what they have published. The Luçon et Palaouan (Paris, 1887) of +Alfred Marche touches upon the customs and conditions of the people +in its record of six years' scientific research for the government of +France. Edmond Plauchut's contributions to the Revue des deux mondes +for 1869 and 1877, in lighter vein and perhaps not always accurate, +are, like Gironière's writings of earlier date, interesting as +presenting the observations of a resident foreigner. Among the works in +English, revised or written since 1898 to meet the demand in the United +States for information about the Philippines, Dean C. Worcester's The +Philippine Islands and their People (New York, 1898), brings us nearest +to the life of the people, particularly in the rural districts and +regions most remote from modern changing influences. The treatises of +the British engineers and experts in tropical agriculture, Frederick +H. Sawyer and John Foreman, are written by men who were, naturally, +best prepared to discuss the agricultural conditions and the material +resources in general of the Philippines. Outside of these matters, +except when reciting personal experiences and observations, both +are compilers whose reading in Philippine bibliography has been very +fragmentary. Foreman in particular has undertaken to cover the entire +field of Philippine history and politics, and has, to state the plain +truth, made a very bad botch of it. He has been so often quoted in +the United States as authority for erroneous statements that it is +time to make this fact clear. It is commonly impossible to draw the +line in what he has written between fact and gossip, conjecture, +or partial truth. His latest edition (1906) contains most of the old +glaring errors or even worse omissions, with a full measure of new +ones in his recital of the history of events since 1896. Some data +contained in Foreman's book are not readily available to an American +student outside of the large libraries; but a caution is to be uttered +against relying upon him, even for his recital of fiscal details or +for his statistical tables. Sawyer is very much more accurate and +reliable, just as he is less pretentious in the program of his work. + +In studying the social process of the Filipino people from about 1860 +onward, the subject of education holds the first place. [64] It is, +however, unnecessary to occupy ourselves here with the bibliography of +the subject, which has been very fully covered in VOLS. XLV and XLVI of +this work, the appendices to those volumes giving, in connection with +other documents in this series and with the bibliographical notes, +the most comprehensive treatment of the subject of education in the +Philippines that is yet available in any language. + +As we might expect from what has been said, the social life of the +Philippines, at least from about 1875, may best be studied in the +periodicals of Manila. In this connection it is only necessary to +mention Retana's El periodismo filipino, which covers the subject +down to 1894. La Revista de Filipinas, edited by J. F. del Pan, +1875-77, deserves special mention among the many periodicals of short +life. Among those of longer duration may be named El Diario de Manila, +and also, for the closing years of Spanish rule, La Oceanía Española, +La Voz Española and El Comercio. [65] One should also consult these +Spanish periodicals of Manila for the political history of these years, +particularly of 1896-98. It must be remarked, however, that, just as +these periodicals reflected mainly the life only of the capital, and +that quite exclusively from the Spanish viewpoint, so also they treated +political and administrative matters not merely under the constraint +of their editors' notions as to "maintaining Spanish prestige" but +also with a censorship in the background, maintained by and for the +political and the ecclesiastical authorities. [66] Down to 1898 the +Philippine law of censorship of 1857, modeled on that of Spain in the +days of Isabel II, was in force, and it covered the publication of +books and pamphlets of all sorts and of newspapers, the importation and +sale of books, pictures, etc., and the regulation of theaters. [67] +One will, therefore, look almost in vain in these periodicals prior +to 1898 for expressions of the Filipino point of view, or, till the +close of 1897, for any frank expression of liberal political views +on the part of Spanish editors. The few Manila periodicals started +by Filipinos before 1898, usually printed in Spanish and Tagálog, had +but an ephemeral existence. [68] One must look for the expression of +Filipino aims and ideas to the periodicals that have been published +since 1898; indeed, even the Spanish press of Manila has treated +Filipino questions with freedom only since American occupation began. + +For population statistics, all practical purposes are served by the +tables and comparisons of the American census of 1903. [69] Here one +may find also the best data for reconstructing before his eyes the +social and economic status of the Philippines and its inhabitants +at the close of Spanish rule. The Spanish civil census of 1896 was +unfortunately never published, nor completed in some provinces. The +civil census of 1887, though published in very condensed form, +merits attention. [70] Certain of the more notable statistical +works of private individuals will require notice in connection with +agriculture, industry, and commerce; here the student may be referred +to the Bibliography under the names of Agustín de la Cavada, J. F. del +Pan, and José Jimeno Agius. [71] + + + + +ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT + +Using, as throughout these notes, the Bibliography as a starting +point, the student is referred to the first part of that work, viz., +the List of the Library of Congress, under the headings Agriculture, +Commerce, Finance, and Political and Social Economy; and to Pardo +de Tavera's Biblioteca under the alphabetical lists of Aranceles, +Balanzas, Boletín, Estatutos, Exposición, Guía, Instrucción, Memoria, +and Reglamentos. Some of the works therein cited are obviously +indispensable, and occasional biographical and bibliographical notes +are also afforded, especially by Pardo de Tavera under the names of +authors cited, which will help in forming an opinion on the value of +their works. [72] It is in point here to designate among these works +those most useful as references in a general way upon Philippine +economic matters, to add some not listed in the Bibliography, and +to give some special references under the particular headings of +Agriculture, Commerce, and Industry. + +General.--Jagor's book, already noted as the best introduction to +the study of this period, is again mentioned here as affording data +on the tobacco monopoly (which lasted until 1884, before its affairs +were wound up), the attitude of the Spaniards toward the entry of +foreign traders, and the part these foreigners played in developing the +culture of abaká and sugar. Cavada's Historia geográfica, geológica +y estadística de Filipinas (Manila, 1876) has a good arsenal of data +drawn chiefly from the civil statistical inquiries of 1870, though, +like almost all such works in Spanish, it is without a topical index +and is put together in a disorderly manner most exasperating to the +searcher for facts or figures on a specific point of inquiry. Of the +works of José Jimeno y Agius, his Memoria sobre el desestanco del +tabaco (Binondo, 1871) and Población y comercio de las islas Filipinas +(Madrid, 1884) should be especially mentioned. Gregorio Sancianco y +Goson's El progreso de Filipinas (Madrid, 1881), especially valuable on +administrative matters just prior to the revision of the fiscal régime +in connection with the abolition of the government tobacco monopoly, +has also many data on land, commerce, and industry. Scattered through +the eight volumes of the fortnightly La Política de España en Filipinas +(Madrid, 1891-98) are useful items on Philippine currency and exchange, +trade, etc., with occasional studies of these questions and those of +Chinese and European immigration, in most cases hasty, unreliable +pieces of work, often even fantastic for their utter disregard of +the fundamentals of political economy. Foreman's book has already +been characterized; nevertheless, checked up with Sawyer's, it is of +use in this connection. Of the consular and other official reports, +those of the British Foreign Office [73] are the most valuable as a +series, though the comprehensive reports of the French Consul, M. de +Bérard, covering the years 1888-92, merit first place as individual +treatises. [74] + +The testimony and memoranda presented before the American Peace +Commission in Paris in 1898, together with some magazine articles +on the Philippines, form appendices to Senate Document no. 62, 55th +Congress, 3rd session; only the memorandum of General F. V. Greene +(pp. 404-440) and Max L. Tornow's Sketch of the Economic Conditions +of the Philippines require any consideration in this connection. [75] +The reports on civil affairs (1899-1901) of the United States military +government in the Philippines and the reports of the Philippine +Commission have much retrospective value in connection with the +previous economic and fiscal régime, and merit a general perusal in +that light; some of their more especially pertinent revelations will +be hereinafter cited. The Report on Certain Economic Questions in the +English and Dutch Colonies in the Orient (Washington, 1902) by Jeremiah +W. Jenks, special commissioner of the United States government, is +of course of comparative value primarily, but contains some general +remarks on Philippine conditions as regards currency, labor, land, and +taxation. In many respects the best economic study ever made of the +Philippines is Victor S. Clark's Labor Conditions in the Philippines +(Bulletin of the Bureau of Labor no. 58, Washington, May, 1905); though +discussing the labor question, and that under American occupation, +it has been written with a view constantly to past conditions in the +Philippines, social and political as well as economic. [76] + +Agriculture, Land, etc.--Beyond the general references given, +no special work can be recommended on the subject of Philippine +agriculture. The reports and bulletins of the present Philippine Bureau +of Agriculture (1902 to date) shed much light incidentally on past +conditions and methods of cultivation. Numerous official provisions +and some private treatises on the Spanish land laws are cited by +Pardo de Tavera; but these remained for the most part dead letters, +and for all practical purposes a little compilation in English [77] +by the present Philippine Forestry Bureau suffices. In a report on +the establishment of land banks in the Philippines, José Cabezas de +Herrera provided a historical review and abstract of landed property +in those islands. [78] In connection with his arguments in behalf of +a tax on landed property as just and as also necessary in order to +support a really efficient government in the Philippines, Sancianco +y Goson gives considerable information on conditions of land tenure +and cultivation down to 1881. [79] + +Chinese.--Discussion of the Chinese in the Philippines is related more +particularly to questions of industry and retail trade. Nevertheless, +the Spanish government maintained almost to the end the theory--it was +hardly more than an empty theory--that the Chinese immigration was +being so regulated as to constitute a stimulus to agriculture. The +subject also falls into place here because, from about 1886, when +a campaign for the exclusion of the Chinese was started by Spanish +merchants and newspaper men, a program for fostering the immigration +of Spaniards into the Philippines, and especially into the undeveloped +areas of Mindanao and Palawan, was quite regularly coupled with the +arguments for Chinese exclusion. This program was usually presented +without regard for the climatic and economic considerations involved; +that it was a "patriotic" scheme was sufficient for some of these +writers, who never stopped to ask themselves if their plans were +practical. [80] Among the pamphlets on the Chinese in the Philippines +cited by Pardo de Tavera, those of Del Pan and Jordana y Morera +deserve attention. A good survey of the subject, though not accurate +in its statistics, is G. García Ageo's Memorandum on the Chinese in +the Philippines in Report of the Philippine Commission, 1900, ii, +pp. 432-445. [81] + +Industries.--The general references already cited must be relied +upon, and it is a rather wearisome task to uncover the data for a +study of Philippine industries from statistical tables, treatises +and pamphlets which have given the subject a cursory or fragmentary +treatment. The British and French consular reports may, however, be +especially remarked. Also, the reports of the Chief of the Bureau of +Internal Revenue in the reports of the Philippine Commission since +1904, when a new scheme of internal taxation was adopted, contain +much information on industrial conditions, past and present. + + +Commerce, Internal Trade, Navigation, etc.--The Spanish statistical +annuals, tariff regulations, etc., are fully listed by the Library +of Congress and Pardo de Tavera, under the headings above noted +for general references on economic matters. The most comprehensive +survey of trade statistics, and one which almost serves the purpose +by itself alone, is contained in the Monthly Summary of Commerce of +the Philippine Islands, for December, 1904, published at Washington by +the Bureau of Insular Affairs. It presents classified tables covering +Philippine imports and exports for the fifty years 1855-1904; they +were prepared from the best available Spanish trade statistics, +reduced to terms of American gold currency at the average rate of +exchange for each year, and, so far as the writer has checked these +figures, they are the most reliable that are presented anywhere. [82] +Among the very few Spanish writings, Azcárraga's Libertad de Comercio +(Madrid, 1872) and Jimeno Agius's Población y comercio (1884) deserve +special mention, also once more the useful little book of Sancianco y +Goson, for brief but useful data for 1868-80 in its appendices. [83] +For 1891-98, La Política de España en Filipinas has some scattering +figures on trade and commerce, year by year, highly unsatisfactory for +the most part. Besides the general references upon the Spanish customs +tariffs, one will find in Senate Document no. 134, 57th Congress, +1st session (Washington, 1902), in its Exhibit D, a comparison of +the 1901 tariff with the Spanish tariff of 1891. [84] + +Currency.--The List of the Library of Congress, under the heading +Finance, cites a few Spanish and foreign treatises on Philippine +currency prior to 1898, and the earlier American official reports +on the subject. One will get more enlightenment upon the actual +conditions prevailing during the last years of Spanish rule from +memoranda and testimony in certain of these American reports than from +any of the printed sources of date earlier than 1898. Nevertheless, +the petition of the Manila Chamber of Commerce in 1895 reproduced in +La Política de España en Filipinas, v, no. 105, brings out in part the +highly unsatisfactory conditions produced by the Spanish government's +inaction and disregard of well-established economic principles. In +ibid., vii, p. 217, is given the text of the decree of April 17, 1897, +providing for the new Philippine silver peso which was beginning to +circulate in the islands when American arms intervened, and which +was proclaimed as a "settlement" of the Philippine currency evils, +yet would obviously not have proved sufficient, unsupported as it was +by provisions to sustain it in the face of the decline of silver. In +much of the loose talk about economic depression in the Philippines +since the wars of 1896-98 and 1899-1901, not enough attention has +been paid to the fact that "hard times" had really begun before, +during 1891-95 particularly, and that an unstable currency and +exchange fluctuations had then played their part in producing these +conditions; also that it was the Filipino laborer and small producer +who was especially mulcted of his due by conditions produced in part +officially and in part by governmental neglect. [85] In addition to +the American documents listed by the Library of Congress, reference +should be made, as regards currency and exchange evils before 1898, +to the survey of the subject by the Schurman Commission (Report of +the Philippine Commission, 1900, i, pp. 142-149), and the testimony +of Manila bankers and business men in the same report (vol. ii); +to magazine articles by Charles A. Conant printed as appendices in +Report of the Commission on International Exchange (Washington, 1903); +and, for a few details on previous conditions, with exchange tables, +to the reports of E. W. Kemmerer, Chief of the Division of Currency, +for 1904 and 1905. [86] + + + + +POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT--SPANISH ADMINISTRATION + +Our object here being primarily the political progress of the Filipino +people, we are concerned incidentally, as it were, with the subject +of Spanish administration considered by itself alone. A good study +of that subject, be it said, is lacking, and it may be recommended +as an opportunity worth improving. + +No one who has read even a little about the Philippines and +Filipinos need be told that it is necessary to trace the political +development of this people along two lines--unfortunately, it proved +for Spain, lines that are divergent in considerable degree. Hence +the subdivision of this heading, regarding, first, development +under Spanish Administration and then the Filipino Propaganda, +first of Reform and finally of Revolution. We are concerned in +the first instance, that is, with reforms and progress realized in +consequence of measures "from above." It has already been said that +very considerable progress had been made by the Spanish government +from about 1860 onward, and was being made when the Tagálogs +appealed to arms in 1896. [87] It is also true that the stimulus +to the Filipino reform propaganda came in considerable degree from +the movements toward betterment of the government itself, and from +the agitations for reform in Spanish home politics. [88] But the +development of the Filipino people, social, political, and economic, +proceeded at last more rapidly, or less haltingly at least, than the +progress in reform from above; the reform measures were only partial, +often unpractical or ill-adapted to Philippine conditions; abuses +of administration continued under so-called Liberal periods as well +as in times of full clerical domination; in the action and reaction +of Spanish politics, in which so often are party divisions merely +nominal and superficial, the course of progress was so irregular and +uncertain as to lend justification to the feeling of the Filipinos +that they were being treated with insincerity; and all the while, +in the midst of bitter partisan and religious controversy, conducted +on both sides by writers most rabid and intemperate, the two peoples +were constantly growing apart from each other, and were losing the +mutual good-feeling of past years which, though always superficial +in large part (as in any such domination of one race by another), +had nevertheless had a foundation of genuine esteem. + +The administrative organism.--For present purposes, it almost suffices +to refer simply to the List of the Library of Congress under the +headings Finance, Law, Political and Social Economy, and to Pardo de +Tavera's Biblioteca under the names of authors cited in the above List +and the alphabetical headings Aranceles, Balanza, Boletín, Colección, +Disposiciones, Exposición, Guía, Memoria, Proyectos (those of 1870 for +all sorts of reforms proposed after the Spanish Revolution of 1868), +and Reglamentos. The bibliography of Colonization published by the +Library of Congress, besides these special works on the Philippines, +lists also works on Spanish colonies and works on colonization in +general. [89] Of the compilations, annuals, etc., listed in these +bibliographies, special attention may be directed to those cited +under the names of Rodriguez San Pedro (to 1869) and Rodriguez Berriz +(to 1888). The most complete reference work on Spanish legislation, +executive regulations, etc., is the Colección legislativa de España, +and this work contains provisions enacted at Madrid with regard to +the Philippines down to and including 1898. For the full official +record, not only of enactments at Madrid, but of the forms under +which these were carried into effect in the islands themselves, the +Philippine governmental regulations, proclamations, etc., covering +this entire period down to the end of Spanish rule, the official +gazette of the Philippines (published under the name La Gaceta de +Manila, 1860-1898) is the final source; but the writer knows of no +full collection thereof in any library of the United States, though +there is of course one in the archives at Manila. In this connection, +it should be remarked that the governor-general had very wide, and +in some respects not very exactly prescribed, powers, one of the most +indefinite and sweeping of which was that requiring any general law or +special provision of Madrid, before it actually acquired force in the +Philippines, to be published with the governor-general's "cúmplase" +("let it go into effect"). This might be, and usually was, a mere +formality; but it was capable of being used so as at least to postpone +the execution of a legislative decree or ministerial order which was +distasteful to the chief authority of the Philippines, was violently +opposed by the influential interests in the islands (particularly the +ecclesiastical element), or, as happened in some cases, was manifestly +inapplicable to Philippine conditions. Of course, the governor-general +could readily be overruled, but even so, he could, if he desired, +secure thus a delay and possible reconsideration of the matter, +and the frequent changes of party administration in Spain encouraged +delays of this and like sorts, not a few reform decrees remaining thus +dead letters in the Philippines. It is often important, therefore, +to discover not only what was the law or regulation provided for the +Philippines in Madrid, but how it was put into force in the islands, +or if it actually took effect at all. For this purpose, the Official +Guide of the Philippines (Guía de forasteros to 1865, Guía oficial +from 1879 to 1898) supplements in some respects the official gazette +and the collection of Rodriguez Berriz. [90] + +Of surveys and summaries of Spanish administration in the Philippines +listed in the Bibliography may be mentioned Cabezas de Herrera's +Apuntes (1883) and Fabié's Ensayo histórico (Madrid, 1896), also +José de la Rosa's La administración pública en Filipinas. [91] In the +compilation by Jesuit fathers published at Washington in 1900 under +the title El archipiélago filipino, there is to be found in vol. i, +a survey of the governmental organization and the various activities +of the government both under civil and ecclesiastical control. This +is reproduced in English in vol. iv of Report of the Philippine +Commission, 1900. In vol. i of this report of the Schurman Commission +(part iv, chapter i, also pp. 122-123) is an abstract of the Spanish +system of government which, so far as the framework of that government +is concerned, serves the purpose for one who can not readily consult +the Spanish official sources from which it was drawn. [92] The major +portion of this abstract is occupied by a translation and summary of +the law reforming the Philippine local governments in 1893, commonly +called the "Maura Law" after the Colonial Minister who promulgated +it. [93] As put in force by Governor-General Blanco, however, it was +somewhat altered and revised, and many of its more promising provisions +for local autonomy had in most towns remained in reality dead letters +up to the time when revolt broke out in the Tagálog provinces in +1896; elections under the new law were suspended, and martial law +established. For this law in its original text and as promulgated +by Blanco, with regulations and model forms for the municipalities, +see Felix M. Roxas's Comentarios al reglamento provisional de las +juntas provinciales (Manila, 1894). [94] + +The administration in actual operation.--What most interests us is the +actual working of this machine in Manila, the provinces and towns, and +the works above cited will mostly provide for us only its skeleton on +paper. To make it an effective machine, we must resort to personal +testimony, occasional revelations thrown upon it by such of our +writers as looked beyond mere routine, and perhaps most of all to the +periodical literature of the times. [95] Few of the resident writers +of the old régime thought it was quite patriotic, or would serve their +personal interests, to discuss matters as frankly, for example, as +did Sancianco y Goson. [96] Testimony before the Schurman Commission +(vol. ii of its report) in 1899 brings out, here and there, revelations +as to how the former government was actually administered. [97] +Philippine government reports under American rule bring to light here +and there revelations about the former administration, especially in +fiscal and judicial matters. The customs collections benefited the +treasury far less than they should have done; perhaps fully as much +as was turned in was "absorbed" in one way and another. [98] Special +surtaxes on the customs and port dues were collected at Manila for +the improvement of its harbor from 1880 to 1898, amounting during the +last five years alone to 3,500,000 pesos. Yet the work, when at last +inaugurated, dragged along in desultory fashion and the value of the +breakwater constructed and the equipment in hand in 1898 amounted to +no more than $1,000,000 gold. [99] + +Taxation.--No one of the works on administration just cited treats +this subject in a comprehensive or satisfactory manner. The only +special study of the subject that is known to the writer is Carl +C. Plehn's Taxation in the Philippines (Political Science Quarterly, +xvi, pp. 680-711, and xvii, pp. 125-148), and the author of this +excellent survey had to drag his data forth from the official records +and compilations. This survey gives all the most necessary information +as to kinds of taxes, their incidence, and amounts; but for the most +part there lie outside of its scope the questions one wishes to have +answered as to methods of collection and the working of the fiscal +administration in general, the actual receipts and expenditures for +government purposes, and particularly the special local revenues +so far as separate from general revenues. Sancianco y Goson again +helps to fill the gap, as regards the system of taxation prevailing +before the abolition of the tobacco monopoly and the reform of the +tribute and the corvee in 1884. [100] Anyone who has had experience +with Spanish fiscal tables need not be told that they do not always +show what they appear to show. It is thus that the writers who have +reproduced in English since 1898 Philippine budgets for various years +[101] have unwittingly misled their readers as to the real cost of +government under Spain. The figures shown in these budgets were the +totals of net collections (and expenditures), for ordinary purposes, +for the central government of the islands alone. They did not include +the purely local licenses and other taxes, the surcharges on general +taxes for local government (to be expended under supervision of the +central authorities), the percentages that went to collectors, the +other fees forming part or all of the compensation of some judicial and +other officials, special surcharges for port works and other purposes +not covered in the ordinary budget, etc. Naturally, no estimate was +included of the value of the forced-labor levy. The products of +"squeeze" and "pickings," in some cases so fully established as +to be notorious, were of course not included; nevertheless, they +represented part of the cost of government to the people. Finally, +an ecclesiastical establishment, really a part of the government +itself, drew support from the people in many ways beyond what would +have been provided had not the power of government been behind it, +under a system of voluntary contributions, for instance, apart from +the communities which paid rent to the friars as landlords. [102] + +The Spanish-Philippine debt of 40,000,000 pesos, incurred in 1897 in +consequence of the insurrection, has not had sufficient notice as +being originally the cause at Paris of the payment of $20,000,000 +by the United States to Spain in connection with the clause of the +treaty providing for the cession of the Philippines. Had the islands +remained under Spanish sovereignty, they would have carried this +their first public debt, expended wholly for war purposes, part of +it being loaned for the payment of military operations in Cuba. [103] + +Legal and judicial.--In the introduction to the List of the Library of +Congress, under the heading Law, and on the pages of the List cited in +that note will be found the formal bibliography of the subject. [104] +Some references upon the actual conditions of the administration of +justice in the Philippines have already been given. For this purpose, +note also a comparison of the old criminal procedure with that +introduced in 1899 in Military Governor on Civil Affairs (Rept. War +Dept., 1900, i, part 10), pp. 17-20. The compilation of Rafael Morales +y Prieto [105] is also to be specially mentioned for the criminal +law and procedure, 1880 to 1894, and also for an appendix containing +circulars as to judicial fees of various sorts. For brief summaries in +English of the old judicial organizations see Exhibit J of the Report +of the Taft Philippine Commission, 1900, a résumé by Chief Justice +Arellano, especially for a statement as to the conflict of laws and +codes, old and new, and as to the relative degree of authority of +these codes; and Census of the Philippine Islands (Washington, 1905), +chapter on the Judiciary. [106] Justice Willard's brief Notes on the +Spanish Civil Code (Manila, 1903) also merits consultation. + +Science and material resources.--So far as the scientific work of +the period has a direct bearing upon our present purposes, it relates +rather to the section on Economic Development. But the materials are +sufficiently listed in the Bibliography, and the subject is introduced +here only to say that this is one of the lines along which, in recent +years, Spanish administration was beginning to make progress. This +was true, however, chiefly of forestry and mineralogy, and was due +almost entirely to the Spanish officials Abella y Casariego, Centeno y +García, and Sebastian Vidal y Soler, and to the stimulus of the work of +foreign investigators, especially Germans. The work of the Jesuits in +meteorology should also be specially mentioned. It will be noted that +little headway was made in the matter most vital for the Philippines, +viz., agriculture; nor can we say that even a beginning was made in +industrial chemistry or other researches calculated to foster either +incipient or undeveloped industries, while the public health service +was lamentably defective and scientific research relating thereto +amounted practically to nothing. Reference may be made to the already +large list of publications of the present Philippine government's +Bureau of Science, Board of Health, Agriculture, Forestry, and Mining +bureaus as showing the state of scientific investigation before 1898, +also for bibliographical data. [107] + +Moros and pagan peoples.--Ethnology as a science does not claim a +place here. [108] We are concerned with the Spanish advance toward +the establishment of effective control over large areas either partly +occupied or kept in a wild state of nature by backward or warring +tribes; though considerable headway was made in the last half of the +nineteenth century, Spanish sovereignty over these areas was after +all only nominal in 1898. Moreover, especially as regards the Moros, +the materials and bibliography have been presented in other volumes +of this series. [109] Attention is called to a useful compilation of +Spanish campaigns against the Moros by Lieut. W. E. W. McKinley, [110] +especially for its reviews of Malcampo's campaign of 1876, Terrero's +of 1886-87, Weyler's of 1888-91, and Blanco's of 1894-96. [111] +The American military reports from 1899 to date and reports on the +Moro Province since 1903 contain scattered data on Spanish relations +with the Moros and also the hill tribes of Mindanao. Similarly, the +reports and publications of the Philippine Ethnological Survey from +1902 to date contain references to Spanish contact in recent years +with the pagan peoples of Luzón, Mindoro, and Palawan. [112] + + + + +POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT--FILIPINO PROPAGANDA AND REVOLUTION + +Religious Question.--It need scarcely be repeated that the "friar +controversy" enters not only into this, but every phase of our +discussion, and in one form or another, is touched upon in almost +all our sources of information about the Philippines. For one thing, +however, we are not here concerned with a historical judgment upon +the work of the friars in the Philippines, though it is proper to +note that there has of late been evident a reaction in their favor +from the tendency common in the United States immediately after 1898 +to judge them wholly by recent events, and their work is now more +fairly viewed in its three-century perspective. We are, moreover, +excused from entering upon a comprehensive survey of literature about +the friars and their work in general by the fact that the subject has +been constantly to the fore throughout this series. What is needed +here is only the citation, supplementary to the Bibliography and to +the great accumulation of bibliographical references in other volumes +of this series, of certain titles easily overlooked (some because of +recent publication) and of such special passages in all these works +as elucidate particular matters of importance. + +As with all the political literature of the Philippines, 1860-1898, the +reader is to be warned against the exaggerations of both sides. Always +and everywhere, religious privileges and prejudices have aroused +discussion both violent and intolerant; and in this case we find, +on one side, a defense of religious and ecclesiastical privileges of +a medieval character and in a tone and temper inherited from those +times. Nor, even setting the purely ecclesiastical and religious +questions aside, need we expect to find in this literature any +review or discussion written in a calm and scientific spirit. Spanish +political literature is almost entirely polemic, and Spanish polemics +is sui generis. So, as with the friars and their defenders, we +find here the principles of modern political science, which appeal +properly to cool reason and the tolerance of liberalism, put forward +by Spaniards and Filipinos in a language and with a spirit that hark +back to times which we have come to think of as far remote from ours. + +The bitterness of tone, the intolerance and contempt of the Filipino, +and the flaunting of "race superiority," which came to characterize +the writings of the friars and their defenders in this period--and +which played no small part in leading the Filipinos to the brink of +separation--are shown to the full in the numbers of La Política de +España en Filipinas, 1891-98. The purpose of this organ was to combat +in Spain the program of those who would further liberalize the régime +of society and government in the Philippines. W. E. Retana, at first an +associate editor with José Feced, was after 1895 its sole editor. Just +what were the relations of the Madrid establishments of the Philippine +religious orders with the business department of this periodical is not +known; but it is admitted that "the friars helped by subscriptions" +at least, and it has generally been supposed that their connection +with it was really closer, in short that it was practically an organ +of theirs. [113] In it will be found the pro-friar and anti-liberal +account and view of events and matters current during the years of its +publication, and also various studies of earlier years written from +the same point of view. The case for the friars, especially for the +period from 1863 on, may also be found quite typically set forth in +a single volume of five hundred pages by a Philippine Augustinian, +Padre Eladio Zamora (Las corporaciones religiosas en Filipinas, +Valladolid, 1901). [114] Testimony given before Hon. William H. Taft +in 1900 regarding the friars and their part in the old régime, by the +Spanish archbishop and heads of the orders themselves as well as by +Filipinos on the other side will be found in Senate Document no. 190, +56th Congress, 2nd session. + +Friars' Estates.--The above document, which is entitled Lands +held for ecclesiastical or religious uses in the Philippines, also +gives information on the friars' rural estates. One will find no +comprehensive treatment of this subject before 1898, though it is +usually touched upon, often with great inaccuracy, in the anti-friar +pamphlets. For further data upon the subject in American official +reports, see: Report of War Department, 1900, i, part 4, pp. 502-508 +(General Otis); Report of Taft Philippine Commission, 1900, pp. 23-33; +ibid., 1903, i, Exhibits F, G, H, and I; ibid., 1904, i, Exhibit I +(Report on Examination of Titles to Friars' Estates); and Report of +Secretary of War, 1902, appendix O (Rome negotiations of 1902). [115] + +The Filipino clergy and their Cause.--Contests between secular and +regular ecclesiastics, and over the subjection of friar-curates to +ordinary jurisdiction had filled many pages of Philippine history +in every century. But, when revived under somewhat new forms from +about 1863 on, as remarked in the introduction to these notes, they +speedily assumed a new and rather distinct phase. The introduction +has noted the connection of the Jesuits' return with the encroachment +upon the Filipino secular priests and with the counter demand for the +belated subjection of the friar-parishes to the ordinary ecclesiastical +legislation and jurisdiction of the Church; under the encouragement +of the 1868 revolution in Spain, these demands grew apace from 1868 +to 1872, and became interlaced with strictly political demands, +until finally we may regard the cause of the Filipino clergy as a +part of the campaign for Filipino nationalism. The reaction of 1872 +and immediately subsequent years checked it, and it has found full +expression only since Spanish sovereignty was overthrown; but it is +best considered in its broadest scope, as a part of the Filipino +movement toward nationality, though it may have been but dimly or +not at all felt as such by some of its most active protagonists. + +For the documents showing what was the modern phase of the question +regarding parishes in its beginnings, see the pamphlets cited in the +List of the Library of Congress under Agu[a]do (p. 64), and in Pardo +de Tavera's Biblioteca under the same name and numbers 681, 873, +1,348 and 1,962. [116] We must come down to the period of American +rule for full statements of the case of the Filipino clergy against +the friars. A Spanish cleric, formerly an Augustinian friar-curate, +who was excloistered on his own petition some time before the end +of Spanish rule and has since continued to reside in the islands, +has been the chief spokesman for the Filipino clergy. He is Salvador +Pons y Torres, and, apart from frequent contributions on the subject +to the press of Manila since 1898 and various pamphlets, he undertook +to review the entire subject in his Defensa del clero filipino and +its supplement El clero secular filipino, both published at Manila +in 1900; while in connection with the visit of Delegate Chapelle, a +campaign was being conducted for fuller recognition of the Filipino +clergy by the Vatican. [117] Their claims are set forth in Memorial +elevado á Sa Santidad El Papa León XIII por el Pueblo Filipino (Manila, +1900). [118] For the full exposition of the question, one must study +it under the Filipino revolution against the United States and in +the history of the Aglipay schism since 1903. [119] + +Revolt of 1872.--That the chief victims of this episode were prominent +Filipino priests connects it rather with religio-political than with +purely political matters. The civilians who were arrested for too great +activity in agitating for political privileges were deported to Guam, +whence their escape to foreign ports was perhaps winked at, while after +a time some of them returned to the Philippines. [120] But the three +most prominent priests who were tried for complicity in the mutiny +at Cavite (Burgos, a Spanish-Filipino, Zamora, a Chinese-Filipino, +and Gomez, a pure-blooded Filipino) were condemned to death by a +very speedily summoned court-martial and were promptly executed. If +we had the record of the proofs submitted before this court-martial +(which acted very summarily and under pressure of official and other +demonstrations of indignation, not to say vindictiveness), and the +statement of its conclusions, we should be in better position to judge +whether or not a great injustice was done. But neither officially +nor semi-officially was the guilt of the condemned ever shown, and we +have either to accept very vehement and intemperate assertions about +it having been proved, or to incline to the belief that these men +were struck down by a power which stretched out its hand in the dark, +and that their death was a punishment for having ventured under the +preceding Liberal administrations to advocate the withdrawal of the +friars as curates of parishes. Certainly this became the belief of +the Filipino people, propagated from year to year by word of mouth +(acquiring thus exaggerated and distorted details as being of sober +truth), and occasionally finding expression in print. [121] The usually +sober and colorless Montero y Vidal becomes very rabid in his recital +of this episode in Philippine history and is very positive not only +in denouncing the priests who were executed and the deportees as +guilty but in proclaiming their movement as actually separatist +in character. He ridicules at length the account of the Frenchman +Plauchut in the Revue des deux mondes for 1877; but Plauchut, as well +as Montero y Vidal himself, was resident in or near Manila at the +time of these occurrences. Finally, Dr. Pardo de Tavera, a nephew of +one of the prominent Philippine Spaniards who were deported, supports +Plauchut's version and impeaches Montero y Vidal's. [122] + +Reforms and Demands for more. "Assimilation."--The reactionists had +regained the saddle in the Philippines even before the Republic in +Spain came to an end; they used the incident of the Cavite mutiny as +a "horrible example," and succeeded in repealing or nullifying all +reforms not to their taste even in educational or purely administrative +matters. Till after 1880, the "Filipino cause" was in hiding. But +meanwhile young Filipinos of wealth were going abroad for education, +and above all a new generation of Filipinos were coming from the new +middle class produced by the better industrial opportunities consequent +upon expanding trade and commerce, were breathing in popular ideas +of hostility to the friars in the more advanced rural districts, and +were exchanging ideas, and imbibing in the exchange a new sentiment +of nationality, when they met, in constantly increasing numbers, +in the colleges and normal school at Manila, Tagálogs, Ilokanos, +Bisayans and others of the hitherto separate communities. Regional +feeling was still strong, but it was beginning to break down. [123] +Those who went abroad for education soon began to propagate the idea, +already half expressed at home, that Philippine education, even with +the improvements, was still archaic and in some ways anti-modern; +and every avenue out of this condition was found to be blocked by the +friars. If in reality the men of Spanish blood (in whole or part) +who had agitated for greater political liberties during 1868-72, +had aimed at separating the Philippines from Spain--and all the +reasonable probabilities are opposed to such a belief--at any +rate, the new generation of Filipinos who took up the cause in the +eighties were ardent and, for some time at least, sincere advocates +of Spanish-Philippine union. They carried the matter, indeed, to the +extreme, in the campaign for "assimilation," which has already been +characterized as unpractical. + +Reforms of a partial nature, any statesman could predict, would breed +the demand for more. So, during the eighties, when most headway was +made in administrative and legal reforms under Liberal administrations, +we find the Filipinos formulating demands for the first time; and +it is significant that they all centered about the friars. Under the +liberal Governor-General Terrero, and with sympathetic Spaniards in +the posts of secretary of the civil administration and civil governor +of Manila, officers of some of the Tagálog towns ventured to display a +sense of independence of the traditional friar-dictatorship in local +affairs, even (in the case of Malolos and the Binondo district of +Manila) to carry contests with the friars over the personal tax-lists +before higher authority; the friars' tenants around Kalamba, where +José Rizal's parents lived, challenged the administrator of that +Dominican estate, and aired their protests publicly in 1887; [124] +and in 1888 a public demonstration against the friars, and especially +Archbishop Payo, took place in Manila, and a petition for the removal +of the friars was addressed to the Queen Regent. In 1887 these +civil authorities of Liberal affiliation had issued official orders +regarding cemeteries and church funerals, contravening, on grounds +of public health, long-standing practices of the friar-curates; and +the friars, even the archbishop, had been almost openly intransigent +about the matter, indicating the belief that they would soon upset +this régime of affairs by the exercise of their power at Madrid. The +demand on the part of some Spanish periodicals of Manila that the +proposed government trade school should not be surrendered to the +Augustinians was another indication of the current of the times. [125] + +In form at least, there was nothing in any of these demonstrations +or representations which would not be perfectly legitimate under +any free government. Yet, even before the expiration of Terrero's +term, he was prevailed upon to send home Centeno y García, the civil +governor of Manila, and the processes of law had been set in action by +judicial authority against some of the participants. And, even before +the downfall of the Liberal ministry at Madrid, the mere display of +a disposition on the part of Filipinos to speak for themselves as +a people had started the currents of reaction there. Weyler was the +successor of Terrero as Governor-General. The friars' representations +at Madrid obtained, while the Liberal minister Becerra [126] was +still in office, the omission of the provisions for civil marriage and +registration from the Civil Code as it was extended to the Philippines +in 1889. Weyler used force to quell the subsequent disturbances at +Kalamba, and among the score or so of deportees were some of Rizal's +family. [127] + +The Propagandists.--A full history of the Filipino Propaganda would +list a large number of names, both of members of the Filipino colonies +abroad and of secret agitators and wealthy contributors at home. But +the story must be developed from the various sources to be cited, and +we are concerned here with those who figured most actively by their +writings. Of these, Marcelo H. del Pilar and José Rizal were altogether +the most notable, their prominence indeed leading to the formation +of factions about them and the display of those personal jealousies +which wreck or threaten to wreck every Filipino movement. [128] It is +significant that the propagandists coming to the front in the eighties +were, one may say, genuine "sons of the people" though associated with +them were others who were sons of the half-caste aristocracy. It is +significant also, that, though these two leaders Del Pilar and Rizal, +came from Bulakan and Laguna provinces respectively, the heart of the +more advanced communities of Tagálogs around Manila, yet the islands as +a whole were beginning to be represented in the propaganda, notably by +the Lunas, from Ilokos, and Graciano Lopez Jaena, a Bisayan. The latter +started the first Filipino periodical of consequence, La Solidaridad, +and published eighteen numbers of it at Barcelona up to October 31, +1889, when Del Pilar took charge of it, transferred it to Madrid and +edited it there as a fortnightly till 1895. It was face to face with +La Política de España en Filipinas from 1891, and, as the latter +is the chief source for the pro-friar and anti-liberal side of the +controversy, so La Solidaridad, which circulated among the educated +Filipinos in many parts of the archipelago despite the censorship, +is the chief source for the writings of the propagandists. [129] + +Marcelo H. del Pilar had taken an active part in stimulating +opposition to the friar-curates, particularly in matters of local +government, in his native province (Bulakan) for some years before +the troubles of 1888. When the pendulum swung towards reaction, he +left his family (being then a man of middle-age) and went to Spain +to carry on the fight close by the center of government, support of +his campaign being pledged by a committee who undertook to secure +Filipino subscriptions, certain wealthy Filipinos being identified +privately with the cause. Del Pilar's writings show nothing of the +poet or dreamer, as do Rizal's; he had, in some degree, an "economic +mind," though entirely untrained in that line, and he was at the +outset of the active propaganda in Spain (1889) a maturer man than +Rizal. Coming straight from the problems of actual life among his +people, he stated their grievances with more practical reference to +direct and immediate remedies and with special reference to their +economic status; while Rizal, as a student in contact with modern +European life and thought, dreamed of and preached, in more general +terms but on a far wider scope, the social regeneration of his people +and the expansion of their political rights. Del Pilar would have +made a good representative of his people in the Cortes. But Rizal +was a genius, who with the touch of imagination and satire lifted the +cause of the Filipinos to a place in the thought of the world, and at +the same time, as poet and patriot combined, fired the enthusiasm of +his own people and became their idol. And, in the course of events, +it was Rizal who proved the soberer, the more mature as time went +by. He was opposed to means of violence, even to the last, and the +whole record bears out his protestations on this score; he still +looked to the future as a dreamer-patriot, but he also looked to +the present state of his people and saw that the most vital problem +was the teaching them that they must raise themselves by their own +efforts, must deserve a better destiny. Del Pilar, disappointed +by the failure to achieve greater immediate, practical results by +relying upon the progress of Liberalism in Spain, after seven years +of propaganda along these lines, was starting for Hongkong or Japan, +to conduct there a really revolutionary campaign, when death overtook +him shortly before the Tagálog revolt in 1896. He had, apparently, +lost faith in the ideals of "assimilation," of Spanish-Filipino unity, +which he had set forth in glowing phrases in 1888 and 1889. He had +also, apparently, become convinced that the upper-class Filipinos, +especially the most wealthy and prominent, were too lukewarm or too +prone to temporize for safety's sake, that the time had come to make +the cause more distinctly one of the people as a whole. He is credited +with having suggested and outlined the organization of the Katipunan, +and he seems to have concluded that it was time for the Filipinos to +resort to Cuba's example and not to political petitions only. [130] + +Even in Noli me tangere, first published under his own eye at Berlin +in 1887, when Rizal, at the age of twenty-six, was just fairly setting +out in life, there are many evidences that the author, if he meant +primarily to set before the world the backwardness of the existing +social and political régime in the Philippines, its stifling of +thought, and its many tyrannies, had also in mind to set before his +people, in some of his instantaneous photographs of Philippine life, +their own defects. In El filibusterismo (Ghent, 1891), the more +mature reformer preached yet more plainly the necessity of social +and political progress beginning from below, and not simply inspired +from above. That his people took the lessons meant for themselves +(and take them still today) less to heart than they responded to the +satire and invective directed against the form of rule imposed upon +them, was the fault not of Rizal but of human nature, prone to apply +the preacher's words only to the other fellow. + +It is a great misfortune that we have in English no real translation +of Noli me tangere, [131] and none at all of El filibusterismo, +which, as a political document, is the stronger of the two. [132] +It is no less regrettable that no biography of Rizal, tracing his +mental development and his relation with the events of 1880 to 1896, +nor even a good biographical sketch of him, has been published in the +English language. Retana's biographical and bibliographical notes, +published in a Madrid monthly, Nuestro Tiempo, 1904-06, and about to +appear in book form, are indispensable as the only comprehensive work +on the subject, and resort must be had to them for a full array of +citations, as also for many documents not available elsewhere. [133] +Rizal's edition (Paris, 1890) of Morga's Sucesos de las islas Filipinas +has already been cited in connection with that work in VOLS. XV and +XVI of this series (see note 3 of former). Its annotations are Rizal's +chief contribution to the history of his people, and it must be said +that his political feeling has crept into them to the damage often +of their scientific value. [134] There also deserve mention here +Rizal's discussion in 1889 of the future of his people, [135] and +some of Blumentritt's writings about Rizal and in his defense. [136] + +Masonry, Liga Filipina, etc.--In almost all the Spanish writings +about the Philippine insurrection, especially those by friars, we find +it ascribed primarily to "Franc-Masonería," the terrible bugaboo in +naming which the Spanish friar sums up in one word his notion of all +that is pernicious in modern life since the French Revolution, and +the chief cause of the loss by Spain of her American colonies. So, +as to the Philippines, the argument is, had not Spanish Masons been +able secretly to organize there, and to pervert the minds of certain +Filipinos, the colony would have remained in its loyalty of primitive +simplicity and happiness. The truth is that Masonry played a very +secondary part in the Filipino agitation for reform, furnishing simply +a convenient medium for conducting the propaganda. Up to the last +ten years of Spanish rule, only a few lodges of Spanish Liberals and +foreigners, into which some of the half-castes and more well-to-do +Filipinos had been admitted, had been organized in the Philippines, +and had led a rather irregular existence. At about the time when La +Solidaridad was moved to Madrid, a Spanish-Filipino Association was +there formed, in which Spaniards and Filipinos combined to agitate +for reform. This circle was virtually identified in membership with +a certain Spanish Grand Lodge (probably spurious, as regards the +legitimate parent organization of Free Masonry), which delegated +agents to conduct the active organization of new Philippine lodges +dependent upon it. It appears certain that this was done with the idea +definitely in view of being able thus to propagate liberal political +ideas and secretly distribute such literature among the Filipinos, +also the more easily to raise funds for the work. But had not such +a favorable means of conducting the propaganda been presented, it +would have been improvised. One must subject to critical examination +the Spanish writings, and will readily discover their exaggerated +deductions from such facts as came to light. [137] Interesting reading +is afforded by the confidential Royal Order of July 2, 1896, addressed +to Governor-General Blanco. [138] It approves his deportation of the +principales, or headmen, of Malolos and Taal (who had defied the +local friar-curates), and orders him to have provincial and other +officials watch and report confidentially on all secret organizations +(forbidden by the Laws of the Indies, as recited in Royal Order of +August 2, 1888) and list all persons of whom "there may be indications +enough to believe that they are affiliated," etc. (opening up thus +a splendid opportunity for private denunciations). He is to use in +this secret work only officials who are Peninsulars, never natives; +so also he is to invite coöperation of "the parish-priests who belong +to the religious orders." As to punishments, it is preferable to deport +the "suspected," fixing their residence in the Moro country or Guam, +rather than to exile them, as they would then join the colonies abroad +and conduct a propaganda. + +The project of Marcelo del Pilar for an association called Solidaridad +Filipina, [139] which came to nothing practical, and the Liga Filipina, +organized by Rizal just before his deportation from Manila in July, +1892, though in part modeled after Masonry, are among the things +which show that the Filipino propagandists did not confine their +efforts to Masonic organization. Our Spanish sources would have it +that the Liga Filipina was really separatist in character, and the +prosecution deliberately based upon this charge the demand for Rizal's +conviction in 1896. It remains unproved, and the statutes of the League +as prepared by Rizal [140] entirely support his assertion that the +design of the League was to foster coöperation among the Filipinos, +to "raise the arts and sciences," and develop Filipino commercial and +economic interests generally. The organization was a fraternal society, +in effect, the aim being to bring Filipinos closer together in a +"brotherhood," and incidentally to undermine the control of Chinese +and others upon the trade of the country--in which respects it would +likely have proved mostly utopian, even had not political conditions +and Rizal's deportation brought it virtually to naught. In the pledges +of its "brothers" to stand by each other for the "remedy of abuses" +as well as for other things, the League very plainly looked toward +unity of action in matters social and political, and no doubt the +idea of bringing his people together for such political action as +might become possible was foremost in the mind of Rizal and its other +organizers. But this does not prove the charge that it merely covered +up a plan to get arms and rise in rebellion as soon as possible. + +The Katipunan.--We come now to the parting of the ways. Just as Marcelo +del Pilar had concluded that the time was at hand for more vigorous +measures, so on the other hand some of the Filipinos of education +and social position (cautious also, in some cases, because of their +property) had become discouraged and faint-hearted. The deportation +of Rizal had its effect in 1892, and the local government reforms of +1893-94 were followed by a reactionary government in Spain which might +nullify even such concessions, in the face of the constant demand for a +check upon the half-liberal régime of Blanco. Some of the middle-class +leaders of Manila, who had been drawn into the Masonic movement, had +decided that the time had come to organize the masses, at least in the +Tagálog provinces. Andrés Bonifacio, an employe of a foreign business +house in Manila, was the leading spirit; gathering his ideas of modern +reform from reading Spanish treatises on the French Revolution, he had +imbibed also a notion that the methods of the mob in Paris were those +best adapted to secure amelioration for the Filipinos. His ideas were +those of a socialist, and of a socialist of the French Revolution type, +and he thought them applicable to an undeveloped tropical country, +where the pressure of industrial competition is almost unknown, +and where with the slightest reasonable exertion starvation may be +dismissed from thought. There was in this new propaganda an element +of resentment toward the wealthy, upper-class Filipinos, the landed +proprietors in general, as well as toward the friar landlords and +the whole fabric of government and society resting on them. Summing +up all the evidence he has been able to obtain on the Katipunan, the +writer agrees with Felipe G. Calderón, a Filipino, in his opinion +[141] that its socialistic character negatives the assertion of +the Spanish writers that the upper-class Filipinos were its real +supporters and directors, working in the background; and that, while +this propaganda from below looked to independence and the substitution +of Spanish rule by Filipino rule, yet it was without any political +program, properly speaking, and there was merely a crude idea in +the minds of the masses that they were somehow going to shake off +their masters, get rid of the whites, and divide up the big estates +not only of the friars but of Filipino landholders as well. Calderón +does not discuss the alleged plan of the Katipunan to assassinate the +whites, especially the friars. It is certain that such bloodthirsty +ideas were in the minds of some of the leaders; but the more direct +documentary evidence that has been produced on this point is perhaps +open to the suspicion that it was manufactured in connection with +the courts-martial which operated with such fury after the outbreak +of revolt in 1896. [142] After all the furore that had been made, the +actual revelations as to the importance of the organization, character +of its leaders, number of its followers, and extent of its operations, +would have made the whole affair somewhat ridiculous, had it not been +represented that behind this humble organization of perhaps forty +thousand initiates in the Tagálog towns there was a great program for +setting up an independent government and that the upper-class Filipinos +were simply using this organization as a stalking-horse. The truth +appears to be that, while these over-important Katipunan leaders +thought in terms grandiloquent, and led their humble followers in +the towns around Manila most affected by the propaganda to indulge +in futile and ridiculous dreams of a coming millennium (while some of +themselves were quarreling over the obols contributed), the movement +was mostly talk even up to the time when an Augustinian curate in +Manila made himself the hero of the rabid Spanish element in Manila by +"exposing" an organization about which the governmental authorities +had had partial information for some weeks, or even months. Bonifacio +started this separate organization in 1894, but Calderón seems to be +correct in saying that work in the towns outside of Manila was only +begun in the spring of 1896. The humble followers were assured that +the Japanese government would help them oust Spain, and that rifles +to arm the whole population would come from there. But Japan never +in the least violated her obligations to Spain, and, if the leaders +even bought any rifles in Japan, they must have been few indeed. [143] +When Bonifacio sent an emissary to Dapitan in the spring of 1896, to +propose to Rizal a plan of armed revolt and that he should escape on +a steam vessel sent for the purpose, and join in this campaign, Rizal +rejected the proposition as folly, and displayed his great impatience +with it. [144] On every ground, it seems probable that, had not Friar +Gil and the Spanish press of Manila been so insistent on giving great +publicity to some Katipunan engraving-stones, receipts for dues, etc., +kept in hiding by the affiliated employes of a Spanish newspaper, +the revolt might never have come about at all. Certainly, no date was +set for it (though various future dates had been vaguely discussed), +till the sudden arrests of August 19 and 20, 1896, sent Bonifacio and +his companions fleeing to Bulakan Province where, practically without +arms, they appealed to their fellow-workers in Bulakan, Manila, and +Cavite provinces to rise in revolt on August 30. The friars and the +rabid element of Spanish patriots were so anxious to force the hand +of Blanco, and to discredit him, that, it may be, they forced upon a +military commander whose troops were mostly in Mindanao a revolt that, +a few months further on, might either have dissipated itself or have +been avoided by an adequate show of force. [145] + +Because the friars are so much to the fore in all the discussions of +these events, we must not overlook the part played by governmental +abuses, as already described. The Civil Guard, given a more extensive +organization and scope of action during these closing years of Spanish +rule, by its abuses (committed, for the most part, by Filipinos +upon their own fellows) played probably the foremost part in drawing +odium upon the government. [146] Next to police abuses, and sometimes +allied with them, were the misuses of the powers of local government +(with which alone the great majority of the people came into direct +contact), especially in regard to the levy of forced labor; and here +again, the humble Filipino's complaint was chiefly against his own +fellow-countrymen of power and position. But, summing up all the +administrative abuses and all the evils of the government system, we +are still left a long way from agreement with the friars' assertions +that the masses loved them and that governmental abuses were the sole +cause of rebellion. [147] + +Insurrection of 1896-97.--No history from the Filipino side has +yet come to light, and there are certain points that can be cleared +up only by the frank testimony of the Filipino participants. [148] +We are dependent chiefly on Spanish sources, written in the passion +of the times by men not careful about sifting the facts. All things +considered, the two best sources, both for what they say and for +what may be inferred from them, are the so-called Memorias of two +Governor-Generals, prepared in order to defend their administrations +before the Spanish Senate and the public; that of Blanco covering the +preparatory stage and early months of the rebellion, that of Primo +de Rivera its closing stages. Between these two Governor-Generals, +the work of Monteverde y Sedano covers the military operations under +Polavieja. + +Blanco's Memoria [149] affords, unconsciously, the most severe +indictment that could be passed on Spain's fitness to hold the +Philippines (or her other colonies) in 1898. This man was really of +liberal temperament; he had formed a just conception of the real +insignificance of the Katipunan movement; and he strove, when the +crisis was prematurely forced on him, to restrain the vindictiveness +of the rabid Spanish element, and really believed in the efficacy of a +"policy of attraction." But instead of setting forth on broader grounds +the reasons for his course of action and discussing with sincerity +and frankness a policy for the Philippines, he felt compelled after +his return to Spain to bow before the howls of press and public. He +defends himself before his clerical-conservative critics not by showing +the folly of their illiberal policy for the colony, but endeavors +to prove that they were wrong in accusing him of lack of severity as +well as of energy. Thus we learn (p. 20) that, even under a Blanco, +before the outbreak came, one thousand and forty-two persons had been +deported "as Masons, disaffected and suspicious or harmful to their +towns." During the night of August 19-20, 1896, following the sensation +created by Friar Gil, there were forty-three arrests in Manila, and +three hundred more within the next week. During September, thirty +seven men taken in arms were shot, after summary trials (p. 25.) The +number of Filipinos, mostly men of some position, who had not taken +up arms, but were arrested for alleged complicity in the Katipunan, +and involved in the trials before a special court for conspiracy and +sedition, very soon mounted to five hundred, including those sent +in from the provinces. Some remained incomunicados for more than +forty days. The men executed from September 4 to December 12, 1896, +when Blanco surrendered command to Polavieja, numbered seventy-four +in all. [150] + +Evidence as to the "reign of terror" that was inaugurated in Manila may +be drawn from the Spanish treatises to be cited, wherein the episode +is recited with gusto. The Spanish press of Manila for 1896-98; +also that of Spain, especially Philippine letters of 1896-98 in La +Política de España en Filipinas, El Heraldo, El Imparcial and El +Correo of Madrid, furnished the original source of information for +these writers, and should be used to supplement this history of the +insurrection. Transcriptions of testimony taken by the special court +for sedition and conspiracy appear in Retana's Archivo, iii and iv, and +evidences that the more yielding witnesses had their phraseology, and +sometimes their statements of fact, dictated to them will be noted by +the careful reader, especially if he be familiar with Spanish methods +of judicial procedure. References to the common use of torture to +make witnesses (in some cases eager enough to insure their own safety +by "delation") sign such testimony, will be found in the Filipino +press since 1898, occasionally also in Spanish periodicals of Manila +since 1898. [151] These same sources also supplement the citations +on Rizal already given, for the story of his trial and execution, +and the increase of severity and terrorism after Polavieja took +charge. They are also, in the main, our sole, fragmentary sources +on the state of Cavite during insurgent control of the province, +the insurgent organization, etc. [152] + +The Spanish treatises and pamphlets on the insurrection are: [153] +José M. del Castillo y Jimenez, El Katipunan, ó el Filibusterismo +en Filipinas (Madrid, 1897). Partial accounts of events of 1896-97; +already characterized as rabid and cheaply patriotic. + +Ricardo Monet y Carretero, Comandancia general de Panay y +Negros. Alteraciones de órden público ... desde Octubre de 1896 á +Marzo de 1897 (Iloilo, 1897). Mostly official proclamations, etc., +by the author as commander in the western district of Bisayas, +regarding disturbances there and symptoms of a tendency to revolt. + +E. Reverter y Delmas.--Filipinos por España. Narración episódica de la +rebelión en el archipiélago Filipino (Barcelona, 1897); 2 vols. The +title of a later edition is La insurrección de Filipinas. Known to +the writer only by title. [154] + +Enrique Abella y Casariego, Filipinas (Madrid, 1898). More temperate +than most other Spanish writings. Treats of the development of the +insurrection, and of the course of events under Blanco, Polavieja, +and Primo de Rivera. + +Federico de Monteverde y Sedano, Campaña de Filipinas, La división +Lachambre. 1897 (Madrid, 1898.) Excellent account of the campaign +of Polavieja by his aide; somewhat grandiloquent, considering the +comparative insignificance of the military operations themselves. + +Les Philippines et l'insurrection de 1896-1897 (Paris, 1899); a +thirty-nine-page reprint from Revue militaire de l'étranger. + +L. Aycart--La campaña de Filipinas. Recuerdos é impresiones de +un médico militar (Madrid, 1900). Contains some charts and some +interesting data on the military campaign as such. + +Manuel Sastrón--La insurrección en Filipinas y guerra hispano-americana +(Madrid, 1901). [155] Written by a Spanish official in Manila during +this time, and composed of accounts and documents drawn mainly from +the press of Manila. It is, however, the most useful arsenal of data. + +Major John S. Mallory--The Philippine Insurrection, 1896-1898 +(appendix viii to report of Major-General G. W. Davis, commanding +the division of the Philippines, in Report of War Department, 1903, +vol. 3, pp. 399-425). A non-critical compilation, mostly from Sastrón +and Monteverde y Sedano. It is, however, by far the best review +of the 1896-97 insurrection as such that is available in English, +and is a fairly satisfactory account for one who cannot consult the +Spanish sources. Far better than Foreman's account. + +M. Arroyo Vea-Murguía--Defensa del sitio de Naic (Filipinas). Antes +y despues. (Madrid, 1904.) Of little value. + +The Pact of Biak-na-bató.--Purposely, the word "treaty," so often +applied to this transaction, is here avoided; for, apart from +technical objections to a word that applies to agreements between +sovereign powers, this was no treaty in any sense of the word. There +was some mystery surrounding the negotiations by which the insurgent +chiefs surrendered a few hundred nondescript firearms and retired to +Hongkong; untrue or half-true charges were bandied back and forth, +for political effect, in the Cortes and the press of Spain; and, +of the chief actors in the affair, only Primo de Rivera has given +his account--perhaps not with entire frankness. [156] Aguinaldo has +confined his statements on the subject to the most brief assertions +of a general nature [157] to the effect that reforms by the Spanish +government were promised. Primo de Rivera categorically denies this; +while Pedro A. Paterno, the go-between, has made no statement at +all during the nine years that have passed since the conflicting +statements have been before the public, involving directly the +question of his own veracity and good faith. Primo de Rivera is an +ex parte witness, to be sure; but his statements upon the more vital +points involved are corroborated by the very insurgent documents on +this subject captured by the American army in 1899 and now in the +War Department at Washington. [158] Primo de Rivera says that, when +Paterno presented a paper early in the negotiations containing a full +program of reforms, [159] he rejected the document absolutely, saying +he could not discuss such matters with the insurgent chiefs, that +the Spanish government would accord such reforms as it thought wise, +and he could only interpose his good offices to make recommendations +in that respect. The copy of this document now in the War Department +at Washington shows the clauses about reform to have been crossed +out. Primo de Rivera says that, from that time forth, the negotiation +was purely on the basis of a payment to the rebel chiefs to surrender +their arms, order the insurgents in the other provinces to do the same, +and emigrate to foreign parts. The only documents bearing signatures on +both sides, either of those published at Washington or elsewhere, refer +exclusively to these particular points of money, surrender of arms, +and program of emigration, though Paterno inserted in a preliminary +of the final contract on these subjects a clause as to reposing +confidence in the Spanish government to "satisfy the desire of the +Filipino people." [160] Primo de Rivera recommended the transaction to +his government for one reason, expressly because it would "discredit +[desprestigiando] the chiefs selling out and emigrating." [161] + +The first proposition of the insurgents was for 3,000,000 pesos; Primo +de Rivera acceded, under authority from Madrid, to 1,700,000 pesos; +and the total sum named in the contract signed on December 14, 1897, is +800,000 pesos. When Aguinaldo and his twenty-seven companions reached +Hongkong, they received 400,000 pesos and never any more. Though +really looking at it as a bribe, the Spanish government had consented +to the money payment ostensibly on the ground of indemnity to widows, +orphans, and those who had suffered property losses by the war, and +to provide support for the insurgent chiefs abroad. That it was the +idea of at least some of the insurgent leaders that the money was +to be divided between them is shown by a protest signed by eight +of those who remained behind to secure the surrender of more arms +than the paltry number of two hundred and twenty-five turned over at +Biak-na-bató, appealing to Primo de Rivera for "their share." [162] +The latter says he turned over to these men and Paterno the 200,000 +pesos of the second payment (the actual disposition of which is +unknown [163]); and that he turned over the remaining 200,000 pesos +to Governor-General Augustín in April, 1898, when it was evident that +peace had not been assured, after all. As to the remaining 900,000 +pesos which Primo de Rivera had authority to pay, but which did not +appear in the final contract, Primo de Rivera says (pp. 133, 134) +that Paterno omitted them from the document because they were to be +used to "indemnify those not in arms," and that he did not "think it +prudent to inquire further about them at the time." [164] + +Enough has been developed to show the demoralizing character of the +transaction. In justice to Aguinaldo and his closest associates, +it is to be said that they had kept the money practically intact, +for use in a possible future insurrection, until they spent some of +it for arms after Commodore Dewey's victory in Manila Bay. [165] +Nor are we able to say categorically that Aguinaldo and the other +leaders in Biak-na-bató were not led to believe that specific reforms +had been promised verbally by Primo de Rivera in the name of his +government; Aguinaldo and Paterno could clear up that matter, but +neither speaks. Just what informal discussion of this subject there +was between Paterno and Primo de Rivera, we do not know; but the +latter's own version will warrant the conclusion that he at least +permitted Paterno to lay before the insurgents the fact that he was +making recommendations on this line, and to hold out the expectation +of results, once he was not confronted with armed rebellion. [166] He +declares that a scheme of Philippine reform, covering also the friar +question, had been drawn up and agreed upon, when Premier Cánovas +was assassinated and the Conservatives soon after fell from power; +but he does not tell us what were the reforms as to the friars. Primo +de Rivera continued to give his ideas as to the need for reform in +provision of parishes, church fees, local government, education, civil +service, etc., after the Liberals came into power. Yet, though stating +the case against the friars in strong terms, virtually confirming every +charge made against them, he appears to have advised only a curtailment +of their power and a more rigid discipline, not their elimination as +parish-priests, which was the aim of most of the insurgents. [167] +When a Spanish editor in Manila began writing in February, 1898, of +political reforms in the direction of "autonomy," without submitting +his articles to previous censure, Primo de Rivera suspended publication +of the periodical. [168] That Spanish circles in Manila as well as +the Filipinos were in expectation, in late 1897 and early 1898, of +the announcement of some comprehensive scheme of Philippine reform, is +apparent from the press of the time. [169] The Liberal press of Madrid +and Barcelona was also actively agitating reform for the Philippines, +and Spanish Liberals and Filipinos addressed petitions on the subject +to the government at Madrid. [170] The general belief at Manila was +also that some sort of promise of reforms had passed at Biak-na-bató, +even that it included the gradual withdrawal of the friars. [171] That +the religious orders themselves knew that they were the storm-center +is sufficiently shown by the Memorial of April 21, 1898, reproduced +post, pp. 227-286. [172] + +The Question of Independence.--We have, on one hand, the assertions +of rabid Spanish writers that separation from Spain was throughout +the real aim of the Filipino leaders, who merely covered it under +a plea for reforms (the friars say, under a false assertion that +the Filipinos were opposed to them). We have, in direct opposition, +the assertions of Spanish Liberals and of some Filipinos that the +movement was inspired by genuine loyalty to Spain, and was only a +protest and appeal for reforms even in its last phase as an outbreak +in arms, 1896-98. This view was accepted by the Schurman Commission +in 1899. Again, during the years from 1898 to date, when demands +for independence were made upon the United States, the more radical +Filipino leaders, first in insurrection, now in political agitation, +have asserted that complete political independence was definitely the +aim in 1896-97, and was the ideal in mind for some years before. Thus +they would corroborate the assertions of the more rabid Spaniards who +claimed that Rizal and all his co-workers, both in the aristocratic +ranks above and in the Katipunan below, were hypocritical in their +protestations of loyalty to Spain. Where does the truth lie? + +The fact is, one can sustain any view he prefers to take of +this subject, by detached citations from documents of one sort or +another. The real answer is to be found only by a careful survey of all +the evidence as to Filipino activities and aspirations. We note that, +when Rizal discusses the possibility of future independence for his +people, he sets it as a century hence. We need not take him literally, +nor, on the other hand, need we say his title was merely hypocritical, +and he was insidiously inciting his people to think of immediate +independence; we shall be fairer to survey his writings as a whole, +probably reaching the conclusion that the independence of his people +was constantly in his mind, but sober reason warned him to restrain +his and their youthful impatience on the subject. In discussing +Del Pilar and Rizal, it has already been pointed out how the former +changed places with the younger man and became the more impatient of +the two; and the connection of this growing impatience with the more +violent nature of the Katipunan has been shown. So it is not enough to +cite detached passages from Rizal or Del Pilar, for example, to prove +either that they were just filibusters under cover of protestations or, +on the contrary, that they never dreamed of independence. [173] The +propagandists felt differently at different times, under the pressure +sometimes of self-interest, influenced sometimes by momentary incidents +or passions. It is plain that, with some of them at least, a new tone +had been adopted toward Spain when, at the beginning of 1896, the +manifesto of the Katipunan organ to the Filipinos bitterly exclaimed: + +"At the end of three hundred years of slavery ..., our people have +done nothing but lament and ask a little consideration and a little +clemency; but they have answered our lamentations with exile and +imprisonment. For seven years in succession La Solidaridad voluntarily +lent itself and exhausted its powers to obtain, not all that they +ought to concede, but only just what of right is owing to us. And +what has been the fruit of our effort unto fatigue and of our loyal +faith? Deception, ridicule, death, and bitterness. + +"Today, tired of lifting our hands in continual lamentation, we are +at last ourselves; little by little our voice has lost its tone of +melancholy gained in continual complaint; now ... we raise our heads, +so long accustomed to being bowed, and imbibe strength from the firm +hope we possess by reason of the grandeur of our aim.... We can tell +them bluntly that the phrase 'Spain the Mother' is nothing but just +a bit of adulation, that it is not to be compared with the piece of +cloth or rag by which it is enchained, which trails on the ground; +that there is no such mother and no such child; that there is only +a race that robs, a people that fattens on what is not its own, and +a people that is weary of going, not merely ungorged, but unfed; +that we have to put reliance in nothing but our own powers and in +our defense of our own selves." + +Rizal put in the mouth of the old Filipino priest in El Filibusterismo +(1891) the view of the thoughtful Filipino patriot, considering +the social defects of his people: "We owe the ill that afflicts us +to ourselves; let us not put the blame on anyone else. If Spain saw +that we were less complaisant in the face of tyranny, and readier to +strive and suffer for our rights, Spain would be the first to give +us liberty.... But so long as the Filipino people has not sufficient +vigor to proclaim, with erect front and bared breast, its right to +the social life and to make that right good by sacrifice, with its +own blood; so long as we see that our countrymen, though hearing in +their private life the voice of shame and the clamors of conscience, +yet in public life hold their peace or join the chorus about him who +commits abuses and ridicules the victim of the abuse; so long as we see +them shut themselves up to their own egotism and praise with forced +smile the most iniquitous acts, while their eyes are begging a part +of the booty of such acts, why should liberty be given to them? With +Spain or without Spain, they would be always the same, and perhaps, +perhaps, they would be worse. Of what use would be independence if +the slaves of today would be the tyrants of tomorrow? And they would +be so without doubt, for he loves tyranny who submits to it." + +Doubtless Rizal felt that his people had made progress toward social +independence in the five years that followed, till the Katipunan +outbreak came; but he condemned that beforehand as a foolish venture, +and reprobated it as harmful to Filipino interests before his +death. Though in a sense this was a movement for independence, we +have seen that only vague ideas of a political organization were in +the minds of the leaders, while the deluded masses who followed them +with, for the most part, bolos only, had virtually no idea of such an +organization, except that Filipinos should succeed Spaniards. [174] +The prematurely commenced revolt, as it gained at the outset, some +defensive advantages over the bad military organization of Spain, +developed ideas and aspirations quite beyond the early crude dreams +of its leaders; they were really surprised at their own (temporary) +success, and emboldened thereby. [175] Even after the loss of Cavite, +when the revolutionists were hemmed in and hiding in the Bulakan +Mountains, they put forward, in an "Assembly" at Biak-na-bató, a more +comprehensive and ambitious political program (a Filipino Republic, +in short) than had ever before been drawn up by Filipinos. [176] +We know also that no small part was played by the "reign of terror" +in turning even the moderate Filipinos against Spanish rule as an +entirety. We should be far from the truth if we should say that +this Tagálog rebellion, and the demonstrations of sympathy with +it in other provinces, brought the Filipino people together in a +unanimous sentiment for independence. That it did greatly stimulate +this feeling is certain. He would be a bold man who would now assert +that independence was not the common aspiration, when outside pressure +suddenly pricked the bubble of Spanish authority in 1898 and released +the people for the free expression of their sentiments. But he is +equally bold who asserts that the Filipino people had been suddenly +and miraculously transformed into a real nation by these events, or +that the Aguinaldo government had the support of or really represented +the whole country, above all of the most sober-thinking Filipinos. + + + + + + + + +EVENTS IN FILIPINAS, 1841-1872 + + +This period, opening with the coming of Governor Marcelino de Oraá +Lecumberri, and closing during the governorship of Rafael de Izquierdo +y Gutierrez, is one of the most important and critical in the history +of the Philippines. It witnessed the insurrection of Tayabas (1841) +under the leadership of Apolinario de la Cruz (q.v., ante, pp. 92, +93); the use of steamships against the Moros (1848), whereby the +Spaniards gained great advantage; approval for the Spanish-Filipino +bank, August 1, 1851, with a capital stock of 400,000 pesos, and +2,000 shares of 200 pesos each, of which 1,000 shares were to be +acquired by the obras pías and 1,000 were open to the public (the +bank beginning operation in 1852); the reinstatement of the Jesuits +(October 19, 1852; although the first band did not arrive until the +middle of 1859), whereby education was given a slightly freer movement; +[177] the famous educational laws of December 20, 1863, and other +educational orders, decrees, and regulations (q.v., VOL. XLVI); the +Spanish revolution of 1867-68, and the new constitution; the opening +of the Suez Canal (November 17, 1869), by which communication with the +mother-country was rendered quicker and easier, and liberalism given +more decided tendencies; and lastly, the Cavite insurrection of 1872, +which ended with the execution of three native secular priests. During +this period there were in all fourteen regularly-appointed governors, +and eleven provisional terms, in the latter, Ramon Montero y Blandino +serving three times, and Joaquin del Solar twice--the average of each +term (regular and provisional) being slightly over one year. This was +comparatively a period of newspaper activity, about thirty newspapers +being founded during these years. The entire period may be called +the period of adolescence. + +Conditions in Spain were to a certain extent reflected in the +islands. Confusion and uncertainty in the Peninsula had their +counterpart in the colony. The administrational experiments of the +Madrid officials extended to the government of the colonies, and +there were many changes which vitally affected the Philippines. Some +of the new laws were good; others show a greater or less ignorance +regarding the islands. Throughout, however, the prevailing tone is +one of greater liberalism. + +To be classed under foreign politics of the period were the laws +regulating foreign commerce; the slight contact with the Dutch who +appeared to be making overtures for a settlement in the Southern +Islands; some negotiations with the celebrated Rajah Brooke; and the +campaign of Cochinchina, in which the Spaniards aided the French. + +Local politics show great activity. Provincial limits were changed and +fixed, and new provinces were created. Special subordinate governments +were created for the Visayan Islands and for the Marianas. Police +regulations were made, and bodies of police created. There were +city improvements in Manila. Reforms were instituted in the various +provinces in regard to the alcaldes-mayor. Various departments of +the government were also reorganized. In 1867-68 new regulations were +adopted for the management of the Audiencia of Manila. + +In nothing is the upward trend more strongly marked than in economic +lines. The measures passed were often groping, it is true, but yet +on the whole looked toward the greater light. There was an attempt +to exploit the coal mines of the islands, and mining regulations +were made. Agriculture received attention (see post, appendix on +agriculture). Commerce was given greater concessions, and the customs +duties were revised. Provincial chiefs were forbidden to engage in +trade. Various acts of legislation regarding monetary conditions, +the establishment of a mint, and the coinage of special money for +the Philippines attest the greater commercial activity. There was +considerable legislation in regard to tobacco. The many laws regarding +the Chinese have a purely economic basis. Topographical maps which +were ordered made and the new roads ordered constructed indicate a +desire to know the country and its conditions better. Exhibits of +Philippine products were made at the world's fair in London in 1851 +and 1862. Telegraphic regulations were made in 1869. + +For religious and educational influences of this period see the +religious appendix in our VOL. XXVIII, and the educational appendices +in VOLS. XLV and XLVI. An important order of January 15, 1849, forbade +the religious orders to alienate their property. A decree of June 20, +1849 gave the Recollects charge of the island of Negros, and they did +considerable work there and developed the island somewhat, although +they but built on previous efforts, and did not accomplish as much +as has been claimed. The reëstablished Society of Jesus was given +control of the mission work of Mindanao in 1861. The suppression of +the house of St. John of God in Manila and the establishment of the +Sisters of Charity were asked from the pope in 1852, at the time +of the reëstablishment of the Jesuits. The conciliar seminaries +were given into charge of the Fathers of St. Vincent de Paul on +their establishment in the islands. The Franciscans were allowed +to maintain a college in Spain for the training of missionaries for +the Philippines. + +The history of the development of the people during this period has +been greatly neglected. There was a decided advance educationally +and politically, as well as a growing discontent, that were due to +a complexity of factors, among which were the easier communication +with Spain, the greater number of Spaniards in the islands, and the +spread of books and papers through the capital and provinces. On +the side of the government there were expeditions into the north +country against the Igorots and other tribes. In the south there were +almost continual campaigns against the Moros, over whom some important +victories were obtained. The usual decrees ordering good treatment of +the natives were issued, with as little effect as of old. The liberal +policy that the government was inclined to adopt toward the natives +is evidenced by the efforts made to secure educational laws, and by +the regulations of 1863. By an order of October 31, 1844, a casino +was opened for the natives in Manila. Another order prohibited the +smoking of opium by Chinese and natives. Discontent in the native +body is seen in the revolts of native soldiers and police. It was +forbidden to carry arms without a license. The lottery established +in 1850 had a bad influence. The vaccination board established at +Manila and the leper hospital established in 1850 at Cebú, were on +the other hand good measures, but were not welcomed so heartily as the +lottery. The surreptitious introduction and circulation of books and +plays caused the government in 1854 to attempt to regulate the book +trade. Government pawnshops were opened in 1860 in Manila. Pensions +were granted to the parents of those natives who were killed in the +service of the country. The earthquake of 1863 proved especially +disastrous, and the cholera epidemic of the same year, while not +so severe as that of 1820, decimated the people considerably. The +Moret decrees (see VOL. XLV, pp. 163-165) were distinctly in favor +of the natives, but were never carried out. The discontent ever +grew more pronounced, and at last broke out actively in the Cavite +rebellion, which was instigated and promoted by the secular clergy +and others. There has been no attempt to do more than point out +general tendencies during this period, and to note some of the most +important matters. For a good working bibliography, which will be +found to cover this period see Mr. LeRoy's article The Philippines, +1860-1898--Some comment and bibliographical notes, which immediately +precedes the present document. + + + + + + + + +CONSTITUTION OF THE LIGA FILIPINA + + +Ends: + +1. To unite the whole archipelago into one compact, vigorous, + and homogeneous body. +2. Mutual protection in every want and necessity. +3. Defense against all violence and injustice. +4. Encouragement of instruction, agriculture, and commerce. +5. Study and application of reforms. + +Motto: Unus instar omnium [i.e., one like all.] + +Countersign: ... + + +Form: + +1. To set these ends in operation, a Popular Council, a Provincial +Council, and a Supreme Council shall be created. + +2. Each Council shall consist of a Chief, a Fiscal, a Treasurer, +a Secretary, and members. + +3. The Supreme Council shall consist of the Provincial Chiefs, just +as the Provincial Council shall be composed of the Popular Chiefs. + +4. The Supreme Council shall have command of the Liga Filipina, +and shall deal directly with the Provincial Chiefs and Popular Chiefs. + +5. The Provincial Council shall have command of the Popular Chiefs. + +6. The Popular Council only shall have command of the members. + +7. Each Provincial Council and Popular Council shall adopt a name +different from that of their locality or region. + + +Duties of the Members: + +1. They shall pay monthly dues of ten centimos. + +2. They shall obey blindly and promptly every order emanating from +a Council or a Chief. + +3. They shall inform the Fiscal of their Council of whatever they +note or hear that has reference to the Liga Filipina. + +4. They shall preserve the most absolute secrecy in regard to the +decisions of the Council. + +5. In all walks of life, preference shall be given to the +members. Nothing shall be bought except in the shop of a member, +or whenever anything is sold to a member, he shall have a +rebate. Circumstances being equal, the member shall always be +favored. Every infraction of this article shall be severely punished. + +6. The member who does not help another member in the case of need +or danger, although able to do so, shall be punished, and at least +the same penalty suffered by the other shall be imposed on him. + +7. Each member, on affiliation, shall adopt a new name of his own +choice, and shall not be able to change the same unless he become a +Provincial Chief. + +8. He shall bring to each Council a service [trabajo; evidently a +service done for the organization], an observation, a study, or a +new candidate. + +9. He shall not submit to any humiliation or treat anyone with +contempt. + + +Duties of the Chief: + +1. He shall continually watch over the life of his Council. He +shall memorize the new and real names of all the Councils if he +is the Supreme Chief, and if only a Popular Chief those of all his +affiliated members. + +2. He shall constantly study means to unite his subordinates and +place them in quick communication. + +3. He shall study and remedy the necessities of the Liga Filipina, +of the Provincial Council, or of the Popular Council, according as +he is Supreme Chief, Provincial Chief, or Popular Chief. + +4. He shall heed all the observations, communications, and petitions +which are made to him, and shall immediately communicate them to the +proper person. + +5. In danger, he shall be the first, and he shall be the first to be +held responsible for whatever occurs within a Council. + +6. He shall furnish an example by his subordination to his superior +chiefs, so that he may be obeyed in his turn. + +7. He shall see to the very last member, the personification of the +entire Liga Filipina. + +8. The omissions of the authorities shall be punished with greater +severity than those of the simple members. + + +Duties of the Fiscal: + +1. The Fiscal shall see to it that all comply with their duty. + +2. He shall accuse in the presence of the Council every infraction +or failure to perform his duty in any member of the Council. + +3. He shall inform the Council of every danger or persecution. + +4. He shall investigate the condition of the funds of the Council. + + +Duties of the Treasurer: + +1. He shall enter in a ledger the new names of the members forming +the Council. + +2. He shall render strict monthly account of the dues received, +noted by the members themselves, with their special countermarks. + +3. He shall give a receipt and shall have a note of it made in the +ledger in the hand of the donor, for every gift in excess of one peso +and not over fifty. + +4. The Popular Treasurer shall keep in the treasury of the Popular +Council, the third part of the dues collected, for the necessities of +the same. The remainder, whenever it exceeds the sum of ten pesos, +shall be delivered to the Provincial Treasurer, to whom he shall +show his ledger, and himself writing in the ledger of the Provincial +Treasurer the amount delivered. The Provincial Treasurer shall then +give a receipt, and if it is in accordance with the accounts, shall +place his O. K. in the ledger of the other. Like proceedings shall +follow when the Provincial Treasurer delivers funds in excess of ten +pesos to the Supreme Treasurer. + +5. The Provincial Treasurer shall retain from the sums handed to +him by the Popular Treasurer one-tenth part for the expenses of the +Provincial Council. + +6. Whenever any member desires to give the Liga Filipina a sum in +excess of fifty pesos, he shall deposit the sum in a safe bank, under +his vulgar name and then shall deliver the receipt to the Treasurer +of his choice. + + +Duties of the Secretary: + +1. At each meeting he shall keep a record of proceedings, and shall +announce what is to be done. + +2. He shall have charge of the correspondence of the Council. In case +of absence or incapacity, every authority shall name a substitute, +until the Council name one to fill his place. + + +Rights of the members: + +1. Every member has a right to the moral, material, and pecuniary +aid of his Council and of the Liga Filipina. + +2. He may demand that all the members favor him in his trade or +profession whenever he offers as many guaranties as others. For this +protection, he shall transmit to his Popular Chief his real name +and his footing, so that the latter may hand it to the Supreme Chief +who shall inform all the members of the Liga Filipina of it by the +proper means. + +3. In any want, injury, or injustice, the member may invoke the whole +aid of the Liga Filipina. + +4. He may request capital for an enterprise whenever there are funds +in the treasury. + +5. He may demand a rebate of all the institutions or members sustained +directly by the Liga Filipina, for all articles [sold him] or services +rendered him. + +6. No member shall be judged without first being allowed his defense. + + +Rights of the Secretary [sic; Chief?] + +1. He shall not be discussed unless an accusation of the Fiscal +precede. + +2. For want of time and opportunity, he may act by and with himself, as +he has the obligation to perform the charges which may be laid on him. + +3. Within the Council he shall be the judge of every question or +dispute. + +4. He shall be the only one who shall be empowered to know the real +names of his members or subordinates. + +5. He shall have ample power to organize the details of the meetings, +communications, and undertakings, for their efficacity, security, +and rapid despatch. + +6. Whenever a Popular Council is sufficiently numerous, the Provincial +Chief may create other subordinate Councils after first appointing +the authorities. Once constituted, he shall allow them to elect their +authorities according to the regulations. + +7. Every Chief shall be empowered to establish a Council in a village +where none exists, after which he shall inform the Supreme Council +or Provincial Council. + +8. The Chief shall appoint the Secretary. + + +Rights of the Fiscal: + +1. He shall cause every accused person to go out or appear while his +case is being discussed in the Council. + +2. He shall be able to examine the ledgers at any time. + + +Rights of the Treasurer: + +He shall dispose of the funds in an urgent and imperious necessity of +any member or of the Council, with the obligation of giving account +and answering before the tribunal of the Liga Filipina. + + +Rights of the Secretary: + +He may convoke extra meetings or assemblies in addition to the +monthly meetings. + + +Investment of the funds: + +1. The member or his son, who while not having means, shall show +application and great capacities shall be sustained. + +2. The poor shall be supported in his right against any powerful +person. + +3. The member who shall have suffered loss shall be aided. + +4. Capital shall be loaned to the member who shall need it for an +industry or for agriculture. + +5. The introduction of machines and industries, new or necessary in +the country, shall be favored. + +6. Shops, stores, and establishments shall be opened, where the +members may be accommodated more economically than elsewhere. + +The Supreme Chief shall have power to dispose of the funds in needy +cases, whenever he later renders an account to the Supreme Council. + + +General Rules: + +1. No one shall be admitted without a previous and unanimous vote +of the Council of his village, and without satisfying the tests to +which he must submit. + +2. Offices shall end every two years, except when there is an +accusation by the Fiscal. + +3. In order to obtain the posts, three-fourths of all the votes +present shall be required. + +4. The members shall elect the Popular Chief, the Popular Fiscal, +and the Popular Treasurer. The Popular authorities shall elect the +Provincial authorities; and the Provincial authorities shall elect +the Supreme authorities. + +5. Every time that a member becomes the Popular Chief, that fact +shall be communicated to the Supreme Chief, together with his new and +old names; and the same shall be done whenever a new Council shall +be founded. + +6. Communications in ordinary times, shall bear only the symbolical +names both of the writer and of the persons for whom they are intended, +and the course to be pursued shall be from the member to the Popular +Chief, from the latter to the Provincial Chief or the Supreme Chief, +and vice versa. In extraordinary cases alone shall these formalities +be omitted. However, in any time or place, the Supreme Chief may +address anyone directly. + +7. It is not necessary for all the members of a Council to be present +to render decisions valid. It shall be sufficient if one-half the +members are present and one of the authorities. + +8. In critical moments, each Council shall be considered as the +safeguard of the Liga Filipina, and if for any cause or other the +other Councils are dissolved or disappear, each Council, each Chief, +each member, shall take upon himself the mission of reorganizing and +reëstablishing them. [178] + + + + + + + + +THE FRIAR MEMORIAL OF 1898 + + +His Excellency, the Minister of the colonies: + +We, the superiors of the corporations of the Augustinians, Franciscans, +Recollects, Dominicans, and Jesuits, established in Filipinas, +in fulfilment of the statement of the telegram presented to his +Excellency, the governor-general and viceroyal patron, [179] on +the first instant, to be transmitted officially to your Excellency, +and which has been done by the said superior authority, as he has +condescended to inform us, have the honor of presenting this exposition +to his Majesty, King Don Alfonso XIII (whom may God preserve), and in +his royal name, to her Majesty, the queen regent, Doña María Cristina, +to the president and members [vocales] of the Council of Ministers +of the Crown [Ministros de la Corona], [180] and most especially to +your Excellency, as minister of the colonies. We send it directly to +your Excellency, in accordance with law and custom, so that, in due +time, you may condescend to lay it before the lofty personages above +mentioned, and even, if you deem it advisable, before the entire +nation, duly assembled in the Cortes of the kingdom. + +In writing this exposition, to us, the religious of the corporations +existing in the country from ancient times, united in one soul and +one heart, as faithful brethren, is reserved the honor in the very +beginning of fulfilling respectfully the most acceptable duty of +reiterating our traditional adhesion to the king, to his government, +and to all the authorities of the fatherland, to whom we have always +considered it an honor to keep ourselves subject and obedient, by +the law of conscience, which is the strongest human bond, endeavoring +continually and in all earthly things, from our respective sphere of +action, to coöperate with every class of endeavor for the maintenance +of public order in Filipinas, for its legitimate and holy progress, +for the development of its intellectual and even material interests; +and, in a very special manner, for the propagation and conservation +of the divine teachings of Catholicism, for the encouragement of +good morals, and for the security of the moral prestige, the only +force which has been until now the great bond of union between these +beautiful lands and their dear mother the mother-country [metrópoli]. + +Motive for this exposition. Truly, your Excellency, if extremely +troublesome circumstances, by which Spanish authority in the +archipelago is threatened, and the bitter campaign (or better, +conspiracy) of defamation and anti-monastic schemes, incited against +us, especially since the outbreak of the insurrection, did not compel +us to talk, very willingly would we leave it to politicians to occupy +themselves with the problems that concern this country, and we would +maintain the silence that has fittingly been our norm of procedure +for many years, not speaking except when questioned officially, being +jealous, by that manner of retirement, of avoiding the criticism which +has so often been heaped upon us with audacious flippancy or malice, +that we meddle with the temporal government of these islands. + +But now the hour is come, when, as loyal patriots and constant +supporters of Spanish authority in Filipinas, we must break that +silence, in order that one may never with reason repeat of us, either +as religious or as subjects of España, that terrible accusation of the +prophet, canes muti non valentes latrare. [181] The hour is come, also, +when we must emerge in defense of our honor, atrociously blemished in +many ways, of our prestige that has been trampled upon, of our holy +and patriotic ministry, which has, finally, been subjected to the most +terrible calumnies and the most unqualified accusations. Though private +persons may at any time make a noble renunciation of their good name +that has been defamed, offering to God the sacrifice of what civilized +man esteems highest, never is that allowed in any form, according to +the teachings of the holy doctors of the Church, to public persons, +to prelates, to superiors, to corporations, who must defend and +preserve their prestige, their credit, and their reputation, in order +to worthily fulfil their respective functions. A religious corporation +discredited and publicly reviled, is in its class like a nation whose +flag is insulted or whose laws are disavowed. It should die struggling +for its honor, rather than allow its good name to be trodden under +foot, and its rights to become unrecognized and unrevered. + +Abandonment of the religious corporations and their patience and +prudence under these circumstances. Truly, one cannot qualify us +as hasty and imprudent, in that we now address ourselves to the +exalted authorities of the fatherland. We have borne patiently the +continual insults and vilifications for more than eighteen months +of masons and filibusters, open or hidden, in newspapers, clubs, +and public assemblies, who have attributed to us the blame for the +insurrection, and heaped dishonor on our persons and ministries by +the most unjustifiable attacks, cast in their majority in the mold +of demagogism and free thought. With Christian meekness have we +endured the return to the Peninsula of a multitude of persons who +have resided a greater or less period in the islands, who have shown +so little honor to our habit and profession; but if, instead of being +religious, we had been seculars, and if, instead of being a question +of ecclesiastical corporations, it had been one of civil or military +corporations, they would have refrained from speaking ill of us--and +we can be quite sure of that, and there are eloquent daily proofs +of this assertion--for the effective means that such corporations +generally practice would have tied their tongues, and would have +made them recognize their flippancy and their injustice by imposing a +vigorous corrective to their extensions. We religious have no sword; +we cannot pronounce judgment; we do not glitter with gilt braid; we +do not belong to a corporation, whose individual members take part +in the government of the fatherland, or in exalted considerations +of the same; we are neither military men nor functionaries of the +judicial or administrative profession; we do not have weight in any +political party; we do not intervene in elections; we do not form +(for conscience forbids us) great federations that become feared; +we do not incite the public, except to obedience and submission +to all constituted authority; we are unable in determined cases to +distribute appointments, or offer promotions or remunerations; we +are not accompanied by a fattened retinue of friends or flatterers, +who defend us for their own personal advantage, and who are the blind +paladins of the general, of the politician, of the exalted dignitary, +of the opulent banker; neither have we any influence over the press; +we do not possess a nucleus of attached partisans to shout for us and +overexcite so-called public opinion: in one word, we are without all +the methods that are used in modern public life to gain respect and +fear, to influence the nation, and cause all the shots of slander or +ignorance to strike ineffectually against us. + +The religious of Filipinas, far remote from Europa, alone in their +ministries, scattered even throughout the farthest recesses of the +archipelago, without other associates and other witnesses of their +labors than their dear and simple parishioners, have no defense other +than their reason and right, which, although established on justice +and law, and secured by the protection of the divine Providence--which +mercifully has not failed us hitherto and which we hope will not +fail us in the future--do not have, nevertheless, in their favor +(nor ever, although we might have done so, would we avail ourselves +of them) those most powerful modern auxiliaries which are attaining +so much vogue and so great success in societies in which the great +Christian sentiments having grown cold, reason is not heard easily +unless supplied with the force of cannon or with the armor-plate of the +high bench, of vast political parties, or of fearful popular movements. + +Alone with our reason and our right, although with our conscience +satisfied at always having fulfilled, yea always, our duties, of having +been as patriotic as the greatest, or more so, and of having fulfilled +the obligations of our sacred ministry, we have endured silently and +in all patience, in accordance with the advice of the apostle, the +insults and vilifications, even of persons to whom we have offered +in Christian sincerity our affection and civilities, even by persons +who call themselves very Catholic, but who, perchance, infected with +the contagion of the practical Jansenism of certain present-day +reformers, forget the remark of that great Christian emperor, who +said that if he should see a priest who had fallen into any frailty, +he would cover him with his cloak, rather than publish his weakness. + +Alone, with our reason and our right, and confident that reason would +at last clear the pathway, and that light would at last illumine the +dense obscurity created by hatred of sect, by the separatist spirit, +and by flippancy, envy, and the false zeal of certain persons, we +have endured the insinuations, made in the Cortes [parlamento] [182] +of last year which showed scant respect to the orders; the assertions +made, not only in private, but also in centers of great publicity, +and by persons of considerable popularity in military circles +[politica militante], that the religious prestige of Filipinas was +so broken that it was necessary to substitute it with armed force; +the publishing of the recourse of an eminent politician, sacrificed +by anarchy, to the orders for information and advice in Philippine +matters, as a dishonorable censure; the grave accusations directed +against us, as well as against a most worthy prelate, in a memorial +presented to the senate, although veiled under certain appearances +of impartiality and gentle correction; the different-toned clamoring +from day to day, with more or less crudity, in order that the historic +peninsular period of 1834-40 might be reproduced in the islands, and +in order that measures might be adopted against us, so radical that +they are not taken (and the discussion of them is shameful) either +against the centers of public immorality, or against societies and +attempts that have no other end than to discatholicize the nation +and to sow in it the germs of thorough social upheaval. + +Why the religious have been silent until now. We believed and thought +that our prudence and long silence, adorned with the qualities of +circumspection and magnanimity which religious institutions should +always possess, ought to be sufficient for discreet and fair-minded +people, so that they would immediately impugn those accusations and +form a judgment by which those repeated attacks would not make a +dent in our credit and prestige. We supposed that that campaign of +diatribes and reproaches would vanish at last as a summer cloud formed +by the effluvia cast off from the forges of masonry and filibusterism. + +But instead of being dissipated the storm appears to be increasing +daily. The treaty of Biac-na-bató [183] has again placed in the +mouth of many the crafty assertion, made now by the rebel leaders +that the institutes of the regulars have been the only cause of the +insurrection. The secret society [184] of the Katipunan, which is +extending itself throughout the islands like a terrible plague, has +established by order of its Gran Oriente, [185] the extinction of +the religious as one of the first articles of their program of race +hatred. In the Peninsula and here, the masons, and all those who, +in one way or another, second them, have rejuvenated [recrudecido] +their war against us. Manifestos have been published in Madrid, in +which misusing the names of Filipinas, measures highly disrespectful +and vexatious to the clergy are demanded. Even in the ministry of the +colonies, although officiously, persons have managed to introduce +themselves, who, pursued by the tribunals of justice as unfaithful +do not hide their animadversion to the religious corporations. Now, +if we were to continue silent in view of all these circumstances, +our silence would be taken with reason as cowardice, or as an argument +of guilt; our patience would be qualified as weakness; and even firm +and sensible Catholics who recognize the injustice of the attacks +directed upon us, could with reason infer that we were stained, or +that we had come to such a prostrate condition that one could with +impunity insult and mock us, as if in downright truth we were old +and decayed entities whose decadence is the last symptom of death. + +Prius mori, quam foedari, [186] said the ancients; and the most +loyal Maccabæans, "It is better to die in the battle than to +see the extermination of our nation and of the sanctuary." [187] +As long as the corporations exist, they will glory, as they ought, +in repeating with St. Paul: "Quamdiu sum Apostolus, ministerium meum +honorificabo." [188] We have always endeavored to honor our ministry, +and we shall always continue to honor it, now and in the future, +by the grace of God, which we trust will not fail us. Consequently, +we do not vacillate in addressing ourselves today to the exalted +authorities of the nation, taking shelter in our confidence, that, +though we are poor and helpless, and have no other protection than +our spotless history, our immaculate honor, and our secure rights, we +are talking to those in whom intelligence and good sense are brothers +to nobility of thought, who are always ready to listen, especially +to the poor and weak, and in whom their respect and love to Catholic +institutions and to the so eminently glorious and meritorious title +"Regular Clergy of Filipinas," shelter them from the suggestions of +sects and the prejudice of anticlerical and separatist parties. + +They are persecuted because of their religious significance. What +reason have the religious corporations of Filipinas given that they +should be persecuted with so great passion? Ah! your Excellency, that +reason is no other than because they are very Catholic, because they +are very Spanish, because they are effective supporters of the good +and sane doctrine, and because they have never shown weakness toward +the enemies of God and of the fatherland. [189] If we religious had +not defended here with inviolable firmness the secular work which our +fathers bequeathed us: if we had shrunk our shoulders in fear before +the work of the lodges and before the propagation of politico-religious +errors that have come to us from Europa; if we had given the most +insignificant sign, not only if not of sympathy, yet even the least +sign of mute passivity, to the advocates of the false modern liberties +condemned by the Church; if the flame of patriotism had become lessened +to us; and innovators had not met in each religious in Filipinas an +unchangeable and terrible adversary to their plans, open or hidden: +never, your Excellency, would we religious corporations have been +the object of the cruel persecution now practiced on us; but on +the contrary, we regulars would have been exalted to the clouds, +and so much the more as our enemies are not unaware that, granting +the influence that we enjoy in the archipelago, our support, even if +passive and one of mere silence, would indisputably have given them +the victory. + +But they know that our banner is none other than the Syllabus of +the great pontiff, Pius IX, [190] which has been so often confirmed +by Leo XIII, in which all rebellion against legitimate authorities +is so vigorously condemned. They know that, as lovers of the only +true liberty--Christian liberty--we would rather die than consent, +in whatever pertains to us, to the least lack of the purity of the +infallible Catholic teachings, of the holiness of Christian customs, +and of the most complete loyalty due the Spanish nation. Consequently, +they hate us; consequently, veiled under divers names and with +divers pretexts, they are making so cruel war upon us, that one +would believe that the masons and filibusters have no other enemies +in Filipinas than the religious corporations. In such wise does that +honor us that we can very well say with the prince of the apostles: +"If you be reproached for the name of Christ, you shall be blessed: +for that which is of the honor, glory, and power of God, and that +which is his spirit resteth upon you (1 Peter iv, 14)." [191] + +And for their patriotic significance. Apart from their essentially +religious character, the regulars of the archipelago have another +significance that makes them odious to the separatists. They are the +only permanent and deeply-rooted Spanish institution in the islands, +with a suitable and rigorous organization, perfectly adapted to these +regions. While the other Peninsulars live here in the fulfilment +of their duty more or less time, as is convenient to their private +interests, and with no other bond that follows them to Filipinas +than their own convenience, being ignorant of the language of the +country and having no other relations with the natives than those of +a superficial intercourse, we religious come here to sacrifice our +whole life. We form as it were a net of soldiers of religion and of the +fatherland in the archipelago, scattered even to the remotest villages +of the islands. Here we have our history, our glories, the ancestral +house, so to speak, of our family. Bidding an eternal farewell to our +native soil, we condemn ourselves voluntarily, by virtue of our vows, +to live forever consecrated to the moral, religious, and political +education of these natives, for whose defense we have in all ages +waged campaigns, which, without the pious boastings [crudezas] +and exaggerations of Las Casas, [192] have constantly reproduced in +Filipinas the figure of the immortal defender of the American natives. + +Craftiness of the insurgent leaders of filibusterism. In this point +it must be confessed that the insurgent leaders of filibusterism +are logical. "Do the regulars," they have asked themselves, "who +are the Spaniards most deeply-rooted and most influential in the +country, and the most beloved and respected by the people, agree +to, or will they ever agree to our projects? Then let us petition +their expulsion, and their disappearance in one way or another. If +we do not succeed in it, let us destroy them. Since there are many +peninsulars, who, influenced by modern errors or carried away by +ignorance or evil passion, lend ear to those who inveigh against +the religious, let us inveigh loudly. Let us form a powerful cry +against them. Let us conspire in lodges and political clubs. Let us +petition at any risk measures looking to the lowering and destruction +of the regular clergy. Those peninsulars will listen to us without +us having any fear that they will hold us as filibusters. It will be +said of us that we are liberals, that we are reformers, that we are +democrats, that we are even masons and free-thinkers: but that does not +matter. Many peninsulars are the same. They also inveigh against the +religious. They also petition freedom of thought, freedom of the press, +freedom of association, secularization of education, ecclesiastical +disamortization, suppression of the privileges of the clergy. They +also inveigh against the terrible theocracy, and do not cease to +defame the religious and to impute to them all sorts of crimes." + +That, your Excellency, is the watchword that has been given to +all the filibusters, and to all who will procure the emancipation +of the country in one way or another, for their separatist ends, +and especially since the treaty of Biac-na-bató. "There is nothing +against España, nothing against the king, nothing against the army, +nothing against the Spanish administration: say if you have seized +arms that it has been exclusively because of the abuses of the clergy, +that you were not attempting separation from the mother-country; +that you wished only modern liberties and the disappearance of the +orders. And even though all the documents, judicial and extrajudicial, +in which appear the plans of the conspirators, and all the acts of +the canton of Cavite, during its ephemeral emancipation, demonstrates +the contrary, let us exert ourselves to say that that was not the +intention of the rebels, that that was an affair of some enthusiasts +or madmen, but that the great mass of the insurgents seized arms only +through coveting those liberties. The multitude of lay Spaniards of +every class and profession sacrificed; the countless natives killed or +harassed in innumerable ways, because of their unswerving loyalty to +the fatherland; the cries of 'Death to the Castilas!' and 'Long live +the Tagálogs!' the stamps of a Tagálog republic, a Filipino republic, +[193] an army of freedom; the speeches and circulars of the assembly +or supreme council; the fiery Katipunan constitution written in +characters of a mysterious key, and that written at Biac-na-bató; +and in their style, an infinite number of deeds and documents, many +of them very recent, which even to satiety evidently demonstrate the +anti-Spanish and separatist character of the insurrection: all that +we shall now conceal by crying 'Down with the friars!' 'Long live +democratic liberties!' 'Long live España!' and with those cries are +we certain of being heard, and in that way shall we be able to more +easily attain the final goal of our desires." + +That is the logic and the tactics of the filibusters, and it must be +confessed that in it they show themselves to possess practical talent, +and to be thoroughly acquainted with the society that surrounds +them. Had they said that the insurrection had been provoked by the +excesses of the government employes, of the military, of the governors, +of the directors of the treasury; had they placed in relief the +multitude of abuses that have been committed against the native in +one form or another (although never by the nation, or by the majority +of its sons); had they attributed the armed insurrection to that: +they would now be opposed by all the peninsular element, and their +voice would have had not the slightest echo, as it would have been +stifled by the more powerful voice of others who would have cried +out in defense of the Spanish name, and who would have locked on them +the door to all the means of propaganda and agitation which they are +now exploiting. But when they declaimed against the clergy, when they +demanded the liberties that the clergy cannot in conscience approve, +they had at least assured their campaign, and in part, perhaps, +the success of the same. + +Their real purposes. Does not this show, your Excellency, that, +in talking of the supposed or enormously exaggerated abuses of the +clergy, they are not moved by love of justice and morality, and much +less by love for España? What then, do they not recognize that for one +religious who has committed abuses, it is to be surmised, from their +employment, that there have been many more laymen in proportion (and +let it be clear that we accuse no one, and least of all the worthy +official corporations) who have converted their office, totally or +partially, into a means for illegal advancement? Have the insurgents +not cried out at other times, and during the preparatory period of +the insurrection, against the meritorious civil guard, against judges +and alcaldes, against the army, against the peninsular resident in +the island, against the administration in general, and even against +the superior authorities of the archipelago? Is not this proved +by the books of the unfortunate Rizal, by the Solidaridad, [194] +and other documents and pamphlets of the laborers, although one must +not forget that their favorite watchword was always to cruelly attack +the religious? Undoubtedly so, but it was not now advisable for them +to declare it. Now was come the opportunity to show themselves very +Spanish, very loyal to the king (they who were affiliating themselves +to the extent of their ability with the most radical parties), very +fond of the army, and to attack only the religious! + +Accusations against the orders. They work deceitfully, we shall say +with the Psalmist (Psalm 35), [195] they talk of peace and of love +outwardly, but evil and hate are hid in their hearts; supervacue +exprobaverunt animam meam. Most vainly do they wrong us, we shall add, +in respect to the accusations that they direct against us. "Unjust +witnesses rising up have asked me things I knew not. They repaid me +evil for good: and have sworn my destruction. But thou, O Lord, wilt +destroy their plans, and wilt save my existence." (Psalm 35.) [196] + +Yea, your Excellency, unjust witnesses, for where are those abuses, +those excesses, those vices, those outrages, of which their mouths +are so full, and which furnish them matter for their speeches of a +demagogical club of the rabble? What do the religious corporations +maintain, when viewed with a deep synthetical standard, which is +not in accordance with the canons of the Church and the rules of +their institute; which is not fitting to the holy ministry that they +profess; which is not greatly beneficial to the supreme interests +of the fatherland? We turn our eyes in all directions, and however +quick-sighted may be our eyes, unless one views the orders through +the pharisaical or separatist prism, they discover nothing that does +not merit the heartiest applause. "Laudet te alienus," says the sacred +book of Proverbs, "et non os tuum." [197] But it is not our intention +to praise ourselves here. It is our intention to vindicate ourselves; +to defend our honor unjustly impeached; to demonstrate our eminently +Spanish mission; and to maintain our good name, which is our treasure, +which is the great title of nobility that we can never abdicate +nor allow to be vilified. "By your good works stop the mouth of the +ignorance of foolish and senseless men," says St. Peter to us. (1 +Peter ii, 15.) [198] + +"We walk not in craftiness, nor by adulterating the word of God; +but by manifestation of the truth commending ourselves to every man's +conscience, in the sight of God; that is our glory, the testimony of +our conscience," is also taught us by St. Paul. (2 Cor. iv, 2.) [199] +From our dishonor follows the dishonor of the holy and Spanish mission +that we exercise; and God has told us that we should be the salt of +the earth and the light of the world, and that we should shine in +such manner that men may see our good works, and glorify our father +who is in heaven. [200] + +How they have fulfilled their duties. Our good works are in the gaze +of all men, and our good works, thanks to God, are the brightest +gem of the corporations. Not only do we preach the gospel here; not +only do we carry the Christian and civilized life to the barbarous +and fetish-encumbered inhabitants of these islands; not only did we +obtain the incorporation of the archipelago into the Spanish crown, +working in harmony with the other official entities, and preserved it, +as is well known, in a peaceful and happy condition for the space +of three centuries; but also, in all time, even now when we are +wronged so deeply by some ingrate Filipinos, whom we pity, have we +been the constant defenders of the Indians, enduring for that reason +innumerable loathings, and all kinds of persecution on the part of +many peninsulars, who did not understand the devotion and patriotism +of our conduct. In all time have we been zealous for the purity +of the faith and for the conservation of good morals; and illegal +exactions, bribery, extortions, outrages, ease, immoral gambling, +and a licentious or little restrained life, have always had in us a +severe judge and the most inexorable censor. + +Can it be said of the religious institutes, whether collectively +or in the vast majority of their individual members, that they have +prevaricated; that they have ever abandoned the duties entrusted to +them in the administration of the sacraments, in the celebration +of divine worship, in Christian preaching and catechising, in the +vigilance of good manners, in the tutelage of moral interests, in +protection and relief to the needy and weak, in advice and consolation +to all about us, in the maintenance of obedience to the mother-country, +in the extension of education, in the campaign against every kind of +superstition and erroneous practice, in repression of concubinage, and +of other public irregularities and scandals? Does not the tenet enter +the head of the most exalted sectarian, if he has any lucid moment, +that we religious have fulfilled with assiduous self-abnegation the +obligations of our ministry? + +We have become wearied with reading, your Excellency, whatever has +been written and published against us for years, and we know also how +much is said now in assemblies and gatherings. With our hand upon our +heart, with our foreheads raised aloft, as one who walks in the light +and fears not to have his deeds examined and discussed in the light, +we challenge and defy our detractors and calumniators, and those +who flippantly, or by any other unjust and inaccurate motive, talk +and murmur, to show us with exact data and with perfectly authentic +information, not only the accuracy of all their accusations, but +the mere probability of whatever they allege against our honor and +well-established credit, touching the fulfilment of our duties, +both religious and patriotic. + +Their procedure in respect to parochial obventions, to education, +and intercourse with intelligent persons. It is said that we commit +abuse in the exaction of parochial fees. Let the laws of the Church be +consulted, let the doctrines of the moralists and the principles of +positive natural and divine law be cited; and then submitted to that +only sure rule as a criterion, let them tell us whether we abuse the +public in that matter, and whether our procedure, within just bounds, +is not that employed by the most disinterested priests. + +It is said that we are hostile to education and the advancement +of knowledge. But if by education and knowledge, doctrines not +condemned by the Church, our Mother, are not meant, let them tell us +whether the islands have any education that has not been established, +protected, sustained, and encouraged by the clergy, in all branches +of instruction, both primary, and secondary and superior. + +It is said that we despise the intelligent men of the country, and that +we make them the object of every kind of persecution. That assertion is +so rare and stupendous that we wonder whether our enemies will write in +imaginary spaces. A multitude of youths are graduated annually with the +degree of bachelor or after the conclusion of some higher course, from +the Ateneo Municipal, from the colleges of Manila and the provinces, +and from the university. We are honored by the friendship of the +vast majority of them, and take no little satisfaction in seeing +them prosper and in knowing that they respect the Christian and +solid education that they have received. It is known that very few +of the great number of students that attend our lecture halls, and +of the not few graduates that are scattered throughout the islands, +have taken part in the rebellion; and that the vast majority of them +have kept loyal to España, in fulfilment of the oath that they took +on receiving the investiture of their professions. But what happens +in the old world with the apprentices of free thought happens here: +all those modestly call themselves intelligent who think that they +exhibit signs of knowledge and talent by showing contempt for priests +and religious; while it is a fact that a goodly proportion of those +who express themselves in that manner have been unable to complete +their courses with us, and are the refuse of our lecture halls. + +Regarding the sanctity of their private life. An outcry is being made +against the vices and immorality of the regulars in terms that seem to +be inspired in Protestant and anticlerical centers of low quality. But +in that, as in other things, saving what can never be avoided even in +the communities most sanely organized, by the severest legislation +and the most exquisite care, all who view us near at hand are not +ignorant that nothing can be thrown into our face. + +The words of Father St. Augustine, when defending his institute against +accusations similar to those directed against the orders of Filipinas, +are very opportune and efficacious in this matter. "Tell me, brethren, +is my congregation, peradventure, better than Noah's ark, in which, +of the three sons Noah had, one was evil? Is it, peradventure, better +than the family of the patriarch Jacob, in which, of his twelve sons, +only Joseph is praised? Is it, peradventure, better than the house of +the patriarch Isaac, in which, of the two sons born to him, one was +chosen of God, and the other damned? Is it, peradventure, better than +the household of Jesus Christ, our Savior, in which, of His twelve +apostles, one was a traitor, and sold him? Is it, peradventure, better +than that company of the seven deacons filled with the Holy spirit, +chosen by the apostles to take charge of the poor and widowed, among +whom one, by name Nicholas, became a heresiarch? Is it, peradventure, +better than heaven itself, whence fell so many angels? Can it be +better than the earthly paradise, where the two first parents of all +the human race, created in original justice and grace, fell?" + +Ah! the religious corporations of Filipinas, caring for the sanctity +and salvation of all its sons, on seeing one of their individual +members fail in his duties, after correcting him, and after taking, +in accordance with law and religious prudence, measures efficacious +to repair, if he did it, the scandal, and even, if necessary, to +destroy and fling aside the rotten branch, cry out in pity with the +apostle like a true mother: "Quis infirmatur et ego non infirmor? Quis +scandalizatur et ego non uror?" "Who becomes sick spiritually and I do +not suffer with him? Who suffers scandal and I am not burned?" That is +what all should say who learn of the backslidings of their neighbor; +that is the dictate of charity and of justice; that is demanded by +respect and consideration to the ministers of the church. And so long +as our systematic accusers do not prove that the orders consent and +do not check the sins, in great part humanly inevitable--considering +the conditions under which those dedicated to the ministry live--of +the very few religious who have the misfortune and weakness to fall, +they have no right to dishonor us and to cry out against what we are +the first to lament and to try to correct. + +Will they prove it sometime? We are quite assured of the opposite; +and that though they have at hand, as many methods of inquisition +and proof as the judge most interested in any cause can desire. Our +convents, our ministries, our persons, are in sight of all. Our parish +priests and missionaries are alone and surrounded by a multitude of +natives. Whatever we say, do, or neglect to do, is seen and spied +by all the people. Our habitations are of crystal for all classes +of people. Our publicity as Europeans and our condition as priests +place us in such relief in the missions and parishes, that it would be +stupid simplicity to try to hide our doings and actions. Consequently, +everything is favorable to our adversaries in the trial to which we +provoke them, and to which each regular voluntarily submits himself, +from the moment that, faithful to his vocation and obedient to his +superiors, he sacrifices himself to live among these natives, his very +beloved sheep of the flock of Christ. Our honor, our reputation rests +in their hands. It would be easy for our adversaries to confound the +religious institutes if truth presided over their accusations. But +since truth is that which does not glitter in their words, the saying +of Holy Writ becomes verified in their conduct: "They spake against me +with a lying tongue, and with the speech of hate did they attack me;" +and in regard to us the saying of St. Peter: "You shall keep an upright +conscience with modesty and fear, so that as many as calumniate your +upright procedure in Christ, shall be confounded." [201] + +Other equally unjust charges. We shall not compare our conduct +with that of the respectable and very estimable native priests of +the secular clergy, whom the majority of the separatist Filipinos +flatter, undoubtedly because it is not to the purpose of their plans +to combat them. We shall not rebut the shamelessness of supposing that +part of our property has a criminal origin, and that we are certain +despots in our rural estates who suck the blood of our tenants by +various methods, an infamy so often refuted with authentic data +of overwhelming proof. We shall not speak of the vast imposture of +imputing to us all the executions by shooting, imprisonments, tortures, +trials, and confiscation of property of those implicated in the last +insurrection. We scorn the absurd fable that we are absolute masters, +not only of consciences, but of all the archipelago, at the same time +that they, obviously contradicting themselves, as error is wont to do, +declare that our prestige and influence in the islands is lost. We +neglect to attribute to ourselves whatever hate and censure, according +to them, have been made in the country by the military [institutos +armados], the governors, the judges, and all the public organisms, in +deportations and other kinds of punishment; as if we religious managed +to our liking the machine of the government and administration of this +territory, and as if, from the governor-general down to the last agent +of the police, all were but the blind executors of our will. We lay +aside those and other things--poorly executed arguments--which certain +misguided sons of this country are still employing, and which are +unfortunately repeated by certain peninsulars, in order to manifest +their hatred or prejudice against the clergy; and pass on to speak +of the insurrection and of the imperious necessity of remedying the +extremely embarrassing situation of the religious corporations in +the archipelago. + +Fundamental causes of the insurrection, and who are to blame for +it. The government is able only too well to recognize the causes that +have produced the insurrection, and we shall not be the ones who try +to give it lessons in that regard. The government is aware that until +several years ago, every separatist idea, every rebel tendency in the +country, which was enjoying the most enviable peace and felt respect to +authority with the same unreflecting, although patent and holy, force, +with which domestic authority in all parts is obeyed and respected, +was exotic and an anachronism. Then was submission to España and +subordination to all authority an element truly social, rendered +incarnate by the religious in the mass of the Filipino population, +which neither dreamed, yea, your Excellency, neither dreamed of ideas +of political redemption, nor imagined that, in order to keep themselves +loyal to the mother-country, one single bayonet was necessary in the +country. The public force of the cuadrilleros and of the guardia civil +[202] (the latter of very recent creation) was necessarily created to +check and restrain thieves and tulisanes; [203] while every one thought +that the wretched army then in the archipelago had no other object than +to combat Mindanaos and Joloans, and to be ready for any conflict with +the neighboring powers. España was able to be sure of its dominion +here, and to live so carelessly, with respect to political movements +as in the most retired village of the Peninsula. All authority was +obeyed, was respected, by conscience, by education, by tradition, +by social habit, passively and by custom, if one wishes, but with +so great strength and firmness, with so indisputable and universal +submission, that more indeed than individual virtue it was the virtue +of the mass of the whole population, it was the spontaneous homage +to God, which, represented in the powers of the fatherland, all felt +and practiced, not conceiving even the possibility of rebellions +and insurrections. Thus had they been taught by the religious, who +always unite the names of God and His Church with the names of their +king and of España. Consequently, by bonds of conscience, did all the +archipelago love and obey him, and no one thought then of political +liberties, nor in lifting yokes that existed for no one. + +Are there then no abuses? No, your Excellency it could have very well +happened that there were abuses on a greater scale than in the epoch +immediately preceding the present events. But since these people +were educated in the doctrine that it is never legal to disobey +authority, under pretext of abuses, even if some are true; since +these people had not yet been imbued with the new modern teachings, +condemned a hundred times by the Church; since no one had spoken +here of popular rights, many of them as false as senseless; since +the propaganda against priests and religious had not yet reached +Filipinas: it resulted that, considering those abuses, as one of so +many plagues of humanity (from which regulated societies are not free, +according to the principles of the newest erroneous law, but rather +they are, on the contrary, suffered with greater intensity and with +greater loss to the fundamental interests of the social order) these +inhabitants tolerated them patiently, and had recourse for their +remedy to the just methods taught in such cases by Catholic ethics, +with the greatest advantage to individuals and to nations. + +Consequently, as many as have contributed, in one way or another, +to introduce those revolutionary doctrines, and those germs of social +and political disturbance into the archipelago, whether peninsulars or +islanders, of whatever class or rank, are the true authors, conscious +or unconscious, of the great weakening of the traditional obedience +to the mother-country, of which the whole archipelago was in peaceful +possession until thirty years ago, that was disturbed by no one or by +no influence. The introducers of those doctrines and tendencies are +beyond all doubt the culprits of the insurrection, for they are the +ones who have done their utmost to prepare for it and with success to +unroll it, even supposing that they have not directly and deliberately +procured it. + +Who sows the wind will reap the whirlwind; who introduces principles +must accept the consequences; who generates hate must not wonder that +war results; who teaches the pathway of evil cannot declare himself +free from responsibility for the disorders originated by his teaching. + +Partial causes: masonry. Will it be necessary to explain this simple +consideration? We do not think so. But should we desire to unfold it, +it would be easy for us to add that the anti-religious propaganda; +the ideas of erroneous liberty and forbidden independence, incited +and aroused in certain Filipinos by European politicians and writers; +the antipathy and opposition, clearly shown by certain Spaniards, even +by those ruling and by government employees, against the religious +corporations; the establishment of masonry and of other secret +societies, the former's legitimate offspring; the most favorable +reception that the revolutionary Filipinos found for their plans +in many centers and papers of Madrid and other places; the lack of +religion in many peninsulars; the ease with which the ancient laws +of Filipinas have been changed; the mobility of public functionaries +which, giving opportunity for many irregularities, has contributed +greatly to the continual lessening of the credit of the Spanish name; +and in part, the backwardness, which has been observed sometimes in +the sons of the country with regard to public appointments: [all +these] are partial aspects, various phases and confluent factors +(of which we do not attempt to enumerate all) of the fundamental and +synthetical cause that we have expressed. + +No one is unaware that the chief of all those partial phases and +factors of the social disorganization of the archipelago has been +masonry. The Asociación Hispano-Filipina of Madrid was masonic. Those +who encouraged the Filipinos in their campaign against the clergy +and against the peninsulars here resident, were masons in almost +their totality. Those who authorized the installation of lodges in +the archipelago were masons. Those who founded the Katipunan, [204] +a society so mortally masonic, that even in its terrible suggestive +pact of blood it has done naught but imitate the masonic carbonarios, +were masons. + +Practical consequences of that. The traditional submission to the +fatherland, diffused and deeply settled in the archipelago by the +religious corporations, having disappeared in part and having been +greatly weakened in part; the voice of the parish priest, thanks to the +above-mentioned propaganda, having been disregarded by many natives, +especially in Manila and conterminous provinces, who were taught in +that way to give themselves airs as intelligent and independent men; +the prestige of the Spanish name having been greatly tempered, and the +ancient respect with which every peninsular was formerly regarded in +the islands having been almost annihilated in many towns: is it strange +that race instincts should have asserted themselves strongly, and, +considering that they have a distinct language, and distinct lands and +climate, that they should have discussed and have attempted to raise +a wall of separation between Spaniards and Malays? Is it not logical +that, after having been made to believe that the religious is not the +father and shepherd of their souls and their friend and enthusiastic +defender, but a vile exploiter, and that the peninsular here is no +more than a trader constituted with greater or less authority and +rank, that they should madly and illegally have imagined that they +could easily separate from España and aspire to self-government? + +Gloomy situation of the archipelago and omens of its future. We +shall not insist, your Excellency, on this order of consideration, +for it rends our soul, it cleaves our heart in twain, to consider how +easily so many rivers of blood, so great and extravagant expenses, +and so extraordinary conflicts, might have been spared, which in a +not long lapse of time, may, perhaps, result in the disappearance +of the immortal flag of Castilla; how easily the military situation, +originated by the insurrection, a situation that was threatening to +make of Filipinas another Cuba, might have been avoided; and with how +little trouble the archipelago might have been continuing at present +in the same tranquillity and peacefully progressive situation as it +had years ago: if having the power, as was a fact, but that was not +attempted or thought of, the door had been shut on the disturbers; if +masonry had never been allowed in the country; and if every tendency +contrary to the moral prestige, the most powerful social bond, +immensely superior to all armies and all political institutions which +united these countries with their beloved and respected mother-country, +had been effectively restrained in their beginnings. + +Has the present most gloomy situation any remedy? + +It is somewhat difficult, and even dangerous, to answer the question, +for if the Katipunan was six months ago relegated to the hills of +Laguna and Bulacan among the rebel leaders who were fugitive there, +or was dragging out a shameful existence in certain villages that were +in communication with the insurgents, today the plague has spread. For +the ones pardoned at Biac-na-bató, breaking the promise given to +the gallant and energetic marquis de Estella, [205] obedient to the +watchword received, have spread through the central provinces; and by +using threats and terrible punishments, which have no precedents in the +pages of history, nor even of the novel, have succeeded in attracting +to their ranks a great number of Indians, even in villages which gave +eloquent proof of loyalty to the holy cause of the Spanish fatherland +before the submission of Biac-na-bató. They have also succeeded in +establishing themselves in Cápiz and in other points of the Visayas: +and indeed the movement of Zambales, of Pangasinan, of Ilocos, of Cebú, +and of the Katipunans, are at present open in Manila. + +The thought of what may happen to this beautiful country at any +moment terrifies us, for we do not know to what point sectarian +fanaticism may go, exploiting the suggestibility of this race and +their weak brain by the deeds that they are heralding, brought to a +head by them, in regard to the army, whose increase in the proportion +that would be necessary to establish a complete military situation, +they know to be impossible; by the published exemption from the cédula +[206] and other tributes; by the supposed immunity of amulets, called +anting-anting; by the illusion that none but Indians will hold office, +and that the alcaldes and generals will be from their ranks; by the +remembrance that money and confidence were given to the rebels of +Cavité, Bulacan, and other points; by the news that their partisans +were sending them from Madrid and Hong-kong; by the example of goodly +numbers of peninsulars, who are not on their guard against showing +their hostility to the religious, in order by that manner to procure +the latter's disregard by their parishioners, who even dare to lay +hands on them; and by innumerable other methods, too many, in short, +to enumerate, but terribly destructive, and of maddening and vigorous +influence in these Malayan villages. + +The thought of what consist the secrets of the revolution, which the +learned gentleman, appointed as arbitrator [207] by the so-called +government of the insurgents to arrange with the superior authority +of the islands as to the conditions of submission and the surrender of +arms, swore to keep secret, as appears from the justificative document +of his authorization, is also terrifying. We are ignorant of what those +secrets may be, which apparently are not the politico-ecclesiastical +reforms which are now demanded in Madrid, since those matters are +mentioned openly in the abovesaid document signed by Aguinaldo in +the name of the rebel assembly; and the most courageous heart is +terrified at the fancy that there might be an organization more +powerful, more far-reaching, more general and active of revolution, +somewhat like the Katipunan, which we now see to be rapidly spreading, +and which at a moment's notice, would effect a general rising, whose +most saddening results one can easily foresee, and avoid with the +greatest difficulty, unless every labor association be effectually +prosecuted and extirpated in time. + +Remedy for that situation. Laying aside for the meanwhile those +dangers, which are daily obscuring the Filipino horizon more deeply, +and supposing, as we desire, that peace may be obtained throughout +the islands, the situation of the archipelago has a remedy, and +one, as is clear, that consists in removing all the causes that +have produced so deep a confusion and in prudently and with justice +adopting the measures that, assuring peace, will protect and encourage +the legitimate interests of these inhabitants. The great mass of the +country is not corrupted. It suffers from an access of hallucination +and fanaticism produced by sectarian preachings and practices, but +its heart and head are not perverted. If it be attended with care, +it will return to its former pacific habits and submission. The +wealthy and intelligent classes, still healthy, protest against all +those movements, and since they are loyal and friendly to us, desire +the normal mean to be reestablished as soon as possible, and will +contribute, together with the institutions of the mother-country, +to the most glorious undertaking of restoring order and the pacific +and progressive trend of the archipelago. + +It pertains to the government to direct and manage those forces +in order to obtain so satisfactory an end, by reestablishing the +mainsprings of government, now so nearly disappeared or very much +weakened; by giving prestige to all the conservative elements; +and with an administration, grave, intelligent, active, stable, +moral, acquainted with, and fond of the country, and one dissociated +with every political doctrine, to continue and perfect the just +and benevolent, and Catholic and Spanish regimen: whereby the +mother-country would gain the sympathies of these inhabitants and +establish its dominion securely. + +This is strange material for the peculiar objects and character +of this exposition, which has no other purpose than to defend the +honor of the religious institutes and demonstrate the necessity of +supporting and invigorating their ministry, if they are to continue +their noble and patriotic mission in the archipelago. We do not +intend to mix in politics, however much we may have as much or more +right than any society or individual to speak of these things. But +indeed we must be the defenders of the rights of the Church, and of +the regular clergy. We are indeed under obligations to watch over +Spanish interests, which are not at variance with, but perfectly +amalgamated with religious interests. + +What the orders need and claim. As religious then, and as Spaniards, +we address the government, and without circumlocutions or subterfuge +(for these are not the times for paraphrases and euphemisms which +cloak the truth), we believe that we can tell the government that if +the interests of Spanish domination in the archipelago have incurred +and are incurring so serious danger of shipwreck, it is because they +have rather been, and are, profoundly combative of the interests of +religion; and that if the revolutionists have succeeded in making +themselves heard by a multitude of natives, it is because they have +been taught, before and during the ingrate rebellion, to despise and +even to persecute the religious who taught them a doctrine of peace +and obedience. He who does not see this, suffers great blindness, +or it is an obvious sign that he is infected with the terrible evil +that has brought so dire consequences to Filipinas. He who closes his +ears to the lessons of Providence--sorrowful, but indeed healthful +lessons--and believes that it is possible to restore order here and +establish a prosperous and tranquil progress without strengthening +religious influences, is not far from the separatist camp, or shows +that he is unable to learn from great social catastrophes. + +It is not sufficient for that purpose to recognize the need of morality +and of religion. One must recognize them in all their integrity and +purity, such as our holy Mother, the Church, makes them known. It is +not sufficient to talk to the people of the great doctrines of the +Crucified, and instruct them not to attempt to attack the legitimate +interests of Catholicism--vagaries that so very often cover mischievous +and pharisaical intentions, in order afterward, under pretext of +abuses, to tell them by word and deed, not to listen to the priests +who preach those doctrines to them and inculcate in them respect +for those interests. If one would attempt to effectively establish +the peace of the archipelago upon a firm base, he must support in +toto and in solido the mission of the religious corporations, so that +they may be fruitful in the proportion that these inhabitants demand, +who are still affectionate to the faith and to civilization, and so +that the natives may be strengthened in the solid conviction that +they are obliged to obey and respect España, their true fatherland in +the social and civic order, by bonds of conscience and not by human +considerations which are always unstable and shifting. + +Consequently, we regulars who have more than sufficient reasons to +recognize to their full extent the evils that affect the archipelago, +so beloved by us, and who have been for some time experiencing the fact +that, far from religious action being strengthened, it is restricted +and opposed in various ways, do not waver in telling the government +with blunt frankness that, if it do not consent to give that support, +daily more necessary, to the Church, the social disturbance of the +country will continue to increase daily, and that by not applying +any remedy to that evil, the stay here of the religious is becoming +morally impossible. + +Of what use is it for us to force ourselves to fulfil our +religio-patriotic duties, if others take it upon themselves to destroy +that labor on the instant; if they, by methods that flatter evil +passions so greatly, gain the favor of the same people whom we have +taught to be docile and submissive, by saying to them continually that +they should pay no attention to us? Would it suffice, peradventure, +to preach respect to property, if, at the same time, there were no +laws that protected it and public force that effectively restrained +those covetous of another? Would any professor be assured of the +effects of his teaching, whose pupils were to be told by respectable +persons or through vexatious methods, as they left the lecture room, +to forget or despise the lessons of their masters? Then in like case +do we find ourselves in Filipinas. + +We do not want, your Excellency, temporal honors or dignities, which +we have renounced by choosing for our profession a life hidden in +Jesus Christ. We do not belong to those who, in whatever they do, +think immediately, even when deserving them, of recompenses and +decorations. We do not desire, as our enemies believe (who judge us, +perhaps, from themselves), to preponderate in the civil government +and administration of the villages, nor even at least to continue our +slight official intervention assigned to us in certain secular matters +by law and tradition. If one desires to strip the parish priest or +the missionary of all administrative, gubernatorial, and economic +functions, in which, without us ever claiming it, yea, ever, the +secular authority has come to solicit our modest cooperation, let it +be done at a seasonable time. Those who adopt such an inclination will +see what is most advisable for the exalted interests of the fatherland; +but from them and not from us, who have ever (even enduring because +of that intervention, annoyances, censures, and persecutions, and +considering it a true burden) been docile auxiliaries of the civil +authority, will be demanded the responsibility of the consequences +that may be occasioned by so far-reaching a measure. + +We have come to the islands to preach and to preserve the Christian +faith, and to instruct these natives with the celestial food of the +sacraments and the maxims of the gospel; to prove that the principal +intent of España, on incorporating this territory with its crown, +was to christianize and civilize the natives. We have not come to +become alcaldes, governors, judges, military men, agriculturists, +tradesmen, or merchants; although the concord and fast union that +should prevail between the Church and State be granted, and the fact +that we constitute here the only social Spanish institution, never +have we refused to contribute with our might as good patriots and +submissive vassals to whatever has been demanded of us, and which +we have been able to perform, without dishonor to our priestly and +religious character. + +What they as Catholic institutions contradict. All who have written +upon Filipinas consider the benefit that the country, and very chiefly +the Spanish dominion, has obtained, from that system in which the +parish priest and the missionary were the intermediary, more or +less direct, between the public authorities and the mass of the +Filipino population. It does not belong to us to demonstrate that, +for well does the history of this archipelago show it, and it is +being told in eloquent, although tragic voices by the present fact, +with the deplorable consequences that España is feeling, and to which +it has been guided by a senseless and suicidal propaganda against +the religious orders. What we have to say at present is, that if the +civil authority be not most diligently attentive to the maintenance, +encouragement, and guaranty of religion and morality in the islands, +as it must be through its solemn promise contracted before the supreme +pontiffs and before Christian Europe, in accordance with the teachings +and precepts of our most holy Mother, the Church; if it do not oppose +a strong wall to the avalanche of insults, taunts, and systematic +opposition to the religious of Filipinas, which is coming down upon +the peninsula and the archipelago; if it do not prosecute the secret +societies with the firmness of a foreseeing government; if it do +not cause us to be respected and held as our quality as priests and +Spanish corporations demand, in public and in private, in all the +spheres of the social order, in whatever concerns España and its +agents, repelling every project that in one way or another attempts +to remove our prestige and to lessen our reputation, hindering the +fruit of our labors: there is no suitable and meritorious way--and we +say it with profoundest grief--in which we can continue in the islands. + +We cannot be less, your Excellency, in our order, than military men, +to whom their profession is an honor and exaltation, as well as an +exaction; less than the class of administrative functionaries whose +rights and prerogatives are defended and guaranteed by the State; less +than the mercantile and industrial companies and undertakings, who are +considered and protected as impelling elements of public wealth; less +than legal, medicinal, and other professional--scientific, artistic, +or mechanical--associations, which are honored and respected in every +well-organized society. We believe, and this belief is not at all +exaggerated, that, as Catholic institutions, we have a right to all +the honors, exemptions, and privileges, that the Christian Church and +State, and the laws--in accordance with which the religious orders +were established in Filipinas--extend to ecclesiastical persons and +corporations, and especially to the regulars; and that as Spanish +institutions, we ought to have the same consideration as the other +entities that have arisen and exist under the protection of the flag +of the fatherland. + +As Catholic institutions, we must, with all the energy of our soul, +repel, as contrary to the imprescriptible and supreme laws of the +true and the good, and to the original laws of the Church, freedom of +worship, and the other fatal and false liberties that are the offspring +of the thought, of the press, and of association, which certain men +are trying to bring to this archipelago, and which conflict with the +most rudimentary duties of the patronage that España exercises here, +as is clearly set forth in various places in the Recopilación de +Indias. In like manner do we repel, inasmuch as it contradicts the +rights of the Church, the pretended secularization of education, in +accordance with what we are taught in propositions 45, 47, and 48, +[208] of the Syllabus, and which are obligatory on all Catholics, +and very especially on Christian princes and governments. Contrary +to those rights, and entirely abusive and tyrannical, would be every +measure that the secular power might try to adopt in regard to the +religious orders of the archipelago: whether in meddling with their +regular regimen and discipline; whether in secularizing them; whether +in disentailing their property, or fettering their free disposition +of the same; whether in freeing their members from their obedience; +whether in depriving them of the honors or privileges which they +possess according to the canons, the laws of the Indias, and Christian +common law, as is expressed in proposition 53 of the above-mentioned +Syllabus. [209] Every law that attempts to suppress, diminish, or +weaken the sacred laws of personal, royal, or local ecclesiastical +immunity is contrary to the sacred rules of the Church. Also contrary +to the Church, and smacking of the heresies of Wickliffe and Luther, +is every ordinance that denies the clergy the right to the stipends +and fees that are due them from their holy ministry, and that +tries to meddle with matters of parochial fees, a thing that is +peculiar to the ecclesiastical jurisdiction. It is contrary to the +honor and sanctity of the religious estate to suppose it incapable +of exercising the care of souls, and to say that, in governing the +parishes, we violated the canons, when in exact accordance with them, +we christianized this country, and since have continued to minister +it. It is vexatious to the regular clergy, and opposed to the rights +legitimately acquired, for the civil authority to attempt to despoil +the religious corporations of the ministries and missions founded and +ruled by them, under the protection of the Leyes de Indias and the +sovereign ordinances of the apostolic see. Incompatible with the vow +of obedience that binds every religious, is the complete subjection +of the individuals of the regular clergy who discharge the care of +souls to the authority of the diocesan, depriving his prelate of +the attributes that he possesses over his subjects; and the bishop +cannot be allowed, to the loss or detriment of the rights of the +regular superior to suppress the regular curacies at his pleasure, +since the ministries depend immediately on the corporation which +appoints those religious who are to fulfil the duties of them. + +The need of keeping intact the authority of the regular prelate over +his curas and missionaries. No one is ignorant that the religious +corporations of the archipelago are communities composed in their vast +majority of parish priests and missionaries. If that be so, and it must +be so, in order that the orders fulfil the peculiar end for which they +came to Filipinas, how could the jurisdiction of the regular prelate +he maintained, if the attributes that he has received from the holy +see, the only immediate authority to which the regulars are subject, +for the government of his subjects, of whatever class they be, be +lessened? By pontifical laws, the religious assigned to the doctrinas +and missions are considered absolutely as viventes intra claustra, +which signifies that they are governed by their peculiar superiors, +rights, and attributes, which are binding on every subject strictly +conventual. If it were not so, the individual life would be established +to a greater or less extent in the orders; their communal bonds would +disappear; the regular prelates would become mere figureheads; and the +religious corporations, losing the internal discipline that gives them +so much vigor and strength, would be converted into associations of +priests [presbiteros], who although they pronounced religious vows one +day, would afterwards have no other bonds with their superiors than +the corporative habit and name, and too, perchance, the possession +of the open door in order to take refuge in the convent whence they +went out, whenever they so desired or the bishop ordered it. + +The action of the regular prelate over the curas and missionaries of +his order must be so active, immediate, energetic, and universal, +that he can change, remove, or transfer them, or give them another +occupation and appointment, and his authority over them must remain in +everything as powerful as if it were a question of the last one of the +conventual religious. That is required by the regular discipline; that +is demanded by the vow of obedience. In proportion as the attempt is +made with the individual to restrict or weaken the jurisdiction of the +order, it is equivalent to jesting at the intention of us religious, +who do not profess to be subjects of the bishop, but only to occupy +ourselves in the business of religion which our prelates assign us; +it is equivalent to disnaturalizing the religious corporations, and +consequently, to destroying them, the very thing that the separatists +are attempting. + +Such a thing will not happen, we are sure; for the moment that a law +freeing the parish priests and missionaries from subordination to their +prelate, or lessening or restricting the latter's power, is dictated, +no religious, by bonds of conscience, would dare to continue at the +head of his parish or mission, and all would retire to their convents +at Manila. Such a thing will not happen, for the bishops themselves +would be energetically opposed to it, and would confess, as they +do, that precisely because the vast majority of their parish clergy +are regulars, their clergy live so morally and apply themselves so +assiduously to their ministry, and that scarcely would they find that +in secular priests [presbiteros] or in regulars not fully subject to +their order, and that they are consequently interested, through love +of their flock, in having the parish ministries of the archipelago +continue to be ruled by the same laws as hitherto. And such a thing +will not happen, we say, because the holy see, jealous guardian of +the interests of Christianity in the islands, not less than of the +prestige of the regulars, will not permit it; while, at the last, +the government would be placed in the dilemma, namely, that either +a suitable and sufficient personnel be proposed to it, which might +replace the religious corporations of Filipinas in a stable and worthy +manner, or, on the contrary, that the latter continue discharging +their actual duties, without the least diminution of the jurisdiction +of their respective regular prelates. + +España's obligation to send ministers of the Catholic religion to these +islands and to solidly guaranty that religion. Such a thing will not +happen finally, for the government of the country can never forget +(regarding this point and the others with which the present exposition +is concerned) the will of Isabel the Catholic, the fundamental and +capital law of these dominions, by which the government is obliged +to send here prelates and religious and other learned and austere +persons of God, in order to instruct their inhabitants in the Catholic +faith, and to instruct and teach them good morals; for nothing must +be desired ahead of the publication and extension of the evangelical +law, and the conversion and conservation of the Indians in the holy +Catholic faith. "Inasmuch as we are directing our thought and care +to this as our chief aim, we order, and to the extent we may, charge +the members of our Council of Indias that laying aside every other +consideration of our profit and interest, they hold especially in +mind the matters of the conversion and instruction, and above all +that they be watchful and occupy themselves with all their might and +understanding in providing and appointing ministers sufficient for it, +and take all the other measures necessary so that the Indians and +natives may be converted and conserved in the knowledge of God our +Lord, the honor and praise of his holy name, so that, we fulfilling +this duty which so tightly binds us and which we so desire to satisfy, +the members of the said Council may discharge their consciences, +since we have discharged ours with them." (Law i, tít. i, book ii +and law viii, tít. ii, book ii of Recopilación de Indias.) + +The Council of Ministers together with the ministry of the colonies +[210] has been substituted for the Council of Indias, of whose devotion +and zeal in fulfilling the fundamental duties of their trust, we +cannot harbor the least doubt. + +Very expressive also to the question in hand is law lxv, tít. xiv, +book i of the same Recopilación. "We order the viceroys, presidents, +auditors, governors, and other justices of the Indias, to give all +the protection necessary for that service to the religious of the +orders resident in those provinces and occupied in the conversion +and instruction of the natives, to our entire satisfaction, by which +God has been, and is, served, and the natives much benefited, and to +honor them greatly, and encourage them to continue, and do the same, +and more, if possible, as we expect from their persons and goodness." + +Words of the instructions to Legaspi; of the laws of Partìdas; +[211] of Felipe II. Thus was it commanded scores of times to the +authorities of these islands, and in harmony with that legislation, +in the instructions to the great Legaspi, it is expressly stated: + +"You shall have special care in all the negotiations that you shall +have with the natives of those districts to have with you some of +the religious, both in order to make use of their good counsel, +and so that the natives may recognize and understand the great +consideration in which you hold them; for seeing that and the great +reverence given them by the soldiers, they will also come to respect +them. That will be very important, so that, when the religious impart +to them the matters pertaining to our holy Catholic faith, they may +give them full credit; since you know that his Majesty's chiefest end +is the salvation of the souls of those infidels. For that purpose, +in whatever district, you shall take particular care to aid the said +religious ... so that, having learned the language, they may labor +to bring the natives to the knowledge of our holy Catholic faith, +convert them to it, and reduce them to the obedience and friendship +of his Majesty." (Colec. de Doc. Inéd. de Ultramar, ii, p. 188.) [212] + +That is the genuinely Spanish spirit, the glory of the human race, +and especially of Christianity, which caused our legislators to write +in the Partidas (Partida i, tít. vi, law lxii, and tít. xi): "Laymen +must honor and regard the clergy greatly, each one according to his +rank and his dignity: firstly, because they are mediators between God +and them; secondly, because by honoring them, they honor Holy Church, +whose servants they are, and honor the faith of our Lord Jesus Christ, +who is their head, for they are called Christians. And this honor +and this regard must be shown in three ways; in speech; in deed; +and in counsel." "The churches of the emperors, kings, and other +seigniors of the countries, have great privileges and liberties; +and these were very rightfully [given them], for the things of God +should have greater honor than those of men." + +That is the spirit that was expressed by the mouth of Felipe II when +he answered those who proposed to him the abandonment of these islands, +in consideration of the few resources that the public treasury derived +from them: "For the conversion of only one soul of those there, +I would give all the treasures of the Indias, and were they not +sufficient I would give most willingly whatever España yields. Under +no consideration shall I abandon or discontinue to send preachers and +ministers to give the light of the holy gospel to all and whatever +provinces may be discovered, however poor, rude, and barren they may +be, for the holy apostolic see has given to us and to our heirs the +duty possessed by the apostles of publishing and preaching the gospel, +which must be spread there and into an infinite number of kingdoms, +taking them from the power of devils and giving them to know the true +God, without any hope of temporal blessings." + +Duties of the government and of others in regard to religious +interests in the islands. Consequently, those offenses that should +be most prosecuted in Filipinas, and against which the government +should prove especially active, are offenses against religion and +against ecclesiastical persons, as such offenses are those which +wound the greatest social welfare, and are most directly opposed to +the fundamental obligation that España contracted on incorporating +these islands with its crown. Hence, masonry, an anti-Catholic and +anti-national society, ought not to be permitted, but punished +severely; every propaganda against the dogmas, precepts, and +institutions of our holy Mother, the Church, ought to be proscribed; +outrages against the clergy and religious ought to be punished with +greater rigor than when committed against any other class of persons, +giving such outrages the character of sacrilege, which they positively +possess; all, from the governor-general to the lowest dependent of +the State, ought to exert themselves to demonstrate by their word +and example, in public and in private, and without those conventional +exteriorities of pure social form (a Catholicism that becomes naught +but mere observance and courtesy, and which, unfortunately, abounds +so widely), that they love and respect the Catholic religion, and +that they esteem more the duties toward God and toward His holy +Church that proceed from it, than any other duty and obligation, +however exalted and respectable may be the institution that imposes it. + +Hence the government of the nation and exalted authorities must be +the first who ought to destroy, not only in their official, but in +their private acts, and as politicians, authors, government employees, +military men, in the different orders of social life, the ridiculous +and contemptuous idea that free thought has sown against priests +and religious, permitting themselves to talk of them in a tone that +honors the clergy so little, and which when known by the elements of +other inferior social classes, cause respect to the Catholic priest to +become weakened daily, many judging that the religion of officials is +frequently nothing more than a social hypocrisy and a practice of pure +political convenience. Hence the government ought to very carefully +see that all its personnel in the archipelago be sincere and earnest +Catholics, in order that the sad spectacle may not be again seen, +that we have so often and so prodigally witnessed, by which the chief +ones, in opposing the apostolic labor of the religious corporations, +are the very ones, who, inasmuch as they are functionaries of a +Catholic state, ought to be those who support and strengthen it the +most. Hence every association, assembly, or undertaking which is +trying to sow here anti-religious or anti-clerical ideas, under any +color or pretext, even the exercise of political rights, ought to be +prevented at all hazards from having any representation or branch in +these islands; and the previous censorship over every kind of book, +pamphlet, and engraving that comes from outside, and over those +which shall be published here, should be restored, or better said, +strengthened. Hence, the close union of all the peninsular element +here resident becomes more necessary, so that, all united for the +protection of our divine religion, by all respected and obeyed, +we may resist the enemies of the fatherland with greater force; may +not by our discords give the rebel camp opportunity to gain strength; +and as far as possible, may succeed in elevating the moral prestige, +today, unfortunately fallen so low. Hence, likewise, is the great +necessity of the disappearance in gubernatorial circles of an erroneous +idea, most fatal and extremely disrespectful to the orders, which, +propagated by sectarian spirits or by bad or lukewarm Catholics, +seems now to be a postulate of many politicians in Madrid, and of +the majority of peninsulars who come to this archipelago. + +Infamous idea in regard to the importance of the orders and the manner +in which they are generally regarded. We refer to the idea which began +to spread after the revolution of '68, which looks upon the religious +of Filipinas as an evil necessity, as an archaic institution, with +which differences must be composed for reasons of state; as a purely +political resource, and a convenience to the nation, which cannot +be substituted with others. That infamous idea, manifested at times +frankly, and at times with reticence or with insinuations that cut more +deeply than a knife, is known by our declared enemies. It is known +by the natives of the country who have been in the Peninsula. It is +known, because it has been propagated in newspapers and other products +of the press that have penetrated the archipelago, by a vast number +of natives, who, with having left Filipinas, are notably offended by +it. All the peninsulars who make war on us, whether by anti-religious +prejudices, by doctrinal compromise, by personal resentment, by +flippancy, or by envy (for among all those classes do we have enemies) +help to spread and propagate that idea throughout the islands. + +From that idea many deduce the opinion that we are dragging out in +this country an existence of pure compassion and condescension; +that we are living here, tolerated and as if on alms, instead of +honored and respected as any other institution of the mother-country; +that in many ways, one would believe that we religious are less and +have less value than the military, than the government employes, or +than those of other professions and careers; and that with wonderful +facility one imputes to us, as to the most abandoned and destitute, +the blame for all the evils that afflict the country, governors +and other representatives of the government and administration +of the islands availing themselves of our name of obliged appeal, +in order to evade and shun responsibilities, whenever any calamity +comes upon them or whenever there is any unpleasant event to bewail +in their conduct. For all, there is indulgence, for all, excuse, for +all kindness and the eyes of charity. The epoch is one of adjustment +and respect for all manner of extensions, although with the loss of +morality and justice. Only in what concerns priests and religious +must one look with contemptuous pride, with extreme rigor, and with +despotic exaction. The religious has to pay it all; on him must all +the blame be cast; to him belong the feelings of anger, the aversions, +the censures, the expressions of contempt. We appear, your Excellency, +to be only the anima vilis [213] of the archipelago. + +It is evident that we, as the priestly and religious class, and as a +Spanish corporation, cannot in any manner consent to this humiliating +position, which, as private persons, obliged to greater perfection +than the generality of Christians, we endure patiently, remembering +the words of the apostle "tamquam purgamenta hujus mundi facti sumus +omnium peripsema usque adhuc," [214] and of which we would not speak +if the evil were restricted to one of so many annoyances annexed +to our ministry; so much the more as we unfortunately see that that +injurious and erroneous idea is greatly injuring our ministry, and is +daily causing our influence among the people who are entrusted to us +to become lessened, since they are assailed strongly and tenaciously +by all the disturbing agents that have caused the insurrection. + +Respect that they merit as religious and as Spaniards. The religious +corporations ought to be greatly honored and distinguished (and it +grieves us deeply, your Excellency, to have to speak of these things): +firstly, because their individual members are adorned with the priestly +character, which is the greatest honor and dignity among Christians +that men can have; secondly, because their apostolic mission has +here propagated and preserves the splendors of Catholicism. They +are priests and they are religious: thus they unite the two devices +that inspire the greatest veneration among any society, which feels +some needs superior to the material, or those of their proud reason +divorced from Jesus Christ. + +Not less respect do they merit in their character as Spanish +entities. Besides being here ministers of the official religion, they +are public ecclesiastical persons, recognized by the state. They live +under its safeguard, as do the military and civil entities. They have +labored, and are laboring, for the fatherland, at least as much as any +other class of Spaniards residing in the archipelago. And in the point +of intelligence, within their respective profession and of morality +and private and civic virtues, they rise not only collectively, but +individually, to so great a height as the class that is considered +the most high and reputable in the archipelago. + +There is one most special reason and one of extraordinary importance +which demands that that respect should be sanctioned by the laws and +supported by customs, namely, that the religious in his respective +duties, becomes, as a general rule, the only peninsular, and, +therefore, the only representative of the mother-country in the +majority of the Filipino villages. Consequently, Spanish prestige is +greatly interested in that he be the object of such considerations and +guaranties that these inhabitants far from seeing, as unfortunately +they have not a few times seen, that he is despised and humbled, +be daily more fortified in the traditional idea that their cura or +missionary is, at once the minister of God and the representative +of España, a lofty idea that has redounded, and redounds, so greatly +to the favor of the mother-country, and says so much in honor of all +the Spanish entities. + +We came to the archipelago through our love to religion and España, +and have remained in it more than three centuries, ready to continue +here so long as conscience does not dictate the contrary to us. Gross +temporal considerations do not move us, nor sentiments of pride and +of mere personal dignity. In the fulfilment of our duties, we have +striven to attain even sacrifice and by the grace of God, we shall +continue the sacrifice. A good proof of this is offered the impartial +critic by the present epoch of rebellions and insurrections. The +cura and missionaries, in spite of persuasions that they were putting +their lives in great danger by the continual plots of the ferocious +Katipunan, have steadfastly maintained themselves in their posts, +foreseeing that if they abandoned their parishioners, a general rising +of the islands was almost certain. This procedure, if not heroic, is +sufficiently near it, and has cost us many victims, snatching away our +dearest brethren from us, some treacherously assassinated and others +immolated by reckless mobs seduced by filibusters and masons. And +although this sad sacrifice has seemingly not been bewailed and +appreciated, as perhaps it ought to be by the loyal sons of España, +we trust that God, the compassionate and generous remunerator of every +good deed, will in His infinite mercy, receive it as a propitiation +for the evils of this unfortunate country, and will have rewarded +the martyrs of religion and of the fatherland. + +Character and objects of this exposition. May the nation, government, +and your Excellency, pardon this slight extension of our sentiments of +dignity, offended as religious and as Spaniards. This is not a memorial +of merits and services, since we have never solicited applause or +recompense, which never constitute the lever of our labors. Neither is +it a panegyric, which we are not called upon to make, and which we do +not believe is wanting, since the history of the religious corporations +of Filipinas detaches itself so patiently and cleanly in all kinds +of just and upright progress. It contains some apologetic matter and +much of most sensible complaint because of the unjustifiable injuries +that almost daily are received by us. It is the weak expression of the +profound bitterness that seizes upon us at contemplating and viewing +from anear the condition of vast disturbance in which this beautiful +portion of the fatherland finds itself. With the utmost respect and +submission, laying aside absolutely whatever proceeds from political +parties and much more from private persons, it tells the government +with Christian simplicity and synthetically that it should adopt and +maintain a perfectly logical criterion with regard to the religious +corporations of Filipinas; and that, therefore, if it thinks, as is +just and decorous, that we, the religious corporations, exercise a +most lofty and necessary mission in the archipelago, honorable and +worthy of the greatest consideration, of its own accord and without +utilitarian considerations and false reasons of state, it so manifest +clearly and with nobility, making a beginning by giving a practical +example of that in its laws and decrees, and in its instructions to the +authorities of these islands, and that it do not allow us to be annoyed +or insulted; and so much the more since being weak and helpless, +and bound as we are by religious weakness and patience, we have no +other means of defense than our right and the protection of the good, +and we can never appeal to the means of repression and influence to +which we allude in the beginning of this expository statement. + +But if the government, on the contrary, by an error that we would +respect, not without qualifying it, in our humble judgment, as most +fatal to the interests of religion and the fatherland, should believe +that the religious have terminated their traditional mission here, +let it also have the frankness to say so. We shall listen to its +resolution calmly. But let it not imagine, in adopting measures which, +attaching, although without claiming it, the privileges of the Church, +our profession as priests and regulars, and our honor as refined +Spaniards, that in practice it might appear that it was trying to +burn one candle to Christ and another to Belial, that it was trying +to please masons and Catholics, good patriots and separatists, by +placing the orders in a so graceless situation that they might become +like the mouthful that was thrown into the jaws of the wild beast in +order to silence its roars for the time being. + +Synthesis of the same. Such would happen if the secularization +of the regular ministries; the secularization of education; the +disamortization of the property of the corporations, or the expression +of the liberty that belongs to them to enjoy and dispose of them; +the declaration of the tolerance of worship; the establishment of +civil marriage; the permission of every kind of association; and +the liberty of the press became law. Such would happen, in what more +directly concerns us, if the government continuing here and there its +campaign against us, unjustifiable from every point of view, were to +show by its acts that it actually conceives that we have been the cause +of the insurrection, and that we are opposed to the progress of these +islands, and to the unfolding of their legitimate aspirations. Such +would happen, if the government, failing to rigorously prosecute +secret societies, and to effectively correct the seditious ones who +are exciting the ignorant masses of the people against the regulars +and against all that is most holy and Spanish in the islands, should +desire the religious to continue in their ministries, liable at any +moment to be sacrificed, as is the terrible watchword of the sect, +and which has already unfortunately occurred, without, perhaps, their +having even the consolation that those sacrifices are appreciated. + +If we religious are to continue to be of use in the islands to religion +and España, no one can have any doubt that it must be by thoroughly +guarantying our persons, our prestige, and our ministry, it must be by +knowing that the fatherland appreciates and treats us as its sons, and +that it must not abandon us as an object of derision to our enemies, +and as victims to the rancor of masonry and separatism. Martyrdom +does not terrify us, but only honors us, although we do not consider +ourselves worthy of so holy an honor: but we do not desire to die as +if criminals, enveloped with the censures of friends and enemies, +and perhaps, abandoned and despised by those who ought to protect +and esteem us. + +That is the extremely gloomy and graceless situation in which the +orders find themselves, especially since the beginning of the Tagárog +insurrection, and above all, since the extension of the Katipunan, +a situation that threatens to become worse, if the government becomes +the echo of the filibusters, of the masons, of the radical elements, +which, it seems, have conspired together to give the finishing stroke +to the great social-religious edifice, raised in these islands by +Catholic España. + +By that no one should be surprised that we religious, placed in so +imminent a peril, desirous of not offering abstracts to the policy of +any government, and of avoiding the censure that we are the cause of +the evils of the country and the bar to its progress, should choose the +abandonment of our ministries, exile, and expatriation, in preference +to our continuance in the islands in a situation, which, if prolonged +for a longer time, will result as decidedly dishonoring to our class, +and would make our permanence in the archipelago unfruitful. + +We have fulfilled our duty here as good men; such is our firm +conviction. Should we go elsewhere, there, by the grace of God, +we shall also be able to fulfil our duty. And for that result, the +holy see, if contrary to all our just expectations, it cannot succeed +in making itself heard by the Spanish nation, will not deny us the +opportune permission. + +Fortunately, we have trust in the noble sentiments and deeply-rooted +Catholicism of her Majesty, the queen regent; we trust in the devotion +and patriotism of the ministers of the crown; we trust in the sensible +opinion shared by the majority of the Spanish people; we trust in the +intelligence and spirit of justice of the Catholic minister of the +colonies; and we trust that, after listening to the most dignified +prelates of these islands, and after taking into consideration the +prescriptions of natural and canonical law, the exalted advantages +of the fatherland in these regions, and the undeniable services that +the religious orders in Filipinas have contributed, no resolution +contrary to the teachings and precepts of our holy Mother, the Church, +will be adopted, and which is contrary to the prestige of the regular +clergy, but that, on the contrary, the Catholic institutions of this +archipelago will be once more affirmed and strengthened, as is imposed +by both religion and the fatherland. + +In this confidence, and reiterating our traditional adhesion to the +throne, and to its institutions, we conclude, praying God for the +prosperity and new progress of the monarchy, for the health of his +Majesty, the king, and of her Majesty, the queen regent (whom may God +preserve), and for prudence of the Cortes and the government in their +resolutions, and very especially for your Excellency, whose life may +God preserve many years. [215] + +Manila, April 21, 1898. Your Excellency. + +Fray Manuel Gutierrez, provincial of the Augustinians. + +Fray Gilberto Martin, commissary-provincial of the Franciscans. + +Fray Francisco Ayarra, provincial of the Recollects. + +Fray Cándido Garcia Valles, vice-provincial of the Dominicans. + +Pio Pí, S.J., superior of the mission of the Society of Jesus. + +Notice. Because of the impossibility, due to the length of this +exposition, of drawing up the copies necessary for the archives of +each corporation, it has been agreed by the respective superiors, +to print an edition of fifty copies, ten for each corporation, which +are destined for the purpose stated above. + +Collated faithfully with its original, and to be considered throughout +as an authentic text. In affirmation of which, as secretary of my +corporation and by the order of my prelate, I sign and seal the +present copy in Manila, April 21, 1898. + + +Fray Francisco Sadaba Del Carmen, secretary-provincial of the +Recollects. [216] + + +There is a seal that says: "Provincialate of the Recollects." + + + + + + + + +BIBLIOGRAPHICAL DATA + + +The documents in this volume are obtained from the following sources: + +1. Internal condition of Philippines.--From a typewritten copy +furnished by Epifanio de los Santos from the rare printed original +(volume iii of Mas's Informe) in his possession. + +2. Matta's report.--From an unpublished MS. in the possession of +T. H. Pardo de Tavera, who furnished to the Editors a typewritten +copy of it. + +3. The Philippines, 1860-1898.--Written especially for this series +by James A. LeRoy, Durango, Mexico. + +4. Events in Filipinas.--Summarized from volume iii of Montero y +Vidal's Historia de Filipinas. + +5. Constitution of Liga Filipina.--From a copy, furnished by Epifanio +de los Santos, of Rizal's original MS. + +6. Friar memorial.--From James A. LeRoy's copy of one of the printed +originals, revised by a printed copy belonging to the Madrid edition. + +7. Appendix on agriculture.--The first section, from a printed copy +of Basco's decree (Sampaloc, 1784) belonging to Edward E. Ayer; the +second, from Jagor's Reisen (Berlin, 1873), pp. 303-306, from a copy +in the Mercantile Library, St. Louis; the third, from Fernandez and +Moreno's Manuel del viajero en Filipinas (Manila, 1875), pp. 172-178, +from a copy belonging to the Editors. + + + + + + + + +APPENDIX: AGRICULTURE IN FILIPINAS + + +By Joseph Basco y Vargas (Arayat, March 20, 1784), and others. + + +Sources: The first section of this document is obtained from a +printed copy of Basco's decree, in the possession of Edward E. Ayer; +the second part, from Jagor's Reisen, pp. 303-306; the third, from +Fernandez and Moreno's Manual del viajero en Filipinas, pp. 172-178. + +Translations: All these are made by Emma Helen Blair. + + + + + + + + +APPENDIX: AGRICULTURE IN FILIPINAS + + +A decree by Basco in 1784 + +Don Joseph Basco y Vargas, Balderrama y Rivera, knight of the Order +of Santiago, commander of a division in the royal navy, governor and +captain-general of these Filipinas Islands and president of their +royal Audiencia and Chancilleria, commander-in-chief of the troops +of his Majesty in these dominions, general superintendent of the +royal treasury, and of the royal revenue from tobacco, and delegate +superintendent of that from the mail service, etc. + +[The author begins by showing the importance, necessity, and advantage +of agriculture to both the state and the individual, with illustrations +drawn from history and observation in various countries of the world, +and continues:] + +Since agriculture is so necessary for the subsistence of mankind, and +the maintenance of kingdoms, it is not wonderful that it should be so +cared for by the wise and by kings, and that the lawmakers of nations +should have ennobled this pursuit with special privileges. Especially +have been distinguished in this direction the Spanish monarchs, who, +besides other privileges granted in favor of the farmers, have thought +it well to decree that neither the implements for their labors, nor +their lands, should be taken from them for any civil debt; and also +they granted to these laborers the privilege that they could not be +imprisoned for any civil debt in the season for their harvesting and +field labors, authorizing the superior judges to grant them delay +in such cases. But besides these so useful and valuable benefits +the natives of Filipinas enjoy still others more extraordinary. For +their security, besides having ordained that their goods shall not be +seized for costs in lawsuits, nor shall they be punished with pecuniary +fines, conferring upon them other favors of the same kind, it has been +likewise commanded that no one may lend money to them above the sum +of five pesos, under the penalty of losing what is lent them beyond +that. In all these things the monarchs have sought to release the +farmers from many oppressions and injuries, and to prevent the losses +and deficits which otherwise, for most of the vassals, are caused +by caring for the interests and profits of a few individuals. But +it occasions the greatest sorrow that in Filipinas, contrary to the +pious and Christian intention of our kings--and especially that of +the wise monarch, who is now prosperously governing us, our lord Don +Carlos III (whom may God preserve)--Spaniards should have acted, +in regard to these exemptions, without any heed or consideration +for the injuries which have resulted here to the Indians and their +agriculture, and with notable loss of the wealth which the fertility +and valuable products of this country promise. + +And since this chief executive, actuated by what he himself has +observed in this province of Pampanga, in that of Bulacan, and in +those of Tondo and Laguna de Bay (which he has visited personally), +cannot any longer permit such extortions and injuries as are caused, +among all classes of persons, to the farmers and poor Indians in the +said provinces, and in the other districts to which this decree will +also be made to extend: I command that in future the implements of +labor--such as carabaos, plows, hemp-combs, and other field utensils +belonging to the Indians, mestizos, creoles, Spaniards, or any other +class of persons--shall not be seized for a civil debt, any more than +their lands, since most of them have no ownership in these. Moreover, +they shall not be arrested at the times when they must work in the +fields, such as plowing, and gathering their harvests: and, at the +times when they can be arrested, authority shall be given to the +alcaldes-mayor so that they can grant them a respite of six months, +without loading them with fees or other exactions. + +And, as the backward state of agriculture in Filipinas proceeds +also from the fact that, notwithstanding there are many industrious, +laborious and charitable persons in the villages, there are also many +others in whom sloth and idleness reign--for instance, many chiefs and +their sons, and the heads of barangay; and generally these who have +exercised the office of magistrate (who, on account of having served +in these employments, afterward refuse through a sort of vanity and +pride to go back to field work), all these caring only to subjugate the +common people by compelling them to work without pay in their fields, +and trying to exempt themselves from the common labor, and from the +other burdens to which those who pay tribute are subject--likewise +this chief executive has resolved to declare that such exemptions +ought not to be understood for the classes of persons who are mentioned +above, unless they possess at least eight cabalitas of their own land +cultivated and worked by their servants or day-laborers, expressly +forbidding that they rent these lands to others--always provided that +they are not prevented by age or infirmities from carrying on their +farm-work in person, since in this case they are allowed to rent them. + +And although, in regard to the contract of casamajan [217] which +they commonly practice, absolute prohibition ought to be made to +them on account of the burden which ensues from it to the poor, and +also to their own consciences, on account of the many usurious acts +which are committed therein, [yet] considering, as has been already +stated, that there will be many who, on account of age and sickness, +cannot themselves attend to the cultivation of their land, this chief +executive consents to grant such persons a contract of that sort, +under the condition that whatever loan is made to the farmers by +their partners, it shall be in the form of palay, and they shall +collect it in the same; that is, if they shall lend, for example, +four cavans [of rice], they shall receive four others. And the same is +ordained in regard to money, so that if they shall lend, for example, +two pesos they shall receive only two pesos; and, if they shall lend +cloth, if it is not returned they may only receive its just value at +the time when the bargain was made--under the penalty that no judge +shall admit any claim in contravention of this ordinance, and the +complainants shall lose what they had lent. + +Besides this, I have in the same manner heard of the unjust and vile +bargains which the usurers make in regard to the cultivated lands, +and even the trees which the farmers cultivate in their gardens, and +their houses, binding them with the agreement of retrovendendi, [218] +as it is commonly called, exacting from him who is bound--sometimes +for many years, and sometimes forever--the produce and the ownership +[of those possessions], for a small amount which the lender has +furnished. They also exact a premium for the money which they lend, +sometimes in valuables, and sometimes besides these. This is done by +a multitude of usurers who overrun the island, with great offense to +God and injury to their neighbors. In order to redress such evils, +which provoke divine justice against the islands, this chief executive +has also resolved to ordain that in future such contracts shall not +be made, either by writing or in words; for they are null and void, +and usurious. And we forbid all the magistrates of these islands +to give hearing to any claim arising from these contracts; if they +contravene this order, they remain responsible for all losses and +injuries, with the penalty, besides, of a fine of five hundred pesos. + +Besides this, the inhabitants of all the islands ought to have +understood that the lands which they obtained are all royal [realengas] +or communal, with the exception of those which they possess through +inheritance, or through legitimate purchase from the native chiefs +[caciques] who were cultivating them at the time when the Catholic +faith was established in Filipinas, and when they rendered fidelity, +obedience, and vassalage to the august Spanish monarchs; and of those +which were purchased from his Majesty with title of ownership from +the royal Audiencia. [They should also understand] that for this +reason the royal lands cannot be absolutely sold or alienated, since +they only enjoy the use and usufruct of them; consequently, those +who fail to cultivate them for the years appointed by the Audiencia +lose this right of use, and the magistrates ought to assign these +lands immediately to another person. As for the rest of the lands, +no one can obtain them except by right of purchase and agreement +with the tribunal of indults and compositions [219] of lands, which +his Majesty has established for this purpose. In the same manner, the +lands which they hold by this tenure, as those inherited, or purchased +from native chiefs, they cannot sell without the intervention of +the court of justice. For this reason, warning is given that in the +house-lots of the villages also they have no more than the use of the +land; on this account, whenever the term of three years has passed +without those who had formerly lived on them building houses on these +lots, it has been and is the duty of the court to assign these lots +to other persons--without allowing or accepting lawsuit or claim, +when this neglect is evident, either through general report or by the +verbal deposition of witnesses who have resided there a long time and +are conscientious; for these house-lots are common property of the +villages in which they are located, and for this reason the ownership +of them cannot be sold, because this title does not belong to those +who dwell in them. In regard to this matter, and with observation +and knowledge of the injuries connected with it, this chief executive +(having been actually present in this, province of Pampanga, and in +the others that have been named) likewise ordains that the house and +house-lot cannot be seized from any debtor, of whatever class he may +be, as is commonly done--leaving in the street, and exposed to beggary +and other evils, a multitude of Indians who perhaps would again be +self-supporting, if they could have recourse to their own sheltering +roof (which hardly would be worth as much as ten pesos), and the trees +which they enjoyed on their own land. Proceedings must be taken only +against their goods, without leaving them or their wives destitute; +for it is very well known (as those who lend ought to know) that no +one can lend to a native more than five pesos--an amount which he +can easily pay with his work, or with some article of luxury which +he may possess. This regulation must serve for the magistrates, +as they are ordained and commanded, in order that they may conform +to it; and, in virtue of the ordinance by his Majesty that in cases +involving from one to five hundred pesos formal claim shall not be +brought into court, the alcaldes-mayor shall decide these verbally, +without receiving formal complaints, or anything else except the +[original] documents, or the verbal declaration or confrontation of +the parties. It must be noted that in cases where this is necessary, +and the complaining party shall name some valuable article which is +worth the amount of his demand, the magistrate shall proceed to sell +it in the public square; and by selling it to the highest bidder, +in one day (which shall be announced by the public crier), payment +shall be made to the claimant, handing over the rest to the debtor, +and deducting only such fees as are proper for the few hours of +time which the judge may have spent on the case. By this, however, +must be understood that in such cases their wooden houses which may +have some value (as they actually do in most of the villages) shall +not remain exempt from seizure; for it is certain that the owners of +such houses, if through ill-luck or calamity they come to misfortune, +can never lack some means among their own relatives for establishing +themselves in some humble house, which they can erect as cheaply as +I have just stated. + +In regard to the repartimientos of people for the royal works, +which are constructed in the provinces near Manila, as also in +regard to the domestic servants [tanores], and other people who are +assigned for work on the churches, government buildings, and jails, +and guards [bantayes], etc., various regulations have been made; +but, knowing that these are not sufficient to uproot so many wrongs, +injuries and oppressions as the Indians suffer from the magistrates +of their villages, and from the heads of barangay--making the villages +contribute a greater number of people than is needed and required, and +exempting from their turn of service those who should render it (both +of these proceedings serving to defraud the poor, who, in order not to +leave their grain fields, yield whatever the magistrates and chiefs +ask from them, according to their caprice and the extent of their +greed)--it is ordained and commanded that both these repartimientos +be carried out with the knowledge and consent of the parish curas. To +each individual cura must be sent a statement of the number of people +necessary, and of the quota from each village; and the headmen shall +be under strict obligation to obtain certificates from the said father +curas that they have carried out the repartimiento in conformity with +the decrees. It must be understood that these repartimientos cannot +be made in conscience, and without contravention of the law, among the +farmers and artisans who are occupied in their tasks, so long as there +are wandering and idle people, since these last are the ones assigned +by the law for these necessities. As little are the sons of the chief +exempt, or the heads of barangay who have no occupation, or those who +have held an official position, if, relying on this sort of privilege, +they do not return to their former occupation or duties in the field. + +Finally, it is ordained and commanded to all the governors, +corregidors, alcaldes-mayor, and other magistrates throughout the +island, that they most punctually observe and fulfil whatever is here +decreed, in order thus to render greater service to God, and to the +king--who has entrusted to the carefulness, conscience and vigilance +of this supreme government the welfare of these islands and of all +their inhabitants; also their social condition, just government, +promotion, and reputation. And the said governors, corregidors, +alcaldes-mayor and other magistrates here mentioned are warned to +fulfil whatever is here decreed, under a penalty of five hundred +pesos fine; and on the alcaldes of the natives, the mestizos, and +others of their class a fine of twenty pesos is imposed, both fines +to be applied in the usual manner. These fines shall be exacted from +them whenever any application shall be presented that is founded upon +any transgression of this decree, or when its infraction shall be +proved in any manner. And as it is necessary that the parish priests +shall aid, on their side, and shall be zealous for its fulfilment, +the reverend and illustrious archbishops and bishops and the devout +provincials of the islands shall be urgently requested to incite +and oblige their parish priests to the observance of these wholesome +regulations and ordinances, charging upon their consciences that if +they know of any failure to observe the decree, they shall communicate +it to the supreme government. The said reverend prelates shall also be +notified that this supreme government expects--from their well-known +zeal and love for their flocks, and because they have resigned all +else for the greater service of God and of the king--that they will +coöperate by their utterances and with their effective persuasions in +fulfilling by all means the desires and intentions of the governor, +who considers himself under the strictest obligation to issue this +ordinance, and to command that it be carried out until his Majesty +shall be pleased to confirm it. Before his royal throne will be +presented the merit and activity of each one of those who excel +in solicitude for its observance, a full account of which will be +given to his Majesty in our next despatches. And, in order that this +decree may be known in all the villages and in all the districts of +the island, and published with all possible fulness and clearness, +it shall be translated into all the dialects; and as many copies as +shall be necessary shall be printed, in two columns, the first in +Castilian, and the second in the respective idiom of the province to +which it shall be sent. Copies of these shall be posted everywhere +in the magistrates' offices of the villages, and printed copies shall +be supplied to all the courts of the capital, in order that they may +observe and fulfil the decree, so far as it belongs to them. + +At the village of Arayat, on the twentieth day of the month of March, +1784, + + +Don Joseph Basco y Vargas + + +By command of his Lordship: + +Vizente Gonzales de Tagle, notary-public ad interim of the +government. [220] + + + + + + + + +AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS IN 1866 + +[The following article is taken from Jagor's Reisen, pp. 303-306.] + + +Excepting some large estates acquired in earlier times through +donation, landed property originated mainly through the right of +occupation by the possessor and his rendering the land productive which +even now is a common right recognized in the laws of the Indias in +favor of the indigenous inhabitants. In the exercise of this right, +the native takes possession of such unused land as is necessary +for his house and tilled fields, and loses it only when it remains +uncultivated for two years. Setting aside these native (and likewise +very poor) landed proprietors, landed property is legally acquired in +the following manner: through purchase from the state of a certain +area of unimproved crown lands [Spanish, realengas]; through actual +purchase from the natives who possess property; through contracts +(called pactos de retro) concluded with the natives; and through +the pledging or hypothecation of bonds, which even these natives are +accustomed to agree to, especially in commercial dealings. + +The first of these means ought to be a source of wealth; but it is +not, for various reasons. At present very few persons are familiar +with the legislation regarding the unused crown land, which consists +of numberless single decrees forming a casuistical, disconnected, +complicated, and confused mass.... By a royal order of 1857, the first +offer for untilled crown lands was fixed at fifty dollars a quiñon; +and the concession could not be secured without a previous public +auction. From that time private persons held aloof from such demands; +to the former evils are added the high price, and the danger of being +outbidden in the auction, and thus of losing one's trouble and expense +for the examination of the lands. In 1859 the decree was modified, and +the former price of four reals a quiñon as first offer was established; +but this decree is not yet published. + +In order that capital may flow into agriculture--without which that +industry cannot possibly be developed to the production of grain +and colonial products for exportation--it is absolutely necessary +to overcome all obstacles which discourage men of wealth. Among +these hindrances stands in the first rank the local administration, +in regard to the granting of untilled crown lands; in the second, +the obstructions which are placed in the way of both [Spanish] +natives and foreigners who wish to acquire rights of settlement and +citizenship in the community. Besides the difficulty of acquiring large +possessions, still others exist. The planter can easily find laborers, +to whom he must make considerable advances in food, cattle, and money; +but the Indians pay little attention to fulfilling their contracts, +and the legal means at the command of the planter for compelling +them to fulfill their past engagements are as burdensome and ruinous +as even the abandonment of his rights. Unless the alcalde is active +and shows good-will, the planters usually prefer not to press their +claims; they endure the loss, and many are thus induced to abandon +their enterprises. This cancer on agriculture will disappear as soon +as every Indian possesses a certificate of citizenship [Bürgerbrief; +Spanish, cédula de vecindad]. If one weathers the first year, storms, +locusts, and business crises are to be expected later, all of which +depress the price of his product. In such cases it is for the planter +the greatest evil that no credit exists. There are no mortgages, at +least there is no compulsory registration of mortgages; accordingly, +no one dares to lend his money on such estates, or he does it only at +crushing rates of usurious interest. An improvement in this respect is +urgently demanded by the agricultural interests, both great and small, +by the mercantile class, and by large and small estates; it would place +a limit to the pacto de retro, as well as to the usurious contracts +which are called in Luzon tacalanan, in Bisaya alili--the furnishing +of loans on the proceeds of the next harvest--to which must be ascribed +the misery and the backward conditions that prevail in many places.... + +The pacto de retro is one of the most usual modes in which landed +property passes from the possession of the natives to others. A +considerable part of Pampanga, Bataan, Manila, Laguna, Batangas, +and other provinces has, within a few years, changed owners in this +way. Thus also do the inexpressibly cunning and thrifty mestizos +usually acquire their landed possessions, the cultivation of which +they then improve; but that does not prevent this custom from being +detrimental to the public welfare. The native who possesses a piece of +land through placing it under cultivation and actually occupying it, +but almost never (or very seldom) by purchase from another owner, when +he finds himself in pressing need of money offers his land as a pledge +for the desired loan from a capitalist; but where he has no document to +establish and prove his just claim, no foundation exists for a loan on +mortgage under moderate conditions, since the applicant is free from +all burdens and obligations. The capitalist therefore looks for his +own security in immediate possession. The hypotheca is converted into +an antichresis security (prenda pretoria), and as it is with great +difficulty (or at least it very seldom occurs), that the Indian who +receives the money consents to pay it back at the appointed time, +and it is not to the lender's interest to force him to pay it, the +result is, that for a sum corresponding to the secured loan--that is, +for a half or a third of the value of the security--the piece of land +finally changes proprietors. Not seldom it happens that the former +proprietor remains on the land as a farmer (that is, as a laborer, +in reality as a slave to his debts). Often the Indian is seduced into +contracts of this sort by his passion for cockfighting and gambling. + +The laws of the country require the Indians to live in villages, +uniting their farms into hamlets, so that they can be watched over +and their tributes collected. In ordinary circumstances, the Indian +builds for himself a hut in his field, where he lives while he is +working his land, and goes on Saturday evenings to the village in +order to hear mass on Sunday. His field has no great value for him, +since he can always put another piece of land into cultivation, +so great is the surplus of land in all the villages remote from +the capital. The facility with which he can abandon one tract to +take possession of another is very detrimental to the development +of agriculture. A small landed proprietor, who has planted a bit of +waste land with rice or potatoes without asking any one's permission, +raises an outcry if his garden is entered by a cow or a horse that +grazed there years ago; and, since the law stands in his favor, he +is allowed to receive from the owner of the cattle payment for often +imaginary damages, while the loss from such causes should be borne +by him who cultivates a field without enclosing it. + +This same small proprietor avails himself for his own benefit, of +all the privileges and rights of an entire village of Indians, if a +wealthy man desires to lay out a plantation in his neighborhood. The +capitalist who has decided on such a plan often finds that on land +which was before entirely unfilled and waste, when he has after long +difficulties acquired control of his property, and has reckoned a +certain amount [of expense], some Indians have planted a grain field; +and through testimonies covered with signatures, which are presented +in the court, they assert that they inherited these very lands from +their fathers, and have never ceased to work them. + +A remedy for these abuses would consist in the limitation of districts, +and the jurisdiction of the municipality, so that, for the purpose +of increasing the landed property for the inhabitants of a village, +so much land should remain free as they could at the time reasonably +claim--more or less than the so-called municipal field (legua comunal), +of which, besides, no law makes mention. All the remaining land +located within the jurisdiction should be declared the property of +the crown, and the title to all possessions then located outside of +municipal control should be valid; but in future all possessions that +shall not conform to the said rules shall be declared invalid. Within +the municipal limits or the legal property of the village (which may +not extend beyond the sound of the bell) the native farmer should be +allowed to dwell, [even] outside of the village, in the midst of the +lands cultivated by him; and only in case he alienates or abandons +these should he be compelled to live in the village. The natives +should bring new plots under cultivation within the municipality, +and be able to acquire these by paying to the communal treasury +a small ground-rent, or a moderate sum once for all. Such grants +should proceed, with all publicity, from the entire body of the +notables, with the cooperation of the parish priest, and be recorded +in a safely-kept book in every village, and should never contain +a greater area than the applicant can till with his own carabaos +[Büffeln]. If such grant of state land does not exceed a quinõn, it +should be issued, according to the aforesaid forms, by the alcalde +[221] of the province; if of greater extent, in the capital of the +colony; but all ought to be recorded in the land-register of the +province and village concerned. Those measures that were taken for +the benefit of the natives and the promotion of cattle-raising, but +which have an opposite effect, ought to be abolished. Agriculture, +like every other occupation, needs no protection save clearness and +security in its essential conditions of life. + + + + + + + + +ECONOMIC SOCIETY OF FRIENDS OF THE COUNTRY + +[The following account of this association and the more notable of +its achievements is obtained from Fernandez and Moreno's Manual del +viajero en Filipinas (Manila, 1875), pp. 173-178. This subject is +presented here as being so largely connected with the progress of +agriculture in Filipinas.] + + +Founded in the year 1781, in virtue of a royal order dated August +27 in the preceding year (issued in consequence of advices from the +excellent governor Don José Basco y Vargas), in 1787 it suspended +its meetings on account of the gradual and progressive decline of the +society. In 1819 it resumed its functions, but suffered a period of +discouragement and paralysis as a result of the Asiatic cholera morbus, +which appeared then for the first time in these islands; and until +October, 1822, the few meetings which the society held had no other +object than questions of internal order, having little interest or +importance for its history. [222] A memoir published by the society +with date of January 1, 1860, [223] makes the following statement: +"From that date (October 22, 1822), it can be said, begins the series +of the society's labors and services--achievements all the greater and +more valuable, inasmuch as they proceeded from slight and ephemeral +causes, and from a corporation which could not depend on material +resources even remotely proportioned to the magnitude of its object; +and which plunged into labors [which meant] nothing less than the +advancement and civilization of a virgin country, containing more +than 8,000 square leguas of surface, with 3,000,000 of inhabitants +still half-barbarous, and without stable or established mercantile +relations with any part of the world (on account of the recent +crisis in the privileged commerce, which bad just been abolished), +with a capital of 30,000 pesos, at 5,000 leguas distance from European +civilization, and with a government occupied besides with the political +situation and calamities of those days, confiding only in its patriotic +enthusiasm and in its desires for the aggrandizement and prosperity +of the country." In the above memoir are concisely recorded three +hundred forty-seven notable achievements, all beneficial to the +country, accomplished by that distinguished society in the space of +thirty-seven years. We would gladly reproduce entire in our modest +book the relation of services so important; as we cannot do this, +we indicate those which, in our judgment, are the more notable. + +1823. February 1--Free distribution of one thousand three hundred +twenty copies of [books of] grammar, orthography, and reading-lessons, +for popular use. February 15--The society bestows a gold medal on +Don Doroteo Punzalan Estrella, for opening a channel which gave a +new and more convenient direction to the river of Tondo; and another +of silver on Don Agustin Campuzano and Pedro Antonio for other and +similar services rendered, to the benefit of the country. March +1--The society resolves to give two hundred fifty pesos annually to +endow in this island a chair of agriculture; and it appoints a prize +for the best memoir which should be written "on the causes which +hinder the development of the agriculture of the country." October +8--Translation and printing by the society of the book entitled, +Guide for the Lancasterian Mutual System of Education, [224] which +manual was distributed gratis, by decision adopted on March 9 of the +following year. December 2--Establishment of a school of drawing; the +first examinations for graduation from the said school took place April +9, 1828. The society resolves to send to India, on its own account, an +intelligent person to study the method of dyeing the cambaya fabrics; +and to order from North America three machines for hulling rice. + +1824. March 9--Offering of prizes for the best pieces of cloth woven +in Filipinas in imitation of those from China, and for the most +successful experiments in dyes for cambayas; the prizes were awarded +on September 22 of the same year. September 22--It is agreed to pay +the cost of instructing eight Indians in the art of dyeing, in order +to extend this knowledge through the country; on October 6, 1825, +the first dyers from the society's school are examined and approved. + +1826. February--Orders are given to reprint a manual presented by +Don José Montoya on the cultivation and preparation of indigo. + +1827. April 24--Printing of a memoir on the cultivation of +coffee. October 30--The society votes the sum of eight hundred pesos +for aid of the hospital for the poor in this capital. + +1828. November 26--The society orders the printing of a manual of +the elements of drawing. + +1829. November 8--Machines for hulling rice are received, sent by +the Economic Society of Cádiz. December 13--The society supports the +government's project for establishing a bank in this capital. + +1830. March 21--Reorganization of the Mercantile Register. [225] + +1833. August 13--The society discusses and reports on the project of +cultivating the poppy and making opium in Filipinas. + +1836. June 30--Voluntary donation of five hundred pesos in behalf of +the necessities of the State, on account of the war in España. + +1837. June 27--The society awards a prize of one thousand pesos to Don +Pablo de Gironier [226] for what he had done in exhibiting a coffee +plantation of more than sixty thousand trees, in readiness for its +second crop. + +1838. December 10--Another prize, of five hundred pesos, bestowed +on Don Vicente del Pino for a second coffee plantation of sixty +thousand trees. + +1839. July 12--The society assigns the sum of one hundred fifty +pesos a month, for one year, to the publication of a periodical of +industries and commerce. [227] Information regarding the uncultivated +and crown lands of Filipinas is furnished by the society, by reason +of the royal decree of May 13, 1836. + +1840. March 21--The sum of five hundred pesos awarded to Father +Blanco for the costs of printing and publishing the Flora filipina, +which bears his name. + +1843. September 14--A prize is offered for the invention of a machine +for combing abacá [fiber]. + +1844. March 14--A memoir by the society on the cultivation of sugar +cane. + +1845. August 22--An informatory report on the increase of population +and the necessity for protection to agriculture. + +1846. September 22--Prizes of one thousand and 500 pesos to Don Iñigo +Gonzales Araola for two plantations of coffee, in accordance with +the conditions of the royal decree of April 6, 1838. The society +resolves to send young men from Filipinas to study mechanics in +foreign countries. + +1847. February 3--A fifth prize, of five hundred pesos, to Don Antonio +Ortega for the cultivation of coffee. The society allots five hundred +pesos to the support of the university; and five hundred pesos for +the erection of nipa houses to aid the unfortunate [rendered homeless] +in the burning of the village of Santa Cruz. November 25--A proposal +for improving the construction of buildings in this capital; and +decision that the society build a house and afterward raffle it. + +1849. October 10--The society votes one thousand pesos for a second +attempt to acclimate in these islands the martin, a bird which destroys +the locusts. On February 27, 1850, was added another allotment of +five hundred pesos; and on November 16, 1852, another of one thousand +three hundred eleven pesos, with the same end in view. + +1850. August 16--Report is made in regard to a museum, and to +the provisional allowance of one thousand five hundred forty-seven +pesos to arrange that such museum be formed. The sum of five hundred +pesos is voted, to be spent for specimens of articles representing +the industries of the country, so that these can be exhibited at +the London Exposition; in consequence of this exhibit, the society +receives (April 12, 1853) from the Universal Exposition of London +a prize for the specimens that were sent there of fabrics woven from +vegetable fiber, and a special prize for the weaving of the cigar-cases +[petacas] of Baliuag. [228] On May 13, 1858, it receives from London +a new medal as a prize for articles from Filipinas. + +1852. November 16--Systematic report on the opening of more ports to +the external commerce of Filipinas; on June 15, 1855, the society +congratulates the government on the establishment of the ports of +Iloilo, Sual, and Zamboanga. + +1853. April 12--Prize of two thousand pesos and honor of a medal +awarded to Don Cándido Lopez Diaz for the invention of a machine +for cleaning the abacá. November 15--The sum of one hundred pesos is +voted to the subscription for the necessities of Galicia. + +1854. March 17--Contribution of five hundred pesos for aiding the +necessities of the village of Tondo, in consequence of the fire which +occurred there some time before that date. + +1855. January 9--The society offers the government twenty per cent of +its capital, without interest, for the improvement of the construction +of public buildings; on July 23, 1857, money is paid out for public +works. May 18--Gives information on the importance to the country of +the government being favorable to the free exportation of rice. August +26--Project for instituting a school for small children. October +3--Distribution of elementary books provided by the society, treating +of the cultivation of coffee, the preparation of indigo, and the +principles of drawing. + +1856. March 4--Report in regard to sending young men to Europe, +in order that they may devote themselves to mechanical studies. + +1856 [misprint for 1857?]. July 27--Votes a grant of one thousand +pesos to purchase objects for the museum and preserve them with those +already therein. December 12--Consideration of matters relating to +a company for [operating] steamboats. [229] + +1858. September 6--Scheme for rendering uniform the weights and +measures of Filipinas. November 15--Consideration of two crops of +rice in Filipinas, and report favorable thereto by Señor Govantes +(a member), who furnished information on the mode of improving and +making dikes without any cost or difficulty. + +In this interesting account of meritorious deeds we have omitted, +in order not to make it too long, the numerous reports sent out +by the society for draining marshes, loans of money for promoting +agriculture and the mechanic arts, rewards to literary works, etc. We +should state that at present [in 1875] the society holds the meetings +provided for in its by-laws; and that each member, in order to defray +in part the expenses of the corporation, contributes annually twelve +pesos from his own funds. We do not doubt that it will continue its +vigilant efforts, in order to realize, as far as possible its motto, +"Public felicity." The chronological record of its resolutions +from 1822 to 1860 also forms a memorial of the progress which has +been made in this country in agriculture and industries; [230] and, +although it is not strictly proper for this place, we set down here, +in continuation, some data referring to the said acts, for the purpose +of bringing together in this section of our work all the activities +in which the said Economic Society has exerted an influence. + +1822. November 25--Woolen cloth [paño] woven, the first in Filipinas, +by one of its members, Don Santiago Herreros. + +1823. July 18--First cards for wool made in Filipinas, by a member of +the corporation, Fray Diego Cera. It sends to China a plant and some +seeds of the vanilla of the country. The existence of cerpentaria +[sic] is recognized, a plant equally valuable with xiquilite [231] +for the production of indigo. On April 24, 1827, report was made +of a record of experiments made for extracting from the said plants +the fecula [i.e., coloring matter] of the indigo; and on September +5, 1828, a botanical description was furnished of the cerpentaria, +and an analysis of the fecula which it produces. September 4--Seed +of the sugar cane of Filipinas is sent to Habana, and that of rice +(or palay) to the Economic Society of Sevilla. + +1824. September 2--The first permanent dyes for cotton and +nipis. October 19--Wool, silk, and shellac [goma laca] are produced +in Cebú. + +1825. April 2--First report of the society on the establishment of +a paper-mill; the second report on the same subject was issued on +March 14, 1835. + +1826. February 11--Spinning machinery is ordered from the United +States. June 13--The first of the goods called "Coast" cambayas and +kerchiefs, [but] of inferior quality, are woven and dyed, through +the influence of the corporation. December 9--The cochineal insect +is brought into these islands. + +1827. April 24--Importation of a horse and two mares of superior +blood, presented to the society in order to improve the breed in +these islands. + +1828. November 26--Information regarding the pine, the torch-wood +[tea] of northern Luzon, and of a plant which produces a blue dye +like the indigo. + +1834. February 24--Reports for the acclimation of tea in Filipinas; the +first trial of this cultivation was undertaken on August 14, 1837, and +five hundred plants ordered from Batavia. August 8--Abacá is exported +for the first time. December 12--Information upon the existence of +mineral coal in Cebú, Surigao Angat, and Monte de San Mateo. + +1835. March 14--Information collected regarding the silk industry +in Caraga, various kinds of fiber for cordage (including one which +appears suitable for replacing hemp), a bark suitable for dyeing black, +and the discovery of a copper mine in Masbate. September 15--First +sowing of abacá in Laguna; on March 19, 1837, the first specimens of +the said product are presented. + +1836. April 23--Machines for hulling rice by steam power, and on a +large scale, introduced by Don Eulogio de Otaduy. Cottonseed sown in +Antique, using seed from Pernambuco. + +1839. July 12--Caldrons [made] of red copper from the mountains +of Pangasinan. + +1841. January 29--Propagation here of the cotton from North America +known by the name of "[Sea] Island;" and request for seeds is sent +to the United States. + +1843. March 14--Importation of a steam machine for extracting the +fiber of [para acorchar] abacá. + +1848. June 14--Inquiry into the existence in the country of the white +poppy from which the opium is extracted. (On April 20, 1849, the +society issues a very explicit report on the cultivation of the said +plant and the preparation of opium [232] in Filipinas.) December 22--A +note regarding gutta percha and gamboge, by Don Jacobo Zobel, a member. + +1849. April 30--Acquisition and planting of eleven roots of the +tallow-tree, [233] at the country-house of Malacañan. + +1850. November 4--Introduction of new apparatus and methods proposed +by Señor Sagra for the manufacture of sugar. Report on the promotion +of abacá culture. + +1851. May 5--Memoir on clays in the environs of this capital, +and their application in the art of pottery. Wild cha [i.e., tea] +found in abundance in the island of Masbate. July 18--Report on the +exportation of rice. + +1854. August 29--Appointment of a commission to report to the society +upon the present state of agriculture in the country, and obstacles +which must be removed for its complete development. + +1855. January 9--Gutta-percha found in Romblon. [234] July 28--The +society grants a gold medal to Don Juan B. Marcaido for his efforts +and studies in the method of extracting the abacá fiber from all the +species of bananas which grow in the country. + +1856. March 4--Communications referring to the method of securing the +[edible] birds'-nests in Calamianes. + +1857. October 1--Presentation of specimens of soaps made in the +country. + +1858. April 19--Knowledge of a gum called conchú found in +Marianas. August 15--Information given by Señor Barbaza, a member, +relative to a hundred kinds of rice in Visayas. + +1859. May 10--Project regarding agriculture and commerce. + +(We have endeavored to make note of the important activities in which +the said society has taken the initiative or has shared since 1860, +up to the date of the printing of the Manual; and here is the result +of our investigations.) + +1860. February 11--The society makes a subscription of five thousand +pesos to defray, in part, the expenses of the African war. + +1861. October 8--The society votes to contribute two thousand pesos +from its funds for the expenses of sending articles from Filipinas +to the London exposition. Efforts are made to acclimate in Filipinas +the cochineal insect. + +1862. March 8--It decides to give a prize to the cotton-grower +who produces most. May 26--Full report by the society in favor +of the establishment of a school of agriculture, theoretical and +practical. Report on conducting water to the capital. [235] September +30--The society resolves to obtain seed of cotton from Egypt, to +distribute it among the farmers. October 30--The society receives +official notice of the prizes awarded to the Philippine exhibitors +in the London exposition. + +1863. May 23--A specimen of spirits of turpentine is presented to the +society, having a strength of 37° by Cartier's areometer, obtained +from the trees of the country; a prize is granted to the person who +prepared it. October 27--The society subscribes five hundred pesos +to relieve the necessities of the artisans and laborers who suffered +in the earthquake of June 3. + +1864. July 8--Full report regarding the rebate of import duties on +wheat flour. + +1865. July 17--The society votes three gold medals and five of silver, +and five prizes of one hundred pesos each, for the owners of new houses +which may be built, which in the greatest degree shall combine the +requirements of solidity and economy, and in which no nipa shall be +used. October 31--Full report on the establishment of a quarantine +station in the bay of Manila. The society resolves to contribute a +sum monthly for the promotion of the botanical garden, a practical +school of botany. [236] + +1866. December 22--The society votes seven prizes in money for the +best exhibitors, in the fair at Batangas: for cows with their calves, +for the two finest female carabaos [caraballas] with their calves; for +the two finest mares with their colts; to the female weaver who shall +present [specimens of] the best ordinary fabrics of cotton or abacá +for common use in the garments of the people; for the best fabrics of +silk; for rewarding makers of hats or petacas; and for the horse-races. + +1867. October 30--The society resolves to spend five hundred pesos in +purchasing plows, spades, and other farming implements, to distribute +them among the farmers of Ilocos and Abra who may have suffered the +greatest losses in consequence of a terrible inundation. + +1868. July 11--The society decides to reward, with a gold and a silver +medal, the authors of the best two memoirs which shall be presented +proposing "the means which the government and the society can employ +to secure the development of agriculture in the country." October +16--Motion for the establishment of a savings bank and public loan +office. + +1871. December 11--A gold medal is granted to Don Santiago Patero +for the memoir presented to the society by that gentleman upon the +cultivation of coffee and cacao, besides the printing of five thousand +copies of the said treatise in order that it may be brought to the +knowledge of the farmers. + +1874. Project for an annual fair and exposition at Manila. A study +of the mutual use of bills of exchange in Filipinas. Preparation of +a memoir on the cultivation and manufacture of sugar; and others on +the trade in coffee and cacao, and the abacá industry. Appointment +of a commission for studying the project for establishment of an +agricultural bank. + +[The limitations of our available space compel us to omit any detailed +account of agriculture in the islands; we have chosen to present, +in the preceding papers, a view of agricultural conditions at two +different periods--in Basco's decree, 1784; and in Jagor's account, +1866--with an outline of the efforts and achievements of the Economic +Society from 1781 to 1874 (which aimed to develop the agricultural +resources of the country and with these its manufactures and commerce), +and references to the leading authorities on this subject, most of +these works being easy of access for the student and thus rendering +unnecessary our further use of them in this series. These references +here follow: Comyn, Estado, pp. 6-21, and chart ii at end; Mas, +Informe, ii, section on agriculture (47 pp.); Mallat, Les Philippines, +ii, pp. 255-282; Buzeta and Bravo, Diccionario, i, pp. 169-206; Jagor, +Reisen, in various places; Montero y Vidal, Archipiélago filipino, +pp. 204-216; Worcester, Philippine Islands, pp. 503-510--and, for +description of native methods, [237] his "Non-Christian Tribes of +Northern Luzon," in Phil. Journal of Science, October, 1906; the +Annual Reports of U. S. Philippine Commission; Official Handbook of +Philippines, pp. 99-118; Census of the Philippines, iv, pp. 11-394 +(including detailed and classified statistics of the subject for the +year 1903); and the Farmers' Bulletins published by the Insular Bureau +of Agriculture, Manila. Cf. also the chapters on agriculture, titles +to land, and agricultural products, in "Remarks by an Englishman" +and Bernaldez's "Memorial," in VOL. LI; the section on agriculture +in LeRoy's contribution to the present volume; and titles of works on +these subjects which are enumerated in Griffin's List of Books on the +Philippines, Pardo de Tavera's Biblioteca filipina, Vindel's Catálogo +biblioteca filipina, and Retana's Aparato bibliográfico de Filipinas +(Madrid, 1906).] + + + + + + + + +ERRATA AND ADDENDA TO VOLUMES I-LII + + +VOLUME I + +P. 91, lines 1-3: This is not correctly stated; see p. 30, last +sentence in first paragraph. + +P. 130, middle: Navarrete, cited; "edition 1858" should read "edition +1859." + +P. 185, last paragraph: The following information is furnished by +the courtesy of Prof. Winslow Upton, director of Ladd Observatory, +Brown University: "The first and second methods enumerated in this +quotation refer to that now known as the Method by Lunar Distances, +which was already in use in the sixteenth century. In the former the +position of the moon was to be determined by its measured distance from +some star, in the latter from the sun. Since risings and settings at an +assumed horizon are specified, it is probable that the distance between +moon and sun was determined by the time interval of their respective +risings and settings. The fourth method is that still known by the same +name. The statement of the third method is obscure. It may mean that +the longitude was to be found by a measured distance on the surface +of the earth from a station whose longitude was already known. This +distance could be turned into difference of longitude if the length +corresponding to a degree of longitude in that latitude were first +determined. This method is used today in geodetic operations." + +P. 218, note 184: The India House of Trade (Casa de Contratación) was +created by a decree of Isabel of Castilla (January 14, 1503) as both a +commercial board and a tribunal; and it partly replaced the admiralty +court which had been established in Sevilla since the thirteenth +century, the quarters of the latter (in the old Alcázar) being +assigned to the India House when the latter was first organized. The +powers of the India House increased greatly in the course of time, +and it was subordinate to no council save that of the Indias; in +1583 a chamber of justice was added to it. This institution was, by a +decree of 1717, removed in the following year to Cádiz. An interesting +study on the India House is found in Los trabajos geográficos de +la Casa de Contratación (Sevilla, 1900), by Manuel de la Puente y +Olea. This work--prepared by careful examination of the documents in +the archives--is devoted to the early voyages of discovery that were +undertaken under the auspices of the India House and its navigators, +ending with that of Loaysa (1525); the geographical studies made by +its cosmographers, and other scientific researches connected with +its enterprises; and the enrichment of the fauna and flora of the +New World due to the conveyance thither of useful plants, fruits, +and animals through the agency of the House. See also the detailed +account of this institution, its organization, policy, and methods, +by Bernard Moses, in Annual Report of American Historical Association, +1894, pp. 93-123: a large part of that paper also appears in his +Establishment of Spanish Rule in America (N. Y., 1898), chap. iii. + +P. 275, note 201: For "inflicted" read "afflicted." + +P. 282, note 202: "During the process of exploration and settlement, +authority in America rested in the hands of leaders of expeditions +and colonies, who usually bore the title of adelantado. This was the +title formerly applied in Spain to the military and political governor +of a frontier province. Standing face to face with the Moors, he held +the general military command of the province, and had power to gather +the people under his standard. In his capacity as a civil officer, +he took cognizance of such civil and criminal cases as arose within +the limits of his territory. [Santamaria de Paredes, in Derecho +politico, p. 487, has described the adelantados as 'governors of +great territories, with a character chiefly military.']" (Moses, +Spanish Rule in America, p. 68.) + +P. 297, note 205: For "Strait of Magellan" read "La Plata River." + +P. 300, in address of letter: For "Cel." read "Ces." Line 2 from +end: For "Avises" read "Avisos." The endorsement should read thus: +["De cochin a 23 de Dic. de 1522." "A su mag xxjx de agosto."] For +dates of these letters see data thereon in the bibliographical volume +(LIII) of this series. + + + + +VOLUME II + +P. 73, end of paragraph: For detailed account of early expeditions +previous to that of Legazpi, see the Historia general of Fray +Rodrígo de Aganduru Moriz, published in Doc. ined. hist. de España, +tom. lxxviii and lxxix (Madrid, 1882). + +P. 75: To list of translators add, "the ninth, by Francis W. Snow." + +P. 79, line 9: For "secular" read "layman." + +P. 83, line 16: For "Lepuzcua" read "Guipuzcoa." + +P. 84, line 4 from end: For "buttock-timbers" read "futtock-timbers." + +P. 115, line 9: For "Panay" read "Panaon." + +P. 126, line 12 (and in many similar cases): The word "painted" is +the literal translation of the Spanish pintado, and here refers to +the custom of tattooing the body. + +P. 129, near end: The "lofty volcanoes" may have been Canlaon and +Magasú, in Negros Oriental. + +P. 167, line 7 from end: For "novelty" read "innovations." + +P. 173, note 84: Evidently "Pito" was in the original "Pito," for +"Polito;" the man being actually "[Hy] polito the drummer." + +P. 192, paragraph 4: "S. S." stands for "Señores," meaning the native +grandees of those countries. + +P. 193, middle: For "cloths" read "canvas." + +P. 194, line 2 from end: After "fifty" add "thousand." + +P. 197, line 1: Bancroft (Hist. Mexico, ii, p. 600) says that Arellano +tried to secure the reward offered for discovering the return route +from the Spice Islands. + +P. 220, line 8 in heading: For "PRONE-" read "PROUE-." + +P. 231, end of text: This letter was probably written by some one +belonging to Arellano's ship, or who obtained his information from +that captain's followers. + +P. 237, middle: For "officers" read "artisans." + +P. 276, line 5: For "by" read "with." + +P. 297, last line: The viceroy's name should be Luis de Velasco. + +P. 332, paragraph 2: For "leg. 1, 23" read "leg. 1/23." + + + + +VOLUME III + +P. 29, lines 1-7: "The intimate relation between the king and his +American dominions necessitated a regular organized system of postal +communication. As early as 1514, by a royal warrant, Dr. Galindez +de Carvajal was made postmaster of the Indies, and by a subsequent +order of the Council of the Indies, issued in 1524, all persons +were restrained from interfering with him in the dispatch of messages +concerning the affairs of the Indies. The lines of this service covered +the distance between Seville and the other ports, and Madrid, as well +as the distances between Spain and America. The postmaster of the +Indies was an officer of the India House.... Rigorous laws enjoined +all persons from intercepting and opening letters and packets. Of +the amount paid for this service the postmaster was allowed one tenth +part." (Moses, Spanish Rule in America, pp. 64, 65.) + +P. 33, note 1: For "Spain" read "Nueva España." + +P. 77, middle: Agias, probably meaning the clusters of fruit on the +variety of pepper which is called aji (or agi) in America. + +P. 113, line 3: For "seventy" read "sixty-eight." + +P. 118, line 5 from end: For "twenty-eight" read "eighteenth." + +P. 223, note 73: For "pp. 108-112" read "pp. 54-61." + + + + +VOLUME IV + +Pp. 46 and 47: These are transposed in the "make-up." + +P. 68, note 6: See Worcester's interesting account of the Tinguians +in his "Non-Christian Tribes of Northern Luzon," p. 860; he praises +their abilities, industry, eagerness to learn, and excellent traits +of character, and their relatively high degree of civilization, +as compared with that of their neighbors. + +P. 131, note 14, line 3 from end: Regarding Batachina, see VOL. XXVII, +p. 105, note 39. + +P. 139, line 3 under "Sources:" for "original MS. documents" read +"MS. copies." + +P. 150, line 4 from end of text: Delete "[caliph?]." + +P. 166: By an error in the "make-up" the last five lines on the page +are misplaced; they belong at the top. + +P. 205, line 9 from end: For "Pablo" read "Pedro." The same correction +should be made on p. 247, line 13 from end. + +P. 284, line 9: For "up" read "above." Note 38: The chief early +authority on the islands of Mindanao and Joló, with their people, +is Combés's Hist. de Mindanao y Joló, which has been used frequently +in this series. His descriptions of the latter are thus located in +his book: the tribes, cols. 27-44; their boats and weapons, 70-76; +their customs, 61-70; their character, laws, and government, 49-61; +their sects and superstitions, 44-48. Another excellent authority is +Forrest, whose Voyage contains much valuable information. The best +account of the history and culture of the people is that given by +N. M. Saleeby, in his "Studies in Moro Law, History, and Religion," +already cited by us. Cf. also late U. S. government publications on +the islands, in which there is much matter regarding the Moro tribes. + +P. 289, last line: For "an" read "on." + +P. 320, line 2 from end: For "forty MSS." read "forty-one MS." + + + + +VOLUME V + +P. 31, line 2 from end of text: For "and two priests" read "two of +them priests." ("Theatins" is here used for "Jesuits," as explained +in VOL. XIX, p. 64.) + +P. 39: Cf. the statistics of population, throughout Loarca's Relación, +with those in "Account of Encomiendas," VOL. VIII, pp. 96-141; also +in U. S. Census of Philippines, 1903, ii, pp. 123-209. + +P. 41, lines 22, 23: For "On the other side of the above-mentioned +native communities" read "Besides the above-mentioned natives, there +is"--and, in fifth line below, omit "is" before "a village." In last +line, for "village" read "Spanish settlement." + +P. 43, line 1: This should read "There are more than thirty +encomenderos." End of line 7: For "treasury," read "revenue." + +P. 49, line 6: For "other" read "except two of the." + +P. 51, line 4: For "Cavigava" read "Carigara." Line 2 of paragraph +on Panaon: For "lies" read "lie respectively." In next paragraph: +For "built around" read "located along." + +P. 55, line 4: For "well-disposed" read "shrewd traders." + +P. 57, line 1: For "seen" read "discovered." + +P. 61, paragraph on tree-dwellings: For "in each one a house is +built which can contain" read "in one house at the top of a tree +live;" and after "fortress" insert "for defense." End of this page, +and line 1 of p. 63: For "formerly did much harm to the natives" read +"the natives of this island have done them much harm;" and for "making" +(line 2) read "the ships make." + +P. 63, paragraph on Mindanao: For words after end of bracketed clause, +read "but it is not necessary on this account to seize all that is +discovered in the island of Mindanao." + +P. 65, line 2 from end: This is a line of type set in here by mistake; +for it read "belongs to an encomendero in the." + +P. 69, lines 11 and 12 from end: For "from the cases which are brought +before the law for settlement" read "from other commissions which +are entrusted to the magistrate." + +P. 71, line 12 from top of page: After dash insert "and." + +P. 73, line 13: For "cocoa-beans" read "cacao-beans." In next +paragraph: For "mats--the latter from rushes" read "petates, which +are mats." + +P. 75, paragraph on Buracay: The last sentence is incorrect; the +second clause should read "no rice is cultivated there, but they have +a source of income in some goats." + +P. 77, line 11: For "wheat and produce" read "grain and collect." Line +4 from end: omit "larger." + +P. 79, line 8 from end: For "righting" read "cleaning;" adreçar in +the text is evidently a phonetic rendering of aderezar. + +P. 83, line 4: For "monks" read "friars." + +P. 95, line 8 from end: For "dependencies" read "lands belonging +to it." + +P. 113, line 2 from end: For "returning from" read "in the direction +of." + +P. 117, line 4: For "no" read "hardly any." + +P. 118, line 8: For "ouo" read "uno." + +P. 125, line 8 from end of text: For "Inheritances" read "Maganitos;" +this refers to the superstitious ceremony described on p. 131, +near middle. + +P. 187: The sentence after Loarca's signature should read, "He was one +of the first who came to these islands, and is greatly interested in +these matters; and therefore I consider this a reliable and accurate +account"--apparently an indorsement of the "Relation," by Governor +Peñalosa. + +P. 189, last paragraph: For "Amanicaldo" read "Amanicalao;" for +"Luanbacar," "Tuanbacar;" for "Capaymisilo," "Capa and Misilo." + +P. 201, note: For "Sevillano" read "of Sevilla." + +P. 222, line 2: In regard to the cruelty displayed by the Spaniards +to the Indians, see George E. Ellis's "Las Casas, and the relations +of the Spaniards to the Indians," in Winsor's Narrative and Critical +History of America, ii, pp. 299-348. Cf. Karl Häbler's remarks in +Helmolt's History of the World (N. Y., 1902), i, pp. 390-396. + +P. 239, lines 8 and 9: By a printer's mistake, a line of "dead" type +was inserted instead of the one which belongs here; for "volves" +to "will" inclusive read "if it is managed in this manner. Let your +Majesty." + +P. 249, line 11 from end: For "will" read "should." + +P. 257, section 2: For "lay" read "secular" (it refers to the municipal +council of Manila). + +P. 258, note 37. On this subject, consult the magnificent work of +Henry C. Lea, History of the Inquisition in Spain (N. Y., 1906-07), +the only full and scholarly account thus far given, and based on +extensive researches in the Spanish archives. He discusses the origin +and establishment of that institution, its relations with the State, +its jurisdiction, organization, resources, practice, punishments, +spheres of action, etc. + +P. 263, lines 9, 10, 13: For "from" read "in regard to." Note 38: +Concepción states (Hist. de Philipinas, ix, p. 204) that the public +sentence of anathema against those who were contumacious to the edicts +of the Inquisition, whether for heresies or sins--a sentence which that +tribunal commanded to be read every three years--had been pronounced +only twice up to his time (1790). This was done by the Augustinian +commissary Pater-nina, in 1659; and by the Dominican commissary Juan +de Arechederra, in 1718. + +P. 265, near middle: For "prudence" read "conduct." + +P. 280, section 14: For "report to" read "take residencia of." + +P. 286, line 6--also p. 287, last line of section 35: For "except" read +"even." P. 287, section 37, line 1: For "inability" read "disability." + +P. 289, near middle: For "remit" read "refer." Line 4: For "buildings" +read "works." + +P. 291, line 5: For "machinery" read "industries." + +P. 293, section 56, lines 4 and 5: instead of "bishops," etc., read +"bishop for the clergy whom we present to benefices." + +P. 299, section 74: For "caciquedoms for" read "authority as chiefs +on account of;" and for "milreis," "maravedis." + +P. 305, section 103: For "when they exact" read "that they may exact." + +P. 307, section 113: For "receive" read "levy." For "superintendents" +read "tax-collectors;" calpiste means "the steward or collector whom +the encomenderos stationed in the Indian villages," and calpisque +"the collector of the taxes or tributes which belong to the lord of +the village" (Dominguez, supplement). Section 114, lines 1 and 2: For +"granted in encomiendas by" read "allotted in." Section 121, line 1: +This should read, "The registers must be examined and marked with +a signet." + + + + +VOLUME VI + +P. 78, note 18: Omit words in parentheses. The Portuguese form of +the name, Macao, ends in a nasalized sound, unsuited to the Spanish +tongue; the Spaniards represent this by calling it Macan; and Macati +is apparently only a transcriber's error. + +P. 241, line 2: For "written" read "received." Line 3: For "for" read +"from." + + + + +VOLUME VII + +P. 39, note 5: This name should be Bay, instead of Bombon. + +P. 154, middle: For "river Madre" read "the waters of the river." + +P. 167, line 8 from end: Delete "[Siam]." + +P. 174, lines 7-9: The sentence between dashes is evidently an +interpolation by the editor of Santa Inés's Cronica (to which this +account by Plasencia is appended), and referring to the preliminary +ten chapters of that work, which furnish a description of the islands +and their people. + +P. 194, line 1: "In almost every large village [he is speaking of +Samar and Leyte] there are one or more families of Asuáns, who are +universally feared and avoided, and treated as outcasts, and who can +marry only among their own number; they have the reputation of being +cannibals. Are they perhaps descended from men-eaters? The belief +is very general and deeply rooted. When questioned about this, +old and intelligent Indians answered that certainly they did not +believe that the Asuáns now ate human flesh, but their forefathers +had without doubt done this." "Cannibals, properly speaking, in the +Philippines were not mentioned by the early writers. Pigafetta had +heard that on a river at Cape Benuian (the northern point of Mindanao) +a people lived who cut out only the heart of a captured foe, and +ate it with lemon-juice. Dr. Semper (Philippinen, p. 62) found the +same practice, except the use of lemon-juice, on the eastern coast +of Mindanao." (Jagor, Reisen, p. 236.) + +P. 197, line 4: For "Felipe II" read "Council of Indias." + +P. 207, note 32: After "king" add "or the fiscal." + +P. 222, note 34: At beginning of line 5 insert "Ceylon, erroneously +applied by some early writers to." + +P. 224, line 13: More definitely located by the editor of Reseña +biográfica (i, p. 114), who says, "It was in the place that is now +called Arroceros [i.e., "the rice-market"]. (Note.) It was a great +quadrangle of porticos which enclosed a spacious lagoon; the latter +communicated with the Pasig river, and thus facilitated the entrance +of the Chinese champans." + +P. 276, last line: Insert, before "the first conclusion," the words, +"It is taken for granted that, of the encomiendas of these islands, +some have instruction and some are without it." + + + + +VOLUME VIII + +P. 27, middle: The date of Dasmariñas's letter should be February 28. + +P. 84, line 1: For "Cubao" read "Lubao." + +P. 121, last line: For "Aguette" read "Aguetet." + +Pp. 127, 133: See VOL. XXII, pp. 77, 103, where Fernando de Silva +asks that his wife's encomiendas may be confirmed to her; she was the +daughter of Doña Lucía de Loarca, and must have been the granddaughter +of the conquistador Miguel de Loarca. Cf. VOL. xxiii, p. 80. + +P. 263, line 5 from end: This name should be Basil Hall Chamberlain. + + + + +VOLUME IX + +P. 13, line 10 from end: For "he" read "Dasmariñas." + +P. 26, note 3: "Mengoya (or Nagoya), as mentioned in the text, was in +Hizen province, Kyushu Island; the Nagoya in Owari was not in existence +in Hideyoshi's time." [Letter to the Editors from Prof. J. K. Goodrich, +of Imperial College, Tokio.] + +P. 68, note 13: The following interesting account of the earlier +imprints in Filipinas is cited (in Vindel's Catálogo, iii, no. 2631), +from a book written by the Dominican Fray Alonso Fernández. Historia +de los insignes milagros que la Magestad divina ha obrado por el +Rosario de la Virgen soberana, su Madre, desde el tiempo de Santo +Domingo hasta 1612 (Madrid, 1613), fol. 216, 217: + +"Of some writers of the Order of St. Dominic who were living in this +year of 1612. + +"In the Tagal language of Filipinas: Fray Francisco de San Joseph of +the convent of Madre de Dios at Alcalá, who is living in the province +of Nuestra Señora del Rosario of Filipinas, has printed at Batán, in +the Tagal language of Filipinas, a 'Book of our Lady of the Rosary;' +also another book, in the same language, which treats of the holy +sacraments of the Church; the natives of the islands have been greatly +benefited by these books. + +"In the Chinese language: Fray Domingo de Nieva, of the convent at +Valladolid, who serves in the province of Filipinas, has printed at +Batán, in the Chinese language and likewise in the characters used +by that people, a 'Memorial of the Christian life.' Fray Tomas Mayor, +of the convent at Játiva, who serves in the province of Nuestra Señora +del Rosario of Filipinas and Japón, printed at Batán, in the country +of Filipinas, in the Chinese language and with Chinese characters, +a 'Symbol of the Faith.'" ("None of the bibliographers of Philippine +literature have mentioned this curious and interesting passage.") + +In Imprenta en Filipinas, cols. 5-14, 77, Retana argues (and apparently +on good grounds) that the printing of the Doctrina in 1593 was +xylographic, not typographic. + +P. 77, line 3: After "friend" add "and I have had an embassy from him." + +P. 153, line 1: In the Bibliográfia mexicana of García Icazbalceta +the statement was made that Bishop Agurto "founded at Zebú a hospital +for sick persons of all nations and creeds, with such liberality +that he gave up to it even his own bed, having been obliged to ask +that another be lent to him at the hospital itself, on which he might +sleep that night." (Vindel, Catálogo, no. 1462.) + +P. 164, note 26: After "Sanscrit" add "Sri Ayuddhya." At end, add +the following: "See plan of Juthia in Bellin's Atlas maritime, iii, +no. 51. It became the capital of Siam in 1350, and was destroyed by +the Burmese in 1767. (The Siamese proper are the Thai--a word which +probably means 'freemen'--who are a superior race.) This statement +is made by O. Frankfurter, of the Siamese Foreign Office, in +A. C. Carter's Kingdom of Siam (N. Y. and London, 1904), pp. 81, 82." + +P. 190, middle: In line 17, a better reading would be "front" for +"face," apparently meaning the breast of the horse; and in next line +omit "[a frontal]." + +P. 299, line 5: For "Ryos, a colonel" read "Ryos Coronel." (A similar +correction should be made on p. 313, line 5.) See sketch of Rios +Coronel, and description of his Memorial, by Retana in Vindel's +Catálogo biblioteca filipina, pp. 349-354; he went to Filipinas in +1588, returned to Spain in 1605, and afterwards was in the islands +from 1611 to 1618. + +P. 305, last line of description of map: After "Indias" insert +"(est. 67, caj. 6, leg. 18)." See description in Torres Lanzas's +Relación de los mapas de Filipinas. Retana calls this the earliest +map of Luzón. + +P. 327, section 1: The order of the two pressmarks here given should +be reversed. + + + + +VOLUME X + +P. 47, last line: For "soldiers" read "Sangleys." + +P. 65, line 8: For "Lanao" read "Liguasan." + +P. 131, end: This document was probably written by Luis Perez +Dasmariñas. + +P. 218, line 13: For "false musters" read "fictitious offices." + +P. 275, middle: For "twelfth" read "tenth." + + + + +VOLUME XI + +P. 138: See Torrubia's account of the abandonment of La Caldera in +1599, and of the unusually large expeditions immediately afterward +by the Moros against Panay (Dissertación, pp. 10-17). + +P. 152, line 8: For "Domingo de Rramos" read "on Palm Sunday." + +P. 221, line 2 from end: The Italian version of Vaez's letter makes +this number "twenty-nine thousand" only. + +P. 270, middle: For "Babao" read "Ybabao." + +P. 288, end: Add "Signed by the Council." + + + + +VOLUME XII + +P. 109, note 20, and p. 120, note 24: For explanation of this use of +"Theatin" see VOL. XIX, p. 64. + +P. 131, paragraph 2, line 3: For "him" read "you." + +P. 165, middle: For "Rajaniora" read "Rajamora." + +P. 179, last line of note: For "Herrara" read "Herrera." + +P. 182, line 4 from end of note: Before "Tabacos" insert "de." + +P. 205, note: For "Paro" read "Jaro." + +Pp. 209-216: For "lagoon" read "lake"--the reference being to the +lake of Bay. + +P. 219, middle: Tigbao is the Visayan name of two different kinds +of grass, Anthistiria gigantea and Heteropogon contortus (Merrill, +Dictionary of Plant Names). + +P. 255, line 10 from end: For "stamped" read "printed." + +P. 256, line 9: For "lagoon" read "lake." + +P. 323, line 8: After "therein" add "(as also in Castro's 'Points,' +pp. 70-72)." + + + + +VOLUME XIII + +P. 68, line 10: For "cane" read "bamboo." + +P. 96, line 6 from end of text: The hard polished outer surface of the +bamboo joint is also often used for writing; some interesting specimens +of this sort are in the possession of Edward E. Ayer, Chicago. + +P. 248, line 8 from end: For "third" read "second." + +P. 257, note, line 2 from end: For "Spain" read "Nueva España." + + + + +VOLUME XIV + +P. 37, middle: Add to list of signatures "The licentiate Andres +de Alcaraz." + +P. 143, middle: The ordinary naval ration furnished on the royal ships +which plied between Manila and Acapulco was prescribed as follows in +Arandía's Ordenanzas de Marina (Manila, 1757), p. 61: "On days when +meat is eaten--Biscuit, 18 onzas; jerked beef, 6 onzas; fried pork, +3 onzas; salt, 1/2 onza; vinegar, for ten persons, 1/4 onza; firewood, +2 libras. On days when fish is prescribed--Biscuit, 18 onzas; pottage +or soup of vegetables [miniestras], 3 onzas; pork fat [manteca], +1 onza; salt fish, 6 onzas; salt, vinegar, and firewood, as on the +other days. For each ration, four quartillos [about 2 1-6 quarts] +are reckoned--one for cooking the ration, and three for drinking." + +P. 197, line 3: For "Biebengud" read "Bienbengud." + +P. 209, break in middle: To this place transfer the endorsement at +end of p. 213. + +P. 280, line 4 from end: For "July 29" read "July 25." The same +correction should be made on p. 6, line 8 from end; p. 241, line 7. + + + + +VOLUME XV + +P. 179, lines 6 and 7 from end of text: For "from Camanguian" read +"of camanguian [i.e., storax]." + + + + +VOLUME XVI + +P. 30, note 3: Mazamune sent one of his nobles as ambassador, Felipe +Francisco Taxicura, in company with Sotelo; see relations printed at +Sevilla (1614) and Roma (1615). (Vindel, Catálogo, iii, p. 205.) + +P. 112, note 129, middle: Worcester says ("Non-Christian Tribes +of N. Luzon," in Phil. Journal of Science, October, 1906, p. 807): +"The Negritos do not tattoo themselves, but do ornament themselves +with scar-patterns, produced by making cuts through the skin with +slivers of bamboo (Plate xxiii, fig. 1). Into these cuts, which are +arranged with more or less geometric symmetry, dirt is rubbed to +cause them to become infected and to produce large scars." + +P. 160, note, line 7 from end: For "in regard to" read "by." + +P. 178, note 233: This explanation is erroneously applied by Stanley, +as the piña is a Philippine fabric, and not Chinese. The reference +in the text is to the cloth made from "China-grass" (Bohmeria nivea), +on which see VOLS. XXII, p. 279, and XLIV, p. 267. + +P. 180, note 235: Jagor (Reisen, p. 315) thinks that the chiquey +is the same as the lei-tschi or lechía (on which see VOL. XXXVIII, +p. 21); the latter was called Euphoria by Blanco, but is now known +as Nephelium litchi. + +P. 201: The name of the Ladrones Islands was in 1668 changed by the +missionary San Vítores to Marianas, in honor of Mariana, queen of +Felipe IV. The group contains 17 islands, which--excepting Guam, +the largest--belong to Germany, or, as it is called, "the German +New Guinea Protectorate," having been transferred to that power +by Spain in 1899, together with the Carolinas and Palaos, for +25,000,000 pesetas. The original inhabitants (a Polynesian people) +are known as Chamorros; but in later years a large Filipino element +(soldiers and others) has mingled with them, and the people show a +preponderance of the Filipino type. In 1898 the population of the +group, exclusive of Guam (which contained about 9,000 people), was +1,938. Little was done for them by the Spaniards until 1668, when +a Jesuit mission went to the Marianas under the direction of Diego +Luis San Vítores. The attempts of the privileged class of natives +to keep the new faith from the common people resulted in the loss of +prestige by the former, conflict between the two classes, and martyrdom +for some of the Jesuits--San Vítores meeting death thus on April 2, +1672. Nevertheless the missions made progress, and a few years later +the Jesuits counted eight churches, three colleges, and over 50,000 +converts (Crétineau-Joly, v, pp. 30-22). The military conquest of +the islands by Spain was accomplished during the years 1676-98; and +they were occupied from that time by a governor and a small force +of troops. In 1828 a new plan for the government of these islands +was formed at Madrid, by which the royal estates were suppressed, +and the lands divided among the natives, who were also provided with +cattle and tools at low rates; the governors were forbidden to trade, +industries and commerce were declared open to the natives, and free +ports were named. In 1855 Felipe de la Corte y Ruano Calderon went to +the Marianas as governor, with orders to make certain needed reforms, +and to make a full report on the condition of the islands, which +he did. During the Spanish-American war of 1898, Guam was occupied +by the United States before the governor had even heard of the +outbreak of hostilities. For information regarding these islands, +their people, and history, consult Montero y Vidal's Historia de +Filipinas--which contains (i, pp. 350-352) a list of authorities, +both MS. and printed--and Archipiélago filipino, pp. 438-442; 2nd +bibliographies of the Philippines, especially those of Retana, Griffin, +and Vindel, already cited, and Griffin's List of Books on Samoa and +Guam (Washington, 1901). As for the missions there, see Francisco +García's Vida y martyrio de Sanvitores (Madrid, 1683); Gobien's +Histoire des Isles Marianes (Paris, 1700), largely a translation from +the preceding; Murillo Velarde's Hist. de Philipinas, which contains +several chapters on this subject; Concepción's Hist. de Philipinas, +vols. vii, viii; and especially Stöcklein's Neue Welt-Bott (Augsburg, +Gratz, and Wien, 1728-58), vols. i, iv, and v, which contain matter +on missions in Filipinas, Marianas, and Palaos, most of which is not +to be found in Lettres édifiantes. + + + + +VOLUME XVII + +P. 88, line 8 from end: For "Dionisio" read "Diego;" the same on p. 5, +line 10. + +P. 126, line 4 from end of note: For "invention" read "finding." + +P. 136, note 40: For "grograin" read "grogram." + +P. 150, end: The date of this document is September 5, not 9. + +P. 222, second paragraph: See Bernard Moses's "Economic condition +of Spain in the sixteenth century," in Annual Report of American +Historical Association for 1893, pp. 125-133. + +P. 243, "Sources:" The citation from Ventura del Arco should read +"pp. 383-405;" the same correction should be made on p. 282, under +no. 14. + +P. 292, middle: The date of Salcedo's arrest should be October 9; +see VOL. XXXVII, p. 24. Cf. Diaz's Conquistas, p. 673. + +P. 293, line 8 from end: After "Alcántara" insert "of military +affairs." Under sketch of Curuzealegui: for "twenty-fourth regidor" +read "one of the twenty-four regidors." + +P. 299, line 4: After "October 30" insert "1776." + + + + +VOLUME XVIII + +P. 36, note: In the books of the India House at Sevilla, accounts were +carefully kept for the estates of deceased persons (VOL. XVIII, p. 36, +note 3), the deceased being credited "with all that is brought over +in armadas and flotas, and debited with all that is delivered to his +heirs, executors, and creditors." These funds grew very large, and +loans were made therefrom; in 1633 the king borrowed over 500,000 +ducats, but would not return this money. Later, such property +was forfeited, if unclaimed for two years. By decree of 1671, the +treasurer was allowed one per cent for managing these funds. (Moses, +"Casa de Contratación of Sevilla," in Report of American Historical +Association, 1894, pp. 106, 107.) + +P. 186, line 7: This raid occurred in October, 1618; the Moros killed +the commanders of the post, Arias Girón and Juan Pimentel. The shipyard +was valued at more than a million pesos. (Torrubía, Dissertación, +pp. 30, 31.) + + + + +VOLUME XIX + +P. 206, line 3: For "ovens" read "furnaces." + +P. 306, middle: This memorial is obtained from Pastells's edition of +Colin, iii, pp. 219-221. + +P. 307, middle: For "done in silk and unwoven silver," read "not woven, +done in silk and silver [thread]." + +P. 310, line 2: For "500 dead taes" should probably be read "gratuity +(or perquisite) of 500 taes;" apparently an expression analogous to +ganancias muertas, "a gambler's gains," indicating money obtained +without earning it--James A. LeRoy. + + + + +VOLUME XX + +P. 75, line 6 from end: For "July 21" read "July 31." The same +correction is needed for p. 5, line 8. + + + + +VOLUME XXI + +Pp. 41 and 42: The notes on these pages should be transposed, as they +are erroneously inserted--that on Nova collectio becoming note 8, +and that on the papal brief note 7. + +P. 105, line 6: For "October 3" read "October 8." + + + + +VOLUME XXII + +P. 30: At end of note insert after "See" the words "Lea's Moriscos +of Spain (Philadelphia, 1901), and." + +P. 99, note: See also Formosa under the Dutch (London, 1904), +by Rev. William Campbell, an English Presbyterian missionary in +Formosa. He has used original sources, translating the writings of +Valentyn, Candidius, and other Dutch writers, and various letters +and other documents contemporary with Dutch rule in that island; +and at the end presents a full bibliography of the subject. + +Pp. 125-129: Parde de Tavera states (Biblioteca filipina, p. 91, +no. 544), citing Medina, that this document is of earlier date +than 1618. + +P. 289, middle: The line beginning "inhabitants" and ending "easily" +is a duplicate of the same line above, inserted here by a printer's +error; in its place insert "insurrection of the year 605 [sic] and +at present many." + + + + +VOLUME XXIV + +P. 340, last line: For "113" read "13." + + + + +VOLUME XXV + +P. 44, line 14: After "date" insert "of August 14." + +P. 74, note 11: Penas de Cámara may be rendered, in a general way, +"fines of the exchequer;" but it should be remembered that cámara, +as used in this connection, means any royal tribunal, executive +or judicial--whether the Council of the Indias (which was often +referred to as el Consejo y Cámara de Indias), or the Audiencia +or the council of a colony, or the tribunal of accounts of any +establishment, or even the municipal council, or council under an +alcalde or alcalde-mayor. Penas de cámara in the laws of the Indies +had, I think, especial reference to the various penalties provided, +especially against officials for any non-performance of duty, by the +Council of the Indias; and there was a special board of accountants +for the fund of these fines, in connection with that Council. + +In regard to the phrase contador de resultas, I have obtained (through +the kindness of Fenton R. McCreery, secretary of the American Embassy +at Mexico City) some further information, furnished by Señor José +Algara, Under-secretary for Foreign Affairs of Mexico. He thinks +that the above phrase is equivalent to glosador, [that is, to one +who makes comments or explanations, or who "designates any amount in +order to call attention to the examination or proof of the account +to which the item belongs" (Domínguez)], or to segundo contador ["a +second accountant"]. Señor Algara states that the references to the +accountants for the colonies in the laws of the Indias (book viii, +titles i and ii) did not define the character and duties of the various +officers, because that had already been done in the Nueva Recopilación +(title ii, law v, no. 1). He also cites from Nicolás M. Serrano's +Diccionario universal the following definition of contador de resultus: +"Any one of those persons in the first grade of the chief accountancy +[Contaduría Mayor de Cuentas], which corresponds to those officials +employed in former times by the comptroller-in-chief [contador mayor] +who were occupied in computing or transcribing the amounts in the +account-books of the obligations which are incurred by those persons +who administer the royal revenues by lease or by other title."--James +A. LeRoy (in a private letter). + +P. 99, line 3 from end of text: For "thirty-five" read +"thirty-eight." The same correction should be made on p. 5, line 5 +from end. + +P. 146, line 10 from end: "Agreement" is not a quite satisfactory +rendering for the Spanish composición, which has a technical meaning +in regard to the possession of lands; see note on this subject +in VOL. LII pp. 296, 297. "Composition" will probably be the best +rendering, provided that this technical meaning is understood in +such use of the word. James A. LeRoy says of this, in a private +letter: "'Arrangement' also conveys somewhat the same idea--that +is, the rearrangement of their rights, or the reconciliation of +rights prescribed in this decree. Composición de derechos means, +quite closely rendered, 'reconciliation of rights,' according to +my recollection of its use in certain contracts which I have seen +here in Mexico. It gives the idea of arbitration, to some degree, +of rights more or less in conflict which are reconciled by agreement." + +P. 147, line 7: Consolidations of encomiendas were made, in order +to abolish those which were too small, or make a more equitable +distribution of the territory comprised in those which were very +large. Pensions were also assessed against large encomiendas, +although in the laws of the Indias it was ordained that the maximum +amount of such pensions should be 2,000 pesos. Apparently the aim +of this decree was, to provide that in extending the tenure of the +encomiendas and rearranging them the royal officials should also +make allowance for the charges against the encomiendas in the way +of pensions, so consolidating them as to accord with the decrees of +previous years on this subject. Those decrees sought to prevent an +encomendero from being deprived of a fair income by the assessment of +too many pensions against it (for wives, relatives, or dependents of +previous encomenderos of the same district; or for other services to +the State, paid for by assigning portions of remunerative encomiendas); +and at the same time aimed to restrict the income to be derived from an +encomienda, and to make these incomes nearly uniform in value.--James +A. Leroy (in a private letter). + + + + +VOLUME XXVI + +P. 5, line 2 from end: For "July-August" read "March-July." + +P. 269, middle: For "bienzos" read "lienzos." + + + + +VOLUME XXVII + +P. 5, line 4: For "Cavite" read "Manila." + +P. 122, middle: The peso ensayado was, according to Lea (Hist. of +Inquisition in Spain, i, p. 562), a colonial coin, worth 400 maravedís, +equivalent to 11 3/4 reals, or a little more than a ducado. + +P. 146: "The fundamental idea of the commercial and industrial +policy of Spain, as carried out through the India House, was that +of restriction and privilege." (Moses, Spanish Rule in America, +p. 265.) See Roscher's comments thereon in his Spanish Colonial System +(Bourne's ed.), p. 35. + +P. 256, middle: This mention of the Salve refers to the Ave Maria, +not to the Salve Regina ("Hail, holy Queen!").--Rev. T. C. Middleton, +O.S.A. + +P. 339, middle: The "Moro-Moro play" was a feature of town fiestas, +both religious and secular functions, for several centuries, +and is still common in the more remote towns, though the modern +sophisticated Filipinos have been trying to laugh it out of court, +and have done so in the more cultured regions. I saw it at Kotabato +in 1901, where the handful of Christians in the population played it +before the Commission and a host of gathered Moro tribesmen from up +the river.--James A. LeRoy (in a private letter). + + + + +VOLUME XXVIII + +P. 47, note 19: In line 5, for "southern" read "northwestern." The +stronghold of the Moros, after Joló was destroyed, was at Maibun, a +town on the southern shore. Combés describes the island in detail in +his Hist. Mindanao y Joló, cols. 14-19. See also Escosura's Memoria +sobre Filipinas y Joló, pp. 213-436. + +P. 55, note: Crawfurd is wrong as to the kris being a poniard +or dagger; or, if so, it is certainly in the Philippines a short, +straight-bladed sword, with wavy edges.--James A. LeRoy (in a private +letter). See illustrations of Moro weapons presented in this series; +also those in Worcester's Philippine Islands, p. 155, and in Reports +of Philippine Commission and other government documents. Collections +of these weapons may now be seen in most of the large museums in the +United States. + +P. 96, note: The best description and classification of the pagan +and Moro tribes of Mindanao is that of Barrows in the Census of the +Philippines, i, pp. 461-477; see also his report for the Ethnological +Survey, in Report of the Philippine Commission for 1903. + +P. 130, art. 564, line 1: For the second "province" read "convent." + +P. 200, end of paragraph 1: In one of Viana's official opinions in 1765 +(Respuestas, fol. 103, 104), he scores the board of the Misericordia +for demanding any further security than the royal name and promise +for loans made by them to the government; if they had been content +with that, thus "avoiding irrelevant conferences of theologians and +jurists," they would have responded with honor and loyalty to the +many favors that they have enjoyed from the king, etc. + +P. 210, last paragraph: See account of this affair in VOL. I, note 67. + +P. 211, paragraph 2: The laws of the Indias ordained--e.g., lib. vi, +tít. i, ley xviii (1550); lib. i, tít. xiii, ley v (1634)--that there +should be schools in which Spanish was to be taught, for the sake of +having a suitable language in which to teach the Christian faith. + +P. 218, end of paragraph 1: Viana (Respuestas, fol. 102v) recommends +that certain criminals be sent to serve at Zamboanga, some for life and +others for specified terms. Forrest mentions the practice of sending +convicts from Manila to Zamboanga, as they were sent from England to +Botany Bay. The secretary mentioned by Le Gentil was Cosio, who himself +was afterward banished to Africa for his illegal acts under Raon. + +P. 257, line 6: The word "impost" is incorrect here; the English +equivalent is most nearly approached by rendering this phrase [Spanish, +derecho de elecciones de gobernadorcillo], "the [government] right +in elections." J. A. LeRoy says of this, in a private letter: "It +apparently refers to the right of the superior government--generally +exercised in each province by the alcalde-mayor or provincial +governor--of selecting the gobernadorcillo of each pueblo from a list +of three [lerna], this list being proposed to him by the notables +[principales] at the annual election. It is altogether probable that +the man chosen sometimes had to pay that official, and that Mas is +here reporting this as another of the abuses which, under the early +Spanish régime, the friars used to charge against the alcaldes-mayor, +in that sense, being a 'robbery' of the natives." + +P. 266, line 2: For "271-275" read "271-273." + +P. 321, line 3: The statements of this writer would make it appear +that the friars developed the resources of Negros; but that is not +the fact. The old régime described by Mas and Jagor failed to develop +those resources; and the modern development of Negros (which dragged +the friars reluctantly after it) was accomplished through foreign +commerce and foreign traders, a part of the general development of +the Philippines as a whole. This very document shows how, when it was +seen to be beginning, through Spanish and Spanish half-caste planters, +to whose aid British importers of machinery of the modern sort soon +after came, the friars stepped in to claim an island which since the +Spanish discovery they had sadly neglected, and to wrest its growing +curacies from native priests. This friar's claims (pp. 319-322) +are all the more audacious in view of the proximity to his own time +of the development, through foreign agencies, which he claims as due +to his order. There are other parts of this same Recollect chronicle +which show how the modern political bitterness of spirit had crept +into the accounts of Philippine history emanating from the religious +orders.--James A. LeRoy (in a private letter). + +P. 349, line 3: The volume-number should be "i," not "ii." The same +correction should be made on p. 370, last line. + +P. 368, line 6: For "brothers" read "sisters." + + + + +VOLUME XXIX + +P. 104, line 8 from end: After "taken." add "[Madrid, March 15, 1638.]" + + + + +VOLUME XXX + +P. 54, note, lines 6-8 from end: It is only fair to the Duke de +Almodovar to explain the reasons for his treatment of Raynal's +work; they are thus given by José Arias y Miranda, in his Examen +crítico-histórico del influjo que tuvo en el comercio, industria +y población de España su dominación en América ("a work crowned +by the Real Academia de la Historia, and published by that body, +at Madrid, 1854"), an interesting and well-written study of that +subject, with learned and valuable annotations and much reference to +standard authorities: "In regard to the famous history of Abbé Raynal, +although it abounds in flights of imagination, in philosophical ideas, +and in passionate and declamatory judgments, it has merited general +acceptance on account of the information it contains and the notable +indications of penetration and genius which are revealed in it. But +it was not possible for the Duke de Almodovar to make it known to his +countrymen without variations and emendations, since it was one of +the works included in the Indexes of the Holy Office; he therefore +contrived to present it as a work imitated rather than produced, +without daring to mention even once the name of the author, or to +print his own on the title page, substituting for the latter the +anagram of 'Malo de Luque.' This recasting was very skilfully done; +he suppressed what could not be published; and added information and +very judicious reflections upon commerce in general and on that of our +[Spanish] possessions. Although this history belongs properly to our +literature, since it is not a translation, it has never been reprinted +since the first edition, copies of which are now becoming rare." + +P. 229, note, line 2 from end: The phrase "grant of feudal rights" +is in Spanish la dominación á Caballería de Tierra. Much of the old +feudalism still remained at that time, preeminently in connection +with the military orders; there are many laws regarding these in the +Autos acordados, and some of them extend well into the seventeenth +century. Apparently Dasmariñas held the village of Binondo as a +sort of encomienda, [it was only the land which he purchased from +Velada], and had also the feudal right to the service of the Chinese +and mestizos (over whom he, a caballero, was lord), as retainers +obliged to serve him on the land, but not on sea.--James A. LeRoy +(in a private letter). Cf. note on caballería, VOL. XLVII, p. 199. + + + + +VOLUME XXXIII + +P. 27, line 1: For "Venetia" read "Vicenza;" p. 273, note 1, line 2, +and p. 274, line 11, for "Venice," "Vicenza;" and p. 274, line 21 +from end, for "Venetian," "Vicentine." + + + + +VOLUME XXXIV + +P. 160, note 541, line 1: For "loony" read "loory." + + + + +VOLUME XXXV + +P. 226, note 60: This note is a lapsus calami, as may be seen by the +date of the earthquake mentioned therein. + + + + +VOLUME XXXVII + +P. 274, note, line 10 from end: For "fifty-five" read "sixty-five." + + + + +VOLUME XXXVIII + +P. 79, note 41: Veitia Linage's Norte de contratación was Englished +(but with numerous omissions and additions) by Captain John Stevens, +as Spanish Rule of Trade to the West Indies (London, 1702). The +navigation, trade, and products of Filipinas are treated in book ii, +chapter xiii. The author was for some time commissioner and treasurer +of the India House of Trade at Sevilla. (Bernard Moses, in Report of +American Historical Association, 1894, p. 95.) + +P. 207, line 4 from end: The accent on the final syllable of +Philippine geographical names ending in "n" is really a Spanish +variation, in accordance with the rule for pronunciation of such +names in Spanish. But when these names are (as is usually the case) +of Filipino origin the rule is--depending, of course, on their roots +and composition--that they are accented on the penult; e.g., Vígan, +Narvácan, Ilígan, etc. Spanish usage has distorted the pronunciation +in some cases, until the original accent has become Hispanicized, +as Cagayán, Pangasinán, etc.; but as a general rule these words are +accented on the penult.--James A. LeRoy (in a private letter). + + + + +VOLUME XXXIX + +P. 33, note 5: Cf. the account given by Forrest (Voyage, +pp. 201-206) of the history of the rulers of Magindanao, and the +curious genealogical chart of the sultans of Mindanao and Joló which +follows; he obtained his information from Pakir Mawlana himself, who +took it from the "original records" in his possession. The Curay of +Concepción is called Kuddy by Forrest, who says that he was the son +of Tidoly and grandson of Kudarat (Corralat). + +P. 97, line 4 of note: For "inhabited" read "uninhabited." (When +Dampier visited them in 1685 he found most of them peopled.) In regard +to the Batanes dialect, mentioned near the end, it contains strong +guttural aspirates, which are distinctive of this idiom; the nasal +sound alluded to is equally prevalent in Ilocano.--William Edmonds, +Basco, Batanes Islands, in a private letter. + + + + +VOLUME XLI + +P. 55. note: The name Palaos (also written Palau or Pelew) is applied +to the western group of the Carolinas Archipelago, which extends +in a general east and west direction from the region south of the +Marianas. Although nominally the property of Spain, these islands +were greatly neglected by the Spaniards, even into the nineteenth +century. Their attention was directed for a time to the Palaos by the +event described in Clain's letter, and various attempts were made, +but unsuccessfully, to establish Christian missions therein, two +Jesuits, Duberon and José Cortil, being killed by natives in 1710, +and another, Antonio Cantova, meeting the same fate in 1731. In the +latter half of the last century, German interests gained ascendency +in the islands, which led to their absorption by Germany. Jagor +cites (Reisen, pp. 215, 216) several historical instances of Palaos +islanders being carried by storms to the coasts of Filipinas; and +adds, "Later, I had in Manila an opportunity to photograph a group of +people from the Paláos and Caroline Islands, who a year previously had +been cast by a storm on the coast of Samar." He also says (p. 203): +"As Dr. Gräffe (who spent many years in the Micronesas) informs me, +Paláos is an indefinite expression, like Kanaka and so many others, +and certainly does not designate the inhabitants of the Pelew group +exclusively." Regarding these islands, see Montero y Vidal's Hist. de +Filipinas, i, pp. 31, 402-409, 455-473. and his Archipiélago filipino, +pp. 469-505; also Miguel's Estudio de las Islas Carolinas, and the +various bibliographies of the Philippines, especially Griffin's List, +and Vindel's Catálogo biblioteca filipina. See Karl Semper's Die +Palau-Inseln im Stillen Ocean (Leipzig, 1873), which Pardo de Tavera +praises (Biblioteca filipina, p. 402) as "the most important modern +work on the Palaos Islands which I know." In the Ethnological Museum +at Dresden is an important collection of material made by Semper. + +P. 313, line 9: Instead of Barcena, this name is written by Torrubia +(Dissertación, p. 63) Barrena. + +P. 316, note: Add "apparently a misprint for Cutay." + + + + +VOLUME XLII + +P. 64, line 6: A new tariff or parochial fees was ordained (November +19, 1771) by Archbishop Santa Justa; but little heed was paid to it by +many of the parish priests, who collected much more, for all functions, +than it prescribed. + +P. 157, lines 4-6 from end: Alluding, it is said, to the noted Jewish +physician Hasdai. + + + + +VOLUME XLIII + +P. 47, line 2 of chapter heading: For "religious" read "Zambals." + +P. 72, line 3: For "Dampier" read "Cowley?" (See also our VOL. XXXIX, +p. 115, note.) Note 11: In the Philippine Journal of Science +(published by the Bureau of Science, Manila), for October, 1906, is +an interesting paper on "The Non-Christian Tribes of Northern Luzon," +by Dean C. Worcester, secretary of the interior in the government +of the islands. He endeavors to furnish a systematic classification +of these tribes; repeats the lists made by the Jesuits, Professor +Blumentritt, and Dr. Barrows, criticizing each of these, and in some +respects differing from their methods; and then enumerates the separate +tribes, as classified by himself--giving under each, the synonyms of +the tribal name, with other names which may be classed under this; +"its habitat, so far as it is at present known;" and description of +its people, and of their dress, homes, mode of life, occupations, +customs, etc. A similar paper on those tribes in Southern Luzon +is announced for the coming year. For these papers Worcester has +utilized personal observations made on these peoples not only by +himself, but by numerous other government officials both civil and +military, during the years 1900-06; and special information regarding +them obtained in the census enumeration of 1903. He says (p. 802): +"It is not too much to say that hardly a rancheria now remains in +the Cordillera Central and its foothills, except in the district of +Apayos, which has not been visited by Americans, while even in the +latter district twenty-nine of the more important rancherias have +been visited." The above paper contains excellent illustrations made +from 208 photographs, taken by Worcester himself or other government +officials. Other valuable papers announced for the Journal in 1907 +are: "The Tagbanua and Mangyan Alphabets," by T. H. Pardo de Tavera; +"The Subanos of the Zamboangan Peninsula," by Edwin B. Christie; and +"Primitive Philippine Fire-making Apparatus," by Dean C. Worcester. + +P. 78, note 13: Worcester recognizes but seven distinct non-Christian +tribes in northern Luzon: the Negritos, Ilongots (Ibilaos), Kalingas, +Ifugaos, Bontoc Igorots, Lepanto-Benguet Igorots, and Tinguians. He +says of some of these tribal designations ("Non-Christian Tribes of +N. Luzon," p. 804): "The Altasanes, Ifumangies [the same as Jumangi], +Ileabanes, and Panuipuyes do not exist. In all probability these +latter names were taken from those of rancherias which have long +since disappeared. While some of the larger rancherias in northern +Luzon are very old, others are of recent origin and the names and +locations of these settlements are constantly changing." + +P. 102, line 5: It gives us pleasure to publish the following +information furnished by Dr. N. M. Saleeby, the error in the text +being based on erroneous information: "I beg to inform you that +Dr. N. M. Saleeby is not a 'native Moro,' nor is he Mohammedan. I went +to Cotabato, Mindanao, in May, 1901, as a captain and assistant surgeon +U.S.V., and served in that capacity until February 1, 1903. From the +latter date until June 30, 1906, I served as superintendent of schools, +and member of the legislative council for the Moro Province. I am +a naturalized American citizen, and was born in a Christian home in +Lebanon, Syria." He is now connected with the Bureau of Science at +Manila, Division of Ethnology. + +P. 103, line 6: For "MS." read "book (Sampaloc, 1731)." + +P. 154, end of note: In Report of Philippine Commission for 1906, +i, pp. 60-62, is an account of the law regulating (for the present) +the sale and use of opium in the islands--a high-license system, +adopted on March 8, 1906. + +P. 173, line 3 from end of text: "Serif, or Sherif, is a term of +dignity bestowed on every supposed descendant of Mahomet" (Forrest, +Voyage, p. 285). + + + + +VOLUME XLIV + +P. 72, note: The Report of the Philippine Commission for 1906 indicates +(pp. 340, 341, 381) gratifying success in the operation of the Moro +Exchange in the district of Zamboanga, which "has led to similar +exchanges being established on a small scale in the districts of +Cotabato and Lanao, and large ones are projected in Sulu and the +district of Davao." It has "greatly stimulated fisheries among +the Moros," and "islands which were formerly inhabited by lawless +people who were practically pirates are now the scenes of peaceful +activity on the part of Moro fishermen." An agreement has been made +with the merchants of the district to transact all their buying from +the natives through the exchanges, on a cash basis instead of barter, +etc. The amount of sales in the Moro exchanges for the year 1905-06 +was 298,481 pesos (Philippine currency). + +P. 152, line 5: The envoy sent on this occasion, General Benito +Carrasco Pan y Agua (who was chief notary of the cabildo of Manila), +wrote a relation of his embassy and the voyage to Siam, which was +published at Manila in 1719. (Vindel, Catálogo, iii, no. 2622.) + +P. 222, note: Patiño, who had been prominent in governmental affairs +for nearly twenty years, died in 1736; he was a statesman and +financier, and advocated peace with all the other powers, especially +England. + +P. 255, lines 3-5 from end: Up to the beginning of the sixteenth +century, Toledo was the chief city in Spain in manufacturing silk; +it has been estimated that this industry gave employment there +to at least 100,000 people. Gaspar Naranjo, "who traveled through +España late in the seventeenth century, asserts that, according to +his knowledge, in 1480 Toledo consumed 450,000 libras of silk, which +could furnish the supply for 15,000 looms. Although this number was +greatly lessened when the Escorial was completed, yet from the looms +of Toledo proceeded the richest silks for church adornments, ribbons, +and hangings. In the year 1651 Toledo still counted 5,000 looms in +operation, although not all within the city; a little afterward, there +were not more than two thousand; in 1714 they were reduced to seventy, +and finally to none at all. When the remnants of this manufacture +left Toledo, that of Valencia gained strength, but never to the +extent which might have been if legislation had permitted it. The +Moors had left that of Granada in the best condition; years after +the conquest it maintained 5,000 spinning-wheels, and the kingdom +yielded a million libras of good silk; but just at this point began +the exactions of the revenue officials, and likewise, in consequence, +the decadence of this industry. It was declared subject to the payment +of alçabala, which was a tax of fourteen per cent when once the tenth +was applied as an ecclesiastical income; eight maravedís besides +were charged to it for the impost called tortil [i.e., spiral?], +and nine maravedís more for a municipal tax. When with the increase +from successive impositions the management of this revenue became +too complicated, all these duties were combined in one; and then it +was seen that every libra of silk paid, as its share of the taxes, +the enormous amount of very nearly fifteen and one-half reals. With +the increase in taxes, the production steadily diminished; by 1643, +that of Granada had decreased from a million to one-fourth of that +amount, and not long afterward to 80,000, and even less. The silk +industry, thus burdened, had to compete with that of Genoa, whence +large shipments of silk goods were freely imported into Spanish +ports, and sold at lower prices than the goods made in España; and +a mortal blow was dealt to it when the exportation of Spanish silks +was prohibited, and sumptuary laws reserved the use of silk fabrics +to a few classes. It is astonishing that this industry has been able +to survive up to the present epoch, although it is in a languishing +condition." (Arias y Miranda, Examen crítico-histórico, pp. 154, 155.) + +P. 267, note 78, line 7 from end: For "p. 278" read "p. 279." + +P. 286, note 87: The document here mentioned was afterward shifted +to another place; the reference should be to VOL. XLVII, p. 119, +paragraph 1 of note. + + + + +VOLUME XLV + +P. 53, middle: Regarding the powers, privileges, and duties of the +viceroys appointed by the crown of Spain, see Moses's Spanish Rule +in America, pp. 86-92. + +P. 272, line 3: A number of MS. songs are in the collection of Edward +E. Ayer, Chicago, some of them scratched on the smooth outside of a +joint of bamboo. + + + + +VOLUME XLVII + +P. 213, line 10: For "rice-mills" read "rice-market." + +P. 236, note, line 1: Somodevilla, Marqués de Ensenada, was minister +under Felipe V and Fernando VI, and rendered great service to his +country; he re-created the Spanish navy, and strengthened Spanish +commerce. He favored the French, and tried to unite the Bourbon kings +in a close alliance; but in 1754 he was banished from the court. He +promoted agriculture, irrigation, road-building, manufactures, and +mining, and made financial reforms; and he brought to an end the +controversies with Rome over the royal patronage. + + + + +VOLUME XLVIII + +P. 63, last sentence: "Throughout the Cordillera Central [of Luzon] +the rancheria or settlement is the social and political unit. In +the head-hunting countries rancherias of people of the same tribe +were constantly at war with each other, and the blood feuds between +them were handed down from generation to generation. As a result, +intercourse between these rancherias was more or less completely +cut off for scores of years. It was unavoidable that differences of +dialect should develop under such circumstances." (Dean C. Worcester, +"Non-Christian Tribes of Northern Luzon," in Philippine Journal of +Science, October, 1906, p. 798.) + +Pp. 173, 174, note 101: Some of these islanders must have remained +permanently on the mainland, notwithstanding the decree for their +return to the islands; for on February 23, 1765, Viana recommended +that the deputy alcalde-mayor of Cagayan be allowed to remove the +Babuyan families from Buguey to Duao, as the latter was secure from +the Moros. Viana advised, however, that the Babuyans be not allowed +to form barrios or visitas far away from the main reduction, and that +every arrangement be made to secure their safety from the Moros and +from fire. (Viana, Respuestas, fol. 91.) + +P. 183, last two lines of text: This company of 1755 was formed +"under the patronage of our Lady of the Rosary, and the protection +of his Majesty;" see the title-page of its Ordenanzas, facsimile of +which is given in Vindel's Catálogo biblioteca filipina, no. 645. + +P. 189, note 111: The reforms and regulations made by Arandía for the +Acapulco galleon may be found, in full detail, in his Ordenanzas de +marina (Manila, 1757) with additions thereto, also printed in that +year; these contain 164 and 57 pages respectively, and two large and +handsomely engraved charts (by the Filipino engraver Laureano Atlas), +showing the port of Sisiran in Camarines, and that of Cajayagan and +Calomotan ("commonly called Pálapa") between the islands of Laguan +and Batac. + + + + +VOLUME XLIX + +Pp. 7, 12, 25: The author of the "Plan of an expedition for the +conquest of the southern Philippines" was, according to the records +of the British Museum, Alexander Dalrymple, not Draper. The date is +given as 1702 in the MS catalogue of the Museum. + +P. 309, note 185, line 4: For "of" read "on." + + + + +VOLUME L + +Pp. 118-136: The date of Viana's letter should be May 10. + +P. 159, line 8 of note 89: Before "[Americana]" for "white suit" +read "white coat." J. A. LeRoy says of this, in a private letter: +"Americana here means a short or sack coat, of white drill or duck, +buttoned up to the throat, and worn with only a gauze undershirt +beneath it, and the trousers (often white also). It is the common garb +of Europeans and upper-class natives in the tropics. This usage among +Spaniards seems to have died out in Spanish America, but the word is +common in the Philippines, where it is probably a survival from earlier +Spanish-American usage, transplanted to those islands. Many Spanish +writers mention with contempt the way in which class distinctions in +dress vanished among Spaniards in the Philippines (save, of course, +among the military, ecclesiastical, and high official classes). So too, +the donning of the Americana meant the assumption of social prestige +or aspirations by the Filipinos. Only a few years ago, nearly all the +latter wore the gauze shirt outside of the trousers; but in recent +years the younger men of education, even in the villages, and gradually +the older men, have been adopting the Americana for ordinary wear--a +change which has been greatly accelerated during American occupation." + + + + +VOLUME LII + +P. 309, line 12: Through lack of space, we are prevented from +giving (as we had intended) an adequate treatment of the subject +of commerce as a special topic, from the middle of the eighteenth +century to that of the nineteenth. Much, however, has been presented +in various documents of VOLS. L-LII, which throws light on commercial +conditions; and to these may be added the following references to +documents and authorities which will enable the student to find +desired material regarding this subject. "Regulation of December 18, +1769, for the distribution of permits [boletas] and for the lading +of the Acapulco galleon at Manila," in Ventura del Arco MSS. (Ayer +library), v, pp. 403-519. Le Gentil, Voyage, ii, pp. 192-230. Royal +decree for the establishment of the Compañia de Filipinas, March +10, 1785; also decree of July 12, 1803, making new regulations and +conferring new privileges. Dissertation on the benefits arising from +the aforesaid company, by Valentin de Foronda, in his Miscelánea +(Madrid, 1787). Malo de Luque [i.e., Duqae de Almodovar], Historia +política de los establecimientos de las naciones europeos; tomo +v (Madrid, 1790) is devoted to the Spanish settlements in Asia, +the decree erecting the Compañia de Filipinas, and its operations +during 1785-89. Remonstrance addressed by the Company (Madrid, +1821) to the Spanish Cortes against its decree of October 19, 1820, +abolishing the Company's privilege of the exclusive traffic with +Asia conferred on it by the decree of 1803; this remonstrance is +supported by the opinions of "celebrated jurisconsults of Spain, +France, Holland, and England." Rafael Díaz Arenas, Memoria sobre el +comercio y navegación de las Islas Filipinas (Cádiz, 1838). Andrés +García Camba, Reglamento de la Junta de Comercio de Manila (Manila, +1838). Comyn, Estado, pp. 43-71. Mas, Informe, ii, fourth and fifth +sections. Buzeta and Bravo, Diccionario, i, pp. 219-238. Mallat, +Les Philippines, ii, pp. 290-356. Manuel Azcarraga y Palmero, +Libertad de comercio en las Islas Filipinas (Madrid, 1871). Jagor, +Reisen, pp. 312-316. Gregorio Sancianco y Goson, El progreso de +Filipinas (Madrid, 1881), especially pp. 238-249. Montero y Vidal, +Historia de Filipinas, ii and iii; also his Archipiélago filipino, +pp. 220-259. Retana, articles in Política de España en Filipinas, +1891, pp. 146-148, 233-234, 245-247; for 1892, pp. 27, 28; for 1893, +pp. 8, 9, 77, 78. Code of Commerce in force in Cuba, Porto Rico, +and Philippines (Washington, 1899). Census of Philippine Islands, iv, +pp. 557-585. "Modern development of the Philippines through commerce," +a series of articles by James A. LeRoy in Dun's International Review, +November, 1905-February, 1906. Cf. authorities cited in Bourne's +"Introduction" to this series (VOL. I), and in LeRoy's contribution +to the present volume; also writings named in the bibliographies of +Griffin, Pardo de Tavera, Vindel, and Retana. + + + + + + + + +NOTES + + +[1] This is Sinibaldo de Mas, a noted Spanish traveler and diplomat. He +was born at Barcelona, in 1809, and studied at Madrid, especially +the classic languages, Arabic and other modern languages. In 1634, +he was sent on a diplomatic mission to the Orient, where he visited +successively Constantinople, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Calcutta, +the Arabian desert, and lastly Manila, where he lived for some +months. After his return to the Peninsula, he was appointed Spanish +minister plenipotentiary to China. Pardo de Tavera says of him +(Biblioteca Filipina, p. 253): "The work of Mas is highly interesting, +only that, having sojourned a very short time in Filipinas, during +which he was sick most of the time, he wrote his work by reference +to others, and taking from the chronicles of the friars the elements +necessary for the history and the races. He does not cite sources, and +it is cleverly written, and passes with some persons as a classic work +on Filipinas.... His vanity led him to suppress his name...." Pardo de +Tavera does not seem to know the third volume. Retana [who possessed a +copy of the third volume (No. 2432 in his library, which was sold to +the Compañía general de tabacos de Filipinas), says in Bibliografía +filipina, p. 524]: "This third and secret part has never been +described. The author published very few copies of it because of the +gravity of its contents. Sinibaldo de Mas contrary to what those who +know his Estado [i.e., the first two volumes] may imagine, pronounced +in favor of preparation of independence for Filipinas." In this third +volume Mas precedes the text as follows: "Of this secret chapter, the +last of the Informe sobre el estado de las Islas Filipinas en 1842, +only some few copies have been printed for the ministers, gentlemen of +the Council of the Government, and other persons influential in the +affairs of the nation. Consequently, your Excellency is requested +to keep it for your own use, without allowing it to circulate or +permitting a copy to be made of it." The copy belonging to the Peabody +Institute Library belonged to Javier de Burgos. See (in addition to +Pardo de Tavera and Retana) Dic. encic. Hisp.-Amer., xii, p. 537. + +[2] The first two volumes have separately paged chapters as follows: +I. Origin of the inhabitants of Oceanica. Condition of the Filipinos +at the arrival of the Spaniards. History of the Spanish domination in +Filipinas from their discovery until our times. Continuation of the +last chapter. Population. Animals. Climate. Minerals. Topography. +II. Languages. Vegetables. Agriculture. Interior commerce. Foreign +commerce. Industry. Territorial division. Administration of government +and the captaincy-general. Public instruction. Ecclesiastical +condition. Administration of justice. Army. Navy. Direct and indirect +taxes. External political condition. Vol. i contains a chart showing +the ancient alphabets of the Filipinos; and vol. ii, a map of the +archipelago. + +[3] A note by Mas at this point discusses the other admissible +plan, "namely, to cede the country to some foreign power." But the +religious, the majority of the military and civil employes, and the +Filipino-Spaniards would prefer independence to transfer, and the +simple announcement of such transfer would lead to almost universal +insurrection. The fatal results that ensued from the former English +policy of sending convicts to their colonies declares against making +the Philippines a penal colony. Another plan, namely, to send out +Spanish emigrants from the Peninsula, is also not feasible, for Spain +has no surplus population, and in fact needs a greater population. On +the matter of penal colonies, Forrest (Voyage, p. 198) says, "The +Spaniards at Manila transport convicts to Samboangan, as England did +to America." In 1875-78, there was some discussion of the question +as to whether Spain should establish penal colonies (like that of +Botany Bay) in the Marianas Islands or in the Gulf of Guinea. + +[4] By this term, as well as by "Filipino Spaniards," as used in +this document, are meant those of full Spanish blood born in the +Philippines, or those who went to the Philippines in childhood. + +[5] The Consejo Supremo de Indias, which was established, according to +the best authorities, in 1511 by the great Ferdinand, was perfected +by Cárlos I, and was reformed by Felipe II. It was composed of a +president, a number of togated ministers, and an indefinite number of +counselors by brevet, and they all received the same consideration as +did members of the Consejo de Castilla. This corporation, which had +had so great influence in Spanish colonial matters, was suppressed +by royal decree of May 24, 1834, and in its place was erected the +Tribunal Supremo de España é Indias, which was renamed Consejo de +Estado in 1856. See Dic. encic. Hisp.-Amer., v, p. 827. + +[6] The exact title of this work is as follows: Los diez y seis +meses de mando superior de Filipinas, por el mariscal de campo +D. Andres G. Camba (Cadiz, 1839). Pardo de Tavera (Bibl. Filipina, +p. 79) says of it: "This pamphlet is full of curious revelations and +explanations relative to the command of this general, which was so +filled with incidents." Retána (Bibliografía, p. 57) says that Camba +was a democrat sui generis. The book is a long exposition of 101 +pages, to which are appended various documents (53 pages) on which +the exposition is based. The copy of this pamphlet now in the Boston +Public Library was formerly in the Retana collection. + +[7] See account of this mutiny in VOL. LI, pp. 47, 48. + +[8] See post, pp. 92, 93, note 37. + +[9] See post, pp. 91-111, the report by Matta. + +[10] In a long note at this point, Mas severely criticises Camba's +book, which he has already mentioned. He declares it lacking in +knowledge of the Philippines, and says that it was written to prove +that the Philippines are thoroughly loyal in every respect. Mas's own +experience pointed to the existence of an independence party among +the Spaniards of the colony. Mas condemns Camba's policy of giving +posts to the natives; as well as Camba's assertions of the immunity +of the governor from removal at the will of the monarch. Camba is +accused of a change of sentiment from that which he had during his +first years of residence in the country. + +[11] Mas refers to the culture system practiced by the Dutch in the +island of Java, 1830-1870. Clive Day (Policy and administration of +the Dutch in Java, New York and London, 1904) compares it to the +system of forced cultures established by Spain in the Philippines +in 1780. In addition to the above book, see the following for the +history of Dutch colonization in Java: J. W. B. Money's Java, or how +to govern a colony (London, 1861); P. J. Veth's Java (Haarlem, 1896-); +Jules Leclercq's Un sejour dans l'île de Java (Paris, 1898); Wilhelm +Krüger's Das Zuckerrohr und seine Kultur (Magdeburg und Wien, 1899); +and Pierre Gonnaud's La Colonisation hollandaise à Java (Paris, 1905). + +[12] A note at this point by Mas mentions a recent pamphlet by a +Cuban who advocates complete autonomy for the colonies, and freedom +of the press. This author says that long before the French revolution +free negroes and mulattoes were being educated in Paris; but Mas says +people of that class in Cuba do not travel in foreign countries or +receive an education in European colleges. + +[13] Mas cites a passage from Captain Gabriel Lafond's Quinze ans +de voyages autour du monde (1840) to the effect that the Philippine +conquest was one of religion. The power of the friars grows because +they are permanent in the colony. Their influence over the natives +is all powerful, and they regard foreigners and even other Spaniards +with suspicion. The friars asserted that the natives to be happy had +no need of European civilization; yet they prevented progress by not +allowing the entrance of industry. Spain did not suppress the orders +in the Philippines, fearing lest it lead to independence. The native +priests are those most hostile to the friars. They are almost without +education and often dissolute; and are sure to be the first authors +of a revolution. Natives should be excluded from the priesthood. + +[14] The insurrection which occurred recently in Tayabas is a patent +proof of these truths. The cura of the village where the confraternity +of San José was established, advised the alcalde of the province +in time of the suspicions with which it infused him. And since the +alcalde-mayor refused to consider the matter, he wrote him: "You will +be the first victim," as in truth he was. The cura of the next village +also took great interest in it, and so many letters were written to +the archbishop of Manila from various places, that the latter sent +an official communication to the captain-general. Orders were then +issued for the arrest of Apolinario de Santa Cruz, but he fled. The +brothers [of the confraternity] held their meetings in the village of +Mahahay. The cura informed the archbishop thereof, telling him that, +notwithstanding all that he had done, he had been unable to dissuade +them from this undertaking. The archbishop sent this advice to the +government. To the curas, then, was due the discovery of that crafty +conspiracy; and it is almost beyond the pale of doubt that if there had +been no others than Filipino parish priests in the villages (as has +been once ordered by the government), there would not have been the +slightest suspicion of it, until it had been so firmly and generally +organized that our ruin would have been the work of a week. (Note +by Mas.) + +[15] Either Mas has simply indicated the letter in his heading, or +the person who transcribed the copy from which we translate failed to +copy the extract in question. It will be remembered that Mas published +most of the letter in his vol. i, in the chapter on population. The +reference is evidently to sections 95-100 (q.v., VOL. XL, pp. 270-277). + +[16] Manuel Grijalbo (sic), O.S.A., went to the Philippines in 1810, +and after acting as cura and holding the highest positions in the +province, was appointed bishop of Nueva Cáceres, being consecrated +Jan. 28, 1849. He died at the episcopal palace, Nov. 13, 1861. + +Fausto Lopez, O.S.A., was born in 1811, took his vows at Valladolid in +1828, and went to the Philippines in 1829. He was located in Cebú until +1837, when he became provincial secretary. Afterwards he held several +offices and acted as cura until his death at Manila, April 17, 1866. + +Manuel Jarava, O.S.A., was born at Zaragoza in 1804 and professed +at Valladolid in 1827. He was in the Philippines from 1829 to 1834, +returning in the latter year to Spain. The date of his death is +unknown. + +See Pérez's Catálogo. + +[17] Manuel Maria Cambronero was a Spanish jurisconsult. He was born +in Orihuela in 1765 and died in 1834. During the French invasion, +he acted as secretary of the Council of State, on account of which +he was compelled to leave the country when the French left. He later +returned to Madrid, where he opened a buffet, which was the most +celebrated one of his time. See Dic. encic. Hisp.-Amer., iv, p. 330. + +[18] A tribute paid to the church by all Filipinos from the age +of sixteen. + +"Since 1852 the tribute amounts to 12 reals, and in some districts +special rates are fixed. Not until 1841 was the payment of the tribute +in cash made universal. There are, besides, three other taxes; +the sanctorum, 3 reals; the comunidad, 1 real; and the recargo, +1/2 real. The total of imposts, then, is 16 1/2 reals; or for +each single person one dollar and 1/4 real. The sanctorum is for +[the expenses of] worship; but it is paid to the government, which +pays the minister at the rate of 180 dollars for 500 tributes. The +comunidad is a charge for the communal fund. The recargo is a charge +introduced since the suppression of the brandy monopoly, to cover the +deficit resulting therefrom. In Mindanao and the Bisayas no additional +charge is collected. According to Agius (Memoria, doc. 5) each single +tribute-payer now contributes 6.25 reals, plus 0.55 reals of recargo, +in all 6.8 reals, not considering the sanctorum and comunidad. The +inhabitants of Abra, Ilocos, and Union pay, besides, 1 1/2 to 2 1/4 +reals for the permission to buy their tobacco outside the monopoly +dealers." "Mestizos by a Chinese man and an Indian woman pay a tribute +of $3.00 a year since 1852; earlier, it was less. The Indian woman +married to a mestizo of this class pays the same tribute as he during +their marriage; but when she becomes a widow she pays only as an Indian +woman. Mestizos who, like the natives, cultivate the soil with their +own hands, also pay only as the latter do. The mestizos form their own +barangays when there are 25 to 30 tributes of them living together; +otherwise they belong to the nearest barangay of natives. Every +Chinaman--excepting tillers of the soil, from whom only 12 reals are +collected--pays since 1852 a [capitation] head-tax of $6.00, and, +besides this, an industrial tax of $100, $60, $30, or $12." + +"A law issued Nov. 3, 1863 (Legis. ultramar [compiled by Rodriguez +S. Pedro, pub. at Madrid, 1865] iii), actually decided that every +male inhabitant of the Philippines--European or native, Spanish +or foreign--must render personal service for twenty-four days in +the year, or else procure release from it by a money payment. But +this law was not put into execution, and Europeans are free from all +imposts. Mestizos by Spaniards and Indian women are similarly exempt, +save that they pay 7 reals for the sanctorum, and 1/2 real as a tithe +for the government; little care, however, is taken for exactness in +the enumeration of the mestizos, especially of their women." (Jagor, +Reisen, pp. 293-295.) + +[19] The Colegio de Agustinos, or Colegio de Filipinas, at Valladolid, +would probably come under this category. + +[20] The use of steam vessels against the Moros was introduced in 1847, +and proved an immediate benefit. + +[21] See VOL. LI, notes 6, 7, 14, 16, 31. + +[22] This was Admiral Cyrille-Pierre-Théodore Laplace, who was born at +sea Nov. 7, 1793, and died at Brest, Jan. 22, 1875. The book mentioned +by Mas is the Voyage autour du monde par les mers de l'Inde et de la +Chine (1833-39). The matte on the Philippines is contained in vol. i, +pp. 353-470, 547-553, and is as follows: "Manille; description de +Luçon; quelques details sur son gouvernement, ses habitants, leurs +moeurs et leur industrie;" and notes. See La grande encyclopédie, +xxi, p. 947; and the Philippine bibliography issued by the Library +of Congress. + +[23] The office of army intendant was created by royal orders of July +17 and 26, 1784, in accordance with the proposition of Governor Basco; +to the office was united that of the subdelegate superintendency +of the treasury. The new office was independent of the superior +government of the islands. The first incumbent of the new office was +Ciriaco Gonzalez Carvajal, then auditor of the royal Audiencia and +assessor-general of the government. See Montero y Vidal, Historia +general, ii, pp. 311, 312. + +[24] The first edition of the Recopilación de leyes de Indias was +published at Madrid in 1681. + +[25] For the powers of the alcaldes-mayor, see VOL. XVII, pp. 323, +324, and 333, 334. + +[26] i.e., A report of the matter must be made to the government, +through its respective ministries, and after deliberation the course +to be followed would be ordered. Throughout the history of the +Philippines, this method often proved a great drawback to effective +government, because of the distance from Spain and difficulty of +communication; so much so that when the answer was received, the +matter was already wellnigh or completely a dead letter. + +[27] On leaving his office Francisco Enriquez left two printed +documents as follows: Oficio al Secretario de Estado dando cuenta de +haber hecho entrega de la Intendencia á D. Luis Urrejola (Manila, +June 11, 1836; 2 leaves on rice paper); and Entrega que hace de +sus funciones, en este dia, el Intendente general de Ejercito +... al Ecsmo. Sr. D. Luis Urrejola (Manila, July 11, 1836; in 16 +leaves). The document mentioned by Mas must be one of these. See +Retana's Bibliografia filipina, pp. 54, 55 (the title to the first +document is made by Retana). + +[28] i.e., All the papers belonging to any matter, judicial, +legislative, or executive, consisting of orders, opinions, reports, +and all other measures. + +[29] A note at this point states that the polo and service tax had +not been extended to the Chinese mestizos, who were not in existence +when the tax was first imposed, or were but few, until a few years +back, when the natives of Lingayen brought up the matter. Chinese +mestizos formed the wealthiest part of many villages; and it was +decided that since they were to the natives as 1:6, they should pay +such taxes for one month to the natives' six. At Vigan, Ilocos Sur, +the natives also presented a petition against the mestizos because +natives alone were compelled to furnish provisions, etc., to the troops +in their province at the schedule price, while the mestizos escaped; +and for which reason many of the natives joined the mestizo ranks, +saying that the state profited thereby because as mestizos they +paid a double tribute. Governor Oraá, however, imposed a fine for +such denaturalization. As regards the petition against the mestizos, +an expediente was formed, and in July, 1841, the natives were ordered +to send a salaried agent to conduct a suit against the mestizos. But +they being poor could not do so, while it was understood that the +mestizos had paid a bribe of 1,000 pesos to the assessor. Consequently, +it appears that notwithstanding the efforts of the alcalde-mayor and +Mas, nothing could be done, as the governor was so hedged in. + +[30] Francisco Enriquez succeeded Urrijola (who had been appointed +October, 1820, as intendant-general of the army and treasury), in +the office of intendant in 1828, being granted more ample powers than +the latter had enjoyed. By a royal decree of October 27, 1829, it was +ordered that the superintendency should be held by the intendant of the +army and royal treasury, and accordingly Enriquez took such charge on +September 9, 1630. See Montero y Vidal, Hist. gen., ii, pp. 457, 521. + +[31] See José Cabezas de Herrera's Apuntes históricos sobre la +organización político-administrativa de Filipinas (Manila, 1883). This +is an excellent treatise on the governmental administration of the +Philippines. + +[32] See the budget of receipts and expenditures in the Philippines +for the year, July, 1885-June, 1886, in Montero y Vidal's El +archipiélago filipino, pp. 169-186. The expenditures involve: +general obligations, 1,523,335.07 pesos; state, 125,000 pesos; +grace and justice, 1,085,769.62 pesos; war, 3,494,923.31 pesos; +treasury, 1,356,031.30 pesos; navy, 2,423,518.91 pesos; government, +1,267,007.43 pesos; public works (fomento), 349,322.87 pesos; total, +11,624,908.51 pesos. The receipts were 11,528,178 pesos. + +[33] The administrative affairs of the colonies were placed in charge +of the ministerio de la gobernación (ministry of the government) in +1832, and were added in 1836 to the ministerio de marina (ministry +of the navy), which was after that called secretaría del despacho de +marina, comercio y gobernación de ultramar (department of the navy, +commerce, and colonial government). After various other changes, the +ministerio de ultramar (ministry of the colonies) was established by +royal decree, May 20, 1863. The duties of the ministry are outlined +as follows: to modify the organization or administrational régime +of the colonies; to fix or change the annual budget of receipts and +expenditures; to dispose of the surplus products of the colonies; to +adopt any rule relative to the establishment or suppression of imposts; +to propose persons for the offices of governor and captain-general, +intendants, and regents of the Audiencia; to grant titles, etc., +to persons in the colonies; to adopt any measure affecting the +exterior regimen of the Church or the royal patronage; to decide any +serious matter according to the judgment of the minister; to draw +up preparatory measures of resolutions allowing expenses or advances +of funds by the public treasury of the Peninsula, which resolutions +belong to the ministry of the treasury; to transmit communications of +the ministers of state, war, and navy, to the authorities of those +provinces, and the communications of the latter to the respective +ministers. See Dic. encic. Hisp.-Amer., xiii, pp. 131, 132. + +[34] In 1803 a Spanish pamphlet was published at Philadelphia, +advocating the opinion that Spain "ought to get rid of all her colonies +in America and Asia, in order to promote agriculture and industries +in the Peninsula;" it is attributed to the Marqués de Casa Irujo +(Vindel, Catálogo biblioteca filipina, no. 1797). + +[35] Matta took possession of the above office on June 2, 1841; he +had long been connected with the affairs of the colony. In 1837 he +had drawn up a detailed report on the advantage which would result +from introducing steamboats into the islands. (Montero y Vidal, +Hist. de Filipinas, ii, p. 573.) + +[36] Cuerpo del Resguardo: the guards employed by the treasury to look +after the customs and excise duties on the government monopolies of +tobacco, wines, liquors, etc. + +[37] For accounts of the confraternity of San José, see Manuel +Sancho's Relacion expresiva de los principales acontecimientos de la +titulada Cofradía del señor San José (first published by W. E. Retana +in La Política de España, no. 21, et seq.); Memoria histórica de la +conducta militar y politica del Teniente General D. Marcelino Oraá +(Madrid, 1851), probably written by Pedro Chamorro; and Montero y +Vidal, Hist. gen., iii, pp. 37-56. This confraternity was founded by +Apolinario de la Cruz, a Tagálog, a native of Lucban in the province +of Tayabas, who was a donné in the hospital of San Juan de Dios in +Manila. The new confraternity soon had many adherents in the provinces +of Tayabas, Laguna, and Batangas, and in the middle of 1840 began to +hold meetings in Lucban, to which both sexes were admitted, and at +which letters from Apolinario were read. The attention of the friar +parish priests was directed to the confraternity, and the meeting of +October 19, 1840 was surprised and about 243 persons out of the 500 or +600 attending it, arrested. The governor of Tayabas province, however, +who regarded the matter as entirely one of ecclesiastical jurisdiction, +ordered the prisoners to be released. Through the representations +of the parish priest of Lucban, the provincial governor finally +intervened, and the adherents to the confraternity thereupon held +their meetings secretly in Majayjay in Laguna Province. The meeting of +Sept. 19, 1841, at the latter place, was surprised and some arrests +made, although but few, as information of the intended raid had +been received. The departure of the provincial governor of Tayabas, +Joaquin Ortega, for Manila, was favorable to the new sect, as a native +adherent or sympathizer was left in charge of the government. Through +his acquiescence, the members of the confraternity who had gathered in +armed bands at the village of Bay in Laguna (where they were joined +by Apolinario, who had fled from Manila), were allowed to ensconce +themselves in Igsaban, Tayabas. From thence they opened negotiations +with the government at Tayabas to be allowed to occupy that city, +the substitute governor requesting from the parish priest that they +be allowed to hold a novena in his church. Negotiations failed, +and Ortega, returning on the twenty-second of October, ordered the +natives to disperse, and on their refusal attacked them the next +day with a force of over three hundred men. The natives, aided by a +band of Negritos who had joined them, repulsed this force and killed +Ortega, and then retired to Alitao to celebrate a novena. There +they were attacked on the first of November by a force composed of +troops sent by Oraá, and those of the province of Tayabas, and after +a severe engagement the natives were defeated. Apolinario, who fled, +was soon captured and shot on the fourth, others of the leaders being +also arrested. Apolinario was but twenty-seven years old, and evidently +worked on the superstitious nature of his countrymen, who believed that +he was immune from danger and that the rebel forces would be aided by +the direct intervention of heaven. His followers baptized him under +the name of "The king of the Tagálogs." No one except pure-blooded +natives were allowed to become members of the organization, from which +circumstance the Spaniards have always professed to believe that the +confraternity was political in nature and that religious motives were +merely a blind. Some (as in Vindel's Catálogo biblioteca filipina, +no. 1895) assert that the confraternity was a sort of Katipunan. It +is quite probable, however, that its origin was entirely religious, +but religion mingled with superstition and fanaticism. The fact that +Apolinario attempted to legalize the existence of the organization +through both ecclesiastical and government centers, which was refused +in both instances, indicates that the insurrection was forced by the +Spaniards, through either fear or contempt. It is highly unlikely +that the organization had at the beginning any political motive, +and its attempted suppression was a mistake of the religious and +civil authorities. + +[38] The defeat and slaughter of the members of the confraternity of +San José angered the native soldiers from the Province of Tayabas, +who were quartered in Malate. Conspiring with some of the garrison +of the fort of Santiago, also from the same province, they attacked +and took that fort Jan. 20, 1843, under the leadership of two brothers +(mestizos and officers of the regiment), after killing the officers on +guard. The mutiny was quickly stilled by Oraá, and the commander of +the insurgents, a sergeant, Samaniego, and some of the other leaders +were shot on the twenty-second at the camp of Bagumbayang. The other +native soldiers remained loyal and aided in quelling the mutiny. See +Montero y Vidal, Hist. de Filipinas, iii, pp. 58, 59, and note. + +[39] The Spanish government decided to aid France against England, +and declared war against the latter power in June, 1779. The Spaniards +aided the Americans against the British in Florida and Mississippi, +and in March, 1780, captured Mobile. Martin A. S. Hume says in Modern +Spain (New York, 1900), p. 6: "As Aranda himself foresaw, and set forth +in a most remarkable prophecy, the aid lent by Spain to the revolt +of the English North American Colonies formed a dangerous precedent +for the separation of her own colonial dominions, and promoted the +establishment of a great Anglo-Saxon republic in America, which in +time to come should oust Spain from her last foothold in the New +World. 'This new federal republic,' wrote Aranda to Floridablanca, +'is, so to speak, born a mere pigmy, and has needed the support of two +powerful nations like France and Spain to win its independence. But the +day will come when it will grow into a giant, a terrible Colossus. It +will then forget the benefits it has received, and think only of its +own aggrandizement.'" + +[40] See Mas's remarks in this connection, ante, pp. 32-34. + +[41] Magistrates appointed to inquire into the circumstances of a +violent death. + +[42] The college of San José sent out the following bishops: José +Cabral, bishop-elect of Nueva Cáceres; Rodrigo de la Cueva Jiron, +bishop of Nueva Segovia; Francisco Pizarro de Orellana, bishop of +Nueva Segovia; Jeronimo de Herrera, bishop of Nueva Segovia; Felipe +de Molina y Figueroa, bishop of Nueva Cáceres; Domingo de Valencia, +bishop of Nueva Cáceres; José de Andaya, bishop of Ovieda, Spain, +bishop-elect of Puebla de los Angeles, Mexico, and archbishop of +Mexico; and Ignacio de Salamanca, bishop of Cebu. The college also sent +out one auditor, one royal treasurer, two alcaldes-mayor; 39 Jesuits +(of whom three were martyrs), 4 provincials, 11 calced Augustinians, +10 Recollects, 8 Franciscans, and 3 Dominicans. These statistics are +given by Pablo Pastells in a letter in 1902, a translation of which +is in the possession of Rev. T. C. Middleton, O.S.A. + +[43] Vindel says (Catálogo biblioteca filipina, no. 756) that the +school of agriculture in Manila was organized by Rafael García +López. In regard to this school, which was founded in 1889, see +VOL. XLV, pp. 314-318. + +[44] On May 4, 1869, a society was authorized for "the promotion of +instruction in the arts and trades in the Filipinas Islands;" but it +was of short duration, as schools of this sort were soon afterward +established by the government. (Vindel, ut supra, no. 1661; see also +VOL. XLV of this series.) + +[45] Vindel mentions (Catálogo biblioteca filipina, p. 50) +"arrangements regarding the Philippine Institute, and chairs of +Tagálog, Bisayan, and practical land-surveying," in the Boletin +oficial del Ministerio de Ultramar, vol. i. + +[46] "There was still at Manila another caste of mestizos, originating +from Japanese and the Indian women. These Japanese landed on the +island of Luçon, about fourscore years ago, in a dismantled vessel, +and destitute of everything; I saw them in 1767. They numbered, +I believe, at most sixty or seventy persons, all Christians. But as +the form of government doubtless did not please them, nor perhaps did +the Inquisition, they had demanded to return [to their own country]; +and all, or nearly all, actually departed in that same year, 1767, +and returned to Japan, where they have probably resumed the faith of +their fathers." (Le Gentil, Voyage, ii, pp. 53, 54.) Concepción states +(Hist. de Philipinas, vii, p. 6) that in 1658 a number of Christian +Japanese were living in the barrio of San Anton, near Manila; some of +them had come on a Japanese ship that was driven to Cavite by storms, +and remained with their countrymen at Manila. + +[47] A list of many practical plans and regulations for the benefit of +the Philippine Islands, appearing in the Boletin oficial del Ministerio +de Ultramar (Madrid, 1875-83) may be found in Vindel, ut supra, pp. 49, +50. Many other lists of interesting articles regarding the islands, +found in periodical publications, are given therein, pp. 46-62; +also in Beleña's Recopilacion (p. 67). + +[48] Some credit should also be given to the Royal Philippine Company +(Real Compañía de Filipinas), which, though unsuccessful financially, +stimulated considerably the development of Philippine agriculture +between 1790 and 1820, after which year it did little until its +dissolution. + +[49] Comyn's Estado says that in 1810 the number of Spaniards, +born in the Peninsula or elsewhere, and of Spanish mestizos, of +both sexes and all ages, classes, and occupations, did not exceed +3,500 to 4,000. Diaz Arenas (Memorías históricas y estadísticas +de Filipinas; Manila, 1850) quotes official figures showing 293 +Spaniards settled in the provinces, outside of Manila and Tondo, in +1848; and he records 7,544 as the number of Spanish mestizos in the +islands, including Tondo, as Manila province was then called. Cavada +(Historia geográfica, geológica y estadística de Filipinas; Manila, +1876), taking his figures apparently from the governmental statistics +as to houses and their occupants for 1870, gives for that year 3,823 +Spaniards (all but 516 of them males) from the Peninsula, and 9,710 +"Filipino-Spaniards," the latter classification apparently including +Spanish mestizos with such pure-blooded Spaniards as had been born in +the Philippines. Among his Peninsular Spaniards would be included +over 1,000 members of religious orders, an approximately equal +number of soldiers, and the civil officials of Spanish blood (except +a relatively small number born in the islands themselves, mostly +in the minor categories of officials). J. F. del Pan (La poblacion +de Filipinas; Manila, 1883), and F. Cañamaque (Las íslas Filipinas; +Madrid, 1880) both report the parochial statistics of 1876 as showing +the total of Spaniards, apart from members of the religious orders, +the civil service, and the army and navy, to be 13,265; Cañamaque +speaks of this latter class as "Spaniards without official character +(Peninsulars and Filipinos)," and Del Pan calls them "persons not +subject to the capitation-tax on account of being of the Spanish +race." At least some of the Spanish mestizos in the islands would +appear to have been included in this total. A statistical résumé for +1898 (La Política de España en Filipinas, 1898, pp. 87-92) gives the +number of Spaniards in the Philippines at the end of Spanish rule +as 34,000 (of whom 5,800 are credited as officers and employees of +governments, 3,800 as the normal number of Spaniards in army and navy, +and 1,700 as of the clerical estate). These figures, like various other +estimates in pamphlets of recent years, are considerably exaggerated; +they are reconcilable only on the supposition that they include not +only Spaniards of Philippine birth, but also Spanish mestizos. In 1903, +only 3,888 Peninsular Spaniards were found in the archipelago. The +census of 1896 would have shown separately Spaniards and Spanish +mestizos; but it was not completed for all provinces, and has never +been published. The foregoing estimates and figures do, however, +show the great relative increase of Spaniards and Spanish influence +in the Philippines in the latter part of the nineteenth century. + +Apropos of Mr. LeRoy's note the following is of interest as regards +the population of the eighteenth century. "The number of Spaniards +who are in the part of Manila not occupied by the friars is very +inconsiderable; in 1767, they did not exceed eight hundred persons. It +can be said that the friars are masters of the city, for all the +houses, except perhaps five or six, belong to them. This makes a fine +revenue for them, since the houses are very dear--from two hundred to +four hundred piasters (one thousand to two thousand livres). They are +still dearer in the suburb of Santa Cruz, where they are worth at least +five hundred piasters, for it is there that all the foreign merchants +from India or China lodge. Manila is still peopled by the Tagálogs, +who are the natives at once of this city and of its bishopric; the +Tagálogs serve the Spaniards as domestics, or live by some petty +trade or occupation." (Le Gentil, Voyage, ii, p. 104.)--Eds. + +[50] "The Spanish-Filipino Bank, the oldest bank in the islands, was +founded (1852) by an order of the Spanish government uniting the obras +pías funds of the four orders of friars in the Philippines." (Census +of Philippine Islands, iv, p. 541).--Eds. + +[51] In the tariff revision of 1891, Spanish goods in Spanish ships +were made free of customs duties in Philippine ports; prior to +that time they had, as a rule, paid one-half the duties assessed on +foreign goods. + +[52] In 1898, for instance, when the war with the United States began, +the governor-general of the Philippines who had recently negotiated +a peace with the insurgent chiefs, had just turned over his place to +a new man, a stranger in the islands, and sailed for home. The new +Liberal administration, which came into power in Spain in October, +1897, had also sent to the Philippines a new set of provincial +governors, to take the place of men who had served, in many cases, +less than two years. Some of these new governors had not gone to +their posts when Commodore Dewey's squadron arrived, and they were +consequently blockaded in Manila. + +[53] This was accomplished on December 31, 1882--(but see post, +p. 141).--Eds. + +[54] F. Jagor, Reisen in den Philippinen (Berlin, 1873), p. 287. + +Also of interest in this connection are Jagor's remarks in the +following two citations from the same book (pp. 288 and 289, +respectively). "Government monopolies mercilessly administered, +grievous disregard of the creoles and the rich mestizos, and the +example of the United States, these were the principal causes of the +loss of the American possessions [of Spain]; and the same causes are +menacing the Philippines also. Of the monopolies sufficient account +has been given in the text. Mestizos and creoles are not, it is true, +shut out, as formerly in America, from all offices; but they feel that +they are deeply injured and despoiled by the crowds of office seekers +whom the frequent changes of ministers at Madrid bring to Manila. Also +the influence of the American elements is at least discernible on +the horizon, and will come more to the front as the relations of +the two countries grow closer. At present these are still of little +importance; in the meantime commerce follows its old routes, which +lead to England and the Atlantic ports of the Union. Nevertheless, +he who attempts to form a judgment as to the future destiny of the +Philippines cannot fix his gaze only on their relations to Spain; +he must also consider the mighty changes which within a few decades +are being effected on that side of our planet. For the first time in +the world's history, the gigantic nations on both sides of a gigantic +ocean are beginning to come into direct intercourse: Russia, which +alone is greater than two divisions of the world together; China, +which within her narrow bounds contains a third of the human race; +America, with cultivable soil enough to support almost three times the +entire population of the earth. Russia's future rôle in the Pacific +Ocean at present baffles all calculations. The intercourse of the two +other powers will probably have all the more important consequences +when the adjustment between the immeasurable necessity for human +labor-power on the one hand, and a correspondingly great surplus +of that power on the other, shall fall on it as a problem." "But in +proportion as the commerce of the western coast of America extends +the influence of the American elements over the South Sea, the +ensnaring spell which the great republic exercises over the Spanish +colonies will not fail to assert itself in the Philippines also. The +Americans appear to be called upon to bring the germ planted by the +Spaniards to its full development. As conquerors of the New World, +representatives of the body of free citizens in contradistinction to +the nobility, they follow with the axe and plow of the pioneer where +the Spaniards had opened the way with cross and sword. A considerable +part of Spanish America already belongs to the United States, and has, +since that occurred, attained an importance which could not have been +anticipated either during Spanish rule or during the anarchy which +ensued after and from it. In the long run, the Spanish system cannot +prevail over the American. While the former exhausts the colonies +through direct appropriation of them to the privileged classes, and +the metropolis through the drain of its best forces (with, besides, +a feeble population), America draws to itself the most energetic +elements from all lands; and these on her soil, free from all +trammels, and restlessly pushing forward, are continually extending +further her power and influence. The Philippines will so much the +less escape the influence of the two great neighboring empires, since +neither the islands nor their metropolis are in a condition of stable +equilibrium. It seems desirable for the natives that the opinions +here expressed shall not too soon be realized as facts, for their +training thus far has not sufficiently prepared them for success in +the contest with those restless, active, most inconsiderate peoples; +they have dreamed away their youth." Some writers have carried the +evolution one step farther, as for instance, the following: See Count +Edward Wilczek's interesting study on "The historical importance of +the Pacific Ocean," in H. F. Helmolt's History of the World (N. Y., +1902), i, pp. 566-599; he predicts a future contest which "will +have to decide whether, by the permanent occupation of the northern +Pacific, the white race shall accomplish its world-embracing destiny, +or whether, with the goal already in sight, and for the first time +in its history, it will have to make way for a stronger"--that is, +for the yellow race, in the form of Japan and China.--Eds. + +[55] See the most important of these decrees in our educational +appendix, VOL. XLVI.--Eds. + +[56] In 1899 and 1900, the American government continued the +subsidies to the Jesuits to sustain the normal school and Manila +Ateneo. With the establishment, however, of an educational system +under the Taft Commission, the subsidy to the Ateneo was withdrawn +and a Manila public high school established. The normal school was +established in the old buildings of the exposition of 1887, and was +the first special school organized under Dr. Atkinson. The vacation +normal school is due to Dr. Barrows, who established it in the spring +vacation of 1901, in order that the teachers from the provinces might +be gathered together for brief instruction in new methods, exchange +of ideas, and general inspiration. The regular normal school has +been a very notable feature since 1901, and in some ways the most +striking thing in the new school system. Its woman's dormitory has +been a center of Filipino gatherings and a constant theme of praise +by the Filipino press. (From a previous communication to the Editors +by J. A. LeRoy.) See VOL. XLVI, p. 95, note.--Eds. + +[57] This exchange of Mindanao missions by the Recollects for parishes +in and around Manila and in Mindoro was closely connected with the +pro-seculars' campaign made in Manila and Madrid at that time--Father +Burgos of the Cathedral standing out preëminently on behalf of +his fellows the native priests, a direct step in the way toward +his execution in connection with the Cavite mutiny of 1872. (James +A. LeRoy, in a personal letter dated January 6, 1906.) See XXVIII, +pp. 342, 343.--Eds. + +[58] See post, pp. 170, 171, note 119. With the three priests was also +executed one Francisco Saldúa. Máximo Inocencio, Enrique Paraíso, and +Crisanto de los Reyes were sentenced to ten years' imprisonment. Others +were also condemned to death, some of whose sentences were commuted to +life imprisonment. The following persons were deported to Marianas: +Antonio María Regidor, 8 years; Máximo Paterno; Agustín Mendoza, +parish priest of the district of Santa Cruz de Manila; Joaquín Pardo +de Tavera, a regidor of Manila and university professor, 6 years. Some +of the latter and others lost their qualification as advocates of +the Audiencia.--Eds. + +[59] In a pamphlet by Manrique A. Lallave (Madrid, 1872), an +ex-Dominican missionary from Filipinas, he declares that "the friars +at that time possessed property to the value of eleven millions of +pesos fuertes." (Vindel, Catálogo biblioteca filipina, no. 1846.)--Eds. + +[60] See post, p. 182.--Eds. + +[61] Bibliography of the Philippine Islands (Bureau of Insular Affairs, +Washington, 1903), comprising under one cover these two volumes which +were also published separately by the Library of Congress: A List of +Books (with references to periodicals) on the Philippine Islands in the +Library of Congress, compiled by A. P. C. Griffin; and the Biblioteca +Filipina of Dr. T. H. Pardo de Tavera. For information regarding +general bibliographies and bibliographical lists of Philippina, +see VOL. LIII of this series. + +[62] Reference has already been made in another footnote to the +German original; English and Spanish translations of this work, both +defective, were also published. It has not been deemed necessary in +this brief sketch to append the bibliographical details, except when +they may not be found in Bibliography of the Philippine Islands, +under the names of the authors herein cited. + +[63] Particularly his Las colonias españolas de Asia. Islas Filipinas +(Madrid, 1880). + +[64] It is closely related also with the political questions of this +period, with the friar controversy, and with matters of administration +as such. + +[65] El Diario de Manila was established in 1848, a name which was +changed to El Boletin oficial de Filipinas in 1852, and again to the +former name in 1860; papers called El Comercio were founded in 1858 +(probably), and in 1869; La Oceanía Española, in 1877 (which succeeded +El Porvenir Filipino); La Voz Española was founded in 1888 under the +name of La Voz de España, the issue of March 5, 1892, marking the +change of name. See Retana's El periodismo.--Eds. + +[66] See also Griffin's List for a list of periodical articles +(mainly from American magazines, although some foreign titles are +also noted.)--Eds. + +[67] Retana reproduced this Reglamento de Asuntos de Imprenta of 1857 +in volume i of the Archivo. Retana, who was for a time a newspaper man +in Manila, says it was not known by the newspaper editors or by the +political censor; in other words, the censor did about as he pleased. + +[68] The Filipino press of propaganda, published abroad, will merit +attention further on, when "Reform and Revolution" are discussed. + +[69] Census of the Philippine Islands, 4 vols. (Washington, 1903). In +vol. ii, pp. 17-22, are tables comparing Spanish estimates and +censuses, with references to such. + +[70] Archipiélagos filipinos en la Oceanía, Censo de población +veríficado el 31 de Diciembre de 1887 ... (Manila, 1889). + +[71] For population alone, there may also be mentioned the table of +various civil and ecclesiastical estimates, based mainly on the returns +of the tributes, in Sancianco y Goson's El progreso de Filipinas +(Madrid, 1881), pp. 175-186; and the summaries of five Spanish censuses +and tables of the 1896 census in Report of the Philippine Commission, +1901, ii, appendices HH and II. + +[72] If possible, Pardo de Tavera's bibliographical comments should +be checked up by those made by Retana to some of these works in his +various bibliographies.--Eds. + +[73] See Library of Congress List, etc., pp. 9-11. + +[74] Cited in Pardo de Tavera's Biblioteca as nos. 269 and 2,003. The +American consular reports are given in a separate table in the Library +of Congress List, pp. 178-180. Only those of Consul Webb, 1888-90, +need be mentioned as containing some data of interest. + +[75] Both the papers cited have subsequently been reproduced in +several other government bulletins, which will be cited in their +places. E. W. Hardin's Report on the Financial and Industrial +Condition of the Philippines (Senate Document no. 169, 55th Congress, +3rd session) was similarly reproduced. All three of these documents, +which were useful to American inquirers immediately following the +events of 1898, may be disregarded by the student who resorts to the +Spanish and other sources herein given. + +[76] A 36-page pamphlet, Commercial Progress in the Philippine Islands +(London, 1905), by A. M. Regidor y Jurado and J. W. T. Mason, is quite +inaccurate and in part gossipy, but may be noted as containing some +nineteenth-century data on foreign traders and bankers not elsewhere +in print. + +[77] Spanish Public Land Laws in the Philippine Islands and their +History to August 13, 1898 (Washington, Bureau of Insular Affairs, +1901). These laws and conditions of land tenure under Spanish rule +are also succinctly summarized by D. R. Williams in Official Handbook +of the Philippines (Manila, 1903); in other respects the Handbook, +a Washington library compilation prepared for the St. Louis Exposition +of 1904, has no independent value and is often inaccurate. + +[78] According to Retana, who cites this Informe emitido ... sobre +bancos hipotecarios (Madrid, 1889) in the Estadismo, ii, p. 151*. Pardo +de Tavera (Biblioteca, p. 76) says that this report led to the official +decision that, in view of the general lack of titles, the establishment +of land banks would be premature. + +[79] Following are special citations from his El progreso de Filipinas: +Land tax, and arguments therefor, pp. 9, 10, 28-34, 48-53, 56, 65-80; +tax on real estate in towns, pp. 81-89; deficiency of provisions for +obtaining title to unoccupied lands, pp. 48-53, 54-56, 57-66, 222-223; +data (mostly from Jordana y Morera) regarding development of forest +and agricultural resources and amount of cultivated land, province by +province, to 1873-74, pp. 187-204; value assigned to land, province by +province, result of official inquiry of 1862, pp. 212-223; Filipino +laborer and his share in development of agricultural resources, +pp. 223-237; rates of interest on real-estate loans, pp. 253-254; +land measures in use, pp. 257-258. + +[80] The intemperate and fantastic writings of "Quioquiap" (Pablo +Feced) in El Diario de Manila and La Política de España en Filipinas +are in point. + +[81] See also ibid., i, pp. 150-159. + +[82] These tables entirely supersede those presented, earlier in the +period of American occupation, in the Monthly Summary of Commerce +and Finance of the United States for November, 1899, and July, 1901 +(which also reproduced the memoranda of Greene, Tornow, and others, +already cited). Some of the tables presented in Bulletin No. 14, +Section of Foreign Markets, Department of Agriculture (Washington, +1898) give in convenient form Philippine trade statistics by countries, +both for imports and exports. + +[83] El progreso de Filipinas, pp. 238-244, foreign commerce, entry +of Spanish and foreign vessels, etc., for 1868; p. 244, table of +exports for 1871, in quantities (66 per cent of the hemp and over +50 per cent of the sugar going to the United States in that year); +pp. 245-249, internal trade and inter-island shipping; pp. 253-255, +rates of interest and kinds of money in circulation; pp. 255-258, +weights and measures in use (about 1880). + +[84] Questions of customs administration belong with the subject of +Spanish administration, further on. + +[85] It is another instance of the old tendency to emphasize +political evils and remedies, and neglect economic considerations, +in the Philippines. The labor monograph of V. S. Clark, above cited, +brings out the fact that higher wages for Filipinos since 1898 are +in part only a compensation for the previous penalization of the +Filipino laborer through a declining medium of exchange. + +[86] In Report of Philippine Commission, 1904, iii, pp. 487-503; +and ibid., 1905, iv, pp. 71-87. + +[87] See M. Sastrón, La insurrección en Filipinas (Madrid, 1897 and +1901), chap. i, for a summary of the reforms of the '80's and 1893. + +[88] It is thus that, from their point of view, the Philippine friars +and their Spanish clerical-conservative defenders have branded the +Filipino campaign, eventually for separation, as entirely produced +and fostered by Spanish Liberalism. + +[89] List of Books (with references to periodicals) relating to the +theory of colonization, government of dependencies, protectorates, +and related topics, by A. P. C. Griffin (Washington, 1900). It is +inserted also in O. P. Austin's Colonial administration, 1800-1900 +(from Summary of Commerce and Finance of the United States for March, +1903). + +[90] The Statesman's Yearbook and such general works of reference +will merit consultation; but it should be remarked that, prior to +1898, encyclopedias, annuals, etc., commonly treated the Philippines +rather cursorily and not always accurately, while, generally speaking, +the Spanish colonies have had very inadequate consideration at the +hands of English and American authors and editors. For the special +subjects of military and naval organization, see Salinas y Angulo's +Legislación militar (Manila, 1879), and Rodriguez Trujillo's Memoria +sobre la Marina (Manila, 1887), both cited in the Bibliography. + +[91] Published in La España Oriental, Manila, 1893, and La Política +de España en Filipinas, 1893-94. See Pardo de Tavera's Biblioteca, +no. 1496; note also his no. 2702, under Tiscar. + +[92] It is to be emphasized, however, that this abstract shows only +the framework of that government, and that just as it stood (on paper) +at the beginning of 1898, its author not having traced the development +of that organism even for a few years back nor learned that some of +the provisions he outlined were not really in practice. + +[93] Grifol y Aliaga (vol. XLVI, p. 109, note 48) is very naïve, +seeking to waive away the effect of the Maura law's plain provisions +in the same way as did some friar and other writers. In his decree +providing regulations for carrying out the law, Blanco explained that +the parish priests were to retain their inspection of the schools as +regards the teaching of religion and morals. The municipal tribunals +were expressly created as schoolboards--an institution of which Zamora +(Las corporaciones religiosas) bitterly complains. In reality, however, +this reform remained a dead letter in most villages, except in the +provinces most advanced in the propaganda, where the Filipino local +officials asserted their power of regulation (Bulakan, Batangas, +Manila, etc.). (From a previous communication from Mr. LeRoy.)--Eds. + +[94] Pedro A. Paterno's Regimen municipal de las islas Filipinas +(Madrid, 1893), reproducing Minister Maura's decree in its original +form, with notes, was therefore premature. Except in some of its +comments, however, this work is at least not merely ridiculous, as +are this author's writings on an imaginary primitive religion and +civilization of the Filipinos. Don Pedro has a lively imagination, +too lively for politics and history, but capable of providing good +entertainment when he exercises it as a dramatist. One finds him much +more pleasing in this rôle than as a Filipino reform propagandist, +though in the latter capacity he seems to have been taken very +seriously by Doctor Schurman and Mr. Foreman, and by various Spanish +officials before them, including, for a time, Governor-Generals Primo +de Rivera and Augustín. + +[95] Once more, the Manila press since 1898 merits attention here. The +Filipino press has not been always fair in treating of the old régime, +but both in the Filipino and the Spanish press of Manila since 1898 +some things have been brought to light which were either suppressed +for private gossip or not frankly discussed at the time of their +conference. + +[96] Notes from his Progreso de Filipinas: Lack of public improvements +and defects of public services, especially education, pp. 26-34; +defects in administration of justice and its expensiveness, +pp. 134-136; lack of development of material resources, pp. 205-211, +253-254; restriction of opportunities for Filipino laborers, and the +evils of caciquism, pp. 212-237. A study of caciquism (subjection +of the masses) and its deep roots in Philippine social, economic, +and political conditions may be found in J. A. LeRoy's Philippine +Life in Town and Country (New York, 1905), chap. vi; also the same +in part by the same author in the Atlantic Monthly for March, 1905. + +[97] Though unsupported evidence here given, particularly when +obviously gossip or when coming from partisan witnesses, is to +be accepted with caution. F. H. Sawyer's reminiscences of the +administrations of various governor-generals are subject to the same +caution, except where the author plainly speaks from a personal +knowledge of the facts; nevertheless, that such opinions on the +highest officials of the islands could pass current even as gossip +among Spaniards and foreigners in Manila is in itself alone very +significant of the tone of public life in the islands. Note Sawyer +also on the administration of justice, and Foreman on the "pickings" +of officials in the provinces. + +[98] Note especially Military Governor of the Philippine Islands on +Civil Affairs (Report War Dept., 1900, i, part 10), pp. 8-13, 79 et +seq. See also, for defects and corruption in the customs administration +up to 1881, Sancianco y Goson, pp. 36-37, 125-131. + +[99] Part of this money was spent in campaigns against the Moros, +and perhaps for other purposes not covered by the budget of ordinary +expenses. See La Política de España en Filipinas, v, no. 116, +for an account of progress in this work up to 1895. The press of +Manila has published during the past few years various articles on +the funds collected by subscription in Spain and the Philippines +for the relief of the sufferers from the earthquake in Manila in +1863. See particularly El Renacimiento, Manila, September 18, 1906, +for a report on the subject by Attorney-General Araneta. It would +there appear that nearly $450,000 were collected; by 1870, only some +$30,000 had been distributed to the sufferers themselves; whether they +received further shares at a later date does not appear, but $80,000 +were loaned from this fund to the obras pías in 1880, and about +$15,000 were used for cholera relief in 1888-89. Governor-General +Ide instructed the attorney-general to demand the return of the +$80,000 from the obras pías, and recommended that, when $50,000 of +this fund had been recovered, distribution of it among those who +suffered losses in 1863 should begin--almost a half-century later, +and under another government! + +[100] The new industrial (or income) taxes had, however, +been inaugurated before he wrote. See his Progreso de Filipinas, +pp. vii, 81-87, 93-94, on this subject; pp. 5-15, for extracts from +a project of economic reforms in 1870 (which see, in the Biblioteca, +no. 2041); pp. 9, 10, 28-34, 48-53, 56, 65-80, 81-89, arguments +for a real-property tax; pp. 6-10, 100-124, 142-143, the tribute; +pp. 133-143, miscellaneous taxes; pp. 142-143, local taxes proper. + +[101] Dr. Schurman drew from Spanish official publications the budget +of 1894-95 for his exposition of the former Philippine government +(Report of Philippine Commission, 1900, i, pp. 79-81), and this has +been considerably quoted, with the assumption that it represented +the full cost of government, in recent comparisons with the American +régime. Sawyer (in an appendix) gives the budget of 1896-97, with just +a note showing that charges for collection and for local government +made the actual collections for the poll-tax considerably larger than +the insular budget showed. Foreman, in his 1899 and 1906 editions, +only reproduces from his first edition a fragmentary statement of the +1888 budget, without showing that this was only partial and without +developing the later changes and increases in taxes. Retana, in the +Estadismo, apéndice H, under Rentas é impuestos del Estado, gives the +general totals of the budgets of 1890 and 1893-94 (likewise net totals +for the central government alone). See Sancianco y Goson for proposed +budget for 1881-82. The insular budget was published annually at Madrid +under the title Presupuestos generales de gastos é ingresos de las +islas Filipinas. The budget was made up at Madrid for each fiscal year, +and put into effect by a royal decree (after its receipt in Manila, +some few months after the beginning of the fiscal year which it was +to govern). Some changes or additions were allowed to be made by the +governor-general in imperative circumstances; otherwise the effort was +to regulate Philippine finances just the same as if the islands were +a province of the centralized government of the Peninsula itself. The +folio volume of Presupuestos published at Madrid, running to several +hundred pages, are valuable for giving in minute detail the expected +items of expenditures, down to the last petty employee on salary; but +they can give, of course, only the estimate of the revenue expected +under each item, and actual collections sometimes varied considerably +from these figures. Above all, these Presupuestos bear out the general +remark that the Spanish budget as published tends to conceal rather +than to reveal the actual burden resting on the people. They are not +budgets for the insular government alone, hence the budgets for the +city of Manila and for the local governments (provinces and towns), +published separately in some years at Manila, must be consulted to get +total net collections for all branches of government. In addition, one +must dig out for himself from the laws governing taxation, etc., and +from the archives the data regarding fees for collection, notarial, +legal and other fees accruing to private pockets, surcharges for +special purposes, etc. + +[102] The subject can not be thoroughly discussed here. For some +data and references thereon, see contributions by the writer +to the Political Science Quarterly, xxi, pp. 309-311, and xxii, +pp. 124-125. Regarding ecclesiastical dues and exactions, the share +of the ecclesiastical establishment in local revenues, etc., see, +besides citations there given, M. H. del Pilar's La soberanía monacal +en Filipinas (Barcelona, 1888, and Manila, 1898). + +The above contributions cited by Mr. LeRoy are his criticism of +H. Parker Willis's Our Philippine Problem (New York, 1905), and his +Rejoinder to Mr. Willis's Reply to that criticism (March, 1907). See +also Mr. Willis's remarks on this matter in his Reply (pp. 116-119), +which have been fully met in Mr. LeRoy's Rejoinder.--Eds. + +[103] In confirmation of the first statement above, and for details +regarding this debt, see Senate Document no. 62, 55th Congress, +3rd session, protocols 11, 12, 15, and 16; ibid., p. 412 (Greene's +memorandum); Senate Document no. 148, 56th Congress, 2nd session, for +cablegrams between the President and the American peace commissioners +from October 27, 1898, on, especially p. 44 (details of this loan); +also Sastrón's La insurrección en Filipinas (Madrid, 1901), pp. 284, +285. + +[104] Special attention may be directed to Clifford Stevens Walton's +The Civil Law in Spain and Spanish-America, including Cuba, Puerto +Rico and the Philippines (Washington, 1900). + +[105] Pardo de Tavera's Biblioteca, no. 1770. + +[106] Data obtained from Justices Arellano and Torres cover very well +the judicial organization of recent years. For earlier years, it is +often in error, the Washington editor having tried to improve the +manuscript with data drawn from various sources and presented without +a real understanding of the legal, judicial, and administrative system +of Spain and the Spanish colonies. + +[107] See especially Bulletin no. 22 of the Bureau of Government +Laboratories (Manila, 1905), for a catalogue of the new scientific +library in Manila. + +[108] It may be said, however, that the real foundations of that +science are only now being laid in the Philippines. Most of the Spanish +writings in this line are, speaking strictly from the scientific +point of view, unreliable or, in some cases, worthless. Blumentritt, +who has written most voluminously on this subject, was never in the +Philippines, but drew largely from these Spanish sources, and he has +confused the subject rather than shed light upon it. The German and +French scientists who visited the islands were, in most instances, +not primarily ethnologists, and have done but fragmentary work in +this field. Needless to say, all these sources must be consulted, +especially for the historical side of the subject; but the science +of Philippine ethnology proper is still in its infancy. + +[109] Especially in the appendix of VOL. XLI.--Eds. + +[110] Appendix vii to report of Major-General G. W. Davis, commanding +the division of the Philippines (Rept. War Dept., 1903, iii, +pp. 379-398). + +[111] La Política de España en Filipinas reproduces Retana's eulogy +of Weyler (Retana was made a deputy for Cuba in the Cortes during the +Weyler régime in Cuba) and occasional articles on the Blanco campaign +in the Lake Lanao region, among which note (vi, p. 18) Blanco's letter +of Oct. 19, 1895, describing the beginning of a railroad and other +work around the lake. Ibid., vii, p. 170, has the protocol of April +1, 1907, whereby Germany and Great Britain accept a modification of +the Sulu archipelago protocol of 1885, permitting the prohibition by +Spain of traffic with Joló in arms or alcoholic liquors. The projects +to colonize Mindanao put forward in connection with the Lanao campaign +have been mentioned. + +[112] The reports are in the annual Report of the Philippine +Commission. Among the special publications, note Jenks's The Bontoc +Igorot (Manila, 1905), chap. ii, for some notes on Spanish relations +with the Igorots. + +[113] Its columns could also be used to further personal interests, as +already shown in the case of Weyler. Retana has since 1898 executed a +"right-about-face," as has been best shown in his recent biographical +study of Rizal. Herein, in various editorial notes in vol. v of the +Archivo (1905), and in various letters to the Filipino press of Manila, +he has many times virtually apologized for his political writings +up to 1898, has declared that he was always a "Liberal" at heart, +and has thus written an impugnation of his own writings in behalf +of friar-rule. In a letter to I. de los Reyes (reproduced from El +Grito del Pueblo of Manila in El Renacimiento, Manila, July 24, 1906), +Retana carries this note to the point of practically abject retraction, +saying he never has been really a Catholic, never confessed since his +marriage, etc., and referring to Rizal (whom he bitterly reviled from +1892 to 1898) as a "saint," etc. Regarding Retana and Blumentritt, +see also a letter by J. A. LeRoy in the Springfield Republican for +July 7, 1906. + +In this connection see Retana's opening paragraphs in his Vida y +escritos del Dr. José Rizal, in Nuestro Tiempo for 1904-06.--EDS. + +[114] This work furnished almost the sole basis for the discussion +of the work of the friars by Stephen Bonsal in the North American +Review of Oct., 1902; but Mr. Bonsal, whose article is thus entirely +one-sided, did not state the source of his information. More than +this, Mr. Bonsal has, in translating, made even stronger some of the +extreme claims of Friar Zamora. The latter (pp. 483-498) cites praise +for the friars from various governors-general: Gándara (1866), De +la Torre (1871), Moriones (1877), Weyler (1891), and Primo de Rivera +(1898). It is to be hoped he has not garbled them all as he did the +statement of Primo de Rivera, omitting its most significant expressions +of opinion and exactly reversing its import. Moreover, Mr. Bonsal, +in translating these passages from Zamora, thought it best to leave +out, for his American readers, the statement by Weyler. Much the same +ground as covered by the claims of Zamora is traversed, with citations, +by J. A. LeRoy in the Political Science Quarterly for December, 1903 +(also in the same author's Philippine Life, chaps. v and vii). See +also, in re extreme claims for the friars that they brought about +all the internal development, settlement of towns, development of +agriculture, etc., Sancianco y Goson, El progreso de Filipinas, +pp. 212-223, official data as to agriculture and lands by provinces +in 1862, at the beginning of the modern era of trade and industry. + +[115] The official correspondence in the negotiations of Governor +Taft with the Vatican, above cited, may also be mentioned here as +discussing the question of recognition of the native clergy in the +Philippines, and, in general, the status which the friars came to +have there. Many loose assertions made with regard to the friars' +titles to the Philippines will be corrected by a perusal of the legal +report on their titles cited above. + +[116] The political phase of the attack on the friars' privileges +which rapidly developed, especially in view of the events of 1868, are +discussed from the friars' side in the pamphlet Apuntes interesantes +(1870), condemned by Pardo de Tavera (no. 91) and ascribed to +Barrantes. Retana (Estadismo, ii, p. 135*) praises the work and +ascribes it to Friar Casimiro Herrero. A general argument against the +friars in those times is that of Manrique Alonso Lallave, Los frailes +en Filipinas (Madrid, 1872), parts of which were reproduced in El +progreso, Manila, August 8-11, 1901. His figures on friar revenues, +etc., are grossly exaggerated. He was an excloistered Dominican, +later turned Protestant in Spain, and went to the Philippines as a +Protestant missionary in 1890, being poisoned in Manila, according +to V. Diaz Perez (Los frailes de Filipinas, Madrid, 1904, p. 10). + +[117] See the Biblioteca, nos. 2,000 and 2,001. Both put forward the +claims of the Filipinos on grounds of ecclesiastical rule and practice +(the Council of Trent particularly), but it is to be feared that the +author's judgment on matters of authority purely ecclesiastical is +sometimes warped by political or personal feeling. The same author's +Mi último grito de alarma (Bigan [Luzon], 1903) is an answer to +Constitución apostólica Quae mare sinico (Manila, 1903), which is +a defense of the Pope's Philippine bull of 1903 by Presbyter Manuel +E. Roxas, a Filipino priest. Father Pons also had a part in Impugnación +de la censura impuesta ... al Presbítero Adriano García (Manila, 1900), +a notable case which much aroused the Filipino clergy in Chapelle's +time. Here and in Defensa del clero filipino are references to the +torturing of native priests by the friars at Bigan in 1896, to make +them confess complicity in a supposed plot for revolt in Ilokos. + +[118] Biblioteca, no. 1689. Note also no. 1675. + +[119] For the latter, consult especially La Iglesia Filipina +Independiente, organ of the schism, which was published in some sixty +numbers between October 11, 1903, and early in 1905; also the recent +pamphlet Documentos interesantes de la Iglesia Filipina Independiente +(Manila, 1906). The history of the religious question under the Malolos +government and guerrilla warfare, and especially of Aglipay's part in +it, has yet to be written from the documents (at least, unless those +who participated are more frank in future than in past statements). + +[120] See for citations and statements (in part conflicting), about +the deportees of 1872, Montero y Vidal, Historia, iii, p. 591 and +footnote; Pardo de Tavera's Biblioteca, nos. 1462 and 1463; and +notes by Felipe G. Calderón in supplements to El Renacimiento for +Aug. 11 and 18, Sept. 1 and 18, 1906. Several Filipino priests were +also deported with these civilians, who were, as has been noted in +our introduction, for the most part of Spanish, not of Malay, blood, +though of Philippine birth. + +[121] Note especially Rizal's introduction to his novel El +Filibusterismo, as showing Filipino opinion on the matter. A story +circulated among the people to the effect that the friars brought +from Sambales province a native who looked like Father Gomez and who +impersonated the latter in order to implicate him in the mutiny at +the Cavite arsenal, with similar details, is related in an "Appeal +for Intervention" presented by certain Filipinos in Hongkong to the +Consul-General of the United States at that place in Jan., 1897. This +document, by the way, has never received notice in the United States +so far as known to the writer, who has a manuscript copy of it. + +Rizal dedicated his novel El filibusterismo to the three priests +executed in consequence of the Cavite uprising of 1872. That dedication +is as follows: "The Church, by refusing to degrade you, has placed +in doubt the crime that has been imputed to you; the Government, by +surrounding your trials with mystery and shadows, causes the belief +that there was some error, committed in fatal moments; and all the +Philippines, by worshiping your memory and calling you martyrs, +in no sense recognize your culpability. In so far, therefore, as +your complicity in the Cavite mutiny is not clearly proved, as you +may or may not have been patriots, and as you may or may not have +cherished sentiments for justice and for liberty, I have the right +to dedicate my work to you as victims of the evil which I undertake +to combat. And while we wait expectantly upon Spain some day to +restore your good name and cease to be answerable for your death, +let these pages serve as a tardy wreath of dried leaves over your +unknown tombs, and let it be understood that every one who without +clear proofs attacks your memory stains his hands in your blood!" See +J. A. LeRoy's Philippine Life, pp. 149, 150.--Eds. + +[122] No real attempt to sift the evidence in the case is known to +the writer. Montero y Vidal, Historia, iii, chap. xxvii (also read +the three preceding chapters), gives the version of one side, with +principal citations. Cf. Pardo de Tavera's Biblioteca under these +names, and see his version in Census of the Philippine Islands, +i, pp. 575-579. His Reseña histórica de Filipinas suffered some +alterations as published in the Spanish edition of the Census, and +was separately printed at Manila in 1906, drawing forth a series +of articles in the Dominican periodical Libertas (by Friar Tamayo), +which also appeared in pamphlet form (Sobre una "Reseña histórica de +Filipinas," Manila, 1906). As regards the 1872 affair, Friar Tamayo +has drawn almost entirely from Montero y Vidal. + +[123] As, for example, when José Rizal, yet a mere youth, scandalized +the friar and "patriotic" Spaniards in Manila by presenting verses +for a school celebration in Manila on "Mi patria" ("My fatherland"). + +[124] Rizal himself returned from Europe to the Orient in 1887, +and visited his home, but was persuaded by parents and friends to go +abroad again. He is said to have edited various circulars which were +sent from Hongkong and distributed in the Philippines. + +[125] Marcelo del Pilar's pamphlet La soberanía monacal en Filipinas +(Barcelona, 1888; reprinted at Manila, 1898) was written with especial +reference to these incidents, documents regarding which are given as +appendices. Retana analyzed the 1888 petition against the friars, +and discussed its signers, in his pamphlet Avisos y profecías +(Madrid, 1892), pp. 286-308. See also Pardo de Tavera's Biblioteca, +nos. 1597-1599 and 2807, the latter being a separate print of +the petition to the Queen, which appears in Del Pilar's pamphlet, +appendix ix. The reply of the petitioners to the accusation that they +really covered separatist aims under their attacks on friar-rule is +worth quoting: + +"The aspiration for separation is contrary, Señora, to the interests +of the Filipinos. The topographical situation of the country, divided +into numerous islands, and the diversity of its regional dialects +demand the fortifying aid of a bond of union such as the ensign of +Spain accords; without such a bond, it would be daily exposed to a +breaking-up process hostile to its repose, and the very conditions of +exuberant fertility that its fields, mines, and virgin forests afford +would offer a powerful incentive to draw upon it international strife +to the injury of its own future." + +[126] Becerra, as minister for the colonies, met in social reunions +with the Filipino circle of Madrid, and presented in the Cortes +projects for "assimilation," religious liberty, and the secularization +of education in the colonies and partial municipal reforms for the +Philippines which were the forerunners of the "Maura law." + +[127] Friar Tamayo, in his reply to statements by Pardo de Tavera, +points out that Weyler's action was in consequence of decrees of the +courts (Sobre una "Reseña histórica de Filipinas," pp. 194-195). This +Kalamba episode seems to have had a connection with the royal order of +December 4, 1890 (under the new Conservative ministry) empowering the +religious orders to dispose of their estates without intervention of +the Crown, as had been provided by royal orders of 1834 and 1849. The +friars had begun to make transfers to private corporations (really +only fictitious "holding companies") before 1898. + +[128] One finds guarded references to his enemies among the Filipinos +themselves in some of Rizal's private letters. The part played during +the propaganda by hints of treachery in camp, also of dishonesty +in the use of the funds raised by subscription in the Philippines, +is alluded to in various of the writings to be cited further on. + +[129] Mariano Ponce (El Renacimiento, Manila, Dec. 29, 1906) tells of +an earlier periodical of propaganda, España en Filipinas, started at +Barcelona in 1887, Lopez Jaena being one of its board of editors. In +this connection may be mentioned Ang Kalayaan ("Liberty") organ of +the Katipunan, which published one number (perhaps two) in Tagálog +at the beginning of 1896, ostensibly in Yokohama, but really on a +secret press at Manila. Data about it, and a translation of some +of its contents into Spanish may be found in Retana's Archivo, iv, +Documentos políticos de actualidad, no. 15. Of Gracíano Lopez Jaena +may also be noted the pamphlet Discursos y artículos varios (Barcelona, +1891). He died in Spain in 1895. + +[130] Epifanio de los Santos (one of the propagandists, now an +official under the Philippine government) is publishing a biography +and bibliography of M. H. del Pilar, reproducing documents and letters +in Plaridel (pseudonym of Del Pilar), a weekly started at Bulakan, +Luzon, Jan. 1, 1907. Besides La Solidaridad and La soberanía monacal, +the writings of Del Pilar most deserving mention are the pamphlets La +frailocracía filipina (Barcelona, 1889), and Los frailes en Filipinas +(Barcelona, 1889), by "Padpiuh." + +[131] The two alleged translations published in the United States +under altered titles, do not merit even a mention; one is a garbled +and partial translation from the Spanish, the other an "adaptation" +from a French version of the original, boiled down to give the "story" +and thus shorn of the very descriptive passages and delicious bits +of satire which make the work notable, not as a novel, but as an +exposition. + +[132] The various Spanish reprints (also a French one) of these novels +may be found cited in Retana's recent work, mentioned below. The best +to date, but no longer easily attainable, are editions of both novels +printed at Manila in 1900 by Chofre & Cia. + +[133] There must also be seen the collections Documentos políticos de +actualidad in Retana's Archivo, iii and iv, especially those in the +latter volume connected with Rizal's trial and execution. Besides +the documents there reproduced--the diary of Rizal as a student in +Madrid (now in the library of Edward E. Ayer, of Chicago), notes and +documents furnished to Retana by various friends and coworkers of +Rizal (especially by Epifanio de los Santos)--use has been made in +Retana's latest work of data published in the Filipino press from 1898 +to date, particularly in the special numbers which appear annually +in connection with the anniversaries of Rizal's execution (December +30). Among these may be named especially: La Independencia, Sept. 25, +1898, and Jan. 2, 1899 (Rizal's letters to Blumentritt regarding his +relations with Blanco and recall to Manila for trial; also quoted by +Foreman); La Patria, Dec. 30, 1899; La Democracia, Homenaje á Rizal, +separately printed at Manila, 1899, with seventeen Rizal articles, +sixteen reproduced from La Solidaridad; La Democracia, Dec. 29, +30 or 31, 1901-06, especially Dec. 29, 1905 (notes by Santos); El +Renacimiento, same dates; ibid., April 28, 1906 (notes by Retana); +ibid., May 26, June 2, and Dec. 29, 1906 (notes by Mariano Ponce); +ibid., Sept. 22, 1906 (notes by Edouardo Late); La Independencia, +Sept. 12, 14, 17, and 18, 1906 (Rizal's correspondence from his +place of exile at Dapitan with Father Pastells, the Jesuit superior, +regarding his religious belief, and incidentally his loyalty to Spain). + +See also La Juventud (Barcelona), El Doctor Rizal y su obra, published +in 1897.--Eds. + +[134] Morga, who gave a more truly scientific and in many respects +more favorable view of the Filipinos at the time of the conquest than +the later friar-chroniclers, had been neglected by Spanish writers +and students, and Rizal's purpose in bringing out the Sucesos was +primarily to correct many recent exaggerations in the literature +about the Filipinos. The bitterness with which his work (and even +Morga himself) was assailed revealed the political spirit of the times. + +[135] Filipinas dextro de cien años, in La Solidaridad, reprinted in +Retana's Archivo, v. + +[136] Library of Congress List, pp. 99, 100; and Pardo de Tavera's +Biblioteca, nos. 307, 308, 339 and 341 (also 1087). + +[137] As also their tendency to assume that every Spanish official +who favored a more liberal political régime in the Philippines +did so because he was a Mason. The books of Sastrón and Castillo y +Jimenez (especially pp. 372-376, 382), also the friar pamphlets of +García-Barzanallana (Library of Congress List, p. 103) and Navarro +(Biblioteca, no. 1,811), are especially in point. See, for accounts +from the same point of view, the report of the Spanish officer of +the civil guard, Olegario Diaz, no. 77 of Documentos políticos in +the Archivo, iii, and other documents in that series in vols. iii, +and iv. Masones y ultramontanes, by Juan Utor y Fernandez (Manila, +1899), is a defense of Masonry by a Spaniard who founded lodges in the +Philippines. V. Diaz Perez in the pamphlet Los frailes de Filipinas +brings out from the same point of view some figures and other data +on Masonry in the Philippines. + +[138] In his Memoria al Senado (Madrid, 1897), pp. 158-163. + +[139] See Biblioteca, no. 2,665. + +[140] Cited in their original draft, somewhat skeletonized, in the +notes furnished for Retana's Vida y escritos de José Rizal by E. de +los Santos, and by the latter also furnished in a manuscript copy to +the writer (of which see the translation post, pp. 217-226). + +[141] Notes, etc., in El Renacimiento, Manila, Aug. 11 and 18, +Sept. 1 and 18, Oct. 13, 1906. + +[142] This is especially true of the documents given by José M. del +Castillo y Jimenez, El Katipunan ó el Filibusterismo en Filipinas +(Madrid, 1897), pp. 114-117, 118-123, whence they have been quoted +by various other writers. It is to be noted, first, that the source +of these documents has never been given; they are not among the +extracts from the official records of the courts-martial reproduced +in Retana's Archivo, iii, and iv; and, finally, certain passages in +them read suspiciously as if prepared for the purpose of proving the +most exaggerated statements about the Katipunan and of magnifying +the scope and aims of the whole movement. + +[143] See on this subject an article by J. A. LeRoy, Japan and the +Philippine Islands, in Atlantic Monthly, January, 1906. Primo de +Rivera, in his Memoria (1898), several times declares that the Cavite +insurgents of 1896-97 never had more than 1,500 firearms, including +rifles of all sorts, shotguns, and revolvers. + +[144] This was allowed to appear even in the testimony as written +down by the Spanish military court (Retana's Archivo, iii, Documentos +políticos, nos. 35, 46, and 55). + +[145] Besides Castillo y Jimenez, the Katipunan will be found discussed +in nearly all the sources to be cited on the 1896-97 insurrection. Data +on Bonifacio are scanty, but see El Renacimiento, April 23, 1903; +ibid., for the notes of Calderón, above cited, and of Aug. 30, 1906, +for a letter by Pio Valenzuela; also comments by A. Mabini and notes +by J. A. LeRoy in American Historical Review, xi, pp. 843-861. A +pamphlet, The Katipunan (Manila, 1902), by Francis St. Clair (?), +published in order to put before Americans the friar view of the +Filipino revolutionists, contains an English version of the report +of Olegario Diaz, cited above; its notes, drawn indiscriminately from +Retana, Castillo y Jimenez, and others, are full of errors. + +[146] Friar Zamora (Las corporaciones religiosas en Filipinas, +pp. 334-325) says the forces of the Civil Guard sent to the Bisayas +were recruited not from the best men in the Filipino infantry +regiments, as the Governor-General ordered, but from the worst, +because these were the men whom the infantry colonels would let go. "We +parish-priests knew this, because the Civil Guard officers themselves +so told us; we saw, a few days after the posts were established +in the towns, that the majority of the Guards ought to be serving, +not in that corps of prestige, but in some disciplinary corps or in +the penitentiary. Nevertheless, from our pulpits we recommended and +eulogized what caused us disgust and displeasure, because it was so +ordered by the Governor-General to the provincial of the monastic +orders, and directly to the parish-priests themselves through the +medium of the governors of provinces." + +[147] Joaquin Pellicena y Lopez, a Spanish journalist of Manila, +an admirer of the Jesuits (in some degree, perhaps, an exponent of +Jesuit views on recent years in the Philippines), in the pamphlet Los +frailes y los filipinos (Manila, Jan., 1901), defends the work of +the friars as a historical whole, but condemns their unwillingness +to progress with the times. As one proof that the rebellion of 1896 +was against the friars, not against Spain, he says (pp. 27-28) that +Governor-General Polavieja's demand for 25,000 fresh troops in April, +1897, was, only a pretext to cover his resignation. Polavieja, who came +out to succeed Blanco and under whom Rizal was almost immediately +executed, had suddenly become convinced, says this journalist, +by reading correspondence of Aguinaldo with the Jesuit superior, +that the real cause of the trouble was the friars. As virtually +emissary and appointee of the friars, the inference is, Polavieja +concluded it would be impossible for him to settle the difficulties +successfully. The letters of Aguinaldo to Pio Pí are most interesting, +at least (See La Politica de España en Filipinas, vii, pp. 326-328). + +[148] Notably the "removal" of Andrés Bonifacio in 1897 (regarding +which the Bonifacio note above cites incomplete data), and the +Biak-na-bató negotiation, treated below. + +[149] Memoria que al Senado dirige el General Blanco acerca de los +últimos sucesos ocurridos en la isla de Luzón (Madrid, 1897). + +[150] Ibid., pp. 64-68, 163-169. The real Blanco expresses himself in +these sentences: "For some people, proof of character and energy is +given by ordering executions right and left, at the pleasure of the +public, which is wont to be excited by passion; but, on the contrary, +energy is shown by resisting all kinds of abuses, and this one most of +all. To shoot men is very easy; the difficult thing is not to do it." + +[151] See also Senate Document no. 62 for hearsay testimony by +foreigners at Paris regarding the "reign of terror," tortures, etc.; +and the books of Foreman and Sawyer for similar testimony. + +[152] It is to be noted that some of the worst stories of Filipino +outrages upon Spanish captives, especially friars, later proved +to be rumors, or were exaggerated, though some brutalities were +committed. See La Democracia, Manila, July 12, 1906, for an alleged +confession by Friar Piernavieja (extorted from him, and dictated to him +in bad Spanish); ibid., July 14, 1906, for data regarding the execution +of him and two other friars in Cavite, in "reprisal" for the execution +of Rizal. Isabelo de los Reyes's pamphlet La religión del Katipunan +(Madrid, 1900), as also other writings in Filipinas ante Europa and +El defensor de Filipinas, a periodical edited at Madrid, 1899-1901 by +Reyes, may be mentioned here, as to Aguinaldo and the revolutionary +movement in general; statements therein are commonly unreliable. + +[153] A few are in the List of the Library of Congress, under Political +and Social Economy, and American Occupation, 1898-1903. Some may be +found under the authors' names in Pardo de Tavera's Biblioteca. + +[154] So also La soberanía nacional, by D. Paradada, a Jesuit +(Barcelona, 1897), cited by Pardo de Tavera, as "stupid." In this +connection may be cited the following titles of Spanish writings +on the events following May, 1898, which contain some backward +glances upon the earlier phases of the Filipino revolution, also +some Spanish imprevision; Juan y José Toral.--El sitio de Manila +(Manila, 1898). José Roca de Togores y Saravia (secretary of +Council of Administration of Philippines).--El bloqueo y sitio de +Manila. V. M. Concas y Palau.--Causa instruida por la destrucción +de la escuadra de Filipinas y entrega del arsenal de Cavite. Notas +taquigráficas (Madrid, 1899). Isern.--Del desastre nacional y sus +causas (Madrid, 1899). Luis Morero Jerez.--Los prisioneros españoles en +poder de los tagalos (Manila, Dec., 1899). Carlos Ria-Baja (a prisoner +of the Filipinos).--El desastre filipino (Barcelona, 1899). Antonio +del Rio (a prisoner, Spanish governor of Laguna Province).--Sitio +y rendición de Santa Cruz de la Laguna (Manila, 1899). El Capitan +Verdades (Juan de Urquía).--Historia negra (Barcelona, 1899). Joaquín +D. Duran (a friar prisoner).--Episodios de la revolución filipina +(Manila, 1900). Ulpiano Herrero y Sampedro (a prisoner).--Nuestra +prisión en poder de los revolucionarios filipinos (Manila, +1900). Graciano Martinez (a friar prisoner).--Memoria del cautiverio +(Manila, 1900). C. P. (Carlos Peñaranda).--Ante la opinión y ante +la historia (Madrid, 1900); a defense of Admiral Montojo. Bernardino +Nozaleda (Archbishop of Manila).--Defensa obligada contra acusaciones +gratuitas (Madrid, 1904); especially for communications to Blanco, +1895-96, in re Katipunan, etc. + +[155] First published under the title La insurrección en Filipinas +(Madrid, 1897), but the later volume, covering also the events of late +1897 and 1898 and the war with the United States, is more complete. + +[156] Memoria dirigida al Senado por el Capitán General D. Fernando +Primo de Rivera y Sobremonte acerca de sa gestión en Filipinas. Agosto +de 1898 (Madrid, 1898). Pp. 121-158 cover the Biak-na-bató negotiation. + +[157] E.g., In his Reseña verídica (only signed, not written by him), +an English translation of which appears in Congressional Record, +xxxv, appendix, pp. 440-445. + +[158] See Congressional Record, xxxv, part 6, pp. 6092-94, for English +translations with explanatory notes. See also Senate Document no. 208, +56th Congress, 1st session, part 2, for the documents showing the +discussion of the junta of Filipinos at Hongkong in February and May, +1898, relative to the Biak-na-bató money payments and the obligations +thereby contracted toward the Spanish government. When the Philippine +Insurgent Records now in manuscript in the War Department, edited by +Captain J. R. M. Taylor, are published, all the captured documents +on this and later matters will be brought together. + +[159] The same as has frequently been cited as the program of reforms +promised by Primo de Rivera, or even as being contained in an actual +treaty. Such statements have usually been reproduced from Foreman or +directly from insurgent proclamations. It is notable that in these +(e.g., that of the La Junta Patriótica, Hongkong, April, 1898) it +is only declared that Primo de Rivera "promised" these reforms, and +that he himself would remain in the Philippines during a three-year +"armistice," as a guarantee that the reforms would be carried out. + +[160] The document cited by Foreman (2nd ed., pp. 546-547; 3rd ed., +pp. 397-398), read in the Cortes in 1898, was not the final agreement +and the terms of payment are incorrect. It is either spurious, or +was superseded by the document, number 5 (of the same date) published +in the Congressional Record, ut supra. This appears to have been the +only document in Aguinaldo's possession bearing the signature of Primo +de Rivera, and it is merely a program prescribing the movements of +the rebel chiefs from December 14 on, terms of payments, surrender +of arms, amnesty, etc. + +[161] Memoria, p. 125, cablegram of October 7, 1896. + +[162] A slightly modified copy of this appeal is quoted by Primo de +Rivera (Memoria, pp. 140-141), and in Senate Document no. 208, pt. 2, +pp. 2, 3. The writer has a copy taken from one of the originals. + +[163] Pardo de Tavera remarks (Rept. Phil. Comm., 1900, ii, p. 396) +that someone "forgot he had this sum of money in his pocket." + +[164] Paterno has apparently given to Foreman a partial version of +the transaction for the latter's 1906 edition. Therein Foreman comes +around to imply that there was, after all, no "treaty" about reforms, +but he is still very much confused as to the money payments, etc., +and almost every sentence contains an inaccuracy. He appears to have +seen the Diario de las Sesiones de Cortes, at least for one or two +speeches on this subject in 1898, when there were heated debates on +Philippine matters in the Cortes, but it is strange he never consulted +Primo de Rivera's detailed account of the affair. + +[165] It was declared, however, in the press of Spain that Aguinaldo +projected a residence in Europe and had started for Paris when +Consul-General Pratt found him at Singapore in April, 1898. + +[166] The change of Spanish administration in October, 1897, +bringing the Liberals again into power, with Moret, who had proposed +secularization of education in 1870, as Colonial Minister, was another +reason for expecting liberal measures in the Philippines as well as in +Cuba. It was this new ministry which urged Primo de Rivera to conclude +the Biak-na-bató negotiation speedily. One of the indications that +the Biak-na-bató documents in the War Department, above cited, were +"doctored" in some particulars is the insertion in Paterno's letter +to Aguinaldo of Aug. 9, 1897, of a reference to Moret being Minister; +the change of cabinet in Madrid occurred two months later. + +[167] See the Memoria, pp. 159-176, on Reforms. In a temperate, +judicial way his discussion of the friars, from experience as +Governor-General from 1881-83 and during the insurrection, is perhaps +the severest arraignment they could receive, above all since it came +from a man appointed by a Conservative administration. + +[168] See the Memoria, pp. 144-154. The incident is related in various +tones by other writers. + +[169] See the pamphlets, reprinting articles from two of these +periodicals: Juan Caro y Mora, La situación del país (Manila, 1897), +series in La Oceanía Española; and El gran problema de las reformas en +Filipinas planteado por El Español, periódico diario de Manila (Manila, +1897). These articles appeared while the Biak-na-bató negotiation +was pending, and with full official sanction; but they touched the +religious question only very cautiously, and mostly to defend the +friars. The articles of Caro y Mora especially merit consideration in +connection with the study of Spanish administration in its last stage. + +[170] See especially El Liberal, of Madrid. The writer has a copy +of a broadside dated at Madrid Jan. 26, 1898, Exposición elevada á +sa Majestad la Reina Regente sobre la insurrección en Filipinas, +by Vital Fité, a Spanish journalist, once provincial governor in +the Philippines. It represents friar-rule as the chief grievance, +but recites also abuses and defects of administration. + +[171] See J. Pellicena y Lopez, Los frailes y los filipinos (Manila, +1901). + +[172] An earlier indication of the friars' fear of coming reforms is +the pamphlet, Filipinas. Estudios de algunos asuntos de actualidad +(Madrid, 1897), by Eduardo Navarro, procurator of Augustinians, +who advocates "reform" by means of "a step backward." + +[173] As, e.g., does Pellicena y Lopez, in Los frailes y los filipinos, +to prove that separation was not the aim of the propagandists. The +citation from Del Pilar's Soberanía monacal (paragraph v), is almost +identical with the paragraph of the 1888 petition to the Queen, +quoted already. + +[174] The author of the preliminary report of the Schurman Commission, +Nov. 2, 1899, must simply have blindly followed Foreman and must +have somewhat misunderstood his Filipino informants, in order to make +these remarkable statements (Report, i, pp. 169, 172): "This movement +[rebellion of 1896] was in no sense an attempt to win independence, +but was merely an attempt to obtain relief from abuses which were +rapidly growing intolerable." "Now [June, 1898] for the first time +arose the idea of independence [in Aguinaldo's camp]." + +[175] A quite sufficient answer, if there were not plenty of others, +to Dr. Schurman's statements quoted above is afforded by this passage +in a proclamation of Aguinaldo as Magdalo at Old Cavite (Kawit), +Oct. 31, 1896 (Castillo y Jimenez, El Katipunan, pp. 298-302): "The +revolutionary committee addresses to all Filipino citizens who love +their country a general call to arms for the proclamation of Filipino +liberty and independence as [a matter of] right and justice, and the +recognition of the new revolutionary government established by the +blood of its sons." And, on the same date, in a proclamation outlining +a rough revolutionary organization of Cavite province and each of +its towns, he says: "Filipinas witnesses today a fact unprecedented +in its history: the conquest of its liberty and of its independence, +the most noble and lofty of its rights." Yet, in March, 1897, Aguinaldo +discussed in the correspondence with the Jesuit superior, as already +mentioned, the reforms he thought the country asked, and expressly +disclaimed for the revolutionists the aim for independence. So also +his proclamations and interviews on leaving for Hongkong after the +pact of Biak-na-bató (see La Política de España en Filipinas, viii, +pp. 46, 47). + +However, in a letter to Fray Tomas Espejo (undated, but written +probably in January, 1898), Aguinaldo says: "A great work is this, +which demands great sacrifices, followed by the shedding of quantities +of blood. But what matters that, for it is very little compared to the +sublime and holy end which we hold before ourselves in attempting to +take arms against España. For this we have resolved to sacrifice our +lives until we shall hear issue from the mouths of our compatriots, +the blessed phrase 'All hail, Filipinas! forever separated from España +and conquered through the heroism of their inhabitants.'" (La Política +de España, viii, p. 44).--Eds. + +[176] See Sastrón's account of Biak-na-bató in chapters v and vi +of his Insurrección en Filipinas for some fragments of documents on +this subject. + +[177] A royal decree of Jan. 22, 1784, by Carlos III, declared the +ex-Jesuits competent to acquire and hold property; and, in the case of +those secular coadjutors who had married, to bequeath their property +to their heirs. That monarch died in 1788; and was succeeded by his +eldest son, as Carlos IV. In Oct. 1797, the government learned that +the Spanish ex-Jesuits were determined to return to Spain, on account +of the persecutions and even death which menaced them in the Genoese +territories, owing to a change in the government there, and that some +of them had already reached the Spanish ports; it therefore decided +that they should be allowed to remain in the country, but must live in +certain abandoned convents. The Jesuits objected to this, and finally +the government permitted them (1798) to retire freely to the homes +of their families or into any convents they might choose, save that +they were not allowed to reside in Madrid or other royal seats. "Many +ex-Jesuits returned to their fatherland, and others decided to remain +in Italia; but this situation did not last long, for in the year 1801 +another decree was issued condemning them anew to proscription." Orders +were given that within one week all Jesuits should leave their homes +and present themselves at Alicante or Barcelona, where new orders +would be given them. Some fathers advanced in years were allowed to +remain in Spain; but all the rest were for the second time shipped +to Italy, where they suffered great hardship. In 1808 the Spanish +government felt more leniently toward these unfortunate exiles, +considering, moreover, the difficulty of furnishing their pensions, +and the fact that all those moneys were thus taken out of Spain to +foreign countries, to find their way ultimately into the hands of +her enemies; and a royal decree by Fernando VII, dated Nov. 15, 1808, +granted permission to those Jesuits who desired to return to Spain, +with the same pension which they had been receiving. After the war +between Spain and France was ended, urgent requests were made to +Fernando VII by various personages prominent in ecclesiastical, +educational, and municipal affairs that he would reëstablish in +his dominions the Society of Jesus; and permission was given by a +royal decree dated May 9, 1815, for the Jesuits to have houses in +the towns and cities which had asked for them. A year later, after +various preparations for this change had been made by the government, +another decree extended the reëstablishment to all the towns where +the Jesuits had formerly had their institutions. "In virtue of this, +all the Spanish Jesuits who were residing in Italy returned to España, +at the expense of the court. All these decisions were adopted in +España in fulfilment of the bull of Pius VII dated Aug. 7, 1814, +Solicitudo omnium ecclesiarum, by which the Jesuits were reëstablished +in all the Catholic countries--that of Clement XIV, which decreed +the extinction of the order, being thereby annulled. [177A] Not five +years had passed after the reëstablishment of the Society of Jesus in +España when, the revolution of 1820 having been successful, the Cortes +assembled; and the Spanish monarch, by decree of September 6 in that +same year, again suppressed the [Jesuit] institute, together with the +other monastic orders, allowing the Jesuits, however, liberty to +reside in España. Fernando communicated to his Holiness the above +decision, and Pius VII replied in a letter of September 15, expressing +the displeasure with which he had received the tidings; but in 1823, +the constitutional government having been destroyed, the regency +issued a decree on June 11, reëstablishing the Society and the rest +of the regular orders in the same condition in which they were before +March 7, 1820. Fernando VII died on Sept. 29, 1833, and the civil war +began; and on July 17, 1834, occurred the lamentable massacre [177B] +of the Jesuits and other religious. By royal decree of July 4, 1835, +the Society of Jesus was anew declared extinguished; and its property +was ordered to be sold, in order to apply the product thereof to the +extinction of the public debt. In spite of this decision, the Jesuits +remained established in España; and it was necessary, in the last +revolutionary period, to issue the decree of Oct. 12, 1868, +suppressing the Society of Jesus in the Peninsula and the adjacent +islands; and commanding that within the space of three days all their +colleges and institutions should be closed, and possession be taken +of their temporalities in the form provided on this point by the royal +decree of July 4, 1835. To these provisions were added this, that the +individuals of the suppressed Society might not again reunite in a +body or a community, nor wear the garb of the order, nor be in any way +subordinate to the superiors of the order who existed either within or +without España, those who were not ordained in sacris remaining subject +in all matters to the ordinary civil jurisdiction. But the realization +of this measure was ephemeral; for when the constitution of June 5, +1869, was published, the right of every person was declared--and +repeated in the constitution of June 30, 1876--to associate with others +for all the purposes in human life which are not opposed to public +morals; and, by favor of this liberty, the individuals of the Society +of Jesus considered themselves authorized to form an association and +found anew colleges and houses in the Spanish dominions." + +A brief of Pope Leo XIII, dated July 13, 1886, finally reëstablished +the Society of Jesus throughout the world, and abrogated that of +Clement XIV which in 1773 suppressed the order. The pope took occasion +to express this permission in the warmest and most forcible terms; and +"the rehabilitation of the Society of Jesus could not have been more +complete or more satisfactory." "It is pleasant to observe that, +after three centuries of strife, the principle of authority has +triumphed." (Danvila, Reinado de Carlos III, iii, pp. 613-625.) + +[177A] A letter from Mariano Fernandez Folgueras, dated Manila, Aug. +18, 1819, mentions the decrees of Fernando VII by which the Society +of Jesus is to be established throughout Spanish dominions, and +promises obedience to the royal orders. + +[177B] An epidemic of cholera was raging in Madrid, and some malicious +persons persuaded the common people that it was caused by the friars +having poisoned the water. A mob broke into the Jesuit convents and +murdered many of the inmates; and over a hundred friars were killed +for the same reason. + +[178] This constitution was partly printed at London, at the London +Printing Press, No. 25 Khulug St., in both Spanish and Tagálog. Those +parts printed (the ends, duties of the members, and the general rules) +contain some changes from Rizal's MS. Preceding the constitution +proper is the membership pledge to the Liga. It is as follows: +"Number ... To ... of ... I ... of ... years of age, of ... state, +profession ..., as a chosen son of Filipinas, declare under formal +oath that I know and entirely understand the ends aimed at by the Liga +Filipina, whose text appears on the back of the present. Therefore, +I submit myself, and of my own accord petition the chief ... of this +province, to admit me as a member and coworker in the same, and for +that purpose I am ready to unconditionally lend the necessary proofs +that may be demanded of me, in testimony of my sincere adhesion!" The +ends of this printed text are the same as those of the MS. The motto +is the same, and there is also a place for a countersign. The duties +of the members are somewhat changed, the changes being as follows: +"1. He shall pay two pesos for one single time, as an entrance fee, and +fifty centimos as monthly fee, from the month of his entrance. 2. With +the consciousness of what he owes to his fatherland, for whose +prosperity and through the welfare that he ought to covet for his +parents, children, brothers and sisters, and the beloved beings who +surround him, he must sacrifice every personal interest, and blindly +and promptly obey every command, every order, verbal or written, which +emanates from his Council or from the Provincial Chief. 3. He shall +immediately inform, and without the loss of a moment, the authorities +of his Council of whatever he sees, notes, or hears that constitutes +danger for the tranquillity of the Liga Filipina or anything touching +it. He shall earnestly endeavor to be sincere, truthful, and minute in +all that he shall have to communicate. 4. He shall observe the utmost +secrecy in regard to the deeds, acts, and decisions of his Council and +of the Liga Filipina in general from the profane, even though they be +his parents, brothers and sisters, children, etc., at the cost of his +own life, for this is the means by which the member will obtain what +he most desires in life." Articles 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 are the same. The +general rules of the printed version are as follows: "In order that +the candidate may be admitted as a member to the Liga Filipina, +he must possess morality, good habits, not have been proceeded +against justifiably as a robber, shall not be a gambler, drunkard, +or libertine. The candidate must solicit and petition his entrance +from a member; and the latter shall communicate it to his Fiscal, for +the investigations that must be made in regard to his conduct." On +Dec. 30, 1903, a monument was erected to Rizal, to his companions, +and to other founders of the Liga Filipina by the village of Tondo, +on a site given by Timoteo Paez, one of the members of the Liga. On the +monument is the following inscription: "Remember [this word in English, +the rest in Spanish]. Facing this site and at house No. 176 Ilaya +St., Dr. Rizal founded and inaugurated on the night of July 3, 1892, +the Liga Filipina, a national secret society, with the assistance and +approval of the following gentlemen: Founder, Dr. Rizal; shot. Board of +directors--president, Ambrosio Salvador; arrested. Fiscal, Agustin de +la Rosa; arrested. Treasurer, Bonifacio Arevalo; arrested. Secretary, +Deodato Arellano; first president of the national war Katipunan +society; arrested. Members--Andres Bonifacio; supreme head of the +Katipunan, who uttered the first warcry against tyranny, August 24, +1896. Mamerto Natividad; seconded, in Nueva Écija, the movement of +Andres Bonifacio, August 28, 1896; shot. Domingo Franco; supreme +head of the Liga Filipina; shot. Moises Salvador; venerable master of +the respected lodge, Balagtas; shot. Numeriano Adriano; first guard +of the respected lodge, Balagtas; shot. José A. Dizon; venerable +master of the respected lodge, Taliba; shot. Apolinario Mabini; +legislator; arrested. Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista; first patriot of +'68; arrested. Timoteo Lanuza; initiator of the manifestation for +the expulsion of the friars in 1888; arrested. Marcelino de Santos; +arbitrator and protector of La Solidaridad, the Filipino organ in +Madrid; arrested. Paulino Zamora; venerable master of the respected +lodge, Lusong; deported. Juan Zulueta; member of the respected lodge, +Lusong; died. Doroteo Ongjunco; member of the respected lodge, Lusong; +owner of the house. Arcadio del Rosario; orator of the respected lodge, +Balagtas; arrested. Timoteo Paez; arrested."--Epifanio de Los Santos. + +See Retana's account of the Liga in Nuestro Tiempo for Aug. 10, 1905, +pp. 202-211. He says mistakenly that the constitution was printed +in Hong-Kong. + +[179] This was Fernando Primo de Rivera, whose term ended April +11, 1898. + +[180] The Consejo de Ministros is the council formed by the ministers +of the various departments, in order to discuss the most important +and arduous matters, or for the purpose of working harmoniously in +the discharge of their respective duties. The sovereign presides, +or the minister chosen as chief of the cabinet, who is called +president of the Council of Ministers. These councils are ordinary and +extraordinary, according as they are held periodically or when demanded +by circumstances. Thus the meetings of the council are analogous to +those of the cabinet of the United States. See Dic. encic. Hisp.-Amer., +v, p. 823. + +[181] i.e., "Dumb dogs not able to bark," a portion of Isaias lvi, 10. + +[182] The Spanish Cortes is made up of the Senate (Senado) and the +congress (congreso), and in them, together with the king, resides +the legislative power, according to the constitution of 1876. The +present Cortes is the outgrowth of the Cortes formerly assembled by +the king before the adoption of the constitution, or rather it is the +substitute that has supplanted them; for the inherent principle today +is that sovereignty resides in the nation instead of the king. See +Dic. encic. Hisp.-Amer., v, pp. 1166, 1167. + +[183] See ante, pp. 195-201. See also North American Review, August, +1901, "The Katipunan of the Philippines," by Col. L. W. V. Kennon, +p. 212; and Primo de Rivera's Memorial. + +[184] The original is carbonario, a word used to indicate the member +of a secret society, or the society itself. It is from the Italian +carbonaro, literally coal or charcoal dealer, and its origin is the +secret political sect of Italy, formed early in the nineteenth century, +with the avowed purpose of destroying tyranny and establishing freedom. + +[185] The first Filipino freemason lodge in the Philippines was founded +in Cavite about 1860 by two Spanish naval officers under the name +of Luz Filipina. It was established under the auspices of the Gran +Oriente Lusitana, and was in correspondence with the Portuguese lodges +at Macao and Hong-Kong. Gradually other lodges were established and +natives and mestizos were admitted to membership. The "Gran Oriente" +of the text is the Spanish division of the order, Spain and Portugal +having split into two divisions after 1860. It is claimed by Catholics +that the Katipunan was the fighting branch of the masonic order. It +is probably true that it borrowed some few things from freemasonry in +matters of form, but there the analogy seems to end. For the friar +viewpoint of masonry in Spain and the Philippines, see Navarro's +Algunos asuntos de actualidad (Madrid, 1897), pp. 221-277; and +Pastells's La masonización de Filipinas. Sawyer's account (Inhabitants +of the Philippines, pp. 79-81) is very inadequate. + +[186] i.e., "It is better to die than to federate." + +[187] This passage (1 Machabees, iii, 59), reads in the English Douay +version: "For it is better for us to die in battle, than to see the +evils of our nation, and of the holies." + +[188] i.e., "As long as I am the apostle, I shall honour my ministry," +a portion of Romans, xi, 13. + +[189] In the Ayer collection is a document dated Manila, January 17, +1888, by one Candido Garcia, a native Filipino, an inhabitant of San +Felipe Neri, in which he complains against the friar parish priest +Gregorio Chagra, O.S.F., who has endeavored to have him deported as +anti-Spanish. The reason of this is because Garcia had complained +that the friar disobeyed the law in regard to burials as well as other +laws. He also accuses the friars of not wishing to have the Filipinos +learn Spanish, as they desire them to have no communication with +Spaniards. He thus charges the friars with disobedience and disloyalty. + +[190] A brief statement by the pope of errors condemned in 1864, +and known under the title Syllabus errorum. It was appended to +the encyclical Quanta cura, condemning eighty doctrines, which it +calls "the principal errors of our times." These heresies had all +previously been pointed out by Pius IX in consistorial allocutions, +and encyclical and other apostolic letters. It is a protest against +atheism, materialism, and other forms of infidelity. It condemns +religious and civil liberty, separation of Church and State, and +preëminence of the Church of Rome. See Philip Schaff's Creeds of +Christendom (New York, 1877), i, pp. 128-134 and ii, pp. 213-233 +(this last the Latin and English text of the Syllabus.) + +[191] We have taken the reading of the English Douay +version. Translated directly from the Spanish, this verse reads: +"If you be reproached for the name of Christ, you will be blessed; for +the honor, glory, and virtue of God, and His own spirit rest upon you." + +[192] Bartolomé de las Casas or Casaus, who was born in Sevilla in +1474, and died in Madrid, in July, 1569, and because of his great +exertions for the Indians called the "apostle of the Indies." Much +has been written concerning this romantic and sincere character of +early American history. He wrote various books, some of which have +been published. Mr. Ayer of Chicago possesses one volume in MS. of +his three-volume Historia general de Indias. This history (covering +the years 1492-1520) was begun in 1527 and completed in 1559. + +[193] Aguinaldo states that after he had been driven to the mountains +in May, 1897, he established a republic. See North Amer. Rev., August, +1901, p. 212. See also the constitution of the so-called republic in +Constitución política de la Republica Filipina promulgada el dia 22 +de Enero de 1899 (1899). + +[194] See ante, p. 176. + +[195] This is Psalm 34 in the Douay version, but, as here, 35, in the +Vulgate, and common English versions. Psalm 9 in the Douay version +is equivalent to 9 and 10 in the other versions. After verse 21 in +the Douay version is the sub-head "Psalm according to the Hebrews," +and the following verses are numbered from unity. The Vulgate has +the same heading, but regards the subject-matter as a new psalm. + +[196] We follow the Douay version to the word "good" (Psalm 34, 11, +and part of 12). The rest of the passage we translate directly, as it +has no exact equivalent in this Psalm. The direct translation of the +first two clauses of the Spanish is "Unjust witnesses have risen up, +and charged me with things of which I am ignorant." + +[197] i.e., "Let another praise thee, and not thy own mouth," the +first half of Proverbs xxvii, 2. + +[198] In the Douay version this verse reads: "For so is the will +of God, that by doing well you may put to silence the ignorance of +foolish men." + +[199] The Douay version reads: "But we renounce the hidden things +of dishonesty, not walking in craftiness, nor adulterating the word +of God; but by manifestation of the truth commending ourselves to +every man's conscience, in the sight of God." The last clause above +is evidently taken from 2 Cor. i, 12. + +[200] A reference to Matthew, v, 13-16. + +[201] The first reference is to Psalm cviii, 2 (Douay version) but +cxix, common English version. The second reference is to 1 Peter, iii, +16. Neither one is an exact quotation, and hence we translate directly. + +[202] The cuadrilleros formerly acted as a police in the +Philippines. (See VOL. XVII, p. 333.) The guardia civil or civil +guard was created in imitation of the guardia civil of Spain (the +most efficient body of police of that country, and analogous to the +carabinieri of Italy) in 1869. (See Montero y Vidal, Historia general, +iii, p. 494.) + +[203] Or robbers. They generally went in bands and had their retreats +in the woods and hills. + +[204] See Col. L. W. V. Kennon's article in the North Amer. Review, +for August, 1901, "The Katipunan of the Philippines." Many other +writers speak of this society, but as yet no real authentic account +of it has appeared, as we are still too near it. + +[205] This was Governor Fernando Primo de Rivera y Sobremonte, who +wrote a Memorial on his record in the Philippines, which was published +at Madrid in 1898. + +[206] A required paper of identification carried by the natives, +and for which they were taxed. + +[207] This was Pedro Alejandro Paterno. + +[208] These three sections are as follows: + +45. The entire direction of public schools, in which the youth of +Christian states are educated, except (to a certain extent) in the +case of episcopal seminaries, may and must pertain to the civil power, +and belong to it so far that no other authority whatsoever shall be +recognized as having any right to interfere in the discipline of the +schools, the arrangement of the studies, the taking of degrees or +the choice and approval of the teachers. + +47. The best theory of civil society requires that popular schools +open to the children of all classes, and, generally, all public +institutes intended for instruction in letters and philosophy, and +for conducting the education of the young, should be freed from all +ecclesiastical authority, government, and interference, and should +be fully subject to the civil and political power, in conformity with +the will of rulers and the prevalent opinions of the age. + +48. This system of instructing youth, which consists in separating +it from the Catholic faith and from the power of the Church, and in +teaching exclusively, or at least primarily, the knowledge of natural +things and the earthly ends of social life alone, may be approved +by Catholics. + +It must be understood that Pius IX condemns these three sections as +the entire eighty of the Syllabus as errors or heresies. (See Schaff's +Creeds of Christendom, ii, pp. 224, 225.) + +[209] This section or error is as follows: + +53. The laws for the protection of religious establishments, and +securing their rights and duties, ought to be abolished: nay, more, +the civil government may lend its assistance to all who desire to quit +the religious life they have undertaken, and break their vows. The +government may also suppress religious orders, collegiate churches, and +simple benefices, even those belonging to private patronage, and submit +their goods and revenues to the administration and disposal of the +civil power. (See Schaff's Creeds of Christendom, ii, pp. 226, 227.) + +[210] See VOL. LI, pp. 146, 147, note 103; and ante, pp. 83, 84, +note 33. + +[211] The Código de las siete partidas, so called because divided +into seven parts, were compiled by Alfonso the Wise, the work of +compilation beginning June 23, 1256, and being concluded probably in +1265. See Dic. encic. Hisp.-Amer., xiv, pp. 982, 983. + +[212] See Synopsis and extracts of the instructions given to Legazpi +in our VOL. II, pp. 89-100. + +[213] i.e., "The offscouring;" literally "worthless soul." + +[214] i.e., "We are made as the refuse of this world, the offscouring +of all even until now," the last part of 1 Cor., iv, 13. + +[215] This Memorial is most inadequately published in the Rosary +Magazine (a Dominican periodical) for 1900, by Ambrose Colman, O.P. It +is translated only in part, the translation often being faulty and +giving a wrong meaning, and translation and synopsis not always being +sufficiently indicated. + +[216] This "notice" does not appear in the copy printed (probably +from one of the fifty copies) at the press of Viuda de M. Minuesa de +los Rios, Madrid. + +[217] A Tagálog word, meaning "that which is in partnership." + +[218] Pacto de retrovendendo: "A certain agreement accessory to the +contract of purchase and sale, by which the buyer obliges himself +to return the thing sold to the seller, the latter returning to +the buyer the price which he gave for it, within a certain time, or +when the seller shall require it, according to the terms in which +the agreement is drawn up." (Diccionario of the Academy, cited by +Dominguez.) Cf. the political use of the same phrase in the treaty +of Zaragoza (VOL. 1, p. 232). + +[219] The word "composition" (Spanish, composición) as here used has "a +technical meaning as applied to lands, and may be defined as a method +by which the State enabled an individual who held its lands without +legal title thereto to convert his mere possession into a perfect +right of property by virtue of compliance with the requirements of +law. Composition was made in the nature of a compact or compromise +between the State and the individual who was illegally holding lands +in excess of those to which he was legally entitled, and, by virtue +of his compliance with the law, the State conferred on him a good +title to the lands that he had formerly held under a mere claim of +title." Under Spanish administration, there was great confusion and +uncertainty in land-titles; the laws in force were too complicated and +slow in operation, and left too much power in the hands of indifferent +or mercenary officials. Some benefits were yielded by regulations for +the composition of State lands which were in force from 1880 to 1894, +and in the latter year more definite and positive provisions were +made by royal decree (constituting the "public-land law" in force in +the islands when occupied by the United States) for the settlement +of uncertain land-titles; but in neither case were the results very +satisfactory. The same may be said of the registration system known +as the Ley hipotecaria (or mortgage law), which in 1889 was extended +to Filipinas. During the period of revolution and war (1896-99) many +of the land records were destroyed in the provinces, which further +complicated questions of land ownership; and the U. S. Philippine +Commission was obliged to make provision for the settlement of these +by the "Land Registration Act," which became effective on February 1, +1903. For account of its provisions and mode of operation, see the +chapter on "Land Titles" (pp. 127-137) in Official Handbook of the +Philippines--where also is presented a more detailed account of the +regulations made by the Spanish laws. + +[220] At the foot of the last printed page is a note, evidently +written by some person in the secretary's office of the Council of +Indias (to which body this copy of the decree appears to have been +sent), which reads in translation: "It came with a letter from the +governor of Philipinas, Don Joseph de Basco y Vargas, dated June 16, +1784, and received at the secretary's office on March 19, 1785." A +penciled memorandum on the fly-leaf indicates that it was published +at Sampaloc, 1784. + +[221] By royal decree of Feb. 26, 1886, the alcaldes-mayor of the +provinces were restricted to judicial functions, and in others they +were replaced by civil governors. + +[222] Bernáldez, in his account (dated 1827) of "Reforms needed in +Filipinas" (already presented in our VOL. LI) says of this association +(fol. 29): "Although in Manila there is an Economic Society organized +to promote public prosperity by means of the industries of the country, +composed as it is of miscellaneous members, nominated without [their +own] solicitation, and without inclination for that sort of occupation, +there is little, if anything, to be expected from the activities of a +body which has already gone to pieces once through its own inaction, +and has been reëstablished only to comply with the sovereign's command, +and not by the activity or encouragement of the citizens of Filipinas +themselves." + +[223] Evidently referring to the pamphlet, Noticia del origen y hechos +notables de la Real Sociedad ... segun sus actas y documentos oficiales +(Manila, 1860); but this is a second edition, the first having been +issued in 1855. + +[224] Probably referring to the book The Lancasterian System of +Education, with Improvements, published (Baltimore, 1821) by Joseph +Lancaster on his newly-invented educational system (commonly known as +the "monitorial"). He was an Englishman, born in 1778, and a member +of the Society of Friends; he visited the United States, where he +published the above work; and his death occurred in 1838. + +[225] See account of this periodical in VOL. LI, p. 48, note 16. + +[226] This was Paul de la Gironière, a French surgeon who went to +Manila in 1820, and who escaped, almost by a miracle, from the massacre +of foreigners by the natives in that year. He married a Spanish lady +of Manila, the Marquesa de las Salinas, and spent twenty years in the +islands, where he founded a colony at Jala-Jala, and kept a large +estate under cultivation, besides performing, at various times, +official functions entrusted to him by the Manila government. He +returned to France, where he died about 1865. He was author of a book, +Aventures d'un gentilhomme breton aux îles Philippines (Paris, 1855), +which had considerable vogue, and is regarded as an interesting +and in many respects valuable description of the islands, their +resources and people, and social conditions there. He also wrote +Vingt années aux Philippines (Paris, 1853), of which an English +abridgment was published in London soon afterward, called Twenty +Years in the Philippines. (See Pardo de Tavera, Biblioteca filipina, +pp. 185-186.) An English translation with the same title was published +at New York (1854), "revised and extended by the author." + +[227] Apparently alluding to the short-lived periodical Precios +corrientes de Manila (1639-41); see VOL. LI, p. 71, note 31. + +[228] One of the largest and richest towns of the province of +Bulacán; and both town and province are renowned for various native +manufactures--hats, cigar-cases, piña fabrics, and petates (i.e., +mats)--of fine quality, and often very costly. See Jagor's account +(Reisen, p. 48) of the manufacture of these cigar-cases at Balivag; +the fibers of which they are made are obtained from a certain +species of Calamus (rattar), and the cases cost from two to fifty +pesos each. It appears that the word petaca comes (as does petate, +"mat") from the Mexican word petlatl, meaning "a mat." + +[229] "In 1848 were procured from London the steamers 'Magallanes,' +'Elcano,' and 'Reina de Castilla,' which were the first vessels +of this class that were seen in Filipinas; and to their excellent +services are due the rapid transformation which was wrought in the +prosperity of the country, and the repression of the piracies of the +Moro Malays." (Montero y Vidal, Hist. de Filipinas, iii, p. 87.) + +[230] In the Archivo general de Indias at Sevilla are MS. reports of +this society's labors for a number of consecutive years. + +[231] Jiguilete (or xiquilite): the name given in India to the indigo +shrub. The cerpentaria here mentioned is not identifiable, unless it be +some other species of Indigofera, several of which are cultivated in +Filipinas. The "Vanilla" is presumably a plant described by Blanco, +which he calls Vanilla ovalis, greatly resembling V. aromatica, +except that it lacked the fragrant odor of the latter. + +[232] See Jagor's chapter (Reisen, pp. 309, 310) on the opium +monopoly which was established in Filipinas on Jan. 1, 1844, and +later continued by the Spanish government, after much discussion and +controversy. Various arguments of policy, health, and morality were +brought forward on both sides, but that which finally triumphed was +evidently the one thus stated by the governor-general, "The revenue +from opium is indispensable for our treasury." The use of opium in the +islands was intended for the Chinese residing there (being forbidder to +the Indians and mestizos), and then only under certain restrictions; +but Jagor found that, besides the 478 public opium-joints--which were +"actual hotbeds of immorality, and always full of Chinese"--hundreds +of individuals were allowed, contrary to the law and to the intentions +of the government, to smoke opium in their own houses. The revenue +from opium amounted in 1860 to 98,000 escudos; in the fiscal year of +1865-66, to 140,000; and in 1866-67, to 207,000. Montero y Vidal cites +in Archipiélago filipino (published in 1886), the tariff schedule of +1874, "The importation of opium is prohibited; and only that will be +allowed which, in small quantities, is destined for the pharmacies, +and all that which may be imported by the lessees of the right to sell +this drug to whom the Treasury has granted that exclusive right in the +provinces there--in which case it will pay duty according to item 80" +(that is, at eight per cent). + +[233] A tree found in China (Stillingia sebifera), which yields a +substance resembling tallow, which is used for the same purpose as +the latter. + +[234] Regarding the gutta-percha industry, see Official Handbook of +the Philippines, pp. 91-95. + +[235] The water supply of Manila is taken from the Mariquina River, +eight miles from the city, being pumped thence to a reservoir halfway +to Manila, from which it is distributed. "The works are owned by the +municipality, having been largely paid for with a fund, the proceeds +of a legacy, left by the will of a citizen, Francisco Carriedo, +who died in 1743." (Official Handbook, p. 269.) This was one of the +obras pias founded by a public-spirited citizen, Francisco Carriedo +y Peredo; he was born in the town of Santander in 1690, and died at +the age of 53, "having during his life conferred immense benefits on +Filipinas." (Vindel, Catálogo, i, pp. 155, 156.) + +[236] The botanical garden of Manila was created by Governor Norzagaray +(by decree of Sept. 13, 1858); and, as a result of this, a royal decree +of May 29, 1861, founded there a school o£ botany and agriculture, +under the control of the governor of the islands and immediate +supervision of the Economic Society. The locality called Campo de +Arroceros ["the rice-dealers' field"] was set apart as a botanical +garden, for the practical work of that school, with approval of +the expenditures incurred by the governor for the establishment of +both institutions; and the sum of 6,000 pesos a year was allowed for +their maintenance. (In 1894-95, the budget included for the expenses +of these two establishments the sum of 37,294 pesos.) See Montero y +Vidal, Hist. de Filipinas, iii, pp. 260, 261, 317, 318. + +[237] Worcester says of the Ifugaos (ut supra, p. 829): "Their +agriculture is little short of wonderful, and no one who has seen +their dry stone dams, their irrigating ditches running for miles +along precipitous hillsides and even crossing the faces of cliffs, +and their irrigated terraces extending for thousands of feet up the +mountain sides, can fail to be impressed (Pl. xxvi, xxxvii). When +water must be carried across cliffs so hard and so broken that +the Ifugaos cannot successfully work the stone with their simple +tools, they construct and fasten in place great troughs made from +the hollowed trunks of trees, and the same procedure is resorted +to when cañons must be crossed, great ingenuity being displayed in +building the necessary supporting trestle-work of timber. The nearly +perpendicular walls of their rice paddies are usually built of stone, +although near Quiangan, where the country is comparatively open and +level, walls of clay answer the same purpose, and are used. The stone +retaining walls are sometimes forty feet high, and so steep are the +mountain sides that the level plots gained by building such walls and +filling in behind them are often not more than twenty or thirty feet +wide. I know of no more impressive example of primitive engineering +than the terraced mountain sides of Nueva Vizcaya, beside which the +terraced hills of Japan sink into insignificance." + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898, +Volume 52, 1841-1898, by Various + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 57431 *** |